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A HANDBOOK OF

ORNAMENT.

HANDBOOK OF
ORNAMENT A GRAMMAR OF
ART INDUSTRIAL AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNING
IN ALL ITS BRANCHES
FOR FRAOTIOAL AS WELL AS THEORETICAL USE
BY
FRANZ SALES MEYER
PROFESSOR OF THE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART IN CARLSEUHE

300 PLATES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

NINTH EDITION

E . W E Y H E
710 LEXINGTON AVENUE, NEW YORK

Printed by
OSWALD MUTZE, LEIPSIC.

PREFATORY NOTE BY THE ENGLISH EDITOR.

Professor Meyer's "Handbook of Ornament" is a unique work of
its kind: no other book, published either in England or abroad,
can compare with it, for the amount of illustration it contains, or for
the order with which its contents are arranged. The author exhibits
the valuable quality of orderly arrangement throughout his work,
which in Germany, England and America has achieved a success suf
ficient to show the great appreciation it has met with, amongst those most
experienced in this branch of art.
1 have known and used the "Handbook" since its first publica
tion in the German edition, and have had experience of its usefulness
amongst students: and in editing this edition I gladly avail myself
of the opportunity of rendering it more useful to them, and to the
large English-speaking public which takes an intelligent interest in
Applied Art.
I have not attempted any great changes; but only to revise the
terminology in accordance with the best authorities, and to do ge
nerally for Herr Meyer's book, what I would desire to be done for
one of mine translated into a foreign language, that is to say, to render
it more clear for students and others, without making any addition or
alteration which might tend to lejssen^the credit and responsibility due
to the Autor himself.

PREFACE.
The illustrations are for the most part excellently drawn in
outline; and are much clearer than they could possibly be if reproduced
to the same scale from shaded drawings.
The whole work reflects great credit upon its author j for the
care and patience with which he has placed so remarkafble'a Collection
of decorative objects within the reach of all who require its aid
and can appreciate its helpfulness.
The first English Edition was prefaced with an interesting note
by Mr. Joseph Harrison ; the well - known Head - master of the
Nottingham Municipal Art-school. He was well acquainted with the
value of the German edition; but not having seen the translation,
which was prepared and printed in Germany, he was not responsible for
it in any manner. This edition, also, has been printed in Germany;
and it is highly creditable to Messrs. Seemann's Establishment that
the errata are so few and unimportant.

Hugh Stannus.
Lecturer on Applied A_rt, National Art-Schools, South
Kensington, 34. July, 1894.

Author's Preface.

Strictly speaking, the present "Handbook of Ornament" is a re
issue, in book form, of my "Collection of ornamental forms" published
in folio size under the title "Ornamentale Formenlehre".
The reasons which induced me to publish this "Handbook" were
the following. Owing to the nature of the case, the text of the "For-
menlehre", which forms an essential though not the chief part of that
work, had to be printed on separate sheets, which is always a source
of inconvenience in practical use; and for this reason many critics, who
in other respects passed an unexpectedly favourable and very flattering
judgment on my work, expressed the wish that the text should be
issued in a more convenient book form. On the other hand it was
clear that the text could have no value except for those who already
possessed the plates, and as the price of the collection, owing
to its size and style, is not inconsiderable, and as plates on a reduced
scale are quite sufficient for all who desire to use the work
merely for study, and not directly for purposes of design, the author
and publisher arranged to combine text and plates in the "Handbook"
in such a way that the plates, on a greatly -reduced scale, might be
printed with the text. They hope in this way to have met the wishes
that have been expressed, and while offering to teachers a convenient
aid, to have produced a work which from its wealth of text and
illustrations and its comparatively trifling price, may prove of very
general utility.
As a companion to the "Ornamentale Formenlehre" it was necessary
that the Handbook should retain the general plan and main divisions

PREFACE.
'' /"
of that work; but this did not exclude partial alterations, and parti
cularly an enlargement of the descriptive text. These have accor
dingly been made, as will be seen on a careful comparison. But in
making them there has. been no sacrifice of the principle of giving
everything that is important and essential, with the utmost conci
seness and the omission of all digressions.
I take this opportunity of thanking all those who have rendered
the publication of this work possible and have supported me with their
kind assistance, and I now present the book to the public, in the
hope that it will meet with a hearty reception and favourable criticism.
Karlsruhe, March 1888.
Franz Sales Meyer.

Preface to the Fourth Edition.

Scarcely four years have elapsed since the first edition of this
book was placed in the hands of the public. Its unexpectedly
favourable reception continues to recommend it. As my critics, to
whom my best thanks are due, have made no suggestions for improve
ment in it, the "Handbook", apart from some trifling corrections, has
remained essentially the same. May it continue to win new friends in
school and home.
Karlsruhe, February, 1892.
The Author.

Introduction.

[The term "Ornament", in its limited sense, includes such of
the Elements of Decoration as are adapted, or developed, from Natural
Foliage. These differ from the Geometrical elements, inasmuch as
they are organic i. e. possessing stems, leaves, flowers, &c, while the
latter are inorganic.
When merely drawn on paper, &c, and unapplied — a foliated
element is considered in the abstract as "Ornament". When applied
to beautify an object — it becomes an "Element of Decoration".
The term "DECORATION" signifies the art or%>rocess of applying
the various Elements to beautify Objects. It is also used to denote
the completed result. Thus the artist, who is occupied in the "deco
ration" of a vase, may represent ornament upon it; and the ornament
is then the "Decoration" of the vase.
The "Elements" of Decoration are: Geometrical -lines, Ornament,
Natural- foliage, Artificial Objects, Animals, and the Human Figure.
These may be considered as the "ingredients"; and they are mixed,
and applied, on various arrangements or "Features", according to certain
acknowledged "recipes" which are termed "Principles".
The "Principles" of Decoration are not included in this Hand
book, as the limits of it allow only a brief notice of such Elements
as have been in general use during the successive Historic-epochs.]
Wherever +he hand of man has produced any Decoration, be it

VIII INTRODUCTION.
original Invention, or only the arbitrary Variation of some familiar
fundamental idea, the following will invariably be the case:
(a) The decoration is produced by arranging and joining Dots
and Lines, or by combining and dividing Geometrical Figures, in
accordance with the laws of rhythm, regularity, symmetry, &c;
(b) It arises from the attempt of the decorator to represent the
Objects of the external world. Nearest at hand for imitation, is or
ganic Nature with the Plants, Animals, and Human form. But in
organic Nature also offers models: e. g. the forms of Crystallisation
(snow-flakes), and the Phenomena of nature (clouds, waves, &c). Rich
sources are also opened-up by the Artificial Objects which are fashioned
by man himself.
It is obvious that all kinds of Elements may De used in com
bination: Geometrical may be united with Natural forms; and so on.
Moreover it was easy for human imagination to combine details taken
from nature into monstrous forms not found in nature, e. g. the
Sphinx, Centaur, Mermaid, &c; and Animal and Human bodies
with plant-like terminations.
If we collect, into groups, the bases or motives of decoration,
omitting what is non-essential and detached, we arrive at the classi
fication given in the following pages.
Decoration is applied to countless objects; and the style may be
very varied without being arbitrary; being determined, firstly, by the
aim and the material of the object to be decorated, and, secondly, by
the ideas ruling at different periods and among different nations. It
is therefore obvious that it has a comprehensive and important domain.
A knowledge of it is indispensable to artists; and it is an instructive and
sociologically interesting factor of general culture.
The peculiarities which arise from the reciprocal relation of
material, form, and aim, more or less modified by the ideas of the
Age and the natural characteristics of the Nation, are termed the
"Style" of that Period and Nation. The mention, of the Century and
the Nation, gives a convenient method of labelling works of Art,
which is now well understood; e. g. — "17th century, Italian".
The majority of works on ornament, arrange their material
according to Periods and Nations; but the present Handbook, follow
ing the principles laid down by Semper, Botticher and Jacobsthal, is
based on a system which is synthetic rather than analytic; and in
tended more to construct and develope from the Elements than to
dissect and deduce. It contains three main divisions:
Division I treats of the "Elements of Decoration", or motives of
which it is formed. Geometrical motives formed by the rhythmical
arrangement of dots and lines, by the regular section of angles, by
the formation and division of closed figures, are followed by the
forms of Nature which are offered for ornamental imitation by the

INTRODUCTION. IX
vegetable and animal kingdoms, and by the human frame. These in
their turn are followed by Artificial Objects, or forms borrowed from
Art, Technology, and Science, and usually met- with in the class of
trophies, symbols, &c.
Division II, "Ornament applied to Features" j arranges them
according to their functions, and the reciprocal relation between the
construction of the object and the application of the ornament. The
division falls into five sub-divisions: A. Bands (bordering, framing
and connecting forms); B. Free Ornaments (forms whose construction
expresses a termination or cessation); C. Supports (types of ornament
which express the principle of weight-bearing); D. Enclosed Ornament
suitable for the enlivenment of a defined bordered field, (panels);
E. Repeating Ornament (the decoration of surfaces which, disregarding
the limits of space, are developed, on a geometrical or organic basis,
into "patterns"). Division HI, shows the application of decoration to vase-form,
metal objects, furniture, frames, jewelry, heraldry and writing,
printing, &c.
Further details, as to the groups and divisions, will be found in
the "Table of the Arrangement of the Handbook" which follows this
introduction. The illustrations, numbering almost 3,000, and comprised on 300
full-page plates, represent the styles of the most various periods and
nations. A comparatively large share of attention has been devoted
to the Antique, because it is in that Period that form usually finds
its clearest and most beautiful expression. Next to that in impor
tance is the Renascence with its wealth and freedom of form. The
space, devoted to the creations of the Middle Ages, is more limited.
Prom the styles of the Decadence, only a few examples have been
admitted, for the sake of comparison and characterisation. Modern
times, as a rule, have only been taken into account, where forms arose
which do not occur in the historic styles.
The illustrations have been partly taken direct from the originals;
and partly — as was almost unavoidable — reproduced from other Books;
for the leading idea of the present work is not to offer anything new,
but to arrange what is already known, in a manner suitable both to
the subject and to the aim of a Handbook. Where the author was
acquainted ' with the source, which he regrets was not always the
case, the authority has been mentioned in the text.
Each division and sub-division is prefixed by a few remarks on
style and history, characteristics, motives, symbolism, aim, and appli
cation. These are followed, so far as is necessary and practicable,
by notes on the places where the objects illustrated were discovered,
where they are now preserved, and on their material and size. Hints

X

introduction.

as to construction, are given only where the construction cannot at
once be inferred from the figure.
Readers who use this book for purposes of tuition, will find in
the Author's "Ornamentale Formenlehre"* the Plates on a scale of
21li times the size of this Handbook, together with the requisite hints
for the use of the work in schools.

* Franz Sales Meyer:
plates, in a portfolio.

Ornamentale Formenlehre; Three hundred folio

TABLE
SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE CHAPTERS AND PLATES.

DIVISION I.
The Elements of Decoration.

A. Geometrical Elements.
1. Network.
2-4. Band Motives.
5-7. Diaper Patterns.
8. The Sector, Polygon, and Star.
9-10. The Square, and its Subdivision.
11. The Octagon, and its Sub
division.
12. The Triangle, Hexagon, &c,
and their Subdivision.
13-16. The Oblong, and its Sub
division.
17. The Rhombus, and Trapezium..
and their Subdivision.
18. The Circle, its Subivision, and
Intersections.
19. Gothic Tracery.
20. The Ellipse, and its Subdivision.
B. Natural Forms.
a. The Organisms of Plants (The
Flora of Ornament).
21. The Akanthos Leaf.
22-23. The Artificial Leaf.
24-26. Artificial Foliage.
27-28. The Laurel, and Olive.
29-30. The Vine.
31. The Lotus, Papyrus, and Palm.
32. The Ivy.
33. The Corn, and Convolvulus.
34. The Hop, and Bryony.

35. Various Leaves.
36-37. Various Flowers.
38-39. The Fruit Festoon.
40. The Leaf, and Flower Festoon.
b. Animal Organisms (The Fauna of
Ornament).
41-44. The Lion.
45-46. The Griffin, &c.
47-48. The Lion Head.
49-50. The Panther Head, &c
51 The Horse Head, &c.
52-54. The Eagle.
55. The Wing.
56-58. The Dolphin.
59. The Shell.
60. The Serpent, &c.
c. Human Organism.
61. The Mask.
62-64. The Grottesque Mask.
65. The Medusa Head.
66. The Grottesque.
67-68. The Half-Figure.
69. The Sphinx, and Centaur.
70. The Cherub-Head, &c
C. Artificial Objects.
71-72. The Trophy.
73-77. The Symbol.
78-79. The Ribbon.
80. Miscellaneous Objects.

XII

TABLE.

DIVISION II.
Ornament applied to Features.

aL Bands.
81-84. The Fret Band.
85. The Chain Band.
86-90. The Interlacement Band.
91. The Rosette Band.
92. The Palmetto Band.
93. The Vertebrate Band.
94-96. The Undulate Band.
97. The Evolute-Spiral Band.
98. The Enrichment of the
Astragal.
99. The Enrichment of the Torus.
100. TheEnrichmentoftheCyma, and the Ovolo.
B. Free Ornaments.
101-103. The Link Border.
104. The Cresting Border.
105-106. The Akeroter, and Antefix.
107. The Stele Crest.
108. The Perforated Cresting.
109-110. The Cross.
111-112. The Finial.
113. The Finial-Knob, and Vase.
114. The Pendant-Knob.
115. The Rosette.
116. The Crocket, and Gargoyle.
117. The Hinge, &c.
118. The Tassel.
119. The Fringe, and Valence.
- 120. The Lace Border.
C. Supports.
121. The Foliated Shaft.
122. The Fluted Shaft.
123-124. The Base.

125. The Decorated Shaft.
126. The Profiled Shaft.
127-130. The Capital.
131. The Pilaster Panel.
132-134. The Pilaster Ciipital.
135. The Candelabrum Base.
136. The Candelabrum Shaft.
137. The Candelabrum Capital
138. The Balauster.
139. The Terminus.
140. The Parapet.
141. The Railing Post.
142. The Furniture Leg.
143-144. The Trapezophoron.
145-147. The Console.
148. The Bracket.
149-150. The Caryatid, Atlante, Ac.
D. Enclosed Ornaments, or Panels.
151-155. The Square Panel.
156. The Star-shape Panel.
157-160. The Circular Panel.
161-164. The Oblong Panel.
165. The Elliptic Panel.
166-167. The Lunette, and Spr.nrail
Panel.
168. The Lozenge Panel.
169-170. Various Panels.
E. Repeating Ornaments, or Diapers.
171. The Square Diaper, &c
172. The Circle Diaper, &c.
173. The Scale Diaper, &c.
174-175. The Circle Diaper, &c.
176-179. Various Diapers.
180. Various Grill Diapers.

DIVISION III.
Decorated Objects.

a&. Vases, &c.
181. Fundamental Vase-Forms.
Holders.. 182. The Amphora.
183. The Urn.
184. The Krater.
185. The Basin, and Dish.

186. TheAmpulla,Alabastron,&c.
187. The Flower-Vase, &c.
188. Vase forms for varions
purposes.
189. The Jar, and Cist.
190. The Font, and Holy- Water
Stoup.

TABLE.

XIII

b. Dippers. 191. The Hydria.
192. The Bucket, &c.
193. The Spoon, and Ladle.
c. Pourers. 194. The Prochofls, OinochoS,
Olpe, &c.
195. The Lekythus.
196-197. The Lip-spout Pitcher.
198. The Pipe-spout Pot.
199-200. The Bottle.
d. Drinking Vessels.
201. The Kylix, Kantharos, &c.
202. The Rhyton.
203. The Cup, and Beaker.
204. The Chalice, and Goblet.
205. The Hanap.
206. The Rummer or Rdmer.
207. Various Drinking Vessels.
208. The Mug.
209. The Tankard.
210. Modern Drinking Glasses.
B. Metal Objects.
a. Utensils for Illumination.
211-212. The Candelabrum.
213. The Antique Lamp.
214-215. The Candlestick.
216. The Hand-Candlestick.
217. The Candle-Bracket
218. The Pendant-Lamp.
219. The Chandelier.
220. Modern Lamps.
b. Religious' Utensils.
221. The Altar.
222. The Tripod.
223. The Censer.
224. The Crucifix.
225. The Crozier, and Mon
strance.
c. Utensils of War and Hunting;
Weapons. 226. The Shield.
227. The Helmet.
228. The Sword, and its Scabbard.
229. The Dagger, and its Scab
bard.
230. The Halberd, &c.
d. Table Utensils.
231. The Spoon.

232. The Knife, and Fork.
233. The Paper-Knife.
234. The Scissors.
235. The Hand-Bell.
e. Various Domestic Utensils, &c
236. The Door-Knocker.
237. The Key.
238. The Hand-Mirror.
239. The Fan.
240. Various Tools.
C. Furniture.
a. Seats.
241-243. The Chair.
244-245. The Throne, and Arm-chair.
246. The Stall.
247. The Stool.
248. The Folding-Chair.
249. The Bench.
250. The Sofa, and Couch.
b. Tables. 251. The Table
252. The Writing-Table.
c. Cabinets. 253. The Cabinet.
254. The Sideboard.
255. The Hanging-Cabinet.
256. The Chest.
d. Miscellaneous. 257. The Desk, and Easel.
258. The Clock- Case, and Toilet
Cabinet.
259-260. The Bedstead, and Cradle.
D. Frames, &c.
261-262. The Architectural Frame.
263-264. The Mirror-Frame, &c.
265-266. The Strap-work Frame.
267-268. The Typographical Frame.
269. The Strap-work Tablet.
270. The Strap-work Border, and
* Margin. E. Jewelry.
271. The Pin.
272. The Button.
273. The Ring.
274. The Chain.
275. The Necklace.
276. The Bracelet.

XIV

TABLE.

277. The Girdle, Buckle, and
Clasp.
278. The Pendant.
279. The Ear-ring.
280. Miscellaneous Jewelry.
F. Heraldry.
281. Tinctures, and Divisions, of
the Shield.
282. Shapes of the Shield.
283. Ordinaries.
284-285. Charges.
286. Forms of the Helmet
287-288. Helmet Trappings.

289.290. G.
291.
292-293. 294.295.296.297. 298.
299.300.

Crowns, Coronets, &c.
Heraldic Accessories.
Writing, IHnting, de.
Romanesque Letters.
Gothic Uncial Letters.
Old English Letters, &c.
Old German Letters.
Modern Texts.
Renaissance Letters.
Roman Initials.
Roman Letters.
Constructions, Numeral*,
Monograms.

— ^
W/f \ 3l / ft*

GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS AND MOTIVES.

Geometrical Ornament is the primordial or oldest of the Elements
of Decoration. The implements of savages, and the tattooing of the
Indians, prove this. The seam, with the thread running slant- wise
from one piece to the other, may have been the original for the
Zigzag line; and woven- work, of warp and woof of every kind, the
original for Reticulated patterns; and the plaited hair that of the
Plaited band. The revolutions of a fork-like instrument led to the dis
covery of the Circle; the combination of dots, at regular intervals, to
the Polygon or Pointed - star. The gradual developement of these
original geometrical forms, rising from stage to stage with the growth
of culture and knowledge, led finally to geometrical artistic forms
such as we see in Moorish panelled ceilings, in Gothic tracery, in
guilloche-work, and the like. The developement of geometry into a
science, with its theorems and proofs, also came to the assistance
of art. As evidence of this, we need only refer to the construction
of the ellipse from given lengths of axes.
The majority of all geometrical ornaments may be divided into
three groups. They are either continuous and ribbon-like (bands), or
in enclosed spaces (panels), or in unlimited flat patterns. In every
case the foundation of the geometrical ornament will be a certain
division, a subsidiary construction, or a network. We will begin
with the last; and pass in turn to the ribboD motives, the flat patterns,
and the figure motives.

4 Network. — Band Motives.
Network. (Plate 1.)
The systems of subsidiary lines required in geometrical patterns,
e. g.: parquets, mosaics, window-glazing, &c, are termed Nets. The
name explains itself. They may be of very various kinds. The most
frequent are quadrangular and triangular reticulations, combined of
single squares or equilateral triangles. A special network, resembling
the plait of a cane chair, is required for some Moorish patterns.
Plate 1. Network.
1. Ordinary quadrangular. Equal divisions are set off in one direc
tion, parallels are drawn through the points of division, and
the former cut by a line at an angle of 45 °. The points,
where these diagonals cut the parallels, mark the divisions in
the opposite direction.
2. Oblique quadrangular. The divisions are set-off on a vertical
line and the parallels are then drawn at an angle of 45" on
each side of the points of division.
3. Straight, with alternate divisions. Construction similar to No. 1.
4. Oblique quadrangular, with alternate divisions. Construction
similar to No. 2.
5. Moorish Diapers.
6. Enlarged detail to No. 5.
7. Triangular net. It is based on the construction of the equi
lateral triangle; and may be arranged in two attitudes, as shown
in figs. 8 and 9.
8 and 9. Enlarged details to fig. 7.

Band Motives. (Plates 2 — 4.)
Plates 2, 3 and 4 contain a number of band motives. These
are made by the joining of regularly-placed points: those in Plate 2
are joined by straight lines; those in Plate 3 by arcs; and those in
Plate 4 by a combination of both.
Each of the plates contains, beneath the motives, specimens pf
their application, taken from different styles.
Plate 2. Band Motives, in Straight lines.
1, 7, 8 and 14. Greek.
2. Zigzag lines.
15. Moorish plaited band.
6 and 16. These examples may be illustrated by folded strips of
paper.

GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS.

Network.

Plate 1.

GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS.

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Baud Motives. — Diaper Patterns. 9
71 and 19. Carvings in basrelief from the implements of savages.
18. Greek vase painting, Motive: the seam.
20. Waves with lotus, Egyptian wall-painting, (Owen Jones).
Plate 3. Band Motives, in Aecs.
5 and 13. Undulate lines.
10. Motive of the "strung coin" pattern (coins threaded on a cord).
17. Romanesque ornament from an evangeliarium written for Charle
magne, 8th century, Library of the Louvre, Paris.
18. Romanesque mural painting, Swedish church.
19. Chinese damaskeened ornament from a vase, (Racinet).
Plate 4. Band Motives, Mixed.
13. Romanesque glass painting, church of S. Urban, Troyes.
15. Frieze, house, Beaune, 17th century, (Racinet).
N. B. Where two arcs are joined: it is necessary, in order to avoid a
break, that the two centres and the point of junction should be in ths
same straight line.

Diaper Patterns. (Plates 5 — 7.)
Plates 5, 6 and 7 give a selection for flat patterns. Almost all
the constructions may be referred to the quadrangular or the trian
gular Net. The examples in Plate 5 show junctions in a straight
line; those in Plate 6 are composed of arcs; and in Plate 7 the
regularly-placed points are joined by mixed lines.
The designs may be used as patterns for parquet flooring, window
glazing, and similar work, without further enrichment. They are at
the same time available as construction-lines for the further develope
ment of richer patterns for mural and glass painting, carpets, tapestry,
ceilings, &c, as shown by the examples of application appended to
the simple motives.
Plate 5. Diaper Patterns, &c, with Straight lines.
4 and 6. Roof-covering may be considered as the motive.
10. The natural motive is the cell of the honey bee.
13 — 15. Designs for coffer ceiling, by Sebastian Serlio, 16th century,
(Tormenschatz).
Plate 6. Diaper Patterns, with Arcs.
1, 4 and 7. Scale motives.
10. Romanesque glass painting, Cathedral, Bourges, (Racinet).

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GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS.

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Diaper Platterns.
Diaper Patterns. — The Sector, Polygon, and Star. 13
11. Mural painting, Assisi, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten und Hand
werker).
12. Old Italian mural painting, San Francesco, Assisi, (Hessemer).
Plate 7. Diaper Patterns, with Mixed lines.
10. Old Italian mural painting San Francesco, Assisi, (Hessemer).

The - Sector, The Polygon, and the Star.
Polygons and Stars are of frequent occurrence in ornamental
design. The Sector is the foundation of Rosettes. The Polygon and
the Star are often used as Frames to Ornaments. They also serve
as compartments in coffer Ceilings and composite ornamental designs.
In this case, they are frequently divided into smaller figures, as will
be seen in the following plates.
Plate 8 gives the shape, and construction of those which most
frequently occur; followed by some examples of their application.
Plate 8. Radiating Figures, &c.
1 — 4. The Sector, produced by the regular division of circles.
5. The Square, described obliquely in a circle.
6. The Square formed by the juxtaposition of right angles and
cutting- off the lengths for the sides.
7. The regular Octagon, described obliquely in a circle.
8. The regular Octagon, described in the square by measuring
half diagonals from its angles.
9. The regular Triangle and Hexagon, formed by measuring the
radius, as chords, six times round the circumference.
10. The regular Duodecagon, formed by applying the radius
to the circle from the ends of two diameters at right angles
to each other.
11 — 12. The regular Pentagon and Decagon, formed by a construc
tion based on the theorem of the "Golden Mean", as shown
in the figures.
13. The regular five-pointed Star, formed by joining the alter
nate points of five points placed at equal distances in the
circumference of a circle. Known in the history of magic
and witchcraft as the Pentagram or "Pentacle".
14. The regular six-pointed Star, formed by joining alternate
points placed at equal distances in the circumference of a
circle.

14 The Sector, Polygon, and Star. — The Square, and its Subdivisions.
15 — 16. Regular eight-pointed Star, formed by combining every
second or third of eight points placed at equal distances in
the circumference of a circle.
17 — 18. Regular ten-pointed Stars, formed by joining every second
or third of ten points placed at equal distances in the
circumference of a circle.
The pointed Stars may also be formed by producing to
a sufficient distance the sides of ordinary regular polygons;
and, conversely, each star contains a simpler star, as well
as the regular polygon of the same number of sides.
19. Star, formed by a suitable combination of corresponding
points regularly placed on the circumferences of two con
centric circles.
20. Uraniscus, the star-like decoration of a Greek coffer ceiling.
From the Propylaea in Athens. Gold on a blue ground.
21. Back of a modern chair, carved in basrelief.
22. Ornamentation of a semi -regular pointed star. Arabic,
16th century, (Prisse d'Avennes).

The Square, and its.' Subdivisions. (Plates 9 and 10.)
The regular four-sided figure or Square, with its equal sides
and angles, is a fundamental form of frequent occurence. It may be
divided into compartments in various ways; the principal auxiliary
lines for this purpose being the Diagonals (or oblique lines con
necting the angles), and the Diameters (or lines connecting the centre
of each side). Where the square is divided for a ceiling, floor or
similar object: a border is made round the enclosed space. In most
cases, a large central compartment is retained; and this may be a
square, either parallel or oblique to the other; or may be a circle,
an octagon, &c.
The Subdivisions of Plate 9 follow the richer divisions of
Plate 10.
Plate 9. The Square.
1 — 15. The simple Subdivisions.
Plate 10. The Square.
1 — 8. Richer and more complicated Subdivisions.
6. Panelling of Ceiling, inn, Nuremberg, Modern.
8. Panelling of ceiling, Massimi Palace, Rome, by Baldassarc
Peruzzi, Italian Renascence, (Letarouilly).

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

The Sector, the Polygon, and the Star.

Plate 8.

16

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

Plate 9.

The Square, and its Subdivision.

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

17

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Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.
Plate 10.
2
18 The Subdivisions of the Octagon, Triangle, and Hexagon. — The Oblong, &c.
The Subdivision op the Octagon, Triangle, and
Hexagon. (Plates 11 and 12.)
Next to the square: the regular polygons most frequently occur
ring in ornamentation are the Octagon and the Hexagon. The Triangle,
Pentagon, Decagon and Duodecagon are, for obvious reasons, less
common; while the other regular polygons are scarcely used at all.
Sometimes the semi-regular polygons also appear. These are formed
by cutting-off equal triangles from the angles of a regular polygon
in such a manner that the resulting figure has long and short sides
alternately, and the angles all lie on the circumference of a circle.
Diagonals and Diameters with series of lines in the manner of
pointed stars, are the readiest auxiliaries for dividing regular and
semi-regular Polygons.
Plate 11. The Octagon.
1 — 8. The best-known Subdivisions.
Plate 12. The Triangle, the Hexagon, &c.
1 — 5. Simple Subdivisions of the Equilateral triangle.
6 — 13. The best-known Subdivisions of the regular Hexagon.
14. Subdivisions of a resralar Pentagon.

The Oblong, and its Subdivision. (Plates 13 — 16.)
The right-angled plane figure with unequal pairs of sides,
known as an Oblong, is the most usual of all fundamental forms.
Ceilings, floors, walls, doors, wainscoting, panels of furniture, table-
tops, book-covers, and numbers of other objects, have an oblong
shape. The difference in the lengths of the sides adapts itself to all
possible conditions: the Oblong approaching the square on the one
hand and the Band or Border on the other; so that the divisions are
very various; as will be seen by a glance at the examples. As a
rule, the diagonal is not used as an auxiliary line, but is replaced
by the mitral-line of the angle, as this latter alone gives equal
breadths of the Border. When the Oblong approaches the Square, a
distorted square subdivision is sometimes resorted-to, (Compare PL 16,
fig. 2).
Plate 13. The Oblong.
1 — 6. The usual subdivisions.
Mosaic, flooring, Italian, 16th century, (Storck).

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

19

The Octagon, and its Subdivision.

Plate. 11.
2*

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

Plate 12. The Triangle, Hexagon, &c, and their Subdivision.

The Oblong, and its Subdivision. — The Subdivision of the Rhombus, &c. 21
Plate 14. The Oblong.
1. Subdivision for Door panels, Sofits of arches, &c.
2. „ „ tablets, &c.
3- „ „ Borders for ceilings.
4 and 5. Modern Album-covers, (Gewerbehalle).
Plate 15. The Oblong.
1. Ceiling, Quedlinburg, German, 1560, (Gewerbehalle).
2. Ceiling, Massimi Palace, Rome, by Baldassare Peruzzi, (Leta-
rouilly).
3. Coffer ceiling, Farnese Palace, Rome, by Barozzi da Vignola,
(Letarouilly)i
Plate 16. The Oblong.
1. Ceiling, modern, (Gewerbehalle).
2. Vaulted ceiling, S. Peter's, Rome, beginning of the 17th
century, (Italienisches Skizzenbuch).

The Subdivision of the Rhombus, and the Trapezium
(Plate 17.)
Rhombus or "Lozenge" is the name usually given to the equi
lateral foursided figure with pairs of unequal angles. The principal
auxiliary lines of these figures are the diagonals. The subdivision
generally leaves an oblong or hexagonal panel in the centre.
The Trapezium is a four-sided figure with unequal sides. The
Parallel Trapezium has two parallel sides which are unequal and two
equal sides which are not parallel (PI. 17, figs. 5 to 8). The Sym
metrical Trapezium has two pairs of adjacent equal sides (PI. 17,
figs. 9 and 10). Any other irregular four-sided rectilinear figure is
a Trapezoid. Some suitable subdivisions are given on Plate 17.
Definite directions for the Trapezoid can scarcely be given; its sub
division is seldom easy, and varies with each particular case. The
general principle is: — Endeavour to cut-off projecting angles by means
of triangles in such a way as to leave a portion of the entire figure
regular or symmetrical. This is, however, a matter of artistic taste;
and more easily learnt than taught.
Among other applications of the symmetrical or parallel Tra
pezium is that to Cupolas of Domes: the lines are indeed curves
on a bent surface; but this causes very little alteration in the sub
division.

22

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

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The Oblong, and its Subdivision.
GEOMETRICAL MOTIVE;

23

The Oblong, and its Subdivision.

Plate 14.

21

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

Plate 15.

The Oblong, and its Subdivision.

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

25

The Oblong, and its Subdivision.

Plate 16.

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

Plate 17. The Rhombus, the Trapezium, and their Subdivision.

ThffSubdivisions of the Rhombus, &c. — The Circle, &c. —Gothic Tracery. 27
Plate 17. The Rhombus, and the Trapezium.
1 — 4. Subdivision of the Rhombus.
5 — 8. ,, „ „ Parallel Trapezium.
9 — 10. „ „ „ Symmetrical Trapezium.

The Circle, its Subdivision, and Intersections.
(Plate 18.)
The Circle is often used in ornamentation as a fundamental form.
No good result is produced (as a rule) by dividing it merely by
radii or other straight lines; and it is therefore usually divided by
means of curved lines or of a combination of arcs and straight lines.
By describing circles to cut each other: motives may be obtained, as
shown by figures 3 and 7, the latter of which is the basis of a
Roman mosaic pavement found in Pompeii (Figure 17).
That circles which cut each-other form of themselves an effec
tive pattern — is shown by the engine-turned ornament, which is pro
duced by machinery and applied to the decoration of Watch-cases,
and to the plates from which Bank notes, Share certificates, &c. are
printed. Ornamentation by means of arcs plays a conspicuous part in
Gothic tracery, which will be treated- of in the following chapter.
Plate 18. The Chicle.
1 — 12. Different divisions and intersections.
13 — 16. Tracery in the Gothic style.
17. Centre of a mosaic pavament, Pompeii, (Kunsthandwerk).

Gothic Tracery. (Plate 19.)
In the forms of Tracery, the Gothic style evolved and brought
to perfection a characteristic decoration by means of arcs of circles.
And although the results have something stiff and mechanical, when
compared with the ornaments taken direct from nature in other styles,
it cannot be denied that they possess a great originality, and richness
of form. Tracery was chiefly applied to stone, and wood; in architecture,
and furniture; for galleries, windows, and panels, &c.
Well-known forms are the circles (figs. 13 — 16 of Plate 18
showing 2, 3, 4 and 6 foliations), the trefoil (Plate 19, figs. 3 and 4),

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

Plate 18.

The Circle, and its Subdivision.

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

29

Gothic Tracery.

Plate 19.

30 Gothic Tracery. — The Ellipse.
tne quatrefoil (in the centre of fig. 2), the cinquefoil, &c. The pro
jecting points are termed cusps, the voids between the cusps are
termed foils.
Plate 19. Traceey.
1 — 11. Gothic tracery, for panels and windows. The figures give
partly the fundamental construction, partly the further deve
lopement. Thus figures 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 6 and 7, 8 and
9, 10 and 11, belong together.

The Ellipse. (Plate 20.)
The Ellipse is a figure, whose radius of curvation is continually
changing. It has the peculiar quality that, if any point on the
circumference be joined with the two foci, the sum of the two con
necting lines is invariable, and always equal to the longitudinal axis.
The three-centred arch is an approximate construction to an
elliptic curve. It is composed of a number of arcs, which is not
possible in the case of the ellipse. As regards beauty of line it can
never be a substitute for the Ellipse; but its easier construction has,
notwithstanding, caused it to be used for many purposes.
The expression "Oval" for the ellipse, is erroneous. Oval is
derived from "ovum'' (egg), and therefore means an egg-shape.
The Ellipse is of comparatively late appearance in art, the con
struction presupposing a certain knowledge of Geometry, which was
not possessed by primitive peoples. Afterwards it became of common
application, as will be seen from many passages of this Handbook.
The Ellipse is a very popular shape for ceilings, panels, boxes, and
dishes. Figure 15 affords hints as to the manner of subdividing it.
Plate 20. The Ellipse, &c.
1 — 2. Construction by means of 8 points.
When the square with its diagonals and transversals is projec
ted as an Oblong, the circle described in it becomes an Ellipse.
3. Construction from the Foci.
From the ends of the conjugate axis, describe circles with a
radius of one half the transverse axis; the points where these
circles cut each other will be the foci. Now divide the trans
verse axis into two unequal parts, and from the foci as centres
describe circles having these unequal parts for their radii; the
points of intersection will be four points of the Ellipse. Another
division will give another four points, and so on.
4. Construction by means of Tangents.
Construct an Oblong with sides of the lengths of the transverse
and conjugate axes respectively; draw the transversals, that is.

GEOMETRICAL MOTIVES.

31

The Ellipse, and its Subdivision.

Plate 20.

32 The ElliDse.
the transverse and conjugate axes; join the ends of the axes in
one of the quarters by a diagonal; and set-off a number of points
on this diagonal. Through these points draw straight lines from
the opposite angle, and also parallels to the longitudinal axis.
Now join the points thus obtained on the outside of the quarters
in the way shown in the figure; and transfer these lines to the
remaining three quarters ; and a series of tangents will be obtained,
within which the ellipse can be drawn by hand.
5. Constructions by means of two Circles.
With the centre of the Ellipse as a centre describe two circles
passing through the ends of the transverse and conjugate axes
respectively; draw a number of diameters through two opposite
quadrants; where these diameters cut the smaller circle, draw
parallels to the longitudinal axis; and where they cut the greater
circle, parallels to the transverse axis (or vice versa); the points
of the parallels will then be points on the ellipse. The other
points required may be obtained by producing the parallels into
the remaining quadrants. This construction may be specially re
commended for practical use.
6. Practical construction on a larger scale (centres, garden-beds, &c).
Mark the two foci by nails, posts, &c; place round them a
cord equal in length to the transverse axis plus the distance
between the foci, and tied at both ends; stretch the cord tense,
by means of a pencil, and let the latter run round the foci: the
resulting figure will be an Ellipse.
7 — 12. Several constructions for Ellipsoids.
In constructions 7—9 the length of the transverse axis has a
definite, invariable proportion to that of the conjugate axis, so
that when the one is given the other immediately follows. In
constructions 10—12 the length of each axis is variable. The
point of junction of two circles of different diameter must lie on
the same straight line as the centres of the two circles.
7. Describe two circles each of which passes through the centre of
the other. Join the centres with the points of intersection of the
circles: the straight lines so formed will mark-eff the four arcs
of which, as the figure shows, the Ellipsoid is composed. The centre
points are marked by small dots.
8. Describe two circles touching each other, and with the point of
contact as centre, describe a third circle of the same diameter.
These three circles cut each other in four points. Join these to
the external centres as shown on the figure; and the resulting
four straight lines will again mark-off the four arcs which are
then to be described from the points indicated by the small dots.
9. Construct two squares, having one side in common, and in them
describe the four diagonals; these will then mark-off the four arcs
which must then be drawn from the points denoted by small
dots.
JO. Construct a rectangle with sides equal to the transverse and
longitudinal axes respectively; draw the two transversals (the
transverse and longitudinal axes) and join their ends in one of
die quarters. Cut-off from this line, beginning from the point of
junction with the conjugate axis, the difference of half the trans
verse and half the conjugate axis; on the centre point of the re
maining piece draw a perpendicular and the three more similar
lines; these four lines will then show the limits of the arcs which
are then to be drawn from the points marked by small dots.

The Ellipse, &c. — The three-centred Arch. 33
IL Construct an Oblong with sides equal to the transverse and
longitudinal axes respectively, and draw the two transversals.
Measure the half of the transverse axis upon half the longitudinal
axis, and ascertain the difference; halve this difference. This half
difference must now be taken four times along the transverse
axis trom the centre point of the Ellipsoid, and three times along
the longitudinal axis. The four required points will thus be ob
tained. The straight lines connecting them will give the points
of junction of the arcs.
12. Construction from eight centres.
Construct an Oblong whose sides are equal to the major and
minor axes respectively; draw the transversals, and join their ends
in one of the quarters. From the nearest angle, draw a perpen
dicular to this diagonal; the points where this perpendicular cuts
the two axes will be two of the required centres. Two more are
obtained by symmetrical transference. From these four points
describe circles with a radius = ]/2 (CB-DA); the points where
they cut each other internally will give four more centres. If the
centres thus found be joined by means of straight lines, as shown
on the figure, the latter will mark the points where the eight
arcs will meet.
13 — 14. Construction of Ovals or egg-shaped figures. The construction of
such figures usually consists in combining a semi-circle with a
semi-ellipse.
13. Draw in a circle two diameters at right angles to each other,
and two intersecting chords of a quadrant; these when produced
will determine the points where the various arcs meet. The
centres of these latter lie on the ends of the diameters.
14. The construction of the lower half is the same as in fig. 7. The
centre of the upper lies in the intersection of tangents to the
lower and upper circles.
15. Example of the subdivision and decoration of an ellipse, (Storck's
Zeichenvorlagen).

The Three -centred Arch.
The Three -centred arch, which was often used in the Transition
period between the Gothic and the Renascence, may be considered as a
semi -ellipsoid; and it may be described by one of the methods shown
on Plate 20 (see also the Head-piece to this Section, on page 3).

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

•"4

B.

NATURAL FORMS.
a. The Organisms of Plants (Flora of Ornament).
In nearly every style the plant-world has been used in patterns.
Leaves, sprays, flowers, and fruits, either singly or combined, have
been adapted in ornament. The direct imitation of nature, retaining
form and color as much as possible, leads to the naturalistic con
ception; the construction of an ornament according to the rules of
rhythm and symmetry, with a stricter observance of regularity — is
known as the artificial method.
The selection of the comparatively few plants from the luxuriant
field of the plant-world was partly determined by beauty of form (the
outline of the leaf, the delicacy of the spray, &c.) and partly by the
fact that they possess (or did at some time possess) a symbolic
meaning. The plates which illustrate this section will first exhibit the
Akanthos; and then such plant-forms as are less used or only found
in certain styles. They will first be presented as they exist in Nature;
and then as they were modified in the various styles.

The Akanthos Leaf. (Plates 21 — 23.)
Of all the ornamental designs which have been borrowed from
plants; the Akanthos is the most popular. Since its introduction by
the Greeks, it recurs again and again in every Western style. A
symbolical significance has never attached to the Akanthos; its frequent

The Akanthos Leaf, &c. 35
and varied application is due to the ornamental possibilities and
beautiful serration of its leaves. It grows wild in the South ofr
Europe, but in more northern latitudes is only found in our botanical
gardens. There are many varieties of the plant, of which we may
mention tho following: Akanthos mollis, with broad, blunt tips to
the leaves; Akanthos spinosus, with pointed lobes terminating in
spines, and comparatively narrow leaves. The conception and treat
ment of the margin and shape of the leaf, is the principal characteristic
of the different styles. The Greek foliage has pointed leaf- edges; in
the Roman style, the tips of the leaves become rounder, broader, to
some extent with more vigorous curves; the Byzantine and Roma
nesque styles, again, return to stiffer, less delicate forms. The Gothio
style, which used the foreign Akanthos in addition to a number of native
plants, adopted in the early period, round, bulbous forms; later Gothic,
on the contrary, preferred bizarre, long-extended, thistle-like foliage:
in both cases the general conception is more or less naturalistic, but
the details are usually idealised beyond recognition. The Renascence,
which revived Antique ornament, developed the Akanthos, and parti
cularly the Tendril, to the highest degree of perfection; in the follow
ing styles formalism degenerates in this direction. Modern ornamental
art seeks its models in almost every style; and its creations have
generally no pronounced, specifically Modern character.
Plate 21. The Akanthos, and Aetificial Leaf.
1. Leaf of Akanthos Mollis, (Jacobsthal).
2. Aianthos calyx, the leaves and flower of Akanthos Mollis, natura-
listically treated, (Jacobsthal).
3. Leaf of Akanthos Mollis, (Raguenet).
4. Leaf of Akanthos Spinosus, (Gewerbehalle).
5. Cup, corona of a Greek Stele, (Raguenet).
6. Overlap of leaf, Roman candelabrum, Vatican.
7. Greek leaf, displayed, (Jacobsthal).
8. Roman leaf, Capital of a column, Pantheon, Rome, the spoon
like roundings of the points of the leaves, as well as the deep
incisions, are characteristic; and designed to look well at a distance.
Plate 22. The Artificial Leap.
1. Leaf, Roman capital, (Raguenet).
2. Leaf displayed, as it is often used on Roman reliefs, e. g.: so
mewhat more richly developed, on the so called Florentine Pilaster,
Uffizi, Florence, (Jacobsthal).
8. Byzantine leaf, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople, (Raguenet).
4. Romanesque leaf, St. Denis, (Lievre). 3*

36

NATURAL FORMS.

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NATURAL FORMS.

37

The Artificial Leaf.

Plate 22.

ss

NATURAL forms.

Plate 23.

The Artificial Leaf.

The Artificial Leaf. — Artificial Foliage. 39
5. Romanesque leaf, monastery of St. Trophimus, Aries, XII. century
(Raguenet).
6. Gothic leaf, (Lievre).
Plate 23. The Artificial Leaf.
1. Leaf, French Renascence, St. Eustache, Paris.
2. Leaf, style of Louis XVI, (Raguenet).
3. Leaf, French Renascence, church, Epernay, (Lievre).
4. Leaf, French Renascence, (Gropius).
5. Modern Leaf, Louvre, Paris, (F. A. M. Cours d'ornement).
6. Modern Leaf, Theatre, Monte Carlo, Monaco, (Raguenet).

Artificial Foliage. (Plates 24 — 26.)
The Scroll is a purely artistic invention, the natural plant having
no tendrils. Flowers and calices, such as frequently occur in artificial
foliage, are usually developed with serrated edges, composed to recall
natural models, (Comp. Plate 25, figs. 2 und 3). Artificial foliage is
often combined with forms from plants, e. g.: laurel, oak, ivy, ears
of wheat, &c, (Comp. Plate 26, figs. 2 and 4). What was said above
of the Akanthos leaf, holds good here too, for the differences of exe
cution in the various styles. The greatest luxuriance and the highest
elegance were attained by the Italian Renascence, (Comp. Plate 25,
fig. 5). It is characteristic of the Louis XVI. epoch that the lines
which form the scroll are somestimes flattened, and, so to speak, make
elliptic spirals, (Comp. Plate 26, fig. 4).
Plate 24. Artificial Foliage.
1. Ornament, summit of the monument of Lysikrates, Athens.
2. Cup, Roman.
3. Roman ornament, the so called "Medicean Pilaster", (Artificial fo
liage of a large size).
4. Fragment of a Greek relief, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement).
Plate 25. Artificial Foliage.
1. Roman ornament, marble Biga, from the style of the ornament
it must have been an imitation of an original in bronze.
2. Roman ornament, from the so called "Florentine Pilaster", a richly
decorated marble relief in the Uffizi, Florence, (Jacobsthal).
S. Romanesque frieze, St. Denis, (Lievre).
4. Early Gothic, Notre Dame, Paris, (Lievre).
5. Renascence ornament, relief on the tomb of Hieronimo Basso, Sta.
Maria del Popolo, Rome, by Sansovino, (Gropius).

40

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 24.

Artificial Foliage.

NATURAL FORMS.

41

Artificial Foliage.

Plate 25.

42

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 26.

Artificial Foliagr.

Artificial Foliage. — The Laurel, the Olive, and the Vine. 43
Plate 26. Artificial Foliage.
1 — 8. Details from a relief on the lectern, cathedral, Limoges, (Lievre).
4. Ornament, Louis XVI. style, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement).
5. Modern Frenoh ornament, (F. A. M.).

The Laurel, and the Olive. (Plates 27, 28.)
The Laurel and the Olive owe their introduction into ornamen
tation to their symbolical significance. Both played a conspicuous
part in the tree worship of the ancient Greeks. The Laurel was
sacred to Apollo. It was the symbol of atonement; singers and con
quering heroes were crowned with it; and in a similar sense it is
still used as a symbol of glory.
The Olive was sacred to Athene; Olive branches were the prize
of victory et the Olympian games. In Rome the victorious, Laurel-
crowned heroes were met on their return home by slaves bearing
wreaths of Olive boughs. The Olive branch is the symbol of peace.
Plate 27. The Laurel, &c. from Nature.
1. Laurel (Laurus nobilis). Evergreen; blossoms yellowish white;
fruit ball or egg shaped, blue black.
2. Olive (Olea europea). Evergreen; blossoms small, white; fruit oval,
greenish, or black.
Plate 28. The Laurel, &c.
1 — 2. Branches, Greek vase, conventional painting, (Owen Jones).
8. Branches, beaker, in the silver treasure, Hildesheim, Roman,
Original of chased silver, museum, Berlin.
4. Fragment, Roman marble relief.
5. Branch, intarsia panel, Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, (Meurer).
6. Branch, spanrail, Louis XVL style, (Lievre)
7. Band, French Renascence.

The Vine. (Plates 29, 30.)
Although the Vine does not occui frequently, it is not an un
popular element of artistic decoration. The Antique and Medieval
styles, in particular, show a certain preference for the vine.
In Antiquity the Vine (Vitis vinifera) is the attribute of Bac
chus. Vine leaves and Ivy, sometimes in connection with Laurel,
encircle the brows of Bacchantes, and adorn their drinking-vessels
and utensils, the thyrsus, kantharos, &c.

44

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 27.

The Laurel, and the Olive.

NATURAL FORMS.

45

The Laurel, the Bay, and the Olive. Plate 28.

46

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 29.

The Vine: Natural.

NATURAL FORMS.

47

The Vine: Artificial.

Plate 30.

48 The Vine, the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm.
The ecclesiastical art of the Middle Ages adopted the Vine, toge
ther with ears of Corn, as the symbol of Christ.
Later styles, and Modern art, have adopted the Vine in both the
antique and medieval senses.
Plate 29. The Vine.
1. Natural branch.
Plate 30. The Vine.
1. Scroll ornament, Roman relief.
2. Roman ornament, vertical Border.
3. Early Gothic ornament, Notre Dame, Paris, (Lievre).
4. Renascence ornament, Italian pilaster.
5. Renascence ornament, frieze, Venice, 16th century, (Griiner).

The Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. (Plate 31.)
The Lotus and the Papyrus are plants of ancient oriental civi
lisation; and play an important part in the social life of the Egyptians,
Hindoos, Assyrians, and other nations. The dried stalks of these water
plants were used as fuel, or made into mats and other plaited arti
cles; their roots served as food; the pith as wicks for lamps. The
paper of the ancients was made of Papyrus. This explain sits appear
ance in the ornamental art of these nations, and its special luxuriance,
in Egyptian style. Spoons and other utensils were decorated with Lotus
flowers and calices; the capitals of Columns imitate the flowers or
buds of the Lotus: the shaft resemples a bound group of stalks; the
base reminds us of the root leaves of these water plants; their mural
Painting shows Lotus and Papyrus motives in the most comprehensive
manner. The Lotus was sacred to Osiris and Isis, and was the sym
bol of the recurring fertilisation of the land by the Nile, and, in a
higher sense, of immortality.
The Palm, of which a few varieties exist in the East and South
of Europe, is also used in ornamental art. Palm leaves or branches were
used at the entry of kings into Jerusalem, at the feasts of Osiris in
Egypt, at the Olympian games in Greece, and in the triumphal pro
cessions of ancient Rome. They were the symbol of victory and of
peace. In this latter sense they have been received into the ritual
of the Christian church. The late Renascence and following styles
down to the present day have made a decorative use of palm leaves.
The symbolic significance in a higher sense, as the token of eternal
peace, has secured for the Palm leaf a place in Modern art on tombs
and similar monuments. The decorative effect, of dried palm fronds

NATURAL FORMS.

49

The Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm.
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

Plate 31.

50

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 32.

The Ivy: Natural, and Artificial.

The Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. — The Ivy. 61
along with tufts of grasses and the like, has brought them into fashion
as a finish to the artistic adornment of rooms.
Plate 31. The Lotus, &c, feom Nature.
1. Lotus flower (Nymphaea Nelumbo — Indian water lily).
2 and 3. Lower end and half-opened bud of the Papyrus plant (Oy-
perus Papyrus L. — Papyrus antiquorum Willd).
4. Idealised Lotus and Papyrus, Egyptian mural painting,
(Owen Jones).
5. Frond of an Areca Palm (Areca rubra — in Asia as a
tree, the so called Pinang). The species Chamaedorea and
Phoenix have similar fronds.
6. Leaf of a Fan Palm (Corypha australis). The species
Latania, Chamaerops, Borassus, &c, have a leaf of similar

shape.

The Ivy. (Plate 32.)

The Ivy (hedera helix) is indigenous to the East, North Africa,
South and Central Europe, and England. It is an evergreen climbing
shrub which develops into a tree under favourable circumstances. In
ancient times it was sacred to Bacchus. Beakers for filtering wine
were made of ivy wood. As an attribute of Bacchus it is found
twined round the thyrsus which the bacchantes flourished in their
hands in processions and dances. The Ivy is a common decorative
ornament on ancient vases. It was also the symbol of friendship,
especially of the weaker with the stronger. Ivy leaves are of very
various shapes. Usually broad and five-lobed, they appear at the ends
of young shoots in long pointed, lance-like forms. Flowering twigs
have leaves without indentations, heart-shaped, with elliptic or oval
tapering. The latter forms in particular were adopted by Antique art.
Plate 32. The Ivy.
1. Spray with broad-lobed leaves, from Nature.
2. Spray with elliptic tapering leaves, after blooming, from Nature.
3. Spray with lanceolate leaves, from Nature.
4. Decoration of the neck of a Greek Hydria, Campana collection,
(L'art pour tous).
5. Upper part of a pilaster like-panel, Antique.
6. Fragment of decoration, Roman column, Vatican, Rome.

52 The Corn, &c. — Various Leaves.
The Corn, the Hop, the Convolvulus, and the Bryony.
(Plates 33, 34.)
Seeing how important agriculture has been in all ages, it was
impossible that decorative art should neglect the ears of Wheat,
although their comparatively scanty ornamental possibilities prevented
any very extensive application. Combined with other motives, ears
of Corn have been made use of in various styles. In ecclesiastical
art they have a symbolical significance (See what was said of the Vine).
The Hop (Humulus lupulus) is a well known indigenous plant
of civilisation, and also occurs wild in marshy woods. Its picturesque
qualities indicate it as well adapted for ornamental use. In combina
tion with ears of Barley, it is applied in Modern art to the decoration
of Beer-mugs, the walls of Inns, &c.
The Convolvulus (Convolvulus), an indigenous climbing plant of
ornamental appearance, is frequently used in Modern art.
The Bryony (Bryonia) has delicate tendrils and beautifully in
dented leaves, which afford a fertile motive, so that it is astonishing
that this, and other allied plants have hitherto found comparatively
little favor in decorative art.
Plate 33. The Corn, &c.
1. Ears of Oats (Avena sativa).
2. Ears of Rye (Secale cereale).
3. Ears of Wheat (Triticum vulgare).
4. Ears of Spelt (Triticum spelta).
5. Ears of the common Barley (Hordeum distichum).
6. Ears of the battledore Barley (Hordeum zeokriton).
7. Field Convonvulus (Convolvulus arvensis) with red flowers. The
hedge Convolvulus (Convolvulus sepium) has a similar habit and
white flowers. (The group has been sketched freely from a cast
from nature, by Bofinger of Stuttgart.)
Plate 34. The Hop, &c.
Hops and Bryony (drawn from pressed plants).

Various Leaves. (Plate 35.)
Plate 35 presents a series of various leaves, whose general orna
mental possibilities have either secured or deserve to secure for them
a place in art.
The Oak, the king of our indigenous trees, the symbol of power

NATURAL FORMS.

53

The Corn, and the Convolvulus.

Plate 33.

54

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 34.

The Hop, and the Bryony.

NATURAL FORMS.

55

Various Leaves.

Plate 35.

56 Various Leaves, and Flowers.
and strength, in antiquity the tree of Jupiter, has from time to time
been used in every western style. Oak foliage, and perhaps almost
as frequently the leaves of the Maple, are often used in early Gothic,
where we meet them on friezes, cornices, and columns. The fre
quent recurrence of oak leaves, in certain works of the Italian Rena
scence, is due to the fact that the Oak was the crest of the family of
della Rovere (jRovere = winter oak; two members of which family
ascended the papal chair, as Sixtus rV. and Julius LT.). Oak, someti
mes alternating with laurel, is a usual ornament of medals and coins.
Plate 35. Oak Leaves, &c.
1. Leaf of the winter Oak (Quercus sessiliflora).
2. Spray of the bitter Oak (Quercus cerris).
3. Leaf Of the Maple (Acer campestre).
4. Spray of the sugar Maple (Acer plantanoides).
5. Leaf of a species of Ranunculus.
6. Leaf of the oriental Amber tree (Liquidamber orientale).
7. Leaf of the American Amber tree (Liquidamber Styraciflua).
(This tree furnishes the Storax or Styrax, a kind of resin.)
8. Leaf of the Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera).
9. Leaf of the climbing Mikania (Mikania scandens).
10. Leaf of the Liverwort (Hepatica triloba).

Various Flowers. (Plates 36, 37.)
It need scarcely be said that flowers, these most beautiful pro
ducts of the plant world, have in all ages been exceedingly popular
in ornamental art. In flat as well as in relief ornament they are
used in the most manifold forms, as bouquets, garlands, wreaths, &c.
Flower-painting for decorative purposes (fans, tapestry, &c.) has de
veloped into a distinct branch of art. Flowers, with their natural
developement from a centre, are the most obvious models for the for
mation of Rosettes (rosette = little rose). The Rosettes on the well-
known sarcophagus of Scipio, the rosette Bosses on the doors of the
Antique and the Italian Renascence, are striking examples of this.
The realm of Flowers is so extensive that we must confine our
selves to a few examples.
Plate 36 gives a variety of single flowers (drawn from casts
from nature by J. G. Bofinger of Stuttgart): Plate 37 shows a bou
quet of flowers.
Plate 36. Various Flowee3.
1. Alpine Rose (Rhododendron).

NATURAL FORMS.

57

Various Flowers.

Plate 36.

53

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 37.

Various Flowers.

Various Flowers. — The Festoon. 65J
2. Chrysanthemum.
8. White Lily (Lilium candidum).
4. Hellebore (Helleborus).
5. Wild Rose (Rosa canina),
6. Blue-bell (Campanula).
7. Wild Rose, seen from the back.
Plate 37. Various Flowers.
Bouquet, carving, Louis XVI. style, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement).

The Fruit Festoon. (Plates 38 — 40.)
Fruit, tied in a bunch with leaves and flowers, was a popular
decorative motive of the Roman, Renascence, and later styles. We
may mention the hanging clusters as a decoration of pilaster and
similar panels; and the clusters hanging in a curve and known as
Festoons. In these cases: flowing ribbons fill up the empty spaces.
The plates give examples of both kinds.
Festoons of fruits hanging in deep curves between rosettes, can
delabra, skulls of animals, &c, are common in the Roman style. The
origin of this style of decoration is to be sought in the circumstance
that Festoons of real fruit were hung as a decoration on the £rieze9
of the temples, alternating with the real Skulls of slaughtered sacri
ficial animals, in connection with the Candelabra, Tripods, and other
sacrificial Instruments. This style of decoration was then transferred
from sacred to secular architecture, revived by the Renascence in more
or less altered forms, and has remained in use to the present time.
In the Roman style the empty space above the centre of the curve
is often filled by Rosettes, Masks, and Figures. These features were
usually replaced by heads of Angels on the ecclesiatical buildings
and tombs of the Italian Renascence.
Plate 88. The Fruit Festoon.
1. Cluster, Libreria, Cathedral, Siena, Italian Renascence.
2. Cluster, tomb of Louis XII. St. Denis, French Renascence.
3. Cluster, Modern.
4. Festoon, tomb of Cardinal della Rovere, St. Maria del Popolo,
Rome, Italian Renascence.
Plate 39. The Fruit Festoon
1. Festoon, between skulls, Roman.
2. Festoon, Roman mortuary tablet, Vatican

60

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 38.

The Fruit Festoon.

NATURAL FORMS.

The Fruit Festoon."

Plate 39.

62

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 40.

The Leaf, and Flower Festoon.

The Festoon. — Animal Organisms. 63
Plate 40. The Leaf Festoon, &c.
1. Festoon between skulls, Roman.
2. Festoon, tomb of Beatrice and Lavinia Ponzetti, Sta. Mana della
Pace, Rome, Renascence, by Baldassare Peruzzi.
3. Festoon, Louis XVI. style.
4. Festoon, Modern, Paris, (Raguenet).

6. Animal Organisms (The Fauna of Ornament).
By the side of the Flora, stand the Fauna of ornament. . The
use of Animals, in natural or idealised forms, is considerable;
but, compared with that of Plant-forms, it is less extensive. The
reason of this is obvious: that greater difficulties stood in the way
of the adaptation of animal forms than in the use of plant motives.
The absence of Animals in the Mahometan styles is due to religious
maxims which forbade or limited the use of representations of living
Beings. Following the same direction as was taken in the Flora, we shall
find that the principal representations from the Fauna are not, as
might be supposed, those of domestic animals such as the horse, the
dog and the like, but that the selection was guided first by the sym
bolic character, and next by the ornamental possibilities of each.
If we disregard the more accidental naturalistic use of animals,
such as enliven scroll ornaments in the shape of butterflies, birds,
reptiles, and other animals, and confine our attention to those inde
pendent forms of animal ornament which have become typical; they
will be found to diminish to a comparatively small number, the most
important of which will here be treated in detail. Of the mammalia
we have first to mention the Lion, Tiger and Panther, the Ox, the
Horse, and the Goat; the Delphin also finds a place. The Eagle
is the only bird which has been generally used. Then come the
fantastic forms of fabulous animals: the Griffin, the double-headed
Eagle, &c.
The Lion. (Plates 41—44.)
The Lion (Felis leo) holds the first rank in ornamental fauna.
His strength, bis courage, and his nobility, have assured him from the
earliest times the Title of "King of Beasts". His majestic stature, his
compact, proportionate build, his striking muscles, offer grateful pro
blems to art. Lying, walking, sitting, fighting, conquering or con
quered, he is an often-used motive.
Lion scenes and lion hunts are common subjects on the palaces
of the Assyrian kings. Characteristic, natural movements, and a,

64 The Lion.
distinctive rendering of the muscles, give these idealised representations
a peculiar charm and a certain grandeur.
The Lion was used in the Egyptian religion. The fact that the
annual overflow of the Nile, so fertilising and of such immense im
portance for the land, occurred at the time when the sun entered the
sign of the Lion, brought the animal into relation with water; and led
to representations on pails and other vessels for water, &c. Egyptian
art usually idealises the Lion till he is unrecognisable; it represents
him at rest; and the simple, severe treatment of the mane (not unlike
a stiff ruff) gives him somewhat of the appearance of the Lioness,
which does not posses one.
Among the Greeks and Romans the Lion was considered as the
guardian of springs, of gates, and temples; hence his appearance at
fountains, on flights of steps, over gates, and on monuments. The
sleeping Lion is the symbol of the fallen hero. (The lion of the
Piraeus, the tomb of Leonidas, and the tombs of Halicarnassus , may
be quoted as evidence.)
In Christian art: the symbolism of the Lion is various: as the
emblem of the Redeemer (the Lion of the Tribe of Judah), as the
emblem of the evil principle and of the enemies of the church as
well as of the Devil himself (the enemy who goeth about as a roaring
lion, seeking whom he may devour), as the attribute of the evange
list St. Mark, and of other saints. Hence his frequent appearance on
the vessels, and other articles of religious use, &c.
In consequence of the crusades in the 12th century, he was in
troduced into Heraldry, in which he became the most popular animal
figure. As a heraldic creature he was severely idealised, (see
Division in, under Heraldry).
In the Renascence period, the Lion is represented in all of the
foregoing uses.
In the Rococo period, there was little skill, and little understan
ding, for the figure of the Lion.
Modern art follows the example of the Antique and the Renas
cence; and thus it comes that in the present day the Lion enjoys the
lion's share in decoration.
It is remarkable that in all ages, when representing the Lion, Ar
tists have given to his countenance something of a human type, by using
the oval eye of man, instead of the round Cat-like eye, (Compare,
Plate 47, fig. 1).*
Plates 41 — 43 show the Lion in naturalistic treatment, and also
the conventional treatments of the various epochs; Plate 44 is devo
ted to heraldic treatments.

* An exhaustive article, entitled "Der L5we in der Kunst," by Const.
Uhde, will be found in the "Gewerbehalle," 1872. pp. 81 et seqq.

NATURAL FORMS.

65

The Lion.

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

Plate 41.

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 42.

The Lion.

NATURAL FORMS.

67

The Lion.

Plate 43.

5*

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 44.

The Lion.

The Lion. 69
Plate 41. The Lion.
1. Walking Lion, from Nature, (Munchener Bilderbogen).
2. Egyptian Lion, relief with sunken outlines, temple, Dachel, (Ra
guenet).
3. Egyptian Lion, Capitol, Rome, (Raguenet).
4. Assyrian Lion, glazed clay slabs, royal palace, Khorsabad, 6th cen
tury B. C.
5. Heads of slaughtered lions, Assyrian bas-relief, British Museum.
Plate 42. The Lion.
1. Lion supporting a shield (called "il Marzocco"), by Donatello, Na
tional Museum, Florence, Italian, 15th century.
2. Lion, front of the Louvre, Paris, Modern, by Barye, (Baldus, Ra
guenet).
3. Lion, Tuileries, Paris, Modern, (Baldus, Raguenet).
4 and 5. Lion, in front of the palace of the Cortes, Madrid, Mo
dern, (Raguenet).
6. Lion supporting a shield, Modern, (Raguenet).
Plate 43. The Lion.
1-. Sleeping Lion, monument to Pope Clement XIII., St. Peter's, Rome,
by Canova.
2. Wounded Lion, Kriegerdenkmal, Hannover, by Professor Volz, of
Carlsruhe.
3. Head of the Companion of the above.
4. Walking Lion, Modern, French.
Plate 44. The Lion.
1. Lion, in pavement, town hall, Luneburg.
2. Lion, shield of Johann of Heringen, register of the university of
Erfurt, 1487, (Heraldische Meisterwerke).
3. Lion, coat of arms, Inlaid marble work, Sta. Croce, Florence.
Italian Renascence, (Teirich, Eingelegte Marmorornamente).
4. Lion, coat of arms, Intarsia panel, Sta. Maria Novella, Florence,
Italian Renascence, (Meurer, Flachornamente).
5. Lion, tomb in Wertheim, German, 16th century, by Johann of
Trarbach.
6. Lion supporting a shield, mural decoration, Modern, (Heral
dische Meisterwerke).
7 — 8. Heraldic Lions, Albrecht Diirer.

70 The Griffin, &c. — The Lion Head.

The Griffin, and the Chimaera. (Plates 45 and 46.)
In addition to the imitations of natural animals there have been,
from the earlist times, various fabulous Monsters, which were composed
of parts of several different animals.
Centaurs, Sphinxes, the Assyrian human Lions, Lion and Eagle
men, combine the human and the animal body. The combination, of
different animal- forms with one another, leads to Monsters, the chief
representatives of which are the Griffin, and the Chimaera. The Griffin
is the union of a Lion's body with the head and wings of an Eagle.
The fore extremities may belong either to the Lion or the Eagle. As
the Lion with water, so the Griffin is associated in Antiquity with
fire; hence his frequent appearance with Candelabra on friezes, &c. In
Heraldry the Griffin is the symbol of wisdom, and watchfulness.
There are other combinations; e. g. the Chimaera, the Hippo-
griff, the Ichthyogriff, &c, which may be seen in Pompejan decoration.
Plate 45. The Griffin.
1. Greek Griffin, Fragment, Museum, Naples.
2. Roman Griffin, Fragment.
3. Griffin, Renascence.
Plate 46. The Griffin, &c.
1. Head of an Assyrian eagle-headed Personage, 1 ^ ... , .,
2. Head of an Assyrian lion-headed Personage, J
3. Roman Chimaera, Vatican.
4. Sitting Griffin, support of a seat, Castle of Gaillon, French Renas
cence, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement).
5. Winged Lion, tomb of Loys de Bresze, Rouen cathedral, 1535 —
1544.
6. Winged Lioness, as supporter, Louvre, Paris, Modem, (Baldus).
7. Sitting winged Lioness, Casa S. Isidora, Santiago, Chili, Modern,
French, (Raguenet).

The Lion Head. (Plates 47, 48.)
The Lion head has been still more extensively applied than the
entire figure of the Lion. It is found in countless examples: — as a
Gargoyle on the temples of the Antique, as a Spout on vessels, with
a ring in the jaw as a Handle and Knocker on the doors of the por
tals of the Middle Ages and the Renascence; and as a purely deco
rative element like Bosses and Rosettes. The Antique created a

NATURAL FORMS.

71

The Griffin.

Plate 45.

72

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 46.

The Griffin, &c.

The Lion Head, &c. — The Goat Head,. &c. 73
remarkable form by the direct union of the Lion head with one
leg, to form the support of a Table, (See Division II, Supports,
Plates 143 and 144).
Plate 47. The Lion Head
1. Head, prospectus of Dr. Schubert's Naturgesehichte.
2. Head, painting by Paul Meyerheim.
3. Gargoyle, Metapontum, Greek, (Gropius, Archiv.).
4. Gargoyle, terracotta, Athens, (Gropius).
5. Gargoyle, Parthenon, Athens.
6 and 7. Front and side view of an antique head, Vatican.
Plate 48. The Lion Head.
1. Door knocker, Cathedral, Mainz, Romanesque.
2 — 3. Heads, in basrelief, by Ghiberti, Medallions inside the bronze
doors, Baptistry, Florence, Italian Renascence, (Gropius).
4. Head, fountain of the sacristy, San Lorenzo, Florence, Ita
lian Renascence.
5. Head, in medallion, Italian Renascence.
6. Head, Heidelberg castle, German Renascence.
7. Gargoyle, Opera House, Paris, Modern, French, Architect
Gamier, (Raguenet).
8. Head, Modern, French, Architect Gamier, (Raguenet).
9. Head, in profile, Modern, French, by the sculptor Cain of
Paris, (Raguenet).
10. Head, by Lienard, Modern, French.
11. Head, by Prof. Volz, of Carlsruhe.

The Lion Head, Goat Head, &c. (Plates 49, 50.)
The Tiger (Felis tigris) and the Panther (Felis pardus) are
sometimes found in antique works. Amorini, Bacchantes, and Maenads,
gambol about on them or drive in carriages drawn by these crea
tares; and decorate themselves and their utensils with their skins.
Panther and Tiger heads, as well as the head of the Lynx (Felis
lynx), find from time to time similar application to the Lion head.
Ram heads are a favourite form of corner ornament for the cornices
of altars, and tripods; or serve, like the skulls of Oxen, as objects
from which to hang festoons. The decorative use in both cases is
connected with the use of the Ram as a sacrificial animal, (Com
pare p. 71).
Instead of real animal heads we sometimes meet with fantastic
forms which may be described as Chimaera heads.

74

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 47.

The Lion Head.

NATURAL FORMS.

75

The Lion Head.

Plate 48.

76 Heads of Various Animals.
Plate 49. The Panther Head, &c.
1 and 2. Front and side view of Panther head, Modern, French.
8 and 4. Front and side view of Tiger head, from Nature.
5 and 6. Front and side view of Lynx head, Antique Gargoyle,
Vatican.
Plate 50. The Ram Head, &c.
1 and 2. Front and side view of Chimaera head, Corner of antique
three-sided altar.
3. Ram head, Roman altar.
4. Ditto.
5. Ditto.
6 and 7. Front and side view of Ram head, Late Renascence.
Heads of Various Animals. (Plate 51.)
The Horse (JEquus) offers certain difficulties in the way of
artistic imitation. The legs, for example, are too thin for rendering
in Statues, except in Metal. This circumstance presents less hin
drance to representations in bas-relief. As an isolated figure the
Horse seldom occurs; he is more frequent in groups forming teams
of two, three, and more (biga, triga, quadriga), intended to be
the crowning feature of monumental edifices (San Marco, Venice;
Brandenburger Thor, Altes Museum, Berlin; Propylaea, Munich) mostly
along with the figure of the man who leads him (Horse-tamers on
the Monte Cavallo, Rome) or rides him (Statue of the Condottiere
Bartolommeo Colleoni 1476, Venice; the colossal statues in the Burg-
hof at Vienna; the Grosser Kurfiirst, the Alter Fritz, the battle scenes
by Kiss and Wolff on the staircases of the Museum at Berlin). In
bas-relief: the horse is, almost without exception, represented only in
profile (hunting scenes from the ancient Assyrian royal palaces, the
frieze of the Parthenon). In grottesque Painting: he furnishes the
fore parts of various monsters, the hinder parts being formed by
fish tails, or in some other way. The use of the horse head as a
medallion, on Stables, Riding-schools, Prize-cups, and numerous objects
connected with sport, is common in Modern art. In Heraldry: the
Horse occurs in a few cases (Shield of Stuttgart). In Japan: the
Horse is symbolical; and is connected with the hours.
Still less adapted to ornamental purposes is the Ox; and repre
sentations are therefore exceedingly rare. The same is true of the
Dog, the Pig, the Fox, the Stag, the Hare, &c, whose forms, either
entire or as heads, are only used symbolically, on such objects as
have some connection with Hunting (hunting weapons, powder boras,
targets).

NATURAL FORMS.

77

The Panther Head, &c.

Plate 49.

78

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 50.

The Ram Head, &c.

NATURAL FORMS.

79

The Horse Head, &c.

Plate 51.

80 Heads of Various Animals. — The Eagle.
Plate 51. The Horse Head, &c.
1. Horse head, Parthenon, Athens.
2. Horse head, Assyrian basrelief, British Muse cm.
3 — 4. Antique Horse head.
5. Horse head, Modern, German.
6. Head of a hunting Dog,
7. Head of a Fox,
8. Head of a Boar,
9. Head of an Ox,

by Habenschaden, of Mfincbeu.

The Eagle. (Plates 52—54.)
Like the lion among quadrupeds, the Eagle (Aquila, Falco
fulvus) is the most important representative of the feathered tribes.
His size and strength, his majestic flight, his keen vision, distinguish
him above all other birds. He has been used in decorative art since
the earliest times, e. g. in the Persian, Assyrian, and Egyptian styles.
With the Greeks: he was the companion of Zeus, whose thunder
bolts he keeps and guards; he carried off Ganymede on his wings.
The Romans used him in the apotheoses of their emperors; and
chose him for the standards of their legions. Napoleon I., imitating
Roman caesarism, granted his armies the French Eagle in 1804.
Hence the frequent appearance of the Eagle on trophies, and emblems
of war. In ecclesiastical art: the Eagle is the symbol of the evangelist
S. John, whom he either accompanies, or symbolises independently.
The Eagle appears in Heraldry at a very early period, about
the time of Charlemagne. Next to the Lion he is the most-used
heraldic creature (e. g. the United States, Germany, Austria, Prussia, and
France under the second empire, all possess the Eagle). His heraldic
forms vary considerably from the natural one. Blue excepted, he
appears in all the tinctures. The double-headed Eagle is a Byzantine
invention. The heraldic eagle is a highly ornamental figure, so that,
from the middle ages up to the present time, he has been employed
not only for heraldic, but also for purely decorative purposes: he is
seen in manifold forms in intarsia, cut or etched in metal, cut in
leather, embroidered, woven, and painted; on weapons and tools, furni
ture, ceilings, and walls, (See the Heraldic treatment in Division LTI,
Heraldry). Our figures show him, natural as well as idealised, in various
positions and conceptions; plate 53 shows his heraldic forms, (Comp.
plate 284).

The Eagle. — The Wing. 81
Plate 52. The Eagle.
1. Young Eagle, in a scutella (dish), Roman.
2. Roman Eagle, pedestal of Trajan's column, Rome, (Raguenet).
3. Roman Eagle, Vatican, Rome, (Raguenet).
4. Roman Eagle in an oak garland, Bas-relief originally in Trajan's
Forum, now in SS. Apostoli, Rome, (De Vico, Trenta tavole, &c).
5. Sitting Eagle, modern, (Gerlach, Das Gewerbemonogramm).
Plate 53. The Heraldic Eagle.
1. Romanesque Eagle, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.
2. Eagle, Gothic style, Viollet-le-Duc, (Dictionnaire de l'architec-
ture).
8. Eagle, Gothic style, oil painting, Germanisches Museum, Nurem
berg.
4. Eagle, Gothic style, by Albrecht Diirer, (Hirth, Formenschatz).
5. Eagle, Renascence, by Albrecht Diirer, (Hirth).
6. Eagle, Renascence, (Hirth).
7. Eagle, Renascence, by Wenderlin Dietterlin, (Hirth).
8. Eagle, Modern, German, (Heraldische Meisterwerke).
Plate 54. The Eagle.
1. Eagle, as Akroter, Flora pavillion, Louvre, Paris, Architect
Lefuel, (Baldus).
2. Eagle, in a laurel garland, Modern, German, by Ranch.
3. Eagle, with olive branch, in medallion, Louvre, Paris, (Baldus).
4. Eagle, high relief, by Rauch, on monument, Berlin.
5. French Eagle, Modern, new Opera House, Paris, Architect Gamier,
(Raguenet).
6. Flying Eagle, from Nature, (Raguenet).
7. Eagle, from nature. The Wing. (Plate 55.)
As the small scale of the preceding plates does not admit of
the details of the Wing being fully shown; and as draughtsmen, as
well as modellers, are often called-upon to design winged shapes (be
sides the Eagle, Angels, Amorini, Genii, Grottesques, the Caduceus of
Mercury, the symbolic Wheel of the railroad, &c,: we have thought it
advisable to add a plate showing the details of the Wings on a
somewhat larger scale. They are taken from nature; but will be
found helpful for idealised renderings.
Plate 55. The Wing.
1. Wing of a duck.
2. Wing of a wild goose.
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. **

82

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 52.

The Eagle.

natural forms.

83

The Eaarle.

Plate 53.

6*

84

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 54.

The Eagle.

NATURAL FORMS.

85

The Win?.

Plate 55.

bti The Dolphin.
The Dolphin. (Plates 56—58.)
The Dolphin (Delphinus delphis, French, dauphin) has enjoyed
an unusual share of attention. This sea mammal, which has some
times been erroneously classed among the fishes, lives in the seas of
the northern hemisphere, swarms round ships, swims in shoals, and
is fond of sport. In ancient times the Dolphin enjoyed, and enjoys
even now in some parts, a kind of veneration which protects him
from persecution. We meet him occasionally on Antique coins, on
Graeco-italic terracottas, on Pompeian mural paintings, on furniture
and utensils, and in the architecture of the Greeks and Romans.
Guigo IV. of Viennois (1140) took to himself the title of
"Dauphin", and the Dolphin as crest. One of his successors, Humbert H.,
surrendered the Dauphiny in 1349 to Charles of Valois, in exchange
for a legacy and on the condition that the heir to the throne should
always bear the title "Dauphin"; which condition was faithfully kept.
This is the explanation of the frequent appearance of the Dolphin in
French decoration; but its frequent appearance in Italian decoration,
is due' to its artistic capabilities. The Dolphin is often used in
pilasters, panels, in intarsias, in ceilings and mural paintings,
in enamel, in niello work, and in typographical ornaments. In
modern styles the Dolphin often masks the spouts of fountains. In
symbolic representations he is the companion of Nymphs, Nereids,
and Tritons, and of Arion, Aphrodite, and Neptune, with whose
trident he is often combined ;n ornament
Plate 56. The Dolphin.
1. Portion of frieze, Graeco Italic, Campana collection, Paris.
2. Shield of the French kings, 15th century, (Raguenet).
3. Castle at Blois, French Renascence, (Raguenet).
4. Italian Renascence, Louvre, Paris, (Raguenet).
5. Head, from a relief, French, by Clodion' (1738 — 1814).
6. Pair of Dolphins, by Schinkel, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten und
Handworker).
7. Head, as spout, by Barbezat, Paris, (Raguenet).
8 — 9. Heads, as spouts, face and profile, (Hauptmann, Moderne Orna
mentale Werke im Stile der Italienischen Renascence).
Plate 57. The Dolphin.
1. Frieze, Sta. Maria dell' Anima, Rome (1500 to 1514), Italian,
(Raguenet).
2. Panel ornament, French Renascence.
8. Choir seats, Certosa near Pavia, Italian Renascence, (Teirich,
Meurer).

NATURAL FORMS.

87

The Dolphin.

Plate 56.

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 57. The Dolphin.

NATURAL FORMS.

89

The Dolphin.

Plate 58.

90 The Dolphin. — The Shell. — The Serpent
4. Part of Frieze, Rome, Arco della chiesa nuova, Italian Re
nascence, (Weissbach und Lottermoser, Architektonische Motive).
5 — 6. Heads.
7 — 8. Parts of Address by German artists, to king Humbert of Italy,
by Director Gotz.
Plate 58. The Dolphin.
1. Panel, Venetian Renascence.
2. Lower part of panel, Ducal Palace, Venice, Italian Renascence.
3. Part of frieze, Sta. Maria della Pace, Rome, by Bramante, 1504,
Italian.
4. Part of Majolica Tile, Sta. Caterina, Siena, Italian Renascence.
5. Head, cathedral, Limoges, French Renascence.
6. Handle of a vessel, pilaster, by Benedetto da Majano, Italian Re
nascence.
7. Pen drawing, by Lucas von Leyden (1527).

The Shell. (Plate 59.)
Among molluscs: the Nautilus (Nautilus Pompilius) and various
shells, principally of the family of the Trochoidae, are placed on feet;
and, elegantly mounted in metal, serve as Drinking-vessels.
The Scallop shell is used as the top of cylindrical niches, as a
waterbasin in the form of a shallow dish, and as a decorative back
ground for vases and busts. It was extensively employed for these
purposes in the later Renascence.
Plate 59. The Shell.
1. Nautilus, from nature.
2. Snail (Turbo marmoratus), from a Renascence drinking-vessel.
3. Exterior of the Scallop (Ostrea Jacobaea — Pecten Jacobaeus),
from nature.
4. Interior of the Scallop, after Jost Amman, (Hirth, Formenschatz).
5. Scallop design, Louis XVI. style, lower end of a panel.
6. Scallop design, by the sculptor Lehr, of Berlin.
7. Scallop design, for the decoration of a niche.

The Serpent. (Plate 60.)
The Serpent is occasionally used for symbolic and decorative
purposes. It is developed ints an antique Bracelet, and to a Handle
for vessels, a pair twine round the Staff of Mercury (the Caducous,

NATURAL FORMS.

91

The Shell.

Plate 59.

92

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 60.

The Serpent, &c.

The Serpent. — Human Organism. 93
comp. plate 76), and a single one round the staff of Esculapius.
Coiled in a circle with tail in mouth it is the symbol of Eternity on
tombs, it is used in mythology, and is an indispensable accompani
ment of the symbols of Envy and Dissension; and the hair of Medusa
is represented as composed of Serpents (Plate 65).
In ecclesiastical art: the Serpent is the symbol of Wickedness,
Sin, and Temptation (the scene in Paradise); it appears under the feet.
of the Virgin Mary with an apple in its mouth. In Heraldry: it is
represented devouring a child, on the shield of the Visconti, of Milano.
Plate 60. The Serpent.
1. Cast from life of a Viper (Vipera berus — Pelias berus) with
a Lizard (Lacerta viridis — Lacerta agilis), by J. Eberhard
of Heilbronn.
2. Cast from life of a Viper, by J. Eberhard of Heilbronn.
3. Antique bracelet in the form of a Viper, Pompeii.
4. The Snake as the symbol of Eternity, (Gerlach, Allegorien und
Embleme).

c. Human Organism.
The human form has been, and is destined to be a favoured
object of representation in art. The desire, to depict for contemporaries
and to transmit to posterity, the great Deeds of individuals and the
epoch-making Achievements and fate of whole races and nations, is
universal among mankind; as also the attempt to reproduce the
Portraits of celebrated Persons. Even the supernatural powers, his
Gods, man represents in the form of men. The "Lord of creation"
can give to the beings he venerates no more ideal form than his
own, which he holds to be the most developed*. The Christian
conception has arrived at the same result by the reverse process:
"God created man in his own image." Virtues, Vices, Passions, Sci
ences and Arts, Ages, Seasons and Hours, Elements, Rivers, Countries,
Hemispheres, and many other things receive symbolic expression;
and are pictorially rendered by human figures. And the human body
is often represented, without any meaning, and solely (decoratively)

* Mortals, however, opine that the Gods had an origin man-like;
Feel and have voices like men, like men have a bodily fashion
Oxen and lions, no doubt, if they had but hands and a chisel,
Pencils as well, to depict the figure divine, would do likewise:
God for the horse were a horse, and God for the oxen were ox -like,
Each would think God like himself and give to his God his own
image.
Xenophanes of Colophon. 600 B. C.

94 The Human Figure. — The Mask.
on account of its beauty of form. All these delineations, which fell
within the domain of high art, lie beyond the scope of this work.
We have only to deal with the human figure so far as it has been
received into decoration: we have only to occupy ourselves with
"conventionalised" man. This includes the applications of the human
face, more or less true to nature or with arbitrary accessions; masks
and caricatures; grottesques, those strange combinations of human
with animal or plant elements; and also the applications of the upper
half of the human body as the starting-point of ornament; half-lengths
as commencements of ornaments; those mixtures of human and animal
shapes in which the upper half falls to the share of man, e. g.: —
sphinxes, centaurs, &c.

The Mask. (Plate 61.)
The Mask, strictly so-called, is an artificial, hollow face, intended
to be placed in front of, and to conceal the human countenance so
as to make the wearer unrecognisable, or to characterize him in some
special way. The use of the Mask dates back to the popular Harvest
games of the earliest Greek period. From these games the mask is
believed to have been transferred to the ancient Theatre, in which the
actors all appeared masked. Different classes of Masks were recognised:
tragic, comic, &c. Definite types of Masks were connected with de
finite characters and "persons". The mouth- openings of these Masks
were unnaturally large and shaped like a bell-mouth, so as to reinforce
the voice of the speaker; in Latin the mask is termed '"persona" (from
personare = to sound through). From theatrical, the Masks passed
to artistic use, e. g. in the mural paintings of theatres and secular
edifices (Pompeian decorations), on Bacchic vessels and other utensils
(various beakers in the silver treasure of Hildesheim). The Renascence
and the following styles have at times used Masks in decoration,
altering and exaggerating the forms. In particular the Mask is often
used for the decoration of the keystones of door and window arches.
We may also mention the beautiful, freely-treated Heads of dying
warriors by Schliiter on the arsenal at Berlin; and the Masks in
Antique style on the new Opera House in Paris, by Gamier.
Plate 61. The Mask.
1. Bacchus, Graeco Italic, fragment ol a vessel or utensil.
2 — 3. Heads, goblet (Hildesheim treasure), Roman, Berlin Museum.
4. Keystone, Graeco Italic, terracotta, Campana collection.
5. Part of Frieze, Graeco Italic, Campana collection.
6. Silenus, handle of Etruscan vessel.
7 — 8. Decoration, PompeiL

The Mask. — The Grottesque Mask. 95
9. Satyr, Italian Renascence, by Sansovino, over a Festoon in
Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome.
10. Dying warrior, by Schluter, Berlin arsenal, 1697.

The Grottesque Mask. (Plates 62—64.)
Masks and Caricatures pass into each other, so that it is diffi
cult to draw a strict line between them. The French language ex
presses this connection clearly, by using the related words "masque"
and "mascaron." Under Masks are usually classed the delineations of beautiful
countenances, either true to nature or idealising it. Caricatures are
faces gi inning, deformed, distorted by accessories, or terminating in
foliage. Tho Antique, which had no love whatever for the depicting of
the ugly and bizarre, only used Caricatures in its oldest periods, in
the so-called Archaic style.
The Middle Ages frequently employed Caricatures.
The Renascence and Barocco styles, as well as our most Modern,
art, often apply Caricatures to keystones, to consoles, as spouts and
handles, on shields and cartouches, in capitals and panels, on the
backs of chairs, and in general on carved furniture, on stove-tiles, &c.
We possess a number of excellent Caricatures from the hand of the
youthful Michelangelo, who treated this form with predilection, and
with the breadth characteristic of his genius.
Plate 62. The Grottesqoe Mask.
1. Etruscan, terracotta, Campana collection, (F. A. M., Cours
d'ornement).
2. Grottesque, Italian Renascence, Venice.
3. Grottesque, tomb of the cardinal Sforza, Sta. Maria del Popolo,
Rome, Italian Renascence, by Sansovino.
4. Single Grottesque, from frieze, Italian Renascence, by Michel
angelo, San Lorenzo, Florence.
5. Part of capital of pilaster, French Renascence, tomb of Louis XII,
St. Denis.
6 — 7. Modern French Grottesques.
Plate 63. The Grottesque Mask.
1. Carved bench, Italian Renascence, Bargello, Florence.
2 — 3. Female, metal shields, German Renascence.
4. Akroter, Tribunal de Commerce, Paris.
5. Grottesque, Louvre, Paris, (Baldus).

96

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 61.

The Mask, &c.

NATURAL FORMS.

97

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

The Grottesque Mask.

Plate 62.

98

NATURAL FORMS.

Plate 63.

The Grottesque Mask.

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The Trophy. — The Symbol. Ill
field of battle. These tokens of victory, or Trophies, have also found
a place in decoration. The Romans erected artificial, symbolical
Trophies of stone or bronze in the form of columns, pyramids, and
similar architectural structures. Since their time Trophies have been
used not only to decorate all monuments connected with war and
victory, e. g. arsenals, the offices of the ministry of war, guard-houses,
barracks, and weapons, especially shields; but they have been used
up to the present time for purely decorative purposes, as elegantly-
arranged and prettily-grouped weapons of war, in the architecture of
the pilasters of castles, town-halls and tombs, in the in tarsias of the
Renascence, on woven fabrics and tapestries, as vignettes; and, above
all, in plastic ornament.
It was also natural that Trophies should also be formed of hunt
ing-weapons, which have much similarity with weapons of war, and
also of objects connected with the navy. The original meaning of
the word {xqonaiov = token of victory, from toottij, turning, flight)
has, it must be admitted, been lost sight of in these applications.
Plate 71. The Trophy.
1 — 6. Decoration of chased metal dish, Renascence.
7 — 8. Decoration of clock panel, French Renascence, Louis XIII
style, (Lievre).
9 — 10. Panels of door, Otto-Heinrich portion of the Castle, Heidel
berg, German Renascence, (Pfnor).
Plate 72. The Trophy.
1. Panel, tomb of Galeazzo Pandono, San Domenico maggiore.
Naples, Italian Renascence, (Schutz).
2. Part of Panel, Italian Renascence.
8. Part of Panel of a stall, Dordtrecht, Dutch Renascence.
4. Pedestal of monument to a Margrave, Pforzheim, by Hans
von Trarbaeh, German Renascence.
5 — 6. Panels, Quay front, Tuileries, Paris, (Baldus).
7. Part of design for a monument, by J. Ch. Delafosse.

The Symbol. (Plates 73—77.)
The grouping of tools and instruments, to symbolise some special
idea, leads to the design of Symbols. Thus we find, disregarding
those of war and hunting, which we have treated of as trophies,
Symbols of art, both of Art in general and of the special arts:
Music, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, &c; Symbols of Science,

112

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

Plate 71.

The Trophy.

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

113

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

The Trophy.

Plate 72.

114 The SymboL
either as a whole or for individual sciences: Mathematics, Astronomy,
Chemistry, &c; of Commerce, of Technical Science, and finally of
Handicrafts and Trades.
Singing, for example, is symbolised by a lyre with or without
sheets of music: Music by violins, flutes, horns, Pan's pipes, &c;
Dancing by the tambourine and castagnettes; Acting by masks; Paint
ing by brush and palette; Sculpture by the hammer, chisel, and
works of sculpture, busts, torsi; Architecture by square, straight-edge
and compasses, usually in combination with capitals. The Railroad
and Steam are symbolised by a winged wheel, the Telegraph by coils of
wire, which radiate lightning. Trade is represented by casks and bales
of goods on which the caduceus (a staff round which winged serpents
are twining — the attribute of Mercury) is resting; Agriculture has
the plough, the sickle, the scythe, &c, Vine culture the vine press.
The different Trades have chosen their Symbols partly from their
tools, partly from their finished products. The Guilds and Companies
of past centuries introduced a certain system into these outward and
visible signs; a large number of guild pictures, some of them very
beautiful and ingenious, are preserved in the industrial art museums
of modern times.
A far more detailed and extensive treatment of Symbols than can
be given in the present work will be found in Gerlach's Allegorien
und Embleme, to which we are indebted for a number of illustrations.
Plate 73. The Symbol
1. Angle ornament, hall of the Ministry of State, Louvre, Paris,
(Baldus).
2. Louvre, Paris, (Baldus).
8. Symbol of the violin makers' guild, Klingenthal, 1716, (Gerlach,
Allegorien und Embleme).
4 — 5. Pilaster panels, by the sculptor Fomilini of Florence, Modern.
6 — 9. Medallions, by the sculptor Lehr of Berlin, Modern.
Plate 74. The Symbol.
1. Carved wood Door-head, French, 18th century, (L'art pour tons).
2 — 3. Symbols of sculpture and painting, by the sculptor Hauptmann,
Dresden, Modern.
4. Part of Exhibition-programme, Munchen, 1876, by R. Seitz.
5. Address-card of an ink factory, by Prof. Hammer of Carlsruhe.
6. Title to an edition of Goethe's works, by Dir. Gotz of Carlsruhe.
Plate 75. The Symbol.
1. Part of Panel, court of Ducal palace, Venice, Italian Renascence,
(Schutz).

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

115

The Symbol.

Plate 73.
8*

116

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS

Plate 74.

The Symbol.

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

117

The Symbol.

Plate 75.

118

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

Plate 76.

The Symbol.

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

119

The Symbol.

Plate 77.

120 The Symbol.
2. Ecclesiastical art, 1
3. Architecture and Sculpture,
4. Painting, \ In Pilasters, by the sculptoi
5. Antique art - TTannt.ma.nTi Modern, staircase *
6. Christian art,
7. Art,
8. Sculpture,

Hauptmann, Modern, staircase of
Museum, Dresden.

Plate 76. The Symbol.
1. Banner, of the architectural school of the Polytechnicum, Carls
ruhe.
2. Chemistry.
3. Mathematics.
4. Mechanical Engineering.
5. Civil Engineering.
6. Forestry.
7. Post and Commerce, Polytechnicum at Carlsruhe, Designed by
G. Kachel.
8. Mechanical Engineering, j
9. The Mechanic, > (Gerlach, Allegorien und Embleme).
10. Smithery, J
11. Navigation and Commerce, Tuileries, Paris, (Baldus).
PlAte 77. The Symbol
1. Navigation, \
2. Agriculture, I
3 Music I ^0TLr^ fr011* °f the Tuileries, Paris, (Baldus).
4. Farming, >
5 — 6. War, Border of a copper plate engraving, by Heinrich
Goltzius (1558—1617).
7. Hunting and Fishing, by Stuck of Munich, (Gerlach, Alle
gorien und Embleme).
8. Forestry,
9. Sword-making,
10. Musketry,
1 1. Farriery,
12. Smithery.

' (Gerlach).

The Ribbon. (Plates 78—79.)
Ribbons are not used alone, but are frequently employed as a
decoration of garlands and festoons (comp. plates 38, 39, 40), of sym
bols (comp. plates 71 — 77), or they are Labels to bear some motto
(comp. plate 78). The Ribbons of the Antique are simple, often ter
minating in a ball or acorn like knob; the Middle Ages, particularly

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

121

The Ribbon, and the Label.

Plate 78.

122

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

[Plate 79.

The Ribbon.

ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

123

Miscellaneous objects.

Plate 80.

124 The Ribbon. — Miscellaneous objects.
the Gothic, make them curled and quaint; in the Renascence they are
developed in various free and elegant styles, often divided at the ends
like a pennon. In the Louis XVI. style they are often peculiarly
crinkled, but in spite of this mannerism they are not without a cer
tain decorative charm, (Comp. plates 78 and 79).
Plate 78. The Ribbon, and the Label
1. Label for motto, on the seal of the town of Schiltach, Gothic,
Inscription on the scroll: "S. opidi schilttach".
2. Ribbon, from Jost Amman's Wappen- und Stammbuch, German
Renascence.
3. Ribbon, painting by B. Zeitblom, Carlsruhe gallery, Gothic.
4. Label for motto, old Germain painting, School of Cologne, Carls
ruhe gallery.
5. Label for motto, triumphal car, by Hans Burgkmair, 1473 — 1530,
German, (Hirth).
6. Label for motto, Albrecht Diirer' s "Der Eiilen seyndt aile Vogel
neydig und gram," German Renascence, (Hirth).
Plate 79. The Ribbon.
1. Ribbon and knot, After Daniel Mignot, German Renascence.
2. Ribbon and knot, the Louis XVI. style, (Lievre).
8. Ribbon and knot for a bunch of fruit, after Prof. Sturrn'of Vienna,
(Storck's Zeichenvorlagen).
4. Drapery Festoon, (Raguenet).
Miscellaneous objects. (Plate 80).
Finally, among1 the artificial objects which are used in decora
tion, especially of pilasters, we may mention those forms like cande
labra and vases, from which ornaments, like growing plants, usually
rise, (Comp. plates 80 and 131).
Cornucopias, Torches, small inscription Tablets, and many other
objects, are introduced.
Plate 80. Miscellaneous objects.
1. Vase, window pilaster of the Cancelleria, Rome, by Bramante. Ita
lian Renascence, (De Vico).
2. Vase, pilaster of a door, San Angostino, Rome, (De Vico\
3. Vase, lower part of a panel, Italian Renascence.
4. Vase, tomb of Louis XH., St. Denis, French Renascence.
5. Vase, Louis XVI. style, (F. A. M., Cours d'ornement).
6. Crossed Torches, upper part of pilaster, by Benedetto da Majano,
Italian Renascence.
7. Crossed Torches, Renascence.

ORNAMENT

APPLIED TO FEATURES.

A.. Bands.
B. Free Ornaments.
C. Supports.
D. Enclosed Ornaments, or Panels.
E. Repeating Ornaments, or Diapers.

126

Introduction.
The second division of the Handbook deals with ornament ag
applied in decorative Features. They will be arranged according w
their function, and treated in accordance with the mutual relations of
the decorative form and its application.
Every one acquainted with Decoration, must have been struck
by the fact that on certain Objects and on certain parts of them the
decoration invariably appears to have been modelled on the same
principle, no matter how much the selected motives may vary from
each other or belong to special styles. Li decoration, as elsewhere,
there is a right and a wrong use for everything; each object, even
the very smallest, requires its own proper Form and Decoration, and
the artist who understands style will give these, though in many cases
unconsciously; artistic instinct guiding one man where another must
study laboriously.
Be this as it may, the relations are there. A socle ornament
cannot be reversed and used as a frieze without modification; a
column, which looks beautiful and even delicate on monumental archi
tecture, may produce a clumsy effect if reduced and applied to furni
ture; no one finds fault with the 20 or 24 flutings of it in archi
tecture, but half of them would more than suffice for the smaller
Cabinet. And so on. The achievements of those periods, in which
the intimate connection between form, aim and material was either
unknown or forgotten, are what might be expected. The Empire
Style, which copied the Antiqne at the instance of an august per
sonage; and, in so doing, produced work which is classical in respect
of its mannerisms; is an example. A Greek temple and an arm chair
are two different things; each has its own peculiarities; and must be
fashioned and decorated in accordance therewith.
It were an insoluble problem to give a formula for each case;
and to attempt to do so lies beyond the scope of this Handbook.
But we will attempt to bring together some important groups from
the entire field; and by means of them to illustrate the principles
of design.

127

A.

BANDS.

The group of Bands includes all those ornamental forms which
are used to give expression to the ideas of bordering, framing, and
connecting. The motives are partly geometrical, partly organic, chiefly plant-
forms; artificial forms being more rarely used.
The Band has no "up" or "down"; but only an onward or an
outward tendency. It has no limitation in regard to length; but is
generally a narrow, ribbon-like ornament.
The proper application of Bands is to the enclosing of ceilings,
walls, floors, panels, on certain architectural constructions, on the
abacus and the plinth of columns, and as a running ornament round
the shaft of the latter. They are further used as the hem or border
of garments, carpets and other textiles; as borders in typography, on
the rims of plates or dishes, or to separate the ground from the
rim, &c.
The principal ornaments in this group are: the Fret; Chain and
Interlaced patterns (Guilloche); Foliated bands in the various forms
of Rosette, Palmette, Flower, Leaf, and Scroll bands, &c.
The Evolute Spiral band (Plate 97) stands to a certain extent
on the borderline between Bands and Free ornaments.
Leaf patterns, and the Egg-and-tongue which has been devel
oped from them, are not Bands at all, in the strict sense of the word.
They express the mediation between the support and the weight, for
which reason they are used as the enrichment of Mouldings. They
are here included among bands in order to avoid an independent
group for the sake of the one plate. As a matter of fact, they do
often appear as bands (the Egg-and-tongue as a decoration of plates,
medallions, &c).

128 The Fret Band.

The Fret Band. (Plates 81 — 84.)
The Greek Fret (or Meander border) is, as it name indicates, a
specifically Greek ornament, and no doubt of textile origin. Its
accomodation to the rectangular network suggests this.
The name "meander" is said to be derived from a river of Asia
Minor, the Maeandros, now the Menderes, which flows in sinuous
curves. Although the forerunners of the Greek border are to be
found in the Assyrian and Egyptian styles, it was Greek vase-painting
and architecture which gave rise to the variations of the pattern;
architecture also employed it plastically. Among other applications
in the Roman style it was used for mosaics on floors and often —
contrary to the principles of style of flat ornaments — in those
parallel perspective representations in which it seems as if it were a
plastic ornament, (Plate 83. 8).
The Middle Ages seldom used the Fret (one example will be
found on Plate 83. 9); but similar forms are common in the Chinese
and Japanese styles (Plate 84. 7).
The Renascence revived the Fret in its ancient application; made
new combinations; and sometimes interlaced it with plant motives
(Plate 83. 10). Although very commonplace, the fret still has a good
effect when it is applied in the proper manner.
Its construction is very simple. In general — although not always —
the breadth of the broad lines or ornament is equal to the distance
between them; we therefore draw a square network as shown on
Plate 1, fig. 1, then draw all the horizontal lines (the measure
ment of the lengths and the observance of the rhythmic regularity
peculiar to each Greek pattern are the only difficulties), and then join
their ends by means of perpendiculars, (Plates 81 and 82).
Centres are formed by arranging the axis at a suitable place, and
reversing the pattern, (Plate 84. 6 and 10).
Angle junctions may be similarly arranged by cutting the pattern
diagonally to the square net at a suitable place, and reversing as
before, (Plate 84. 3, 4 and 6). The angle-treatment of Current Frets
is more difficult (Plate 84: figs. 1, 2, and 5).
The end of a Fret with only one row may be formed by cutting
the pattern short at a suitable spot; where two or more rows run
parallel to or cross each other, they may be combined so as to form
proper endings (Plate 84. 11).
The pattern is sometimes carried round a circle; but this is an
arrangement which is quite out of accordance with its character.
The square network is not always applicable to cases in which the
Fret has to be repeated within a given length. In this case the divi
sions of length are either elongated or compressed by drawing the
auxiliary lines at a greater or less angle than 45° (this is shown on
Plates 81 and 82).

The Fret Band. — The Chain Band. 129
Plate 81. Unsymmetrical ob Current frets: Greek vase
paintings.
1 — 4. Ordinary, simple patterns.
5. Elongated pattern.
6. Raking pattern.
9 — 10. Patterns which are interrupted by rosettes, stars, &c.
8 — 9. Abnormal pattern, formed by fragments, instead of a contin
uous line.
Plate 82. Reciprocating Frets.
1 — 4. Ordinary, simple patterns.
5. Double pattern, Greek.
6. Intersecting pattern, Louvre, Paris.
7 and 10. Fragmentary pattern, Greek, and modern.
7 and 9. Symmetrical double pattern, Greek.
7 — 10. Ornamented patterns.
Plate 83. Intersecting Frets, &c.
1 — 6. Ordinary patterns, Greek vase paintings.
7. Abnormal pattern, Japanese metal vessel.
8. Pattern in parallel perspective, Roman mosaic pavement.
9. Mediaeval folded-tape pattern, resembling the Fret, (Racinet).
10. Pattern ornamented with laurel, Louvre, Paris.
Plate 84. Ends, Angles, and Centres, of Frets.
1, 2 and 5. Free, unsymmetrical angle treatment.
3, 4, 6, 7 and 8. Symmetrical angles.
9 and 10. Centre treatments.
11 — 14. Ends of patterns.
Antique motives, except No. 7 (Chinese), and No. 8 (Modern).

The Chain Band. (Plate 85.)
The basis of the design is the Chain. The Chain Band is there
fore cemposed of circular, elliptical, square, or lozenge shaped links,
which are either represented all in front view (as in 1, 2, 4 and 8),
or alternately in profile (as in 3, 5, 6, and 7).
The Chain pattern probably occurs sporadically in every style.
That Chain-bands have not been more frequently used, although
they are a simple and effective mode of decoration, may be due to
the fact that the chain appeared to a certain degree to be too force
ful, too vigorous in its effect. At any rate, delicacies of artistic feel-
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 9

130

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The Chain Band.

The Chain Band. — The Interlacement Band. 135
i_g, which have found expression elsewhere, and often unconsciously,
seem to point to this conclusion.
The construction of such bands is simple; and in the case of
those illustrated may be understood from the plate itself.
Plate 85. The Chain Band.
1 — 5. Modern decorative painting.
6 — 8. Carved wooden ceiling, Townhall, Jever, German, Renascence.

The Interlacement Band. (Plates 86—90.)
The Interlacement Band includes all those bands which are for
med of a number of lines interlaced or plaited together. They are
usually symmetrical to the longitudinal axis; and may be produced
indefinitely. The principle is that the interlacing broad lines shall
pass over and under one-another alternately.
Rope patterns are used as borders in painting, in textiles, in
pottery, intarsia, and the ornamentation of manuscripts; in architect
ure on the under sides of stays and beams, on archivolts (the arches
of doors and windows), in the soffits of arches, sometimes in a frieze,
and often as the enrichment of the torus moulding.
Interlacement patterns are used in all styles, though in some they
are more popular than in others. And in this ornament the indivi
duality of each style is very strongly marked.
In the Antique: the ornament consist of wavy interlacing bands
round regularly-placed knobs or eyes. The wavy lines are composed
of arcs, or of arcs and straight lines, in which latter case the arcs
make tangential junctions with the straight lines (Plate 86). In flat
ornament the interlacing lines are distinguished from each-other by
shading or by colour; in plastic ornamentation they are fluted or
channelled. The Interlacement patterns of the Middle Ages — chiefly of the
Byzantine and Romanesque periods — make use of Antique forms;
adding to them the angular bend (Plate 87. 1 — 3).
In the so called Northern styles — Celtic, Anglo-saxon, Norman,
Scandinavian, and Old Frankish: it is the most conspicuous ornament.
Here we meet extremely complicated and richly combined interfacings,
mostly freely drawn, without the aid of the compasses. It is cha
racteristic, and remarkable in regard to these styles, that the same
band appears in sections of different colours in their ornament. The
works of Owen Jones and Racinet contain numerous examples, mostly
from old illuminated manuscripts: our Plate 87 (4 — 8) reproduces
some of the simplest (reconstructed with the compasses).

136 The Interlacement Band.
The Moorish style favours a peculiar interlacement. It is cha
racteristic that the bands, which are always straight, make angles of
90° or 135°, and are adapted to a network as shown on Plate 1,
fig. 5. Here, too, we find the alternate colouring of the single bands.
Numerous examples will be found in Owen Jones, Racinet, and Prisse
d'Avennes, "L'Art Arabe", a selection from these being given in
Plate 88, figs. 1—6.
The other Oriental styles exhibit greater variety in this respect;
and also employ round forms, (Plate 88. 7 und 8).
The Renascence developed great variety. Besides the traditional
forms of the Antique, peculiar constructions appear, chiefly to be
met-with in the arts of inlaying, on book-cover decoration, in pewter
chasing, and typographical borders, (Plate 89).
Modern art borrows from all styles; and, as was also the case
in the Middle Ages and the Renascence, intersperses its patterns with
foliage, (Plate 90).
Plate 86. The Interlacement Band.
1 — 3. Ordinary antique patterns, single, double, and triple.
4 — 6. Elongated antique patterns, single, double, and triple.
7. Antique pattern, doubly interlaced, with unequal waves.
8. Antique pattern with two rows, terracotta painting.
Construction: First mark the centres of the eyes: in 2 and 3 these lie
on the points of intersection of a triangular net; in 5 and 6 on those
of a diagonal square net. The rest will be understood from the
figure.
Plate 87. The Interlacement Band.
1. Romanesque patterns, decoration of archivolt,, Segovia.
3. Byzantine pattern, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople.
4 — 7. Northern patterns, Manuscript ornaments of the 8th and 9th
century, (Racinet.)
Plate 88. The Interlacement Band.
1 — 6. Simple Moorish patterns, Alhambra, Granada.
7. Persian pattern, metal vessel, (Racinet).
8. Russian Oriental pattern, (Viollet le Due, "L'Art Russe"),
Plate 89. The Interlacement Band.
1 — 3. Patterns, wood and ivory inlaid work, Italian Renascence.
4. Pattern, by Domenico de Fossi, of Florence, 16th century,
(Raguenet).
5. Intarsia pattern, Sta. Maria in Organo, Verona; in the original
the interstices are enriched by plant sprays.

BANDS

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142 The Interlacement Band. — The Rosette Band.
6. Title border of a mathematical work, printed in Paris, Oronce
Fine, 1544, (Hirth).
7. Soffit ornament, entrance of the Otto Heinrich building, Hei
delberg, 1556 to 1559, (Muster or namente).
Plate 90. The Interlacement Band.
1 — 6. Angles of Border, Modern French, (Raguenet).
7. Edge of a modern Damask border, (Gewerbehalle).
8 — 9. Modern borders, (Botticher, "Ornamentenbuch").
10. Modern wood intarsia, (Gewerbehalle).
The Eosette Band. (Plate 91.)
The term "Rosette Band" is a general name for rosette, spray
and other bands, when the rosette is the leading characteristic. The
single rosettes, which are similar to conventional roses seen in front-
view, are either in immediate juxtaposition (Plate 91. 1 and 3), or
divided by channels (Plate 91. 2), by calices (Plate 91. 5, 7, 12),
or by stalks and sprays (Plate 91. 4, 6, 10, 11). The Rosette bands
are either current, that is, they have a definitive direction sideways;
or they are entirely without direction, that is, they are symmetrical,
not only from top to bottom but also from right to left. By allow
ing the rosettes to overlap we get a band more or less identical
with the so called Strung-coin, or "money-moulding", (Plate 91.
13 and 14).
Rosette bands are especially common in the Assyrian style, in
Antique vase painting, in the Medieval enamels (Cologne enamel),
in the Indian style, in the Renascence, and in the Modern styles.
Plate 91. The Rosette Band.
1. Antique vase painting.
2. Modern decorative pattern.
3 Antique bronze shield.
4 and 6. Antique patterns, after Jacobsthal.
5. Neck of a Greek hydria.
7. Latin Evangeliarum, written by Godescald for Charlemagne,
8th century, (Racinet).
8. Enamel ornament, the great reliquary, Aachen. (Racinet).
9. Indian enamel border, (Prisse d'Avennes).
10. Indian carving, (Owen Jones).
11. Intarsia border, Sta. Maria in Organo, Verona, 1499, (Muster-
ornamente).
12. Popular Renascence pattern.
13. Pattern, Persepolis.
14. Plastic border, Louis XVI. style, (Raguenet).

BANDS.

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The Palmette Band.

The Palmette Band. — The Vertebrate Band. 145
The Palmette Band. (Plate 92.)
The Palmette is a specifically Greek kind of ornament. Like the fin
gers of an outspread hand (jpalma, the palm of the hand) a group,
odd in number, of narrow, entire leaves is combined into a symmet
rical ornament. The centre leaf is the largest; and the leaves diminish
gradually as they approach the sides. The tips of the leaves lie on
a regular curve. The lower ends of the leaves are disconnected, divi
ded from each other by slight intervals, and usually spring from a
tongue-shaped leaf. The delicate sensitiveness of Greek artistic feeling
finds a striking expression in this ornament. It is applied in mani
fold ways, e. g: as Antefixes and Akroters, as Cornice-decoration
(comp. the group of Free ornaments), and as Palmette borders. In rare
cases the Palmette ornaments are in juxtaposition without anything
between them — this is usually the case on the Lekythos (a Greek
vessel for Oil, &c.) Plate 92. 3 — in the majority of cases the palm
ettos are connected or bordered by spiral bands (Plate 92. 1. 2 &c).
Palmette ornaments are of frequent occurrence on Greek vessels,
and on the friezes of their architecture. Where they occur in later
styles: it is only sporadically; and the severe classical beauty is not
retained.
Plate 92. The Palmette Band.
1. 2, 3 and 5. Paintings, Greek, terracotta vessels.
4. 6 and 7. Greek, friezes.
8. Intarsia, Italian Renascence.
9. Modern, wrought iron trellis.

The Vertebrate Band, &c. (Plates 93 — 96.)
Leaf bands are generally numerous in all styles; and as varied
as are the modes of their application. The leaved stalk, with or
without flowers, fruits, &c, is the simplest natural motive. The
various plants are used as a basis, partly with, partly without,
symbolical reference. The Antique chiefly availed itself of the laurel,
olive, and ivy; the Middle Ages used the vine, clover, thistle, and maple;
the Renascence shows the Artificial leaf. To these traditional patterns:
Modern art has added some others which are specially adapted for
naturalistic representation, such as the convolvulus, the passion-flower,
the hop, &c.
Thus we find in the Antique: a succession of buds (Plate 93. 1);
straight stalks with leaves, either attached or free (Plate 93. 2, 3);
or undulating stalks, with leaves, fruit, or flowers (Plate 93. 4, 5, 6).
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 1"

146 The Vertebrate Band, & the Undulate Band.
The latter mode was retained in the Medieval style; in the Roman
esque style the stalks are more compressed, and the lobes of the
leaves fully rounded (Plate 93. 7, 8); in the Gothic style the former
are thin and extended, the lattel- slit and pointed. Extremely common
are the two forms depicted on Plate 94. 7 and 8. Characteristic of
the late Gothic is the example 13, Plate 94; this kind of ornament
ation is excellently adapted for simple wood -carving and stamped
leather-work. The Oriental conception, in textile fabrics and by the engraved
and inlaid metal-work, is shown (Plate 94. 1 — 4).
Intarsia technique, leather-stamping, weaving, and the ornamenta
tion of manuscripts offered the Renascence opportunity to make use
of, and to vary the floral border with advantage (Plate 95). Inter
lacement and floral patterns are frequently combined in the same
example (Plate 95. 5 and 6).
As examples of Modern art, the naturalistic borders figured on
Plate 96. 9 — 11. are given.
When the main-stem runs longitudinally along the centre of the
Band, like the vertebral column in the skeletons of animals, then the
arrangement is termed Vertebrate. When the main -stem oscillates
from side to side (as in Plate 93. 4, 5, & 8), then the arrangement
is termed Undulate.
Plate 93. The Vertebrate Band, &c.
1 — 6. Paintings, Greek, terracotta vessels.
7 — 8. French, mural paintings, 13th century, (Racinet).
9. Glass window, Cathedral, Bourges, 14th century, (Racinet).
10. Medieval.
11. Intarsia, Sta. Maria in Organo, Verona, 1499.
12. Modern, plate-border.

Plate 94. The Undulate Band.
1 — 3. Persian, metal vessels, (Racinet).
4. Indian.
5. Byzantine, glass mosaic, San Marco, Venice, (Musterornamente).
6. Portion of Romanesque initial, 13th century, Berlin Museum.
7. Romanesque, portal of cathedral, Lucca, (Musterornamente).
8. Gothic flat carving, end of 15th century, (Musterornamente).
9. Medieval, mural painting, Swedish church.
10. French, mural painting, 13th century, (Racinet).
11. Early Gothic, French.
12. Gothic, manuscript ornamentation. ,
13. Late Gothic, flat carving, 15th century, (MusterornamenteV

BANDS.

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The Undulate Band.

BANDS.

149

The Undulate Band, &c.

Plate 95.

150

BANDS.

Plate 96.

.The Undulate Band, &c.

The Undulate Band. — The Evolute-Spiral Band. 161
Plate 95. The Undulate Band, &c.
1 — 2. Leather stamping, 16th century, Schwabisch Hall, (Muster
ornamente).
3. Terracotta frieze, castle of Schalaburg, Lower Austria, (Wiener
Bauhutte).
4. Intarsia frieze, from the same castle.
5 — 6. Borders of robes, tombs in Niederstetten and Lensiedel, 16th
century, (Musterornamente).
7. Renascence, manuscript ornament.
8 — 9. German Renascence, (Hirth, Formenschatz).
10. Archivolt of door, Otto-Heinrich building Heidelberg castle,
German Renascence.
11. French, Renascence.
Plate 96. The Undulate Band, &c.
1. Border, picture by Domenico Zampieri, 16th century, (Muster
ornamente).
2. Border, half -columns, Sta. TrinitA, Florence, Italian Re
nascence.
3. Intarsia frieze, stalls, San Domenico, Bologna, Italian Re
nascence.
4. Wrought -iron trellis of balcony, Milan, (Gewerbehalle).
5. Frieze, Italian Renascence.
6. Modem, (Cesar Daly).
7. Modern.
8 — 9. Laurel and oak borders, (Gewerbehalle).
10 — 11. Modern Borders, (Gewerbehalle).

The Evolute - Spiral Band. (Plate 97.)
The wave of the sea has been suggested as the motive of this
"wave" pattern; but its origin is purely geometrical. The line of the
Evolute - spiral pattern divides the surface of the border into two
parts, which in flat ornament are coloured differently. In plastic work,
for which the pattern is also suitable, the lower part projects. In
wrought -iron -work: the curved line runs freely between two bars.
This pattern is adapted for borders of robes, shields, and plates; for
use on vessels, friezes, cornices, and tablets in architecture; and also
as borders, for tapestries, and mural-paintings.
A rosette is often placed at the volute -centres (Plate 97.
2 and 4); the interstices between the lines are sometimes decorated
with leaves and flower -buds (Plate 97. 9 — 12). This occurs chiefly
in the Renascence period, when the Antique seemed too simple. How

152 The Evolute-Spiral Band. — The Enrichment of the Bead Moulding.
far this may be carried, in some cases, in shown by fig. 14, in which
the evolute-spiral line is nothing more than the skeleton of the orna
ment The Middle Ages did not use this form at all.
Angles, and centres are arranged as shown on figs. 4 — 7. This
band is excellently adapted for the framing round circular panels.
Plate 97. The Evolute-Spiral. /
1 — 4. Paintings, antique vessels.
5 — 6. Angles. /
7. Central junction.
8. Pattern round a circular panel.
9. Painting of a stove tile, German Renascence, Germanisches
Museum, Nuremberg.
10. Modern borders.
11. Border, by Sebastian Serlio, 16th century.
12. Frieze, Otto-Heinrich building of Heidelberg castje.
13. Wrought-iron trellis, temple of Apollo in the garden of the
castle at Schwetzingen.
14. Painting, Palazzo ducale, Mantua, Italian Renascence.

The Enrichment of the Bead Moulding (Plate 98.)
Bead, or Astragal, is the name given to those small half-round
Mouldings, which are often enriched by ornamenis like Pearls, strung-
together, &c, or as turned bands a_d cords/ Generally they are
only used in plastic art, and as a rule not alone; but below the Egg-
and-leaf ornaments, and similar cornice proxies (Plate 100). They
also occur as intermediate members between the shaft and the capital
of columns. Beads are enriched with balls, discs, or ovals, in rather more
than half relief. The simplest bead-enrir/nment is formed of round
pearls, either close together or permitting the representation of the
thread to show between them. Disc an'l oval enrichments are seldom
used alone, but arranged alternately, af, shown in figs. 1 to 7.
In addition to the simple examp.es of the Antique, the Renas
cence uses richer forms, the single members being again ornamented,
profiled and more arbitrarily fashioned (Plate 98. 8 and 12), or
finished-off with small leaf calices (Plate 98. 9 and 10). Wood
carving avails itself of strung discs seen in perpective (Plate 98. 11).
The enrichments may also suggest torsion. After the moulding
is made, it is set-out like a screw, as indicated by the auxiliary
constructions in figs. 13 — 17. Leaves or pearls sometimes lie in the
hollows and follow the thread of the screw (Plate 98. 17).

BANDS.

153

m

1 1

—
^\^\C(a
1*
V
1
C^\&;\
-^ /"X
/ x ^
J) / a.jXm \ j
. y v
The Evolute - Spiral Band.
Plate 97.
154

MOULDINGS.

Plate 98. The Enrichment of the Bead Moulding.

The Enrichment of the Astragal, the Torus, and other Mouldings. 155
Here also must be grouped those ribbons rolled spirally round '
rods, such as we find in the art of the Middle Ages and the Re
nascence (fig. 18). Corners are generally covered with a small leaf.
Plate 98. The Enrichment or the Bead Moulding.
1 — 7. Simple enrichments, Antique.
8 — 12. Richer enrichments, Renascence.
13 — 17. Beads enriched like twisted ropes.
18. Spiral-ribbon enrichment, Louvre, Paris.
The Enrichment of the Torus Moulding. (Plate 99.)
Torus is the name given to those larger mouldings of semi
circular or semi-elliptic section, such as are specially used in Archi
tecture on the bases of columns and pilasters, on socles, on Mediaeval
door and window arches, and on the ceiling mouldings of the Renascence
and Modern times. While the smaller beads are ornamented with
pearls and twisted cords, these more important mouldings are dec
orated by enrichments which resemble a bundle of rods round which
ribbons are twisted at suitable places (figs. 1 and 2); by surrounding
them with plaited or net work (figs. 8, 4, 7); by clothing them with
foliage (figs. 6, 9, 10); or by combining the various systems (figs. 8
and 11). In modern times the Torus is enriched by bound clusters
of fruit. Water - leaves, artificial leaves with serrated margins, laurel,
oak, ivy, &c. are most in use for the leaf ornaments. As in the case
of fruit clusters: ribbons are twined spirally at suitable placed round
the fruit or foliage (figs. 5, 6 and 12).
All these examples are drawn by first marking-off the divisions on the
profile, as indicated on the figures.
Plate 99. The Enrichment op the Toeus Moulding.
1 — 2. Modern.
3 — 4. Antique.
5 — 6. Antique, decorated with laurel and oak.
7. Mediaeval.
8. Mediaeval, decoration of an archivolt, Gelnhausen, ISth century.
9. Temple of Jupiter, Rome.
10 — 12. Louvre, Paris, French Renascence, (Baldus).
The Enrichment of other Mouldings. (Plate 100.)
The Egg-and-tongue enriches, in architecture, the ovolo moulding
of capitals, and the lower members of cornices, &c.

156

MOULDINGS.

Plate 99. The Enrichment of the Torus Moulding.

MOULDINGS.

157

The Enrichment of the Cyma, and Ovolo Moulding. Plate 100.

158 The Enrichment of Mouldings.
In these cases it harmonises the support and the weight; and
has also a decorative purpose as a bordering member.
The Leaf enrichment may be explained in the following way: _
row of leaves, growing upwards, supports the weight, and is bent
outwards by its pressure (fig. 1). If this only occurs partially, we
have the Doric form (fig. 2). If the leaves are bent -down tow
ards their lower ends (fig. 3); we obtain forms like the so-called
"Lesbian cymatium.''
A false conception, which regarded the leaf-shape merely as a
geometrical element, afterwards gave rise to the corrupt forms of the
late Greek and Roman styles (figs. 5 a, 6 a, and 6 b).
If the simple waterleaf be replaced by more richly serrated
ones like the Artificial leaf, we obtain examples like fig. 7.
Figure 8 shows the egg pattern, from which all the more or
less misunderstood varieties have, in course of time, been derived.
The dart-shaped intermediate leaves have often been developed into
actual darts; and the eggs or curved surfaces of the leaves have also
been covered with independent ornamentation, in complete defiance of
their origin (figs. 10 and 14).
The corner is treated, either by freely carrying the pattern over
into a palmette anthemion (figs. 15 and 16), or by covering it with
independent leaves.
Further details on the subject of this chapter will be found in
Botticher's Tektonik der Hellenen.
Plate 100. The Enrichment of the Cyma and Ovolo
Mouldings.
1 and 3. Drawings to illustrate the origin of the pattern.
2. Graeco-Doric, painted.
4. Leaf, Erechtheum, Athens.
5 and 6. Corrupt leaf, (Botticher).
7. Roman leaf, (Jacobsthal).
8. Greek egg-and-tongue, Erechtheum, Athens.
9. Campana egg-and-tongue, Graeco-Italic, Campana collection.
10. Colossal egg-and-leaf, temple of Jupiter Tonans, Rome.
11. Roman egg-and-dart, Aries cathedral, (Raguenet).
12 — 13. Renascence egg-and-dart, (Raguenet).
14. Modern egg-and-dart, (Raguenet).

159

B.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Those ornaments, which are applied to suggest the end or finish
of an object, may be classed in a group which, following an ex
pression already introduced, are termed "free ornaments", the word
"free" implying not a severely-enclosed Band or Panel, but a freely-
treated Edge -ornament.
The Edging may be arranged to grow in an upward, downward,
or lateral direction; the character of the ornamentation will be depen
dent on these conditions. Endings with an upward direction are most
numerous; and as plants, with their natural, upward growth, are
adapted for this purpose, foliated ornament is the usual decoration of
Akroters, Antefixes, Steles, Ridges, and Finials.
Crosses, Knobs, Rosettes, and Pendants, are independant Free-
ornaments, which are generally geometrical in their treatment.
In Tassels and Fringes, which form endings in a downward
direction, the organic plant motive is, of course, excluded; while Lace
(woven, pillow, &c.) avails itself of both motives, either singly or
combined. Crockets are foliated excrescences which are popular in the
Gothic style as an ornament of the edges, and ribs of buildings.
Gargoyles (as are termed the Rain -spouts which occur so fre
quently in the architecture of the Middle Ages and the Renascence)
are also Free ornaments with a lateral direction; they have often the
form of figures, less often those of decorated channels.

160 The Link Border.
The Link Border. (Plates' 101—102.)
Link Borders are so termed because the transversely - growing
foliage is • connected together by Scrolls which serve this purpose,
like the "Links" of a chain. Of this class are much decoration of
cornices, crestings in architecture, and fringes in textile art. Besides
these, Link borders, which may be enlarged at will, and have a de
finite direction upwards or downwards, are used in a similiar manner
as Borders as edgings for carpets, plates, and panels; as borders for
vraJls, floors, and ceilings (in which case the edging almost invariably
grows outwards); on the neck, body, and feet of vessels; and fre
quently in architectural friezes.
Palmette leaves, connected by circles or by links, are adapted
for edgings. The typical form is found on Antique vessels and
friezes; its forerunner is seen in the connected lily and pomegranate
of the Assyrian style.
The Link -border is found in every subsequent style, both flat,
and in relief.
It is generally composed of identical details, symmetrically re
peated. Unsymmetrical and naturalistic forms are rarer, (Plate 101, 10).
Plate 101. The Link Border.
1. Assyrian, painted bas-relief, Khorsaba,d.
2. External margin, Greek kylix, (Lau).
3. Greek hydria, (L'art pour tous).
4. Greek, cyma.
5. Mosaic ornament, San Marco, Venice, Byzantine, (Musterorna
mente).
6. Medieval, mural painting,- Swedish church, (Racinet).
7. Old embroidery, Eisleben, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten und Hand-
werker).
8. Painted, Cathedral, Brandenburg, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten und
Handwerker).
9. Illumination of a Koran, tomb of the Sultan El-Ghury, 16th cen
tury, (Prisse d'Avennes).
10. Majolica dish, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.
11. Majolica dish, 16th century, (Kunsthandwerk).
12. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).
Plate 102. The Link Border.
1. Greek, carved frieze, Erechtheum, Athens.
2. Roman, frieze, (Fragments de l'architecture antique).
8. Romanesque, frieze, 13th century, (Musterornamente).

The Link Border. — on Mouldings. — The Cresting. 161
4. Arabic, mosque of the Sultan Hassan, Cairo, 14th century.
5. Italian Renascence, Marble frieze, tomb of the Conte Ugone,
Badia, Florence, (Weissbach und Lottermoser).
6. Italian Renascence, Intarsia frieze, (Meurer).
7. Modern decoration, (Kolb und Hogg, Vorbilder fur das Orna-
mentenzeichnen).

The Link Border on Mouldings. (Plate 103.)
The cyma in architecture is the topmost or concluding member
of a cornice. It is frequently used as a gutter. The section is some
times a concave or convex quadrant, but in most cases consists of
two arcs curving inwards and outwards respectively, (fig. 3).
The ornamentation was merely painted in the earlier periods;
but afterwards received a plastic form. It is chiefly composed of
palmette leaves, either unconnected (fig. 1 and 2) or connected (figs. 3,
5 and 6), with Lily cups between. Artificial leaves, pointing up
wards and lying close on the profile with calices or water-leaves peep
ing out between them (fig. 4) are also used.
The Middle Ages used both systems, especially the latter, with the
latter, with the modifications required by the changed forms of the
leaves, (figs. 7 and 8).
Both the Renascence and Modern art follow the tradition of
the Antique; but give the Palmette ornament a richer form, (figs.
8—12).Plate 103. The Link-border Enrichment of Mouldings.
1 — 4. Antique, (Botticher).
5. Roman altar.
6. Graeco-Italic terracotta ornament, (Lievre).
7. Romanesque cornice, house, Metz, 12th century, (Raguenet).
8. Cornice, Notre Dame, Paris, 13th century, (Musterornamente).
9 — 10. Cornice, Louvre, Paris, French Renascence.
11. Marble frieze, tomb in Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome, Italian
Renascence.
12. Modern, (Arch. Skizzenbuch).

The Cresting" Border. (Plate 104.)
Crestings are intended to ornament the ridge or top of the roof.
Such ornaments have been especially popular in France from Gothic
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 11

162

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Plate 101.

The Link Border.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

163

The Link Border.

Plate 102.
11*

164

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Plate 103. The Link-border Enrichment of Mouldings.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

165

The Cresting Border.

Plate 104.

166 The Cresting. — The Akroter, &c.
times to the present day. They are mostly of perforated work, and
the top has usually a varied mass-shape. The materials used are stone,
lead, wrought-iron, and, in modern times, zinc. Similar ornaments
are also found as Finals of entablatures and attics, as well as on the
Balaustrades of galleries.
Cresting ornaments appear on Gothic Altars, Shrines, Chim-
neypieces, &c, and in cast-iron on our modern Stoves, Railings, &c.
The Antique made no use of this form, although similar forms
occur, as, for example, on the entablature of the well-known monu
ment of Lysikrates. On the other hand, we must mention those
Valence -like borders which are seen on the terracotta reliefs of the
Campana collection, represented on figs. 6 and 7. In most cases,
these latter ornaments, if reversed, may be used as crestings.
Plate 104. The Cresting Border
1. . Gothic, (Jacobsthal).
2. Modern Gothic, cast-iron.
3. Modern French, castle of Pierrefonds, restored by Viollet-le
Due, (Raguenet).
4. Modern French, Cour de Cassation. Paris, (Raguenet).
5. Modern German, by Gropius of Berlin, (Arch. Skizzenbuch).
6 — 7. Graeco-Italic borders, downward growth.
The Akroter, &c. (Plates 105 — 106.)
The Akroter is the feature which serves as on ornamental finish
to the apex of a gable. Antique temples bear this decoration in a
great variety of materials: stone, terracotta, painted, plastic, and
cast in metal. Groups of figures, griffins, &c, were sometimes used
for this purpose; but the usual features were slabs of Marble, bearing
a palmette ornament, the central decoration of which is sometimes a
mask, (Plate 105. 5). Smaller ornaments of a similar kind are found
ranged along the lower roof line, in front .of the Imbrices; and these
are termed Antefixes.
The Middle Ages and the Renascence make no general use of
the Antefix, but it occurs on Modern monumental buildings in the
Antique style.
The corner Akroter which isusually found at the lower ends
of the gable lines, consists of half the motive of the central one,
(Plate 105. 6).
Plate 105. The Akroter, and the Antefix.
1. Greek Akroter, painted, temple of Wingless Victory, Athens.
2. Greek Akroter, painted, Acropolis, Athens.

The Akroter. — The Stele Crest. 167
3. Greek Antefix, Parthenon, Athens.
4. Greek sepulchral Stele-crest, in the form of an Akroter.
5. Graeco-Italic Akroter, terracotta, Museum, Perugia.
6 — 7. Front and side view of a corner Akroter, (BCtticher).
Plate 106. The Akroter, &c.
1. Greek Antefix, Propylaea, Athens, (Raguenet).
2. Roman Antefix, temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome.
3. Modern French Antefix, Theatre des Celestines, Lyons, Archi
tect Renaud, (Raguenet).
4. Modern French Akroter, house in Paris, Architect Renaud,
(Raguenet).
5. Modern French Akroter, Orleans railway station, Paris, Archi
tect Renaud, (Raguenet).
6 — 7. Akroter and Corner- akroter, fountain in the Certosa near Flo
rence, Italian Renascence.

The Stele Crest. (Plate 107.)
The Stele is the Greek tomb-stone. It usually takes the form
of an upright tablet, sometimes tapering towards the top; and bears
an inscription. It is sometimes decorated with rosettes, garlands and
figures. At the top is a plain cornice, on which an ornament, similar
to the Akroter, forms the crowning finish. Although the Akroter and
the Stele-crest often have a perfectly identical form (Plate 105. 4
shows a crest which might just as well have been an Antefix), still
the style of the crest is as a rule more severe; and it is characteristic
of a great number of Steles that they have not the striking palm
ette Centre, which the Akroter always possesses, (figs. 2 and 3).
Very often, too, the crest is so designed that the sides are extended,
to make a larger feature, (figs. 1 and 4).
These Monuments, dedicated to the memory of the dead, show
better than almost anything else the special individuality and beauty
of Greek ornament.
Plate 107. The Stele-crest.
1. Stele-crest, (Stuart and Revett, Vulliamy, Jacobsthal).
2. „ „ (Jacobsthal).
3. „ „ ("L'art pour tous").
4. „ „ (Lievre).

168

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Plate 105.

The Akroter, and the Antefix.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

169

5

The Akroter, &c.

Plate 106.

170

FREE ORNAMENTS.

_.ll!l||!li>,.il'<|ll|(|,.'i."'.

Plate 107.

The Stele Crest.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

171

The Perforated Cresting.

Plate 108.

172 The Perforated Cresting. — The Cross.
The Perforated Cresting. (Plate 108.)
In modern wood buldings, the dressings, intended to form an
ornamental finish to the construction, are often perforated.
The Gable is decorated by a Finial; smaller corner - ornaments
are attached to the lower ends of the lines of the gable; the pro
jecting ends of the gable -rafters are also provided with Barge-boards,
both for decorative effect, and also, no doubt, to serve as a protection
against the weather. The Finials are fashioned as Knobs of varied
profile, with a direction downwards. The oblique lines of the Gable
and the horizontal lines of the Roof are also covered with Barge-
boards. The material requires a special treatment; as the ornamentation
must be large and broad, and have as many points of connection in
itself as possible.
Wooden ornaments of this kind are found on Pavilions, watchmen's
Huts, Farm-houses of richer construction, country Villas in the Swiss
cottage style, &c.
Among architectural works which deal with wood buildings and
especially with the decoration of them: we may mention the works of
H. Bethke (Details fur dekorativen Holzbau), from which the majority
of the figures on Plate 108 have been taken.
Plate 108. The Perforated Cresting.
1. Top ornament of a gable, by the architect Eisenlohr, of Carls
ruhe.
2 — 7. Various Barge-boards, (Bethke).

The Cross. (Plate 109.)
The Cross (Latin crux, French croix) is the most important
symbol of Christian art. It symbolises the person of Christ, Christ
ianity and Sacrifice. Its decorative applications are innumerable, and
of great variety.
Various fundamental forms of the cross have been distinguished
and are known by different names. The Greek (or St. George's) cross
consists of two arms of equal length, bisecting each -other at right
angles. In the Latin cross the lower limb is lengthened. These two
forms are those most often used. In the St. Andrew's cross the
arms cross each -other diagonally. St. Anthony's (the Egyptian or
Old Testament Cross) is a Latin Cross without the upper limb.
Omitting from consideration the Crucifix, which represents the
crucifixion of Christ, we shall find the Cross in the utmost variety

FREE ORNAMENTS.

The Cross.

Plate 109.

174

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Plate 110.

The Cross.

The Cross. — The Finial. 175
of form on Utensils and Vessels, on Robes and Garments, on Carpets
and Banners dedicated to religious uses; in Heraldry, and as a Free
ornament to form the upper ornamental finial of Architecture. In
Christian architecture: the Cross is used as a finial on Steeples and
Gables, on Tombs, Pulpits, &c. Often it is employed alone, as a
monument, (Tomb, wayside and votive crosses).
Plate 109. The Cross: in Stone.
1. Modem French, Charterhouse Glandier, (Raguenet).
2. Modern.
3. Modem French, with the Monogram of Christ, Genouilleux, (Ra
guenet).
4. Gable of a church, St. Urban's, Unterlimburg, Schwabisch-Hall.
5. Tomb, churchyard, Baret, 11th century.
<>. Modern French, Pere-Lachaise, Paris, (Raguenet).
7. Steeple, St. Pierre, Montrouge, Paris, (Raguenet).
8. Tomb, St. Lazare, Montpellier, (Raguenet).
9. Granite, Tomb, Becon, (Raguenet).
The Cross in Metal. (Plate 110.)
Wrought-iron, and, in late years, cast-iron and zinc, are sometimos
used as a material for steeple and gable Crosses, as well as for monu
mental Crosses. The ductile nature of wrought-iron admits of a rich,
delicate execution of these objects. The German Renascence, in parti-
ticular, offers a wealth of forms in this respect.
The framework usually consists of strong bar-iron; the orna
mental decoration is in flat or round iron, fastened to the frame by
clamps or rivets. Hammered foliage is sometimes added. In many
cases the point of the steeple Cross is decorated with a Cock as
weather-vane. The centre of monumental Crosses is often occupied by a plate
of metal, to contain the Inscription.
Plate 110. The Cross: in Metal.
1 — 3. Mediaeval steeple Crosses, Franconia, (Gewerbehalle).
4. Modern steeple Cross, (Bad. Gewerbezeitung).
5. Steeple Cross, St. Ambroise, Paris, Architect Ballu, (Raguenet).
6 — 7. Wrought-iron tomb Crosses, Thiengen, 18th century.
The Finial. (Plate 111.)
While the ordinary Cross rises as a Free-ornament in a vertical
plane, the final makes a Cross, in plan. It extends its arms not only

176 The Finial in Stone, and in Metal.
sideways, but also regularly to the front and back. Crocket-like ad
ditions (comp. plate 116) clothe the stem, which usually takes the
form of an elongated four or eight-sided shaft. There may be one
or more tiers of crockets.
The Finial serves to decorate Spires, Pinnacles, Baldachins,
Tombs, &c, and is a specifically Gothic ornament. The most beautiful
forms are furnished by French Gothic, from which most of the il
lustrations of our plate are taken.
Plate 111. The Finial: in Stone.
1. Modern Gothic.
2. Early Gothic, (Jacobsthal).
3. French Gothic, (Viollet-le-Duc).
4. Early Gothic, cathedral, Chartres, 13th century, (Musterorna
mente).
5 — 6. Modem, (Viollet-le-Duc).
7. Modem, (Bosc).
The Finial in Metal. (Plate 112.)
In the artistic wrought-iron work of the Middle Ages, the Re
nascence, and Modern times, we find charming Finials in the shape
of idealised flowers. These decorations are found on the tops of
Balaustrades, on the Gables over Doors, on Brackets and Chandeliers,
on the supports of Rain-spouts, on Wall-anchors, &c.
Leaves, volute-like spirals, bell-flowers, and ears, are arranged
round a central axis of iron; in many cases the centre is formed by
spindle-shaped spirals of wire.
Plate 112. The Finial: in Metal.
1. Corner of a Mediaeval Grill, (Viollet-le-Duc).
2. Part of a Grill, Toulouse cathedral, 15th century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
3. Termination of a Fountain, Cluny museum, Paris, 15th century,
(L'art pour tous).
4. Part of a Spanish Trellis Gate, 14th century, (L'art pour tous).
5.. Part of a Chancel Screen, minster, Freiburg, 16th century, (Schau-
insland).
6. Wrought-iron, 16th century, (Guichard).
7. Terminal, Bruges, 17th century, (Ysendyck, Documents classes
de l'art).
8. Modern, wrought-iron, Ihne & Stegmuller, Berlin.
9. Modern, Post, by Ende & Boeckmann, Berlin, (Gewerbehalle).
10. Wrought-iron Coronal, Limburg on the Lahn, 17th century,
(Kachel, Kunstgewerbliche Vorbilder).
11. Coronal, modern Gate, C. Zaar, Berlin.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

177

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

The Finial,

Plate 111.

12

178

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Plate 112.

The Finial, &c.

The Finial Knob, and Vase. — The Pendant Knob. 179
The Finial Knob, and Vase. (Plate 113.)
Knob is the term applied to ornamental terminations in the
form of profiled bodies of revolution, naturalistic buds, fir-cones, &c.
Knobs are small features used as the terminations in architecture
and furniture. They are also used on Flag-staffs, Bosses of Shields,
Centre-pieces of rosettes, &c. The material, whether stone, wood,
stucco, metal, &c, depends on the use to which they are to be applied.
Vases form another class of Finials. They are preferentially
used on Tombs, Doorposts, in the centre of divided Pediments, on the
Attics of ornamental Architecture, and instead of Antefixes.
Plate 113. The Finial Knob, and Vase.
1 — 2. Stone, Milan Cathedral, Italian Gothic, (Raguenet).
3. Modern.
4. Modern Fir-cone.
5. Modern Vase, (Bosc).
6. Modern French, Ministry of War, Paris, (Raguenet).
7 — 8. Modern French, house in the Park Monceau, Architect Tronquois,
(Raguenet).
9. Lower end of a Flag-staff or Lightning-rod, (Lienard)

The Pendant Knob. (Plate 114.)
Pendants are hanging terminations; reversed Knobs, so to speak.
In some cases, but not in all, the former may replace the latter.
These Pendants are more or less elongated bodies of revolution. The
decoration is produced by the addition of leaves, scales, headings,
nulls, &c. These being specially suitable to convex profiles, while
the channelled treatment is better adapted to concave profiles.
Pendants, in stone, wood, stucco, or metal, are used as Brackets
for lamps (hence their French name: cul-de-lampe); and as the lower
terminations of Oriel- windows, Pulpits, &c. In the latter case the
Pendants are generally only in half or three-quarter relief from
the wall.
Plate 114. The Pendant Knob.
1 — 2. Part of Tripod, (Jacobsthal).
3. Part of Lantern, Dijon, French Renascence, (L'art pour tou9).
4. Lower end of a Chandelier, 17th century, (L'art pour tous).
5. Bracket under a Piscina, French, 16th century, Church, Moret,
(L'art pour tous).
6. Modern, stucco-work.
7. Modern, wood. 12»

180

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Plate 113.

The Finial Knob, and Vase.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

The Pendant Knob.

Plate 114.

182 The Rosette.
The Rosette. (Plate 115.)
The Rosette, strictly so called, is an artificial Rose. In a wider
sense any ornament of a circular shape, which radiates from a centre,
may be termed a Rosette. According to its execution and use: the
Rosette may be considered either as a Free-ornament, or a Panel-
ornament. In the first case, it must always be plastic, project pro
minently and have some resemblance to the Knob or Pendant. In
the latter case, it may be in low relief or be a flat ornament. Here
we have only to deal with the Rosette as a Free-ornament.
Considering the Rosette from this point of view: its most im
portant application is as the Boss in the centre of Romanesque and
Gothic ribbed Vaultings; and as the centre-piece of Ceilings, of which
we find numerous examples in the temples of the Antique, the palaces
of the Italian Renascence, and the vaulted Cupolas of ecclesiastical
and secular architecture. Besides this, Rosettes are found on Fur
niture, Gates and Doors (the Italian Renascence makes the most lavish
use of them in this capacity), and as the centre-pieces of modern
Ceilings, &c. In these cases, however, their quality as Free -ornaments
is less prominent.
As regards the formal plan of Rosettes: the Flower motive is the
commonest; geometrical motives are rarer, and motives from figures
rarer still. The arrangement is usually in a series of zones; the
growth is from the centre, outwards; and in the majority of cases is
radial, that is at right angles to the bordering circle; but sometimes
the leaves are curved.
The Rosette may have any number of divisions; but 3, 4, 5, 6,
8, 10, 12, or 16 divisions are the rule; divisions into 7, 9, 11, &c,
are as rare as divisions exceeding the number 16.
The Divisions may vary in the separate zones; but generally
only so that the same divisions interlock, that is to say, the points
of the leaves of one zone fall on the intervals between the leaves
of the next.
Plate 115. The Rosette.
1. Antique, of four divisions.
2. Roman, of five divisions.
3. Naturalistic, of six divisions.
4. Romanesque Boss, of four divisions, chapter-hall of the monastery
of Heiligenkreuz near Vienna, 13th century, (Musterornamente).
5. Early Gothic Boss, of three divisions, Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 1240
6. French, of four divisions, Louis XLTI, (1610 — 1643), (Muster
ornamente).
7. Italian, of five divisions, the door of the baptistery, Parma, Re
nascence, (Musterornamente).
8. Modern French, ceiling-flower, stucco.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

183

The Rosette.

Plate 115.

184

FREE ORNAMENTS.

Plate 116.

The Crocket, and the Gargoyle.

The Crocket, and the Gargoyle. 185
The Crocket, and the Gargoyle. (Plate 116).
Crocket is the designation applied to those excrescences which
appear on the edges of Spires, and Pinnacles, and on the raking lines of
Gables, in the richer Gothic styles. Occurring at regular intervals,
they form an ornamental interruption to the bald architectonic lines.
At first of a rather naturalistic character (figs. 3 and 4), they
evolved during the decay of the style a more artificial character, as
suming bulbous forms (fig. 5), which have their own special peculiar
ities in England, France, and Germany.
Crocket - ornamentation has more or less been copied from
stone Architecture in Furniture, Choir-stalls, &c. The arms of the
latter (figs. 6 — 10), and the miserere-seats, are often foliated like a
Crocket. Metal, and particularly wrought-iron work, frequently makes
use of Crockets, in forms suited to the nature of the material,
(figs. 11-12).
Contrary to the modern method, by which the water that collects
on the roofs of buildings is conveyed to earth through Pipes, the
builders of the Middle Ages and the Renascence discharged the rain,
clear of the wall, by means of long projecting Spouts. The spout
was used in the Antique style in the form of lion heads, &c. In the
ecclesiastical and monumental architecture of the Middle Ages they
are termed Gargoyles; and are mostly of stone. In dwelling houses
they are of sheet-metal; and they are either architectonically decorated
(fig. 14), or human, animal, or fantastic figures, treated in a comic
manner, the water flowing through the mouth or other orifices of
the body. Copious material on the subject of crockets and gargoyles will be
found in Raguenet's -''Materiaux et Documents de 1' Architecture".
Plate 116. The Crocket, and the Gargoyle.
1 — 2. Front and side view of a plain Gothic Crocket, Amiens
cathedral, restored by Viollet-le-Duc, (Raguenet).
3. Gothic Crocket, 14 th century.
4. Modern Gothic Crocket, Paris, (Raguenet).
5. Gothic Crocket Milan cathedral, (Raguenet).
6. Arm of a Stall, Salisbury cathedral, (Raguenet).
7 — 10. Arms of Stalls, monastery, Maulbronn.
11 — 12. Wrought-iron, Gothic, Augsburg.
13. Gargoyle, Viollet-le-Duc, Eglise d'Eu, (Raguenet).
14. Gargoyle, bell-tower, St. Sernin, Toulouse, restored by Viollet-
le-Duc, (Raguenet).
15. Gargoyle, Meaux cathedral, (Raguenet).
16 — 17. Gargoyle, St. Eustache, Paris, (Raguenet).

186 The Decorated Hinge, &c.
The Decorated Hinge, &c. (Plate 117.)
The Middle Ages, and after them the Renascence, brought the
developement of wrought metal- work to the highest state of perfection.
Here we have to consider the different kinds of bands, technically
known, according to their shape, as Hinge, Strap, &c.
Although these bands were originally intended only to bind-to
gether the underlying wood construction of gates, doors, caskets,
chests, &c, the bald, practical form was soon made decorative; and
this the more readily that the Gothic principle of wood construction,
with its narrow stave-like or matched strips of wood, offered only
scanty opportunities of artistic decoration.
Delicate series of lines, designed as Free-ornaments, start from
the Hinge and terminate as leaves and flowers. The heads of the
necessary rivets and screws, themselves shaped as rosettes in the
richer examples, give a pleasing relief. Gothic usually applies the
extended Strap-hinge (figs. 7 — 8); while the Renascence, in accord
ance with its principle of bordering in wood constructions, prefers the
shorter Butt-hinge (figs. 11 — 12). In the latter epoch the surface
of the metal received further decoration trough the arts of etching,
engraving, niello-work, &c. Book-mounts, in particular, offered a
wide field for the application of these arts.
Modem times have with justice devoted increased attention to
these objects; and have restored them to the domain of art from which
various causes had excluded them for almost a century.
The plate gives a small selection from the copious material to
be found in museums and publications.
Plate 117. The Decorated Hinge, &c.
1. Gothic hinge, church-door, Viersen near Cologne, 15th century.
2 — 3. Plain terminations of hinges, Hefner - Alteneck collection,
16th century.
4 — 5. Terminations of hinges, Town-hall, Munster.
6. Termination of hinge, Prie-dieu, Gelnhausen, 15th century,
(Musterornamente).
7. Gothic hinge, Door of a cabinet, Town-hall, Zwolle.
8. Gothic hinge.
9. Renascence hinge, old Kaufhaus, on the Limmat, Zurich, 1618.
10. Renascence hinge, Town-hall, Augsburg, 17th century, (Muster
ornamente).
11. Renascence hinge, Door in Ettlingen, United collections, Carls
ruhe.
12. Door-hinge, German, 1580, Free imitation by Prof. Storck,
(Zeichenvorlagen).

FREE ORNAMENTS.

187

The Decorated Hinge, &c.

Plate 117.

188 The Tassel. — The Fringe, and the Valence.
The Tassel. (Plate 118.)
The chief contributions of textile art to the group of Free-orna
ments are Tassels, Fringes, and Laces. The two latter are current
edgings, the first, on the contrary, are the termination of the lower
end of cords or of shaped draperies. Thus we find Tassels used on
Girdles, Bell-pulls, and Curtain -holders; as pendants from Flags,
Standards, Valences, Cushions, Table-covers, Palls, and Tent-covers;
also on Pouches, Hoods, Caps, Harness, Ac.
The Tassel consists of a tuft of threads or cords, hanging straight
down from a core of wood, turned in various profiles, and decorated
with twisted threads. The original may be assumed to have been
the cord with a simple knot, the knot being intended to keep
the cord from ravelling-out. The Tassel is undoubtedly of great
antiquity. The reliefs found in Khorsabad, Niniveh, and elsewhere,
show that the Assyrians were great admirers of such kinds of trimming.
And, although such a lavish use does not occur again; there would
probably be little difficulty in finding examples of tassels from all
periods of Art.
Not only form but also colour contributes to the effect of Tassels,
so that the examples in our plate really only give half the effect.
An exhaustive study of Trimmings, by Jacob Falke, will be found in
Teirich's "Blatter fur Kunstgewerbe" 1875.
Plate 118. The Tassel.
1. French lady's girdle, 12th century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
2 — 3. Tassels, Holbein, (Teirich).
4. Tassels, Turkish harness, 17th century, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
5. Tassel, old standard, United collections, Carlsruhe.
6. Tassel, Tunisian pistol, United collections, Carlsruhe.
7. Leather tassel, lady's bag, German Renascence.
8 — 10. Modern tassels, by Aug. T6pfer, (Gewerbehalle).
11. Modem tassel, by A. Seder, Munich.
The Fringe, and the Valence. (Plate 119.)
If, at the end of a piece of material, the weft-threads (parallel
to the end) be drawn-out, the remaining warp-threads will form a
simple Fringe. If we give the end greater security, by knotting or
tieing the threads together in tufts, we get the ordinary Fringe. The
Fringe, however, is not always made of the material; it is often
manufactured independently, and sewed-on to the edge of the material.
In this case the Fringe is combined with a woven heading-band (gimp).

FREE ORNAMENTS.

189

The Tassel.

Plate 118.

190 The Fringe, the Valence, and the Lace Border.
Richer types of Fringes may be produced either by variety of
the edge, so that tufts of unequal lengths form rhythmically alternating
groups (fig. 2), or by using several thicknesses of Fringe, lying one
behind the other, (fig. 4).
The Fringe is always applied long, when a pendant termination
is required. In other cases as, for example, where the fringed ma
terial is to lie horizontally, like small Table-covers, Napkins, &c, it is
advisable to keep the fringe short.
Fringes have been in use from the very earliest periods; but it
is again the Orientals, and especially the Assyrians, who show a pre
ference for this form. Fringes occur perpetually in various national
costumes, and in the toilet of our modern ladies.
The Renascence adopted the Fringe as a trimming for furniture,
and specially for chairs; although not always with true artistic feeling.
The Valence is a hanging textile termination; the lower edge ia
ornamentally cut, and is often ornamented with cords, tassels, em
broidery, &c. The upper edge of the Valence is generally fixed to
a moulding. Valences occur as the interior furnishing of Windows, on
four-post Beds, Baldachins, Canopies, Tents, Marquees, &c; of late
years, they have been used on Awnings, and Outside -blinds.
Plate 119- The Valence.
1. Tomb of the Incas, Aneon, Peru, United collections, Carlsruhe.
2. Indian - Mexican pouch, United collections, Carlsruhe.
3. Egyptian, (Ebers).
4. Renascence, (Storck).
5. Mediaeval maniple, (Teirich).
6. Turkish saddle-cloth, 1690, United collections, Carlsruhe.
7. Renascence, silver.
8 — 9. Modern designs, by Prignot.
The Lace Border. (Plate 120.)
Of all products of the textile art, Lace is the most interesting.
There is something poetical about it, like flowers. The combination
of the conventional treatment with those accidental features which
hand-work confers upon the delicate, light material, gives them a
peculiar charm. Who invented lace manufacture, and in what year,
cannot now be determined. Lace is one of those things which the
Renascence has handed down to us without having inherited it from
the Antique. The stimulus, to the invention of lace and the basis of
its manufacture, is probably to be found in the textile hand-work of
the Middle Ages, such as was practised, particularly in convents, for
ecclesiastical purposes.

FREE ORNAMENTS.

191

The Fringe, and the Valence.

Plate 119.

192

FREE'ORNAMENTS.

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Plate 120.

The Lace Border.

The Lace Border. 193
Lace belongs in most cases to the Free-ornaments. More rarely
it is manufactured as an Insertion, with the character of a ribbon, or
for independent use as a Shawl or Wrap. Compared with Fringe, the
applications of Lace are freer and more varied, and by no means con
fined to the character of a pendant termination. The reader may be
assumed to be acquainted with the various uses of lace.
If we exclude the allied Crochet-work as not strictly belonging
to this section, we shall find that the manufacture of Lace may be
divided into two groups: (1) sewed or Point lace; and (2) bobbin or
Pillow lace. The former method has chiefly been practised in Italy,
Spain, Ireland, and France; the latter in England, France, the Nether
lands, Schleswig, Switzerland, and Saxony. The chief centres of the
lace industry were and to some extent still are: Venice, Genoa, Milan,
Ragusa, Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Ireland, Alencon, Valenciennes,
Brussels, Mechlin, Binche, Tondern, Annaberg, &c.
As in other branches, the cheap Machine-made article has nowa
days reduced the manufacture of the dearer but far more valuable
Hand-made lace to very modest limits. See Reports on Lace, by
Alan S. Cole (Department of Science and Art).
Among the numerous kinds of Lace for which no generally re
cognised terminology as yet exists, we have selected some, principally
of older date, among which the best patterns are to be found:
Point coupe (punto tagliato). The linen ground is cut-out and
the edges worked with the needle.
Point tire (punto a maglia quadra). Single compartments of a
quadrangular knotted or woven net are filled-up.
Point tir6 (punto tirato). The threads of the linen fabric are
partially pulled-out, the others connected together and sewed
round.
Point coupe (punto a reticella). Groups of threads stretched
lengthwise and crosswise like a net, are spun round and
connected.
Point noue (punto a groppo). Produced by plaiting and knotting
the threads.
Point lace. The threads are sewed together, following the pattern,
and joined together by "brides". This is almost the only kind
of lace which can now be found on ladies' work-tables.
Plate 120. The Lace Border.
1. Venetian guipure, old pattern-book.
2. Point noue, end of the 15th century.
3—4. Old, point
5 — 8. Modern, pillow, old patterns.
9. Modern, knotted, with fringe, (Macrame lace).

Mayer, Handbook of Ornament

IS

194

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SUPPORTS.

All those elements of ornamental art which express the idea of
supportmg or bearing, are here gathered into a special group to
which is given the name "Supports".
Supports, in the strict sense of the word, are piers or columns.
But it does not fall within the scope of this work to treat these
forms from the architectural point of view, or to enter into the details
and proportions of the so-called "Orders of Architecture". - All that is
required on this point may be gained from the works of architectural
specialists: Batticher, Tektonik der Hellenen; Mauch and Lohde, Die
Architektonischen Ordnungen; R. Phene Spiers, The Orders of Archi
tecture; Vignola; Durm and others. We will therefore disregard the
undecorated forms, and discuss only the decorative details of these
supports. Like a tree which consists of root, trunk, and crown, Piers and
Columns necessarily have a base, a shaft, and a capital. (The Doric
Column is an exception as it has no base.) The natural model
for the Pier and the Column is the trunk of a tree hewn into a
cylindrical or prismatic form. The motive of the channellings and
nutings of the shaft of a support is to be found in the channels and
flutings of Endogeneous Plants.
Supports which, like piers and columns, are intended to bear
a considerable weight, usually have a strong cylindrical or prismatic
stmcture, generally tapering towards the top; the fundamental forms
of the Candelabrum, which is meant to bear only an inconsiderable
weight, like Lamps, &c, are freer, have more variety, and offer a
wider field for decoration than the forms of the former group. The
Candelabrum is also divided into foot, shaft, and crown. The shaft,

Supports. — The Foliated Shaft. 195
again, is frequently composed of several distinct parts. The cande
labrum as a whole will receive a more detailed consideration in
Division III, (Utensils).
Small Pillars, shaped like a pier, column, or candelabrum, are
also used for the construction of balaustrades; in which case they
have to support only a Rail.
The small Pillars have thick, compact forms; Balausters, on the
contrary, are slender bodies of revolution, with great variety in the profile.
Very peculiar forms of support are the antique Trapezophors or
table-legs; the Legs of modern furniture bear more resemblance to
balauster pillars.
Terminus is the name given to supports which widen out in an
upward direction like an inverted Obelisk, and terminate in a bust
or capital. Beside the geometrical and plant elements, the human form is
also used as a motive of supports. Male forms thus used are termed
Atlantes; and female forms Caryatids.
The various forms of Consoles are included in the group of Supports.

The Foliated Shaft. (Plate 121.)
We have already mentioned that the Plant-world furnishes the
motive for the forms of Supports. Reeds, Canes, Tree-trunks with
knots, &c, were copied in the Antique.
The mural paintings of Pompeii show lofty airy constructions
with extremely slender, foliated supports. The bronze Candelabra
and Lampadaria, intended to hold lamps, are often direct imitations
of plant stems, while the Roman State -Candelabra are often decorated
with Artificial foliage. Later epochs have made little change in this
respect; it may be said in general that, as regards delicacy of
feeling, and moderation in the application of natural forms, they
have seldom reached and still more seldom surpassed the Antique
models.
Plate 121. The Foliated Shaft.
1. Finial of the choragic monument of Lysikrates, Athens, (in
tended for the reception of a bronze tripod), Greek.
2. Part of the shaft of a Roman State -candelabrum, marble,
Vatican museum, Rome.
8 — 4. Supports, mural paintings, Pompeii, (Jacobsthal).
5. Graeco -Italic, Lamp-stand, bronze.
6. Upper part of shaft, Graeco-Italic candelabrum, BrSndsted collec
tion, (Vulliamy). 13*

196

SUPPORTS.

Plate 121.

The Foliated Shaft.

The Fluted Shaft. — The Base. 197
The Fluted Shaft. (Plate 122.)
Columns, Piers, Candelabra, and similar Supports frequently have
channellings or flutings. Th* object of these is to give animation to
the smooth shaft, and to emphasize the expression of the principle of
weight-bearing. This latter is specially true of the channellings.
In the Doric style the Flutings are shallow without any interval, only
divided from each other by a sharp edge, (figs. 1 and 2). The Ionic
and Corinthian shafts, have deeper flutings (figs. 3 and 4)t separated
from each other by fillets formed of the untouched surface of the
shaft. The channellings terminate upwards like small niches, with
semicircular or elliptical heads, (fig. 5). Leaf- like terminations, like
that on fig. 13 are rarer. The termination downwards is similar to
those shown on figs. 6 — 8.
The number of channellings on a shaft varies from 18 to 24.
On smaller constructions, such as Furniture, Balausters, &c, the
number is reduced; but seldom less than 8. The Channellings taper
proportionately with the shaft. Pilasters are also channelled to match
the Columns. In strict Architecture, rich and composite channellings
and flutings are rather injurious than otherwise (figs. 7 — 11); but
on Candelabra, and Mouldings they often produce a good effect. When
applied to the Torus and the Cavetto: the former (convex) should
be decorated by Nurls; and the latter (concave) should have Flutes.
Plate 122. The Fluted Shaft.
•1 — 2. Sections of Doric Fluting.
3 — 4. Sections of Ionic and Corinthian Fluting.
5 — 6. Construction of the terminations of Fluting on cylindrical
shafts.
7 — 11. Composite Fluting, with sections, and terminations.
12. Part of an Antique Candelabrum, with tapered Fluting.
13. Termination of the Fluting, monument of Lysikrates, Athens.
(The construction is clearly indicated on the drawings.)

The Base. (Plate 123—124.)
It is unquestionably more beautiful when something in the
shape of a Base is interposed between the shaft of a column and
the substructure on which it rests, than when, as in the Doric style,
the column rises without any such base. Bases suggested by the
radical leaves of plants, are common in Oriental styles. Plate 124,
fig. 1 gives an Egyptian example of this kind. Decorations of this
sort are, however, oftener applied to the lower end of the shaft than

198

SUPPORTS.

Plate 122.

The Fluted Shaft.

The Base. 199
to the Base itself. This natural method of decoration is also met-
with on richly decorated examples of Roman style, where a row of
Artificial leaves encircle the shaft, (Plate 128. 3). Antique Bases are
composed of a square foundation slab (the plinth); and some mouldings
which follow the circular plan of the shaft. The well-known and
oft-used Attic Base, consists, beginning from below, of a plinth, a
great torus, fillet, scotia, fillet, upper torus, fillet and apophyge. The
last, as a quarter-hollow forms the transition between fillet and shaft.
When the plinth is decorated, which is the case only in very rich
examples, the motive is either a band or a scroll. The tori are de
corated with braided work, as shown on Plate 99, the hollow or
"scotia" is sometimes decorated with leaves, the smaller tori may be
treated as astragals; and so on. Plate 123 shows three rich Roman
examples. Others will be found in Botticher's Tektonik der Hellenen.
The Byzantine and Romanesque periods follow the Antique in
the treatment of Bases. The spaces which remain on the upper sur
face of the square plinth are, however, filled up with ornament (Plate
124. 8, 7, 8, 10), or with small animal |igures, (Plate 124. 9). In
the later Gothic style the torus overlaps the sides of the plinth,
which reduces these spaces; the corners of the plinth are also some
times finished as shown on Plate 124. 6.
The Gothic period prefers geometrical to organic form; and se
cures good effects by a variety of profiles placed high up on com
posite clustered columns, (plate 124. 11) gives an example of this.
Remark the similarity with the Chinese example, fig. 2, which would
seem to have been suggested by a cluster of juxtaposed shafts.
The Renascence and modern styles resort to direct copying from
the Antique; but, as a rule, do not use ornamented mouldings.
The treatment of the Bases of piers and pilasters is usually
identical with that of columns; so that there is no necessity for
dealing with these separately.
Plate 123. The Base: Roman.
1. Capitoline Museum, Rome, (De Vico).
2. Temple of Concord, Rome, (De Vico).
8. Baptistery of Constantine, Rome, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten und
Handwerker).
Piate 124. The Base: Romanesque, &c.
1. Egyptian, Temple of Tutmes III, Karnak, (Raguenet).
2. Chinese, (Raguenet).
3. Romanesque, coupled, Schwarzach.
4 — 6. Mediaeval.
7. Romanesque.

200

SUPPORTS.

Plate 123.

The Base.

SUPPORTS.

201

The Base.

Plate 124.

202 The Base. — The Ornamented Shaft.
8. Romanesque, St. Remy, Reims, (Raguenet).
9. Romanesque, Cistercian monastery, Maulbronn.
10. Romanesque, Abbey "des Dames", Caen, (Raguenet).
11. Gothic, church, Brou-Asn, (Raguenet).

The Ornamented Shaft. (Plates 125 — 126.)
The simplest, most natural and perhaps the most beautiful de
coration of a Shaft is fluting, beyond which the Antique very seldom.
goes. Where it does: it clothes the stem in naturalistic fashion with
plant-forms, (Plate 125. 4).
In the Byzantine, Romanesque, and Scandinavian styles: we often
find the shaft covered with a geometrical network, and ornamented in
a corresponding style, (Plate 125. 2 — 3). The Gothic style prefers
to leave the slender shafts smooth.
The Renascence is not satisfied with the simple flute especially
on small architectural work like Altars, Monuments, &c. The craving
to give the Column a decoration commensurate with that of the other
parts of the architecture became irresistible. It is raised on a pedestal;
the shaft is banded, being divided into parts by projecting Cinctures,
generally two, the lower at about one-third, the upper at about two-
thirds of the height. On the lower part are suspended festoons,
weapons, trophies, cartouches, &c, the upper part is channelled or
decorated with Artificial foliage (Plate 125. 1); finally, festoons of fruit
or drapery are suspended from the capital.
Where the Columns are not large, especially in Furniture, the
cylindrical shaft is replaced by the richer profiling of a more candelabrum
like form, (Plate 126. 5). Flat ornamentation is also used, as well
as plastic decoration, by means of painting, incrustation, or inlaying,
(Plate 125. 5).
All these methods of application are more or less in agreement
with the object and principle of construction of the Column, but the
same cannot be said of the Renascence and the following styles of the
Decadence, which build up their Columns of large and small drums,
alternately ornamented and plain, or even give the Shaft a spiral
twist and decorate it with spiral flutings.
Plate 125. The Decorated Shaft.
1. Italian Renascence, Tomb in Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome, by
Sansovino.
2. Romanesque.
3. Shaft, church, Tournus, (Raguenet).
4. Roman, marble.
5. Column, with intarsia decoration, German Renascence, (Hirth).

SUPPORTS.

203

The Decorated Shaft.

Plate 125.

204

SUPPORTS.

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The Profiled Shaft.
The Ornamented Shaft. — The Capital. 205
Plate 126. The Profiled Shaft.
1. Candelabrum-like column, tester- bed, French Renascence.
2. Lower part of a column, Mayence cathedral.
3. Lower part of column, Palais du Commerce, Lyons, (Raguenet).
4. Column, diploma, Modern.
5. Column, Modern, (Gerlach).
The Capital. (Plates 127—130.)
The upper termination of the column is the Capital. The Capital
forms the transition from the supporting Shaft to the superincumbent
Weight. This transition may assume either geometrical or organic
forms. Very frequently both systems are combined; so that, strictly
speaking, we can only say that one system or the other predominates.
The Egyptian capital is suggested by the cinctured bundle of
Papyrus stems with buds (Plate 127. 4, 5), or with opened Papyrus
or Lotus flowers, (Plate 127. 2, 3).
Abnormal capitals are found in the Old Persian style. Plate
127. 1, gives an example from Persepolis, composed of the fore-parts
of Bulls. As examples of Oriental forms: two Moorish capitals from the
Alhambra in Granada are given on figs. 6 and 7 of the same plate.
Antique art adopts three general types of Capitals: Doric, Ionic
and Corinthian. The Doric Capital consists of the abacus, which is square in plan,
and the echinos, which is circular. The transition to the shaft is effec
ted by hollow mouldings and astragals. The Graeco-Doric Capital was
painted. Where the sides of the abacus are decorated: a Fret pattern
is employed (Plate 127. 8). The echinos is a member of conflict,
and is ornamented accordingly. In the Roman and Renascence styles
plastic ornamentation takes the place of painting. The band of leaves
becomes an egg-and-dart ornament (Plate 127. 10). Leaves pointing
upward are sometimes used (Plate 127. 9). At the top of the abacus
a small moulding is used. A necking, generally decorated with
rosettes, is interposed between Capital and Shaft. Similar rosettes
decorate the spaces on the under side of the abacus (Plate 127.
9—10). The Ionic Capital replaces the square abacus by a scroll rolled-
in on both sides, in great volutes. The intervals, between the egg
band and the scroll, are marked by palmettos. A neck may be added
as in the Doric Capital, and it is frequently decorated with a pal
mette ornament (Plate 128. 4 — 5). The side view of the scroll
shows plain profilings as on Plate 128. 1, decorated with leaves or
scales in the richer examples. The Ionic Capital has two faces, and

206 The Capital.
two sides. For this reason it is of only limited application, as,
when the capital is applied to the corner column of two adjacent
sides of a building, it is impossible to avoid a bad effect from the
two reentering volutes on the inner faces.
The fundamental form of the Corinthian Capital is the calix.
The decoration may be designed on two methods. Firstly a row of
leaves, or two rows arranged alternately one above the other, clothe
the lower cylindrical part of the capital, and plain broad waterleaves
form the transition to the square abacus. To this class belongs the
capital of the Tower of the Winds in Athens, and a capital found
on the island of Melos, which is shown on Plate 128. 7. Or, secondly:
volutes rise from the rows of leaves and unite in pairs under the
corners of the abacus, which are then extended, so that the sides are
rendered concave in plan. The centre of each sides of the abacus is
decorated with a palmette or rosette (Plate 128. 8 — 9).
The fusion of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals produced the
Composite capital; whose appearance is more interesting than beautiful
(Plate 128. 10).
Early Christian, and, to a certain extent, Byzantine and Roma
nesque art, models the forms of capital on those of the Antique.
The Corinthian Capital is the one mostly followed. The details are
made correspondingly simpler and ruder (Plate 129. 6 — 11). But
along side of these reminiscences of the Antique, new and independent
forms appear. The antagonism between the cylindrical under part
and the square upper termination is adjusted by geometrical construc
tions. Thus originated the Cushion and the Trapeziform Capital.
The Cushion capital is specifically Romanesque. A half sphere is cut
by planes below and on the four sides. Its simplest form is given
on Plate 129. 1. The decoration is sometimes geometrical (Plate 129.
2 and 12), and sometimes contains foliage and figures (Plate 129. 5).
The Double-cushion Capital is a variant of the Cushion capital (Plate
129. 4). The Trapeziform capital is specifically Byzantine. In this
style: the cylindrical shaft is continued to the square abacus, which
causes each side of the Capital to assume a Trapeziform shape (Plate
129. 3). Very often these Capitals are richly decorated with figures.
The arrangement of clustered-shafts, so popular in the Middle
Ages, led to the Coupled-capital, which appears sometimes as con
joined capitals (Plate 129. 10), and sometimes as the juxtaposition of
two ordinary capitals with a conjoined abacus.
In the Gothic style, particularly in its later period, the abacus
becomes octagonal. Crocket-like knots of leaves are loosely attached
to the calix-formed core. The vigourous projections of these leaf
ornaments give the Capital the appearance of an inverted bell (bell
capitals, Plate 129. 13—14).
The Renascence adopts the Doric and Ionic Capitals, and more

The Capital. 207
usually the Corinthian Capital directly borrowed from the Antique;
but the forms become freer and more varied; and, compared with
the overcharged Roman examples, simpler. The volutes at the corners
develope into independent forms, and are often replaced by dolphins,
cornucopias, and other fantastic forms, scattered instances of which
may, however, be found even in the Antique. Modern architecture,
like the Renascence, also follows these traditions.
Plate 127. The Capital.
1. Ancient Persian, Persepolis.
2. Egyptian, Kdm-Ombo.
3. „ Philae.
4. , Memnonium Thebes.
5. „ Luxor, (Owen Jones).
6 — 7. Moorish capitals, Alhambra, Hall of the two sisters, (Raguenet).
8. Graeco-Doric.
9. Roman-Doric, thermae of Diocletian, (Mauch and Lohde).
10. Doric, Italian Renascence, by Barozzi da Vignola.
Plate 128. The Capital.
1. Graeco-Ionic, (Jacobsthal).
2. Ionic, Bassae, (Cockerell).
3. Ionic, Pompeii.
4. Roman-Ionic, (Musterornamente).
5. Graeco-Ionic, Erechtheum, Athens.
6. Ionic, Louvre, Paris.
7. Antique Corinthian, found in Melos, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten
und Handwerker).
8. Greek- Corinthian, monument of Lysikrates, Athens.
9. Roman-Corinthian, palaces of the emperors Rome.
10. Roman Composite, Louvre, Paris.
Plate 129. The Capital.
1. Romanesque Cushion-capital, St. Gereon, Cologne, (Otte).
2. , , , the abbey church, Laach, (Otte).
3. Byzantine, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople.
4. Romanesque Double-cushion-capital, Rosheim church, XI. cen
tury.
5. Romanesque Double-cushion-capital.
6. Romanesque Cushion-capital, Freiburg.
7 — 9. Romanesque, former cloisters of the church, Schwarzacb.
10. Romanesque Coupled-capital.
1 1 . Romanesque.

203

SUPPORTS.

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Plate 127.
The Capital.
SUPPORTS.

209

The Capital.

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

Plate 128.
14

210

SUPPORTS.

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Plate 129.

The Capital.

SUPPORTS.

211

The Capital.

Plate 130.
14*

212

SUPPORTS.

Plate 131.

The Pilaster Panel.

The Capital. — The Pilaster Panel. 213
12. Romanesque Cushion-capital, monastery, Lippoldsberg.
13 — 14. Late Gothic, triforium of the choir, minster Freiburg.
Plate 130. The Capital.
1. Renascence, drawing by Holbein, (Guichard).
2 — 3. Renascence, designs by Heinrich Voigtherr, (Hirth).
4. Composite, Italian.
5. Renascence, Palazzo Scrofa, Ferrara, Italian.
6. Renascence, Tomb in Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome, by San
sovino.
7. Renascence, Italian, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice.
8. Modern, municipal baths, Carlsruhe, Architect Dunn.
9. Modern French, Vaudeville theatre, Paris, Architect Magne.

The Pilaster Panel. (Plate 131.)
In many cases the Pilaster or wall-pier shaft is devoid of orna
ment. Unlike the column, the Pilaster does not, as a rule, taper up-
vards; and if the Pilaster is ornamented with fluting the tapering
is never permissible. The Pilaster frequently has cinctures, generally
two, the lower at 1\i, the upper at 2/3 of its height. The ornamental
decoration, when present, takes the form of an elongated, sunk panel
bordered by a moulding. The ornamentation may be of three kinds:
firstly: an ascending plant motive may be used, rising symmetrically
or in the form of a wavy line from calices, vases, &c, animal and
human figures being not infrequent accessories; secondly, the decora
tion may consist of festoons of flowers, fruits, trophies, shields, &c,
varied by knots and ribbons, the points of suspension being rosettes,
rings, lion heads, &c; thirdly, the panel may be decorated with flat
strapwork, as in the Elizabethan manner.
Of these three kinds of decoration the first is the most used;
and the most suitable. Few Antique examples have come down to
us; the Middle Ages make scarcely any use of the Pilaster; but
the Renascence is much richer in such examples. Stalls, Altars,
Sepulchral -monuments are scarcely to be found without Pilasters.
Plate 131 offers a small selection from the copious material; all the
panels show the first of the three kinds of decoration.
Plate 181. The Pilaster Panel.
1. Italian Renascence.
2 — 5. Italian Renascence, Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice.
6 — 7. Italian Renascence, by Benedetto da Majano.
8 — 9. Modern Panels, in the style of the Italian Renascence.

214 The Pilaster Capital.
The Pilaster Capital. (Plates 132—134.)
Generally speaking, the structure of the Capital of the pilaster
follows that of the Column; and, to a certain extent, translates the
forms of the latter from the round to the flat. This observation is
true in the Renascence period; but not in the Antique.
In Pilaster-capitals in the Doric style one or more leaf or egg-
and-dart mouldings run under the abacus, and are covered at the
corners with palmettos or leaves. Beneath this proper part of the
Capital a neck more or less high is usually found, decorated with
rosettes or with other ornaments (Plate 132. 1). On modern Capitals
of this class the neck may even be fluted (Plate 134. 7); not infre
quently the centre of the Capital is still further decorated by the
addition of masks, symbols, &c. (Plate 134. 7 and 8).
While the Renascence adopted the form of the Ionic Capital
with scarcely any change for its pilasters (Plate 134. 4), the Antique
possessed a special form of pilaster Capital of this order (Plate 132. 2).
The most numerous, varied and beautiful Capitals of pilasters
are in the Corinthian order. The profile and general anangement are
the same as with the columns; generally, however, the pilaster is
broader in proportion to its height. The lower part is encircled by
Artificial leaves which sometimes dwindle to the two corner leaves
supporting the volutes. The volutes are of the most varied descrip
tions, sometimes replaced by cornucopias, dolphins, chimeras, and
other figures (Plates 132. 8 and 133. 5). Leaf-ornaments, vases,
garlands, calices of flowers, &c, are arranged at the centres (Plate 132.
4- — 8), also masks (Plate 133, 4, 5 and 8). Neckings are rare on
Corinthian capitals (Plate 133. 7). The egg-and-dart mouldings,
which run along the bottom of Antique examples (Plate 132. 4 — 5),
are reminiscences of the Doric style, so that these forms may also
be regarded as a kind of transition Capital.
Plate 132. The Pilaster Capital.
1. Greek-Doric anta, Erechtheum, Athens.
2. Greek -Ionic anta.
3. Greek -Corinthian.
4 — 6. Roman- Corinthian, (BGtticher).
7. Roman-Corinthian, Pantheon, Rome.
8. Roman -Corinthian, Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome, (De Vico).
Plate 133. The Pilaster Capital.
1. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Court of the Scala dei Gi°_-ti,
Venice, (Wiener Bauhutte).

SUPPORTS.

215

The Pilaster Capital.

Plate 132.

216

SUPPORTS.

Plate 133.

The Pilaster Capital.

SUPPORTS

217

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The Pilaster Capital.

Plate 134.

218 The Pilaster Capital. — The Candelabra Base.
2. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice.
3. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Certosa, Florence.
4. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Scuola di San Marco, Venice,
by Pietro Lombardo.
5 — 6. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Chapel of the Palazzo Vecchio,
Florence, (Musterornamente). >
7 Corinthian, Italian Renascence.
8. Corinthian, French Renascence, Tomb of Louis XTI, St. Denis.

Plate 134. The Pilaster Capital.
1. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Portal of San Michele, Venice.
2 — 3. Corinthian, Italian Renascence, Palace of the Doges, Venice.
4. Ionic, French Renascence, (Lievre).
5. Wrought-iron, castle at Athis-Mons, French, 17th century.
6. Wrought-iron, by Jean Berain, French, 17th century, (Raguenet).
7. Modern Doric, Architects Kayser and v. Grossheim.
8. Modern Doric, new Opera House, Paris, Architect Gamier.
9. Modern Ionic, Rue Dieu, Paris, Architect Sedille.
10. Modern Corinthian, atelier of a painter, Paris, Sculptor Bloche.

The Candelabrum Foot. (Plate 135.)
For lighting, the Candelabrum played an important part in the
domestic and religious life of the Ancients. In the House, they
mostly employed slender, delicate bronze Candelebra; and for Religion,
the great State-candelabra of marble. The Candelabrum, like the
column, consists of three parts: the base, the shaft, and the capital.
To afford the necessary steadiness, the base of the Candelabrum
is planned on a comparatively large scale, and divided into three legs,
which stretch-out, towards the points of an equilateral triangle. For
the foot, the claw of an animal, and in particular the claw of the
Lion, is used. Not infrequently the claws rest on balls or discs
(Plate 135. 6). The transition to the shaft is designed with a double
calix, the upper leaves of which rise and encircle the shaft, and the
lower leaves descend and mask the junction of the three legs
(Plate 135. 1 and 5). A delicate anthemion may be perceived
between each pair of feet on richer examples (Plate 135. 2 and 3).
In exceptional cases the leg appears to grow from the mouth of an
animal (Plate 135. 6). Occasionally a circular, profiled and decorated
disc is used instead of the double calyx and anthemion. Sometimes,
too, the shaft is prolonged downwards beneath the disc in the form
of a knob, but does not touch the ground.

The Candelabrum Base, & Shaft. 219
It is obvious that the delicate forms and the division into legs,
which was so suitable for a material like bronze, could not be trans
ferred directly to the construction in marble; but reminiscences of it
may be seen in the retention of the triangular ground-plan, the re-
duced claws, the double calyx, &c. (Plate 135. 8).
Plate 135. The Candelabrum Base.
1. Antique, bronze, Museum, Naples, (Bfitticher).
2. „ „ (Botticher).
3. „ „ Studj publici, Florence, (Weissbach and Lotter-
moser).
4 — 5. Antique, bronze, Museum, Naples.
6 — 7. Legs from antique candelabra: the former found in the ruins
of Paestum; the other in the Museum, Naples.
8. Roman, State-candelabrum.
9. Renascence candelabrum, Collection of drawings, Uffizi, Florence.

The Candelabrum Shaft. (Plate 136.)
The decoration of the Shaft of the antique bronze domestic
Candelabrum is simple; and consists of flutings or channellings, some
times of naturalistic buds and leaves.
Far richer is the ornamentation of the Antique State-candelab
rum. It is divided into zones (Plate 136. 2), or the shaft swells
and diminishes alternately, giving a richer profile (Plate 136. 1).
Smooth and fluted parts with contrast with foliage and figure; and
the ascending decoration is varied by trophies and festoons. The
effect depends on the propriety of the division. The repetition of
similar masses or similar forms becomes tedious.
The Antique and also the Renascence, particularly in Italy, has
transmitted to us a number of standard forms of Candelabra; of
which a few examples are reproduced Plate 136.
Plate 136. The Candelabrum Shaft.
1. Roman, marble.
2. Roman, marble.
3. Antique, (Botticher).
4. Mast -socket, Piazza of S. Mark, Venice, bronze, Italian Renas
cence.
5. Candelabrum -like foot of a holy water-stoup, Pisa cathedral, Italian
Renascence.
6. Italian Renascence, Badia near Florence.

220

SUPPORTS.

Plate 135.

The Candelabrum Base.

SUPPORTS.

221

The Candelabrum Shaft.

Plate 136.

222 The Candelabrum Capital. — The Balauster.

The Candelabrum Capital. (Plate 137.)
The Capital of a Candelabrum has a plate or cup -like form,
according as it is destined to receive a lamp, or a candle. The tops
af the Antique bronze Candelabra, as a rule, are profiled like the
so-called Krater (figs. 1 — 5).
The profiles, and ornamentation already given, may be re
garded as standards. The insertion of real capitals, or of figures, as
bearers (fig. 6) is rarer. The marble Candelabra of the Antique
usually terminate in a plate or table (fig. 7); and this is also the
case with the Renascence Candelabra intended to receive candles.
These were not placed in a cylindrical socket but stuck on a co
nical pricket.
On the decoration of Candelabra the reader may compare the
plates dealing with this subject in Division III, (Group of Utensils).
Plate 137. The Candelabrum Capital.
1 — 6. Antique, Museum, Naples.
7. Roman.
8. Renascence, drawing in the Uffizi, Florence.

The Balauster. (Plate 138.)
Balausters are small squat columns of circular or square plan.
Sometimes they are only symmetrical around their axis, sometimes
however they are also symmetrical in an upward and downward direc
tion. In most cases their construction is that of the candelabrum.
They may be divided into base, shaft, and capital.
Ranged side-by-side in a row, balausters are employed by the
Renascence and modem art in Parapets, Balconies, Attics, and Stair
cases. When the Balausters are placed on a Stair-case: the bases
and capitals are either slanting, or the horizontals of the Balausters
follow the slanting lines of the stair-case. The latter method was
adopted in the Decadence of the Renascence, but is unjustifiable; and
can, in any case, only be adopted with Balausters of a square or
oblong plan. A rich variety may be obtained by the use of square
and cylindrical forms in the same Balauster (fig. 5). The Balauster
is occasionally used as a support for Stalls, and on Furniture. R_-
guenet's "Documents et Materiaux" contains a large number of Ba
lausters; from which we have selected some examples.

SUPPORTS.

223

The Candelabrum Capital.

Plate 137.

224

SUPPORTS

Plate 138.

The Balauster.

The Balauster. — The Terminus. 225
Plate 138. The Balauster
1. Square plan, Italian Renascence, Sta. Maria della Salute,
Venice.
2. A system of square Balausters, Palazzo Pesaro, Venice.
3. Circular plan, Modern Italian.
4. Wood, Italian Renascence, stalls in Sta. Maria Novella, Flo
rence.
5. Modern French, Architect Roux, Paris.
6 — 7. Square wooden, (Bethke: "Der decorative Holzbauer").
8 — 9. Modern, terracotta.

The Terminus. (Plate 139.)
The Terminus is a pilaster -like support, the fundamental form
of which is characterized by tapering downwards in a manner re
calling an inverted Obelisk. The name is derived from the fact that
similiar constructions were used in the Antique as milestones and to
mark the Terminations of fields, &c. The Terminus consists of the
profiled base, not infrequently supported on a special pedestal (figs. 3
and 7); the shaft tapering downwards and usually ornamented with
festoons (figs. 3, 4, 5, 10); and the capital, which is often re
placed by a bust or half- figure (figs. 4, 5, 9). In this latter
case, it assumes the appearance of a caryatid; and, as the bust is
that of Hermes (the God of letters), this application is often termed
a "Hermes". Standing isolated, it serves as a Pedestal for busts and
lamps, as a Post for railings, and in gardens and terraces. The last
was exceedingly popular in the Rococo period. Joined to the wall,
the Terminus often takes the place of the pilaster. This is especially
true of the furniture and small architectural constructions of the
Renascence period. It is also not uncommon on Utensils, e. g. tri
pods, handles of pokers, seals, &c.
Plate 139. The Terminus.
1. Upper part, antique, silver treasure of Hildesheim, Berlin
Museum, (obviously from a Roman tripod).
2. Stone Terminus bust, Italian Renascence, Villa Massimi, Rome,
(Raguenet).
3. Stone Terminus bust, German Renascence, mantel-piece, town-
hall, Liibeck.
4. Stone Terminus bust, German Renascence, Otto -Heinrich build
ing, Heidelberg Castle.
5. Stone Terminus bust, German Renascence, monument, church
of the castle, Pforzheim.
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 1"

226

SUPPORTS.

Plate 139.

The Terminus.

The Terminus. — The Parapet — The Railing Post. 227
6 — 8. Wooden Terminus, Renascence.
9. Small Terminus figure, German Renascence, National Museum,
Munich.
10. Terminus with mask, modern chimney-piece, (Gewerbehalle).

The Parapet. (Plate 140.)
Besides the Parapets which are formed by rows of balausters,
there are others which are arrangements of pierced or perforated
tsone or wood, and cast or wrought iron. The Gothic style prefers
Tracery, the Renascence prefers Scrolls for stone parapets (figs. 1
and 8). Parapets of perforated wood, which are typical of Swiss
architecture, are composed of strips of boards, with shapes more or
less rich, care being taken that the intervening spaces also form
pleasing shapes.
To construct Parapets in the form of bi-axial trellises, was a popular
custom of the Renascence; and it has continued so to the present
day. But the function of the supports is only fully shown when
the pattern has an upward direction. This, however, does not ex
clude the use of other treatments, e. g. panels. Raguenet has nume
rous examples.
Plate 140. The Parapet.
1. Modem Gothic, stone, Viollet-le-Duc, (Raguenet).
2. Modern Gothic, stone, Viollet-le-Duc, Castle of Pierrefonds,
(Raguenet).
3. Stone, German Renascence, Dagobert tower, new Castle, Baden-
Baden.
4—5. Trellis, Schinkel, (Vorb. f. Fabr. u. Handw).
6. Modern French, H6tel Mirabeau, Paris, Architect Magne,
(Raguenet).
7. Trellis, Barocco, wrought-iron, French.

Bailing Post. (Plate 141.)
Staircase railings, are formed of rows of upright Posts. These
are of slender, delicate form; and take the place of the stouter
balauster. The usual materials for balausters are stone, terracotta, and
wood; the Railings, on the other hand, are of metal, or, in their
simpler forms, of wood. In the last decades, cast- iron was the ma-
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Plate 140.
The Parapet.
SUPPORTS.

229

The Railing Post.

Plate 141.

2S0 The Railing Post. — The Furniture Leg.
terial most often used; but lately a return has been made to
the more plastic wrought-iron. The ornamentation depends on
the material selected. Wrought - iron Posts are decorated with
scrolls and tendrils, while cast - iron uprights are decorated in
bas- relief If the Railing-post has to stand on a horizontal plane, it is ad
visable to construct the foot in the manner shown in figs. 3, 4,
and 5; if it is to be affixed to the sides of the treads of a staircase,
arrangements similar to those in figs. 2, 7, and 8, are necessary. Where
the upper end has to support the hand-rail, independent terminations,
like figs. 2 and 5, may be adopted. Spherical heads may be applied
to all angles (fig. 4).
Plate 141. The Railing Post.
1. Modern Post, cast-metal, Architect v. Leins, Stuttgart, (Ge
werbehalle).
2. Modem Post, cast-metal, Architect v. Hoven, Frankfurt, (Ge
werbehalle).
3. Modern Post, wrought-iron, (Gewerbehalle).
4. „ „ cast-metal.
5. „ „ architects Gropius and Schmieden.
6. Plain wooden Post.
7 — 8. Modern Posts, cast- metal, Architect v. Hoven, Frankfurt

The Furniture Leg. (Plate 142.)
The Legs of wood furniture may be divided into two classes
according to their height. Tables and chairs have high Legs; low
Legs or Feet serve as supports for all kinds of cabinet and box-like
articles. The general plan is that of a balauster -like body of revolution
as turned on the lathe. Angular forms, however, are also used.
High Legs are frequently decorated with carved ornaments; low
Legs are usually left plain; and this would seem to be in accordance
with their character.
Metal Feet are sometimes used for small pieces of furniture like
caskets. Where the Legs have to stand on the floor: it is advisable to
taper them downwards (figs. 5 — 10); where they have to stand on
raised platforms and seldom require to be moved: it is better to
furnish them with a pedestal (fig. 1). It has lately become fashion
able to apply metal casters to pianos, heavy chairs, couches, &c.

Tae furniture Leg. — The Trapezophoron. 231

Plate 142. The Furniture Leo

1.

Modern.

2.

Modern.

3.
Modern.
4.
Modern.
5-
-10.
Various old
designs^
The Trapezophoron. (Plates 143 — 144.)
"Trapezophoron" is the name given to the support of the Antique
table. They were usually of marble, the top itself was of wood or
stone, sometimes ornamented with mosaic.
We may distinguish two principal classes of Antique tables: the
circular table with three legs (compare Plate 143. 1); and the oblong
table, resting on two end -supports (compare 143. 2 and 144. 6).
The lower part, of the support of the round table, consists of a great
leg which generally passes into a foliated calyx with a small head of
a lion, lynx, panther, or other animal growing out of it (143. 5 — 10).
The heads are sometimes human (144. 5) or human half- figures, such
as the genius bearing a bowl on Plate 144. 2 — 3. In the early
period of Antique art we find forms of more architectonic character
like Plate 144, fig I. The end-support for the oblong table is a
symmetrical duplication of the motive of the single leg already men
tioned, with the addition of wings, and with the space between the
animal forms filled either by figures or ornaments (Plate 143. 2 — 4
and 144. 6). Very striking in both classes of support is the differ
ence in scale of the various elements (a phenomenon which also
appears elsewhere in Roman art).
On Antique table-legs the reader may also consult Division HI,
(Furniture).
Plate 143. The Trapezophoron.
1. Three-legged table, Roman, Legs of marble, table -top of
mosaic.
2 — 3. Front and side view of the Support of a Roman table, found
in the atrium of the house of Cornelius Rufus in Pompeii,
(Fragments de .'architecture).
4. Support of antique table.
5 — 6. Marble support of Roman table, Lynx head and claw, Museum,
Naples.
7 — 8. Marble support of Roman table, Panther head and claw, Bri
tish Museum.
9 — 10. Marble support of Roman table, Lion head and claw, Vatican,
Rome.
232

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The Furniture Leg.

SUPPORTS.

233

The Trapezophoron.

Plate 143.

234

SUPPORTS.

Plate 144.

The Trapezophoron.

The Trapezophoron. — The Console. 235
Plate 144. The Trapezophoron.
1. Marble support of antique table, Museum, Naples (judging from
the symbolism of the ornamentation, the leg is probably from
a table sacred to Zeus), (L'art pour tous).
2 — 3. Front and side view of a small Roman table -support, marble,
Naples Museum, Panther claw, Eros garbed with the nebris.
4. Roman table-support, marble, British Museum.
5. „ „ „ , Head of Hercules and lion claw,
Vatican.
6. Antique Support, marble, (Vulliamy).

The Console. (Plates 145—147.)
The form of the Console is extremely varied; as are its uses
and applications. It is determined by the function, and the material
of which it is made, as well as by the style of the period.
Architectural members of the character of Consoles are early
found in the Chinese and Indian, as also in the Assyrian style; but
in the Egyptian style they are wanting.
Volute Consoles, very beautifully developed, are found sporadi
cally in the Greek style; but the Roman style was the first to make
an extensive use of these forms.
The decorated ends of Beams are probably to be regarded as
the original model for Consoles. The S -shaped double volute, with a
large and a small spiral, is the standard form. In this Console, the
line of construction and the space for the actual decoration are given
in the side-view, while the front, which is subordinate, is ornamented
by scale motives, and leaves, which adapt themselves in graceful curves
to the standard forms.
When the Console is used in the Console-band of a Cornice, or
as the bracket of a Balcony, its attitude is recumbent. When it sup
ports the Cornices of doors and windows, its attitude is erect. No
other application is known in the Antique. A beautiful example
occurs on the North door of the Erechtheum at Athens (Plate 145.
1 — 2). Some examples of recumbent Consoles, of Roman style, are
given in figs. 3 — 8, of the same plate. The example 3 — 4, of the
Late Roman epoch, shows decorative accessories of Swans. The bend
of the curve of the volute here departs from the normal example,
and approaches a more convex curve, which is demanded by the static
calculation for these supports.
The Early Christian and Romanesque art adopted coarse copies
of the Antique, and also created new ones suited to the new require
ments. Thus early, we find those modillion forms which become
typical for the wooden architecture of the Middle ages, being chiefly

236 The Console.
used beneath mouldings, and in corners of doors between the jambs
and the lintel. The example on Plate 146. 11 may be taken as
representative of this kind of support. Another class of Supports
exhibits a central core, tapered downwards, like Pendants with a
polygonal or round plan (Plate 147. 1 and 2). This latter form is
also used in Gothic art as a Bracket for the Statues of the saints,
which were applied to piers and the arches of portals.
The Renascense remodels the last-named console in its own way,
but recurs by preference to the Antique form (Plate 146. 3), some
times reversing the volutes (Plate 146. 1 — 2), and giving the front
a richer and more independent ornamentation (Plate 146. 6). The
combination of several smaller consoles to form a Composite - con
sole, is shown on Plate 146. fig. 5. Just as the Pendant-consoles
of the Gothic style imitate the calyx capital, so too does the Rena
scense remodel the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals for Consoles
(Plate 147. 4 — 6). In wood architecture, we meet with Consoles
which have the form of richly-decorated struts (Plate 146. 4).
The Barocco style, which followed the Renascence, also made
essential additions to the richness of the forms. The strict line of
the volute is abandoned and frequently broken by straight lines
(Plate 146. 7 — 10). The Console is shaped in front-view like a pen
dant Triangle, or typographical Tail-piece (Plate 147. 3 and 8). An
other invention of this period is the Triglyph-console (Plate 147. 7).
The Rococo period abandons the traditional standards, and sacri
fices construction to picturesque license. Shell-work, and unsymme
trical scrolls, serve as supports.
Modern art recasts the elements of former styles, without adding
anything essentially new, unless we regard as a novelty the custom
of placing busts, clocks, and knicknacks, on independent Consoles
which are used as Brackets.
Finally: we may mention that in almost every style, Consoles in
the various forms have been used as the Keystones of door and
window lintels, in which case they are, generally speaking, not
Supports, as they have nothing to support.
It should be considered inadmissible to apply distorted Consoles i. e.
those which have vertical sides though they are on the raking sofits
of pediments, as was done in the Late Roman period, and in imitation
thereof by the Renascence in some examples.
Examples, of all periods, will be found in Raguenet's work; and
an exhaustive essay on the Console by Dr. P. F. Krell in the Ge
werbehalle, 1870, No. 10.
Plate 145. The Console.
1 — 2. Front and side view, Greek, North door, Erechtheum, Athens.
3 — 4. Front and side view, Roman, Vatican.

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The Console.

Plate 145.

238

SUPPORTS.

Plate 146.

The Console.

SUPPORTS.

239

The Consule.

Plate 147.

240

SUPPORTS.

Plate 148.

The Bracket.

The Console. — The Bracket. 241
5 — 6. Roman, Front and side view, temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome
Vatican.
7 — 8. Roman, Front and side view, Vatican.
Plate 146. The Console.
1 — 2. Renascence, Side views, Vatican.
3. Renascence, Hdtel d'Assezat, Toulouse, (Raguenet).
4. Renascence, Wooden, French, Hotel d'Assezet, Toulouse, (Ra
guenet).
5. Renascence, Istrian limestone, Venetian, Hamburg, Museum.
6. Renascence, Marble, Italian, Sta. Maria de' Miracoli, Venice,
(Gropius).
7 — 8. Modern, French, Architect Roux, Paris.
q  in
11. Mediaeval, church, Athis, France.
Plate 147. The Console.
1. Romanesque, Noyon cathedral, 12th century, (Raguenet).
2. Gothic, St. Pierre sous Vezelay, (Gewerbehalle).
3. Renascence, French, castle, Blois.
4. — 5. Renascence, German, new Castle, Baden-Baden, (Gmelin).
6. Renascence, German, Heidelberg castle.
7. Renascence, Triglyph-console, Late French.
8. Modern, French, library, Louvre, Architect Lefuel, (Raguenet).
9. Modern, French, (Raguenet).
10. Modern, French, New casino, Lyons, Architect Porte, (Raguenet).

The Bracket. (Plate 148.)
A special class of Supports is formed by those wrought-iron
bearers which the Middle Ages, the Renascence, and Modern times,
have produced in the shape of Brackets. The uses of Brackets are
very various, e. g. in supporting Shop-signs, Conduit-pipes, Gargoyles,
Candles, Lamps, Hats, Coats, &c.
In form, they vary with the style and richness of the work
manship. Square, flat and round iron, enriched by chasing and other
methods of decoration, are used. They are frequently fastened to the
wall by the aid of ribbon-like strips of metal, which may themselves
be decorated with scrolls and curls.
The plate shows a number of such supports, of ancient and mo
dern date, destined for a variety of purposes. 1fi
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. Lv

242 The Bracket. — The Caryatid, and the Atlante.
Plate 148. The Bracket.
1 — 2. Part of Reading-desk, S. Benedetto, near Mantua, Italian Re
nascence, (Gewerbehalle).
8. Wrought-iron, Sign, Regensburg, German Renascence, (Muster
ornamente).
4. Wrouo-ht-iron bearer of conduit-pipe, Kloster Lichtenthal near
Baden, German Renascence, (Gmelin).
5. Wrought-iron bearer of water-stoup, sepulchral cross in ceme
tery, Kirchzarten, German Renascence, (Schauinsland).
6 — 7. Wrought-iron supports, for Gargoyles, German Renascence.
8. Wrought-iron, Sign, Modem, Architect Crecelius, Mainz.
9. Modem wrought-iron bracket, (Badische Gewerbezeitung).
The Caryatid, and the Atlante. (Plates 1 49 and 1 50.)
The freest and the richest motive for supports, is the Human
figure. As early as Egyptian and Persian architecture, we find human
fin_res as bearers of beams and roofs.
The Greek and Roman styles also make use of this motive. The
modern names for such supports are derived from the Ajatique. Accord
ing to Greek mythology, Atlas supports the vault of heaven at the
ends of the earth. Hence is derived the name "Atlantes" for these
male supporters. They are also sometimes termed "Telamons". The
name "Caryatids", for female supporting figures, is derived from the
town of Caryae in the Peloponnesus. According to another version the
Caryatids are imitations of the virgins who danced in the temple at
Cary® at the feast of Diana. According to Vitruvius, their intro
duction into architecture is owing to the fact that ladies of Carvse,
as a punishment for the support they rendered to the Persians, were
carried into captivity and compelled to serve as carriers of burdens.
The Caryatids are termed "Canephorse" (basket bearers), when capitals
in shape like a basket are interposed between their heads and the
superincumbent burden. Among well-known examples in the Antique
are the Atlantes in the temple of Jupiter at Agrigentum, and the
Caryatids of the Erechtheum at Athens.
The Middle Ages made little use of Atlantes and Caryatids; the
Renascence and the following stylos, on the contrary, used them freelyi
Atlantes and Caryatids occur isolated, and connected with walls;
and in both high and bas-relief. Sometimes the whole length of the
figure is employed, sometimes only the upper haK in conjunction with
a Console (Plate 149. 4 — 7), or with terminus-like bases (Plate 150.
4 — 5). Composite bearers in the form of double Caryatids are also
a popular motive, as shown by the example on Plate 150, from the
Louvre at Paris.

SUPPORTS.

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The Caryatid, the Atlante, &c.

Plate 149.
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244

SUPPORTS.

Plate 150.

The Carytid, &c.

The Caryatid, the Atlante, &c.

245

Plate 149. The Caryatid, the Atlante, &o.
1. Greek Caryatid, Erechtheum, Athens, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten
und Handwerker).
2. Antique Caryatid, ViDa Mattei, after Piranesi, (Vorbilder fur
Fabrikanten und Handwerker).
3 Modern French Atlante, house in Paris, Sculptor Caille, (Ra
guenet).
4 — 7. Modem, Front and side views of Half-figure Consoles, Ziegler
and Weber, Carlsruhe.
Plate 150. The Caryatid, &c.
1. Modern, Double Caryatid, Louvre, Paris, (Baldus).
2 — 8. Modern, Caryatids, Conservatoire des arts et metiers, Paris.
Sculptor E. Robert, (Raguenet).
4 — 5. Modern, Caryatids, Director C. Hammer, Nuremberg.
6 — 7. Modern, Caryatids, Director C. Hammer, Nuremberg.

1*m*>.

D.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.
(PANELS.)
That Method of treatment, which has for its object to decorate
a plane surface, and to cover it with ornament, &c, by means of
painting, inlaying, engraving, etching, &c, we term flat decoration.
This falls into two classes. Firstly the ornament may be de
signed for a definite, bounded space, such as an oblong, according to
artistic rules, so that it fits exactly into this space alone: in which
case it is a discontinuous or "Panel" ornament. Or, secondly, the
ornament may extend itself in every direction, repeating its details
without regard to any definite boundary: in which case it is a con
tinuous or "Diaper" ornament, such as a wall-paper.
Turning our attention first to discontinuous or Panel-ornament:
we shall find, in addition to objects whose boundaries are arbitrary
and to be fixed at will, that we have principally to consider the
following shapes: the Square, the other regular polygons, the Circle,
the Oblong, the Ellipse, the Lunette, the various forms of the Span-
rail, the Lozenge and the Triangle.
Geometrical, natural, and artificial elements, either singly or
combined, are used. The character of the ornament may be Natura
listic, or it may be Artificial, and adapted to some pre-arranged
leading-lines of the Shape. This book does not treat of examples of
the former character. Those of the latter character, i. e. Artificial
ornament, will depend on the attitude of the Panel with regard to
the Horizon.

Enclosed Ornament — The Square Panel. 247
When the panel is mon- axial, i. e. it is symmetrical on both
sides of one axis: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a vertical
surface. When it is developed regularly in all directions from
the centre of the figure, and is symmetrical to two or more
axes: then the panel-ornament is suitable to a horizontal surface. The
central feature of a horizontal panel is not infrequently emphasized
by a rosette ornament, while the decoration of the remaining surface
is kept in low-relief. Trifling variations, from absolute symmetry
and regularity, are often met- with; but they are confined to the
details, the impression of symmetry and regularity being preserved
in the general effect.
These remarks, as well as some further relations arising out of
the nature of the subject, we now proceed to illustrate in detail in
the following chapters and plates. For the most part we shall con
fine ourselves to the best known and most frequent figures; and
shall only offer some few examples of abnormal panels.

The Square Panel. (Plates 151 — 155.)
The lines, on which the decoration of the Square may naturally
be based, are the two Diagonals, and the two Diameters which join
the centre of the opposite sides. These lines cut each-other in a
common point, the centre of the shape; and form an eight-rayed star
with rays of alternately unequal lengths. They divide the figure
into 8 equal spaces, which are usually decorated with repeated orna
ment, and are therefore suitable to the horizontal attitude, (compare
Plate 151, figs. 2 — 6 and others). Numerically this mode of deco
ration is predominant. Rarer are the cases in which the angle is
once more bisected and the square consequently divided into 16 tri
angles, (compare Plate 154, fig. 7). The simplest decoration is the
many -rayed star, which is termed the Uraniscus, in the coffers or
Greek ceilings (comp. Plate 151, fig. 1). The centre of the figure is
generally accentuated by the addition of a rosette, and the direction
of growth, like plant-motives, is from the centre outwards (Plate 151,
fig. 2, 3, 5, 6 and others); or alternately from the centre outwards
and inwards (comp. Plate 151. 4). Slight variations from strict
symmetry and regularity are partly caused by the use of the geo
metrical interlaced band (Plate 153. 3 and 4), and are partly the
deliberate result of artistic freedom of conception (Plate 152. 2. and
151. 7). The latter example is highly remarkable in this respect;
and its originality may serve as a model. The example is also one
of the rare cases in which the ornamentation is symmetrical to the
Diagonals, and not to the Diameters.

248 The Square Panel.
Another kind of Square decoration is that in which it is sub
divided into separate spaces, each of which receives an independent
ornamentation. Plates 9 and 10 of the Handbook give a number of
such divisions of Squares; a similar mode of decoration will be
found on Plate 151, fig. 8, Plate 153, figs. 6 and 7, and elsewhere.
The decoration of the Square in an upright attitude, with symmetry
to one axis, belongs to the same category as the Oblong; and we
may therefore refer to what will be said below with reference to
this latter figure.
Square panel are to be found in all styles; we have taken some
striking examples from the coffer - ceilings of the Antique and the
Renascence, from the pavement-tiles of the Middle Ages, and from
the metal-work of the Renascence and Modern times.
Plate 151. The Square Panel.
1. Greek, Uraniscus, coffer of ceiling, Propylaea, Athens.
2. Roman, bas-relief, found during the rectification of the Tiber
near the Farnesina, Rome, in 1879, Museo Tiberino.
8. Assyrian pavement, Kouyunjik, (Owen Jones).
4 — 5. Greek, Coffers of ceilings, Propylaea, Athens.
6. „' „ „ „ , Athens.
7. „ „ „ „ , Parthenon.
8. Roman, mosaic pavement, Pompeii, (Owen Jones).
9. Byzantine, bas-relief, San Marco, Venice, (Owen Jones).
Plate 152. The Square Panel.
1. Decoration, of a book, 10th century, Library of the Duke of
Devonshire, (Racinet).
2. Scandinavian bas-relief, Celtic stone cross, churchyard, Meigle,
Angus, (Owen Jones).
3. Bas-relief, tomb of "Piene le Venerable", Cluny museum,
12th century, (L'art pour tous).
4 — 7. Mediaeval, tiles, (Owen Jones, Racinet &c).
8. Tiles, Cistercian monastery, Bebenhausen.
9. Moorish Tiles.
10. Gothic, tiles, Bloxham church, England, 15th century.
Plate 153. The Square Panel.
land 3. Inlaid work, 14th or 15th century, Sauvageot collection,
(Racinet).
2. Arabian mosaic, (Prisse d'Avennes).
4. Moorish, Alhambra, 14th century.
5. Arabian, wood door, 16th century, (L'art pour tous).

The Square Panel. — The Star-shape Panel. 249
6. Renascence, Intarsia, German (Hirth, Formenschatz).
7. Modern.
8 — 9. Renascence, Intarsia, Sta. Maria gloriosa ai Frari, Venice,
15th-century, (Musterornamente).
Plate 154. The Square Panel.
1. Renascence, Motive from a Robe in the Sacristy, Sta. Croce,
Florence, Italian.
2. Renascence, Tiles, Collection of the Count d'Yvon, (Racinet).
3. Renascence, Motive after Peter Flotner, German.
4. Renascence, Mosaic flooring, cathedral, Spoleto, (Jacobsthal;
the centre altered).
5. Renascence, Intarsia, stalls, Certosa near Pavia, Italian.
6. Renascence, Majolica Tiles, Sta. Caterina, Siena, Italian.
7. Renascence, Intarsia, door of the Cambio, Perugia, by Antonio
Mercatello, 1500, Italian.
8 — 10. Renascence, Door of the Madonna di Galliera, Bologna, Italian,
(Musterornamente).
Plate 155. The Square Panel.
1 and 3. Wrought-iron, French, 17th century, (L'art pour tous).
2 and 4. Wrought-iron, German Renascence, (Hirth, Formenschatz).
5. Wrought-iron, Oxford, 1713, (L'art pour tous).
6 — 7. Wrought-iron, Modern.
8 and 10. Wrought-iron, Modern, cemetery, Carlsruhe.
9. Wrought-iron, by Georg Rlain, Salzburg, 17th century.

The Star -Shape Panel. (Plate 156.)
The decoration of polygonal Stars is generally based on radiat
ing axes. Exceptions, in favor of symmetry to one or two axes, are
comparatively scarce (fig. 3).
Where there is no Sub-division into independent panels, accord
ing to Plates 11 and 12 of the Handbook (fig. 7): the ornament
follows the natural lines of division furnished by the diagonals. In
this case the number of the single, similar triangles of division
depends on the number of sides (fig. 6).
Decorated Star-shaped panels are extremely common in the Arabian
and Moorish styles, where the ornament is often of such a character
that it would very well suit a simple polygon, and only fills out
accidentally (so to speak) the star angles (figs. 4, and 5).

250

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plate 151.

The Square Panel.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

251

The Square Panel.

Plate 152.

252

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

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The Square Panel.
ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

253

The Square Panel.

Plate 154.

254

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plate 155.

The Square Panel.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

255

The Star-shape Panel.

Plate 156.

256 The Star-shape Panel. — The Circular PaneL
Plate 156. The Star-shape Panel.
1. Mural painting, S. Francesco, Assisi, (Hessemer).
2. Decoration of Arabic koran, 17th century, (Prisse d'Avennes)
8. Arabian architecture, (Prisse d'Avennes).
4 — 5. Arabian ceiling paintings, (Prisse d'Avennes).
6. Etched ornament, armour, National Museum, Munich, 16th cen
tury, (Gewerbehalle).
7 — 8. Arabian ceiling paintings, 18th century, (Prisse d'Avennes).

The Circular Panel. (Plates 157 — 160.)
The Circle may be regarded as a polygon of an infinite number
of sides. As it is impossible to take this infinite number into account,
it is usual, when working on radial axes to divide the Circle into
3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 16, similar parts, as indicated in the
figures. Another principle of frequent application is that of division into
Zones; each ring-like band being ornamented independently. This
principle predominates in the so-called archaic styles, e. g. on Etruscan
and Assyrian shields (Plate 157. 2, 4, and 5). This principle is ex
cellently adapted to the decoration of dishes and plates, the profiling
of which naturally points to a zonal division. The centre of the
Circle, which is sometimes decorated by a rosette, may also be filled
by some feature which is symmetrical to one axis or is unsym
metrical (Plate 157. 4). The latter mode of decoration has also been
adopted, although in comparatively rarer cases, for the decoration of
the Circle as a whole.
Geometrical sub-division of the circle, by the insertion of poly
gons, or arcs, is common, not only in Gothic tracery, which is specially
dependent on those processes, but in every other style (comp. the
tracery panels 7 and 8 on Plate 158, and the niello ornaments 7
and 8 on Plate 159). In many cases, the circular panel is decorated
by an ornament which is merely an enlarged Rosette or Cieling-
flower, so that no clear line can be drawn between the two classes,
(compare what has been said of the Rosette on p. 191).
Plate 157. The Circular Panel.
1. Assyrian, pavement, Nimrud, (Owen Jones).
2. Assyrian shield, Khorsabad, (Owen Jones).
8. Old Franki sh panel, Sacramentarium, Rheims.
4 — 5. Greek, paintings on Vases, (Lau).

The Circular Panel. 257
6. Celtic stone cross, Churchyard, St. Vigeans, Angus, (Owen
Jones).
7 — 8. Paintings on Greek, Vases, (Lau).
Plate 158. The Circular Panel.
1. Romanesque, manuscript, 12th century, (Racinet).
2. Modern, Early Gothic, (Ungewitter, Stadt- und Land-
kirchen).
3. Byzantine, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople, 6th century.
4. Mediaeval stone slab, 14th century, Museum, Rouen, (Racinet).
5. Ditto, Laon cathedral, (Racinet).
6. Ditto, wrought-iron key-handle.
7. Gothic Boss, 16th century, St. Benoit, Paris, (Racinet).
8. Gothic, old cabinet, United collections, Carlsruhe.
9 and 11. Gothic, Chip-carving, old cabinet, (Gewerbehalle).
10. Mediaeval glass-painting, Soissons cathedral, (Racinet).
Plate 159. The Circular Panel.
1. Arabian flat ornament, Mosque Eaonam-ed-din, (Prisse
d'Avennes).
2. Romanesque, minster, Basel. .
3. Arabian bas-relief, door, Cairo, 14th century, (Prisse d'Avennes).
4. As No. 1.
5. Arabian bas-relief, 16th century, (L'art pour tous).
6. Arabian, Sunk decoration, metal plaque, (Prisse d'Avennes).
7 — 8. Niello, Baltasar Silvius, 16th century, (Ysendyck).
9. Marble mosaic, floor, S. Vitale, Ravenna, (Hessemer).
10. Romanesque, portal, S. Laurence, Segovia, 12th century.
11. Arabian, Decoration of koran, 16th century, (Prisse d'Avennes).
Plate 160. The Circular Panel.
1. Renascence, Bas relief, Vendramini tomb, SS. Giovanni e
Paolo, Venice, Italian, (Meurer).
2 and 4. Renascence, Majolica Tiles, Sta. Caterina, Siena, Italian.
3. Renascence, Wrought-iron panel, San Salvator, Prague, German,
(Gewerbehalle).
5. Renascence, Church, Kamenz, German, (Gewerbehalle).
6. Renascence, Peter Flotner, German.
7. Modern, Centre of a Silver plaque, by Ihne and Stegmiiller
of Berlin, (Gewerbehalle).
8. Modem, ceiling of staircase, villa Croissy, Seine et Oise,
French, (Cesar Daly).
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. - '

258

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plate 157.

The Circular Panel.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

259

The Circular Panel.

Plate 158.
17*

260

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plate 159.

The Circul Panel.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

261

The Circular Panel.

Plate 160.

262 The Oblong Panel.
The Oblong Panel. (Plates 161—164.)
The shape of the Oblong is particularly adapted to receive both
a bi- axial and a mon-axial treatment; and as it is by far the most fre
quently-used shape: numerous examples of the two treatments are to
be found in all styles.
When the Oblong is not sub-divided (as shown on Plates 13 to
16.), the natural axes, around which the ornament is grouped are,
for the bi -axial treatment, the two diameters, which join the centres
of the opposite sides. These lines divide the figure into 4 smaller
oblongs, each of which receives an identical decoration (comp.
Plate 161, figs. 1 — 3, and Plate 162, figs. 1 — 5). To use the
diagonals as lines of symmetry, as is the rule with the square, pro
duces an unfavourable effect; because the 8 triangles thus formed,
although similar to each other, do not present the same angle to the
centre (comp. Plate 161. 4). This panel differs from the usual rule,
as the organic growth of the ornament is not from the centre out
wards, but from the 4 angles inwards.
The strict Greek palmette ornamentation, which has such an
excellent effect in the Square, is less suitable for the Oblong (Plate
161, figs. 1 and 2) than the freer decorations of the Roman period
(Plate 161. 3) and the Renascence (Plate 162. 1 — 5).
On vertical surfaces: the attitude of the Oblong panel may be
either "figure-wise", or "landscape-wise". Examples of the former
attitude are figs. 2 and 3; and of the latter are, figs. 1 and 5 on
Plate 164. The vertical line through the centre is the axis of these.
The ornament is seldom geometrical; organic or artificial motives are
mostly used. The mon-axial treatment is most properly employed
where it is applied in a really vertical plane, e. g. on Pilasters (comp.
p. 225, shafts of pilasters), on Walls, Doors, &c. The poly-axial treat
ment is best adapted for the decoration of horizontal planes, such as
Floors, Ceilings, &c.
Copious material is furnished by the inlaid-work, bas-reliefs, and
metal-work, of the Renascence.
Plate 161. The Oblong Panel.
1 — 2. Greek, Painted coffers of ceilings, Propylaea, Athens, (Owen
Jones).
8. Roman.
4. Roman, under-side of the architrave, Temple of Vesparian, Rome.
5. Renascence, Church, Kamenz, German, (Gewerbehalle).
Plate 162. The Oblong Panel.
1. Renascence, Intarsia, Cabinet, Perugia, Italian, (Jacobsthal).
2. Renascence, Palazzo vecchio, Mantua, Italian, (Jacobsthal).

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

263

The Oblong Panel.

Plate 161.

264

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plate 162.

The Oblong Panel.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

265

The Oblong Panel.

Plate 163.

266

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plate 164.

The Oblong Panel.

The Oblong Panel. — The Elliptic Panel. 267
3. Renascence, Marzuppini tomb, Sta. Croce, Florence, (Jacobsthal).
4. Renascence, Tomb, Stiftskirche, Stuttgart, German, (Musterornamente).
5. Renascence, S. Michael's, Schwabisch-Hall, German, (Musterorna
mente).
Plate 163. The Oblong Panel.
1. Renascence, Wrought-iron Grill, Italian, (Gewerbehalle).
2. Wrought-iron Grill, Choir of S. Blasius, Muhlhausen, Thuringia,
17 th century, (Musterornamente).
8 — 4. Ivory inlays, by Hans Schieferstein, 16th century, Museum,
Dresden.
5. Wrought-iron, house, Freiburg, Switzerland, 17th century,
(L'art pour tous).
6. Ornament, over picture of saint, by Barthel Beham, Carlsruhe,
German Renascence.
7 — 8. Stalls of the Laurentian Library, Florence, Italian Renascence.
Plate 164. The Oblong Panel.
1. Grill, Schlettstadt, 1649, (Gewerbehalle).
2 — 3. Intarsia, S. Petronio, Bologna, 1495, (Musterornamente).
4. Wrought-iron balaustrade, 18th century.
5. Wrought-iron, French, 18th century.
6. Wrought-iron, Stift Strahov, Prague, German, Renascence.

The Elliptic Panel. (Plate 165.)
As regards the principle of decoration, the Ellipse bears the same
relation to the Circle that the Oblong does to the Square. When not
sub-divided (see Plate 20, fig. 15), it is treated either mon-axially,
with the ornament symmetrical to one of the axes (fig. 1); or it is
treated bi-axially, with the ornament symmetrical to both (figs. 2
to 8). The Elliptic panel was not often used in decoration during the
best periods. In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was used as the form
for -snuff-boxes, sweet-boxes, &c, the decoration being carried-out in
niello, and similar metal work. It was also in use during the same
period in centre-ornaments for the covers of books. From such examples,
most of the figures on the Plate have been taken.
Plate 165. The Elliptic Panel.
1 — 2. Renascence, German, (Formenschatz).
3. Centre of a book-cover, gold blocking on vellum, German
16th century, (Storek).

268 The Elliptic Panel. — The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels.
4 — 7. Renascence, Book-cover blocks, Germanisches Museum, Nurem
berg. German, (Musterornamente).
8. Renascence, Pavement, tomb of Princess Johanna Elisabeth,
Stiftskirche, Stuttgart.

The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels.
(Plates 166—167.)
The Semicircle scarcely admits of any entirely satisfactory sub
division. The best method is to describe a circle in the semicircle
so that the circle touches the centre of the semicircle above and the
centre of its chord below; this arrangement is especially useful when
a medallion or a clock is to be placed in it. There are two methods
of decorating the Lunette: either an upright panel - ornament is de
signed symmetrical to one axis, an anangement which is the best, as
the semicircle, in the majority of cases, is used on vertical planes
(Plate 167. 1 and 3); or the Semicircle is divided, like a fan, into a
number of sectors, which receive an identical decoration, an arrange
ment which is chiefly adopted for Door-heads (Plate 166. 2). In
such cases a central semicircle is usually inserted; and the small
panel, thus formed, is decorated independently. The object of this
is to obviate the inelegant and difficult accumulation of radii at the
centre. In consequence of an optical illusion, the semicircle gives the
impression of being really less than the half of the whole circle; and
for this reason it is sometimes "stilted", that is the centre of the arc
does not lie on the springing-line, but is shifted a little higher.
The name "spanrail" is given to the spaces of various shape
which remain after circular shapes are taken-away from quadrangular
ones. The commonest figure of this kind is the Trianguloid, which
is formed on either side of a semicircle when this latter is described
in an oblong Frame. The same shape results when a circle is inscribed
in a square, which frequently occurs in the decoration of ceilings. Some
times the decoration of the Trianguloid consists of a rosette in its
centre; or laurel, palm, and oak sprays, circular wreaths, and waving
ribbons, trophies, figures in relief, and similar motives, in a more or less
naturalistic style, are employed. In severer decoration, the axis of
symmetry is the line of bisection of the right angle. The motives are
sometimes geometrical (Plate 166. 5 — 6); but more frequently organic
(Plate 167. 4 — 5); and, among artificial forms, varieties of strapwork
are used (Plate 167. 6 — 9).
When a series of arcs has a common bounding straight line, the
Spanrail is shaped as shown by fig. 4, Plate 166. This figure is the

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

26!)

The Elliptic Panel.

Plate 165.

270

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plat© 166. The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT

271

The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels. Plate 167.

272 The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels. — Various Panels.
same as two conjoined Trianguloids. It has a vertical central axis.
Another well-known shape results when two smaller semicircles
are takeU-away from a larger, as when, for instance, two round-headed
windown lights are enclosed by a common arch. Finally we may
mention the Quadrant, which is not infrequently used in the angles
of ceilings (figures 7 and 8 of Plate 166).
PlAte 166. The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panels.
1. Roman, (Vulliamy).
2. Italian Renascence, (Gewerbehalle).
3. Arabian, (Prisse d'Avennes).
4. Early Gothic Spanrail, Stone Church, England.
5 — 6. Arabian, mosaic Spanrail, (Prisse d'Avennes).
7 — 8. Modem.
Plate 167. The Lunette, and the Spanrail Panel.
1. Renascence, intarsia, Sta. Maria in Organo, Verona, Italian.
2. Wrought-iron Grill.
3. Renascence, Wrougth-iron Grill, German.
4. Renascence, plinth of a column, St. Antonio, Padua, (Meurer).
5. Modern, Vaudeville theatre, Paris, (Raguenet).
6 — 9. Renascence, by Vredeman de Vries.
The Lozenge Panel. (Plate 168.)
The Lozenge in decorative art includes the Rhombus, and the
Square when one of its diagonals is vertical. The Lozenge is treated
either as an upright panel, symmetrical to one axis (figs. 2, 4, and
5); or the two diagonals are the axes of symmetry for a bi- axial
pattern (figs. 1, and 3). In the former case, the ornament consists of
two; and in the latter case of four, similar parts. The Lozenge is
not often employed. Occasionally it finds a place as a panel ic
Lattices, Doors, Dadoes, Ceilings, &c.
Plate 168. The Lozenge Panel.
1. Door, Nordlingen church, 17 th century.
2 — 8. Grill, Townhall, Wurzburg, German Renascence.
4 — 5. Modern decorative painting.

Various Panels. (Plates 169 — 170.)
Plate 169 and 170 give a number of incidental Panel-shapes,
of which there is a great variety. The principle of decoration must

enclosed ornament

273

The Lozenge Panel.

Meyer, Handbook of OrDament.

Plate 168.
18

274

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

Plate 169.

Various Panels.

ENCLOSED ORNAMENT.

275

Various Panels.

Plate 170.
18*

276 Various Panels.
be adapted to each case; and should follow the analogy of the prin
ciples enunciated above. Thus, for example, regular polygons with
convex or concave sides (Plate 170. 1 and 2); are treated similarly
to polygons with straight sides.
Figures like those on Plate 169. 7 and 8, are decorated in the
manner of an Oblong or an Ellipse. The ornament of Plate 169. 1,
recalls the decoration of the Lunette.
The Trapezoid is treated either as an upright panel, the central
axis being perpendicular to the two parallels; or the ornamentation
approaches that of a bi-axial Oblong panel; but it will be somewhat
modified, to fit the angles (Plate 170. 4 and 5). This latter cir
cumstance has also to be taken into consideration in the case of a
right-angled Triangle of unequal sides, when the line of bisection of
the right-angle is used as the axis of symmetry (Plate 170. 6); an
unsymmetrical arrangement is best in this case, see figures 7 to 9 on
the same plate. This latter free style of design, which is not bound
by axial lines, may also be recommended for the Raking Parallelo
grams which occur on staircases.
Plate 169. Various Panels.
1. Wrought-iron Grill, Townhall, Villingen, late German Re
nascence.
2 — 3. Balaustrade of staircase, Frankfort on the Main, German 16th
century, {Gewerbehalle).
4 — 5. Grill, Pulpit-steps, Thann, German 16th century, (Gewerbe
halle).
6. Grill, Padua, Italian Renascence.
7. Detail of Lattice, late German Renascence.
8. * Grill, late German Renascence.
Plate 170. Various Panels.
1. Trefoil tracery, Gothic, (Jacobsthal).
2. Mural painting, Swedish, Romanesque, (Racinet).
3. Louvre, Paris.
4 — 5. Marble inlaid- work, Pulpit, Cathedral, Savona, Italian Renascence,
(Meurer).
6 — 9. Triangular panels, Stalls of the Laurentian Library, Florence,
ascribed to Michel Angelo.

I I

E.

REPEATING ORNAMENT.
(DIAPERS.)
It is the essence, of repeated ornament, that it may be ex
tended on all sides at discretion, the component parts of the design
(i. e. the pattern) admitting of unintenupted repetition. The ele
ments are either geometrical, organic, or, as in the majority of cases,
geometrical are combined with organic elements, sometimes with the
addition of figures and artificial accessories. Diaper ornament has
either a poly-axial or a bi-axial character. In the former case, the
decoration expands regularly on all sides; the basis is a system of inter
secting axes of symmetry, as shown in the square or triangular Nets on
Plate 1. In the second case, the decoration consists of growth in an up
ward direction, the repetition on each side being secured by "turning
the pattern over" symmetrically, or by juxtaposition (in the usual sense
of the word). Here, also, combination frequently occurs to this
extent that many patterns have a poly-axial basis while single panels
and medallions have upright decoration.
Growth in a downward direction, or in an oblique upward di
rection, &c, must be classed as exceptions to the rule.
When Diaper patterns are applied to circumscribed surfaces, e.
g. on Walls: they are either cut-off abruptly, as in Wall-papers, or
are stopped-short of the limits, and a Border is applied. There is
seldom much difficulty in the case of geometrical patterns; but with
organic designs the sides of the upright patterns usually terminate
at the axis of symmetry.
Diaper ornament is applied to many purposes. Mosaic, Parquetry,
Marquetry, using geometrical patterns; the Textile, Wall-paper, and

278 The Square Diaper, Circle Diaper, &c.
Wall-painting crafts using the organic elements; and Floor- cover
ings, Glass -painting, Inlaying, and similar Metal-decorations, using
both. The treatment of large Grills sometimes demands a repeated
pattern, that may be expanded at will; so that we may add this
branch to the others.

The Square Diaper. (Parquetry.) (Plate 171.)
Parquetry is the term applied to the overlaying of flooring with
mosaic of hard woods. The patterns are almost exclusively geo
metrical; the basis is the quadrangular or triangular Net. The single
parts are first put together to form square or regular hexagonal
figures, which are then tongued and grooved, and fixed to the boards.
The Plate shows a number of modern Parquet-patterns: figures 2, 8,
9 and 10 being based on the triangular; and the others on the qua
drangular Net. Parquet-patterns which are so designed that the floor
has the effect of projections and hollows, are inadmissible because
they are unsuited to a Floor, which is intended to be walked on,
and should, therefore, be flat in design as well as in reality.
Plate 171. The Square Diaper, &c.
1 — 10. Modern Parquet-patterns.

The Circle Diaper. (Mosaic) (Plate 172.)
Mosaic (opus musivum) is, in its wider sense, the designing and
inlaying of pieces of stone, wood, glass, leather, straw, &c, to make
a picture or pattern. More strictly: Mosaic means pictures and
patterns composed of pieces of stone, pottery, pearl, and glass, the
last being coloured or underlaid with metal-foil.
There are two principal classes of such Mosaic. The opus tesse-
latum is composed of small pieces, mostly cubes, held together by
being inlaid in a kind of cement. The opus sectile is composed of
little slabs, varying in shape according to the object to be repre
sented. Mosaic work is very ancient; and is mentioned as early as
the Book of Esther. A large number of Roman mosaic pavements, in
opus tesselatum, have been preserved to us. Early Christian art also
decorated walls and piers with geometrical mosaic (opus Grecanicum),
numerous examples of which are to be found in Ravenna, Palermo,
Venice, and elsewhere. All kinds of mosaic have been practised in
Italy down to the present day, less, it is true, for the decoration of
walls and pavements than for Ornaments, Pictures, Table-tops, &c.

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

279

The Square Diaper, &c.

Plate 171.

280

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

Plate 172.

The Circle Diaper, &c.

The Circle Diaper, Scale Diaper, &c. 281
In the Arabian and the Moorish styles, incrustations of Mosaics in
stone and glazed terracotta were a popular method of wall-decoration.
The art of mosaic has never acquired a firm footing in northern
conn trie:.
Plate 172. The Circle Diaper, &c.
1. Mosaic, cathedral, Monreale, Sicily.
2. Arabian mosaic, stucco on stone, (Prisse d'Avennes).
3. Roman mosaic.
4. Marble mosaic, windows, cathedral, Florence, (Hessemer).
5. Geometrical pattern, Sta. Croce, Florence.
6. Marble mosaic, San Vitale, Ravenna, (Hessemer).
7. Modern tesselated mosaic, Sorrento.
8 and 10. Moorish mosaic, Ambassadors' Hall, "Alhambra, Granada,
(Owen Jones).
9. Arabian mosaic, stucco on stone, (Prisse d'Avennes).

The Scale Diaper, &c. (Enamel.) (Plate 173.)
Where the surfaces of metal utensils and vessels are to receive
a flat decoration this is usually effected by engraving, etching, dam
askeening, enamel, or niello work. In the process of Engraving, the
decoration is engraved by means of the graving-tool, and the hollows
in some cases filled up with coloured lacquer, &c. In Etching, the
metallic surface is protected against the action of the etching-fluid
by being coated with a film, so that the design is sunk where the.
protecting film is removed by the Artist. In Damaskeening, the pre
cious metals are fastened on iron and steel, by being hammered into
engraved hollows which have been undercut with a roughened ground.
The processes of Enamelling are very various. In the cloison process:
bent bands or fillets of metal (cloisons) are soldered-on to the metal
ground, and the hollows or cells thus formed are filled with pulve
rised glass paste (glass coloured with metallic oxides) which are then
vitrified by heat. In the sunk or "champ-leve" process: the hollows
in the metallic ground are produced by the graver, or by casting
and subsequent chasing, and are then filled with enamel. Niello
resembles black enamel: the enamel paste being replaced by a com
position *of metal and sulphur.
Enamel work (sunk-work) was known in Antique times. The
Cologne enamel was celebrated in the Middle Ages. Cloison ename!
has been practised in the East, in China, and in Japan, from the
earliest times. The so-called Limoges "enamel" is painted on a plain
metal ground, without any previous cloisons or any sunk -fields for

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

Plate 173.

The Scale Diaper, &c.

The Scale Diaper, Circle Diaper, &c. 283
the pigments. Damaskeened objects are found in German and Old
Frankish tombs. This art, however, disappeared in the West only to
be pursued more energetically in the East, where it still flourishes,
e. g. in Persia, and India. Niello, Engraved, and Etched work were
most fashionable at the time of the Renascence.
Plate 173. The Scale Diaper, &c.
1 — 3. Chinese and Japanese.
4, 5 and 9. Indian and Persian
6 and 7. Renascence.
8 and 10. Mediaeval, (Cologne enamel).

The Circle Diaper, &c. (Tiles.) (Plate 174.)
The decoration of walls and pavements, with glazed clay Tiles,
dates back as early as Assyrian times.
The Middle Ages made a most extensive use of pavement tiles.
The individual tiles are mostly of a square shape; and vary in size
from 3 ins. to 6 ins. The pattern is generally in intaglio; and fre
quently filled -in with clay of another color. The designs of these tiles
are usually excellent. The tile contains either the whole of the
repeating ornament; or only a part of it so that 4 tiles form the unit
of design. These tiles are common in England, France, and Ger
many. Majolica tiles are used in Italy; and are generally adopted for
the Wall-decoration so popular in England.
Plate 174. The Chicle Diaper, &c.
1 — 10. Various mediaeval tiles, after Owen Jones, Racinet, and others.
1. Fontenay, Cote d'Or.
4 and 7. Rouen Museum.
5. Cathedral, St. Omer.
6. Troyes, Archives de l'Aube.

The Circle Diaper, &c. (Stained Glass.) (Plate 175.)
Window-glazing is an introduction of the Middle Ages, and was
unknown to the Antique. Coloured windows were first used for
Churches. The oldest process consisted in fitting -together pieces of
coloured glass in the mosaic style. About the year 1000, the prin
cipal place of manufacture was Kloster Tegernsee. In the 11th and

284

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

Plate 174.

The Circle Diaper, &c.

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

285

The Circle Diaper, &c.

Plate 175.

286 The Circle Diaper, &e — Various Diapers.
12th centuries, painting begins, followed by Glass-painting strictly
so-called, the design being outlined in brown paint; flashed glass, &c.
followed later.
After passing through a period of decadence ; and almost vanishing
during the last two centuries; Glass-painting has, of late years, again
become the object of great attention, and especially that branch which,
leaving strict painting on one side, produces its most striking effects
with coloured glass and leaden cames. The vigorous outlines,
produced by the lead-setting, enhance the brilliancy of the colours.
and prevent the unpleasant optical effect produced by the blending of
contiguous tints.
We have here to deal only with the ornamental decoration ol
snrfaces by painting or mosaic. The best examples are to be found
in the transition period from the Romanesque to the Gothic style in
the churches of Germany, France, and England, the three countries
which may be regarded as the true home of stained glass.
Plate 175. The Circle Diaper, &c.
1 — 10. Various patterns, Romanesque and Early Gothic (Owen Jones,
Racinet, and others).
1 and 9. Chartres cathedral.
2 and 3. Bourges cathedral.
6. Soissons cathedral.

Various Diapers. (Mural Painting.) (Plates 176 — 177.)
The models and precursors of Mural-decoration are to be looked-
for in hangings of carpets and textiles. The Egyptian style offers
the earlist known examples of the decoration of surfaces by means of
wall-painting. The scheme is generally a Meander or similar pattern,
varied by rosettes, &c. (Plate 177. 1 and 2). The Pompejan artists
used figures and architectural representations in perspective instead
of Diaper patterns. Early Christian art used mosaics, which were
gradually driven-out by wall-painting during the Romanesque, and
Gothic periods. Churches and public buildings are again the first
edifices whose interiors were decorated by "tapestry paintings", as we
may term this style of decoration in view of the mutual relation
between it and textile art. With respect of the principles of design:
we may refer the reader to the general introduction, page 277, and
to the plates 176 — 177. The use of Wall-papers in Modern times has
greatly narrowed the sphere of Mural painting: its principal task'
being now confined to the decoration of Public Buildings.

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

287

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Various Diapers.

Plate 176.

288

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

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Plate 177.

Various Diapers.

Various Dianera. 289
Plate 176. Various Diapers.
1 — 2. Painting, old cabinet, Brandenburg, beginning of the 15th
century, (Musterornamente).
3. Painting, Sta. Croce, Florence, Italian Renascence.
4 — 5. Painting, consistory church, Assisi, 13th century, (Hessemer).
6 and 10. Modern French, church painting.
7. Painting, castle of Trausnitz, Landshut, end of 16th century,
(Gewerbehalle).
9. Painting, Palazzo del Podesti, Florence, 14th century, (Muster
ornamente).
Plate 177. Various Diapers.
1. Ancient Egyptian, meander.
2. Ancient Egytian, ceiling painting, (Racinet).
3 — 5. Arabian paintings, Kaitbey mosque, (Prisse d'Avennes).
6. Arabian mural painting, mosque of Ibrahim Aga, Cairo, (Hessemer).

Various Diapers. (Weaving.) (Plates 178 — 179.)
The artistic decoration of Textile fabrics goes back to the very
earliest times; and is of a most varied character. After the decoration
of animal Skins, by sewing and embroidering, came the creation of
patterns in plaited Mats by the use of material of various colours;
and this again was followed by the different products of Weaving,
variegated by the use of coloured yarns, by Embroidery, by Print
ing, &c. It is due to the perishability of the material that scarcely
any products of the loom of the older epochs are to be found in our
museums; and that we can only infer their patterns from descriptions
and pictures. All the richer, on the other hand, is the choice offered
by the Renascence, the Middle Ages, and the East.
It would go beyond the scope of this book to give a detailed
historical and technical description of Textile industry; and we refer
the reader to the special works and monographs on this subject*.
Usually the mode of decoration depends on the object, and varies with
the artistic conceptions of the different styles. By the side of purely
geometrical patterns (Plate 179. 1 and 3), we find organic elements in a
geometrical framing (Plate 178. 1 and 2, Plate 179, 4). By the side of
poly-axial arrangements (Plate 179. 1, 2 and 3), there are others with
mon-axial features (Plate 178. 1 and 2). By the side of symmetrical
"turn-over" patterns (Plate 178. 3), we have others unsymmetrical
(Plate 178. 4). By the side of Artificial flowers and rosettes powdered

* Otto v. Schorn, "Die Textilkunst". Leipzig.
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. I-*

290 Various Diapers.
over the ground (Plate 179. 9), there occur natural elements like
the curious Japanese design on Plate 179, fig. 7; and so on. The
great principle of style, in the standard examples of all periods, is the
avoidance of representations of relief, or of perspective views of archi
tecture, which contradict the nature of the flat surface. Important
is also the proper distribution of the masses, so that distracting lines
or empty spaces may be avoided. Of equal importance with the design
is the Colour, but the plan of this work compels us to leave it out
of consideration. Next to the fabrication of Textiles for ecclesiastical vestments
and secular garments: the most important manufacture is that of Car
pets, and of Tapestries for use on walls, as curtains, portieres, &c.
Of the introduction of the latter into painting, we have already
spoken, on Plate 176. Here we will only refer to the tapestried
backgrounds, common in pictures of the 14th to the 16th century,
examples of which are to be seen in figs. 3 and 4 of Plate 178.
Woollen and silk tapestry were followed by sheets of Stamped-leather,
an Arabian invention, which in its turn was followed by the modern
Wall-paper, at first in painted single Sheets, and afterwards in the
printed Rolls now so common. That we do not devote a special
chapter of our work to this important product of modern art, is due
to the fact that a difference between Mural painting and Textile pat
terns really only exists in the mode of manufacture, there being no
essential distinction in respect of Design. Modern Wall-papers have,
on the average, a breadth of 21 ins., on which the pattern is arranged
once or oftener, according to the size of the design. The repeating
of the pattern in an upward direction is partly due to technical con
siderations. In printing by hand from a wooden block, the length of
the repeating pattern varies from 21 ins. to 30 ins.
Plate 178. Various Diapers.
land 5. Mediaeval textile, (Gewerbehalle).
2. Textile, 12th century, original in silk and gold; found in a
tomb in the Abbey of St. Germain des Pres, Paris, (Racinet).
3. Patterned gold ground of altar shrine, monastery of Heil
bronn, end of 15th century, (Gewerbehalle).
4. Patterned gold ground of altar shrine, church of St. Egidius,
Barthfeld, (Gewerbehalle).
o. French silk tapestry, 15th century, (L'art pour tous).
Plate 179. Various Diapers.
1. Bishop's robe, Sacristy, Sta. Croce, Florence.
2. Pillow pattern, tomb, St. George's, Tubingen, German Renascence,
(Gewerbehalle).

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

291

¦0*^.

Various Diapers.

Plate 178.

19*

292

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

Plate 179.

Various Diapers.

REPEATING ORNAMENT.

293

Various Grill Diapers.

Plate 180.

294 Various Diapers.
3. Lace, 16th century, German, by Hans Siebmacher.
4. Stamped-leather, book-cover, 17th century, (Gewerbehalle).
5. Textile, German Renascence, (Musterornamente).
6. Carpet, Rottweil, German Renascence, (Gewerbehalle).
7. Modern Japanese silk, (L'art pour tous).
8. Painted gold ground, St. Lorenzo, Rottweil, end of the 15tb
century, (Musterornamente).
3. Carpet, Stiftskirche, Comburg, beginning of the 17th century,
(Musterornamente).
10. Textile, Venetian picture, 1560, Berlin Museum, (Gewerbehalle).

Various Grill Diapers. (Plate 180.)
Wrought-iron Grills may also be treated as Diapers; and Railings
and Gratings are often treated as shown by the figures in the Plate.
The skeleton is formed by bars interlaced on the basis of the quadran
gular or lozenge Net; the compartments being filled, either con
tinuously, or at regular intervals, with recurring ornamental accessories
(figs. 1, 2, 5 and 6).
Another system places a repeating scroll-like ornament between
parallel bars (fig. 3). The straight lines of the skeleton may also be
replaced by curved bars (fig. 4).
The material is square, round, and flat iron bars; either singly,
or in combination. Both the Middle Ages and the Renascence have
transmitted numerous examples in this branch; a selection is given
in the Plate.
Plate 180. Various Grill DiApers.
1. Late Gothic, choir-screen, minister, Constance, 15th century.
2. German Renascence.
8. Italian Renascence.
4. Modern, by Ende and Bockmann, Berlin, (Gewerbehalle).
5. German, 17th century.
6. German Renascence.

DIVISION III.

DECORATED
OBJECTS.

L A.
$ B-
1 cD.E. F. G.

Vases, &c. Q
Metal Objects. (J
Furniture. Frames, &c.
Jewelry. i
Heraldry. Writing, Printing, &c.
*

296

PREFATORY REMARKS.
The third division of the Handbook is entitled "Decorated
Objeets". It is intended, firstly, to show in what manner and on
what principles Decoration is applied to objects, (thus complement
ing the work of the second division); and secondly, it will pass a
little beyond the strict limits of Aisthetics, and enter on the sphere
of Tectonics, in order to present a view of the construction, profiling
and general plan of objects of art, e. g. Vases, Utensils, Furniture, &a.
These considerations, and the wish to be as comprehensive as
possible, have necessitated the inclusion of some objects which are
not decorated. This inclusion will increase the bulk of the Book;
but the selection of objects will be restricted, as much as possible,
to those which illustrate the Principles of Decoration.

A.
VASES.

Vases, with which this division opens, are one of the most interest
ing and important of its groups. Gottfried Semper, who has treated
Keramics brilliantly in his epoch-making work "Der Stii", says in
the introduction to the chapter on this subject: "The products of
Keramic art were held in unusually high esteem by all peoples and
in all periods. They had attained a religious symbolical significance
long before the times of monumental edifices, which latter, indeed,
were greatly influenced by the former; directly, in that Keramic
works served for the construction and ornamentation of the monu
ments; indirectly, because architecture took up principles of beauty
and style and even finished forms which had already been developed in
Keramic work, and had first been fixed by the art potters of pre-
architectural times"  "They are the oldest and most eloquent docu
ments of history. Show us the pottery which a nation has produced,
and we can in general tell what manner of nation it was and what
height of culture it had attained!" Professor Gmelin, who, in his
essay: "Die Urformen und Gestaltungsprinzipien der Topferei" and in
his work: "Die Elemente der Gefassbildnerei", has attempted with
much success to popularise Semper's theories, says: "A bit of Dar
winism is here unfolded in the sphere of industry: the way in which
the development of man has been influenced by climate, the character
of the soil, food, &c, finds its parallel in Keramics in the formation
of vessels as conditioned by the joint causes of aim, material, and
technique".

298 Vases.
How far Pottery goes back to prehistoric times, is proved by
the calculations made from the alluvial deposits of the Nile valley,
and the geological conditions on the coasts of Scandinavia, which give
us the respectable age of 10 000 to 12 000 years for the pottery
discovered in those spots. The circumstance that, besides satisfying
the needs of daily life, Pottery was used in religious and funeral
rites, more especially the custom of placing vessels in the grave of
the departed, of enclosing the ashes of the dead in urns before com
mitting them to the earth, has at any rate preserved to us certain
kinds of pottery, of which, otherwise, only sherds and fragments had
remained. By Keramics we understand not only earthen-ware, but the design
and making of vessels in general. Next to the various clays, glass, and
metals, which have the first claim on our attention, stone, wood, and
ivory, along with other less common materials, are the substances
generally used. Each of these Materials imparts its own character
to the vessels made of it; the corresponding technique will limit or
modify the Form. A metal vessel requires form and decoration diffe
rent from one of glass or porcelain; the profile of a clay vase cannot
be made in marble without much modification. On the other hand the
Purpose, for which the vessel is intended, will influence the choice of
the Material; so that a reciprocal interaction arises, which stimulates
to the study of Keramics, and makes it charming and instructive.
That the majority of the examples in this group of pottery have
been taken from the Antique, is due to the fact that this epoch offers
a general picture complete in itself; and that it is chiefly in the
Greek style that the above-mentioned reciprocal interaction, regularity
of form, and tectonic principle are, on the average, most clearly ex
pressed. That, on the other hand, we have brought the constructions
of other countries and periods into suitable connexion with the Antique,
arises from our wish to meet the wants and requirements of our time
in a greater degree than can be done by monographs of Greek Keramics
alone, such as we possess in a large number of special wocks*.
In view, of the immense importance of Antique Keramics and of
Clay as a material in general: it may be well to offer here a few
general remarks on this subject, reserving our observations on other
materials and styles till the elucidation of the plates in question.
Pottery is generally made on the potter's wheel. In Egypt, India, and
* Among such works whose size, get-up, and text render them suitable
for school and educational purposes, we may mention:
Th. Lau: die griechischen Vasen, ihr Formen- und Decorationssystem.
44 Tafeln mit einer historischen Einleitung und erl&uterndem Text
von Dr. Brunn und Dr. Krell. Leipzig: E. A. Seemann.
A. Genick: griechische Keramik. 40 Tafeln mit Einleitung und Be-
schreibung von Adolf Furtwangler. Berlin : Ernst Wasmuth.

Vases. 299
Mesopotamia, the use of this important implement of civilisation goes
back to the very earliest times. The mural paintings of Beni Hassan,
which have been referred to the 19th century B. O, show that pottery
was then already known; while Germany did not use pottery before
the Roman period; and America, previous to the arrival of Europeans,
was only acquainted with the formation of pots by hand, in spite of
the great achievements of the Peruvians. The formation of pottery
by hand, is still in use in many countries. To this class belongs the
building-up with zonal or spiral strips, and the moulding over plaited
moulds or gourds which are then destroyed in the firing. Wooden
and stone moulds were used in early times; and also in modern
times in connection with the wheel. At the outset, people con
tented themselves with drying the clay; afterwards drying was
followed by firing. An intermediate stage is to fire beneath a
covering of cow-dung, the air being excluded; when the smoke
penetrates into the clay, and colours it gray or black. Originally
only smoothed and polished, the vessels were afterwards rendered
more impervious to liquids by being painted with a Varnish, such as
is seen on Greek vases; and by the discovery of the tin and lead
Glazes, such as are found on the so-called "majolica ware". The
porosity, of many oriental vessels, is intentional, in order that the
contents may be kept cool by the process of evaporation on the sur
face of the vessel. Of the chemical composition of these ancient
Varnishes, we are not so well informed as we could wish.
Antique pottery is found in all places where ancient civilisation
penetrated; but the principal sources are: Greece, Sicily, and Italy,
particularly Campania and Etruria. To this latter circumstance is
ascribed the enoneous use of the name "Etruscan", in the last century,
as a collective name for antique pottery in general. Athens, Corinth,
and Chalcis, were the chief factories of pottery in Greece; and Ta-
rentuin and Cumae in Italy, where pottery established itself after the
decay of Greek art. Apart from prehistoric products, it can be pro
ved that Greek vase-painting begins historically in the 7th century
B. C; attained its golden age about 400 B. C; and decayed with the
invasion by the Romans about 200 B. C. According to peculia
rities of form and finish, we distinguish different periods, the leading
characteristics of which are as follows: —
1. The geometrical style: clay natural colour, yellowish-grey, rough;
decoration brown, in bands, rings, zigzag lines, checks and
other simple patterns, bonowed from the technique of weaving
and wood carving, sometimes in connection with represen
tations of domestic animals, teams, &c, in rhythmic sequence,
(compare Plate 194. 2 and 3).
2. The Asiatic style: clay natural color, yellowish, impregnated
and smoothed; decoration dark brown, dark red, and white,

300 Vaae. — Fundamental Vase-Forms.
with fantastic winged creatures, lions, panthers, geese, sphinxes,
mostly arranged in zones. The intervening spaces, between the
animals, are filled with rosettes, flowers, &c. The Zonal deco
ration is often replaced by Scales, (compare Plate 194. 4).
3. The Black Figure style: clay reddish-yellow, coloured with
oxide of iron; decoration black, pure white being used for the
carnations of female figures, horses, &c. The conception of
the figures is frequently archaic, drawn in uncoloured com
partments bordered by ornamental bands. The lines of
drapery, &c. are scratched through the black colour, to
the clay.
4. Tlie Bed Figure style: clay red, very smooth: the entire vessel,
with the exception of the ornaments and figures, coated black;
the black sometimes having a greenish shimmer. White only
occasionally found, for grey hair and the like. The tendency
to simplification is predominant in respect of both ornament
and figures; usually with only one figure or with simple
groups of figures; outlines are painted-in with the pencil.
5. The Painted style: clay as in No. 4; the vessels frequently
of colossal size (they are then not intsnded for practical use,
as may be inferred from their having no bottom); the nume
rous red figures on the black ground are placed one over the
other, with the addition of architectural decoration: technically
the decoration is executed in a careless manner; dark red,
white, yellow, and gold are also used; luxuriant brush work
ornament, patterns in perspective, and painted reliefs, are
common.
The succession of these styles, in time, is generally that of the
above order; but they often blend with each other without any de
finite demarcation, forming composite styles and varieties. We find,
for instance, certain drug-pots which have polychrome painting on a
white background, and so on.

Fundamental Vase-Forms. (Plate 181.)
Vases, as a rule, are composed of a number of simple forms or
parts. These are usually the foot, the body, and the neck; to which
a handle, a lid, and a spout, may also be added. The most impor
tant part is the Body. In the majority of cases it determines the
fundamental form of the vessel. The natural models for vessels are
the hollow hand, the egg, the husks of fruits (gourds, nuts), the
horns of animals, the skins of animals, and similar objects. These
have, as a matter of fact, been used in all ages as models, for more

The Fundamental Vase-Forms. 301
or less direct imitation; and were undoubtedly used by mankind in
the lowest stages of civilisation, instead of artificial vessels. Certain
stereotyped forms recur again and again: first among them (due to the
use of the potter's wheel) the form of the so-called body of revolution.
An attempt is made, on Plate 181, to give a general view of the com
monest fundamental forms, with their names. The Sphere, the Cylinder,
and the Hyperboloid, are the simplest of these. The Sphere is altered,
by equally flattening or extending, to the Spheroid, or the Ellipsoid.
If these bodies be cut-away at both ends: we have the erect, and the
recumbent vessel. Unequal flattening and extending produce forms
which we may term Echinus, Cake, Egg, and Top forms; or, if the
length much exceeds the breadth: Wedge, Spindle, and Drop forms.
If only the top be cut-into: we have either the Dish, or the Cup
form. Conical, Bag, and Canopus forms may be derived from the
Cylinder. In a similar way the Hyperboloid also leads to new forms.
If the height of the vessel be a high multiple of the diameter, we
get slender, tapering forms: in the reverse case, we have dishes and
plates. The Egg is the commonest form in Pottery. Cylindrical and
Conical forms, i. e. such bodies as have a developible surface, are
best adapted for Sheet-metal work.
Mathematical curves, e. g. arcs of circles, are not strictly ad-
hered-to in the profiles. Vessels, which are not made on the wheel,
often exhibit arbitrary forms which cannot be grouped in the scheme
of the Plate. In the Chinese and Japanese styles, for example, pris
matic forms are very common (compare Plate 187. 1); human and
animal shapes are found in the Antique, as forms of vessels, (com
pare Plate 194. 12).
The Various junctions, of the Body with the Neck, or the Foot,
will produce a series of new forms. The use of Double-curvature in
the profile will also produce new forms, the simplest of which are the
Bell, and the Pear. The so-called "Gourd-pots", the Pilgrim-bottles, &c,
also form special and rarer groups of forms. Here too, may be
mentioned duplex vessels formed by the juxtaposition of two vessels on
a common foot, or by uniting them with a common handle. These
forms are found sporadically in Prehistoric and all subsequent periods.

As regards the Feet of vessels: we have first to remark that in
the earliest times footless and three-footed vessels are by no means
rare. The former were sunk in the earth, the latter would stand on
an uneven surface. The usual form of foot presupposes a level stand
ing surface and therefore some degree of civilisation. Intermediate,
between the absence of a foot and the high foot, is the Ring-foot, a

302 Fundamental Vase-Forms.
torus or profiled circular ring, forming the lower end of the vessel.
It evidently arose from the early custom of placing footless vessels
in hyperboloid Rings, which were afterwards incorporated with the
vessel itself. The decoration of the foot is generally subordinate to
that of the body; and consists of simple motives, channellings, &c.
The Neck receives a cylindrical, conical, or hyperboloid form,
according to the object of the vessel. As experience showed that
pouring-out is best done through a narrow opening, and filling through
a wide one: funnel-shaped necks, intended to meet both requirements,
arose. A good decoration of the neck is to surround it at its narro
west part with a neutral band, from which the motive of decoration
may be developed upwards and downwards.
The upper margin or Mouth is either bent outwards or inwards,
or is straight; the latter especially when the vessel was intended to
be closed by a Stopper. Pouring- out is facilitated if the vessel be
provided with a Spout, or curved Lip, as is the case with some
mugs and cans. The decoration of the Mouth, when round, is usually
a beading or row of leaves curving downwards and outwards. The
curved Lip depends for its effect on the line of its curve, or, like
the Spout, is decorated by masks, scallops, &c.
The Lid generally fits into, on-to, or over, the upper margin.
It may be raised by means of a knob, hoop, or ring; and if it does
not lie loose on the mouth, is fastened by a hinge, or by cords and
chains (Censer). Antique lids have sometimes the form of little vessels,
or dishes. The Handle varies in size, position, and number, according to
the use and size of the vessel. The points of attachment of the
vertical handle lie in a vertical plane; those of the horizontal handle
are in a horizontal plane side by side; and those of the hoop handle are
opposite each other in a vertical plane. The vertical handle is most
used. The horizontal handle is specially intended for lifting; the ver
tical for tilting the vessel when pouring-out. Vertical handles are
most suitable for tall vessels; and horizontal handles for flat ones.
Other forms are produced by combination, as when a vertical handle
is added to the centre of a horizontal one. As a rope was originally
used instead of a handle, the latter frequently takes that form, (com
pare Plate 182. 4). If the vessel be intended for pouring-out: the
handle should be so attached that the pouring-out may be done with
equal ease whether the vessel be full or nearly empty.

Attempts have often been made to classify vessels according to their
uses; but definite divisions cannot be made, as many vessels may serve
for a number of purposes, which gives rise to combinations and inter-

Fundamental Vase-Forms. — The Amphora. 303
mediate groups. We mainly follow Semper's classification when we
divide vessels into the following groups:
1. Holders; their chief object being storage and preservation.
To this group belong: the Amphora, Urn, Krater, dish
and salver, the Ampulla, the Alabastron, and similar small
vessels, flower-vase, salt-cellar, ink-pot, snuff-box, holy-water
stoup, &c.
2. Dippers; chiefly used for drawing and filling into other vessels.
To this group belong: the Hydria, bucket, spoon, and
Patera.
3. Pourers; for pouring-out.
To these belong: the Prochous, Olpe, Oinoch.8, Lekythos,
mug, can, and bottle.
4. Drinking vessels.
The principal representatives of this class are: the antique
drinking vessels of the forms Kylix, Kantharos, Kyathos, &c;
the drinking horn or Rhyton, beaker, bowl, goblet, Rum
mer, Tumbler, and all the various forms of our modern
drinking-glasses.
The various vessels will be treated in this order.
In many cases: one half of the cut shows the geometrical view;
and the other shows the vertical section. Decorative figures are fre
quently omitted, particularly on Antique vases; the decoration has
sometimes been omitted, when that was required by the minuteness
of the scale; and sometimes it has been only partially drawn or in
dicated, in order to avoid unneccessary work.

a. Holders.
The Amphora. (Plate 182.)
The Amphora is of frequent occunence in the Antique. It was
intended to receive water, oil, and wine. Originally serving for practi
cal purposes, it was afterwards employed merely as a show, or state
vessel. The form was often revived in later styles; and has the follow
ing characteristics: erect, extended body, like an inverted egg (Plate
182. 9), a spindle (Plate 182. 7), a bag (Plate 182. 6), more rarely
conical (Plate 182. 11), hyperboloid (Plate 182. 10), or cylindrical
(Plate 182. 14). The neck is narrow, more or less extended, with
shoulder (Plate 182. 6), or without (Plate 182. 5), thickened at the
the rim. Two vertical handles, diametrically opposite each other. At
first without a foot (Plate 182. 3 — 7), afterwards with a round or

304

Vases.

"~1

The most usual fundamental forms of vessels
and their names.

-r-

?z

V

..-#V

r-
.j#7
plate -shaped
bag -shaped T
dish -shaped
recumbent (
conical f
year- shaped
echinus spheroid cake - shaped
cylindrical
spherical
Inverted cone top. shaped Inverted egg ellin^old egg-shape.
hyperboloid \
erect cask.
canopu.
QCD
bell - shaped
cup -shaped
u*.
in
wedge-shaped spindle-shaped drop-shaped
fr
Plate 181.
Chart of Fundamental Vase Forms.
VASES.

305

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

The Amphora.

Plate 182.

20

306 The Amphora. — The Urn.
high foot. With or without cover. Material: clay, more rarely glass,
or other materials. Size: very variable, according to use.
Plate 182. The Amphora.
1 Egyptian, with cover, Thebes, Thutmes III.
2. Egyptian, with cover, Thebes, XX dynasty.
3. Small four-sided, with Latin inscription, found in Egypt,
unpainted clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.
4. Assyrian, with rope handle, clay.
5. Roman, unpainted red clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.
6. Roman, unpainted yellow clay, found near Aquileia in 1877,
United collections, Carlsruhe.
7. Roman, glass, with stopper, Rouen, Museum, (Deville).
8. Roman, iridescent glass, found at Pompeii.
9. Ancient, Attic, painted clay (so-called Diota), Munich, (Lau).
10 — 11. Clay, painted in polychrome, with band-shaped handles, so-
called Alexandrian style, (Lau and Jacobsthal).
12. Antique, black painted clay, (Gropius).
13. Antique state amphora, white marble, with swan handles,
"Vase of the Athenian Sosibios", Louvre, Paris.
14. Modern French, state amphora, by Lienard.
15. Faun with amphora, from the painted neck oi an Antique
Drinking-horn, (compare Plate 202. 5 — 6).

The Urn. (Plate 183.)
The Urn is met-with, not only in the Antique and all subsequent
styles, but in early times everywhere and specially in Prehistoric
styles. Apart from other purposes, the Urn was frequently used in
funeral rites, as a repository for the ashes of the dead, as a coffin,
and so on. It has an erect body, profiled like an inverted egg or
spindle. The neck is comparatively wide and low, the mouth straight
or curved outwards, usually closed by a cover. Either without feet,
or with a low round foot. Without handles, or with two small hori
zontal handles, attached to the greatest prominence of the body.
Material: clay. Generally of considerable size.
Plate 183. The Urn.
1. Egyptian, rubbing an Urn, (Menard et Sauvageot).
2. Prehistoric, Gallic, (Bosc).
3. Grey clay, ornamentation in relief, United collections, Carlsruha
4 — 5. Greek, painted clay, Munich.
6. Majolica, 15th century, Italian.

VASES.

307

The Urn.

Plate 183.
20*

308 The Urn. — The Krater. — The Basin, and Dish.
7 — 8. Slavic, found in the district of the Elbe and Oder.
9. Modern Faience, Bombay, (Gewerbehalle).
10. Majolica, 16th century, Italian, (Storck).
11. German, cut crystal, small with high foot, 16th century, Na
tional Museum, Munich, (Kunsthandwerk).

The Krater (Plate 184.)
The Krater is an Antique vase, chiefly used for mixing water
and wine (wine was not drunk unmixed); and perhaps also for ablu
tions. Although we meet with it as early as Egyptian times, it is
not found in Antique Keramic art until its later periods. As a state
vessel, the Krater has probably been more highly developed than any
other form. Modern art employs the Krater preferentially as a garden
vase for plants. A characteristic of the Krater is its great width
at the top. The body is either a hemispherical dish (fig. 9),
or has a wide, cup - shaped neck, (figs. 7 and 8). Where the
junction is formed without a shoulder: we have the bell-shaped Krater
(figs. 3 and 4). The Foot is frequently small; and so arranged that it
stands on an independent base (fig. 10). Two, sometimes four, or
more, horizontal or vertical handles, or hints of them. The principal
materials were clay, marble, and metal. Kraters are usually of con
siderable size.
Plate 184. The Krater.
1. Egyptian, with lotus cups.
2. Egyptian, Thebes, XVIII dynasty.
3 — 4. Greek, Munich, (Lau).
5. Greek, with columnar handles, Munich, (Lau).
6. Greek, with volute handles, (Lau).
7. Antique, Uffizi, Florence, (Gropius).
8. Antique, marble, with four handles, found at Ostia, evi
dently copied from a metal original.
9. Ditto, found at Tivoli, England.
10. Antique, state Vase, marble, the decoration of the neck, con
sisting of figures or rich scroll ornament, is omitted.
11. Assyrian.
12 — 18. Antique, for ladies' toilet, Greek vase-paintings.
The Basin, and Dish. (Plate 185.)
Basins, and Dishes, are vessels of such common use, that they
are found everywhere, and in all periods in which the Keramic art

VASES.

309

The Krater.

Plate 1S4.

310 The Basin, and Dish.
has been practised. Their uses are manifold; their form is indicated
by their names: Dishes are the deeper, Plates the shallower vessels.
They occur . without foot, and with a round or high foot. The last
was specially adopted for the Greek Kylix. Handles are wanting, or
occur singly, or in pairs, horizontal, vertical, as hoop handles, and so
on. Material, and size : various. The decoration of Dishes is generally
on the exterior; and of Plates is generally on the inner or upper
face. In the latter case: the border and the centre are ornamented
separately, being divided from each other by a neutral, undecorated
zone, (figs. 13 — 16). To paint the entire surface with figures, dis
regarding the division of border and centre, would be contrary to
conect Style.
Plate 185. The Basin, and the Dish.
1. Egyptian Dish, with hoop handles, Metal, (Menard et Sauvageot).
2. Egyptian Dish, with erect handles, Metal, (Menard et Sauvageot).
3. Greek Dish, yellow clay, painted brown and red, Geo
metrical style, United collections, Carlsruhe.
4. View from above, of the handles of the above.
5. Greek Dish, yellow clay, ornamented with horn - like ex
crescences, painted red, Geometrical style, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
6. Greek Dish, with high foot (Kylix), yellow clay, decoration
brown, Geometrical style, Munich, the interior is decorated
with the ornament shown on Plate 157. 4.
7. Ditto.
8. Greek, flat Dish, with ring foot, Munich, (Lau). .
9. Antique footless Dish, (Jacobsthal).
10. Antique, small Dish, with low foot, silver treasure, Hildes- ,
heim.
11. Antique, metal Dish, with high volute handles, (Menard et
Sauvageot).
12. Roman, glass Dish, with pierced handle ring, Found in Nor
mandy, (Deville).
13 — 14. Majolica Dish, view and section, Italian Renascence.
15 — 16. Modern glass Plates, with scalloped border.
17. Modern Soup-tureen, with cover.
18. Modern French metal Dish, with vertical handle and three
feet, (Julienne).
19. Modern Spanish, small Dish, of variegated glazed clay,
Malaga, United collections, Carlsruhe.
20. Modern Coffee-bowl, with horizontal handles.
21. Handle of No. 20, viewed from above.

VASES.

311

The Basin, and the Dish.

Plate 185.

312 The Ampulla, Alabastron, &c. — The Flower- Vase, &c.
The Ampulla, Alabastron, &c. (Plate 186.)
The Ampulla is a diminutive Amphora, often in black painted
clay, adorned with impressed ornament (figs. 4 — 6). The Phiale
is a slender vessel, without handles, with elongated body, and
long narrow neck, of clay or glass (figs. 1 — 3). The Alabastron
has a bag-like or cylindrical body, no foot, a very narrow neck with
a shoulder, a large plate-like mouth, and little ear-shaped handles
(figs. 13 — 14). This vessel was intended for the reception of oils
and unguents; it was made of alabaster or striped glass, whence
its name. The Lachrymatory, so-called from its tear -like profile,
or from its purpose, is a glass vessel, of the forms shown in figs.
11 and 12. Not less frequent are little bag forms like the
handleless vessels given in figs. 6, 9, and 10. Like those already
named, they were intended for toilet or religious purposes.
Plate 186. The Ampulla, Alabastron, &c.
1. Egyptian Phiale, with cover, Thutmes III.
2. Antique Phiale, painted clay, Munich, (Lau).
3. Antique glass Phiale, (Stackelberg).
4. Antique glass Ampulla, striped bright blue and yellow.
5. Antique Ampulla, black painted clay with impressed orn
aments, Athens, United collections, Carlsruhe.
6. Ditto, Athens.
7 — 10. Antique, Small Vessels, painted clay, United collections, Carls
ruhe.
11 — 12. Antique glass Lachrymatories, Museum, Nuremberg, and
United collections, Carlsruhe.
11. Antique Alabastron, veined glass, imitating oriental ala
baster.
14. Antique Alabastron, milk-white glass, with brown stripes,
Campana collection, (L'art pour tous).
15. Vase, white iridescent glass, Campana collection, (L'art
pour tous).
16. Modern Japanese, Small Vase, with mask handles, Landes-
gewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
17. Old German, Small stoneware Vase.

The Flower -Vase, &c. (Plate 187.)
Flower-vase is the name given to vessels intended to receive and
support bouquets of living or dried flowers. Various as the forms of
these vessels may be in other respects, their purpose requires that they

VASES.

313

The Ampulla, the Alabastron, &c. Plate 186.

314

VASES.

15. $*,

Plate 187.

The Flower- Vase, &c.

The Flower-Vase, &c — Vase-forms for Various Purposes. 315
should have a funnel-shaped mouth. Japan and China, which have
been especially prolific in this group, use cylindrical and prismatic forms.
Such vessels do not possess a cover; handles, which are equally super
fluous, are also generally wanting; the decoration should avoid any
attempt to imitate natural plant motives. Glass, clay, and porcelain are
the predominant materials. A special example of these vessels is the
so-called "Hyacinth-glass" intended for forcing bulbs in water. As it
is desirable that the root should be visible, recourse must be had to
some transparent material. Decoration is excluded in the case of the
ordinary Flower-pot, which must admit air and moisture. This has
led to the use of the Decorated Flower-pot, an example of which is given
in fig. 12. The suspended Flower -vase, like suspended vases in
general, must be furnished with three or more handles to which
the cords and chains may be attached; but it need not have a foot
unless it intended to stand also.
Plate 187. The Flower- Vase, &c.
1. Chinese, with cloison enamel, (Lievre).
2. Modern English, in oriental style, blue glazed clay, with
black ornament, Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
3. Modern, glazed clay, with decoration in colours.
4. Modern Italian majolica, Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
5. Modern, coloured stoneware, (Gewerbehalle).
6. Glass, 17th century.
7 — 9. Modern, glass.
10 — 11. Modern, Hyacinth- glasses, (No. 10 is patented: the upper
part is made to lift out for greater convenience of pouring-
in water).
12. Modern, decorated Flower-pot, green glazed clay.
13. Arabian suspended Lamp, enamelled glass, conventional form,
(part of the ornamentation is omitted).
14 — 15. Modern suspended Flower- vases, of glazed clay.

Vase-forms for Various Purposes. (Plate 188.)
This plate exhibits a number of receptacles for salt and other
spices, vinegar, oil, ink, &c. The name "cellar" and "stand" have
little connection with the form of these vessels, which may be very
various. Receptacles for oil and vinegar are , often called "Cruets".
Vessels belonging to this group have not been preserved to us from
the Antique; but we may not conclude, from this, that salt, oil, &c,
were not preserved in vessels in those days: on the contrary, some
small vessels in the silver treasure at Hildesheim, have been supposed

316 Vase-forms for Various Purposes.
to be Salt-cellars, though we have no definite evidence that this
was so. The Salt-cellar usually takes the form of a dish or bowl, some
times of a little trough or tub. The material is glazed clay, glass,
porcelain, metal, &c. The Renascence period created Salt-cellars of
rich design: the most celebrated is the famous one by Cellini.
With the increased use of writing, the Inkstand has undergone
an immense number of changes of form. The wooden Inkstand, with
glass lining, was in use, for a long time, till it was rendered obsolete
by vessels of clay and glass. What is required of a good Inkstand
is: — it should not fall-over easily, and if it does should not spill;
the evaporation must be reduced to a minimum; the height of the
contents must be easy to regulate. To fulfil all these requirements
numerous inventions have been made, some of which we will notice
here. In fig. 10 the centre of gravity lies in the foot, and this, with
the form of the glass, prevents falling-over, or spilling. In fig. 12 the
level of the ink can be regulated by an India-rubber stopper. The funnel-
shaped tube in which the ink rises is convenient for dipping the pen;
and it reduces the evaporation. Fig. 13 shows an Inkstand with
sloping bottom, and revolving cover, which may be adjusted to the
varying level of the ink. The form of fig. 14 is intended to prevent
falling-over, to reduce evaporation, and to maintain the level uniform
for a long time; a result which is attained, notwithstanding the sim
plicity. Oil and Vinegar Cruets are usually small bottles with a shoulder.
They are generally placed in pairs, in a frame (fig. 7); a direct union
of the two, as in fig. 6, is rare.
The Pepper-box has of late years taken the form of the pepper
mill or grinder (fig. 8), otherwise it is associated with the Salt-cellar,
and receives the same form. The Inkstand and the Sand-box were
also often associated together; but Blotting-paper renders the latter
unnecessary.
Plate 188. Vase-forms for Various Purposes.
1. Salt-cellar, Renascence, (Formenschatz).
2. Salt-cellar, German, 16th century.
3. Majolica Salt-cellar, Italian Renascence, (Teirich).
4. Spice-frame, glass, 18th century.
5. Modern Cruet-frame.
6. Modern Cruets, coloured glass, Antique model.
7. Modern Cruet-frame.
8. Modern Peppermill.
9. Old Inkstand, wood.
10. Modern Inkstand.
11. Inkstand, Glazed clay.

VASES.

317

Vase-forms for Various Purposes.

Plate 188.

318 Vase-forms for Various Purposes.
12. Modern Inkstand, with adjustible stopper.
13. Modern glass Inkstand, with sloping bottom and revolving cover.
14. Modern glass Inkstand.
15. Old horn Inkstand, for the pocket; after unscrewing the foot-
piece, the metal pin may be forced into the Table-top.
16. Modern Inkstand.
17. Modern Inkstand.

The Jar, the Cist, &c. (Plate 189.)
Jars and Pots are small receptacles of spheroid or cylindrical
form, for solid, granular, or pasty substances. The lid is either
loose, or affixed by hinges; and is an essential part of the vessel.
The materials are clay, porcelain, glass, wood, metal, ivory, &c.
Besides the small clay Pots and Boxes which are common in the
Antique: we must also mention the Cist. This is a metal vessel of
cylindrical form, and considerable size, which was used for religious
rites, and for the reception of jewelry, rolls, &c. The style is con
ventional: there were three claws for the feet; and the exterior of
the cylinder was decorated with incised figures, and furnished with
rings to which chains were attached, for the transportation of the
vessel. The lid is slightly domed; and the handle usually consists of
two wrestlers grasping each other by the shoulders (fig. 6).
Plate 189. The Jar, the Cist, &c.
1. Antique, yellow clay, painted brown and red, this is the so-called
"Dodwell vase" celebrated as the first-discovered of the vases in
imitation of the Asiatic style, dug-up near Corinth.
2. Antique, yellow clay, painted red and brown, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
3. Antique, with small Kylix as lid, yellow clay, painted brown and
red, imitating the Asiatic style, Munich, (Lau).
4. Antique, black clay.
5. Antique, painted clay, belongs to the later period of the red
figure style, metal ring, Berlin, Museum.
6. Antique bronze Cist, Louvre, Paris, (L'art pour tous).
7. Modern Japanese, lacquered gold and black, the lid forms a dish,
Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
8. Old Persian, repousse copper, the decoration is too small to be
given, (Kunsthandwerk).
9. Modern Snuff-box, birch bark.
10. Modern Tobacco-jar, Norwegian, carved in wood, Landesgewerbe
halle, Carlsruhe.
11. Metal box, with collapsible Drinking-cup, Modern.

VASES

319

The Jar, the Cist, &c.

Plate 189.

320 The Font, and the Holy-Water Stoup. — The Hydria.

The Font, and the Holy- Water Stoup. (Plate 190.)
Holy-water plays an important part in many rites of the Roman
Catholic Church. It is kept in Holy- water Stoups. These are bowls,
either free, or attached to walls. In the former case, the form generally
approaches that of the Krater; in the latter case, the edge projects as
a half or three-quarter circle from the surface of the wall; and the
stoup is supported on a pilaster, column, or console. For use in
houses: the Stoup takes the form of a suspended dish, as shown by
fig. 11. The decoration is mostly symbolic, e. g. crosses, monograms,
cherub-heads, &c. Most of the examples are taken from the work by
Raguenet, which contains a large selection of these objects.
Plate 190.
1. Romanesque, minster, Weissenburg, (Raguenet).
2. Romanesque, Church of the Crucifix, Compiegne, (Raguenet).
3. Romanesque, church, Picardy, (Raguenet).
4. Romanesque, church, Charleville, (Raguenet).
5. 12th century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
6. 16th century, Church, Mas d'Azil, Ariege, (Raguenet).
7. 17th century, Church, Cormontreuil, (Raguenet).
8. Church, Picardy, (Raguenet).
9. Modern, church, Couthuin, Belgium, Architect Halkin, (Raguenet).
10. 16th century, Chapel of the castle, Mello, France, (Raguenet).
11. 17th century, beaten silver, Royal Museum, Stuttgart, (Kunst-
handwerk).

b. Dippers.
The Hydria. (Plate 191.)
The Hydria, as its name implies, is the water-pot. It is the
vessel which the maidens took to the spring; filled with water; and
then bore home on their heads. It was carried, when empty in a
horizontal; and when full, in a vertical attitude. Of all vases: it is
the most perfect in form; its aim being so well expressed in its con
struction. It must be easy to carry, convenient to fill and empty,
and to hold as much fluid as possible; it therefore has a vertical
body of the shape of an inverted egg (this form places the centre
of gravity at the top, which facilitates transportation in a vertical
attitude); on which a funnel-shaped neck is placed. It has three
handles: two are horizontal, diametrically opposite to each other at

VASES.

321

The Font, and the Holy-Water Stoup. Plate 190.
Meyer, Handbook oi Ornament. 21

322 The Hydria. — The Bucket, &c.
the greatest protuberance of the body, which served to raise the vessel
when full; the third is vertical, placed on one side of the neck,
which served to cany the vessel when empty, to steady it when full
and when pouring-out. The foot is always small. The neck has a
shoulder, or blends in a curve with the body. A special kind of the
latter treatment is the Kalpis (fig. 2). The smaller, slenderer Hydrias,
which were not intended to be carried on the head, are termed
Hand-hydrias. The material is clay.
Plate 191. The Hydria.
1. Greek, (Jacobsthal).
2. Greek, of the Kalpis form, body smooth, black, painted with
red figures on the shoulder.
3. Greek, painted black, reddish brown and white on the clay
ground, Campana collection, Louvre, Paris, (L'art pour tous),
the decoration is of the highest class, the shoulder is decorated
by an ivy band, which is omitted in this figure, but given
on Plate 32. 4.
4 — 5. Graeco - Italic Hand-hydrias, unpainted clay, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
6 — 8. Greek Vase-paintings, showing the mode of carcying and using
the Hydria.

The Bucket, &c. (Plate 192.)
We have seen that the Hydria gives beautiful expression to the
idea of pouring-out; the Bucket, on the other hand, is distincly a
dipper, and the Funnel a filler.
The Bucket is of specifically Egyptian origin; with it water was-
drawn from the Nile; and hence the drop-like form, with the centre
of gravity low down. Two such Buckets were carried on a yoke.
The form serving to prevent spilling, (figs. 1 — 4). The Assyrian
Bucket generally terminates below in a lion mask, from which the
bag-shaped neck rises, (fig. 6). In the Graeeo-Italic style, we find
footless Buckets resembling an inverted egg (fig. 10); others with a
ring foot are, however, not uncommon, (figs. 7, 8, 9 and 11). Instead
of one hoop handle there were sometimes two (figs. 7 and 9).
The ecclesiastical art of the Middle ages gave its portable Holy-
water Stoups the form of buckets, modifying the shape of the latter
to fit them for this purpose (figs. 13, 14). Sometimes the Bucket
is furnished with a spout, or a nozzle (fig. 15).
The Funnel, as a rule, takes the shape of an inverted cone, with
or without a tubular continuation; the handle is vertical (figs. 20, 21),

VASES.

323

The Hydria.

Plate 191.
21*

324 The Bucket, &c. — The Spoon, &c.
hoop-shaped (fig. 19), or two horizontal double (fig. 18). A Water
ing pot is shown in fig. 19: the hole at the top is intended to let
the water flow when opened, or to stop the flow by atmospheric pres
sure when closed by the finger.
Metal, as the more durable material, is generally used for Buckets
and Funnels: clay, glass, &c, are less common.
Plate 192. The Bucket, &c.
1. Egyptian, Thebes, Tutmes IIL
2 — 4. Egyptian, bronze.
5. Egyptian Bucket-like Vessel, without handle.
6. Assyrian, with cord handle.
7 — 11. Graeco-Italic, bronze, of various forms.
12. Antique, with hoop handle, red clay, painted black, United
collections in Carlsruhe, the eye in the uppermost zone,
which is found in Greek Keramics, has been explained as a
protective against the "evil eye".
13 — 14. Mediaeval, beaten copper, 15th century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
15. Modern Italian, clay, with hoop-handle and nozzle, (Gropius).
16 — -17. Modern Coal-vases, sheet-metal, square and round.
18. Antique clay Funnel.
19. Mediaeval Vessel, for watering the ground, clay, (Viollet-le-
Duc).
20. Modern Funnel, for watering the ground, .sheet-metal.
21. General form of the modern sheet-metal Funnel.

The Spoon, and the Ladle. (Plate 193.)
Spoons and Paterae form a special class of dippers. As the
Table-spoon, strictly so-called, will come up for discussion among the
utensils, we have here to consider only the larger spoon -shaped
vessels and the Paterae (handled dishes) used for religious and other
purposes. The natural model of the Spoon is the hollow hand,
whence the spherical, elliptical, or oval dish-shape, with an attached
handle. The latter usually lies in the plane of the rim, but it may
also form an obtuse angle with it, or, as in the case of the antique
Simpulum (fig. 11), a right -angle. Egyptian Spoons, which are
richly decorated, often possess a cover rotating round a pin (compare
the projections on the dish, fig. 2), the spoon then becomes a kind
of pot or receptacle. A foot is of course superfluous on the ordinary
Spoon; but the Paterae with handles not infrequently have a ring-
foot to enable them to stand (figs. 7 — 8). The Spoon and the
Paterae may also be furnished with a special spout or lip (%. 6).

VASES.

325

The Bucket, &c.

Plate 192.

326 The Spoon, &c. — The Prochous, &c.
As a rule: the Dish is plain, or is slightly decorated by
engraving the interior, (fig. 6). The decoration is generally confined
to the rim and the handle, or its points of junction. The material
is usually wood, bone, or metal. The size varies with the use.
Plate 193. The Spoon, and the Ladle.
1 — 4. Egyptian Spoons, plainly or richly finished, partly painted.
5. Assyrian spoon-like Vessel.
6. Antique bronze Patera, with lip.
7, 9, 10. Antique bronze Paterae, seen from the side, from above,
and below.
8. Antique terracotta Patera.
11 — 12. Antique Simpula.
13. Antique spoon -like Vessel, bronze, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
14. Antique cooking Vessel, like a handled dish, (Menard et
Sauvageot).

c. Pourers.
The Prochous, the Oinochoe, the Olpe, &c. (Plate 194.)
We commence the series of pourers with the antique forms of
the Prochous, Oinochoe, Olpe, &c. As the definition of these appella
tions is not yet finally settled: it will be best to leave the various
intermediate forms entirely unnamed. The vessels were used partly
for secular, partly for religious purposes. Thus the Prochous is the
sacrificial vessel from which the libations of wine were poured-out,
into the Patera. The Oinochoe' is believed to have been a secular
wine jug; and the Olpe to have been a receptacle for oil, &c.
All these vessels have this in common: that the mouth is wavy,
elongated to a channel on one side, or pinched -in at the sides, to
form a large spout and facilitate the pouring-out. The older vessels,
in particular, show great boldness in thus making the form of the
mouth different to the circular plan which is a result of the use of
the Potter's-wheel; but in the later times there was a return to the
simpler and more beautiful shape. The Prochous and the OinochoB
generally have an upright body, in shape like an egg. The Olpe
invariably has a cake or bag -shaped body, a form which is occa
sionally found in the Prochous. The vertical handle is raised above
the vessel and is attached in a bold sweep to the side opposite the
lip. The foot is usually ring-shaped. Bronze and clay are employed

VASES.

327

The Spoon, and the Ladle.

Plate 193.

328 The Prochous, Ac. — The Lekythos, &c.
as materials. The Prochous and Oinochoe" are, generally, vessels of
considerable size, while the Olpe is smaller.
Plate 194. The Prochous, the Oinochoe, the Olpe, &c.
1. Greek Prochous, archaic form and ornamentation, painted
clay.
2. Greek Prochous, geometrical style, red clay, painted black.
3. Greek Cyprian Vessel, geometrical style, yellow clay, painted
brown, Munich, (Lau).
4. Greek Oinochoe, Asiatic style, yellow, painted clay, (Semper).
5. Antique small Vessel, yellow clay, painted black, United
collections, Carlsruhe.
6. Antique small Vessel, clay, painted black, engraved orna
ment, United collections, Carlsruhe.
7 — 9. Greek Vessels, painted clay.
10. Greek bronze Vessel, collection of Hen von Pulsky, Pesth.
11. Graeco-Italic bronze Vessel.
12. Prochous in the form of a female head, Museum, Rome.
13 — 14. Antique Olpe, painted clay.
15. Antique bronze Olpe, Museum Rome.

The Lekythos, &c. (Plate 195.)
The Lekythos is a small antique pourer, employed sometimes in
the toilet as a receptacle for oils and unguents, and sometimes in
funeral rites, to be placed with the deceased in the grave. The
form is generally elongated, cylindrical or spindle-shaped, more rarely
bag-like or spherical. The foot is a plain ring foot, the neck long
and narrow with a shoulder. The handle rises from the body up to
the upper end of the neck. As regards form and decoration, these
pretty vessels form special groups. The slender forms are the older,
the spherical and depressed the later. Upright palmettos, as shown
in fig. 1, are a characteristic decoration. The material is clay.
Plate 195. The Lekythos, &c.
1 — 3. Greek, red clay, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe.
4 — 6. Greek, red clay, painted black.
7. Greek, painted black and white, later period.
8. Greek, Attic style.
9. Ditto.
10 — 12. Greek, red clay, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe.
13. Greek, red clay, painted black and white, Munich, (Lau).

vases.

329

The Prochous, the Oinochoe, the Olpe, &c. Plate 194.

330 The Lekythos. — The Lip-spout Pitcher.
14. Greek Aryballos (perfume vase), United collections, Carls
ruhe.
15. Greek Aryballos, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe.
16. Greek, Perfume - vase , with hoop handle, painted black,
United collections, Carlsruhe.
17. Greek Lekythos, later period, United collections', Carlsruhb.

The Lip- spout Pitcher. (Plates 196 — 197.)
The want of some uniform nomenclature makes itself felt not
only in the case of antique vessels, but also with such colloquial
expressions as "pitcher", "jug", "pot", "can", "bottle", &c, which
include a great variety of forms, so that what one calls pitchers and
pots another calls jugs and cans. To maintain at least some kind
of system in this handbook, we class all vessels with vertical handles,
(unless they belong to some special category), as "Pitchers" if they
have the usual mouth with a lip; and as "Pots" if they have a pipe
like spout. The material and size, of the Pitcher vary greatly, according to
its purpose and period. The principal representatives are the ewers,
and jugs, of glass, clay, stoneware, and metal.
Plate 196. The Lip- spout Pitcher.
1. Egyptian, with saucer, recalling our modern ewers and basins.
2. Antique iridescent glass, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.
3. Antique glass, found in Trouville-la-Riviere, Normandy, (Deville).
4. Antique glass, found near Mainz, United collections, Carlsruhe.
5. Roman, glass, from a grave at Bingerbrflck, Wiesbaden Museum.
6. Antique, blue glass, Louvre, (Deville).
7. Like No. 5.
8. Antique, yellowish green glass, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.
9. Like No. 4.
10. Antique, glass, found in Rouen, 3d century A. D., Rouen Museum,
(Deville).
11. Antique ring-shape, unpainted clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.
12. Roman -Alemannic, red clay, found in Ksferthal near Mannheim,
United collections, Carlsruhe.
13. Antique (?) bronze, with cover, found at Saumur, (Menard et
Sauvageot).
14. Ancient American, grey clay, time of the Incas, excavated at
Trujillo in Peru, (the round compartment of the body is fan
tastically adorned with figures), United collections. Carlsruhe.

VASES.

331

The Lekythos, &c.

Plate 195.

332

VASES.

Plate 196.

The Lip-spout Pitcher.

VASES.

333

The Lip-spout Pitcher.

Plate 197.

334 The Lip-spout Pitcher. — The Pipe-spout Pot.
15. Old German, Bohemian glass.
16. Modern Hungarian, glazed clay, Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
Plate 197. The Lip- spout Pitcher.
1. Italian Faience, glazed in colours, 16th century, the blue
lilies on a gold ground are the coat of Julius HI., Cluny
Museum, Paris, (L'art pour tous).
2. German, by Hans Holbein, 16th century, (Hirth, Formen
schatz).
3. Old German, stoneware, with disc-shaped body.
4. German Renascence, pewter, (Hirth, Formenschatz).
5 — 6. Old German, stoneware, the decoration is omitted.
7. Modern stoneware, with tin cover, by Dir. KacheL
8. Modern majolica, Carlsruhe.
9 — 10. Modern, stoneware.
11 — 12. Modern, green and blue glass.

The Pipe-spout Pot. (Plate 198.)
As already remarked, we group here all those one-handled pourers
which possess a separate spout or mouth. Here too, material, size, and
form are very various. Distinct categories are formed by the State-
jugs of metal, such as were in use at the period of the Italian
Renascence (fig. 1), the Oriental metal Jugs, the Venetian small glass
Jugs, milk, coffee, tea and watering Pots, &c. Where a spout occurs:
it is generally attached at the lower part or middle of the body, mOre
rarely towards the top; and usually reaches to the level of the mouth.
The Spout generally tapers in an upward direction; its orifice is some
times a mask or a widened mouth-piece; in the case of the Watering-
pot it is furnished with a rose. The handle is vertical, or a hoop.
Noteworthy is the long stump-handle of some modern Coffee-pots (fig. 9).
The vessels of this group frequently have a lid.
Piate 198. The Pipe -spout Pot.
1. Italian Renascence, State -jug, metal, design by Polidoro
Caravaggio, Uffizi, Florence.
2. Japanese, enamelled metal, Louvre, (L'art pour tous).
3. Arabian, metal, 16th century, Cluny Museum, Paris, (L'art
pour tous).
4 — 5. Venetian glass, 16th century, (Hirth, and L'art pour tous).
6. Modern Oriental, unglazed clay, from Jerusalem, United
collections, Carlsruhe.

VASES.

335

The Pipe-spout Pot.

Plate 198.

336 The Pipe-spout Pot. — The Bottle.
7. Oriental Tea-pot, painted china.
8. Milk-ewer, painted faience, 18th century, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
9. Modern Coffee-pot.
10. Modern Tea-kettle, metal, hoop handle, with wooden guard.
11 — 13. Modern Watering-pots, sheet metal.

The Bottle. (Plates 199—200.)
The Bottle has a spherical, elongated, or bag body; and an
elongated, nanow neck, which usually expands like a funnel towards
its upper extremity, and is sometimes closed by a stopper. Bottles
have either a ring foot or no foot at all, high feet are exceptional.
Handles are seldom attached; where this is done, they appear in pairs.
In the case of Pocket -flasks, which are usually of a disc or watch
shape, the handle serves to attach the flasks to a cord or belt. The
material is chiefly glass; but clay and metal are also used. The
Bottle form has been specially cultivated in the East, in Persia, China,
Japan, &c. A natural model is frequently found in the Calabash,
which is itself often used as a VesseL
Plate 199. The Bottle.
1 — 2. Egyptian, front and side view.
3. Antique, small watch-shaped Perfume-bottle, blue and white
glass, with handles for suspension, like a hunting-flask, Cam
pana collection, (L'art pour tous).
4. Antique, glass, with handles for suspension, (Deville).
5. Antique, Perfume-bottle, transparent emerald green glass.
6. Antique, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous).
7. Antique, two-handled, iridescent glass, Campana collection,
(L'art pour tous).
8. Antique, iridescent glass, United collections, Carlsruhe.
9. Antique, iridescent glass, United collections, Carlsruhe.
10. Old German, glass, from the Spessart, (Friedrich, Die Alt-
deutschen Glaser).
11. Modern, cut glass, Dresden, (Gewerbehalle).
12. Modern, green glass, with ring stopper.
13. Modern, yellowish green glass.
14. Modern, "Florentine flask", covered with bast
Plate 200. The Bottle.
1. Egyptian, without foot, two rope handles for suspension.
2. Antique, red, unpainted clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.

VASES.

337

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

The Bottle.

Plate 199.

22

338

VASES.

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Plate 200.

The Bottle.

The Bottle. — Drinking Vessels. 339
8. Antique, hammered bronze, with cover and ring, Castellani
collection.
4. Ditto, United collections, Carlsruhe.
5 — 7. Japanese, bronze.
8. Persian, clay.
9 — 11. Modern, Egyptian, unglazed gray clay, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
12. Chinese, blue porcelain, (Lievre).
13. Persian, damaskeened metal, (L'art pour tous).
14. Wrought-iron military Flask, holding 44 pints, 15th century,
Cluny Museum, Paris.
15. Modern Hungarian military Flask, colored glazed clay, Landes
gewerbehalle, • Carlsruhe.
16. Majolica, colored plastic ornamentation, Modern English,
Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
17. Modern, French, green glazed clay.

i. Drinking Vessels.
Plates 201 — 210 show drinking vessels. Drinking vessels are
as ancient as drinking itself; and they are consequently found in every
style. Their forms and kinds are infinitely various; especially in the
Antique, the Middle Ages, and the Renascence. Semper says on this
point: "Athenaeus gives us the names and descriptions of more than
a hundred drinking vessels, although he confines himself to those of
the precious metals, which, long before his time, had replaced earthen
ware drinking vessels among the Greeks. The same variety rules in
the drinking vessels of the Middle Ages; and although, in this branch
too, our poverty of invention is obvious, compared with the earlier
fecundity; still, an enumeration of the different forms and kinds of
drinking vessels now in common use would be fairly extensive; and
would be all the more difficult inasmuch as our modern time does
not adhere to typical forms; or, more correctly speaking, has lost all
idea of what a type is. Nowhere is the influence of caprice, and
heedless confusion of forms more conspicuous than in this class of
vessels; so that any attempt to classify drinking vessels, and to
enumerate the subdivisions which have existed and still exist, can meet
with little success. But if we disregard "freaks" and those anomalous
forms of drinking vessels, which have been evolved more by the
influence of fashion, and caprice than by the intended use, we
shall find that the distinctions which we found to be true for the
22*

340 Drinking Vessels. — The Kylix, the Kantharos, &c.
forms of vessels in general, are applicable to drinking vessels in
particular". Notwithstanding this, we will attempt to classify the forms of
drinking vessels. This will be done, partly according to style, placing
t'he commonest antique forms on one Plate, specifically Old German
forms on another, and the drinking vessels of our own time on a third.
Partly, too, we will place, on other Plates, definite groups which have
either an identical fundamental form or a common object, regardless
of their belonging to the same or to different styles, e. g. Drinking-
horns and Rhytons, Cups and Beakers, Chalices and Goblets, State-Cups,
Rummers, Mugs, and Tankards.

The Kylix, the Kantharos, &c. (Plate 201.)
Drinking vessels of clay and the precious metals, played the chief,
part in Antique times, while glass, which was employed for other
purposes, was only occasionally used.
A very common form is the two-handled dish or Kylix, with a
low or high foot. Both the form and the name of the later Calyx
and our Chalice are derived from Kylix. When formed of clay, the
Kylix is a plain shallow dish, ornamented on the under side, some
times with figures on the inner side, and with two horizontal handles
(figs. 1 — 2). In metal, the form becomes richer, the handles are
elongated and bolder in curvature (figs. 3 — 4).
The fundamental form of the Kantharos is that of the deep dish
or Krater, with two vertical handles. The decoration is only external;
the simplicity in clay (fig. 5), passes into richness when metal is em
ployed (figs. 6 — 7). Bacchic attributes, the vine, ivy, the thyrsos,
masks, &c, from the decoration.
The Kyathos, a dipper and drinking vessel at once, is a dish
with the handle elongated vertically and sometimes replaced by a
straight handle, which gives the vessel somewhat of the appearence of
a spoon (figs. 8, 9, 10).
The Skyphos is a dish with two horizontal handles (figs. 11);
the Kothon (fig. 12), is the military drinking vessel, "a vessel with
a broad rim bent inwards, out of which one could only drink
by bending the neck right back; but it was convenient for dipping
water from brooks, and the in -curved rim caught the impurities of
the water so that they remained behind both in dipping and drinking",
(Semper). We might further adduce the Deinos, the drinking vessel of
Hercules, the amphikypellon, a double beaker mentioned by Homer,
the Kalathos, and others. But the examples selected above muy
suffice.

VASES.

341

The Kylix, the Kantharos, &c.

Plate 201.

342 The Kylix, the Kantharos, &c. — The Rhyton.
Plate 201. The Kylix, the Kantharos, &c.
1. Antique Kylix, painted clay, Museum, Naples.
2. The same vessel, viewed from below.
3. Greek Kylix, bronze, found in sarcophagus at Cephalonia, (Stackel-
berg).
4. Greek Kylix, bronze, found in Ithaca.
5. Antique Kantharos, black painted clay, United collections, Carls
ruhe.
6. Antique Kylix, beaten silver, Hildesheim treasure, Museum, Berlin.
7. Antique Kantharos, beaten silver, found at Berth ouville near
Bernay, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
8. Antique Kyathos, black painted clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.
9. Antique Kyathos, painted clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.
10. Antique Skyphos, metal, (Menard et Sauvageot).
11. Antique Skyphos, painted clay.
12. Antique Kothon, painted clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.

The Rhyton. (Plate 202.)
The primaeval custom, of using the Horns of animals as drinking
vessels, led to the Drinking-Horn. The Antique is not alone in
creating, in the Rhyton, a special kind of these vessels: in the Middle
ages and in Modern times, in England and Germany, Drinking-horns
are well known. In view of the varied and often complicated forms
of these latter, we shall confine ourselves to presenting some Antique
examples. The form of the Rhytotf was that of an animal's head, with
the addition of a handle. As a rule, it has no foot; and cannot be
set down. When pierced at the lower end, it could be drunk-from
in the manner shown in fig. 11. Stags, asses, swine, vultures, &c.
were utilised as models, whence the special names Elaphos, Onos.
Kapros, Gryps, &c.
Sometimes the human head was used, (fig. 2). The vessel is
modelled naturalistically ; and receives a painted decoration on the
neck alone. The material is clay.
Plate 202.
1. Antique, (Tragelaphos) with a ram head.
2. Antique, with a human head.
3. Antique, (Kapros) with a swine head.
4. Antique, (Elaphos) with a stag head, (Semper).
5 — 6. Antique, (Hippotragelaphos) on one side a ram, on the other
an ass head.

VASES.

343

The Rhyton.

Plate 202.

344

VASES.

Plate 203.

The Cup, and the Beaker.

The Rhyton. — The Cup, and the Beaker. — The Chalice, and the Goblet. 345
7. Antique, (Gryps) with vulture head.
8 — 9. Antique drinking-horn, with lion mask as spout.
10. Antique State Rhyton, marble, Vatican Museum, Rome.
11. Picture from an Antique Vase, showing the manner of drink
ing from the Rhyton.

The Cup, and the Beaker. (Plate 203.)
Drinking vessels of these forms are of very general occurrence.
They may be hemi -spherical, cylindrical, like an inverted cone, or of
a mixed shape; without foot, with a ring foot, or supported on
balls; without a handle, or with one, two, or more handles. The
use of the Cup restricts it to a certain size; the material is metal,
glass, clay, stoneware, &c. Richly-decorated Cups have come down
to us from the Antique, and the Renascence.
Plate 203. The Cup, and the Beaker.
1. Assyrian, from a relief.
2. Assyrian, painted clay.
3. Antique, silver, parcel gilt, found on Ithaca.
4. Antique Kalathos, found in Athens.
5. Antique, clay, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe.
6. Antique, red clay, painted black, United collections, Carlsruhe.
7. Antique, beaten silver, found in Pompeii, now in Naples.
8. Antique, originally decorated in sunk enamel, Hildesheim treasure,
Berlin, Museum.
9. Antique, beaten silver, Hildesheim treasure, Berlin, Museum.
10. Antique, green glass, found in Normandy, (Deville).
11. Antique, glass, (Deville).
12. Old German, glass.
13. Venetian, glass, British Museum.
14. Old German, stoneware.
15. Old German, stoneware.
16. German Renascence, Metal, with bosses and ball foot.

The Chalice, and the Goblet. (Plate 204.)
These are deep vessels of the form of half an egg, without
handle, and with a high foot. The form was chiefly used in the Middle
Ages, and Renascence; for both secular and religious purposes. For
the former purpose, the material is glass or metal, and the size is

346

VASES.

Plate 204.

The Chalice, and the Goblet.

The Chalice, &c. — The Hanap. 347
various; for the latter purpose, the chalice is invariably of metal,
mostly of silver chased and gilt, enamelled, set with jewels, <fec. In
the Romanesque style, the cup is hemispherical and shallow; in the
Gothic style and the Renascence, it becomes deeper.
Plate 204. The Chalice, and the Goblet.
1. Egyptian, Thebes.
2. Antique, red clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.
3. Antique, clay, painted black.
4. Romanesque Chalice, chased silver set with jewels, Villingen
church.
5. Gothic Chalice, chased silver, Wertheim church.
6. Silver State -Goblet, German, 16th century; this goblet, along
with two others, is said to have been the model for the master
pieces of the goldsmiths; and is usually attributed to the Nurem
berg goldsmith Jamnitzer, although this has lately been doubted;
the bossed outline is copied from the flower of the columbine
(Aquilegia vulgaris), Municipal collection, Nuremberg.
7. Crystal Goblet, with cut ornaments, 17 th century, National
Museum, Munich,
8. Venetian glass Goblet, 17th century, British Museum, (L'art
pour tous).
9. Modern Champagne-glass, Landesgewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
10. Old German glass Goblet, 17th century.
11. Old German glass Goblet, 17th century.

The Hanap. (Plate 205.)
The same blending of forms which the reader will have ob
served in the treatment of cups and goblets occurs in the case of
Hanaps. Ordinary colloquial language makes no definite distinction
between them. A State-cup presupposes a considerable richness of
decoration, it is usually a cup or goblet-shaped product of the gold
smith's art, provided with a cover, or it may even be a richly
finished glass of similar form.
Plate 205. The Hanap.
1. Design, by Hans Holbein, German, 16th century, (Formen
schatz).
2. Design, German, 16th century, (Formenschatz).
3. Design, 2nd half of the 16th century, the cover makes an in
dependent Cup, (Musterornamente).

348

VASES.

Plate 205.

The Hanap.

The Hanap. — The Romer or Rummer. 349
i — 5. German, 16th and 17th centuiies, chased silver, treasure of
Regensburg, (Musterornamente).
6 — 8. Old German, glass, 17 th century.

The KOmer or Rummer. (Plate 206.)
The Rummer, the glass par excellence for Rhenish wine, is the
most important representative of the Old German drinking glasses,
and is altogether one of the handsomest forms of vessels. C. Friedrich
in his work "Die Altdeutschen Glaser", the study of which we warmly
recommend, states that the fragments of antique glass were worked-up
again into fine glass-ware; and that this ware was called "Romanum
vitrum" or "Romarium vitrum". That led to the designation "Romarii"
which then became "RSmer" and "Rummer". The original form of
the Rummer is somewhat cylindrical (fig. 1); instead of a foot it
has a ring at the bottom. At a later period a low foot was added,
upon which the body began to be divided into members (figs. 2, and
3). The high foot eventually led to the goblet form (figs. 10,
and 11). Rummers, in which the contents reach to the bottom, belong
to the 2nd half of the 16th century; Rummers with spun foot, the
wine reaching to the middle-piece, are to be ascribed to the 17th
century; while Rummers with an independent middle-piece are the
product of the 18th century. All three forms have been revived in
late years. The colour of the Rummer is green or yellowish -brown;
for aesthetic reasons, and not because it was impossible to manufacture
clear glass. The middle -piece is often divided from the cup by a ribbed
band and ornamented with bosses. In later times the cup was decorated
with cut or painted ornament (figs. 5, and 6). Such modern
examples, as Rummers with white feet and pink cups, are abenations
of taste. The Rummer is generally of moderate size; but examples of
large size are sometimes met- with.
Plate 206. The Rummee.
1 — 4. Older forms, (Friedrich).
5 — 6. White and light-green, engraved ornaments, Bavarian Ge-
werbemuseum, Nuremberg, (Friedrich).
7 — 8. Modern copies.
9. Old form, without foot, (Friedrich).
10 — 11. Modern forms.
12. Wooden vessel resembling a Rummer, lacquered black, from
Borneo, United collections, Carlsruhe.

350

VASES.

Plate 206.

The Romer or Rummer.

VASES.

351

Various Drinking Vessels.

Plate 207.

352 VariouB Glasses.

Various Glasses. (Plate 207.)
The Plate contains a selection of other Old German drinking
vessels. What manifold varieties of drinking glasses existed, in the
16th century, for instance, may be seen in Fischart's romance "Gar-
gantoa and Pantagruel", which is sociologically so interesting. In the
eight chapter, entitled "a conversation on drinking", he says: "Da
stachen sie eynander die Pocal auff die Prust, da flogen die miihele,
da stibeten die Romercken, da raumt man die dickelbacher, da soffen
je zween und zween aus doppleten, die man von eynander bricht, ja
soff aus gestifleten Kriigen, da sturzt man die Pott, da schioang man
den Gutruff, da trahet man den Angster, da riss und schalt man den
Wein aus Potten, aus Kelchen, Napffen, Gonen; Hoffbechern: Tassen:
Trinkschalen: Pfaffenmasen: Stauffen von hohen stauffen: Kitten:
Kdlten: Kanuten: Kbpffen: Knartgen: Schlauchen: Pipen: Nussen:
Fiolen: Lampeten: Kufen: Nusseln: Seydeln: Kiilkesseln, Malterlin:
Melkgelten, Spitzmasen, Zolcken, Kannen, Schndulzenmas , Schoppen-
kannlein, Stotzen: Da klangen die Glaser, da funckelten die Krausen."
We here offer a few forms, some of them named in the above descrip
tion of Fischart's.
The name Angster is applied to a high narrow-necked drinking
bottle (from the Latin angustus, narrow). The neck, which rises out
of a spherical, bulbous body, often consisted of 2, 3, or more tubes
wound round one another, frequently bent to one side and broadening
at the top into a cup -like mouth (fig. 8). These glasses belong
to the category of Puzzle-glasses, to extract the wine from which was
a matter of "anguish". Semper's observation is very true for such
puzzle-glasses: "it would really seem as if fashion and the toper's
humor of the competitors, in drinking-bouts with obstacles, had spe
cially invented forms of vessels which demanded a most uncomfortable
and ingenious mode of drinking."
The Gutrolf (gutterer, kutrof, perhaps from the Latin gutturni-um),
seems to have been a similar glass with a straight neck (figs. 6
and 9). The Spechter (presumably from Spessart) is a tall, nanow, cy
lindrical glass with a low foot, decorated with bosses, scrolls, &c.
(figs. 4, 5).
The Passglas (peg-tankard) resembles the spechter, but is divided
by rings into equal divisions which served as a scale in drinking bouts.
It often bears painted figures, inscriptions &c, (figs. 2, 3).
The form of the cabbage-stalk glass in sufficiently indicated by
the name (fig. 1).
The Tummler and Handtummler (tumbler) are glasses without
feet, which totter when set down; and if laid on their side at once

Various Glasses. — The Mug. 353
resume a vertical position (figs. 14, 15); as also glasses like that
shown in fig. 13, which must first be drunk empty before they can
be set down.
To those times also belonged: Puzzle-glasses from which the
liquor had to be sucked - out at the end of the handle (fig. 10);
vessels in the shape of ladies (figs. 11 — 12), and of fantastic
animals. It would carry us too far to enter upon the details of manu
facture: we therefore refer the reader once more to C. Friedrich's
''¦Altdeutsche Glaser".
Plate 207. Various Drinking Vessels.
1. Green cabbage-stalk Glass, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.
2 — 3. Old German Peg-tankards, painted.
4 — 5. Old German Spechters.
6. Kutrolf (Angster), 16th century, Bavarian Gewerbemuseum,
Nuremberg.
7 — 8. Old German Angsters, No. 8 in the Bavarian Gewerbe
museum, Nuremberg.
9. Kutrolf (Angster) with winding neck.
10. Puzzle -mug, (Friedrich).
11 — 12. Old German Glasses, in the form of ladies, No. 12 in the
Bavarian Gewerbemuseum, Nuremberg.
13. Large Tumbler, 18th century, with metal handle; in the
original a figure of Mercury stands on the ball, Bavarian
Gewerbemuseum, Nuremberg.
14. Painted glass Tumbler, (Friedrich).
14. Hungarian coronation Glass, painted.

The Mug. (Plate 208.)
In accordance with its purpose, the form of the Mug is essen
tially different from that of other drinking vessels. The body usually
has a cylindrical form, and is without a foot, or with only a ring
foot. A movable lid of metal, mostly tin, is. attached by a hinge
to the vertical handle, in order to keep the liquid as fresh as possible,
in view of the great surface of evaporation. For the same reason
the material is preferably stoneware. That glass has of late years
been preferred to stoneware, is due to the fact that the liquid is
visible and more easily investigated in glass vessels; and that these
are more easily cleaned. Compared with the wine-glass, the Mug
will always have a greater circumference, and show a more robust
treatment. The hinge must be so attached that when the lid is wide
open, it forms an obtuse angle with the rim.
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. "3

354

VASES.

Plate 208.

The Mug.

The Mug. — The Tankard. — Modern Drinking Glasses. 355
Plate 208. The Mug.
1. Renascence Mug (schnelle), stoneware, German.
2. Renascence Mug, chased silver, Regensburg treasure, (Ge
werbehalle).
3. Old German Beermug, brown glass, painted, Bavarian Ge
werbemuseum, Nuremberg.
4, 6, 7. Old German stoneware Beermugs.
5. Old German glass beermug.
8. Renascence Mug, amber, mounted with silver, Griines Ge-
wolbe, Dresden.
9 — 10. Modern stoneware Beermugs, from old patterns.
11. Modern Beermug, brown glass, with green bosses.

The Tankard. (Plate 209.)
The Tankard is a drinking vessel, more or less coarse in shape
like a cylinder or an inverted cone; and made of glass, stone
ware, &c. The name is also given to vessels of more architectural
pretensions, like that in fig. 9. The Tankard is less for individual
than for social use; and is intended chiefly for beer, hence its size
and robust form. Of special importance are the eagle, imperial,
electoral, and guild Tankards of the Renascence period.
Plate 209. The Tankard.
1. Roman Glass, of tankard form, found in Pompeii, (Deville).
2. Ditto, (Ditto).
3. Old German green glass Tankard, (compare this form with
that of the Rummer on Plate 206).
4. Ditto.
5 — 6. Old German glass Tankards.
7. Old German armorial Tankard, (Friedrich).
8. Modern brown glass Tankard.
9. Modern brown glass Tankard, painted, (Keller-Leuzinger).

Modern Drinking Glasses. (Plate 210.)
Great laxity is apparent in the forms of modern drinking
vessels. Alongside coarse forms in transparent blown and cast glass:
delicate glasses, cut and etched, appear in the market. Of late years
old examples of coloured glass have been frequently copied, with
23*

356

VASES.

Plate 209.

The Tankard.

VASES.

357

Modern Drinking Glasses.

Plate 210.

358

Modern Drinking Glasses.

more or less skill and intelligence. It is to be hoped that the
general revival of Applied Art will lead to the attainment of high-
class results in this branch also.

Plate 210
1

Modern Drinking Glasses.

11. Various modern Glasses for water, wine, and beer, of white
and coloured glass.

Plates 191 — 210 present some 50 different classes of vessels in nearly
500 specimens. But even this copious material was far from permitting
every form to be taken into consideration. The first place was accorded
to definite groups and to conventional, ever-recurring shapes; while the
arbitrary, sporadic, accidental, and barocco, were excluded. Still, it is
possible that we have not succeeded in giving a general view of the group
of pottery and vessels. Readers who desire to pursue their studies further
are referred to the special works and periodicals dealing with this subject.

B.
METAL OBJECTS.
(UTENSILS.)

Utensils are very various; and an exhaustive treatment of them
is quite impossible within the scope of this Handbook. Beside this,
decoration is quite excluded in many cases. Still, definite divisions
of this group have been created by the fact, that their representatives
in certain periods have received artistic treatment; and hence they
may be reduced to a system.
Although, on the one hand, a number of utensils have found no
place on the Plates devoted to this group: we have, on the' other
hand, been able to form a number of subsidiary divisions, each com
plete in itself. Thus, for example: chapters 211 — 220 will deal
with the interesting subject of utensils for Hlu ruination, chapters
221—225 with the utensils of Ritual, chapters 226 — 230 with the
utensils of War and Hunting, chapters 231 — 235 with those of the
Table, and chapters 236 — 240 with a variety of Household and
Toilet utensils, Tools, &c.

a. Utensils for Blumination.
Utensils of illumination, both for religious and household use,
are extremely numerous. Great attention and artistic finish have
been lavished upon them in all styles; and especially in the Antique.
We need only mention the Candelabra of the Antique and the Renas
cence, Greek Lamps, the Chandeliers of the Middle Ages, &c.

360 The Candelabrum.
The forms and the finish of the different utensils have changed
along with the radical changes which the mode of illumination has
undergone in the course of time. Oil, lamp-light, candle, torch-light,
gas-light, and our latest achievement, the electric light, all demand
special, different forms of bearers, and apparatus.
The predominant material would seem to be metal; and, next
to this, clay, and glass; while imflammable materials like wood are,
by their very nature, almost excluded.
Here, too, it is proper to call attention to a difference which
must be borne in mind between Antique and Modern illuminating
utensils. The difference is this: that whereas the Antique with all
its artistic perfection, is very defective from a practical point of view;
Modern apparatus, while surpassing the Antique in the matter of
technical adaptation to its purpose, scarcely ever reaches the Antique
beauty, and generally falls below it.
We will consider the Candelabrum, the Antique Lamp, the
different kinds of Standard, Hand, and Bracket Candlesticks, Hanging
Lamps, Lanterns, Chandeliers, and Modern Lamps; taking them in
this order.

The Candelabrum. (Plates 211 — 212.)
The Candelabrum (from candela = candle) was, as its name in
dicates, originally intended to carry a candle. But as candle-light,
like the illumination by means of torches and pitch -pans, gradually
receded before the use of Lamps in Antique times, and was more
and more reserved for the purposes of ritual; the Antique Cande
labrum came to be employed as a Lampstand or Lampadarium.
Hence it comes that the upper end of a Candelabrum is furnished
sometimes with a bowl, sometimes with a pricket or socket to receive
the candle, sometimes with a flat disc, and, sometimes with project
ing clips and hooks to hold the lamp or to suspend it from. The
last is the most frequent form. The great State - candelabra, for
religious observances, have bowls; and are made of marble. The shaft
of such a Roman Candelabrum of conventional form is given on
Plate 121, fig. 2. Candelabra for house'hold use were made of
bronze. In height: they are of two different dimensions, according
as they were meant to stand on the ground, or on a table. The
former are of an extremely slender construction (Plate 211. 1), of an
average height of 3 feet to 4 ft. 6 ins. The form of the latter class
(candelabrum humile) is less slender (Plate 211. 5 and 6), and the
extreme height is about 1 ft. 8 ins. The design of the Antique
Candelabrum is either of architectonic character, or free and natura-

The Candelabrum. 361
listic. We have already mentioned, in chapters 135 — 137, that in
the former case: the base, shaft and bowl, are generally decorated.
The second class includes standing and sitting figures, behind which
the shaft of the candelabrum rises, or by which it is borne (Plate 211.
2 and 3); or of bearers in the form of trees, beneath which figures
or groups are seated (Plate 211. 4). Occasionally examples are found
so arranged that they can be taken apart and adjusted to different
heights (Plate 211. 7). The majority of the Antique bronze Cande
labra which have been preserved to us are of Etruscan origin.
Plate 211 shows seven different examples selected from the copious
material.
Plate 211. The Ajstique Candelabrum.
1. Antique, bronze stand from which to suspend lamps (lychnucus,
lampadarium), found in Pompeii, Berlin, Museum.
2. Etruscan, bronze, Bibliotheque National, Paris.
3. Antique, bronze, found in Chiusi, (Menard et Sauvageot).
4. Antique, bronze, found in Herculaneum.
5. Antique, bronze, to hold a candle or torch, (Menard et Sauvageot).
6. Antique, (Candelabrum humile), bronze, Museum, Naples.
7. Antique, bronze, adjustable to different heights, found in Her
culaneum. The Candelabrum was revived at the time of the Renascence
along with the tradition of Antique art. It accepted the form; but
remodelled it in its own fashion. Since that time the Candelabrum
occurs in countless modifications, both for state and use, in religious
and secular buildings. It is no more a Lampstand, but bears a
candle in a pricket or, more rarely, in a socket. The Roman Catholic
ritual, in particular, the services of which require lighted candles,
has given an impetus to the new forms of Candelabra in metal, and
carved wood set-off by painting and gilding. The finest examples of
this kind are to be found in the churches and palaces of Italy.
Plate 212. The Renascence Candelabrum.
1. Altar candlestick, church of the Benedictines, Villingen, wood,
gilt and silvered, Late German Renascence, 3 ft. 9 ins. high.
2. Bronze, end of the 16th century, Italian.
3. Altar candlestick, Certosa near Pavia, 17th century, Italian,
(Musterornamente).
4. Medicean chapel, San Lorenzo, Florence, Italian, Renascence.
5. Bronze, Italian, Renascence, Bargello, Florence.

METAL OBJECTS.

Plate 211.

The Antique Candelabrum.

METAL OBJECTS.

363

The Renascence Candelabrum.

Plate 212.

364 The Antique Lamp.
The Antique Lamp. (Plate 213.)
The Antique Lamp (lychnus, lucerna) is, strictly speaking, a
combination of holder and pourer; and might with equal propriety
have been included in the group of Vases. The fundamental form,
which was retained down to the latest times, is found in early
Egyptian household utensils; and is created by adding a handle, a
funnel for filling, and a spout with an opening for the wick, to a
spheroid body, figures 1 and 2.
In Greek and Roman Lamps: the body becomes flattened, the
funnel contracts to a simple orifice, and the round handle is either
replaced by a straight one or combined with it, (figs. 4 and 9).
Very frequently the lamp has several wick-openings (dimyxos, tri-
myxos &c.) instead of only one, (figs. 5, 10 and 11).
Clay and bronze are the materials almost exclusively employed.
The clay Lamps are mostly plastically decorated, more rarely painted.
The decoration is most conspicuous on the handle and the spout; the
upper part of the body is often treated with figures in bas-relief,
(fig. 4). Bronze Lamps are decorated with figures, with covers fastened
by hinges, wick -trimmers, &c, (fig. 10). And it was the bronze
Lamps which were especially arranged to be suspended from Lampa-
darii. Small Lampstands, in the form of low tripods, are also not
scarce (figs. 8 and 9); occasionally Tripod and Lamp are combined,
as in the example shown in fig. 7. By the side of examples teetoni-
cally constructed, we find freer forms, imitating human figures, animal
shapes, human feet, &c. In some cases these may be considered as
"happy thoughts"; in others they are simply an aberration of style
(figs. 12 and 13).
The early days of Christendom show reminiscences of the An
tique, e. g. the Lamp in fig. 13, which also bears the monogram
of Christ. In later periods: the decoration degenerates, although the fun
damental form has been retained till the present time, in the East,
for household lamps; the design of the modern lamp from Jerusalem
(fig. 14) is of the simplest possible description. In the West: the old
form is gradually dying-out, since the introduction of the glass cylinder,
which enables the illuminating gases to be more thoroughly consumed.
Plate 213. The Antique Lamp.
1 — 2. Egyptian, clay.
3. Antique, painted clay, (Menard et Sauvageot).
4. Antique, red clay, United collections, Carlsruhe.
5. Antique, red clay, with two spouts and vertical ring handle.
United collections, Carlsruhe.

METAL OBJECTS.

365

The Antique Lamp.

Plate 213.

366 The Antique Lamp. — The Candlestick.
6. Antique, with cover and ring handle, red clay, United
collections, Carlsruhe.
7. Antique, bronze, with high stand, the missing cover was
evidently a human mask, Louvre, Paris.
8 — 9. Antique, bronze, on small tripods (candelabrum humile).
10. Antique, bronze, with three spouts, the figure serves as a
handle for the cover, a wick -trimmer is attached to it by a
chain, found in Herculaneum.
11. Antique, bronze, with two spouts, found in Herculaneum,
Museum, Naples, ije of original size.
12. Antique, bronze, for suspension, (Formenschatz).
13. Early Christian, bronze, with the monogram of Christ, for
suspension, from the catacombs, Rome.
14. Modern, Oriental, clay, from Jerusalem, United collections,
Carlsruhe.

The Candlestick. (Plates 214 — 215.)
The Candlestick is the candle-bearer of the Middle Ages, the
Renascence, and Modern times. It is distinguished from the Cande
labrum, if a distinction can be made at all where the forms thus
blend with each other, by its smaller dimensions and simpler forms;
and it is chiefly used for secular purposes.
The principal materials beside brass, iron, copper, tin, _c, are
clay, porcelain, and glass.
In the Middle Ages; it Was usual to stick the candle on a conical
pricket; our Modern times prefer the cylindrical socket. The design
includes base (often tripartite), shaft, and socket, as in the case of
the Candelabrum. The upper end is furnished with a saucer or bowl,
to catch the droppings. The saucer is sometimes loose, so that it
may easely be taken-off and cleansed, in which case it is termed a
"save-all". Often the upper part is furnished with a number of arms to
receive several candles. As regards decorations: the principles laid
down for the Candelabrum, in the chapter on Supports, hold good.
The Seven-branched-candlestick, of the Temple at Jerusalem, is histo
rically celebrated; fig. 1 of Plate 215 reproduces this from the repre
sentation of it on the triumphal arch of Titus. The fundamental
form of it has been retained, to this day, in Jewish ritual.
High Candlesticks, of simple form, made of wrought-iron, are not
rare in the Middle Ages (Plate 215. 2). Richly - finished examples,
in wrought-iron and bronze, were created in the Renascence, (Plate
214. 5, arid 215. 3). The Japanese and Chinese bronze candlesticks

The Candlestick. — The Hand-Candlestick. 367
have a certain similarity to the Romanesque ecclesiastical candlesticks
of the same material, (Plate 214. 1 — 4).
Modern productions in clay, glass and porcelain have scarcely
any artistic importance; all the more must we praise modern art for
recurring to the old models in metal work; and thus producing very
gratifying results, (Plate 214. 6, 7, 8, and Plate 215. 4 and 5).
Plate 214. The Candlestick.
1. Romanesque, bronze, 11th century, Dugue collection, (Viollet-le-
Duc).
2. Romanesque, bronze, Cathedral, Hildesheim.
3. Romanesque, bronze.
4. Ancient Chinese, bronze.
5. Brass, 17th century.
6. Modern, bronze, (Gewerbehalle).
7. Modern, bronze, Gewerbehalle, Carlsruhe.
8. Modern, bronze, by Prof. Schick, Carlsruhe, (Gewerbehalle).
Plate 215. The Candlestick.
1. The Seven- branched-candlestick of the Temple at Jerusalem, Arch
of Titus, Rome.
2. Wrought-iron, S. Peter's, Tarrosa, Spain, 14th century, (L'art
pour tous).
3. Wrought-iron, for 3 candles, 17th century.
4. Wrought-iron, Modern.
5. Wrought-iron, with several arms, by C. Zaar, (Gewerbehalle).

The Hand-Candlestick. (Plate 216.)
The term Hand -candlestick includes any kind of portable can
dlestick; and it assumes the existence of some kind of handle to hold
and carry it. The Hand-candlestick is always of modest dimensions;
and it is generally low in height, as in our flat candlesticks.
It may be constructed on an immense variety of plans, so that
_ number of different forms occur. Candlesticks frequently recur of
tiie form shown in fig. 2, in which a screw thread enables the height
-of the socket to be adjusted. The Middle Ages and the Renascence
exhibited great ingenuity in the invention of such arrangements
(fig- !)• ,
As the Hand-candlestick is liable to gutter: the "save-all" has
¦here undergone a special developement, so that in a certain class of

368

METAL OBJECTS.

Plate 214.

The Candlestick.

METAL OBJECTS.

369

The Candlestick.

Ueyer, Handbook of Ornament.

\ Plate 215.
24

370 The Hand-Candlestick. — The Candle-Bracket
candlestick it consists of a broad dish out of which rises a shaft
with a socket-bowl at the end (figs. 216. 6, 7, 8).
Often an Extinguisher is combinet with the Candlestick, especially
when the latter is of wrought-iron; as shown by the original example,
fig. 4; of late years Match-holders have also been included.
The material is the same as for other candlesticks. There is
nothing special to say as regards the decoration.
Pate 216. The Hand -Candlestick.
1 — 3. Wrought-iron, 17th century.
4 — 5. Modern, wrought iron.
6. Modern, by P. Faure of Paris, (Gewerbehalle).
7. Modern, brass.
8. Modern, brass.

The Candle-Bracket. (Plate 217.)
Candle -Brackets are fixed or movable bearers attached to vertical
surfaces, e. g. columns, pilasters, &c. In the Middle Ages and the
Renascence they were chiefly used for Torches and Candles; at the
present time they are employed for Candles and Gas. Their form
naturally differs from that of the upright Candlestick. Curved
scroll-work and consoles of metal (for this material is the one almost
exclusively used) bear on their free end the prickets, or the sockets, or
the burners and globes, which last are employed to diffuse the glaring
light and soften the sharp shadows. A primitive method of connecting
the bracket with the wall is by hook and eye (fig. 1); in articles of
better finish this is done by means of rosettes or wall-plates and car
touches (figs. 6, 7, 8, 9). The Bracket may be used for one or more
lights. In the latter case: several prickets or sockets are placed on a
common disc (fig. 2); or, which is artistically better, the main branch
divides into a number of subsidiary arms (fig. 3). The Bracket
on a large scale, is used for Street-lighting, for Churches, Theatres,
Halls, Mansions, Palaces, Restaurants, &c; and on a smaller scale, for
Pianofortes, &c. In designing Brackets for gas: care must be taken
to provide for the Gas-pipe. The modern adjustible Brackets, being
mostly without decoration, need not be considered.
Plate 217. The Candle-bracket.
1 — 2. German, Renascence, wrought-iron, National Museum, Munich.
3. Rococo, for 3 candles, bronze gilt, Milan Museum, (Raguenet).
4 — 5. Modern, by M. Weinholdt, Munich, (Gewerbehalle).
6 — 7. Wall-plates, to 4, and 5.

METAL OBJECTS.

371

The Hand-Candlestick.

Plate 216.

24*

372

METAL OBJECTS.

Plate 217.

The Candle-Bracket.

The Candle-Bracket. — The Pendant-Lamp. — The Chandelier. 373
8. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).
9. Modern, wrought-iron.

The Pendant-Lamp. (Plate 218.)
Both aesthetic reasons, and the danger of being knocked- over to
which upright candlesticks are subject, led in early times to the con
struction of Pendant-lamps. In addition to the small bronze lamps, which
could be used both standing or hanging, the Antique offers us Lamps
which could be used only for suspension. The latter form is still com
mon in the East (compare Plate 187. 13), and in the West in Christian
and Jewish ritual. The introduction, of Paraffin, Gas, and the Electric
light, has afforded plentiful opportunities of giving an artistic form
to Hanging -lamps. The spherical globes of ground glass lend them
selves especially to such treatment, (figs. 4, 5, 6). Box-shaped hold
ers, either open or closed by panes of glass, are termed Lanterns.
Modern lanterns, for illumination in the open air, are generally devoid
of any really artistic decoration; but the Middle Ages and, the Re
nascence created many objects of perfect form in this branch. The
most suitable material for Lanterns is wrought-iron (figs. 2 and 3). It
is self-evident that Lanterns must be so arranged that they can be
opened for cleaning, &c.
Plate 218. The Pendant-lamp.
1. Old Moorish, iron, United collections, Carlsruhe.
2. Mediaeval, wrought-iron, for several candles, German, (Formen
schatz).
3. French, H6tel Vogue, Dijon, 17th century, (L'art pour tous).
4. Modern, for Electric glow-light, by- Peter, of Esslingen, (Ge
werbehalle).
5 — 6. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).

The Chandelier. (Plate 219.)
The arrangement, of a considerable number of lights in circular
form on a framework intended for suspension, led to the construction
of the Chandelier. In the Middle Ages: the lights were all placed
in the same plane so that they formed a ring (fig. 2); 'the Re
nascence secured greater richness and variety of design by a number
of rings, an anangement which has usually been retained in our
modern Chandeliers (fig. 3 and 4). Further variety is attained by
the alternation of the lights in the different rings. Wrought-iron

374

METAL OBJECTS.

Plate 218.

The Pendant-Lamp.

The Chandelier. — The Modern Lamp. 376
and bronze, along with glass (Venetian chandeliers), and of late years
cheap cast-iron, and zinc, are the chief materials. Original and uni
que in design is the mermaid chandelier consisting of female half-
figures terminating in fish-tails, and furnished with antlers to cany
the candles (fig. 1). The slender chains by which these mer
maids, and other lamps and lanterns, were suspended, are replaced in
modern chandeliers by a tube which also serves as a gas-pipe. In
the former case the chain was carried over pulleys so that the light
could be shifted higher or lower; in modern chandeliers the adjust
ment is effected by means of a stuffing-box with balance weights
(fig. 7). Very frequently the lower end of the Chandelier terminates
in a ring, to facilitate the change in height. In addition to the globes
round the flames, guards are often placed over them, to protect the
ceiling from heat and soot. Each burner must be connected with the
main gas-pipe by means of a separate pipe. Where the Chandelier
is intended for Electric lights; the latter may be bent downwards
instead of upwards, so that the frames for the globes will cast no
shadow. The Plate gives a number of ancient and modern Chande
liers, partly in half profile, the foreshortened arms, which interfere
with the drawing, having been omitted. A regular anangement, of
4, 5 or 6 arms, is the rule: more or fewer arms occur more rarely. In
the case of Chandeliers with a great number of lights: each arm is
arranged after the fashion of a bracket with several candles.
Plate 219. The Chandelier.
1. Modern, style of the German Renascence.
2. German, Renascence, Hemispherical, for 8 candles.
3 — 6. Modern, bronze and wrought-iron.
7. Modern, French, by the sculptor Villeminot, (L'art pour tous)

The Modern Lamp. (Plate 220.)
The principal value, of the modern Lamp, lies in the technical
completeness, and adaptation to its purpose. There is, it is true,
no such wealth of artistic fancy as is shown by Antique Lamps; but
still some good examples may be found among the two or three
fundamental forms of the Paraffin-lamp, with which we have mostly
to do. Metal, glass, porcelain, and majolica, again appear as materials.
As a general rule we have a profiled foot, on which the oil-receiver
rests, from which latter the burner, chimney, and globe rise, (figs. 1
and 2). More richly finished examples have a masked receiver, the latter
being enclosed by a vase (figs. 3, and 4). Attempts have lately been

376

METAL OBJECTS.

Plate 219.

The Candelier.

METAL OBJECTS.

377

The Modern Lamp.

Plate 220.

378 The Modem Lamp. — The Altar.
made to replace these conventional forms by more original designs.
An example of this is the "vestal lamp" (fig. 5), which must be admitted
to be successful. This form admits of adjustment of height; can be
easily filled and cleaned; and allows of a combination of several burn
ers (fig. 6).
Plate 220. The Modern Lamp.
1 — 2. Paraffin lamps, with visible oil receiver.
3. Oil Lamp, with concealed receiver, by the sculptor Piat of
Paris, (L'art pour tous).
4. Paraffin Lamp, with concealed receiver, by Paul Stotz, of Stutt
gart, Bronze, (Gewerbehalle).
5. Paraffin Lamp, "Vestal lamp", Berlin.
6. Paraffin Lamp, with 3 burners, by the architect Bohringer, oi
Stuttgart, (Gewerbehalle).

b. Religious Utensils.
Notwithstanding the varied character of Religious Utensils: we
devote only five Plates to them, principally because many have been
already dealt-with in other groups. We cannot attempt to give a
complete view of the apparatus of ritual; but must confine our
selection to objects taken, partly from Heathen, and partly from
Christian examples.

The Altar. (Plate 221.)
The original form of the Altar (from alta ard) was no doubt
extremely simple. Blocks of rock and stones, piled-up beneath the
blue sky or under trees, were probably the earliest. With the evolu
tion of art, and especially of architecture, the Altar entered into the
service of the Temple; and received a more artistic finish. The plan
of the Antique Altar is usually triangular, quadrangular, or circular.
The material is generally marble. Its top is a table-like Slab, gene
rally with a hollow to contain the sacrificial fire. The decoration
was of symbolic character. Skulls of animals, Festoons of fruit, votive
Wreaths, Figures of the Gods, Genii, and similar creations, were used
almost always. The triangular Altar was often used as the base of
the Antique State-candelabrum; e. g. the altar represented on fig. 5,
which is the base of a Candelabrum.
The so-called "Altars" of the Christian religion have nothing in

The Altar. — The Tripod. 379
common with those of the Antique; and they do not fall within the
scope of our work.
Plate 221. The Altar.
1. Assyrian, triangular sacrificial stone.
2. Assyrian, round sacrificial stone.
3. Assyrian, sacrificial slab, from a relief in the British Museum.
4. Roman, three-sided Altar, like a number of examples, differing
little from one-another, in the museums in London, Paris, &c.
5. Roman, three-sided Altar, used as the base of a Candelabrum.
6 — 9. Roman, various altars, fig. 9 with the masks of 12 Deities, and
the signs of the Zodiac, (Menard et Sauvageot).
The Tripod. (Plate 222.)
The name Tripod is applied to any three-legged support, what
ever the use to which it may be put. More accurately, the Tripod is
a construction in three parts: the top part being a bowl, dish, or
slab. The Antique Tripod played an important part both in religious
rites and in daily life. Originally an article of practical use, for
cooking, &c, its form is simple; when it was elevated to an utensil
of Religion, to bear the sacrificial pans and the consecrated offerings
for the Deities, or to be the Prize of Victory in the games: it assu
med conventional forms, and received an artistic finish. The material
was generally bronze, except for the great, monumental State-tripods,
which were of marble. The Greek, Roman, and Etruscan Tripods differ
characteristically from each- other, in their detail; but have this in com
mon, that they are supported by three smooth, rod-like legs, which are
terminated at their lower end in animals' claws; and are connected
together by rings (fig. 3), or struts (figs. 1 and 2); and at the top are
either connected directly with the dish (figs. 1 and 2), or with a ring
intended for the reception of a loose dish (fig. 3). For the sake of
greater convenience, handles are sometimes attached to the dish (fig. 1);
.-the legs may be adjusted to different heights (figs. 1 and 2); or the
.Tripod may be so ananged that it can be taken to pieces. These
{ antique Tripods, of which some of the simpler examples are given on
;the Plate, afford us, better than anything else, an insight into the
j Antique art of bronze -working.
The Middle Ages and the Renascence have also transmitted to us
numerous Tripods. Their principal, use is in households as stands for
washing-basins, &c; and they are generally of wrought-iron (figs. 4,
5, 6). After the art of working in wrought-iron had been revived
in modern times, we find them as Stands for washing- apparatus, Trays
for visiting-cards, Stands for wine-coolers, (fig. 7), &c.

380

METAL OBJECTS.

Plate 221.

The Altar.

METAL OBJI.CTS.

3S1

The Tripod.

Plate 222.

382 The Tripod. — The Censer.
Plate 222. The Tripod.
1. Antique, bronze, found in Pompeii, about Museum, Naples.
28 ins. high.
2. Romanesque, bronze, (Menard et Sauvageot).
3. Etruscan, bronze, Berlin Museum.
4. Mediaeval, bronze, Pienefonds castle, (Viollet-le-Duc).
5 — 6. Italian, 17th century, wrought-iron, about 4 ft. high, (L'art
pour tous).
7. Modern, wrought-iron, for wine-cooler, by the architect Zaar,
(Gewerbehalle).

The Censer. (Plate 223.)
One of the oldest ecclesiastical utensils is the Censer or Thu
rible, in the use of which the rising clouds of incense are a sym
bolical representation of prayer ascending to heaven. The material is
silver, bronze, iron, copper, or brass. The lower part consists of a
dish with foot, containing the fire-pan. The pierced cover is kept
in its place by means of the three chains which pass through the
three holes made for the purpose. These three chains hang from a
small plate with a ring. The cover is fastened to a fourth chain,
which also terminates in a chain and may be drawn up through a hole
in the plate (fig. 7). The decoration is frequently symbolic, and In
scriptions are also used. The Romanesque and Gothic Censers often
exhibit an architectonic design of domes and towers (figs. 2, 4, 6).
The Renascence prefers the strict form of a vessel (figs. 8, and 9).
Modern art avails itself of Ancient models, without having anything
independent to show. An appendage of the Censer, in a certain sense,
is the Censer-boat, or incense-holder, usually an elliptical dish with
a, partition and two hinged covers. The incense is conveyed from
the Incense-boat to the Censer by means of a Spoon.
Plate 223. The Censer.
1 — 2. Romanesque, bronze, 6th and 12th centuries, each 71/") ins.
high, Collection of antiquities, Grand-ducal Court, Mannheim.
3. Romanesque, bronze, French, beginning of the 13th century,
53/4 ins. high, (Viollet-le-Duc).
4 — 5. Gothic, from stone statues, Cathedral, Chartres, 13th century,
(L'art pour tous).
8. Gothic, with tower shaped cover.
7 — 8. Renascence.
9. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London.

METAL OBJECTS.

383

The Censer.

Plate 223.

384 The Censer. — The Crucifix.

The Crucifix. (Plate 224.)
The Crucifix (from crucifixus = nailed to the cross) does not appear
in Christian ritual until after the abolition of the shameful punish
ment of Crucifixion. The oldest Crucifixes may be dated about the
6th century. In the course of the following styles: it underwent a
variety of transformations. The older examples often represent the
crucified Christ as clothed (fig. 3), while in later times the body is
more frequently nude, with the clothing restricted to the cloth round
the loins. The older renderings of Christ show a straight stiff atti
tude, and a calm expression; while later periods exhibit a more life
like conception, and the expression of pain. At first: each foot is
pierced by a separate nail, later the two feet by one nail only; so
that the four nails are reduced to three. A nimbus appears above
or behind the head; and over this a roll with the letters I. N. R. I.
(Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum). The arms of the Latin Cross are
often terminated in four quatrefoils containing symbols of the four
Evangelists (figs. 2, 3). Purely ornamental terminations of the arms
and decorations at their intersections are also not uncommon (fig. 1).
When the Crucifix is intended to stand upright on the Communion
table: it is furnished with a candelabrum-like base (figs. 1, 2, 3).
The bases are generally of similar style to the accompanying Candle
sticks. The materials are chiefly metals, wood, and ivory, the body
of Christ and the Cross being often of different materials.
Plate 224. The Crucifix.
1. Italian, 1511, silver gilt, the inlaid plates of the cross are rock
crystal, Poldi Pezzoli collection, Milan, (Kunsthandwerk).
2. Italian, bronze, Certosa near Pavia, 4 ft. 4 ins. high, Renascence,
(Musterornamente).
3. Italian, Bronze, Renascence, evidently of earlier date than the base.
4. Modern, Carved wood.

The Crozier, and the Monstrance. (Plate 225.)
The Crozier or Pastoral-staff has been the badge of episcopal
dignity since the earliest period of the Middle Ages. In the West: it
had the shape of a crutch up to the 12th century; and it has re
tained this form in the East up the present day (fig. 1). Afterwards
the upper end was curved spirally. The curved end and the staff
itself are separated by a knob. In the Middle Ages: the curve is
decorated with crockets and inscriptions; and its centre bears figures.
In many cases the war of the Church against the Evil One is sym-

METAL OBJECTS.

385

The Crucifix.

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

Plate 224.

25

386 The Crozier, and the Monstrance.
bolically represented by the fight with the dragon (fig. 4). In the
Gothic period the knob below the curve is developed into an archi
tectonic lantern. The length of the Crozier is 5 to 6 ft. The
material is wood, ivory, and metal, usually contrasting in the different
parts. The Plate only reproduces the upper ends; as these alone are
of importance by their decoration.
The Monstrance is a utensil allied to the Ciborium and Reli
quary. It is an expository vessel in which, since the institution of
the feast of Corpus Christi by Urban IV in 1264, the consecrated
wafer is shown and carried in processions in Roman Catholic churches.
It possesses great varieties both of style and size, the height varying
from 1 ft. to 5 ft. It usually has a slender hexagonal or octagonal
foot, and a knob. From the foot rises a tower-like receptacle (turri-
cula), or a "Glory" with a disc-shaped glass box in which the wafer
rests on the so-called eye. The material is gold, silver, or brass.
The Plate gives one of the numerous examples which have been
preserved.
Plate 225. The Crozier, and the Monstrance.
1. Romanesque, Bishop Gerard of Limoges, f 1022.
2 — 3. Romanesque.
4. Transition period from Romanesque to Gothic, French, (L'art
pour tous).
5. Gothic, Martin Schongauer, end of 15th century, (Wessely).
6. Rococo, ivory.
7. Monstrance, gilt brass, 23 ins. high, Hotzendorf.

c. Utensils of War and Hunting; Weapons.
Utensils of war and hunting, in their most primitive forms at
least, are as old as mankind itself. Savages of the earliest as well
as of modern times, show great skill, and a certain originality in
the decoration of these utensils, as we may see in our ethnological
collections. So long as these utensils continued to be made of horn,
bone, and such materials: and also so long as they belong to the so-
called "Stone age", they are comparatively simple. They do not
assume a richer form and finish till the introduction of bronze and
iron. The great revolution which ensued on the transition from
the "Stone" to the "Bronze age" finds a not less imposing parallel
in the revolution wrought by the invention of Gunpowder.
Utensils of War and Hunting may be divided into two great
sections: weapons of Defense and weapons of Offense. To the former
belong Shields, Helmets and Armour. The kinds and number of

METAL OBJECTS.

387

The Crozier, and the Monstrance. Plate 225
25*

388 The Shield.
weapons of offense are far more manifold. Swords, Daggers, Spears,
Pikes, Lances, Axes, Maces, Anows, Rifles, and Pistols, are the
principal. It is unfortunately impossible, in this work, to give due
consideration to every single form; still the chief representatives have
been included, with the exception of Firearms and Armour, in which
only the engraved or chased details are of decorative importance.
The most striking examples, in our Armouries and Museums,
have lately been published, in numerous works; so that it is not
difficult to obtain a general view of this section; monographs on Wea
pons have also been published, among which we may specially men
tion Boeheim's Waffenkunde (E. A. Seemann, Leipzig).

The Shield. (Plate 226.)
The Shield, which from the earliest times has been the usual
weapon of defense against blows and thrusts, is generally a domed
disc, the form of which has varied considerably. Circular, elliptical,
semi-circular, and kite-shapes, are found alongside others of richer out
line. The materials are wood, plaited osiers, leather, metal, and
combinations of these. The Shield is held in the left hand by a
handle, or slung on the arm by a strap. The size varies from
20 ins. to 5 ft. The Antique Shield was circular; and frequently
ornamented with a boss in the centre. Among the ancient Teutons,
the form was large and square; in the Middle Ages, it was triangular.
The Standing - shields or Pavises, of the 14th and 15th centuries,
were very large, and provided with feet, so that they would stand
upon the ground, without being held. The Tilting -shield had a hole cut
away in which the lance was laid. With the introductions of fire - arms
the Shield became worthless, and disappears as an article of practical
use; but it has continued to be employed for State -purposes down
to the present time; and, from a decorative standpoint, these State-
shields are of high interest. They offer to metal-workers an except
ionally favourable field for the display of their art. The simple
zonal divisions of the Antique Shield have given place to freer
divisions and a richer decoration with figures and ornaments.
Plate 226. The Shield.
1. Roman, with boss, bronze partly-silvered, found near Mainz, Wies
baden, Museum.
2. Etruscan, bronze, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous).
3. Mediaeval, time of the Crusades, (Viollet-le-Duc).
4. Renascence, time of Henry II of France, hammered metal.

METAL OBJECTS.

389

The Shield.

Plate 226.

390 The Shield. — The Helmet
5. Renascence, decorated in the centre with a rosette and pointed
knob, Turin.
6. Renascence, with rich decoration of figures, in hammered metal.
7. Renascence, hammered silver, by P. van Vianen.

The Helmet. (Plate 227.)
The armour for the defense of the head is the Helmet. It was
probably originally made of leather; at a later date it was of metal;
and in Modern times it again consists of leather with metal accessories.
Its form has suffered many transformations in the course of the cent
uries, arising sometimes from practical, sometimes from aesthetic
reasons. The greatest perfection of form is found in the Greek helmet,
which, like Antique armour in general, fits very closely to the human
body. We need only remind the reader of the plain but beautiful
Helmets in which Pallas Athene is shown on Antique gems. The
Medusa head and Sphinxes are popular motives of decoration. The
decoration is most prominent on the front, and on the moveable
cheek-pieces. Fig. 1 shows a Greek Helmet with a crest which is
similar to the form of the Phrygian cap. The Etruscan Helmet
(fig. 2) is similar to the Greek. The Roman Helmet is simpler.
Helmets were often decorated with plumes of feathers or horse-hair;
and were provided with sockets for fixing these accessories. The
Roman gladiators' helmets, with their rich, florid, often overdone de
coration, and their large face-guard and heavy crest, have something
awkward, without becoming ugly.
Very manifold, although of no great importance decoratively,
are the Helmets of the Middle Ages. Leaving out of account the
less important transitional forms, we will here give the names of the
principal classes in order of historical succession. They are the
Heaume (fig. 8), the Salade or sallet (fig. 7), the Tilting-helmet
(fig. 9), the Armet (fig. 10), and the Helmet with barred Vizor (fig. 11).
The section on Heraldry may also be consulted.
The Helmets of the Renascence, especially the State - helmets,
are richly, sometimes too richly, decorated. To the forms received,
from the Middle ages, were added the Burganet (fig. 13), and the
Morion (fig. 12). Some of these State-helmets are also copied from
the Antique, as may be seen in fig. 14. The Modern creations in this
section are of no artistic importance.
Plate 227. The Helmet.
1. Greek, bronze, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous).
2. Etruscan, bronze, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous).

METAL OBJECTS.

391

The Helmet.

Plate 227.

392 The Helmet. — The Sword. — The Dagger.
3. Roman, bronze, Louvre, Paris, (Menard et Sauvageot).
4 — 6. Roman, bronze, for gladiators, different views, (Menard et
Sauvageot).
7. Mediaeval Salade, iron.
8. Mediaeval Heaume, iron, the chain was hooked into the cross-
shaped slit.
9. Mediaeval Tilting-helmet, iron.
10. Mediaeval Armet, iron.
11. Mediaeval, iron, with barred vizor.
12. Renascence, Morion, etched iron.
13. Renascence Burganet, German.
14. State-helmet, 16th century, (L'art pour tous).

The Sword. (Plate 228.)
The Sword is the most universally used of the offensive weapons.
Much as these weapons for cutting and thrusting differ from each
other in size and finish; they generally consist of three principal
parts: the Blade, single or double-edged, tapering more or less
towards the point, generally straight, but sometimes curved or waved,
also sometimes fluted to save weight, only decorated by means of
engraving, etching, damaskeening, &c; the Handle, with or without
pommel, cup, or basket; and the Scabbard or sheath, with or without
a hanger. The two latter, the handle and scabbard, offer the most
scope for decoration. The material of these is, in addition to iron,
the other metals and alloys, wood, bone, leather, coloured stones, &c.
Here, also, from an artistic point of view, we have to consider less
the practical than the State-swords, on which the Renascence, the
following styles, and Modern art, have found ample opportunity to
exercise their artistic skill. Plate 228 offers a small selection from
the copious material in our armouries and collections of weapons.
Plate 228. The Sword, and its Scabbard.
1 — 3. Assyrian, from reliefs.
4 and 6. Egyptian.
5. Prehistoric, bronze, found in Switzerland.
7 — 9. Mediaeval, and Renascence.
10 — 12. Renascence.
13 — 15. Renascence, Pommel, guard, and chape, by Hans Holbein the
Younger, (Formenschatz).

The Sword, and its Scabbard.

Plate 228.

394 The Dagger. — The Halberd.

The Dagger. (Plate 229.)
The Dagger is a Sword in miniature, in which the guard is
either omitted or reduced in size. What has been said of the Sword
will apply to the Dagger. The greatest artists of the Renascence: Holbein,
Diirer, Cellini, and others, did not disdain, as the plate shows, to devote
their artistic genius to this weapon, which was often worn more for
fashion than for practical purposes. The "Dance of Death" (fig. 5)
is a very popular motive in the decoration of the scabbards of Daggers.
Considering the object of the weapon, a more pregnant and appro
priate decoration can scarcely be imagined.
Plate 229. The Dagger, and its Scabbard.
1. Egyptian, blade of white bronze, handle of cedar wood,
plated with gold and silver, tomb of Queen Aah-Hotep,
Qurnah near Thebes (1800 B. C), Bulak, Museum.
2. Egyptian, blade of gold, handle of cedar wood plated with
gold and incrusted with red and blue enamel, (as No. 1).
3. Renascence, handle, end of 15th century, Basel, (Kunst im
Hause).
4. Renascence, handle, end of 1 5th century, Basel, (Viollet-le-Duc).
5. Renascence, German, Basel, (Kunst im Hause).
6 — -8. Designs, by Hans Holbein the Younger, (1497 — 1543),
(Formenschatz).
9. Designs, by Albrecht Diirer, (Formenschatz).
10. Renascence, German, blackened iron parcel-gilt, Collection of
Napoleon HI, (L'art pour tous).
11. Creese, from Sumatra, wooden handle and sheath, United
collections, Carlsruhe.

The Halberd. (Plate 230.)
Among the multifarious utensils of war of the Middle Ages and
the Renascence: we may specially mention the following: —
The Lance and the Pike, wooden shafts with a leaf or awl-
shaped iron spike. (Fig. 11 shows a Pike-head of complicate shape).
A small flag was often attached to the Lance just below the head.
The Partizan is a Pike with a flat blade and symmetrical lateral
points (figs. 1, 4, and 5).
War -scythes and War-forks: the shapes of which are indicated
by their names (figs. 3, and 7).
The Battle-axe, and Martel, are axe and hammer-shaped weapons,

METAL OBJECTS.

395

The Dagger, and its Scabbard.

Plate 229.

396 The Halberd. — The Spoon.
with one side terminating in an axe or a hammer, and the other in
a point (fig. 9).
The Halberd is a combination of the Pike or Partizan with the
Battle-axe (figs. 2 and 8).
The Mace is a handle with a knob of various forms; when it
is set with spikes, it is called a "Morning-star", and when set with
radiating blades, it is termed a Quadrelle (fig. 10).
The War-flail is distinguished from the Mace by the knob being
fastened to the handle by a chain.
And so on, in endless variety.
So far as decoration is concerned: the first place is due to
Halberds and Partizans; not only because the shape of the blade is
frequently very varied and handsome, but also because the union
with the shaft, by means of bands, nails, tassels, &c, gives an oppor
tunity for rich colour. The blades, also, are often decorated by
damaskeening, engraving, gilding, etc.
Plate 230. The Halberd, &c.
1. Partizan, richly -etched, German, 16th century, Historical
Museum, Dresden, (Kunsthandwerk).
2. Halberd, richly-etched, German, 1613, Artillery Museum,
Paris, (L'art pour tous).
3. Fauchard, richly- etched, German, 1580, Artillery Museum,
Paris, (L'art pour tous).
4. Partizan, richly- etched, German, 17th century, Artillery
Museum, Paris, (L'art pour tous).
5. Partizan, richly- etched, German, 1712, Royal Armoury,
Berlin, (Kunsthandwerk).
6 and 8. Halberds.
7. Combination of War-scythe and War-fork.
9. Battle-axe, Hindu, United collections, Carlsruhe.
10. Mace, so-called quadrelle, (Viollet-le-Duc).
11. Pike. (The shafts have been omitted, or only partially indicated).

c. Table Utensils.
The Spoon. (Plate 231.)
The Spoon is, strictly speaking, a dipper; and has already been
alluded-to in the discussion of the group of Vessels (comp. Plate 193).
It is here treated in the group of Utensils. As a table utensil the

METAL OBJECTS.

397

The Halberd, &c.

Plate 230.

398 The Spoon.
Spoon has been in use from the earliest times; its fundamental
form has undergone very little alteration; although its style and size
have varied in different periods.
The form of the Bowl is spherical, elliptic, or oval (in the last
case the handle is usually attached to the broad end, more rarely to
the nanow one). The Handle has a cylindrical, prismatic or conical
tapering form, or is spatulate. Spatulate handles broaden out at the
free end; and are decorated with cartouches or pierced work
(figs. 26, 28 — 30). Prismatic, cylindrical, and conical, handles usually
Serminate in knobs, busts, or little whole-length figures (figs. 13 — 17,
and 19—23). The handles of small Antique spoons for eating shellfish, &c,
often taper to a point to serve as openers. Double-spoons, as shown
in fig. 24, are rare. Folding Pocket- spoons, as in figs. 18, 19, 21
and 22, are not infrequent in the Middle Ages, and the Renascence.
Bowl and handle either lie in the same plane (figs. 3 and 16), or
they form an angle at the point of junction (figs. 8, 10 and 1 1).
As a rule: the decoration is confined to the handle; where the
bowl is decorated, it is with some kind of flat work (engraving, or
enamelling). The materials are the precious metals, alloys, tin, bone,
horn, wood, &c; very often, the handle and the bowl are of different
materials.
Plate 231. The Spoon.
1. Egyptian.
2 — 12. Antique, bronze, (ligulae), Pompeii.
13 — 14. Mediaeval, hammered copper, 13th century, 6V4 ins. long,
Pierrefonds castle.
15 — 16. Mediaeval, tin, 12th century, 63/4 ins. long.
17. Mediaeval, chased and hammered brass, 5Vs ins. long,
Pienefonds castle.
18. Folding Pocket-spoon, 15th century, 47/8 ins. long, Cluny
Museum, Paris, (Viollet-le-Duc).
19. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London.
20. Renascence, silver, terminating in a Madonna, 63/4 ins. long,
Cluny Museum, Paris.
21. German, folding Pocket-spoon, 16th century, 7 ins. long,
Dziatinska collection.
22. Renascence, folding Pocket-spoon silver, 57/g ins. long, Cluny
Museum, Paris.
23. Renascence, bowl of agate, handle of copper gilt, 5ljs ins.,
Cluny Museum, Paris. (L'art pour tous).
24. Double -spoon, bronze, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.

METAL OBJECTS.

399

The Spoon.

Plate 231.

400 The Spoon. — The Knife, and the Fork.
25. Persian, from an inkstand, 17th century, 43/4 ins. long,
Duhousset collection, (L'art pour tous).
26. Persian, 17th century, 4 74 ins. long, Duhousset collection,
(L'art pour tous).
27- German, tin, inscription: "Trink und is, Gott nit vergis",
United collections, Carlsruhe.
28. Modern, French, (Gewerbehalle).
29. Modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by the architect F. 0
Schulze, (Gewerbehalle).
30. Modern, silver, by F. Seitz.

The Knife and the Fork. (Plate 232.)
Knives and Forks, unlike Spoons, are of comparatively late
introduction as table utensils. Although it is probable that they
were in use at a very early period as kitchen utensils for carving
food, still they did not attain the rank of a recognised dinner set
until the art of eating had reached a certain refinement. It has been
maintained that Knives and Forks appeared on dinner tables towards
the close of the Roman Empire. In our own country it can be
proved that they did not come into general use until the 15th or
16th century. This may be explained by the circumstance that in the
earlier period of the Middle ages, as at the present time in the East,
food was carried to the mouth with the fingers or with a spoon,
after having undergone the necessary division into small portions in
the kitchen. Cleanliness was ensured by frequently washing the
hands during dinner.
As regards form and material: what has been said of Spoons, is
also true for Knives and Forks. The handles are similarly shaped,
to secure uniformity in the whole set; the bowl of the Spoon is
replaced by the two, or more prongs of the Fork, or by the blade
of the Knife. The Handle is made of wood, ivory, &c, and it is
comparatively stronger as it must possess a greater power of re
sistance because the tang or prolongation of the blade, which is
always made of steel, must be let-into it. As the Plate shows, the
shape of the blade has passed through many changes in the course
of time. To cut the "consecrated bread" the Middle Ages employed
peculiar knives, the blades of which were engraved with mottoes and
musical scales.
Plate 232. The Knife, and the Fork.
1 — 2. Mediaeval, (13th — 15th century), wooden handle inlaid with
silver.

METAL OBJECTS

401

The Knife, and the Fork.
Meyer, Handbook oi Ornament.

Plate 232.
26

402 The Knife, and the Fork. — The Paper-Knife. — The Scissors.
3 — 4. Gothic, 14th century, the prongs of alloy, the handle of
ivory mounted with silver, 7 '/2 ius. long, Garneray collection.
5. Mediaeval, copper gilt, 4^4 ins. long, Garneray collection.
6. Renascence, ivory, Leon Bach collection, (L'art pour tous).
7. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London.
8. Renascence, Bach collection, (L'art pour tous).
9. Renascence, Bach collection, (L'art pour tous).
10. Barocco period, South Kensington Museum, London.
11 — 12. Renascence, Dresden, (Musterornamente).
13—14. Ditto.
15 — 16. Modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by F. 0. Schulze, (Ge-
.werbehalle).
17. Modern, silver gilt and enamelled, by F. 0. Schulze, (Ge
werbehalle).

The Paper-Knife. (Plate 233.)
Paper-knives are an invention of Modern times. As the name
implies, they are used for cutting paper, the edges of books, news
papers, and letters; and they find a place on every desk.
The form is usually that of a one or two-edged Knife. As the
blade does not require to be very sharp, it is generally made of the
same material as the handle, and in most cases of ivory, wood,
or brass. The decoration is generally confined to the handle; the blade is
at most decorated with flat enrichment.
Plate 233. The Paper-Knife.
1. Modern, brass.
2 — 3. Modern, ivory or wood, by Dir. G. Kachel, (Gewerbehalle).
4 — 6. Modern, wood carving, by J. Eberhardt, Heilbronn.
7. Modern, pierced metal.

The Scissors. (Plate 234.)
Scissors, intended primarily for use in ladies' work, and after
wards applied to a variety of other purposes, are mostly met-with in
two different fundamental forms. The earlier form (French: forces),
which held its ground up to the end of the Middle Ages, has a
spring hoop which unites the two blades (fig. 1). The later form
(French: ciseaux), which begins to appear sporadically as early as
the 10th century, has two separate blades moveable round a central

METAL OBJECTS.

403

I ' ' ' ' i

The Paper-Knife.

Plate 233.
26*

404 The Scissors. — The Hand-Bell.
pivot, and terminating at one end in the blades and at the other in
handles with ring-shaped eyelets to receive the fingers (figs. 2, 3,
5, 6). The shape is usually symmetrical. Variations, like fig. 4, are
rare. Not infrequently, the scissors are provided with a chain by
means of which they may be suspended, either alone or with other
anicies, from a Chatelaine. The points are sometimes protected by a
guard (fig. 10). The decoration is generally confined to the handles,
and frequently consists of pierced work; the blades are plain, or
decorated by inlaying, &c. Where handle and blades are not of the
same metal, which in this case can only be steel, the handles are
often of brass or silver. Between these two extremes are gilt, silvered,
and nickelled handles. The Renascence gratified its luxurious taste
to the full, in the matter of Scissors; in Modern times, the plainer
and simpler forms are prefened. The length of the blades varies,
according to the purpose; but the size of the handles remains the
same, being governed by that of the human hand; hence the pro
portions between the two are very various. Among Scissors which
are intended for special purposes, and depart from the usual form:
may be mentioned Snuffers, and "Lazy-tongs" (fig. 9).
Plate 234. The Scissors.
1. Renascence, Sonth Kensington Museum, London.
2. Renascence, blades etched, handles gilt, August I of Saxony,
Royal Historical Museum, Dresden, (Kunsthandwerk).
3 — 4. Persian, 17th century, 7'/g ins. and 6'/4 ins. long, Duhousset
collection, (L'art pour tous).
5. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London.
6. Renascence, German, Dresden, (Musterornamente).
7. Renascence, handles silver gilt, German (Kunsthandwerk).
8. Snuffers, in bird form.
9. Lazy-tongs, United collections, Carlsruhe.

The Hand-Bell. (Plate 235.)
In those utensils of which it may be said that as a rule they
are artistically decorated beyond what is wanted for practical purposes,
we may reckon the Hand-bell. During the Middle Ages and the
Renascence: the Hand-bell seems to have been chiefly used in an
official capacity in Council-chambers and for ecclesiastical purposes;
and its introduction into ordinary households, to summon the atten
dants did not take place till later. In our own times, so prolific of
Parliamentary and other Meetings: the Hand -bell is indispensable. The
necessary parts are: the resonant Cup, the Clapper suspended in the

METAL OBJECTS.

405

The Scissors.

Plate 234.

406 The Hand-Bell.
interior of the cap. and the Handle. The two former are always of
metal; the cup of an alloy, or sometimes of silver; and the clapper
of iron. The handle may be of the same material as the cup, or it
may be made of wood, ivory, &c. The form of the cup is generally
the same as that of the large Church -bells, which is based on practical
experience (figs. 2, 3). Forms like figs. 1, 5 and 6, are rarer.
Hand-bells for domestic use are small (about 4 ins. high); those for
official purposes are larger (up to 12 ins). The latter class often
have a non-essential adjunct in the shape of a Pedestal (figs. 7 and 8).
The handle takes the form of a long extended knob (figs. 2, 3, 7, 8),
or of a hoop (figs. 1 and 6). The decoration extends to the handle
and the cup of the bell, which is frequently adorned with heraldic
bearings, and zones of inscriptions. Sometimes we find Hand-bells in
the form of ladies, in which case the wide skirt of the dress is the
cup (fig. 4). Cups of open-work are also occasionally met-with. Of
late years the traditional Hand-bell has yielded place to another form
in which the sound is caused by pressure on a knob by means of a
spring (figs. 9 and 10).
Plate 235. The Hand -Bell.
1. Modern, brass, from an old model.
2 — 3. Renascence, bronze, 4s/4 ins. high, Wiesbaden Museum.
4. Modern, brass, after an old model.
5. Modern, brass.
6. Modern, French, by D. Renard, 43/4 ins. high, (L'art pour
tous).
7. Modern, silver, with ivory handle, by the architect F. Schulz,
with foot 77/g ins. (Gewerbehalle).
8. Modern President's bell, Town-Hall, Milan, by the architect
Angelo Colla, (Gewerbehalle).
9 — 10. Modern, of the latest systems.

e. Various Domestic and Toilet Utensils,
The promise, which was made in the introduction to the group
of utensils, to devote some plates to Domestic and Toilet utensils must
not be construed as an undertaking to exhaust the whole field. Very
much has already come under discussion: the utensils of Hlumination,
for instance, are also for the most part, domestic utensils. The following
five plates will therefore, to a certain extent, bring -together from the
remaining domestic utensils those which in the first place deserve
consideration from the point of view of decoration, including Door
knockers, Keys, Minors, Fans, Tools, and Instruments. As regards

METAL OBJECTS.

407

The Hand -Bell.

Plate 235.

408 The Door-Knocker.
these latter objects in particular, a much more extensive collection
might have been made if the allotted space had permitted. There is
scarcely a Tool or Instrument which did not occasionally receive an
artistic finish during the Renascence. The introduction of the so-
called "master- pieces" into the Guilds, naturally led to the result that
unnecessary labour was sometimes expended on the most ordinary
things. But still we shall offer sufficient to give the reader the
necessary view of the entire section.

The Door-Knocker. (Plate 236.)
Although the Door-knocker was in use in Antiquity, as proved
by an example (the head of Medusa with ring) found in Capua:
still the strict period of the Door-knocker is in the Romanesque,
Gothic, and Renascence epochs. In Modern times: it has already
become a historical object, having been ousted by Bellpulls, &c.
ft is made almost exclusively of bronze, and cast or wrought iron.
Its dimensions are variable, like those of the doors and gates them
selves, to which it must bear some proportion. We may distinguish
three principal classes. The first has the form of a Ring, usually
suspended from a lion's jaws; in which case it is at the same time a
Door-handle (figs. 1 — 7). The second has the form of a Hammer
moveable on a primitive hinge. The third class, which arose in Italy
in the best days of the Renascence, shows Figures, Animals, &c.
(figs. 9 and 11). In all three classes the requisite noise is produced
by the moveable part falling on a metal stud. In the third class the
plate by which the knocker is affixed to the door is of subsidiary
importance, while in the two former classes it is often the principal
feature of the design. The Gothic period devised richly - decorated
plates of pierced - work. This motive was often retained by the Re
nascence (fig. 4), or replaced by double-headed eagles and the like
(fig. 5). The Plate gives 11 different examples, selected from the
copious material.
Plate 236. The Door-Knocker.
1. Romanesque, bronze, North portal of the cathedral of Puy-en-Velay,
11th century.
2. Mediaeval, 77/8 ins. square,- Soyter collection, Augsburg.
3. Renascence, 23/4 ins. square, Museum, Berlin.
4. Transition from Gothic to Renascence, 5x/2 ins. square, S. Peter's,
Strassburg.
5. Renascence, wrought-iron, German, National Museum, Munich.
6. Renascence, (Guichard).

METAL OBJECTS.

409

The Door-Knocker.

Plate 236.

410 The Door-Knocker. — The Key.
7. Mediaeval, bronze, 15th century, 8J/2 ins. high, East portal of
the cathedral of Noyon.
8. Renascence, wrought-iron, Dutch, 14*^ ins. high, Vermerch col
lection.
9. Renascence, bronze, Italian, I3V2 ins- high) David with the
head of Goliath, house in Ferrara, (Vorbilder fur Fabrikanten
und Handwerker).
10. Renascence, bronze, Italian, 1560, South Kensington Museum,
London.
11. Renascence, bronze, Italian, Austrian Museum, Vienna, (Gewerbe
halle). The Key. (Plate 237.)
It is not the task of this Handbook to follow the developement
of the Lock through its various stages from the Antique up to the
present day. It would also cany us too far if we were to attempt
to go into the decorative details of the case of the lock; one plate,
however shall be devoted to the Key; while the escutcheon will find
its place in the group of Frames. Apart from such special designs
as that shown by fig. 2, the Key usually consists of three parts: the
Bow, the Stem, and the Bit. Keys may be divided into two classes,
according as the stem is tubular, or is solid. The stem is generally
cylindrical, or profiled; more rarely angular, or prismatic. The bit,
which projects as a rectangular plate at the end of the key, is
divided by notches into wards. The decoration is applied to the
bow. The Pompeian key, shown in fig. 1, is an exception, the bow
being smooth and the bit and stem prettily ornamented. Keys are
made of iron and bronze, the stem being frequently of iron, and the
bow of some other metal; the bow, and indeed the whole key, is often
gilt. The palmy days of Keys were the Middle Ages and the Re
nascence; compared with these, our Modern keys are on the whole
smaller, simpler, and, if less beautiful, are certainly more practical.
Finally we may mention those colossal examples which were formerly
made to serve as Signs; and are even now met-with.
Plate 237. The Key.
1. Antique, Pompeii, (Bliimner: Das Kunstgewerbe im Alterthum).
2. Roman, bronze, found on the Hohenkrahen, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
8. Romanesque, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
4 — 5. Renascence, (Kunst und Gewerbe).
6 — 8. Renascence, Museo Medio Evo e Rinascimento, Rome, (Ge
werbehalle).

METAL OBJECTS.

411

The Key.

Plate 237.

412 The Hand -Mirror. The Fan.
9. Renascence, (Guichard).
10. Renascence, South Kensington Museum, London,
11 — 12. Renascence, German.
13 — 14. Bows, 18 th century, (Wessely).
15 — 19. Modern, by the architect Otto Girard, Berlin, (Gewerbehalle).

The Hand -Mirror. (Plate 238.)
The first place in the series of ladies' toilet requisites belongs
to the Hand-minor. Its history falls into two periods. In Antiquity
and in the earlier years of the Middle Ages: minors were made of
polished metal, either bronze or silver. About the 13 th century, glass
begins to be used, the reflecting surface being backed with metal foil.
The Antique, and particulary the Etruscan minors, of which a large
number have been preserved to us, show engraved ornaments and
figures from mythology and daily life, mostly of primitive, but
sometimes of excellent, workmanship. Glass minors are, generally,
flat. The fundamental shape of the Antique mirror is circular or
spatulate (figs. 1 — 6); and that of the glass minor is circular or
elliptical (figs. 8 and 9). The plastic decoration of Antique mirrors
is confined to the handle, and the frame. The handle and frame may
be of a great variety of materials, wood, ivory, or metal. Here, too,
it is the Renascence which shows the richest decoration. Where the
decoration consists of figures, these are in keeping with the object;
and show Amorini and Aphroditic personages. With the increasing use
of wall or plate-glass mirrors, the Hand-mirror jas lost much of its
former importance; so that modern art no longer devotes much atten
tion to it.
Plate 238. The Hand-Mirror.
1. Egyptian, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
2. Egyptian, bronze, handle of carved wood, British Museum.
London.
3 — 4. Greek, bronze.
5. Pompeian.
6 — 7. Etruscan, engraved figures, handles lost.
8. Renascence, (Kunst und Gewerbe).
9. Renascence, by Etienne de Laulne (1549 to 1583), (Wessely)
The Fan. (Plate 239.)
The Fan is undoubtedly the most interesting of all toilet requisites
Its history can be traced back uninterruptedly for 3000 years although

METAL OBJECTS.

413

The Hand-Mirror.

Plate 238.

414 The Fan.
it did not .enjoy the same measure of popularity in every period. It
alone would almost suffice to furnish a historical picture of the artistic
and technical developement of industrial art through all periods. The
object of the Fan is twofold. Firstly, it is used to direct a current
of cool air to the face; and secondly, to keep off flies and other
insects. From its first use it derives its Latin name of "flabellum"
(from flare = to blow, French "eventail"); from its second use its
Latin name "muscarium" (from musca = a fly, French "esmouchoir").
Fans of this latter class are usually called "Fly-flappers". Occasion
ally, the fan is used to blow the fire (as in ancient Persia, where
the blowing of the fire with the lips was forbidden for religious
reasons); and as a Symbol of dignity in ecclesiastical and court cere
monies. A consideration of its purpose renders it obvious that it is
chiefly employed in the hotter countries of the globe.
The manifold forms of the fan may be reduced to 5 different
principal types:
1. The Fixed Fan: a leaf immovably attached to a handle (figs.
6—9).
2. The Pennon Fan: attached to the side of the handle, and
movable round it in a horizontal direction (figs. 10 and 11).
The forms and materials of the fixed and the pennon fan are
of the utmost variety.
3. The Radial Fan: a rectangle of paper, silk or some other
material, fastened to a handle in such a manner that it may
be folded together and spread out in the form of a circle
(%• 12)-
4. The Lamellar fan: pieces of stiff material e. g. slips of ivory,
are connected together at one end by a pin, which serves as
the axis. They are collapsible into a narrow shape, and
may be opened-out to a semi-circle. They are held-together
by a ribbon drawn through them (fig. 13).
5. The Folding fan: distinguished from the preceding by the
lamellae being covered by a sheet of paper, silk, &c, which
is folded - together or spread-out by the opening of the sticks
which compose the frame (fig. 14).
It appears from this that the Fixed, the Pennon, and the Radial
fans have handles, while the Lamellar and the Folding fans have not.
The Radial fan, being a folding fan with a handle, is a kind of inter
mediate form. The size of the fan varies according to fashion and
the purpose for which it is intended, regard being usually paid to
convenience of handling; as a general rule, it may be said that the
firmer, stiffer and more impervious to air the fan is: the smaller it
may be. Fans for cooling should have a short, broad form, Fly-
flappers require a longer, nanower shape.

METAL OBJECTS.

415

The Fan.

Plate 239.

416 The Fan.
On the subject of history and style, the following may be said:
The Fixed fan is the oldest and most primitive. Its natural model is
a leaf on a stalk, just as savages at the present time make their fans
of dried palm-leaves or of plaited work in the form of leaves (fig. 4).
The feather may also be regarded as a natural model, and hence its
frequent application to fans of every kind. The Pennon fan is the
least practical, its domain is the Middle Ages and the early Renascence,
together with certain parts of the East (India, Turkey, Morocco,
Tunis, &c). The Radial fan was also in use in the Middle ages (with
a long handle), and down to the present time in certain parts of Italy,
Persia, China, and Japan. The Lamellar and the Folding fan are of
later date. Their introduction is contemporaneous with the general
use of the fan in Europe (15 th century). After the period of the
lamellar fan in the 17 th century, follows the golden age of the folding
fan in the Rococo period. The Folding fan is also the predominant
form in Modern times.
Egyptian mural paintings and Assyrian reliefs frequently show
Fan - bearers, with larger or smaller Fly - flappers , in the retinue of
the kings. The most common Egyptian forms are given in figs. 1
and 2, the Assyrian in fig. 3. Scarcely any vestige has been pre
served of Antique Fans. Judging by the pictures on vases, &c, the
Greek Fan consisted of a leaf, cut to a palmette - shape, on a long
handle. The Roman ladies were somewhat luxurious in the matter
of fans, which they either managed themselves or had carried by
slaves; and under the Emperors the men were also. In the • Middle
Ages, the fan entered into the service of the church; deacons and
ministrans kept-off flies from the consecrated host by means of the
flabella, which often took the form of six-winged seraphs. When the
fan became popular for secular purposes, its use was given up in
churches. As already observed, the Renascence passed from the Fixed,
to the Lamellar and Folding fan. The Lamellar fan offered numerous
opportunities for carved and pierced work in ivory, horn, tortoiseshell,
filigree, and enamel work. The Folding fan offered an unlimited
field for decoration by painting; and painters, like Boucher, Watteau,
and others, devoted themselves to fan -painting (pastoral scenes &c).
During this period the "Puzzle-fan" was invented, which shows differ
ent pictures according to the way it is folded. Lace fans, fans with
mirrors, monograms, and autographs, and the bespangled Empire-fans,
complete the category. The Modern ball-room fan is a large Folding
fan generally decorated with naturalistic paintings of flowers. But
all possible forms ara occasionally used. France, China, and Japan
supply the fan market. Heinrich Frauberger, who has written a most
valuable monograph on the Fan*, maintains that the latter countries

« _f. Frauberger: "Die Geschieht* des Fachers." Leipzig: K. Scholtze

The Fan. — Various Tools. 417
alone manufacture between them about 8/4 of the 400 million fans
which are annually made on the globe.
Finally we may briefly enumerate the materials which are prin
cipally used in the manufacture of fans. They are: bamboo, palm-
leaves, wood, bone, horn, ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, metal,
paper, straw and other plaited material, silk, lace, gelatine, mica,
leather, feathers, &c.
Plate 239. The Fan.
1. Egyptian, Fly-flapper, feathers, handle omitted.
2. Egyptian, feather-fan.
3. Assyrian, Fly-flapper, from a relief, British Museum.
4. Modern, Fly -flapper, plaited palm-leaves, South Caroline Is
lands, (Frauberger).
5. Modern, Fly-flapper, plaited palm-leaves, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
6. Modern, palm-leaf, cut and bound at the edge.
7 — 8. Modern, Japanese, bamboo and paper.
9. Modern, printed paper with silk fringe and gilt wooden
handle.
10. Modern, Siamese, handle of whipped wood, centre of paste
board, decorated with rosettes and bordered with peacock
feathers, United collections, Carlsruhe.
11. Modern, Hindu, handle of wood, centre of pasteboard covered
with silk, braid, and butterfly wings, bordered with peacock
feathers, (Frauberger).
12. Mediaeval, Radial-fan, French, (Viollet-le-Duc).
13. Modern, Folding-fan, wood and grouse feathers.
14. Modern, Folding-fan, wood, painted silk, and gold.

Various Tools. (Plate 240.)
Among the Tools and Instruments which only occasionally or
accidentally receive an artistic finish we may mention: Hammers,
Tongs, Compasses, Cocks, Pestles, Hour-glasses, and Clocks, along
with many other things. No attempt can be made here to treat
these articles in detail. But it may be said that, in general, the
highly-decorated examples have been specially made for State-occasions,
3. g. the Hammer (fig. 1), with which Pope Julius HI inaugurated the
Jubilee year (1550) by knocking three times on the walled -up main-
portal of S. Peter's, as a sign that it should be opened.
Plate 240 exhibits a number of such objects.
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament, a.*

418

METAL OBJECTS.

Plate 240.

Various Tools.

Various Tools.

419

Plate 240. Various Tools.

1

Ceremonial -Hammer, silver gilt, Italian, 16th century, pre
sented by Gregory XIII to Duke Ernest of Bavaria, beneath
the enamelled armorial bearings is the inscription: "Julius III
Pont. Max. Jubilaeum VHI condidit feliciter MCCCCCL.; the
relief on the reverse shows Moses striking water from the
rock, with the words: Percussit petram et fluxerunt aquae",
National Museum, Munich; (Kunsthandwerk).
2. Tongs, iron, German, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.
3. Snuffers, brass, German, Renascence, Germanisches Museum,
Nuremberg.
4 — 5. Compasses, bronze, chased, engraved, and gilt, German, 16th
century, half the size of the original.
6. Cock, brass, cast and chased, German, 16th century, ll3/4ins.
long, (Vorbilder fur die Kleinkunst in Bronze).
7. Match-holder, bronze, Modern.

T,*

FURNITURE.

Furniture, in its broader sense, is a collective name for all kinds
of household goods and chattels. It is more strictly confined to such
objects as Chairs, Tables, Wardrobes, &c. But even in this nanower
sense the examples of Furniture are so numerous that it is not
possible to give a detailed description and discussion of each indivi
dual article on the 20 Plates which are devoted to this group.
And it is the less necessary to do this as our object is only to give
a view of the application of decoration to furniture in general.
We show a series of the more important articles, while others, such
as Pianos, and Wardrobes, have been omitted. They have been so
grouped that Plates 241 to 250 contain the different varieties of Chairs,
while the following 10 Plates are devoted to Tables, Cabinets, Bed
steads, Cradles, &c.
The examples have been chiefly taken from the Antique, the
Renascence, and Modern times; while the Middle Ages, the Barocco
and Rococo periods have only occasionally been taken into account.
That particular attention has been paid to the German Renascence, is
based on the fact, that this period is specially distinguished for its
achievements in the field of richly-decorated furniture.
This chapter might seem "to offer an inducement to give a historical
account of the development of tectonic form in the different periods
of art. But to do this, with any thoroughness, would also require
us to abandon the conoiseness we have hitherto maintained; and

Furniture. 421
we will therefore only refer the reader to the details in Semper: "Der
Stil", and to the highly -interesting work by Georg Hirth: aDas
Deutsche Zimmer der Gothik und Renaissance, des Barock-, Rokoko-,
und Zopfstils" (G. Hirth, Munich and Leipzig). The necessary in
formation about the furniture of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks,
and Romans will be found in Menard et Sauvageot: "La Vie Privee
des Anciens"; and about the Middle ages in Viollet-le-Duc: "Dic-
tionnaire Raisonne" du Mobilier Frangais"; from both of which
works we have taken numerous examples for our Plates. Besides
these, there is such a number of cyclopaedic works on this subject
that it is impossible even to name them all here.

a. Seats.
As regards Seats: the fundamental form has generally been depen
dent on the special purpose, and on the ever- varying mode of life;
while the details have been influenced by the artistic taste of the
time, and by the material used. Definite fundamental types often
recur by the side of new and arbitrary special forms; and we have
attempted a classification according to these fundamental forms.
The simplest and most primitive form, although for many pur
poses the least comfortable, is that of the Taboret or Ottoman, which
is without a back. The Chair is more comfortable because of the
addition of the back; and it becomes still more so, when arms are
added. To this group belongs the Throne, which in view of its pur
pose is more monumental in form, and richer in material. Revolving,
folding, and rocking Chairs meet the demand for special purposes. The
Stall, and the "Prie-dieu" also have peculiar accessories, due to their
being used for other purposes than sitting. The Bench and the
Couch offer a seat or repose for several persons simultaneously.
In spite of the variety of forms, one feature is common to nearly
all, namely, the height of the seat. In order to sit comfortably, the
feet should just reach the ground, and the height of the seat is there
fore from 15 ins. to 18 ins. The depth of the seat shows greater va
riations, from 12 ins. to 24 ins. The height of the back varies from
30 ins. and more; the fact having to be taken into consideration that
the head, when it is leant back, should have a proper support. The
upper surface of the arms should be about 12 ins. above that of the
seat. Straight, upright backs are less comfortable than curved lines
adapted to the vertebral curve. Similarly: flat, horizontal seats are
not so suitable as those which slope downwards towards the back.
The principal materials are wood, cane, and metal; stone, terra
cotta, &c, are rarer. As it is unpleasant to rest against a hard

422 The Chair.
material for any length of time, recourse is had to cane, or flexible
seats, skins, cushions, and upholstering. In course of time, chairs
have become more comfortable with the progress of comfort in general.
It may be specially emphasized that the handsomest and most richly-
decorated seats are not usually the most practical; further remarks
are reserved for the discussion of the different forms.

The Chair. (Plates 241—243.)
The Chair is a stool with a back to it. The most usual form
has four legs. Sometimes the legs are connected-together by braces
or ties, which are called Foot-rails. The seat generally has the shape
of an oblong, a square, or a trapezium. Circular and polygonal seats
are less common. Hexagonal and octagonal Seats, with a corresponding
number of legs, begin to appear in the 13th century; and certain
wooden chairs of the Renascence have seats in the form of regular
or semi -regular polygons (Plate 242. 3, 5, 6). The legs are prismatic
or turned, frequently with claw feet, while the top of the back
terminates in knobs, animal-heads, or masks (Plates 241. 1; 242. 1;
243. 4, 5, 6). Instead of legs, the seats of the wooden chairs of the
Renascence are sometimes supported by perforated and carved boards,
either at the two sides or in front and behind (Plate 242. 3, 5, 6).
Where the back is carved out of a single piece, as is the case with
many Renascence and Modern chairs, the two hinder legs have the
same form and height as the front legs (Plates 242. 7, 8; 243. 1).
Very often the back is treated as a frame (Plate 241. 5, 8, 10),
or is bent into a cylindrical plan, as in the Greek "klismos" (Plate 241.
6, 7), and its imitation, the Empire chair (Plate 241.11). Openings
for the hand are made in carved wooden backs for convenience in
moving (Plate 242. 7, 8, 9). Where the top of the back is hori
zontal, it is often crowned with a cornice or an ornament (Plates 242. 6;
243. 9). Where the seat, alone or in conjunction with the back, is
of woven cane -work or padded, the Chair is termed a "cane" or an
"upholstered" chair. Sometimes not only the padding but also the
entire structure of the chair is upholstered in some material, just as,
on the other hand, chairs may be made entirely of cane or rushes.
The seats and backs of upholstered chairs are covered with leather, or
textiles (Plate 243. 6). The overlaying of wood with metal occurs in
the Assyrian style, and occasionally in later periods; the State-
chairs of the Middle Ages, especially the Byzantine, are not infre
quently decorated with coloured stones; a similar treatment may be
observed in the Renascence example (Plate 242 figs. 5, and 6). In
addition to the decoration by carving (which will always be the chief

FURNITURE.

423

The Chair.

Plate 241.

424

FURNITURE.

Plate 242.

The Chair.

The Chair. — The Throne, and the Arm-chair. 425
material of- common frames), we find inlays of bone, (the socalled
"Certosina work" of the 15 th century), metal, &c.
Plate 241. The Chair.
1 — 2. Egyptian, (Menard et Sauvageot).
3. Egyptian, mural painting, tomb of Ramses HI, Thebes, (Menard
et Sauvageot).
4. Egyptian, upholstered with patterned material, British Museum.
5. Egyptian, British Museum.
6 — 7. Greek, draped with skin, "Klismos" form, (Menard et Sauvageot).
8. Antique, with cushions and foot-stool, Pompeian, (Menard et
Sauvageot).
9. Greek, vase, painting.
10. Antique, with statue of Jupiter, (Menard et Sauvageot).
11. French Empire period, (Gallien).
Plate 242. The Chair.
1. German, Renascence, wood, Moreau collection, (L'art pour tous).
2. Flemish, wood, 17th century, (L'art pour tous).
3. Italian, wood, 16th Century, (L'art pour tous).
4. Dutch, upholstered in leather, (Crispin van den Passe, 1642).
5 — 6. German, decorated with stones, Renascence, Museum, Dresden.
7 — 8. German, 17th century, (Gewerbehalle).
9. German, 17th century, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg.
Plate 243. The Chair.
1. Modern, "Inn-chair", by Dir. Kachel, (Gewerbehalle).
2 — 3. Modern, cane, (Gewerbehalle).
4 — 7. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).
8. Renascence, (Raguenet).
9. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).

The Throne, and the Arm-chair. (Plates 244 — 245.)
Thrones and Arm-chairs have been grouped-together, because the
former almost always have the same form as the latter, and there is
no essential difference since the time of the Renascence. The Throne
being the Seat -of- honour, has naturally, from the earliest periods,'
received more attention and decoration. It is planned on a larger
and more monumental scale than the ordinary Chair. For this reason,
and also because it does not require to be so often moved as common

426

FURNITURE.

Plate 243.

The Chair.

The Throne, and the Arm-chair. 427
Chairs, it is often made of marble, metal, &c. Very often it is raised
on a Dais, with steps, or a Foot -stool is placed in front of it; not
infrequently it is covered by a Baldacchino or canopy, with Hangings,
or a Cornice. This is especially the case with those for royal per
sonages and bishops in the Middle Ages. As regards the decoration:
figures and symbols may be added to the other decorations of the
frame. The Arm-chair, in its simplest form, is distinguished from the
ordinary Chair by the addition of arms, which are generally supported
from the fore-legs, and connected with the back, whereas in the case
of the throne, when the material is stone, the arms are made in one
solid piece with the whole. Compared with the ordinary Chair, the
Arm-chair is larger, and more conducive to repose. Where it is in
tended to serve as the Seat-of-honour for the head of the family, or
a chairman, it corresponds in style to other Chairs of the set, and
only differs from them in its size and its richer finish. The furni
ture of our modern drawing-rooms generally consists of 4 or 6 chairs,
with 2 easy-chairs, &c.
In addition to the Egyptian and Assyrian thrones, and the Roman
State-chair, the "Sella Curulis": we may mention as belonging to this
group, the Norwegian stall of the 12th century (Plate 245, 1), and
the polygonal chair enclosed by a lattice, as shown by fig. 5 of the
same Plate.

Plate 244. The Throne, and the Arm-chair.
1. Egyptian Throne, with lotus ornament, the arms formed by the
wings of the sacred hawk, (Teirich).
2. Ancient Persian Throne, bas-relief, Persepolis, the decoration
represents a king sitting on his throne borne-up by slaves,
(Menard et Sauvageot).
3. Assyrian Throne, relief, (Menard et Sauvageot).
4. Greek Priest's -chair, marble, by the door of the temple of The
mis, Athens, (Raguenet).
5. Greek Judge's-chair (progdra), marble, found on the site of the
Prytaneum, Athens.
6. Antique Bath -chair, (sella balnearis), the openings served to
admit the vapour, (Menard et Sauvageot).
7. Greek Arm-chair, relief of a tomb, representing the deceased on
the thronos. _ . _ . . ,
8. Greek Throne, Harpy Monument, from Xanthos in Lycia, rJntish
Museum.
9. Roman Arm-chair, with decoration symbolic of Ceres, (Menard et
Sauvageot).

428 The Throne, and the Arm-chair. — The Stall.
10. Roman Arm-chair, found in Herculaneum, Museum at Portici,
(Raguenet).
11. Antique tenacotta, representing an Arm-chair in the form of the
hollowed-out body of a sphinx, (L'art pour tous).
12. Chair of S. Peter, wood with ivory reliefs illustrating the story
of Hercules, S. Peter's at Rome, (Menard et Sauvageot).
Plate 245. The Throne, and the Arm-chair.
1. Norwegian Stall, 12th century, from B8, Telemark.
2. Mediaeval Arm-chair, with foot -stool and draped back, (Viollet-
le-Duc).
3. King David's Arm-chair, 13th century, from relief, portal of
cathedral, Auxene, (Viollet-le-Duc).
4. Frame of Mediaeval arm-chair, iron, the drapery omitted, (Viollet-
le-Duc).
5. Mediaeval polygonal chair, painting, chapel in Toulouse, (Viollet-
le-Duc).
6. Mediaeval Arm-chair, metal, the drapery omitted, 13th century,
(Viollet-le-Duc).
7. Mediaeval Arm-chair, decorated with fringe, end of the 15th cen
tury, bas-relief, stalls, Amiens, (Viollet-le-Duc).
8. English Arm-chair, 16th century, wood, upholstered.
9. Arm-chair, Louis XVI style, wood carved and gilded, (Williamson).
10. Modern Arm-chair.
11. Modern Arm-chair. (Raguenet).

The Stall. (Plate 246.)
The rows of seats along the north, west, and south sides ot the
Choir in chapels, &c, are termed Stalls. They have a peculiar con
struction corresponding to their special use. In the earliest period
of the Middle Ages the single seats to the right and left of the bishop's
chair were built into the wall of the chancel, at a later period they
were replaced by moveable seats; and these again, from about the
13th century onwards, were replaced by Stalls, strictly so-called; the
seats being united in a continuous row, with an architectonic character
and construction. There are generally two rows, one behind the
other, and the hinder row is a little elevated. Partitions divide the
seats from one another; and serve as arms. Between the partitions
are the seats. These are either fixed or arranged to fold back. In the
latter case a console-like projection is attached to the underside of
the seat, to serve as a kind of rest when the seat is folded-back;
thus, out of pity for the aged monks, rendering it possible to rest

FURNITURE.

429

The Throne, and the Arm-chair. Plate 214.

430

FURNITURE.

Plate 245.

The Throne, and the Arm-chair.

The Stall. — The Stool. 431
while appearing to stand; hence the significant name of these sup
ports, "miserere". The backs of the hinder row of seats form a
Screen; and are usually decorated with carving, intarsia, <fcc; and
are furnished with a canopy. In front of the seat, there is generally
a kneeling-stool. Where there are several rows of seats, the prayer-
desks of the one row serve at the same time as the backs of the
next lower row. When the front rows are intenupted by passages
leading to the hinder rows, the Stall-ends are richly decorated.
A large number of magnificent Stalls of the Gothic, and still more
of the Renascence period, have been preserved in England, Germany,
France, Italy, and elsewhere, To enumerate them all would take too
long. Enormous pains have frequently been lavished on these works.
Rich ornamental and architectural motives alternate with represen
tations from Bible history and the legends of the saints; secular and
satirical compositions are also no rarity; so that Stalls are altogether
of high importance for the history of art as well as of civilisation.
To exemplify what has been said, the Plate gives a few examples,
which are far from being among the most sumptuous.
Plate 246. The Stall.
1. Sta. Maria Novella, Florence, decorated with intarsias, by Baccio
d'Agnolo, end of the 15th century, (Teirich).
2. Side-view, and section of above.
3. Laurentian Library, Florence, beginning of the 16th century, said
to be by Michelangelo, (Gewerbehalle).
4. Side-view, and section of the central row, great church, Dortrecht,
Dutch Renascence.
5. Modern French, Convent of Elisabeth, Fourvieres near Lyons, Ar-
tect Leo, (Raguenet).

The Stool. (Plate 247.)
The simplest seat is the Taboret or Stool , which is the chair
without a back. As our Plate shows, it has been in use from the
earliest times. The most primitive, and at the same time the most
stable, is probably the round seat with three legs; the Egyptian
example, (fig. 2), may be regarded as the prototype of the modern
Cobbler's-stool. The Plasterer's- stool, which has only one leg, is in
deed still simpler; and bears some resemblance to our modern Walking-
stick Camp-stools. The four-legged Taboret is generally square, and
possesses the same features as the lower part of a Chair. It is made
with or without upholstery, and with or without foot -rails. Here,

432

FURNITURE.

Plate 246.

The Stall.

FURNITURE.

433

..'eycT, Handbook of Ornament.

The Stool.

Plate 247.
28

434 The Stool. — The Folding-Chair.
too, we may group, the "Bisellium", or Roman double-stool, which was
granted as a distinction, and was mostly made of metal (fig. 7). Box-
stools, supported on boards instead of legs, are furnished with an
opening in the seat to enable them to be moved. The Garden-seats of
burned and glazed clay, introduced from China (fig. 1 1) are made without
backs; and, from their round or polygonal fundamental plan, are
classed with the Taborets; also the upholstered and draped treatment
(fig. 12), which is sometimes applied to a commode.
The Revolving-stool, which is chiefly employed in an office or
for performers of music, permits of lateral movement, and adjustment
to different heights as required (figs. 13 and 15). This is effected
by means of a screw.
Plate 247. The Stool.

1.

Egyptian, British Museum.

2.3.4.5.6. 7.

Egyptian, (Menard et Sauvageot).
Etruscan, (Menard et Sauvageot).
Assyrian.
Greek, vase-painting.
Greek, vase-painting.
Roman Bisellium, bronze, covering of the seat omitted,

8.

Pompeii. Bisellium of L. M. Faustus, tomb of Naevoleia Tyche,

9-

Pompeii.
-10. Modern.

11.

Chinese Garden-seat.

12.13.

Modern, (Gewerbehalle).
Modern Music-stool.

14.

Modern.

15.

Modern Revolving-stool.

The Folding- Chair. (Plate 248.)
The idea of a Chair which could be folded -together so as to
take up less room, and be more conveniently transported, is an old
one. The principle is found as early as the time of Ramses HI in
the Egyptian chair shown on Plate 241. 8. The Folding-chair is
common in the Antique, either with four legs combined and joined-
together like a saw-horse (figs. 1, 2, and 4), or with crossing struts
combined to form a ribbed chair. Antique Folding-chairs of the for
mer kind (Diphros okladias) are remarkable for invariably having
claw feet, sometimes turned outwards, but usually inwards. The
ribbed chair, which recurs in the Middle Ages and the Renascence,
scarcely admits of decoration, and is, therefore, mostly plain.

FURNITURE;

435

The Folding- Chair.

Plate 248.
28*

436 The Folding-Chair. — The Bench.
The Folding-chair may be a Stool, a Chair, or an Arm-chair.
Sometimes it can be folded-up as it stands, like our iron Folding
chairs for use in the open air; sometimes it must be taken to pieces
before it can be folded-up, like the chair shown on fig. 8. The most
suitable material is metal (bronze or iron). Folding-chairs of wood
are very often so constructed as not to fold at all, but are merely
imitations with the purpose overlooked (fig. 10). The seat is fre
quently of bands, either textile or leather. Where the seat is not
flexible, it must be arranged to be moveable by means of binges.
Thrones have been sometimes made like Folding-chairs. We may
also mention: the Camp-stools for tourists, sportsmen, painters, &c.
The principles of decoration are sufficiently elucidated by the figures
of the Plate.
Plate 248. The Folding-chair.
1. Egyptian, tomb of Chambali, 18th dynasty.
2. Antique, (Diphros okladias).
3. Greek, tomb of an agonothetes, found in Krissa, (Delphi).
4. Antique.
5. Mediaeval, Nonnenberg, (Mothes).
6. Mediaeval, miniature painting, representing King Nabuchodonosor,
9th or 10th century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
7. Mediaeval, bronze gilt, Throne of Dagobert, restored.
8. Mediaeval, bronze, 12th century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
9. Renascence.
10. French Renascence, Sens cathedral, (Raguenet).

The Bench. (Plate 249.)
The Bench is an elongated seat, usually intended for several per
sons. In its simplest form, as a board with four legs, it was already
known in Antiquity. In the Middle Ages and the Renascence, it was
in general use; and was employed not only as a seat, but as a table,
as is shown by such terms as "work-bench", &c. The Bench-seat
was afterwards furnished with a back and arms, the back being fre
quently formed like the canopy over stalls (fig. 7). It was uphol
stered with cushions and draped with textiles. The material is gene
rally wood; but in public buildings there are also Benches made of stone.
This latter material and iron, frequently combined with wood, are
the most suitable for benches in the open air. A further variety is
formed by the Double-bench, with a back in the middle; this back is
moveable, as shown in the example (fig. 3).
As the Bench, in most cases, is intended for every-day use, it is
generally undecorated. Those of the Middle Ages are more, the

FURNITURE.

437

The Bench.

Plate 249.

438 The Bench. — The Sofa, and the Couch.
work of the carpenter than that of the cabinet-maker, but the Re
nascence, especially in Italy, has created some finely-decorated examples.
Plate 249. The Bench.
1,2, 4 and 5. Middle ages, (Viollet-le-Duc).
8. Mediaeval, double with moveable back, for use in front
of the fireplace, (Viollet-le-Duc).
6. Renascence, with arms, (Ducerceau).
7. Renascence, with canopied back, church at Flavigny,
French, (Viollet-le-Duc).
8 — 9. Renascence, with podium, Italian, (Teirich).

The Sofa, and the Couch. (Plate 250.)
The Sofa and the Couch are among upholstered furniture what
the bench is among wooden furniture. By the side of forms which
are nothing more than elongated Chairs, occur others which have more
the character of the Bed. The intention of these pieces of furniture
is therefore to be found in their availability for both lying and
sitting. According as the one or the other object becomes predo
minant, the symmetrical form (figs. 4 — 7), or the unsymmetrical form
with strongly marked head (figs. 1 and 8), is employed. In accordance
with the double object, the arms are frequently treated as cylindrical
cushions (fig. 7), or upholstered with cushions (fig. 6).
Although furniture of this nature was not unknown to the An
tique, as shown by the Roman examples (figs. 1 and 2), these articles
cannot be said to have come into common use before the last three
centuries; and now-a-days the sofa is found in every middle - class
household. What enormities our Modern times have perpetrated in
this direction is evidenced by the S-shaped Ottomans for two persons,
which are sometimes to be found in our Saloons.
We may here briefly mention the transitional form which is
found in Waiting-rooms, and Public vehicles; and the circular Otto
man with centre-piece for flowers, which occupies the centre of the
floor in Galleries.
Plate 250. The Sofa, and the Couch.
1. Roman bedstead (lectus cubieularis) in the form of a sofa,
(Menard et Sauvageot).
2. Ditto.
3. Mediaeval bench, with cushions and drapery, (Viollet-le-Duc).
4 — 7. Modern forms of the Sofa, (Gewerbehalle, &c).
8. Modern Couch.

FURNITURE.

439

The Sofa, and the Conch.

Plate 250.

440 The Table.

b. Tables.
The Table. (Plate 251.)
Next to the seat, the Table is probably the oldest and most im
portant piece of furniture. Its chief uses are as a Dining - table,
Work-table, and Fancy -table on which to place vases, utensils, &c.
Its principal parts are the flat Top, and the Frame. The top may
be square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, semicircular, &c. The frame
may be very variously constructed. There are tables with one leg,
with three, four, and more legs, and sometimes tables with two legs,
in which case the Top rests upon two side - supports. Where only
one leg is used as a support, it is either fastened to the floor
or the lower end is spread -out so that the table may stand firmly
(fig. 4). The top, in such cases, is usually square or round, and is
frequently united to the leg by means of a screw, so that it may be
taken -off. Where three, four, or more legs are used as supports,
they are often connected by means of a framework, on which the
table -top then rests (fig. 8). The .legs may further be rendered rigid
by means of connecting rails (fig. 9). The legs are prismatic, turned,
or sometimes curved. They either stand upright, or slope outwards
as in fig. 9. Where the top rests upon two side-supports (fig. 5),
their lower part is hollowed-out in such a way that they touch the
ground at only four points. They are connected with each other by a
longitudinal bar, held in position by wedges (fig. 5). Sometimes they
are replaced by pillars or balausters (figs. 6 and 10), or other legs
are employed in addition (fig. 11). They may also be replaced by
crossed struts forming a S. Andrew's cross, which is called the "Saw-
horse table". Drawers may be accommodated in the framework of
the table; and a series of shelves may be added beneath the real
table-top (Whatnot). Special forms of the table are: the Console-table,
which is fixed to the wall, and has console -like supports instead of
legs; the Telescope or expanding table, which may be enlarged by
different kinds of mechanism; the Folding-table which may be made
larger or smaller by means of flaps (chiefly used for card tables);
the Occasional - table for a variety of purposes; the Writing-table, to
which a special Plate will be devoted, and many more.
The material is, first of all, wood; tnetal, stone, &c, are rarer.
The decoration is specially confined to the under - frame , which is
ornamented by carving and turning in the style suitable to supports.
The top is frequently left undecorated, as it is often covered with
a table-cloth; and the objects placed upon it would not permit the

The Table. 4_1
decoration to be properly seen. Where the top is decorated, the orna
mentation is flat, consisting of intarsia -work, incising, painting, &c.
The size of the table varies according to the purpose for which
it is intended; its height, on the contrary, is subject to little varia
tion, and is about 2 ft. 4 '/a ins. for ordinary tables. Tables, with
legs which could be adjusted to varying heights, were in use in the
Antique period, being required by the social life of that time; a
similar arrangement may also be seen on some modern artists' tables,
which can not only be adjusted to different heights, but also allow
the top to be slanted.
The following remarks are from the point of view of history
and style. The Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian tables, chiefly known
to us from the representations of altars, have legs terminating in
claws. This motive was also popular among the Greeks and Romans,
with the difference that the latter nations permit the claws to rest
directly on the ground, while the former support the claws upon small
circular plinths. The legs of Antique Tables are frequently of bronze;
they have a similar form with those of the Tripod; and like them
are adjustible, as already observed (fig. 1). The table-tops are often
of stone or wood. Large rectangular tables with stone supports of
rich workmanship, and round tables with three legs of marble, a
considerable number of which are given on Plates 143 and 144, are
well known to us from the excavations at Pompeii. They were not
Dining-tables but State-tables which stood in the tablinum and atrium
of Roman houses. Dining-tables of the modern form were unknown
to the Antique; even in the Early Greek period, while it was still
the custom to sit at dinner, each diner had his own separate table;
and the same custom continued in the later period when meals
were taken in a recumbent posture. These little tables were lower
than ours. We also find them in similar forms among the Romans
(fig. 3), along with larger Banqueting - tables , around three sides of
which the Sofas were ranged as shown |  |. The Late Roman period
was one of lavish luxury; we are told, for example, of tables with
legs of silver and ivory, and with Table-tops of rare woods, &c. In
credible prices, up to £ 14,000, were paid for a single choice top.
The Tables of the Middle Ages were generally rectangular or
semicircular, rested on posts or trestles, were plain, and rather
cumbrous. It is said of Charlemagne, however, that he possessed
three of silver, and one golden (?) table. Beautiful and richly-designed
Tables of very different kinds have been preserved from the time of
the Renascence. Of particularly frequent occurrence, are richly-carved
side -trusses (fig. 7), simpler forms of which were already in use in
the Gothic period (fig. 5). In the Barocco and Rococo periods, the
legs are curved, and the tops are of bold, arbitrary design (fig. 8).
The Console - table is an invention of this period. It was also at this

442

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Plate 251.

The Table.

The Table. — The Writing-Table. 443
time that the Dumb-waiter, came into general use. As far as art is
concerned, our modern Tables are mostly copies of old models.
Plate 251 gives a small selection from the copious material.
Plate 251. The Table.
1. Antique, bronze, Museum, Naples, (Raguenet).
2. Antique, bronze, (Menard et Sauvageot).
3. Roman, (Kantharos of Ptolemy).
4. Mediaeval, Chronicle of Louis XI, (Viollet-le-Duc).
5. Late Gothic, Municipal Collection of Antiquities, Freiburg, (Schau-
insland).
6. Renascence, with turned legs, French, Castle of Bussy - Rabutin,
(C6te d'or).
7. Renascence, with carved side-trusses, French, (Ducerceau).
8. French, 18 th century, Garde-meuble, Paris, (Raguenet).
9. Modern, Renascence style.
10. Modern.
11. Modern, French, Paris, (Raguenet).

The Writing-Table. (Plate 252.)
The peculiar construction of the Writing-table removes it from
the category of ordinary Tables. In a certain sense it forms the
transition to the Cabinets, in the form in which it is now manu
factured. The Writing-table is a product of modern civilisation. In
earlier times, when writing was the privilege of the select few, the
common table evidently served the purpose. It is also true that the
old caligraphers, used special writing apparatus, either desks which
could be rested on the knees (fig. 1), or small tables, an example of
which is given in fig. 2. But it was reserved for our much-writing
Modern time to invent special furniture for business and private use.
The Writing-table must not only serve for writing, but also as a
receptacle for stationery, conespondence, writing-materials, &c. Hence
it is furnished with cupboards, drawers, pigeon-holes, and shelves.
It is often furnished with side-cupboards below the table-top having
a space between them for the legs of the writer. Where the table
has an upper part, which admits of a variety of constructions, as
may be seen from the few examples of the Plate, it is usually of
lesser depth than the surface of the table so as to leave the ne
cessary room for writing. The same end is attained by leaving a
space equal to the whole depth free between it and the table -top,
as shown by fig. 6. The table-top is often covered with some textile
material or with leather, to afford a soft surface for writing -upon

444

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Plate 252.

The Writing-Table.

The Writing-Table. — The Cabinet. 44b
Special varieties are formed by the Double -writing -table for office
use, the Cylinder-desk, which can be closed after use by letting down
a cylindrical flap, the Secretaire, in which the table-top may be lifted
up or locked, the Lady's-writing-table, &c.
Plate 252. The Writing-table.
1. Mediaeval, (scriptionale) with inkhorn, intended to be placed on
the knee, 11th century, portal of the church, Vezelay, (Viollet-
le-Duc).
2. Mediaeval, with double top, for raising, 15th century, Abbey of
Saint-Michel-en-Mer, (Viollet-le-Duc).
3. Modern, with eight legs and side drawers, (Max Schutz).
4. Modern.
5. Modern.
6. Modern, by W. Hanau, (Gewerbehalle).

e. Cabinets.
The Cabinet. (Plate 253.)
Cabinets were evidently a rare phenomenon in Antiquity. The
Egyptians and the Greeks were probably not acquainted with them
at all; the Romans seem to have possessed simple Cabinets with two
doors, if we may judge from occasional paintings; in any case,
however, they were of no artistic importance. Chests, of which we
shall speak later on, were no doubt more frequent, and took the place
of cabinets. It was the same in the early Middle Ages, in which we
certainly find Cabinets in churches and monasteries, but seldom in
private houses. Where they do occur, they show the hand of thf
carpenter rather than that of the skilled cabinet-maker. "The car
dinal feature of Romanesque furniture is practicability; that the slow
moving, serious spirit of that time paid but little regard to elegance
was only natural: men had their virtues and their vices, but they
were free from affections of the nerves" (Georg Hirth). Cabinets be
came more common in the Gothic period; and although the matched-
board -work and the simple carving generally give the products of
this time a certain rude appearance; still the architectural disposition
of the members, and the bands and mounts, are effective. Later Gothic
led to all kinds of extravagances, one of which is the lavish use of
geometrical tracery, called "flamboyant" from its flame-like character.
The revolutionary process, which marks the transition from Gothic to
Renascence, finds striking expression in the group of Cabinets. Georg

446

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Plate 253.

The Cabinet.

The Cabinet. 447
Hirth, whom we quoted above, describes the revival of decoration
in the transition period, in the following words: "In their (wood
carvers', cabinet-makers', and others') hands the prismatic bead was
transformed into the living vine, the stone leaf- work of the minster
was metamorphosed into lifelike flowers and rich sweeping branches,
wrested with astounding skill from an immense variety of materials.
In contrast to the lofty and imaginative but severe creations of the
Gothic masons this developement of art in the sphere of ornament
seems to me like a picturesque revolution, like the song of the
German lark in the rosy dawn of a new day of humanity. The
chimes of spring rang from the Lower Rhine to our snow - capped
giant peaks, a loud cry for the All -mother Nature, for freedom of
heart and imagination. And then what childlike naivete, what devout,
blissful hopefulness in these modest men! In truth, the more we
strive in vain to imitate them, the more we ought to love them, to
draw inspiration from their works and to bless their memory."
Astounding and of high importance, are the achievements of the
Renascence in Cabinets and Shrines. They are of all imaginable sizes,
from small Caskets to large Cabinets occupying a whole wall. They
are devoted to the most different objects: linen, clothes, books, jewels, &c.
A rich wealth of form is evolved; architectural systems of columns
and pilasters mark the divisions of the ever-alternating doors, drawers,
and opens spaces. Add to this the charming play of the coloured
woods, grainings, wood-mosaics, and intarsia- work, set-off by the use
of all kinds of mounts. The place of the prismatic and bevelled
posts is taken by richly -profiled and twisted columns and terminal-
figures; instead of matchboard - work we find mortised frame -work,
and panels decorated with figures and ornaments. The revolution
produced a happy and lasting effect. We do well when we build
further on this tradition, and construct our modern Cabinets on the
good models of this epoch. Unhappily the few examples of our
Plates can only give a faint idea of this group.
Plate 253. The Cabinet.
1. Late Gothic, end of the 15 th century, oak, with tinned iron mounts,
Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg, (Kunsthandwerk).
2. Renascence, variegated woods, South German 16 th century
(Formenschatz).
3. Renascence, side-view, German, (Formenschatz).
4. Modern, by Prof. Schick, Carlsruhe.
5. Modern, black wood with copper intarsia, by A. Balcke.
6. Modern, in two woods.

448

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Plate 254.

The Sideboard.

The Sideboard. — The Hanging-Cabinet. 449

The Sideboard. (Plate 254.)
Sideboards are a separate division. They are intended for the
reception of articles used in the service of the table. Vases and
ornaments may also be placed upon them; and in many cases they
are themselves decorative objects. In the Middle Ages they are com
paratively plain, and of invariable form; the ground -plan being an
oblong or semiToctagon; they stand on legs, and have of an open
space beneath, over which are the cupboards, with a flat top, (figs. 1
and 8). During the Renascence, this traditional plan gave way to
richer and more complicated constructions; the lower recess was fre
quently retained; instead of it or along with it, further recesses
were added at the middle height or still higher; the top is con
structed as an independent member, often of smaller dimensions and
recessed; and terraces of shelves with balaustered galleries for glasses
and plates, form the conclusion of the whole.
Here, too, our Modern times follow the old models. Special
requirements have given birth to special forms, such as the Buffets
in hotels, and waiting-rooms, which frequently form an integral part
of the. wainscot or architecture of the wall.
Plate 254. The Sideboard.
1. Renascence, German, with reminiscences of Gothic, Bavarian Na
tional Museum, Munich.
2. Renascence, side-view, St. Lo, Normandy, 1580, South Ken
sington Museum, (Musterornamente).
8 — 4. Modern, front and side-view, designed in the School of In
dustrial Art, Carlsruhe.
5—6. Ditto.
7. Modern, by Ph. Niederhofer, Frankfort.
8. Mediaeval, (Viollet-le-Duc).

The Hanging-Cabinet. (Plate 255.)
Hanging-cabinets also form a special subdivision. They differ
from other Cabinets in being of more molest dimensions, by being,
for practical purposes, of less depth, and, as they are intended for
suspension, by terminating in a console instead of in legs and base.
For the rest, what has already been said of Cabinets in general, will
hold good of Hanging-cabinets also.
These are adapted to hold books, tobacco, &c, medicine, keys,
conespondence, &c.
Meyer, Handbook of Ornamexi-. ov

450

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Plate 255.

The Hanging- Cabinet.

The Hanging-Cabinet. — The Chest. — The Desk, _c. 451
Plate 255. The Hanging-cabinet.
1. Renascence, German, (Formenschatz).
2. Modern, with intarsia panels, by Dir. Hammer, Nuremberg.
3. Modern, architect Crecelius, Mainz.
4. Modern, by Dir. G8tz, Carlsruhe
5. Modern, by Prof. Haas, Lucerne.
The Chest. (Plate 256.)
Chests are of older date than Cabinets. We meet with them
on Antique vase-paintings, and among the objects found in Pompeii.
They have the form of boxes, prismatic or widening towards the
top, with short legs and with rich mountings, of nailheads, &c. (fig. 1).
In the Middle Ages, the Chest was a very popular piece of fur
niture. Its form was mostly that of a prismatic box without feet, with
delicate iron mounts, and all kinds of carving (figs. 2 — 5). Very
often Chests were at the same time used as benches. The same form
was retained by the Renascence but differently decorated in accord
ance with the style of the time. Besides this, we have numerous
examples of smaller Chests with feet and lids of pyramid form, richly
decorated with carving, intarsia, ivory, and metal reliefs. These small
Caskets were chiefly used for jewelry, and as work-boxes, etc., for
which purposes similar caskets are still manufactured.
Plate 256. The Chest.
1. Antique, Pompeii, (Menard et Sauvageot).
2. Mediaeval reliquary, (Viollet-le-Duc).
3. Mediaeval bench-chest, 13th century MS. (Viollet-le-Duc).
4. Gothic, Carved chestnut wood with iron mounts and handles, 15th
century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
5. Mediaeval, Brampton church, England, (Viollet-le-Duc).
6. Renascence, Dutch, (L'art pour tous).
7. Renascence, Italian.
8. Renascence, Flemish, 17th century, (L'art pour tous).
d. Miscellaneous.
The Desk, &c. (Plate 257.)
The Desk is a stand with a sloping top, on which books and
other things may be placed. Passing over Reading-desks, Music-desks,
and other desks for secular use, which as a rule are left undecorated;
we have the desks used in churches, e. g. the "Prie-dieu", the Lectern,
_c, which are to some extent found of rich workmanship as early as
29*

452

FURNITURE.

Plate 256.

The Chest.

The Desk, &c. — The Clock-Case, &c 453
the beginning of the Middle Ages. They are made of wood, or metal,
or of both combined. We distinguish between single and double
desks. The Lectern is frequently supported on the back of an Eagle
with outspread wings, a design which is supposed to contain a
reference to the Evangelist S. John, whose symbol in the eagle.
Ecclesiastical desks eiter have a fixed position in the choir or chancel,
or they are moveable. These latter were sometimes like a Saw-horse
and could be folded-up; in which case the slope was replaced by
bands (fig. 6). The upper part of fixed desks frequently revolves,
and is furnished with sconces for lights.
The Easel is a sloping frame with three or four legs. The
front and rear are often connected by hinges to enable the angle of
the slope to be altered at will. The front is provided with a small board,
which can be adjusted to different heights by pins or other mechanism.
It is an invention of modern times; and in its usual undecorated,
form is employed by painters, sculptors, &c. But it is often made
as a decorative piece of furniture of superior finish, to hold pictures,
portfolios, &c. The decoration in this case may Consist of the sym
bols of art, as shown in fig. 7.
Plate 257. The Desk, &c.
1. Gothic, 15th century, base of wood, slope of wrought-iron, eagle
and ball gilt, dragon painted green, S. Simphorien, Nuits, (Viollet-
le-Duc).
2. Mediaeval, San Stefano, Venice, (Mothes).
3. Renascence, marble, Pisa Cathedral, Italian, (Kunsthandwerk).
4. Mediaeval, Double-desk with revolving shaft, end of 13th century
(Viollet-le-Duc).
5. Mediaeval, Upper part of Double-desk, (Viollet-le-Duc).
6. Renascence, Folding stand, cathedral, S. Gimignano, Italian, (Kunst
handwerk).
7. Modern decorative Easel, architect Durm, (Gewerbehalle).

The Clock-Case, &c. (Plate 258.)
The Clock-case, as a piece of furniture, is of comparatively recent
date, for the invention of the clock with a train of wheels is itself
not old; and for some time after their introduction clocks were manu
factured without cases or, at any rate, without cases of artistic
importance. In the 17 th century, cases for protecting the works
against dust and for giving the clock a more pleasing aspect, begin
to appear. The forms at first manufactured were chiefly two. The
first is that of the old-fashioned tall Hall -clock, something like the
toilet-stands (figs. 5 and 6), the upper part accommodating the clock

454

FURNITURE.

Plate 257.

The Desk, &c.

The Clock-Case, &c. 455
and the lower part being destined for the weights. The other form
is that of the dwarf drawing-room clock, the weights being replaced
by springs, so that the case does not need to be so tall, and is only
dependent on the length of the pendulum. These clocks are placed
on chimney-pieces, cabinets. &c, or on pedestals (fig. 1). A third
form, which was added at a later date, is the hanging -case, intended
for both weight and pendulum clocks. With more or less alteration
these forms, together with a number of innovations, are in use at the
present time. Pendules and similar constructions are not taken into
account here. Clock-cases are mostly of wood, frequently decorated
with gilding, and metal mounts. A special division, in respect of
material, is formed by the clocks in Buhl - work. The dials, of
lacquered wood, porcelain, metal, enamelled, in niello- work, &c, are
often bordered by a metal ring and closed by glass doors. Pendulum
and weight-cases may be either open or closed; sometimes they have
only a slit for the bob. The sides of the case are often of fret- work,
in order that the sound of the striking - work may be better heard.
Dome - shaped clocks are sometimes crowned by a small bell - turret
(fig. 3). Calendar-clocks, Cuckoo-clocks, Trumpeter-clocks, and similar
fancy forms, also require special constructions. In general, we may
assume that the get-up of our modern regulator and other clocks is
perfectly familiar to the reader. The starting-points in designing a
clock case are the diameter of the dial, the depth of the works, the
distance from the centre of the dial to the centre of the bob and the
extent of swing of the pendulum, and (in the case of Weight-clocks)
the length to which the weights run.
It is possible that Toilet-stands may have been met-with in the
Middle Ages; but they were not treated as decorative furniture till
the Renascence. A number of really magnificent examples from this
period have been preserved (fig. 5). The usual form is that of a
slender, tall Cabinet, the upper and lower parts of which are provided
with doors, and serve to hold various necessary objects, while the
centre takes the form of a niche. In this niche hangs a metal water-
reservoir with a lid and a cock; at the lower end of the niche is a
basin to receive the waste water. Elegant wrought-iron towel-holders
are attached. The two figures (5 and 6) will give an idea of the
arrangement of these pretty pieces of furniture, which are now be
coming popular again, after they had been supplanted and fallen into
disuse.
Plate 258. The Clock-case, &c.
1. Barocco, with pedestal, by Daniel Marot.
2. Modern, with roof, by Hans Steimer, Furtwangen.
3. Modern, with metal ornaments, architect Lauter, Carlsruhe.
4. Modern, by Fr. Miltenberger, Nuremberg.

456

FURNITURE.

Plate 258.

The Clock-Case, &c.

The Clock-Case, &c. — The Bedstead, and the Cradle. 457
5. Toilet-stand, German Renascence, 1597, Town-hall, Ueberlingen,
(Gewerbehalle).
6. Toilet-stand, various coloured woods, German Renascence, (Formen
schatz).

The Bedstead, and the Cradle. (Plates 259 — 260.)
From the earliest to the present time, the Bedstead has passed
through many changes. In the Egyptian and Assyrian styles: we find
metal Bedsteads imitating the forms of animals (Plate 259. 1, 2); and
sometimes arranged to fold up like a Camp-bed (Plate 259. 2). Those of
the Greeks and Romans, which served partly as Beds, and partly as
Couches, are of manifold forms. In addition to the four-legged bench
(Plate 259. 3), we have benches with a head -board (Plate 259. 1), with
head and foot board (Plate 259. 4), the latter being usually lower
than the former, and others with head, foot, and back boards, like
our modern Sofas (Plate 260. 2). The materials are wood and metal,
sometimes more precious materials, ivory, &c, as we learn from the
examples found in Pompeii.
The same fundamental idea may be seen in the Bedsteads of
the earlier Middle Ages, which show traces of Byzantine influence,
and have richly -decorated, turned posts, and carved sides. The front
was often furnished with an opening to allow of getting into the
bed (Plate 259. 5, 6). At a later period the Bedstead was furnished
with canopied hangings suspended from special rods fixed to the
wall. The Renascence considerably enlarged the size; placed it on a
podium; raised the head-board; and carried the legs higher to receive
the tester or canopy - frame , which was then adorned with drapery
and hangings. Examples of this period have been preserved (Plate 260.
1 and 2). In the Barocco and Rococo periods: textile materials pre
dominate, and the wooden frame is neglected. Then the so-called
"Parade-beds" (Plate 260, 3) became fashionable.
Modern times again have generally simplified the form. The
commonest is that with high foot and head -boards (the latter often
to excess), and low sides. Tester-bedsteads have passed out of
fashion. '
The Cradle seems to have been an invention of the Middle
Ages. By means of pins the little box or trough - shaped Bedsteads
were fixed in a frame in which they were moveable; or the legs of
the Bedstead were replaced by curved battens which admitted of rock
ing (Plate 259. 8 and 9). The Cradles of the- Renascence are of
similar form, often with raised end-boards, and rich carving. Owing
to sanitary objections, Cradles have almost gone out of use. Some-

458

FURNITURE.

Plate 259.

The Bedstead, &c.

FURNITURE.

459

The Bedstead, &c.

Plate 260.

460

The Bedstead, and the Cradle.

times Cradles are made of metal rods, like a basket, with the head
of the frame raised to support a canopy.
Plate 259. The Bedstead, &c.
Egyptian, (Menard et Sauvageot).
Egyptian collapsible Camp-bedstead.
Greek, vase-painting, (Menard et Sauvageot).
Roman, Pompeian vase-painting, (Menard et Sauvageot).
Mediaeval, MS. of the 13th century, (Viollet-le-Duc).
Mediaeval, MS. of the 12th century, (Hortus deliciarum of
Henad of Landsberg), (Viollet-le-Duc).
Chinese, (L'art pour tous).
Mediaeval Cradles, (Viollet-le-Duc).

1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6.

8—9.

Plate 260. The Bedstead, &c.
1. Renascence, Plantin Museum, Antwerp, (Gewerbehalle).
2. Renascence, French, Cluny Museum, Paris, (L'art pour tous).
8. Barocco, Parade-bedstead, by Daniel Marot.
4. Renascence, Head -board of Cradle, French, gilt ornaments on
red ground (L'art pour tous).

D.

FRAMES, &c.

The term "Framework" is a very inclusive one. Every edging,
border, and every rim of a plate, belongs to this group ; but the follow
ing ten plates will contain only those features in which the Frame
is, to a certain extent, an end in itself, and a definite, characteristic
whole. Framework is useful in every branch of applied art; it is
used in an immense variety of materials, and is treated in many different
ways. Plates 261 — 270 contain some important subdivisions selected
from the entire group: these are frames of Architectural character;
frames (strictly so-called) for Pictures, Minors, &c, Tablets, Typo
graphical borders, and the borders of Dials, Plates, &c.
It is highly interesting to pursue the rise of Framework on an
architectural basis, its gradual transformation and its adaptation to
the products of art industry. For this, however, we refer the reader
to the remarks of Semper (Der Stil, §§ 130 et seqq.). We will only
make the following observations from the point of view of style:
Framework, in the sense in which it is here understood, only occurs
rarely and sporadically in the older styles, the Antique and the
Middle Ages. It was reserved for the Renascence to cultivate this
field, and to attain the highest possible results. It cannot, however,
be denied that occasionally it was exaggerated and illogical. A Frame
must, above all things, have some relation and proportion to the object
to be framed. To make a frame, and put it where there is nothing
to be framed, is illogical. And yet we find in the late Renascence,
and in the Barocco and Rococo periods, countless examples which,
so far as their application goes, have no other object than the de
coration of empty spaces.

462 The Architectural Frame.

The Architectural Frame. (Plate 261 — 262.)
By Architectural Frames we mean those which are used in
Architecture, and those which, although applied in other branches,
such as furniture, show an architectural derivation. These are: the
framings of doors, windows, panels, tablets, medallions, niches, soffits,
&c. In Furniture they are the border-like ornaments which serve as
a framing to panel-ornaments; but which are also very often used
merely as decoration, without having any object to frame. There
are two classes of Frames: one which is mon-axial, with external or
naments at the top and bottom, to emphasize the vertical attitude;
and one which is bi-axial, for application on horizontal surfaces.
In the former class: the lower ornament has the general shape of a
suspended triangle. This expresses the idea of supporting like a Console;
and is a free-ending down-wards. The other of these has the general shape
of the erect triangle; making a cresting feature, and is the free-ending
upwards. Frames of this class are shown on Plate 261, figs. 2, 8, 9, 10
and 11. In the second class of Frames: the space to be enclosed,
be it a circle, square, or oblong, is surrounded by an ornament
which is symmetrical on all sides without regard to top and bottom.
Frames of this class are shown on figs. 4 — 7 of Plate 261, and
figs. 5, 8 and 9 of Plate 262. These two principles are not always
so strongly marked as in the examples given; and sometimes they
are combined; but as a rule the one or the other will always pro-
dominate. Plate 261. The A_.c____ctural Frame.
1. Gable-opening of a Dormer-window, Rouen, French, 17th cen
tury, (L'art pour tous).
2. Tablet, modern, in the style of the Italian Renascence.
3. Pedestal, Italian Renascence, Genoa, (Owen Jones).
4. Door-panel, (Architektonisches Skizzenbuch).
5. Stove -tile, Castle of Wulfingen near Wintertime, 17th cen
tury, (Kunsthandwerk).
6. Desk in S. Giorgio maggiore, Venice, Italian, Renascence.
7. Coffer, cupola of the Dagobert Tower, Baden-Baden, German,
Renascence.
8 — 9. Pulpit, Magdeburg cathedral, German, 1595 — 1597, (Gewerbe
halle).
10. Door of cabinet, in the style of the German Renascence,
(Formenschatz).
11. Door of a sideboard, Louvre, Paris, Renascence.

FRAMES.

463

The Architectural Frame.

Plate 261.

464

FRAMES.

Plate 262.

The Architectural Frame.

The Architectural Frame, Mirror-Frame, &c. 465
Plate 262. The Architectural Frame.
1. German, 17th century, Stalls, Stiftskirche, Aschaffenburg, (Ge
werbehalle).
2. Italian, Renascence, (Formenschatz).
3. French, 1529, Lozenge panel, choir of Chartres cathedral,
(Raguenet).
4. Renascence, by Enea Vico, (Formenschatz).
5. Italian, Renascence, Panel of the stalls, S. Giorgio maggiore,
Venice.
6. German Renascence, Frame of small niche, Dagobert Tower,
Baden-Baden.
7 — 8. Modern, French, Hotel Mirabaud, Paris, Architect Magne,
(Raguenet).
9. Modern, in the style of the German Renascence.
10. Modern, French, Paris, (Raguenet).

The Mirror-Frame, &c. (Plates 263—264).
The moveable Minor -frames, which are designed and made to
be hung-up, might have been classed among the Furniture; but they
are more conveniently treated here. The Middle Ages framed Altar-
pieces and the Pictures of the saints; but the universal use of frames
begins with the Renascence; and it is particularly Italy which has
preserved the most numerous examples of this period. At first we
meet with Architectural-frames; but simultaneously with the transition
from the Mural-picture of the Middle Ages (which had been a part
of the wall), to the Table-picture (which was portable), the treatment
becomes freer and less constrained. And when the architectural
members were afterwards blended-together in scroll-work, the funda
mental architectural idea generally remained visible, as may be seen
from the Barocco and Louis XVI frames in Plates 263. 1, 2, 6, and 10;
and 264. 3 and 4. It was reserved for Modern times to cut -up
factory-made mouldings into lengths, to produce frames of any required
size, without regard to the proportion which should exist between the
frame and the enclosed space. Cheap and practical! but Art has gained
nothing by it. Still, we would not be understood to say that our
time does not occasionally produce frames which completely satisfy
the demands of both technique and taste.
The chief material is wood; but bronze is used for frames of
small size. The old custom of painting and gilding the carved-wood
frames, led to the manufacture of the so-called "gilt frame", which is
made of stamped brass. Opinions may differ as to the justification
of these frames from an aesthetic point of view; but there is little
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 30

FRAMES.

Plate 263.

The Mirror -Frame, &c.

FRAMES.

467

The Mirror-Frame, &c.

Plate 264.

30*

468 The Mirror-Frame, &c. — The Strap-work Frame.
doubt that the metallic frame tends to enhance the effect of coloured
pictures. Porcelain and glass have also been used as materials for
frames; but their propriety will always be questionable.
In addition to outline and style of decoration: an important part
is played by the amount of projection of the Frame. The effect of
a picture, which appears to be recessed behind a Bevel-frame, is very
different from that of one which seems to be brought into relief by
a Torus - moulding. The fundamental form of the frame is usually
oblong, either figure- wise or landscape- wise; circular, elliptic, or square
frames, are rarer. Sometimes the outer shape of the Frame differs
from the inner shape (Plate 263. 9, 10). In the Barocco period,
frames received a number of arbitrary curved forms; as shown in
on Plate 263, fig. 5.
Plate 263. The Mirror -frame, &c.
1 — 2. German, 18th century, Berlin, (Kunsthandwerk).
3 — 4. French, angle - ornaments of wall -panels, old castle of Bercy,
near Paris, 18 th century, (Raguenet).
5. Barocco, witn bracket, by Paul Decker, (Formenschatz).
6. Rococo, (Formenschatz).
7 — 8. French, Louis XVI., by La Londe, (Wessely).
9 — 10. French, Louis XVI., by Delafosse, (Raguenet).
Plate 264. The Mirror - frame, &c.
1 — 2. Renascence, (Raguenet).
3 — 4. Italian Renascence, Florence, (Gewerbehalle).
5. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).
6. Modern, by Prof. Schick, Carlsruhe.
7. Modern, by the architect Huber, Frankfort.

The Strap-work Frame. (Plates 265 — 266.)
When the Frame is cut into fantastic shapes and bands, which
interlace and curl, like leathern Straps; then it is termed the Strap-
work Frame. It is much used, in the later Renascence, for Shields,
Tablets, &c; and is a characteristic of the Elizabethan style. Foliage,
palmettes, festoons and garlands of fruit, fluttering ribbons, cherub-
heads, &c. are frequently added. Strap-work was an invention of the
Renascence; and it is extremely common, especially in the later years
of that period. This kind of Frame-work is frequently used, not as
a Frame, but for mere decorative purposes, so that the fields to be
framed are left as empty spaces. Strap-work appears in architecture.
sepulchral monuments, and epitaphs: on medals and coins; in cabim-t

frames.

469

The Strap- work Frame.

Plate 265.

470

FRAMES.

Plate 266.

The Strap-work Frame.

The Strap-work Frame. — The Typographical Frame. 471
work, heraldry, jewelry, the decoration of books, &c, and the minor
arts in general. The anangement is usually symmetrical; but this
was abandoned in the Rococo period in favour of unsymmetrical and
picturesque arrangements, as shown in Plate 266, fig. 5.
Plate 265. The Strap-work Frame.
1 — 4. Renascence, bronze tablets, cemetery of S. John, Nuremberg,
(Gewerbehalle).
5 — 6. Renascence, 17 th century, French, (L'art pour tous).
7 — 10. Renascence, new castle, Baden-Baden, 1576 — 1577.
11. Renascence, National Library, Paris, (Raguenet).
12. Modern, French, book ornament.
Plate 266. The Strap-work Frame.
1. Renascence, French.
2. Renascence, from "Civitates orbis terrarum", published by
P. von Brackel, Cologne, 1573, (Ysendyck).
3. Rococo, Louvre, Paris, (Raguenet).
4. Rococo, French, corner of a wall, (Raguenet).
5. Rococo, French.
6 — 7. Modern, by Dir. Kachel, Carlsruhe.
8. Modern, French, (Lienard).
9. Modern.

The Typographical Frame. (Plates 267 — 268.)
We find numerous Framework - motives in the decoration of
books and documents; and though they have become more general
since the invention of printing, we find them in the Manuscripts of
the Middle Ages. The Title-pages were framed or bordered; it was
also a favourite practice to border the headings; Initials are some
times treated in this way; and Printers' -marks, and Head and Tail
pieces are often designed with Strap - work. Old books are often
richly decorated with such things; and artists of the highest rank
often lent their aid to this style of decoration. After the sobriety
which ruled in the first half of this century, our modern times have
devoted increased attention to this branch. Breaches of taste are
still committed in this direction, principally because factory -made
Blocks, Borders, and Rules, are combined without judgment in
Typography. Not only books, but also diplomas, addresses, ball-pro
grammes, dinner and business - cards, labels, book-plates, and similar
things are furnished with artistic borders. The principles of decoration,
and the motives employed, are very varied; and great freedom is al-

472

FRAMES.

Plate 267.

The Typographical Frame.

FRAMES.

473

The Typographical Frame.

Plate 268.

474 The Typographical Frame. — The Strap-work Tablet.
lowed. When architectural forms appear, they are treated lightly
and playfully; and are often resolved into all manner of strap -work
(Plate 267. 1, 2).
Plate 267. The Typographical Frame.
1. Border, by Johann Sadler, 1550 — 1560, Flemish, Renascence,
(Guichard).
2. Border, by Hans Holbein, (Guichard).
8. Border, by J. Wiericx, 16th century, Flemish, Renascence, (L'art
pour tous).
4. Printer's-mark, (Giacomo Cornetti of Venice), Italian, Renascence,
1586, (L'art pour tous).
5. Ditto, (Giovanni Guarisco, Venice, 1575).
6. Ditto, (Ex typographia Jacobi Staer, 1585).
7. Ditto, (A. Quantin, Paris, 1882).
Plate 268. The Typographical Frame.
1. German, Tablet from the triumphal entry of the Emperor Maxi
milian by Hans Burkmair, (1473 — 1531).
2. French, Renascence, 16th century, Lyons, (L'art pour tous).
3. Modern, by Max Lauger, Carlsruhe.
4. Modern, by Rudolf Seitz, Munich.

The Strap-work Tablet. (Plate 269.)
Examples of Strap -work, designed for use in some of the
Minor Arts, which serves not as a frame but as the actual Tablet,
are shown in the Plate. Figures 1 and 2 are clock-cases; 3 and 4
are for goldsmiths' work; 5 and 6 are wrought-iron signs; 7 and 8
are suitable ornaments for stamped-leather, and inlaying; fig. 10 is
an escutcheon; and Nos. 9 and 11 are book-mounts. The series
might easily be increased; but these examples will suffice, as it would
lead us too far to treat each of these classes in detail.
Plate 269. The Strap-work Tablet.
1. Clock-case, hammered metal, French, Renascence.
2. Clock-case, stamped metal, Modern.
3 — 4. Decoration of escutcheons, snuff-box lids, &c, by Wilhelm
Visscher, 17th century.
5 — 6. Wrought-iron signs, Modern.
7. Book-cover, 16th century, French Renascence, (L'art pour tous).
8. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).

FRAMES.

475

The Strap-work Tablet.

Plate 269.

476

FRAMES.

Plate 270. The Strap-work Border, and Margin.

The Strap-work Tablet, Border, and Margin.

477

9. Metal mounts for the cover of an album, Modern.
10. Wrought-iron escutcheon, German, 16th century, National
Museum, Munich.
11. Centre-piece of bookbinding, by Dir. C. Graff, Dresden.

The Strap-work Border, and Margin. (Plate 270.)
To those products of art, which frequently receive an additional
exterior border or Margin, must further be reckoned plates and dishes.
So far as they are included under pottery, the border usually has a
smooth unbroken edge; the material scarcely admitting of a freer
treatment of the rim. It is different when the object is of metal; in
this case, the rim may be decorated with pierced- work; and the outlines
may undergo a richer and more vigorous treatment (figs. 4 and 5), in
which the framework forms a free-ending outwards.
Plate 270. The Strap-work Border, and Margin.
1. Renascence, Majolica, Gewerbemuseum, Berlin, (Gewerbehalle).
2. Renascence, Majolica, Italian, (Racinet).
3. Renascence, Limoges, by Pierre Raymond, 16th century, (Racinet).
4 — 5. Modern, by Placido Zuloaga, Eibar, Spain, (Gewerbehalle).

E.

JEWELRY.
The love of personal adornment is as old as mankind itself; as
is proved by the relics which have been preserved from __k earliest
times. Personal adornment, broadly taken, is a somewhat extensive
domain; it includes the Painting and Tattooing of the body, Clothing,
as soon as this exceeds what is required to meet practical needs,
Armour, &c; but this section will be confined to adornment by Jewelry.
The following 10 plates will deal with this group so far as
their chief representatives are concerned. These are: Pins, Buttons,
Finger-rings, Chains, Necklets, Bracelets, Belts, Clasps, and Buckles,
the various kinds of Chatelaines, and Ear-rings.
The plan of this book requires that we should chiefly direct
our attention to the decorative aspect of these objects; but w« will
here offer a few general observations on the subject.
Trinkets, which are not indispensable, but rather an object of
luxury, are closely connected with dress and costume; and like them,
subject to fashion. This explains the different transformations which
trinkets have undergone in the course of centuries. On the other
hand, technical considerations have also played a part: the art of
working the materials has passed through various stages of deve
lopement in the different periods; so that the form and finish were
governed not only by the fashion, and taste of each period, but also
by the technical skill of the workman.
The principal materials of trinkets are the precious metals. From
the state in which the metals are found in Nature, it is easy to see
that the first metal to come into general use would be Gold, which

Jewelry. 479
is foand in a pure state almost all over the world; and is easy to
work. It can easily be beaten into plates, and drawn out into wire;
and the earliest style is consequently that of plate-gold and filigree
work. This is abundantly proved by the objects belonging to prim
itive times whether they are found on Greek, Oriental, Scandinavian,
or American ground. The common metals, and bronze, are also oc
casionally used as well as gold and silver. Among non-metallic ma
terials, we have: gems, and other valuable stones, pearls, enamels,
amber, shells, mother-of-pearl, &c.
In addition to the arts of punching and hammering metal pla
tes, and filigree work, the latter consisting chiefly of soldering-toge-
ther wire and beads, there arose, in process of time, the further arts
of: casting, chiselling, niello, enamel, damaskeening, inlaying, gilding,
silvering, oxidising, and die-sinking. For other than metallic ma
terials, the principal processes are: cutting, facetting, setting, the pro
duction of tints, and foils, and the engraving of gems, and cameos.
As it is impossible here to go into details of the history or technique
of these processes, we will refer the reader to the special works on
,this subject, among them: Semper, Der Stil, Hauptstiick XL Metallo-
technik; Luthmer,' Der Goldschmuck der Renaissance (from which
oxcellent work we have taken a number of our figures); Bucher,
Geschichte der technischen Kunste; Mathias, Der menschliche Schmuck.
Taken on the whole, trinkets are an article of Womans' toilet,
although certain objects have also been worn by Men, either at all
times, bike the Finger-ring, or only at certain periods and among
oertain nations, like the Bracelet. On the other hand, there are cer
tain objects of personal adornment, like Orders, Badges, and Medals,
which are a speciality of the male sex. Trinkets which presuppose
an injury of some part of the body, such as Ear and Nose-rings, are
_ relic of barbaric manners. An excessive indulgence in adornment
is usually characteristic of the primitive stage, and of the decay of
the civilisation of a nation; while the golden ages of civilisation and
•style are marked by restraint in the quantity of trinkets, and by a
ohaste moderation in the use of the effects of bright gold and cut
gems — "The later empire (Roman), Byzantium, the entire early period
of the Middle Ages, swim in gold" — says Semper. The best periods
of personal adornment are the Antique and the Renascence: but it is
impossible to praise too highly the attempts which are being made,
•at the present time, to improve the style of Goldsmith's-work and
Jewelry, by a recunence to the models of those times. For the rest,
certain traditional and standard forms of trinkets have been preserved
for centuries, in some national costumes, such as those of Switzer
land, Italy, Sweden, and elsewhere.

480 The Pin.

The Pin. (Plate 271.)
The Pin is a toilet article of very general use, particularly in
primitive times. According to its application, it is either a Hair-pin
or a Dress-pin. Its form may be referred to three fundamental types.
The first has a cylindrical or slightly conical stem, pointed like a
thorn at one end, and terminated at the other by a knob or some
other finial (figs. 1 — 16); it is used principally as a hair or breast
pin, the stem in the former case being sometimes split like a fork
(figs. 23 — 24). The materials are chiefly metals, bone, and horn; the
head and the stem may be of different materials, as in the modern
glass-headed pin. The handsomest examples of this class are to be
found in the Antique, which gave this simple object a great variety
of form. The East also furnishes us with original forms, as shown
by the Japanese examples (figs. 22 — 26).
The second class is that of the Fibula, the Brooch or Safety-pin.
These pins consist of two parts , a disc or hoop - shaped upper - part
connected with the actual pin by elastic spirals or by a binge, the
point of the pin being held and secured by a catch like a hook or
sheath. Brooches are always used for garments; and, in the antique,
supplied the want of Buttons. They were in common use up to the
Middle Ages, as shown by the numerous finds in Greece, Italy, and
Scandinavia. The hoop is commoner than the disc; and more practical,
as it afforded room for the gathered -up folds of the garment The
decoration is of the utmost variety; certain forms, such as the spiral
(fig. 36), are conventional. The material is always metal, mostly
bronze, more rarely a precious metal. Modern times make use of these
pins only in the form of the plain wire Safety-pin, and the Brooch,
in which latter the disc replaces the hoop (fig. 37). Double-pins form
a third class. Two or three (and occasionally more) pins of the first
class are connected by means of chains or spangles, usually to serve
as an ornament for the bosom (fig. 17). This form, was popular in
ancient Scandinavian art; and is in use up to the present day in
some national costumes.
Plate 271. The Pin.
1 — 10. Roman, and Etruscan, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous).
11 — 16. Roman, found in Pompeii.
17. Anglo-Saxon triple breastpin, found in Lincolnshire, Archaeolo
gical Institute.
18. Alemannic, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
19—21. 17 th century, (Guichard).
22 — 26. Modern, Japanese, metal, bone, &c. United collections, Carls
ruhe.

JEWELRY.

481

The Pin.

Plate 271.

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

31

482 The Pin. — The Button.
27. Modern, French, Filigree work with pearls and brilliants,
(Gewerbehalle).
28 — 33. Antique, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
34 — 35. Etruscan, Gold.
36. Elxuscan, spiral-brooch, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
37. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).

The Button. (Plate 272.)
The objects, which we have here classed as Buttons, serve va
rious purposes. They appear as Pendants to necklets and similar things,
as Bullae (an antique pendant like an amulet with symbolic signifi
cance), as Ornaments of Belts, Garments, Harness, &c, and as Buttons,
in the strict sense of the term, for fastening garments. According to
its uses, the Button takes the form of the sphere, the hemisphere, or
the disc. As a Pendant it resembles a drop with the character of a
free-ending (fig. 26). One end is then furnished with a ring by
which it may be suspended or sewed-on. The double -buttons or Links,
shown in figs. 1, 14 and 27 form a special subdivision. The principal
materials are again the metals, enamelled, damaskeened, set with gems,
or as filigree-work. Buttons are also manufactured in ivory, mother-
of-pearl, amber, glass, and similar materials; discs of wood are covered
with silk, and metal threads, adorned with gold -foil, &c. Standard
examples are furnished by the Antique, the Renascence, and many
Modern national costumes, while the modern wholesale factory -made
Button has scarcely any artistic value. Our examples have been taken
from the periods named above; and are mostly the same size as the
originals.
Plate 272. The Button.
1. Antique, double-button, gold, United collections, Carlsruhe.
2 — 3. Etruscan, gold with gems and pearls.
4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 27, 28 and 29. Buttons
and double - buttons of various origin, of metal, with filigree-
work, enamelled, &c. In the possession of Prof. Marc
Rosenberg, Carlsruhe.
8 — 9. Renascence, gold, enamelled and set with pearls, Regalia,
Berlin, (Luthmer).
10. Renascence, from a belt.
13. Modern, filigree.
18. Renascence, enamelled, National Museum, Munich,
20 and 23. Buttons by a Frankfort maker of the 18 th century in
the collection of Mr. J. Werneck, Frankfort, silk gold
thread and foil, (Kunsthandwerk).

JEWELRY.

The Button.

Plate 272.

31*

484 The Button. — The Ring.
21. Renascence, the gallery, Schleissheim, (Luthmer).
22 and 24. Renascence, from pictures in WSrlitz and Gotha, (Luthmer).
25. Indian, silver filigree, from Sumatra, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
26. Modern, pendant of a necklet, (Gewerbehalle).

The Ring. (Plate 273.)
The Finger-ring is universally employed as an article of personal
adornment; and it is one which has been worn by both sexes at al
most all times, and in almost all countries. The manner of wearing
it was determined partly by fashion, partly by edicts. Sometimes it
was considered good taste to wear only a single ring, at other times
both hands were covered with rings; it is worn sometimes under, and
sometimes over the glove; plain, comfortable forms give way to
monstrous shapes; sometimes it is purely ornamental, sometimes it
has a symbolic significance, as in the wedding ring (a legacy of
heathendom to Christianity); sometimes it is a token of dignity, as in
the fisherman's ring of the Pope, and of Emperors, Kings, &c.
The form is manifold. The Signet -ring, formed partly of a
single piece (fig. 4), partly of a hoop in which a cut gem revolves
(fig. 1), occurs in the Egyptian style. Spiral rings with the serpent
motive (figs. 7 and 8), and rings opening on one side (fig. 12), are
not rare in the Antique. Besides these: other forms appear, which
are still popular. Sometimes the upper side was broadened to receive
some ornament or a gem (figs. 5, 9, 10, 13), a method which was
used in the Renascence (figs. 20 — 29), while the Middle Ages preferred
cylindrical, ribbon - like bands (figs. 14 and 16), and architectural
motives (fig. 17). It was reserved for Modern times to give the Wedding-
ring its smooth, convenient, but artistically unimportant form. The
predominant material is gold. Niello, enamel, pearls, and gems, are
used for its further decoration. The ring has frequently given rise
to artistic freaks, e. g. where two or three separate rings are so
constructed that they may be interlocked.
Plate 273. The Ring.
1 — 3. Egyptian, signet, (Menard et Sauvageot).
4. Roman, signet, found in the Crimea.
5. Egyptian, with enamel and two horses in free relief.
6. Egyptian, with pierced work, (Racinet).
7—8. Greek.
9 — 10. Roman, found in the Crimea.
11. Etruscan, gold, Vulci, (Blumner).

JEWELRY.

485

The Ring.

Plate 273.

486 The Ring. — The Chain.
12. Pompeian.
13. Ancient Italic.
14 and 16. So-called "Jewish wedding-rings", 15th and 16th cen
turies, collection of the late architect Oppler, Hanover,
(Luthmer).
15. Renascence, with cut onyxes, Collection in Cassel, (Luthmer).
17. Gothic, 13th century, (Mothes).
18. Renascence, enamelled, representing the Fall of Man.
19. Renascence, with clasped hands.
20. Renascence, from a picture, dated 1572, Museum, Cologne.
21. Renascence, Museum, Sigmaringen, (Luthmer).
22 — 23. Renascence, from pictures at Gotha and Darmstadt, (Luth
mer).
24. Renascence, from a picture, Germanisches Museum, (Luth
mer).
25 and 27. Renascence, private collection, Mainz, (Luthmer).
26. Renascence, Hildesheim, with niello-work, (Luthmer).
28, 29, 31, and 32. Renascence, (Hefner-Alteneck).
30 and 32. Renascence, after Hans Mielich, Middle of the 16tli century.

The Chain. (Plate 274.)
Chains are an interesting chapter in ornament. The task of art
here is to treat the stubborn metal in such a way that it will pro
duce flexible, easily - moving forms, which shall still be absolutely
unyielding to tension. This is done by the system of links. Rings,
perforated discs, balls with an eye, &c, are linked together in appro
priate ways to form a whole. In the common Chains of everyday
use, nothing but strength and flexibility are expected; in ornamental
chains, attention must be paid to the artistic effect. This is sought
to be attained, less by lavishing care on the single link, than by an
elegant rhythmic sequence of links of different kinds, by effective
alternations of form, size, and treatment (comp. Semper II, p. 497).
Chains used for personal adornment, at least as far so they are of
artistic consequence, are almost always like a Band. All the figures
of the Plate belong to this class, with the exception of figs. 5, 8,
11, and 16. The anangement may be such that the chain, held
horizontally, is neutral, that is, of the same design upwards and
downwards, right and left (figs. 1, 4, 15, 17, 18); or it m.ay have
an "up and down" (figs. 9 and 13); it may also have a lateral direction,
in which case it is chiefly used to suspend objects (figs. 3, 10,
and 12). Chains are sometimes made tapering towards the end, which
is done by making each successive, link smaller than the preceding.
The ends of chains terminate in Hooks, Eyes, Rings, &c, according

JEWELRY.

, 487

The Chain.

Plate 274.

488 The Chain. — The Necklace.
to their use, as Necklets and Belts, or to suspend Watches, Bags,
Smelling-bottles, and similar articles. Heraldic and symbolic elements
are often found on Chains of Orders and Office, something like fig. 12.
The size and material vary with the purpose. The materials are the
precious and ordinary metals, sometimes with gems and pearls, enamel,
niello, and filigree-work. This last seems to be especially suited for
chains, as it readily conveys the idea of being light and flexible.
Plate 274. The Chain.
1. Egyptian, (Racinet).
2. Etruscan, Louvre, Paris, (Racinet).
3. Greek, filigree, found in the Crimea, Hermitage, St. Peters
burg, (Kunsthandwerk).
4. Etruscan, bronze spirals, United collections, Carlsruhe.
5. Antique, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
6. Gallic, bronze.
7 . Indian, silver filigree, from Sumatra, United collections, Carlsruhe.
8. Small prismatic, from Sumatra, United collections, Carlsruhe.
9. French, Chain-belt, 16th century, Sauvageot collection, (L'art
tous).
10. Renascence, from a Chatelaine, with enamel and pearls.
11 — 12. Renascence, gold, Grimes GewSlbe, Dresden.
13 — 15. Renascence, H. Holbein.
16. Pierced ellipsoid links, Grimes GewSlbe.
17. Renascence, exhibition, Carlsruhe, 1881.
18. Modern.

The Necklace, or Necklet. (Plate 275.)
The Necklace has always been a favourite article of feminine ad
ornment. It is worn either alone or with a pendant. Three classes
may be distinguished. The first is a ring, consisting of a clasping
hoop with or without a pendant (figs. 7 and 8), and mostly used by
savage peoples. The second is formed of links in a similar manner
to the chain-belt (fig. 10). The third, and at the same time the most
perfect form, is that in which a row of pendants hangs from a cord
or a slender chain, and encircles the neck, thus giving expression to
the idea of a free pendant ending as well as to that of an encircling
band. Striking artistic effects may be obtained by the rhythmic alter
nation of the links, and by a tapering from the middle towards the
ends. Egyptian and Antique necklets are frequently constructed on
this principle; as are also the neck ornaments of primitive peoples,
who replace the pendant by shells, shining insects, corals, or the teeth
of animals. Sometimes the three classes are combined; it is not rare

JEWELRY.

489

The Necklace.

Plate 275.

490 The Necklace. — The Bracelet.
to find several necklets of different circumferences worn one above
the other; and producing a good effect. Metal, precious stonee,
pearls, &c, play the chief part in Necklaces.
Plate 275. The Necklace.
1. Egyptian, with enamelled pendant, (Menard et Sauvageot).
2. Egyptian, with golden flies (symbolic), (Menard et Sauvageot).
3. Antique, with stamped sheet-metal ornaments, found in Rhodes,
(Menard et Sauvageot.)
4. Egyptian, (Menard et Sauvageot).
5. Etruscan, gold, Campana collection, Paris, (L'art pour tous).
6. Oriental, gilt silver filigree, (L'art pour tous).
7. Old Italic, Neck-ring, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
8. Barbaric, Neck-ring, iron, from the White Nile, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
9. From portrait, Henry VI, of England.
10. From portrait, 1572, municipal museum, Cologne, (Luthmer).
11. Filigree.
12. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).

The Bracelet. (Plate 276.)
The Bracelet, which is now exclusively an articL of feminine
adornment, was formerly worn by men also, not merely on the wrist
as at the present day, but on the arm too. But even the Antique
considered this custom, and that of wearing bangles on the ankles,
to be a relic of barbaric times. Bracelets are either closed rings or
bands (figs. 9 and 11); or they are open on on6 side (figs. 2, 6, 8,
13 and 14); or rolled spirally (figs. 3 and 7); or, finally, the bracelet
may be a closed chain with a greater or lesser number of links
(figs. 10 and 16). Another division is formed by the twisted example
(fig. 5). As the Bracelet is an object of some size, it is, more fre
quently than other ornaments, made of silver rather than of gold; the
Antique shows a preference for bronze.
Plate 276. The Bracelet.
1. Egyptian, pierced - work, (Menard et Sauvageot).
2. Assyrian, bronze, Louvre, Paris, (Blumner).
3 — 4. Roman, found in Pompeii.
5. Antique, (Menard et Sauvageot).
6. Bronze, found near Ladenburg, United collections, Carlsrahs
7. Spiral wire, United collections, Carlsruhe.
8. Bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.

JEWELRY.

491

The Bracelet.

Plate 276.

492 The Bracelet. — The Girdle, the Buckle, and Clasp.
9. Bronze, found near Ladenburg, United collections, Carlsruhe.
10. From portrait, 16 th century, Gotha, (Luthmer).
11. Venetian, 16 th century, (Mothes).
12. Javanese, black wood, United collections, Carlsruhe.
13 — 15. Modern Egyptian, silver, Grand Ducal Landesgewerbehalle,
Carlsruhe.
16. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).
17. Modern, by Dir. A. Ortwein, Granz, (Gewerbehalle).

The Girdle, the Buckle, and Clasp. (Plate 277.)
The' Girdle was originally used by men to suspend weapons
from; and by women to confine the clothing at the waist; later -on,
it was worn merely as an ornament, or to carry pouches, fans, scissors,
&c. Its form is either that of the Chain-girdle (comp. Plate 274),
or Bands of leather or textile material are decorated by ornaments
of metal sewed or threaded - on. Particular attention is usually given
to the fastening, which is generally a Clasp or Buckle (figs. 1, 7, 8
and 15). The Agraffe (Lat. agrappa) or Hook, and the Buckle are
applied to other purposes besides fastening Girdles; the former are
used as fastenings for garments; the latter on the straps of weapons,
harness, &c. The Buckle is complete in itself, consisting of a ring
or hoop with a movable pin; and the fastening is done by pushing
the pin through a hole in the leather or textile band (figs. 2, 4 and 5).
The Clasp consists of two parts, generally symmetrical, one of which
can be hooked into the other (figs. 9 — 13). Clasps and Buckles are
both old inventions; and are found in very early times. As they are
objects of practical use rather than ornament, they are more often
made of the common than of the precious metals. The terminations
of clasps are mostly designed as free - endings, which gives them a
certain similarity with decorated hinges.
Plate 277. The Girdle, the Buckle, and Clasp.
1. Greek Girdle, gold and hyacinths, tomb in Ithaca.
2. Ancient Italic or Roman Buckle, bronze, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
8. Roman Clasp, silver, (Menard et Sauvageot).
4. Alemannic, Buckle, bronze, found near Mosbach, United col
lections, Carlsruhe.
5. Mediaeval Buckle, Scandinavian, (Weiss, Kostiimkunde).
6. Gallic Girdle, St. Germain Museum, (L'art pour tous).
7. Gothic Buckle, 15th century, from a picture, municipal mu
seum, Cologne, (Luthmer).

JEWELRY.

493

The Girdle, the Buckle, and Clasp. Plate 277.

494 The Girdle, &c. — The Pendant.
8. Renascence Girdle, 17 th century, National Museum, Munich.
9. Renascence Clasp.
10. Renascence Clasp, National Museum, Munich.
11. Renascence Clasp, Kunstgewerbemuseum, Berlin, (Gewerbe
halle).
12 — 13. Barocco and Rococo Clasps, National Museum, Munich.
14 Modern Norwegian Girdle, brass and leather, United collec
tions, Carlsruhe.
15 Sumatran Girdle - fastening, silver, United collections, Carls
ruhe.

The Pendant. (Plate 278.)
Pendants are among the most beautiful of articles of adornment.
Their forms and uses are manifold. We find them as Lockets, with
and without symbolic meaning; as Ornaments for the hat and the
biretta; as "Charms" on watch-chains, and, less richly finished, on
Harness. The Pendant is naturally designed on the principle of the
free-ending. Sometimes it assumes the form of the Cross, the Me
dallion, the Votive -tablet, or the Monogram. It serves as a setting
for gems, miniatures, coins, &c. It offers the proper field for all
kinds of little hanging ornaments; and for the full display of the gold
smith's versatile skill. Examples of exceptional beauty have been
transmitted to us by the Antique, and still more so by the Renascence.
Not only did the first artists of this period occupy themselves practi
cally with such things; but they designed numerous patterns for them,
e. g. Hans Holbein, in his sketchbook for Henry VIII, of England.
We can only offer a small selection from the copious material.
Piate 278. The Pendant.
1. Egyptian, gold and enamel, (Racinet).
2. Gold, found in Rhodes, Louvre, Paris, (Menard et Sauvageot).
3. Greek, gold filigree, found near Kertsch, Hermitage, St.
Petersburg, (Kunsthandwerk).
4. Etruscan, gold, Campana collection, (L'art pour tous).
5. Ancient Italic, bronze, United collections, Carlsruhe.
6.' Turkish, harness in the Booty of Prince Ludwig of Baden,
United collections, Carlsruhe.
7 — 9. Renascence, (Hefner-Alteneck).
10. Renascence, 1637, Exhibition, Carlsruhe, 1881.
11. Empire period, gold filigree, collection of Prof. Marc Rosen
berg, Carlsruhe.
12. Renascence, Antique cameo set in enamelled gold and jewels,
Paris, (L'art pour tous).

JEWELRY.

495

The Pendant.

Plate 278.

496 The Pendant. — The Ear-ring.
13. Renascence, by Hans Brosamer, (Formenschatz).
14. Renascence, by Hans Holbein.
15 — 16. Renascence, by Hans Holbein, (Formenschatz).
17. Renascence, (Luthmer).
18. Renascence, 17 th century, Silver coin, set.
19. Renascence, by Julius Bernic, (Luthmer).
20. Modern, (Blatter fur Kunstgewerbe).
21 — 23. Modern, (Zeitschrift des Kunstgewerbevereins).
24. Modern, (Gewerbehalle).
25. Modern, French.
The Ear-ring. (Plate 279.)
The custom of wearing Ear-rings as articles of adornment seems
to be of ancient oriental origin; and to have penetrated through Asia
Minor to the civilised countries of the West. It has been practised
from the earliest times by the Arabs, in Spain, and in Sicily. Both
sexes, among the ancient Germans and Gauls, decked themselves with
Ear-rings. As the wearing of them implies either that the ear must
be pierced or the ornament hung on to the ear, neither of which
processes are particularly aesthetic; the custom has fallen out of
fashion, and become obsolete. The forms in general are two: the
Ring and the Drop. The Rings are either not quite closed (figs. 1,
3, 9, and 10); or they are fastened by a catch of one kind or ano
ther (figs. 7, 14, 20, 21, and 31). Drops usually terminate in a
wire loop by which they may be suspended (figs. 6, 15, 16, 26, 27,
29, and 30). As these objects must be light, they are generally of
delicate form, and modest dimensions, manufactured of the precious
metals, in sheet or wire -filigree. As Pendants they have the character
of free - endings, frequently consisting of different moveable members.
The standard examples are furnished by the Antique and the East.
Plate 279. The Ear: -ring.
1 — 3. Egyptian, (Racinet).
4 — 12. Etruscan, Louvre, Paris, (Racinet).
13. Greek, in the form of a siren, gold, found in Ithaca.
14 — 21. Roman, National Library, Paris, (L'art pour tous).
22. Bronze, found near Niedereggenen, Baden, United collections,
Carlsruhe.
23. Old Frankish.
24. Renascence, from portrait, castle at Gotha, (Luthmer).
25. Louis XVI, gold of various colours, (Racinet).
26 — 27. Modern, by Dir. A. Ortwein, Graz, (Gewerbehalle).
28 — 29. Modern, Tunis, United collections, Carlsruhe.

JEWELRY.

497

Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

The Ear-ring.

Plate 279.
32

498

JEWELRY'.

Plate 280.

Miscellaneous Jewelry.

Miscellaneous Jewelry. 499

Miscellaneous Jewelry. (Plate 280.)
Finally, we may mention a number of articles of adornment
which, from their nature, are less generally used; either because they
are worn only by certain persons, or that, as objects for daily
use they only fall within the category of decorative objects
when they are richly finished. Among them are decorations for the
head, for example, the Diadem, Bridal and other Chaplets, Insignia of
Orders of Knighthood, Combs, Scent -bottles, Seals, Needle-cases, &c.
The so-called "Chatelaine", was in common use in the Middle Ages;
and has been revived lately. It is suspended from the belt or some
other part of the dress; and is furnished with hooks, from which
Bags, Keys, Fans, Scissors, Watches, Scent - bottles, &c. may be hung
(figs. 7, 8, 13 and 14). We may also add Spangles, which were
sewed as a decoration on garments in the Antique; and sometimes in
later periods (fig. 3).
We give a few examples of these objects, without any pretension
to system or exhaustiveness.
Plate 280. Miscellaneous Jewelry.
1. Egyptian Diadem, gold incrusted with gems and enamel, with
the badge of King Amesis.
2. Greek Head-dress, gold-plate, found in Mykenae, (Bliimner).
3. Greek Spangle, ornament of a dress from Mykenae, (Bliimner).
4. Greek Diadem, gold, found near Kertsch, Hermitage, St. Peters
burg, (Kunsthandwerk).
5. Renascence, Smelling-bottle, as Pendant.
S. Barocco, Smelling-bottle.
7 — 8. French Chatelaines, 18th century, (Racinet).
9 — 10. Barocco, Seals, Exhibition, Carlsruhe, 1881.
11. Modern, Needle-case, in anchor-form as a Pendant, private
collection, Carlsruhe.
12. Modern, Comb, (Gewerbehalle).
13. Modern, French, Chatelaine, (Gewerbehalle).
1 4. Modern, Chatelaine, by Dir. A, Ortwein, Graz, (Gewerbehalle).

32"

F.

HERALDRY.

Heraldry has so many points of contact with Ornament that it
cannot be omitted from a work that deals with the whole art of
Decoration. Heraldry includes both the science and the art of armorial
bearings. The former contains the rules of framing and bearing coats
of arms; the latter is the practical art of "blazoning" or designing
and depicting such coats. Armorial bearings are distinct Badges,
fixed according to certain principles, which individuals, families and
corporations are entitled to bear in perpetuity. Armorial bearings
arose during the crusades, towards the end of the 11th century.
The elevation of the nobles into a corporation, the addition of the
family or surname to the baptismal name, the peculiar usages of
Chivalry, the custom of military games and tournaments, are all closely
connected with the introduction of armorial bearings. Heraldry as
a science did not arise till a later time (about the 13 th century).
Armorial bearings, whose origin is contemporary with the custom of
wearing such Badges, and whose right to be borne was afterwards
tacitly recognised, are distinguished from the later bearings, the right
to bear which was granted by Letters - patent from princes or their
plenipotentiaries. Besides the nobles, the right of armorial bearings
was possessed by other patrician, though not noble, families. Their
bearings have frequently arisen from monograms, family tokens, and
trade - marks. The inscription on a coat of arms of the Fuggers of
the year 1382 runs: "Dises zaichen, wirt Vlrich Fugger, vorbemelten
Hansen Fuggers Bnider, gepraucht haben, Welchs hernach Jacob
Fugger, des namens der erst, angenommen, und das sambt seinen

Heraldry. 501
Biinen, bis auf aufpringung des Wappens, gefiert hat" (This token
was no doubt used by Ulrich Fugger the brother of the above-named
Hans Fugger: it was afterwards adopted by Jacob Fugger, the first
of the name, and borne by him and his sons until the assumption
of the coat of arms). The marshalling of armorial bearings was the
duty of the Heralds, whose official badge was the tabard and the staff.
The Heralds' Colleges still exercise control over armorial bearings on
behalf of the State. Including the coats of families, towns, corporations,
and offices, there are probably about 200,000 coats of arms in
existence. Coats are called allusive or punning when they suggest,
(in whole or in part), the name of the bearer. The pikes on the coat
of the Lucy family, the hirondelles of the Arundells of Wardour, are
familiar instances in English heraldry.
We may distinguish three principal epochs of armorial bearings:
(1) The period from the 11th to the 13th century, in which the
shield alone with its badge formed the Arms, which is the period of
the evolution of Heraldry; (2) The period from the 13th to the 15 th
century, in which shield, helmet, and crest formed the Arms, in which
painted shields and helmets were really worn, which was the golden
age of heraldry; (3) The period from the 16th century to the present
time, in which the wearing of shields and helmets with badges was
discontinued; and Heraldry creased to be a living art, which is the
period of decay, in which arbitrariness, ignorance, and a pedantic ad
herence to antiquated principles have taken the place of the living
art. From the point of view of style we may distinguish: — . Early
Gothic, Late Gothic and Renascence Arms; as also those of the Ba
rocco and Rococo periods, and Modern times. The general direction
of style has always had an influence on Heraldry; but the developement
of architecture is on the whole always some twenty years in advance.
The developement of heraldry was different in different countries; and
even the modern English, French, German, and other systems, differ
from one-another in several essential points.
Here, of course, we cannot go minutely into the details of the
subject. We shall only give, in all brevity, what is absolutely
necessary. The Plates will deal with the colonrs or Tinctures, the
Shapes and Divisions of the Shield, the Charges, the Helmet and its
accessories; the badges of Rank and Dignity; and Pageantry. Those
who wish to study Heraldry more deeply, will find an ample lite
rature at their disposal; since Bartolus de Saxofenato took up the
subject in the middle of the 14th century, more than enough has
been written about heraldry. As accompaniments and supplements
to study and teaching we may rocommend the excellent work of
F. Warnecke: Heraldisches Handbuch, illustraded by Doepler the
younger; the Anleitung zur praktischen Darstellung und Ausfiihrung
heraldischer Ornamente fur das gesamte Kunstgewerbe, by Detlav

502 Heraldry. — Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield.
Freih. von Biedermann, with illustrations, in the Zeitschrift des
Miinchener Eunstgewerbevereins, 1885; and the Eatechismus der Heral-
dik by Dr. Ed. Freih. von Saeken. These works have been followed
in this chapter, and our illustrations are taken from them. Heralds
have invented a special language of their own, that is always used
in Blazoning, which is the technical description of a coat of Arms;
and it should always be as conect and concise as possible, so that the
coat may be drawn from it. This language will be used, as far as
possible, in the explanations of the following plates.
Finally, we may observe that anyone, who has to deal practically
with Heraldry, will scarcely ever succeed in satisfying all those who
have laid -down and still lay -down rules on the subject. Although,
on the one hand, it seems advisable that on the whole a certain order
should be maintained and arbitrariness excluded, still, on the other
hand, a good deal of antiquated rubbish might be eliminated from
the rules without doing any harm. On this point real heralds like
Warnecke are all agreed. The safe path is in the middle; that ar
tistic freedom is quite consistent with observance of heraldic rules is
shown by the masters of the Renascence: Diirer, Burckmair, and others.
For our present purpose: the most suitable sources for the study are
the drawings of these Masters; and next to them: old Seals, Windows,
and Monuments. Heraldic ornaments may be applied to thousands of
things; in Architecture, in Mural painting, on Furniture, in Textiles,
in Documents, on Harness, &c. But they should only be applied
where they have a representative character; and then only with mo
deration and purpose, and in due proportion to the object.

Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield. (Plate 281.)
In the good old days of Heraldry there were six Tinctures, which
were almost exclusively used, two metals and four colours. The
metals are gold (or), and silver (argent); which for practical reasons
were often replaced by yellow, and white. The original colours are
red (gules), blue (azure), black, (sable), and green (vert). Full, strong
shades were employed: vermilion or minium for red, cobalt or ultra
marine for blue, Paris green, emerald green, or some other striking
shade for green. The original scale of colours was afterwards enlar
ged by the addition of the so-called "Proper" or natural colour of
the object, purple (purpure), ash-gray (which is not used in English
Heraldry), blood-colour (murrey), and tawny (tenne). Natural objects,
men, animals &c. were represented "proper", that is, in their natural
tints; whereas the older heraldry depicted these objects in one of
the nearest original tinctures: e. g. the lion was golden or red, the
eagle was black or red, and so on. Purple is not used on the Shields,

Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield. 503
but only on Crowns, Caps of estate, and Mantlings. Murrey and Tenne
are tinctures that might well have been dispensed- with; as they con
flict with the original principle, which was to make the shield clear
and distinct at a distance.
Where coats of Arms are depicted uncoloured, as is frequently
the case in books: the tinctures in the oldest period were indicated
by their initial letters. Afterwards they were indicated by dots and
hatchings. Silver was left plain, gold was indicated by dots, red by
perpendicular lines, blue by horizontal lines, black by crossed hori
zontal and perpendicular lines, and the other tinctures were also
marked as shown on the Plate.
The Furs are also generally reckoned among the tinctures. Er
mine has black tails or tips on a white or silver ground; Erminois
has the same tints reversed. On robes, mantlings, and coronets: er
mine is depicted in its natural form. The fur known in German
heraldry as kiirsch is denoted by strokes arranged like scales. Vair,
with its varieties "vair per pale" and "countervair", is of silver and
blue in the shapes shown on the Plate. Vair has obviously arisen
from an arbitrary division of the field, like the check and fusil, of
which we shall have to speak later on.
Damaskeening (see also p. 281.) is the name given to minute
decoration intended to enliven the various tinctures without inter
fering with the effect of the colours or altering the coat. The design
is arbitrary: originally geometrical patterns were prefened, afterwards
scrolls and curves were added.
In the case of relief- work, when it is not painted: the damas
keening and the dots and hatchings of the tinctures, may also
be plastic, but the height of the relief must be moderate if the effect
is not to be spoilt. On seals and similar objects: the effect is pro
duced by engraving. Where the coat, instead of standing upright, is
in a slanting position, the lines of the hatchings follow the axis of
the shield, as otherwise confusion would be inevitable.
According to good heraldic rules, colour should not be laid upon
colour, nor metal on metal. Coats which transgress this rule are said
to be false. The principle cannot, however, be always maintained
in the case of composite coats (comp. Plate 283).
In the divisions of the shield: the expressions "dexter", and "sinis
ter" (right, and left) refer to the bearer of the shield; they are to be
understood as if one were standing behind the shield and holding it in
front of the breast; hence it follows that the expressions mean just
the reverse of what they do in ordinary life. If we divide the shield
by lines: we have Fields, which are termed "quarters" when they
are rectangular. The example in the Plate divides the shield into
nine quarters. The names of the different quarters are given, so that
it is unnecessary to repeat them here.

504

HERALDRY.

The Heraldic Colours or Tinctures.
Original Tinctures. (2 metals — 4 Colors.)

xxi t ¦¦ - x
______

Or. Argent. Gules. Azure. Sable. Vert.
Later Tinctures.

Proper. Purpure. Ash-grey. Murrey. Tawny.

Furs.

'._>¦'"' .if'

X f

IM.

.•""Vi*'"''.

S fi

"I,..y »w»'

* t
<'__!^__.
Ermine. Erminois. Kiirsch. Vair. Vairperpale. Countervair.
Damaskeenings.
jtWjA
__!__ mil
Older. Later.
Divisions of the Shield
into 9 quarters or fields.
B.
AB. Upper margin.
CD. Lower margin.
AC. Dexter margin.
BD. Sinister _ irgin.
1.2.3. Chief.
4.5.6. Fesse,
7.8.9. Base.
1.4.7. Dexter tierce. „
2.5.8. Pale.
3.6.9. Sinister tierce.
i.
-10. 5.
-11. 8.
1. Dexter chief
canton.
2. Chief point.
3. Sinister chief
canton.
4. Dexter flank.
5. Centre point.
6. Sinister flank.
7. Dexter canton
of base.
8. Base point.
X). 9. Sinister canton
of base.
10. Honour point.
11. Nombril point.
Plate 281.
Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield.
Tinctures, and Divisions of the Shield. — Shapes of the Shield. 505
The shield sometimes bears a smaller shield. The large shield
which bears the smaller is called the Escutcheon. The smaller shield
in the centre is termed the Ineseutcheon. The Inescutcheon some
times bears a third shield which is then said to be "sur le tout du
tout". The smaller shields have the same shape as the large shield.
The chief and the dexter side of the shield are the most
honourable parts; and preference is given to the angle of the dexter
chief or canton. In blazoning a coat: the description always starts
from this point.

Shapes of the Shield. (Plate 282.)
The shape of the shield is very varied; and is chiefly deter
mined by the period in which it originated. The oldest shape is the
triangular or "heater-shaped" shield (fig. 1). It was in use in the
12th, 13th and 14th centuries. On seals, it is first one-half and at
a later time one-third the height of a man; the ratio of its height
to its breadth is about 10 : 7. In the 14th century shields straight
at the top and rounded at the bottom (we may term them half-
round) began to appear; and after them shields pointed at the bottom
(fig. 2). This shape, and the 16th century shapes which were deve
loped from it (figs. 4 — 6), were probably never actually borne; but
are merely heraldic. At the end of the 14th century the Tilting -
shields begin to make their appearance, their shape being based on
that of the shields used in tournaments (figs. 7 — 10). The indenta
tions in the sides of these are suggested by the "bouche" or place
for the lance on shields intended for actual use. The Tilting-
shield is considerably smaller than the Triangular-shield; it is about
one -fifth the height of a man. At the end of the 15 th century
the old shapes disappear, and make way for the German or strap-
work shields. These latter were never in actual use, but are orna
mental inventions mostly based on the Tilting shield. Figs. 19 — 26
give a number of such shields belonging to different periods of the
Renascence epoch. Shapes like figs. 11 and 12 are very common in
Italy at that time. Elliptic, circular, and almond-shaped shields
are not rare, especially in the Barocco period, a time in which
Heraldry was treated in a somewhat arbitrary fashion. Of shapes
that are specifically modern, we may mention: figs. 16 and 17, the
former of which was used for the Arms of Great Britain & Ireland;
and of France; while the latter is the best adapted for the blazoning
of complicated coats. The Lozenge - shape (fig. 18) is especially the
shield of ladies; in France, where it has been common since the
13th century, it is frequently sunounded with a knotted twisted
girdle.

506 Shapes of the Shield. — Ordinaries.
Plate 282. The Shape of the Shield.
1 — 3. Triangular, pointed, and half-round.
4 — -6. Simple shapes, Renascence.
7 — 10. Simple shapes, Tilting-shields.
11 — 12. Italian Renascence.
13—15. Elliptical, almond, and circular.
16—17. Modern.
18. Lozenge-shaped.
19. German, Michel Miiller, 1564.
20. German, unknown master of the 16th century.
21. German, Daniel Lindtmair, 1595.
22. German, Jost Amman, end of 16th century.
23. German, school of Holbein, 16th century.
24. German, Hans Wiigmann, 1565, (Warnecke).
25. German, 16th century.
26. German, 16th century, (Formenschatz).

Ordinaries. (Plate 283.)
Heraldic representations may be divided into Ordinaries, and
Charges. The Ordinaries are the geometrical figures which are formed
when the shield is divided into different fields by straight or curved
lines which extend to the margin of the shield. The number of
such figures is infinite. Plate 283 contains a collection of the ordi
naries which most commonly occur. We shall not discuss each figure
in detail. The following blazoning or description of the figures on
the Plate will, no doubt, give the reader all he requires to know
The blazoning begins from the upper dexter angle of each shield.

Plate 283. The Ordinaries.
1. Per pale, sable and or.
2. Paly of four, argent and sable.
3. Argent, the dexter tierce gules.
4. Gules, a pale or.
5. Argent, a pallet (nanower than a pale) 9able.
6. Per fesse, or and gules.
7. Barry of five, azure and argent.
8. Or, a chief azure.
9. Argent, a base gules.
10. Argent, a base vert.

HERALDRY.

507

Shapes of the Shield.

Plate 282.

508 Ordinaries.
11. Or, a fesse gules.
12. Argent, a barrulet sable.
13. Per pale; the dexter half argent, the sinister half per fesse azure
and or.
14. Per fesse; the upper half per pale sable and gules, the lower
argent.
15. Quarterly, or and azure.
16. Cheeky of nine, vert and argent.
17. Cheeky of twenty, or and gules.
18. Quarterly: the 1st and 4th per pale, argent and gules; the
2nd and 3rd or.
19. Per fesse, gules and argent, a pale counterchanged.
20. Per pale, barry of five, or and azure, counterchanged.
21. Paly of six, argent and sable, a fesse counterchanged.
22. Or, a cross gules.
23. Argent, a dexter canton sable.
24. Azure, a chief point vair.
25. Per bend, or and vert.
26. Per bend sinister, argent and azure.
27. Or, in the dexter chief a triangle sable.
28. Argent, in the sinister base a triangle gules.
29. Or, a bend gules.
30. Bendy sinister of six, azure and argent.
31. Per saltire, vert and argent.
32. Per bend, the dexter half argent, the sinister per bend sinister,
vert and or.
33. Per bend sinister, bendy of six, sable and argent, counter-
changed.
34. Lozengy, argent and azure.
35. Fusilly, argent and azure.
36. Or, a pile azure.
37. Azure, a pile argent, issuing from the sinister side.
38. Gyronny of four, argent and gules, issuing from the dexter chiet
point.
39. Or, a chevron vert.
40. Chevronny of six, azure and argent.
41. Party per pale and saltire, gules and argent.
42. Gyronny of eight, or and azure.
43. Argent, a gyron azure, moving from the dexter side.
44. Per pall, sable, argent and gules.
45. Per pall reversed, or, argent and azure.
46. Argent, a pall gules.
47. Pily barwise, argent and azure.
48. Per fesse angled, argent and gules.
49. Per fesse escartely, azure and or.

HERALDRY.

509

1IBH

^_ — _S Pmn\

WW
I?

EP

-, __.-__,_-,

D

a K^

Ordinaries.

Plate 283.

510 Ordinaries. — Charges.
50. Or, a pile indented sable, also Per chevron indented, or and sable.
51. Per bend indented, azure and argent.
52. Per pale potented, argent and azure.
53. Per fesse potented, or and gules.
54. Per fesse dentilly, gules and aregnt.
55. Per fesse nebuly, azure and argent.
56. Sable, a chief engrailed or, also Per fesse engrailed, or and sable.
57. Argent, a pale raguly.
58. Or, a bend indented.
59. Argent, a bend sinister wavy azure.
60. Azure, a cross engrailed or.
61. Gules, four wolfs teeth argent, moving from the sinister side.
62. Azure, a gurge issuing from the sinister base.
63. Argent.

Charges. (Plates 284—285.)
The second class of heraldic representations are Charges. We
distinguish natural, imaginative, and artificial charges, according as
they belong to the kingdoms of nature, the heavenly bodies, phe
nomena of nature, or to fantastic forms; or again to art, trade,
mechanics, &c. Contrary to the Ordinaries, whose outlines usually
touch the edge of the shield, the charges usually stand free in the
field, at any rate, on two or three sides, and fill the field as much
as possible. The charges are all more or less conventionalised; and
show conventional forms agreeing with the style of the times. Atten
tion must be paid to this point, so that the unity of ciryle may be
preserved between shield and charges They are mostly shown in profile,
and vigorously drawn and outlined. The tinctures, at least in older
heraldry, are not those of nature, but one of the nearest heraldic
tinctures, so that the idealisation extends not only to the form but
also to the colour. Complicated objects are often comparatively sim
plified; trees, for example, appear with few leaves and fruits, &c.
Some charges, such as the lion and eagle, are of extremely fre
quent occurrence; others the following are rarer.
Among animals the following are represented: —
Plate 284.
1. The Lion (rampant) with open jaws and protruding tongue;
the body lean, especially towards the hinder quarters; the tail
curled upwards, natural or split, but not arbitrarily; the teeth,
claws, &c. are gules on metal, or and argent on colors; the
entire figure is generally or or gules, more rarely sable, and
still more rarely azure.

HERALDRY^

511

Charges.

Plate 284.

512 Charges.
2. The Leopard, a lion walking (passant), the head frequently
turned to the spectator (guardant); the tail curled over the
back, (see also Plate 44).
3. The Ibex jumping (salient), the horns large, and (like the
claws) of a different colour to the body, which is usually sable.
4. The Horse (rampant), mostly without saddle and harness;
mane and tail flying; generally sable, argent or gules.
5. The Boar (rampant), bristles erect, and (like the tusks and
claws) of a different tincture to the body.
6. The Dog (rampant), generally with a collar, with ears erect.
7 — 8. The Eagle (displayed), the talon spread; the head usually tur
ned to the dexter side, the beak open; the tongue protruding;
frequently barbed; the tail is sometimes ornamentally treated;
generaDy sable, gules, or or, (see also Plate 53).
9. The Goose (like the swan) with reverted neck, generally ar
gent, or sable.
10. The Martlet (which is a Swallow without beak and feet,) the
two upper are passant, the lower one is displayed.
11. The Dolphin (rising), often with dorsal crest and ornamental tail.
12. Two Dolphins (rising and respecting each other), with open
mouths.
13. The Serpent (no wed), generally argenf, azure, or vert.
Other animals of frequent occurrence are the Stag, Bear, Wolf,
Fox, Bull, Cock, Raven, Dove, Stork, Crane, Pelican, Crab, Whelk, &c.
Parts of animals are also not infrequent, such as the wings, head,
and claws. Both the entire human body and its several members are used
in heraldry; we may mention as examples:
14. The Triquetra, 3 legs with bent knee, conjoined, and regu
larly disposed round a point; a badge on antique shields in
Greek vase-paintings, and the Arms of Isle of Man.
15. The Moor's -head, with ear-rings and crown.
16. The Monk with extended arms, the Arms of Munchen.
In addition to the above: arms, hands, legs, trunks, clasped
hands, &c; also angels, saints, deities, fools, maidens, knights, kings,
savages, &c.
Among plants are:
17. The Lime, uprooted, with few leaves, (also fruit-trees, the oak,
fir, <fcc).
18. The Oak -branch, gnarled, with few fruits and leaves, (alsc
withered branches, or logs, &c).

Charges. 513
19. The Rose, idealised as a rosette, single or double, in five to
eight parts.
20. The Lily or Fleur-de-lis, conventional, consisting of three petals,
with or without stamens; used in art long before the birth
of heraldry; common in French coats.
In addition to the above: Clover, Nettle, Water-lilies, Grapes, Pome
granates, Fir-cones &c.
Plate 285. Charges.
The most frequent imaginary figures and monsters are:
1. The Griffin (rampant), with eagle's head and wings, lion's body,
tail curved upward or downward, the upper and lower halves
often of different colors.
2. The Panther, similar to the griffin, but without wings, usually
spitting flame (turned towards the sinister side).
3. The Dragon, a winged reptile with two lion's paws or eagle's
claws. (The wivern is similar, but with hinder feet.)
4. The Dragon with wolfs jaws, serpent's body and fish-tail.
5. The two-headed Eagle (an ordinary eagle with two heads turned
away from each other, each with nimbus), the coat of the Holy
Roman Empire.
6. The Seiren (an eagle with the bust of a virgin), the arms of
Nuremberg.
7. The Mermaid (a naked female figure, terminating below the breast
in a fish - tail), the figure is also found without arms and also
symmetrical, with two tails curved upwards.'
8. The Sea-lion, with the fore-part of a lion terminating in a fish
tail. Of the heavenly bodies there occur:
9. The Sun, with face and sixteen rays, straight and wavy alternately;
always gold.
10. The Moon, waxing or waning, with or without face (in the first
case the crescent is argent and the face or).
11. The Star, with rays of five to eight points; or.
Less common are: Comets, and the Earth, with the lines of latitude
and longitude. Among the phenomena of nature we have:
11. The Cloud, very conventional, argent or azure.
12. The Rainbow, gules, or, and azure (shown in the Plate above a
triple hill).
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. 33

514

HERALDRY".

Plate 285.

fr

Charges.

Charges. 515
In addition: Storm and Wind, depicted by heads blowing; Lightning,
depicted by a bundle of flames.
To the artificial objects which are employed belong: Architectural
constructions (towers, gates, castles, churches, bridges, fountains,
ships); Utensils (tools, instruments, weapons, anchors, keys, banners);
Vessels (kettles, goblets, mugs); articles of attire (hats, caps, belts,
crowns, mantles, shoes); family and trade Tokens, Monograms and
Crosses of all kinds. Some examples are:
13. The Wheel, with eight spokes projecting beyond the felloe.
14. The Wheel of Cleves, a rosette terminating in eight lilies.
15. The Maltese Cross, and the cross ancree (the Plate shows one
half of each).
16. The Cross cramponee.
17. Two crossed Swords.
18. The Crancelin, a wreath of rue, resembling the hoop of a crown.
19. The Axe, and the two-headed Axe.
20. The Hat, and the Cap of maintenance.
Several charges may be combined in the same coat, or one charge
may be placed over another. The same charge may also be repeated
in a coat. The blazoning of the charges is not so simple as that of
the ordinaries; and, when the technical language of heraldry fails, we
must have recourse to the language of every-day life. We will here
give a few of the commonest of these technical expressions with brief
explanations :
accompanied: the main figure is surrounded by smaller figures.
accosted: a figure has other figures by its side.
armed, beaked, membered: an animal is furnished with claws,
beak, members, &c, of a different colour from the animal itself.
charged: when one figure bears another.
counterchanged: when the different tinctures alternate with one
another. couped: when a part of a figure appears to have been cut
off clean. (
erased: when a part of a figure appears to have been torn -off.
issuant: when a figure rises out of the bottom of an ordinary
or shield. flanked: when one figure stands by the side of another.
naissant: when part of a figure rises from the centre of an
ordinary. passant: when an animal is represented as walking with one
foot raised. rampant: when an animal rises on its hind feet; the usual posi
tion for wild animals. 33*

516 Charges. — Forms of the Helmet.
statant: when all four feet of an animal touch the ground.
seme or powdered: when an arbitrary number of one figure is
scattered over the shield.
2 and 1: three figures, placed thus
2, 2 and 1: five figures, placed thus • •
1, 3 and 1 : five figures, placed thus • • •
2, 1 and 2: five figures, placed thus " •
and so on.

Forms of the Helmet. (Plate 286.)
In the earliest days of Heraldry the shield by itself formed the
coat; and it is, down to the present time, sufficient for the presentment
of the bearings. To a complete coat, however, belong further the
Helmet, and the Crest. Sometimes, particulary on seals, the Helmet
and Crest are used alone as a badge. But just as we saw that all
shields are not suitable for heraldic purposes, so here, too, there are
only a few helmets which have • found acceptance in heraldry; such
as the Tilting-helmets. We have to consider four forms. The oldest
is the Salade, (fig. 1). The Heaume, the lower half of which is
cylindrical and the upper half a truncated cone, rests on the shoulders,
(figs. 2 — 4). The Tilting-helmet (figs. 6 — 9), is more elegant than
the heaume; it fits better to the form of the head, and has a slit for
the purpose of vision, (fig. 5 shows an intermediate form between the
Heaume and the Tilting-helmet). The latest form is that with the
barred Visor (figs. 10 — 11). This fits closer to the head than the
Tilting-helmet; the slit has been enlarged to a broad opening, guarded
either by vertical bars or by a grating. The Armet (fig. 12), and
other helmets, like the Burgonet, are unheraldic; and are seldom seen
in Arms. Speaking generally: the Salade belongs to the 13th; the Heaume
to the 14th; the Tilting-helmet to the 15th and 16th centuries: the
Vizor also belongs to the two latter centuries. The first three helmets
are known as "closed", the Vizor- helmet as "open".
Plate 286. The Helmet.
1. Salade, first haK of 14 th century, Armory, Berlin, ll3/4 ins.
high.
2 — 3. Heaume, front and side view, 14 th century.

HERALDRY.

517

Forms of the Helmet.

Plate 286.

618 Forms of the Helmet — Helmet Trappings.
4. Heaume, second half of the 14th century, from the collec
tion ofGustav von Decker, Berlin, 14 '/2 ins. high, (Warnecke).
5. Heaume, approximating to the form of the Tilting-helmet,
14 th century.
6 — 9. Tilting helmets.
10 — 11. Helmets with barred Vizors.
12. Armet.

Helmet Trappings. (Plates 287—288.)
Plates 287 and 288 show the Helmet in conjunction with the
coat of Arms. As the Helmet was only worn by knights, it belongs,
strictly speaking, only to the coats of knightly families; towns and
corporations, the clergy, and ladies, do not bear the helmet, although
there are exceptions.
As regards style, the Helmet should match the form of the Shield.
The Salade and the Heaume belong to the Triangular - shield : the
Tilting - helmet also belongs to these and still more to the Tilting -
shield. Helmets with baned Vizors are most suitable to Half-round-
shields. The size should also be in proportion to that of the Shield.
The height varies between 1/i and */. the height of the Shield.
The usual position is over the centre of the upper margin of the
shield, and resting upon it (not free), so that it covers a little of
the field (Plate 287, 5). If the shield is represented in a slanting
attitude; the helmet rests on the highest angle (Plate 287. 6, 7, 8).
When the coat is composite, several Helmets may be placed upon the
Shield; they are then proportionately smaller in size. When the
number of Helmets is 2, 4, or 6: they turn their profile to each
other; when the number is uneven, the central one is shown in full
face. Only one helmet can be placed on a slanting shield. Helmets
may also be placed at the side of the shield, or borne by the sup
porters. The helmet is coloured as if made of polished iron, frequently
with decorations of silver or gold; or the entire helmet may be gilt
or silvered. If the bearer was entitled to wear any Collar, he might
show it on the Helmet (Plate 287. 5); but these appendages are non
essential; and are not met-with before the 15th century. The Helmet
is usually depicted as lined with red cloth.
The essential trappings in a complete coat of Arms are: 1. the
Crest, 2. the Mantling.
The Crest probably originated from the custom of painting
heraldic figures on the helmet. At a later date, plastic ornaments
were added to the helmet; they have some figurative connection with
the coat. If the coat is blazoned with heraldic figures: these are
repeated either wholly, or partly, in a simple manner, as a crr-t

Helmet Trappings. 519
(.Plate 288, figs. 1 — 4); if the blazoning is with ordinaries: these
are repeated on certain objects selected as Crests. The principal of
these objects are:
Horns, in pairs, curved as a crescent or a lyre, in later times
broadened out at the ends like a mouthpiece, painted with
the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat, surmounted with
branches, &c. (Plates 287. 4, 288. 4 and 5).
Wings, natural or artificial, singly or in pairs, displayed, or in
profile; painted with the tinctures or ordinaries of the coat
(Plates 287. 1 and 7; 288. 6).
Cushions and screens, round or square discs, painted with the
blazoning of the coat, hung and surmounted with tassels, bells,
and peacock's feathers (Plate 287. 6).
Caps, pointed and turned" up, showing the colours and blazon
ing of the shield, the tips decorated with coronets, plumes, &c.
(Plate 287. 5).
Quivers, cylindrical or conical tubes, painted with the colours
of the shield, crowned with coloured feathers (Plate 287. 8).
Human beings, animals, and all kinds of artificial objects; the
former often depicted as half-figures. We must refrain from
entering into detail into the various relations, often full of
meaning, between the crest and the shield; as an example we
may refer to Plate 287, 2, where the blazon of crossed
arrows and pitcher on the shield are repeated as a quiver and
a goblet in the hands of the maiden who forms the crest.
The Mantling is the connecting-link between the Helmet and
.he Shield. In the oldest times it was formed of cloth: at a later
date covers of stiffened material, leather, metal-plate, &c, were used,
the edges being cut-out into ornamental shapes. The same materials
were also employed for the Crest. During the Renascence period:
the Mantling was cut into ribbon-like strips, each strip being treated
independently like an Artificial - leaf. The Wreath is interposed
between the Crest and the Helmet, (Plate 288. 1, 3, 6). It rarely has
more or less than two tinctures. Where the Crest is directly connected
with the Helmet: the tinctures of the Shield are correspondingly
continued on the Wreath. The Mantling shows the tinctures of the
coat counterchanged in such a way that the colour is usually visible
outside, the metal inside. If it have four colours: the chief ones
are on the dexter, the others on the sinister side. It should corre
spond in style with the rest of the Arms: Salades and heaumes
require simple edges (Plate 287. 7); while Tilting and Vizored helmets
'•pquire jagged or scalloped edges.

520 Helmet Trappings. — Crowns, &c.
Plate 287. The Helmet Trappings.
1. Tilting-helmet, with rich Mantling, and Crest of double wings.
Albrecht Diirer, coat of arms of Death, 1503.
2. Coat, with Tilting-helmet, rich Mantling, and Crest of a virgin.
German Renascence, (Formenschatz).
3. Half-round-shield, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling like ribbons, and
Crest two swans' necks.
4. Tilting-shield, inclined to the sinister side, Vizored-helmet, Mantl-
ling like ribbons, and Crest two horns decorated.
5. German shield, with Vizored-helmet, and Crest a Cap -of- main
tenance.
6. Shield, inclined to the dexter side, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling.
and Crest a cushion.
7. Triangular- shield, inclined to the dexter side, with Salade, Mant
ling, and Crest double wings.
8. Half-round-shield, inclined to the sinister side, with Vizored-helmet,
and high Crest and Mantling, (Dietz).
(Figs. 3 to 8 are from Siebmacher's Wappenbuch.)
Plate 288. The Helmet Trappings.
1. Tilting-shield, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling, and Crest an
eagle.
2. Tilting-shield, with Vizored-helmet, Mantling, and Crest of a
naissant figure, German Renascence, (Formenschatz).
3. Tilting-shield, inclined to the dexter side, with Tilting-helmet
and naissant bull as Crest, Italian Renascence, palace in Florence.
4. Tilting-shield, inclined to the dexter -side, with Tilting-hel
met, Mantling, and crest of horns.
5 — 6. Coats, by Hans Sebald Beham, 1544.
7. Modern coat, on seal, by A. von Werner.

Crowns, &c. (Plate 289.)
The principal heraldic badges of rank and dignity are: the Crown,
Hat, Cap -of- maintenance, Wand, Sword, Key, &c, and the insignia of
the various Orders of Knighthood.
The Crown -of- rank, which is not to be confounded with the
crown of the shield, is placed above the shield in the place of the
Helmet; the same holds good of the Coronets, and Caps (figs. 11 — 14).
These latter have partly a conventional form, appertaininc to the
dignity; and they have special forms for special cases.

HERALDRY.

521

Helmet Trappings.

Plate 287.

522

HERALDRY.

Plate 288.

Helmet Trappings.

Crowns, &c. — Heraldic Accessories. 523
Plate 289. Crowns, Coronets, &c. [according to German Heraldry].
1. The German Imperial- crown: a circle of gold, set with
brilliants and formed of eight shields, with four gold arches,
surmounted by the imperial mound and cross, lined with
gold brocade, with two decorated waving ribbons of gold.
2. The Austrian Imperial-crown: a jewelled circle with eight
leaves, three arches curving from front to back; closed at
the sides, lined red; crowned with a cross.
3. The Regal-crown: a jewelled circle with eight leaves; eight
arches set with jewels or pearls; mound an cross.
4. The Grand-ducal-coronet: a royal crown, lined red.
5. The Ducal-coronet; faced with ermine, eight leaves, red
lining, with mound and cross.
6. The Princely-coronet: faced with ermine, four leaves, red
lining, mound and cross.
7. The Coronet of a Serene Highness: circle with eight leaves,
red cap, with ermine tippet.
8. The Count's Coronet: gold circle with sixteen pearls (nine
are visible).
9. The Baron's Coronet: twelve pearls (seven are visible).
10. The Nobleman's Coronet: eight pearls (five are visible).
11. Arms with Crown, by Albrecht Diirer.
12. Papal coat of Arms, with tiara and keys.
13. Arms, by Hans Burckmair, with mitre and crozier.
14. Archbishop's Hat: green with ten tassels (on each side). Car
dinal's hat: red with fifteen tassels. Bishop's hat: green
with six tassels.
Orders and Decorations are either the badges of certain brother
hoods (the Knights of Malta, the Temple, S. John, the Teutonic Order,
&c); or they are distinctions confened by sovereigns. The former
are blazoned on the shield, quarterly with the personal bearings
(fig. 16), or they are placed beside or behind the shield so that the
ends of the cross project beyond the edge of the shield. The latter are
almost without exception suspended from collars or borne below the
shield (Plate 290. 4, 7).
15. The Order of the Golden Fleece (founded by Philip of Bur
gundy in 1429).
16. Shield, with the Maltese order quarterly.
17 — 18. Pennons, or Standards: they are either placed as a back
ground to the shield, or borne by the supporters; they are
therefore a part of Heraldic pageantry.

524

HERALDRY'.

Plate 289.

Crowns, Coronets, &c.

HERALDRY.

525

Heraldic Accessories.

Plate 290.

526 Heraldic Accessories.
Heraldic Accessories. (Plate 290.)
Under this title, we group such decorations as form do not an essen
tial part of the Coat, but rather give an artistic finish to it. The prin
cipal are: Supporters, Tents, Mottoes, &c.
Supporters are figures of human beings, or animals: angels,
knights, ladies, savages, lions, griffins, &c. On old tombstones and
the seals of knights, the possessor of the coat appears as the bearer
of it. Supporting angels are usually placed behind the shield (figs. 1
and 2). Ladies, knights, savages, &c, stand at the side of the
shield, either singly, or in pairs; and the same rule applies to ani
mals (figs. 3 and 4).
Tents are draperies in the form of a Baldacchino, serving as a
background for the Shield. The outside is generally purple, the in
side of ermine, and they are hung with golden tassels and fringes.
Such accessories are only suited to the coats of Sovereigns, and Sta
tes; and are of comparatively Modern introduction.
Mottoes, War-cries, &c. are written on fillets or bands beneath or
round the shield (fig. 5). Examples of such mottoes are the English
"Honi soit qui mal y pense", the American "E pluribus unum", or
the Wurttemberg "Furchtlos und treu".
There are also definite rules for the heraldic composition of a
number of coats in one (for example, in a double coat the figures
must be affronted, &c); but we need not enter into, the details of
these. The artistic execution is very various and arbitrary (fig. 6).
Plate 290. Heraldic Accessories.
1. Angel, as Supporter, by H. J. Gantinn, 1628, (Warnecke).
2. Angel, as Supporter, Italian, 16 th century, (Formenschatz).
3. Lady, as Supporter, H. Burckmair, Triumphal Procession of the
Emperor Maximilian, (Observe the repetition of the tinctures on
the lady's dress, the crest, and the banner).
4. Griffins, as Supporters, by Hans Burckmair, (Formenschatz).
5. Coat, with Mottoes, 1529.
6. Composite coat, within a quatrefoil, Diirer's school, (Formenschatz).
7. Modern Tent.
8. Coat of Arms of the Artists, designed by L. Lesker. In conse
quence of an affront offered by the lords of Rappoltstein to the
artists employed in the building of Strassburg minster, it is said
that the Emperor Sigismund granted the artists, called the "Yunkers
of Prague", permission to bear the same coat of arms — or, three
escutcheons azure — (Martin Crusii, Schwabische Chronik).

G.
WRITING, PRINTING, &c.
(ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.)

The invention of Writing dates back thousands of years before
our era. To which nation it is to be assigned, cannot at present be
fixed with any certainty. Greek writing was developed from the
Phenician; and served, in its turn, as a basis for Roman writing.
From the Roman writing, arose the Occidental and Scandinavian
writings, as well as the Runic. The Latin script was introduced into
Germany contemporaneously with Christianity. The early Middle Ages
treated the shapes of letters in a some what arbitrary manner. By
the side of the Majuscles (or capital letters) appear the Minuscles (or
small letters, produced by the contraction and simplification of the
former), (compare the letters E and M in alphabet 1 on Plate 291).
By the side of the upright and angular Capital letters, appear the
Uncial letters with their round and freer shapes (compare E, M and
U in alphabet 2 on Plate 291). Alongside of the perpendicular letters,
the more convenient slanting or Cursive letters begin to be employed.
Beside the Uncial writing, the Gothic period brought Text-hands into
use (Plates 294, 295, and 296). By this time the gradual trans
formation was so far advanced that at the first glance it is often im
possible to recognise the original connection. The more complicated
the Text-hands became, the more difficult they were to read; so that
it must be considered a happy circumstance that the Renascence
period strove in many ways to simplify the texts, and to revive
the old Latin alphabet, (1 on Plate 297). The invention of printing
in the year 1440 had an important influence on the developement of
the shapes of letters. The period of the decadence of the Renascence

528 Writing, Printing, &c.
brought with it the decadence in the forms of letters, which is most
clearly seen in the middle of the. 18th century. Since then, and
especially in recent days, a gratifying progress has been made to some
thing better, although it cannot be said that every attempt at im
provement has been successful. It must not be forgotten that prac
tical needs should be considered, quite as much as aesthetic aspirations,
especially in a domain of such great and general importance as letters.
It should always be borne in mind that the first requirement is easy
reading; and that this is dependent on simplicity and characteristic
shape in the letters.
As regards the decorative effect, for in this work we have chiefly
to deal with decoration, it has first to be observed that the Antique
did not recognise the principle of ornamental writing, either because
no one thought of the possibility of ornamenting writing, or because
they intentionally prefened the greater legibility, or for some other
now unknown reason. At a later date almost aU civilised nations
and periods have occupied themselves more or less with the decorative
effect of writing. This may take two different directions: either the
letter may be decorated in its component parts, which eventually
leads to the extravagance that fishes, birds, human forms, &c,
in all imaginable contortions, form the outline of the letters; or
the letter in its ordinary form may receive a decorative finish by
means of decorative accessories, by being set in a frame which theen
appears as a free ending, or as a picture. The second treatment is
especially suitable for Initials; and has led to very ingenious com
binations; e. g. the background will frequently be an illustration of
the subject of the chapter which the initial begins, (Fig. 2, Plate 298).
Both kinds of decoration may be combined. The first mode of
decoration frequently leads to the loss of the real character of the
letter; in the second mode it not infrequently happens that the letter
cuts the picture, or vice versa, in an unpleasant manner. Colour is
an important factor in the decoration of writing. Gold, silver, and
a great variety of colours, but above all, gold and red, along with
black, play an important part in writing in the miniature painting of
the Calligraphists, as well as in Typography. In the present work
we are unhappily compelled to leave this aspect out of consideration.
In the Middle Ages: it was principally monks and nuns who
devoted themselves to the art of Writing; from the 13th century
onwards, it was also practised by laymen. A long series of celebrated
Calligraphists might be named. Calligraphy retrograded gradually
with the introduction of Printing; but on the other hand the best
artists of the Renascence, such as Holbein and others, did not disdain
to design Initials and other letters for printers, as may be proved
from a countless number of old books. As Christianity was intro
duced into Germany by the Irish, northern influences may also be

Writing, Printing, &c. 629
traced in writing. Up to the 10th century the decorations of
Writing have almost eiclusively the character of interlaced -work and
fantastically - interlaced figures of animals; but from this period a
vigorous plant decoration begins to be developed, eventually ter
minating, in later Gothic, in the endless interlacing of confused lines.
The Renascence period prefers to set its initials in square frames;
and these creations are among the most beautiful that writing has
ever produced. The interlaced and artificial ornaments which after
wards became so common in Typography, especially in the 17th and
18th centuries (Plate 294. 2, 3 and 5), are either the invention of
the Calligraphists of this period, or are the transfer of their archieve-
ments to Typography. Here, too, as in so many other things,
Modern times revert to the models of the most different older periods;
rightly when good is selected, and wrongly when the objectionable is
revived. Over those sins of Modern Writing, which culminate in
deforming our houses and the titles of our books with rows of shaded
letters in all manner of possible and impossible places and positions,
it is best to draw the charitable veil of silence. Compared with these
sins of style, those sentimental garlands of roses and forget-me-nots,
into which the last century formed its lines, are tolerable.
As regards the technical names of the kinds of letters now in
general use: we can only say that they are so arbitrary that we shall
do best to refrain altogether from attempting to enumerate them.
W_oever wishes for information on this point may be recommended
to consult the Specimen-book of some good Type-foundry.
Attempts were early made to construct Alphabets on a definite
system; to base them on network, to determine the height and breadth
of the entire letter, the dimensions of its component parts, &c; among
others Diirer devoted himself to this task. Space has not permitted
us to reproduce all these constructions; but as a specimen we have
given on Plate 300 the constructions of a few.
The notation of Numbers was introduced at the end of the Middle
Ages. Our Numerals are an Arabian invention, whence their name.
Plate 300 shows two collection of numerals of old times which are
not sensibly different from those now in use. It is well known that,
before Numerals were generally employed, recourse was had to the
Latin letters (Roman numerals) for the indication of numbers. It is
really remarkable that this latter apparatus, in spite of its unpractical
character, has remained in use down to the present day.
Finally we may say a word or two about the Monogram. This
name is given to letters and interfacings of letters intended to replace
or to indicate a name. It may be formed either by single ornamented
letters, usually the initials of the first and family name (Plate 300.
5 — 7), or by all the letters contained in the word (Plate 300. 10).
It is not imperative that all the letters should be of the same aize
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament. °*

530 Romanesque Letters. — Gothic Uncial Lettres.
or style; and if necessary some of them may be reversed. A Mono
gram should be well ananged, and clear, so that it need not require
to be guessed-at like a riddle. A good effect is produced by adding
attributes and badges of dignity to monograms. Artistic sense and
feeling must here supply the place of rules. Numerous and excellently
ornamented monograms will be found in Gerlach: Das Gewerbemono-
gramm. There are various books on Writing, as well as numerous col
lections of Initials and Alphabets. Prof. Hrachowina's Initialen,
Alphabete und Randleisten (Vienna: Graeser) will be found very useful
in teaching. Dr. Lamprecht's Initial- Ornamentik des 8 — 13. Jahrhun-
derts (Leipzig: A. Dun) is an exhaustive study of the older styles
of writing.
Plate 291. Romanesque Letters.
1. Alphabet, beginning of the 8th century, S. Cuthbert's evan-
geliarium, British Museum, (Shaw).
2. Alphabet, 10th century, MS. British Museum, (Shaw).
3. Initial, 12th century, Berlin Museum.
4. Initial, 12th century, Breviarium Cassinense, Bibliotheque Ma
zarine, Paris, (L'art pour tous).
5. Initial, 9th or 10th century.
6. Initial, 12th century, Berlin, Museum.
7. Initial, 12th century, (Arnold & Knoll).
8. Initial, 12th century.
9—10. Initials, 990, Echternach evangeliarum, Gotha, (Lamprecht).

Plate 292. Gothic Uncial Letters.
1. Alphabet, 1349, S. Margaret's, King's Lynn, England, (Shaw).
2 — 5. Initials, 1480, Rouen.
6 — 7. Letters, stalls of S. George's chapel, Windsor, end of 15th
century, (Shaw).
8. Gothic initial.
9. Gothic initial, 1494.
10 — 17. Initials, 1480, Pontificate of Johann II., Archbishop or
Trier, (Shaw).
Pate 293. Gothic Uncial Letters.
1. Alphabet, 14th century, (John Weale).
2 — 3. Initials, 15th century, (Hrachowina).
4 — 7. Initials, 14th century, 1330.
8 — 9. Initials, end of 15th century, (Formenschatz).

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

531

AAA<k Ab _
KpTChll
fflmMPDOIiq

q=^>

b

RSTUVK

Romanesque Letters.

Plate 291.
34*

532

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

Plate 292.

Gothic Unical Letters.

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

533

Gothic Unical Letters.

Plate 293.

534 Old English Letters. — Old German Letters, „c
Plate 294. Old English Letters, &c.
1. Old English text, tomb of Richard H, Westminster Abbey,
about 1400, (Shaw).
2 — 4. Initials, 16th century, Plantin Museum, Antwerp, (Ysendyck).
5 — 8r Initials, 16th and 17th centuries, (Raguenet).
9. Modern initial, Dir. G8tz, Carlsruhe.
Plate 295. Old German Letters.
1. German text, 1467, (Hrachowina).
2. German text alphabet, composed from several documents.

Plate 296. Modern Text.
1. Schwabach type.
2. Gutenberg Gothic.
3. Fr. Thiersch, (Malerjournal).
4. Ribbon ornament, as Typographical Tail-piece.
Plate 297. Renascence Letters.
1. Roman Renascence alphabet, 1547, specimen-book of John of
Yciar, Durango, Biscaya.
2. Renascence alphabet, lower-case Roman letters, specimen-book of
Wolfgang Fugger, Nuremberg, 1553, (Hrachowina).
3. Renascence initial, 1531.
4. Renascence initial, 1500, (Formenschatz).
5. Initial, 1534, Lucas Cranach the elder, (Formenschatz).
6. Renascence initial, "Gedruckt Zu Augspurg Durch Jost De Necker"
(Wessely).
7. Renascence initial, Italian, (Formenschatz).
8. Initial, 17 th century, Elzevir printing office, (Ysendyck)
9. Initial, 17th century, specimen-book of Paul Fiirst of Nuremberg,
(L'art pour tous).
10. Initial, Barocco period, French, (Hrachowina).
11. Modern initial, by P. Koch.
12. Modern initial, by Dir. C. Hammer.
Plate 298. Eoman Initials.
1. Renascence, 1537, (Hrachowina).
2. Renascence, 17th century, Plantin printing office,' Antwerp,
(Ysendyck).
3. Modern, French.
4 — 13. Modern, Paris.

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

535

f**,

Old English Letters, &c.

Plate 294.

536

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

0

7

<2& cJ

A

^

7

%^

^>

<Xnf

V V

^

7>

> 7=7

<r -C

V

t

Y>

ts^

fT

©

^ k> i^ff 1

^X^

IXX^

T

^=7f A/l\
-Xrt'

<^f

r^

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Plate 295.

Old German Letters.

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

537

ape

befgifj'ijiFlMinioiP^rfstMP:

<#

ii

M

vjT&r ,<X

i

€16

))

i

Modern Text.

Plate 296.

538

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

Plate 297.

Renascence Letters.

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

539

Roman Initials.

Plate 298.

540

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

ABO

F

J
TUV

L

11

J%, 553
3HI II

D II F (S
_L__ ML W O
TT TLJ V

ir _z =^-3 as

^cae/^fi i

a

Iju:l uti i

yo _5^> e-nyo

p & rjjdtmi^ i)r jc w

¦p^

^_x

Plate 299.

Roman Letters.

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS.

541

Constructions, Numerals, and Monograms. Plate 300.

542 Roman Letters. — Constructions, Numerals, and Monograms.
Plate 299. Poman Letters.
1. Modern.
2. Modern.
3. Renascence italic, Gottlieb Miinch, Ordnung der Schrift, 1744.
4. Renascence lower-case italic, Michael Bauernfeind, Nuremberg
1737, (Hrachowina).
Plate 300. Constructions, Numerals, and Monograms.
1. Roman capitals.
2. German text, and large Gothic uncial letters.
3^4. Arabic numerals, 15th and 16th centuries.
5, 6, 7 and 9. Modern monograms of two and three letters, (Raguenet).
8. Modern monogram, Dir. G6tz.
10. Monogram of a name: "Laugier", (Raguenet).
11. Monogram of Christ; formed of the Greek initials of
the name of Christ, found in the Catacombs. It is
frequently combined with the letters __f £2, in allusion
to Rev. XXII. 13: "I am Alpha and Omega" (compare
Plate 213. 18). Of later date is the monogram IHS,
the first three letters of the name Jesus, /___OF_f,
when written with Greek letters, which was afterwards
selected by the Jesuits as the badge of their order. It
has been variously explained as meaning: "Jesus
hominum salvator" (Jesus the saviour of men); "In Hoc
Salus" (in Him is salvation); "Jesus Habemus Socium"
(we have Jesus for our companion); or: "In Hoc Sign;
vinces" (in this sign thou shalt conquer").

Index.

The numerals refer to the Pages in all cases. Where they are enclosed in Brackets:
the page is a Plate; and the small numerals refer to the Figures in the Plate.

Akanthos, leaf: 34, (163. 7).
Akroter: 166.
Alabastron: 312.
Alphabet: see Letters.
Altar: 378.
Amber-tree leaf: (55. 6,7).
Amphora: 303.
Ampulla: 312.
Animals: 63.
Antefix: 166.
Arm-chair: 425.
Armet: 390.
Armorial Bearings: 500.
Abtifici_l Objects: 110.
Artificial Foliage: 39.
_ Leaf: 35.
Aryballos: (331. u).
Astragal, Enrichment of: 152.
Atlante: 242.
Badge: see Heealdby.
Balauster: 222.
Bauds : 127.
Band-motive: 4.
Base, (column): 197.
„ , (candelabrum): 218.
Basin: 308.
Battle-axe: 394.
Beaker: 345.
Bedstead: 457.
Bell: 404.
Bench: 436.

Bisellium: 434.
Boar, head: (79. 8), (343. 10).
Book Decoration: (23. 4,5).
Borders: see Bands, 477.
„ , (Typographical): see Frames.
Boss: 182.
Bottle: 336.
Box: see Cist, Chest, &c.
Bracelet: 490.
Bracket: 241, (372. 1-9).
Breast-pin: 480.
Brooch: 480.
Bryony: 52.
Bucket: 322.
Buckle: 492.
Burganet: 390.
Button: 482.
Cabbage-stalk Glass: 352.
Cabinet: 445.
„ , Hanging: 449.
Calathus: see Kalathos.
Candelabrum: 360.
, (capital): 222.
„ , (foot and base): 218.
, (shaft): 219.
Candle Bracket: 370.
Candlestick: 361, 366.
Canephora: see Kanephoros.
Cantharus: see Kantharos.
Capital, (candelabrum): 222.
,. , (column): 205.

544

Index.

Capital, (pilaster, and anta): 214.
Caryatid: 242.
Censer: 382.
Centaur: 106.
Chain Band: 129.
„ , (Jewelbt): 486.
Chair: 422.
Chalice: 345.
Chandelier: 373.
Charge, (Heraldic): 510.
Chatelaine: 499, 404.
Cherub-head: 109.
Chest: 451.
Chimaera: 70.
, (head): (78. l).
Circle, Diaper: 278, 283.
„ , Panel: 256, (115. e-9).
„ , Subdivision: 27.
Cist: 318.
CJasp: 492.
Claw-foot: (220. 1-9).
Clock-case: 453, (475. i,a).
Cluster, of Fruit: 59.
Coat of Arms: (525. i_s).
Cock, (tap): 417.
Collar, (Heraldic): 518.
Column: see Supports.
Comb: 499.
Compasses: 417.
Console: 235.
Construction of Letters: 642.
Convolvulus: 52.
Corn: 52.
Cornucopia: 124.
Coronets: 520.
Cothon: see Kothon.
Couch: 438.
Cradle: 457.
Crater: see Krater.
Crest, (Heraldic): 518.
Cresting Border: 161, 172.
Crocket: 185.
Cross: 172.
„ , (Heraldic): 515.
„ , Panel: (275. s).

Crown, Coronet, &c: 520.
Crozier: 384.
Crucifix: 384.
Cruet: 316.
Cup: 345.
Cyathus: see Kyathos.
Cylix: see Kylix.
Cyma, Enrichment of: 156, (164.
3,4,11,12).
Dagger: 394.
Damaskeening, (Heraldic): 503.
DECORATED OBJECTS: 295.
Desk: 451.
Diadem: 499.
Diapers: 277.
„ , patterns: 9.
Diphros OWadias: 434.
Dish: 308, see 476.
Dog, head: (79. ).
Dolphin: 86.
„ , (Heraldic): (511. 11).
Door-Knocker: 408.
Dormer: (463. 1).
Dress-pin: 480.
Eagle, (Natural): 80, (454. i_s).
„ , (Heraldic): 80. 512.
„ , (head: (343. 7).
Ear-ring: 496.
Easel: 453.
Egg-and-tongue, &c: 155.
Elaphos: 342.
ELEMENTS OF DECORATION: 3.
Ellipse, Construction, and Subdi
vision: 30.
„ , Panel: 267.
Enamels: 281.
Enclosed Ornaments: 246.
Evolute-spiral Band: 151.
Pan: 412.
Fauchard: 396.
FEATURES of Objects: 126.
Festoon: 59, (221. e).
Fibula: 4£0.
Finial: 175.
Flowers, Natural: 56.

Index.

545

Flower-pot: 316.
,. -vase: 312.
Fly- flapper: 414.
Folding-chair: 438.
Foliage, Artificial: 39.
„ , Natural: 34.
Font: 320.
Foot: (220. i_9),
Fork: 400.
Fox, head: (79. j\
Frames: 461.
„ , (architectural): 462.
¦ „ , (mirror): 465.
„ , (strap-work): 468.
„ , (typographical): 471.
Free ornaments: 159.
Fret Band: 128.
Frieze: (62), (104. 5), (162)— (164).
Fringe: 188.
Fruit, in Festoon: 59.
Funnel: 324.
Furniture: 420.
, Leg: 230.
Gable-ornament: 166.
Gargoyle: 185.
Garland: see in (82. 4).
Gate: see Grill.
Geometrical Elements: 3.
German Drinking-gl asses : 352.
Girdle: 492, 188, (487. u-is).
Gladiator's Helmet: 390.
Glass, Drinking: 355.
. r, , Bee Stained-Glass.
Goblet: 345.
Gothic Tracery: 30.
Griffin: 70, (514. 1).
Grill: 294.
Grottesque Animal: 100.
„ Figure: 101.
„ Mask: 95.
Gryps: 345.
Guilloche: see Interlacement Band.
Hair-pin: 480.
Half-figure: 101.
Halberd: 394. -
Meyer, Handbook of Ornament.

Rammer: 417. 
Banap: 347. ¦
Hand-bell: 404.
Hand-mirror: 412.
Banging-cabinet: 449.
Hat, (Cardinal's, &c, Heraldic): 523,
Head-dress (Jewelbv): 499.
Heads of Animals : 76.
Heaume: 390, 515.
Helmet: 390, 516, (108), (113).
„ , Trappings: 518.
Heraldry: 500.
Hermes: see Terminus.
Hexagon, Subdivision: 18.
Hinge: 186.
Hippotragelaphos: 342.
Holy- water Stoup: 320.
Hop, leaf: 52.
Horn, Drinking: 342.
Horse, head: (79. 1-5).
Human, body: 93.
Hydria: 320.
Hyacinth-glass: 315.
Implements: see Trophy, Symbol.
Initial: see Letters.
Ink-stand: 316.
Inn-chair: (426. 1).
Instruments: see Trophy, SymboL
Interlacement Band: 135.
Ivy, leaf: 51, (203. 4).
Jar: 318.
Jewelry: 478.
Jug: see Pitcher, Pot.
Kalathos: (344. 4).
Kalpis: (323. 2).
Kanephoros: 242.
Kantharos:. 340.
Kapros: 342.
Key: 410.
Kettle: (335. 10).
Klismos: 422.
Knife: 400.
Knob, (finial): 179.
Knocker: 408.
Knot: see Ribbon.. 
35

546

Index.

Kothon: 340.
Krater: 308.
Kyathos: 340.
Kylix: 340, (311. s).
Label: 120.
Lace: 190.
Lachrimatory : 312.
Ladle: 324.
Lamp: 364.
„ , Pendant: 373, (314. is).
„ , Table: 375.
Lance: 394.
Lantern: 373.
Laurel: 43, (344. 9).
Lazy-tongs: 404.
Leaf Band: 145.
„ , (Natural): 52.
Lectern: 453.
Lectus Cubicularis: 438.
Leg, (Furniture): 230.
Lekythos: 328.
Letters: 527.
Link Border: 160.
Lion, (Heraldic): 510.
„ , (Natural): 63.
„ , head: 70, (233. 9,10).
Lizard: (92. 1).
Lock-escutcheon: (475. 10).
Lotus: 48, (162. 1), (208. a-5),
(288. 2), (327. 2,4).
Lozenge, Panel: 272, (88. 2,3), (464. s).
„ , Subdivision: 21.
Lunette, Panel: 268.
Lynx, head: (77. 5).
Mace: 396.
Maeander: see Fret.
Mantling, (Heraldic): 519.
Maple, leaf: (55. 3.4 ).
Margin: see 477.
Mars' head: (108. 9).
Martel-axe: 394.
Mask: 94.
Match-holder: 417.
Medallion: 109, (495. 12, 18,25).
Medusa, head: 100.

Mermaid: (514. 7).
Metal Objects: 359.
Minerva, head: (108. 9,7).
Mirror-frame: 465.
Mirror, Hand: 412.
Miserere-seat: 431.
Mitre: (524. u_is).
Monogram: 542.
Monstrance: 384.
Morion: 390.
Mosaic: 278.
Motto: 526.
Mouldings, Enrichments of: 152, 161.
Mug: 353.
Mural Painting: 286.
Natural Forms: 34.
Nautilus-shell: (91. 1)
Necklace: 488.
Neck-ring: (489. 7,8).
Needle-case: 499.
Network: 4.
Numerals: 542.
Oak, leaf: (55. 1,2), (150. 9), (156. »).
OBJECTS, DECORATED: 295.
Oblong, Panel: 262.
„ , Subdivision: 18.
Octagon, Subdivision: 18.
OinochoS: 326.
Olive: 43.
Olpe: 326.
Order, (Heraldic): 523.
Ordinary, (Heraldic): 506.
ORNAMENT APPLIED TO FEA
TURES: 125.
Oval, Construction: 33.
Ovolo, Enrichment of: 155.
Ox, head: (79. 9).
Fainting: see Mural painting.
Palmette Band: 145.
Palm, leaf: 48.
Panels: 246.
Panther, (Heraldic): (514. a).
„ , head: 73.
Paper-knife: 402.
Papyrus: 48.

Index,

547

Parapet: 227.
Parquetry: 278.
Partizan: 394.
Patera: 324.
Pendant, (Architectural): 179.
„ , (Jewelry): 494.
Pennon: 523.
Pentagon, Subdivision: 18.
Pepper-mill: 316.
Perforation: 172.
Perfume-vase: 328.
Phiale: 312.
Picture-frame: 465.
Pike: 394.
Pilaster, (capital): 214.
„ , (panel): 213, (113. t,t),
(117. i_s).
Pin: 480.
Pitcher (lip-spout): 330.
Plate: 310.
„ , Border: 476.
Polygon: 13.
Post: 227.
Pot (pipe-spout): 334.
Printer's-mark: 471.
Printing: 527.
Prochous: 326.
Proedra: (244. 5).
' Puzzle-glass: 353.
Quadrelle: (397. 10).
Bailing: 227, see also Parapet, Bal
auster.
Rain-water Spout: 185, (74. 8—5),
(87. 7-9).
Raking Panel- 276.
Ram, head: (78. 3-7), (343. 1-5).
Ranunculus, leaf: (55. 5).
Rectangle: see Oblong.
Repeating Obnaments; 277.
Revolving Stool: 434.
Rhombus, Panel: see Lozenge, Panel.
,, , Subdivision: 21.
Rhyton: 342.
Ribbon: 120.
Ring: 484.

Rope-pattern : see InterlacementBand.
Rosette: 182, see also Square, Panel,
Circle, Panel.
Rbsette Band: 142.
Rummer: 349.
Salade: 390, 516.
Salt-cellar: 316.
Scabbard: 392, 394.
Scale Diaper: 281.
Scallop Shell: (91. 8,4).
Scent-bottle: 499.
Scissors: 402.
Scriptionale : (252. 1).
Scyphus: see Skyphos.
Seal: 499.
Seat: 421.
Sector: 13.
Sella Balnearis: 427.
„ Curulis: 427.
Semicircle: see Lunette.
Serpent, (Heraldic): (511. is).
„ , (Natural): 90.
Shaft, (candelabrum): 219.
„ , (column): 197, 202.
„ , (pilaster): 213.
Sheath: see Scabbard.
Shell: 90.
Shield: 388, 505.
„ , (Heraldic): 502.
Sideboard: 449.
Signet-ring: 484.
Simpulum: (327. 11.12).
Situla: (325. 7-11).
Skull, Human: 109.
„ , Ox: (61. i), (62. 1).
Skyphos :
Smelling-bottle: see Scent-bottle.
Snuffers: 404. (413. g).
Sofa: 438.
Spanrail Panel: 268.
Spangle: 499.
Spoon: 324, 396.
Sphinx: 106, (223. a), (429. »).
Square, Diaper: 278.
„ , Panel: 247, (15. 20).
35*

648

Index.

Square, Subdivision: 14, (262. i— a).
Stained Glass: 283.
Stall: 428.
Standard: 623.
Star, Panel: 249.
„ , Subdivision: 13.
Stele-crest: 167.
Stool: 431.
Stoup: 320.
Strap Hinge: 186.
Strap-work, Border: 477.
, Frame: 468. (476), (476).
, Panel (260. 7,8), (264. 4,5),
{271. 6-9).
„ , Tablet: 474.
„ , Margin: 477.
Subdivision of Shapes: see 14 — 33.
Supports: 194.
Supporter, (Heraldic): 526.
Sword: 392.
Symbol: 111.
Table: 440, 231.
Tablet: see Frameb.
Taboret: 431.
Tankard: 355.
Tap: see Cock.
Tassel: 188.
Telamon: 242.
Tent, (Heraldic): 526.
Terminus: 225.
Text: see Letters.
Textile: see Weaving.
Three-centred Arch, Construction: 33.
Throne: 425.
Thyrsos: (107. 6,7).
Tiara: (524. 12).
Tiger, head: (77. s).
Tiles: 283.
Tilting Helmet: 390, 516.
Tinctures, (Heraldic): 502.
Toilet-stand, or cabinet: 455.

Tongs: 417.
Tool : 417, see also Trophy, Symbol.
Torch: 124.
Torus, Enrichment of: 155.
Tracery: (28. is-ib), (29. 1-u),
(259. 7,8), (275. 1).
Tragelaphos: 342.
Trapezium, Panel: 276.
„ , Subdivision: 21, 26.
Trapezoid, Panel: 276.
Trapezophoron: 231.
Triangle, Subdivision: 18.
„ , Panel: 276.
Tripod: 379.
Trophy: 110.
Tulip-tree, leaf: (55. s).
Tumbler: 352.
Typographical Frame: 471.
Uncials: see Letters.
Undulate Band: 146.
Uraniscus: 14.
Urn: 306.
Utensils: 359.
Valence: 188.
Vase-forms, Chart of: 304.
Vases: 297, (123. 1,4), (180. 5-8).
Vertebrate Band: 145.
Vine: 43.
Viper: see Serpent.
Vizor-helmet: 390, 516.
Wall-papers: 286.
War-scythes, &c. : 394.
Water-pot: 334.
Wave-scroll: see Evolute-spiral Band
Weapons: 386.
Weaving: 289.
Wings: 81.
Wreath, (Heraldic): 519.
Writing: 527.
Writing-table: 443.
Wrought-iron: 175.

PrlDtedin Germany by OSWALD MUTZE. LEIPSIC