mitiw

ttrfrisllS

YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY OF THE
DIVINITY SCHOOL

A MANUAL

BIBLICAL LITEEATUEE.

By W. p. STRICKLAND, D. D.

^m ^ork :
PUBLISHED BT CARLTON & PORTER,
SOO M VLBEBBY-STBBET.
Yale Divinity Librtry
New leaven. Conn.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853,
BY CARLTON & PHILLIPS,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District
of New-York.

PREFACE. ,

To say that the work, which is here presented,
is a compilation, would be superfluous; as that
will be perfectly obvious to every Biblical student,
who . may consult its pages. All that the author
claims as original, with few exceptions, is the
selection and arrangement of what he conceives to
be the proper subjects belonging to the study of
Biblical Literature.
In a more extensive sense, instructions in regard
to the study of Church History and govemment,
dogmatic, homiletic, and pastoral theolc|j|j^, might
be included ; but the introduction of these subjects
would not, in the opinion of the compiler, be such
a classification as specifically belongs to the de
partment of Biblical Literature.
Under the head of ThedLogical Literature, every
subject may be embraced, which, in any way,
pertains to religion-^historical, theoretical, experi-

PREFACE.

mental, and practical; but such subjects do not,
appropriately, belong to the present work. The
Manual is simply designed as a guide, or hand
book, whose province it is to direct attention to
the vast fields of Sacred Literature, and furnish
directions, by the aid of which, the treasures
therein contained may be discovered and garnered
up. The following works have been used, to a greater
or less extent, in the compilation; and to them
the author acknowledges himself chiefly indebted,
viz. : — Emesti, Jahn, Eranck^, Michaelis, Winer,
Gerard, Gesenius, Marsh, Home, Kitto, Calmet,
Stuart, Lardner, Bloomfield, Eobinson, Carpenter,
and Gaussen. The works of modem Oriental trav
ellers, such as Layard, Lynch, Olin, Durbin, Rob
inson and others, have been consulted.
In thegpreparation of the following work, the
single aim of the author has been, to famish an
elementary treatise on those topics of Biblical
Literature, a knowledge of which would enable
the student to investigate the Sacred Oracles, in a
thorough and systematic manner.
It will be seen that the work embraces a wide
range of topics. The author has availed himself

of the labours of those Biblical scholars, whose
works possess the greatest merit, in the different
departments of Sacred Literature embraced in this
volume; and his compilation is made from their
writings. In the arrangement of the topics, the
order hinted at by Bishop Marsh, in his course
of lectures on theology, and also by Gesenius, in
liis History of Introductions, has been, in a great
measure, adopted.
Nothing has been omitted which the author con
ceived to belong to a Manual of Biblical Literature.
By this he means that nothing essential has been left
out so far as the outlines and general principles are
concerned. In some respects he might have entered
more fully into the minutise of the subjects treated :
for example, in the part which treats of Archaeology,
which, according to the definition of some, embraces ¦
almost if not quite everything pertaining to the
Bible, he has only made those selections which he
considered most important.
The same remark will apply in a more limited
sense to Bibhcal Analysis, History, and Geography.
This would be impossible in a Manual, as each sub
ject of itself would fill a volume.
A part might have been added entitled Biblical
Biography, and such was in accordance with the

author's original design; but it would have swelled
the work beyond the prescribed limits, and hence it
was abandoned. Such a work by itself is a desider
atum, inasmuch as that completeness which is desir
able in this department is not to be found in the
Biblical Cyclopaedias and Dictionaries which have
been published.
To all who are interested in the systematic study
of the Bible, it is hoped this volume may prove
some help. W. P. STRICKLAND.
CmonjNATi, May 1, 1863.

CONTENTS.

Inteoductioh, BT Ds. Elmott  Page 9
^PEEUsoifAET Chatter. — Importance of Biblical Studies  13
PART FIRST.
BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY.  23
Chaptee I. — ^Languages of the Bible  23
Chapter n. — The Hebrew Language  25
Chapter III. — The Aramean or Syrian Language  25
Chapter IV. — The Greeli Language  31
Chapter V. — ^Hints in regard to the Study of the Languages of the
Bible  33
PART SECOND.
BIBLICAL CPJTICISM:  39
Chapter I. — Objects of Biblical Criticism  39
Chapter II. — The Nature of a Various Eeadiug  41
Chapter III. — Sources of False Readings  42
Chapter IV. — Kinds of False Headings  ;  47
Chapter V. — ^Rules of Judging concerning Various Readings  49
PART THIRD.
BIBLICAL EXEGESIS  55
Chapter I. — ^Interpretation in General  55
Chapter n.— The Meaning of Words  56
Chapter m. — ^Kinds of Words, and their Various Uses  62
Chapter IV. — Rules of Interpretation  66
Chapter V. — Usus Loquendi of the New Testament  77
Chapter VI. — ^Tropical Language  81
Chapter Vn. — Rules in regard to Emphasis  86
Chapter VIH. — The Affections of Inspired Writers....!  89
Chapter IX. — Means of Harmonizing Apparent Discrepancies  104
PART FOURTH.
BIBLICAL ANALYSIS  110

CONTENTS.

PART FIFTH.
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY  Page 122
Chapter I.— rDomestic Archseology  124
Chapter H.— Political Archasology  .¦  176
Chapter DI. — Sacred Archaeology  209
PART SIXTH.
BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY  247
Chapter I.— The First Races of Mankind  247
Chapter n. — The Assyrians and Babylonians  249
Chaptee HI.— The Egyptians  250
Chapter IV.— The Jews  254
Chapter V. — ^The Canaanites and Neighbouring Nations  265
PART SEVENTH.
BIBLICAL HISTORY  281
Chapter I. — ^Historical Books of the Old Testament  282
Chapter n. — ^Poetical Books  298
Chapter UL — Prophetical Books  ;  303
Chapter IV. — Historical Books of the New Testament  316
Chapter V.— Doctrinal Books  327
Chapter VI. — Epistolary Books  338
PART EIGHTH.
BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY  342
PART NINTH.
BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY  ,  363

INTRODUCTION.

Such a production as this has long been a desid
eratum iu Biblical Literature. It is true, there are
many works of great merit which treat separately
of the topics embraced in this volume ; but they are
mostly out of print, or inaccessible to the class of
persons for whom this work is specially designed.
Besides, these volumes are principally adapted for
text-books for theological seminaries and professional
theologians. Take, as specimens, the writings of
Jahn, Michaelis, Eichhorn, Gesenius, Eranck6, Ernes-
ti. Moras, Gaussen, Winer, Gerard, Marsh, Carpenter,
Kitto, Home, Stuart, and Eobinson. Although the
writings of these great authors are of untold value to
the critical Biblical student, there are few who walk
in the every-day path of Christian research, who
have time, taste, or preliminary preparation, to read
or study them with care.
A work was, therefore, needed, for private stu
dents, and literary men in general — ^the design of
which would be to present, in one regularly-arranged
view, the leading principles of all those topics which
are necessary to the proper and systematic study of
the Bible.

10 INTRODUCTION.
The present volume is of such a character. The
author has drawn his materials from the very best
sources, on the different subjects of which he treats.
On inspecting the table of contents, it will be seen,
that after showing the importance of the study of
the Bible, the author brings to view the leading
topics of Biblical Literature — ^such as Biblical Phi
lology, Criticism, Interpretation, Analysis, Archae
ology, History, Ethnography, Geography, and Chro
nology. Of course, in embracing so vast a field of Biblical
research, the work must be elementary. It is, how
ever, sufficiently copious to give a full and clear
knowledge of the essential principles embraced in
the various topics coimected with the study of the
Bible. It is particularly adapted to all under-graduates
in the ministry, and private theological students, as
well as to the advanced classes in Sunday Schools,
and to High Schools, Seminaries, and Colleges.
By its aid the Bible can be made the text-book,
and a thorough and systematic course of study pur
sued in its contents. That the Bible should be a
text-book in schools and colleges is now granted ;
but, heretofore, no systematic course of study has
been struck out. This can now be done to great
advantage, by the aid of Dr. Strickland's perform
ance. It is divided into nine parts, and each part is again
subdivided into chapters, with appropriate headings.

ISTEODUCTION. 11
SO that the student can readily find, in every depart
ment of Biblical Literature, whatever is necessary
to throw light on the study of the Bible. It is a
library in itself, in which the student will find the
substance of what is contained in numerous large
and costly works ; and so aiTanged and divested of
all unnecessary technical stiffness, as to prove a con
venient thesaurus of the greatest value to all who
love to search the Scriptures.
And to all the aspirants to the ministry in the
Methodist Episcopal Church, how important will
this volume be ! It will be a great benefit to the
Church to ask all the applicants for license to preach,
to master this work, as a preliminary, as weU as
some other topics ; so that when the ministry is en
tered on, young and inexperienced minds may not
be harassed with the double task of the preparatory
and the necessary principal course, at the same time.
The opportunities of the times enable all, or the
greater number, to obtain elementary knowledge, to
some degree, whether Biblical, theological, or hter-
ary, before they enter upon the arduous work of
even the first stages of the pastoral office. And, in
deed, the wants of the Church demand this, and the
demand must be met.
I have read the work in manuscript, and can
readily recommend it to all for whom it is designed.
Lideed, it is the only book extant which treats sys
tematically of the elements of Biblical Literature,
in a manner adapted for popular use.

12 INTRODUCTION.
The subjects are treated in a clear, pleasing, and
forcible manner, so as to satisfy a correct taste, and
to elucidate the pointe discussed. I hope the vol
ume will have a wide circulation, and wiU therefore
be eminently useful to the youth in our country, and
all who engage in the study of Holy Scripture, so as
to have a clear, full, and accurate knowledge of their
religion. CHARLES ELLIOTT.
Cdtcinwati, 0., April 12, 1852.

MANUAL OP
BIBLICAL LITEEATUEE.

THE IMPORTANCE OP BIBLICAL STUDIES.
Assuming the authenticity and genuineness of the Bible,
together with its plenary inspiration, it is not deemed im
portant to treat upon these subjects separately, but as they
may fall -within the line of observation in the discussion of
the various topics embraced in this work. The discussion of
these points belongs more particularly to other departments
of sacred Hterature than those contemplated. As " all Scrip
ture is given by inspiration of God," — the writers of the
Bible being the mere amanuenses of the Holy Spirit, com
municating nothing more and nothing less than what was
dictated, — and as every word and sentence was thus from
God, it is essentially important that every man should under
stand their meaning.
To do this satisfactorily we must go directly to the sacred
text. The practice of studying the Holy Oracles through
the media of human expositions alone, and of obtaining a
system of belief from the Writings of the Fathers, the De
crees of Councils, Synodical Conventions, Confessions of
Faith, Articles of Eeligion, Systems of Theology, Commen
taries, Compends, Digests, (fee, instead of obtaining it from

14 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the great standard of faith itself, is a pernicious and preva
lent evil.
The Bible is adapted to every grade of intellect, and hence
all are commanded to search its pages, being assured that it
will ever prove an unerring guide in all matters of faith and
practice. While the profoundest mind is lost in the explo
ration of its boundless and fathomless ocean of truth, the
most superficial can comprehend its ever luminous revelations
of mercy and salvation, and a child may grow wise unto
eternal life in reading its contents. In this respect it is like
its emblem, the sun, whose rays are equally adapted to the
eye of the animalcula and the mastodon. He who made
the eye and the light understood perfectly the nature of both,
and also what was necessary to constitute an adaptation. He
who made the human mind and the Bible — for both are
traceable to the same divine origin — ^had a like regard. If
there be in divine revelation anything hard or impossible of
comprehension, it is not more remarkable than that the naked
eye cannot gaze upon the meridian sun, or that, in all the
departments of nature and science, there are mysteries im
penetrable to human vision.
We would call away the mind from all human productions,
in matters of belief, and duty, and bring it into immediate
contact with the mind of God ; and in regard to all that is
difficult to understand, would recommend the sincere and
humble inquirer, in his "lack of wisdom," to ask the assist
ance of " the Father of lights, from whom cometh down
every good and perfect gift." The student, though, in the
language of one, " he be the most learned, acute, and dili
gent, cannot, in the longest lifetime, obtain an entire knowl
edge of the Bible, because the more deeply he works the
mine of sacred truth, the richer and more abundant he will
find the ore." The contents of every other book may be
exhausted, because they are the product of finite intellect —
the contents of the Bible never. In reading a human pro
duction, mind is brought in contact with similar mind — the

IMPORTANCE OP BIBLICAL STUDIES. 15
finite with the finite — and the one may thoroughly exha,ust
the other ; but, in reading the Scriptures, the mind is brought
into contact with God— the finite with the infinite — and
hence there will be an interminable progression in Biblical
knowledge; To assist in the profitable investigation of this
inexhaustible storehouse of thought, the following suggestions
are presented to the reader.
In the study of any science order is important, and it is
none the less so in the study of sacred science. Though the
contents of the Bible are not reduced to what might be de
nominated a scientific method, and the arrangement and
classification observable in human scientific productions, still
they are susceptible of such a classification in regard to all
the facts and doctrines therein embraced. In this respect the
Bible is like the vast field of nature spread out before us by
the same Divine Author. Over all this field nowhere can be
found a botanic garden of spontaneous production containing
the genus and species of every tree, shrub, plant, and flower.
To obtain such a classification the botanist must traverse
every zone, visit every island, and gather his specimens here
and there, to complete his classification. The same remark
will apply to the mineral as to the vegetable world. 'No
cabinet of minerals and fossils has ever yet been found in the
earth's crust. To collect such a cabinet the geologist must
travel over its mountains and through its dells — he must
perforate its rocks and examine their formation — classify their
fossiliferous products and analyze the ores imbedded therein.
Thus it is also in the animal world. No zoological collection
has ever been found instinctively or fortuitously thrown to
gether. To find the various orders of each, the different parts
of the world must be visited. All the materials for the above
classifications have been furnished by the Creator ; but it is the
work of man to arrange, combine, and classify them. The
same remark will apply to every science. We have first
the nucleus, and then the aggregation. Facts, naked and
isolated, have been gathered up here and there; their

16 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
affinities have been ascertained — their bearing and relations
noted ; from these facts principles have been deduced,
and upon these principles theories and systems have been
established. The Bible is a book of facts, which, like the varieties we
meet with in the various departments of the physical world,
are more or less important, and invite our investigation. In
the Bible there may be some statements which are beyond
the grasp of our reason — challenging our faith alone — but
there are none inconsistent with her loftiest exercise. In the
language of Coleridge, with propriety it may be said, "If
there be anything in all the system of revealed religion in
consistent with reason, it does not belong to the household of
faith." These facts are dispersed through sixty-six difi'erent books,
written by more than forty difi'erent persons, in diflferent ages
and diflerent parts of the world — ^in the deserts of Arabia,
in the temple at Jerusalem, in the sumptuous palaces of
Babylon, on the banks of the Euphrates and Jordan, and
on the borders of the Mediterranean. A period of nearly
two thousand years was occupied in its composition. Its
writers were in every condition of life — ^kings, doctors, law
yers, vine-dressers, shepherds, and fishermen. They were of
every grade of intellect and education, from the most astute
and learned to the most humble and illiterate. The writer
of its first five books was engaged with the pen of inspiration
in chronicling the world's history ten centuries in advance
of Herodotus, who is styled the father of profane history ;
while the topics he discusses embrace all the important facts
and events of the first two thousand years of the world's his
tory, never before chronicled by man. The truthfulness of
the sacred record, in regard to the creation of the world and
man, his fall and subsequent depravity, the successive
judgments of Heaven upon guilty nations and cities, together
with the whole scheme of human redemption, is stamped
upon and attested by the physical and moral world. Its

IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 17
sublime and awful events are written out upon the surface
of the €arth, and graven deep in the everlasting rocks, as the
mark of God on the brow of Cain, and echo back the faith
fulness of its narratives. Its prophetic announcements, made
thousands of years antecedently, have met with a literal and
exact fulfilment, and now form a prominent part of the his
tory of the world. Time, their grand expounder, has demon
strated their truth, and is vindicating it from day to day;
while science, in her discoveries, has shown the writers of the
sacred books gifted with an inspiration divine and infallible.
Its monuments, and testimonial signs and wonders, are found
to be, everywhere and in every age, accordant with the de
scriptions of its writers, and commemorative of its truths.
The Bible embraces every style of composition — the
simple, beautiful and sublime. If contains history, chronol
ogy, geography, biography, archaeology, epistles, homilies,
parables, metaphors, allegories, apothegms, proverbs, dramas,
dissertations, and poetry of every species — pastoral, lyrical,
elegiac, and epic. Its topics are innumerable— whole libra
ries have been vrritten upon its exhaustless themes. It has
been the subject of criticism, verbal and written, for a period
of three thousand years. It has been in every laboratory of
mind, and tested in every crucible of experiment, and, having
been subjected to the most thorough and searching analysis,
not one of all the truths in its vast storehouse has been in
validated. In all the investigations of science, not one single
¦physical, mental, or moral error, has been discovered. Like
pure gold, the assertions of the Bible have stood every test,
unimpeached and untarnished. These truths, scattered like
gems and flowers over the mountains, plains and valleys of
the Bible, are all consistent with every other truth, and har
monious throughout, having " God for their author, and sal
vation for their end."
tha facts ofthe Bible are susceptible qf classification, and
it is the duty of the student of sacred literature to reduce
them to order. Every Biblical student should collate and
2

18 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
classify them for himself, with as much care and assiduity
as though no one had gone over the field before him. The
researches of another will not answer the purpose, as this
work can with no more propriety be done by proxy than
that of the linguist or mathematician. In studying the
Bible it is of the utmost importance that attention be paid
ito order; otherwise much that is valuable will be lost, while
that which is gained will be comparatively unsatisfactory.
The Bible should be studied under two aspects — the first
has regard to the letter, and the second to the spirit — the
body and the soul of the most magnificent creation of Al
mighty God. We should come to the study of the first as
we would to the study of any other book claiming our atten
tion, applying all those rules which govern us in literary re
search and criticism.
Having satisfied ourselves in regard to the external struc
ture of the temple, and passed its outer gates, we are then
prepared, under the guidance of its presiding genius — the
Holy Spirit — to enter its inner courts, and gaze with unveiled
eyes upon its beautiful proportions, gorgeous drapery, sublime
scenery, awful mysteries, and transcendent glories, as they
break upon the astonished vision, like the mysterious, charac
ters in the palace of Babylon, or the awful glory in the con
secrated temple of Jerusalem.
Numerous Introductions to the study of the Bible, embra
cing almost every department of sacred literature, have been
written, and, as the present work does not profess properly to
belong to that class, a short history of these Introductions
may not be out of place.
It is the province of an Introduction critically to examine
and discuss the historical relations of the individual books,
as well as of the whole collection. It gives, on the particular
books, discussions respecting their authors, and times of com
position, genuineness and integrity, contents and plan, the
original language, its earliest history, the origin of the Bible
collection or canon, its original language and versions, and

IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 19
the history of the original text. It divides itself into two
parts, general and particular.
" It has been correctly observed," says Gesenius, in his
BibUsche Einleitung, "that this branch of learning still re
quires to be more accurately defined and hmited — that, in
particulai', it often encroaches on the province of criticism
and hermeneutics ; and certainly the latest authors are still
too discursive, especially in taking up their materials for the
general introduction, and in fact the older writers (and the
modern among the English) have even brought together
those branches of learning which are subsidiary to interpre
tation, as sacred history, antiquities, geography, <fec. It will
not, therefore, be inconsistent with my present purpose," he
adds, "to attempt, at least, to mark out this limitation, and
in- doing so I shall principally keep in view the general in
troduction, because the boundaries of the particular are more
accurately settled. The leading features are the same, both
with respect' to the Old and New Testaments, and it may
even, in many particular points, be of use to treat the general
part of both in connexion. Of this I would suggest the
following fourfold division : —
" 1. History of the cultivation and literature of the Hebrew
people in general ; under which section might be digested the
accounts of their language, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Hellenis
tic, with the history and character of each, and also of their
writing. " 2. History of the canon ; or of the collection, arrange
ment, and ecclesiastical authority of the books.
" 3. History of the original text ; the various fates and
changes to which it has been subjected, and of the means of
improving it — the latter of which belongs more particularly
to the department of criticism. Here the authors of intro
ductory works appear to have been principally in doubt re
specting the extent of the points which they ought to discuss.
The following principle will probably be found to mark a
correct and proper division : — The criticism of the Old and

20 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
New Testaments ¦divid'es itself into two parts, historical and
didactic. The first of these pursues the history of the text,
discovers its changes, shows the critical labours which have
been expended on it, and the documents in which the text
has been handed down, namely, immediate, as manuscripts,
and mediate, as ancient revisions. The second communicates
the rules according to which the critic must avail himself of
these helps in order to recover the original text with as much
probability as possible. The historical part of this must now
necessarily be comprehended under the learning which is
com.prised in an introduction ; but the didactic, which contains
merely an application of the general rules of criticism to the
materials here sketched out, must, by a strict limitation, be
properly excluded, and preserved for criticism, as it is a sci
ence of a particular kind, or, at least, to be handled with
great brevity.
" 4. In the hermeneutical part of the general introduction ;
which is required to exhibit the aids for understanding the
Bible, and directions for the use of those aids, and which
many authors of introductory works, as Eichhorn and Ber-
tholdt, entirely, or in part, omit. Jahn has, however, given
them with considerable extent, including also the didactic
part, at least as far as regards the investigation of language.
To preserve consistency the last must be reserved for her
meneutics, in such a way that the author should limit him
self to the historical part, which belongs to it no less than
the historical part does to criticism. The helps for under
standing it relate to language and things, and of course her
meneutics divides itself into an investigation of these two.
For investigating the language, which is here the principal
point, we have, as sources of information, the following :
First, the interpretations of the books of Scripture which
have been handed down to us from antiquity — that is, an
cient versions and expositions of the Old Testament by
Eabbins, and of the New by the Fathers, which it is neces
sary to adduce and judge of. Second, our knowledge ari-

IMPORTANCE OF BIBLICAL STUDIES. 21
sing from other sources of the eastern languages and of the
Greek as existing in profane authors, which must be applied
to the thorough examination, correction, and establishment
of those transmitted interpretations. The investigation of
things is exhibited in that branch of knowledge which js
called exegetical helps. This divides itself into historical
which includes Biblical geography. Biblical history, with
chronology, and mythology; and also into dogmatic, which
includes Biblical doctrines and morals. It is impossible, in
an introduction, to treat these subjects fully ; nothing more
ean be given than a general idea of them. In this arrange
ment, however, doubts may arise with respect to the ancient
versions, since they must be introduced as subsidiary to criti
cism, as well as to hermeneutics. Hence it is probably the
most advisable course to give the general information re
specting them in the critical part, and their character, as far
as regards interpretation, in that which is appropriated to
hermeneutics. It must be remarked that the very last con
sideration is the identical point which is much neglected in
recent works of this kind ; and this is the more to be regret
ted as the hermeneutical value of the versions is, on the
whole, much greater than the critical, since their greater or
less variations from the text do but very rarely indeed con
tain improvements of it, but, on the contrary, are, for the
most part, founded on errors in the translations. In the
particular introduction to the individual books only this dif
ference is to be observed in the plan, that some writers in
this department, as Jahn, give an explanatory view of the
contents of the books, which is omitted by raost of the
others. Besides introductions of an historical and critical
character, and which are, properly speaking, literari/, the
idea of a practical introduction has been suggested and car
ried into efi'ect — that is to say, an introduction which, setting
aside discussions of a critical kind, or taking for granted the
results of them, confines its attention to the books of Scrip
ture in a practical point of view, and gives directions for the

^J MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
use of them in reference to the religious instruction of youth
and people in general. Such works are useful when the
authors, resting on the firm basis of solid learning, make the
religious and moral force in the particular books, sections,
aid characters of the Bible stand out prominent ; they will
then often agree, in contents, with the view of religion and
morals given in the Bible, and only vary from it in the free
arrangement in which it is presented.
"The first important steps for a thorough, learned, and
critical treatment of what is called the general introduction,
were made in the path opened by Hottinger, a man well
versed in oriental learning, and Leusden, a pupil of Buxtorf ;
also by Walton and Simon, the former of whom, viz. Wal
ton, published, in his Prolegomena to the London Polyglot,
Very learned disquisitions on the language and writings of the
Bible, the history of the text, and of the versions of the Old
and New Testaments."

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY.

CHAPTER L
LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE.
Biblical philology relates to the languages in which the
Bible was originally written. These are. the Hebfew and
Chaldee of the Old Testament, and the Greek of the New.
The importance of a knowledge of the original languages of
the Scriptures to the critical expounder thereof cannot, with
any show of consistency, be called in question at the present
day. Without such a knowledge he cannot be fully qualified
for his work, as one " that is approved unto God, and that
needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of
truth." It is apparent to all who are acquainted with the
languages that no translation, however accurate, can give a
full and fair exhibition of its original. The style of a writer
never can be translated ; and as it is often the case that much
depends upon the style, and as no translation ever can reach
it, much is lost. The version may be better, both as to
the matter and style ; but it is not, and never can be, an exact
representation of the original. In a translation we cannot
be made fully acquainted with the original author. We can
know but little of the mind of Homer by the translations of
Cowper and Pope. We learn what the latter were as poets ;
but we are ignorant, to a great degree, of the father of pro
fane poetry. The facts of the Iliad and Odyssey are given,
but their author does not narrate them. No one can claim
to be a classical scholar, though he may have devoted a life
time to the study of translations. To attain such distinction

24 MANUAL OP biblical LITEIJATUBE.
he must read the classics of Greece -and Rome, and not the
translations of England or Germany. To qualify any man
to speak or write critically of the merits of an author, it is
conceded by all to be necessary that he have a knowledge of
what the author has himself written. A version ought to
be, as far as possible, an exact image of the original arche
type, in which image nothing should be drawn, either greater
or less, better or woi-se, than the original, but so composed
that it might be acknowledged as another original itself. A
translator should use those words, and those words only, which
clearly express all the meaning of the author, and in the
same manner as the author. Where the translation, however,
cannot be made ad verhum it must be made ad sensum.
The English Bible corresponds to the original with suffi
cient exactness to impart all that is essential to salvation, and
as such is " profitable for doctrine, reproof, instruction, and
correction," being " able to make wise unto salvation, through
faith in our Lord Jesus Christ." A riian may therefore be
a faithful minister of the gospel, who is quahfied by "gifts,
grace, and usefulness," to set forth its doctrines and ^o en
force its precepts, even though his knowledge of the Scrip
tures be confined to the English version. This, however,
does not justify any who have the opportunity to acquire the
original languages of Scripture for neglecting to do so.
The Old Testament having been written in the Hebrew
language, with the exception of a very small portion, which
was written in the Chaldee, the attention of the student
should first be directed to its study. In a classical course it
is usual to study the Greek language first, and then proceed
to those which are more ancient. There may be good and
sufficient reasons for the adoption of such method in regard
to those who have an opportunity of taking a college course ;
but to those who have never enjoyed the advantages of a
classical education, there can be no reason why they may not
at once commence the study of the Hebrew. It certainly has
the advantage of being the more simple and easy language.

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 2.5
CHAPTER II.
THE HEBREW LANGUAGE.
The Hebrew is generally regarded as the most ancient of all
the oriental languages. Upwards of two thousand years
before Christ it was a written language, and vernacular to
the inhabitants of Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Arabia,
and Ethiopia. It reached its greatest perfection in the days
of David, and from that period began to decline, until the
Babylonish captivity, when it became merged into the Chal
dee, Syriac, Talmudic and Rabbinic dialects, and finally was
lost to the literary world. After it ceased to be a living lan
guage no efforts were made to interpret the few remaining
manuscripts, which scarcely comprehended two-thirds ofthe
Hebrew language, until two hundred years after Christ.
From that time to the present it has been the theme of al
most endless criticism, in regard to its origin, the number
and form of its letters, structure, orthoepy, and meaning.

CHAPTER JH.
THE ARAMEAN OR SYRIAN LANGUAGE.
The Aramean or Syrian language appeal's from the earliest
times to have been divided into two grand branches, namely,
the West Aramean; or Syriac, which was the dialect spoken
to the west, in Syria and Mesopotamia; and the East Ara
mean, generally denominated the Chaldee, which was spoken
to the east, in Babylonia, Assyria, and Chaldea. There is
no difference, however, between them. Michaelis has re
marked that the Chaldee of Daniel becomes Syriac if read
by a German or Pohsh Jew. One is distinguished from the
other by the characters in which they are written. Down to'

26 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the time of Abraham, Chaldee was identical with the He
brew. That this was the dialect of Abraham is evident from
the fact that he was a Chaldean. Isaac and his family spoke
Hebrew, which was the language of Canaan ;• and Hebrew
continued to be the language of their descendants till the
time of the Babylonian captivity. During the seventy years'
captivity these dialects were more or less merged. On the
return of the Jews to Jerusalem the priests read the law
publicly to the people, and gave an exposition of it in Chal
dee. This was the commencement of those written exposi
tions, called Targums, the most ancient of which now extant
is that written by Onkelos, a disciple of Hillel, who died sixty
years B. C. In purity of style Onkelos equals the Chaldaic
sections of Daniel and Ezra, and his fidelity to the Hebrew
text is such that he deserves to be looked upon as a transla
tor rather than a paraphrast. Besides the exposition of
Onkelos, seven others are known to be in existence ; but this
is by far the most important. Whether the Hebrew lan
guage was or was not the first language of man, and that in
which the Almighty communicated his will to our first pa
rents and the chosen depositaries of divine revelation until
the days of Moses, is a question which, with our present
means of knowledge, it is impossible satisfactorily to deter
mine. It certainly bears many internal marks of a high
antiquity. The majority of Hebrew words, for instance, are
descriptive — that is, they specify the prominent or distin
guishing quality of the person, animal, place, or thing,
which they designate ; and the vocabulary, though compara
tively poor in abstract and metaphysical terms, is rich in
words having immediate reference to those objects of sense
with which a nomadic people might be supposed to be most
conversant. Thus, there are no less than two hundred and
fifty distinct botanical terms in the Old Testament, and
synonymous forms of expression for the common actions and
occurrences of life are numerous and varied. Among these
synonymes have been counted no less than fourteen different

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 2"?
words of which each signifies to break, there are ten words
answering to the verb to seek, nine express the act of dying,
fourteen convey the idea of trust in God, nine signify the
remission of sins, and eight denote darkness ; and to express
the observance of the laws of God there are no less than
twenty-five phrases. The language appears to have attained
its utmost possible development at a very early period, and
to have remained subsequently, for ages, in the same stage,
without progression or retrogression. This is proven by
comparing the books of the Pentateuch with those of th'e
later prophets : the latter differ from the fonner only by the
disuse of a few words, which, in the course of centuries, had
become obsolete ; and by the introduction of sundry terms
which had been ingrafted on the language by intercourse
with the Assyrians and Babylonians. There are, however,
two hundred and sixty-eight verses of pure Chaldee in the
Old Testament.
A certain stifi'ness of construction, joined to great energy
and simpUcity, appears to be the most prominent feature of
Hebrew and its cognate dialects. The fundamental structure
of these dialects bears the impress of premeditation and
design. Unlike all other idioms, the roots, or elementary
words, are dissyllable and triliteral : they are, for the most
part, the third person singular, the preterite tense, active
voice of the verb ; and seem to have been originally framed
for the express purpose of representing ideas in the simplest
possible form, while the application of these ideas to denote
the varied circumstances of life (such as time past, present,
or future — personal agency, passion, or feeling) is effected,
generally, by mere changes of the vowels, placed above,
within, or below the letters of the root. Besides the vowels,
a certain set of consonants set aside for this office, and
hence called serviles, are sometimes used in modifying the
meaning of the roots. With respect to the alphabetical
system of the Hebrews, it has generally been the custom to
attribute the introduction of the square characters to Ezra.

28 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
It has lately, however, been shown that the square characters
had no existence till probably two or thrpe centuries after
the Christian era. Kopp traces the gradual formation of
these characters from the inscription on the bricks of Babylon
down through the Phoenician or Samaritan letters on the
Maccabean coins, and thence to the Palmyrene inscriptions
found among the ruins of Palmyra ; and Gesenius, in his
last edition of the grammar, admits that the square, or
modern Hebrew character, is descended from the Palmyrene.
The Rabbinical style of writing now in use among the Jews
is merely a cursive modification of the square character,
adopted for ease and expedition.
The Hebrew language, honoured by the Almighty as the
first medium of written revelation, had, in ancient times, pre
dominance over a far greater extent of territory than is com
monly supposed. It may be inferred from various passages
of sacred history that the Canaanites, or the original inhabi
tants of Canaan, conversed freely in Hebrew, or some closely
allied dialect, with Abraham, and, many years subsequently,
with the tribes of Israel, under Joshua. Thus the spies, for
instance, sent by Joshua to survey the country, had no re
course to the aid of an interpreter in their interview with
Rahab .and others. Moreover, the Canaanitish names of
places and persons, both in the time of Abraham and that
of Joshua, are pure Hebrew terms. Melchizedek, Abimelech,
Salem, Jericho, and, in fact, all names recorded in Scripture,
of persons, cities, and towns, in Canaan, might be cited as
examples. That the Canaanites formed part and portion of
the people known in profane history by the name of Phceni-
cians, has been clearly proved by the ethnographical re
searches of Gesenius and other German scholars; and in
the Septuagint the words Phoenicians and Canaanites, Pha3-
nicia and Canaan, are indiscriminately used. Hence the
obvious inference that Hebrew was the vernacular of the
Phoenicians, and that it was, therefore, the language of Tyre,
of Sidon, of Carthage, and of all the numerous colonies

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 29
founded by that intelligent and enterprising people. We
raay thus trace the use of Hebrew, as a vernacular tongue,
or as a medium of communication, all round the coast of the
Mediterranean, -with the exception of Italy and (in part) of
Greece. When the Old Testament was written probably no
language was so widely difi'used as the Hebrew. It occupied
just such a place as the Greek did in the days of the apostles.
With the sole exception of the Jews, however, the nations
by whom the Hebrew was spoken, have either passed away
from the face of the earth, or have become amalgamated
with other races. The number of Jews now dispersed
throughout the world is generally estimated at about seven
millions. Of these, there are only one hundred and seventy-
five thousand in Palestine and Syria. In England there are
thirty thousand Jews, of whom twenty thousand reside in
London. But they are still more numerous in some parts
of continental Europd. At Warsaw, for instance, they form
one-fourth part of the population. Professor Gaussen says,
" The restless feet of God's ancient people are pressing, at
this very hour, the snows of Siberia and the burning sands
of the desert." Gobat found numbers of them in the eleva
ted plains of Abyssinia, eighteen hundred miles to the south
of Cairo ; and when Denhara and Clapperton, the first trav
ellers that ventured across the great Sahara, arrived on the
banks of the lake Tchad, they also found that the wandering
Jew had preceded them by many a long year. When the
Portuguese settled in the Indian Peninsula they found three
distinct classes of Jews ; and when the English lately took
possession of Aden, in the south of Arabia, the Jews were
more in number than the Gentiles. By a census taken within
the last year, in Russia, they amount to two million two
hundred thousand ; so that their population, in that immense
empire, exceeds that of the island of Ceylon. Morocco con
tains three hundred thousand, and Tunis one hundred and
fifty thousand. In the one small town of Sana, the capital
of Arabia Feli.x, they assemble together in eighteen syna-

30 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUKE.
gogues. Yemen counts two hundred thousand ; the Turkish
empire, two hundred thousand — of which Constantinople
alone contains eighty thousand. At Brody, where the
Christians, who are ten thousand in number, have only three
churches, the Jews, twenty thousand in number,, have one
hundred and fifty synagogues. Hungary has three hundred
thousand ; Cracovic twenty-two thousand. In a word, it is
supposed that, were all the Jews assembled together, they
would form a population of seven millions ; so that, could
they be transported to the land of their fathers, this very
year, they would form a nation more numerous and powerful
than Switzerland.
From the first promulgation of the written word, special
provision was made for its preservation. A distinct command
had reference to the place where the book of the law was to
be deposited. The multiplication of copies was also provided
for by a divine decree. It was preserved by the Jews in
.their captivity in Babylon, and found in the secret vault,
beneath the ruins of the temple, after their return. It was
read pubhcly by Ezra to all the people, and, after the canon
was completed, the various books were, by him, collected,
and arranged in their present order. When the temple and
city were destroyed by the Romans, the sacred treasure was
still carefully guarded, and learned Jews opened schools for
its study in Egypt and Syria. Copies were multiplied in
difi'erent places, and by difi'erent persons and institutions.
The Jews have, as a people, been, as it were, the life and
body-guard of the Holy Book, from the eariiest period of its
pubhcation until the present time.

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 31
CHAPTER IV.
THE GREEK LANGUAGE.
The Greek language next claims our attention, as being the
vernacular of our Saviour and his Apostles, and the medium
through which they communicated the glad tidings of the
new dispensation to the world. It has been asserted that
the Gospel of Matthew was originally written in Hebrew, but
it is now generally conceded by the most eminent Biblical
critics that it was written in Greek.
The ancient Greek language was divided into four princi
pal dialects — the Attic, the Ionic, the Doric, and the JSolic —
distinguished from each other by their varieties of orthogra
phy and pronunciation. When, under Philip of Macedon,
the Grecian repubhcs lost their freedom, and became more
or less' united under one government, the various dialects
were gradually amalgamated into one. The language which
thus sprang up, from this intermixture of dialects, differed
materially from that of books preserved in the writings of
the early poets and philosophers. It, however, became cur
rent wherever the Greek language was spoken ; it was even
used by the later writers, and^ on account of its wide diffu
sion, received the name of noivfj didkEKTog, (he common
dialect. In the flexions of nouns, in the New Testament, there are
no traces of any of the ancient dialects except the Attic;
but in the flexion of verbs there is more variety, the Attic
furnishing the most examples, the Doric affording others,
while many of the forms are exclusively to be met with in
the later idiom. The influence of Hebrew characteristics is
likewise to be traced in the New Testament in several pas
sages ; the phraseology being Hebrew, while the words are
Greek. This is more especially observable in the frequent
use of a double substantive, (arising from the paucity of

32 MANUAL 01' BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
adjectives in Hebrew,) and in the use of the words of God,
as indicative of the superlative degree. The Greek alphabet
is a modification of the Phoenician, and it is to the adoption
of this alphabet, which is but ill-adapted to express any
sounds except those of Shemitic origin, that many of the
anomalies of the Greek language are to be attributed.
At the time of the first preaching of Christianity the more
civilized nations of the Roman empire (however dissimilar
their respective vernacular tonguas) were united by the bond
of a common language, which, to them, was almost the only
known medium, of poetry, learning, and philosophy. That
language was the Greek. In certain countries, as in Greece
itself, in Egypt, and, as some say, in Syria, it was used in
the common affairs of Hfe, but everywhere it was the lan
guage of literature, and, as such, held the same position that
was occupied by the Latin during the middle ages. The con
quests of Alexander the Great had been the primary cause,
under Providence, of the wide diffusion of this language,
and, although the Grecian empire was afterwards supplanted
by the Roman, yet the civilization, the arts, and language of
Greece, long remained predominant.
It is generally supposed that the autographs of the evan
gelists and apostles were not preserved beyond the com
mencement of the third century, even if they remained in
existence so long ; but, prior to that period, many copies of
the sacred writings had been made and dispersed among
the infant Churches. The most ancient copies appear gen
erally to have been written on Egyptian papyrus, a very
perishable material, none of which have reached our times.
Innumerable MSS. of the New Testament, from that of the
Codex Alexandrinus, in the fifth century, down to those of
the eighth, and on until the time of printing, have existed ;
and some of the more important may be found in libraries
at the present day. These have been compared, from time
to time, by the most eminent Biblical critics, and the integrity
of the original text has thus been secured.

BIBLICAL PHrLOLOGY. 33

CHAPTER V.
HINTS IN REGARD TO THE STUDY OP THE LAN
GUAGES OF THE BIBLE.
Professor Fbancke says, in his " Study of the Scriptures,"
that " with ministers the Greek language is not to be studied
as it would be by the professed grammarian, but simply
with a view to divinity and the New Testament; though
certainly a student may profitably cultivate a larger acquaint
ance vrith it afterwards, provided the Hebrew and other
necessary studies be not neglected. So much of it, however,
as is really essential may be easily acquired by attending to
the'follbwing observations: —
" The first seven chapters of Matthew's Gospel should be
read with an accurate version until the learner be able to
translate the Greek text, without difficulty, into his own or
any other language. He ought not, however, in this his
first attempt to be anxious to comprehend all the principles
of grammatical construction, nor, on account of partial igno
rance in this particular, should he forego the improvement
which must ever attend a fi-equent translating of the text.
Yet, in order that no delay may be occasioned through a
want of some acquaintance with the grammar, it will be
proper to read and review frequently the paradigms of the
declensions and conjugations with other grammatical rudi
ments, and thus gradually impress them on the mind.
When the study of these accompanies a perusal of the seven
chapters, theory and practice mutually assist each other. It
remains, not'withstanding, to devote more time to the latter
than to the former — to the reading the New Testament than
to studying the grammar. Practice may prove a substitute
for theory, but theory can avail nothing without practice.
When the seven chapters in question have been thoroughly
(Studied, and the requisite paradigms have been familiarized,
3

34 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the New Testament should be read through in its natural
order, with a collated and accurate version, and the signifi
cation and grammatical nature of words may be sought
for in a lexicon. The student should impress the signifi
cation of words on his memory by writing them, or by re
peatedly reading the chapters, accordingly as he may deem
either method adapted to his genius. Students should re
mark that this reading is not to be prosecuted in an irregular
and inconstant manner. Other pursuits must submit to a
temporary or at least partial cessation, lest they obliterate
what has been learned, and lest a distaste for this should be
acquired, when long-continued labors are not accompanied
with that improvement with which they would, in the course
of a few weeks, be otherwise attended. Words which are
continually recurring, under different forms and various com
binations, are, without much difficulty, impressed on the
mind. It is, therefore, a judicious distribution of time to allot
a stated period to the study of a language, and remit, during
that term, every other pursuit It is proper to remark here
that every one should take into consideration his time, his
opportunities, his genius, &c., and not prematurely draw
conclusions unfavorable to himself, from comparing his ^owu
method and progress with those of others, while he perhaps
enjoys, in a higher degree, the means of acquiring other
branches of this study equally useful and important.
 " The New Testament being perused in this manner, and in
as short a period as possible, it should undergo a second
reading. A student of divinity could scarcely be so dull as
not to gain, in this way, an acquaintance with the New Tes
tament within three months. In acquiring a knowledge of
the Greek tongue, as well as preserving it when attained, it
will prove of considerable advantage if the learner accustom
himself to carry a pocket edition of the Greek Testament
about with him, and when any text is propounded, either in
public or private, to search it but immediately, and collate
the original with it.

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 36
" The Hebrew language next claims our attention. As it
regards the order, whether the Hebrew or Greek be first
studied, is not at all important. The method which I shall
propose for acquiring the Hebrew language resembles that
prescribed for the Greek. The first four chapters of Genesis
should be studied and collated with an accurate version until
the learner be capable of rendering the Hebrew text into his
vernacular idiom without the aid of a translation. It will
next be proper to commit to memory some rudiments of the
grammar, so as to enable the learner to know what are pre
fixes and affixes, as well as the more necessary paradigms.
More time, however, must be allotted to reading the text it
self than to studying the grammar, which will undoubtedly
be attained with greater facility and pleasure when the lan
guage is become in some measure familiarized. Experience
has repeatedly and clearly evinced to the conviction of many
besides myself, that, in the course of only four days, these
chapters may be perfectly known — so known as that the
student shall be able to translate the text into another lan
guage, to ascertain the roots and their signification, and to
separate from them the prefixes and affixes with which they
stand connected. The great assistance which this must afl'ord
in a second reading is evident. Surely a week so employed
is calculated to improve a learner more than three months
spent over the grammar, and in the practice of analyzing
alone, through a dislike to which many persons have totally
given up the study of the Hebrew tongue.
" The Old Testament being thus thoroughly perused, which
we have known some do in the course of three months, it
may be read a second time, and in a shorter period, remem
bering that it should be a chief concern with the student not
to lose what was acquired in the first reading.
" In learning a language it is a practice of no small utility
for two or three to unite in the prosecution of their studies,
where it is practicable, as they will mutually assist each
other.

36 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
"The following rules should be observed in the study of

¦ 1. Never be weary of writing the signification of words.
" 2. When the root of any word is not of easy attainment,
write the word in the margin, and, instead of searching it
out in a lexicon, ascertain it from a tutor or friend.
" 3. The Biblical student should carefully guard against
reading without rule or plan ; he must proceed through the
books of the inspired writings in their regular succession.
" 4. Let it be deeply impressed on the mind that all things
cannot be learned at once. It is not requisite that the stu
dent should, in the first reading, make himself master of every
difficulty. "
" 5. The text should be frequently read aloud ; the custom
of reading mentally often induces a habit of stammering.
"6. The tutor should read the text and cause his pujjils
carefully to imitate his pronunciation.
" 7. Frequently review what has been read — at least once a
week. " 8. The Book of Chronicles should follow the Book of
Kings. Those parts of the Hagiograplia which are written
in Chaldee may, in the first reading, be omitted.
" 9. Different teachers should not be employed.
" 10. Words that seldom or but once occur may be noted
on paper.
" 11. Proper substantives, which are not easily distinguish- '
able from appellatives, should be marked with a pen."
The following is Professor Tefft's plan, which has been
pronounced by competent authority to be the best which has
been devised. It will be seen that all plans proposing to
instruct without a teacher must be deficient, more or less,
especially when apphed to the dead languages : —
"1. The entire grammar of the language must be pre
sented to the eye.
" 2. At the same time it must be represented, by a com
petent teacher, to the ear.

BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY. 37
" 3. The pupil having before him the visible, and listening
to the audible representations of the language, must himself
utter, in unison with his teacher, what he hears and sees.
" 4. The act of seeing, hearing, and uttering the forms of
the language, must be repeated until they are fastened on
the memory, as near as may be, without the possibility of
mistake, forgetfulness, or loss."
To carry out these general principles. Professor Tefl't has
executed a series of charts for each language, of immense
size for schools, but in reduced dimensions for small classes
and individuals. The smaller are perfect fac-similes of the
larger charts. On these charts everything to be committed
to memory is presented. The teacher standing before the
large chart, points with his rod to what he utters, which the
pupil sees and hears at once, and then imitates, as above
explained. Each portion of the chart or lesson is repeated
publicly in class, or to individual scholars, until they can
easily and readily repeat it themselves, when, with the
".mailer or hand-chart in his room, all is reiterated at pleas-
are, until a perfect mastery is gained over each lesson.
While this process of instruction is going forward, innumer
able practical applications are made, that the pupil may, all
through the course, know how to use the information he is
obtaining, as well as feel the importance of absolute accuracy
in what he professes to have learned. These apphcations,
altogether too numerous and complicated to be given in detail
here, are the most ingenious and valuable portion of Professor
Tefft's plan. To appreciate this plan fully, the reader should
procure a set of the professor's charts, together with the
accompanying books, which, as we know from personal ob
servation, win impart a knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew
languages in less than one-fourth of the time usually em
ployed ; besides, the work done is thorough and effectual,
and the knowledge, from the very nature of its reception, is
scarcely, if ever, lost or forgotten. The plan has received
the wa,rm approbation of some of the greatest linguists of

38 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
America, and needs only to be known to be universally re
ceived and appreciated.
For the study of the Greek New Testament the following
text-books are recommended : Bloomfield's Greek Testament, .
or Bagster's Critical Greek and English, in parallel columns ;
Robinson's Greek Lexicon, Stuart's Greek Grammar of the
New Testament, Winer's Idioms of the Greek Language of
the New Testament, M'Chntock's First and Second Book iu
Greek, and Robinson's Buttmann (late edition). For the
study of the Hebrew Old Testament, Biblia Hebraica, edited
by Aug. Hahn ; Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon ; Gesenius's
Hebrew Grammar, with Exercises and Chrestomathy, edited
by Conant. The above are believed to be the most valuable
of any works of the kind extant.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM.

. CHAPTER I.
lOBJECTS OF BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
The objects of Biblical criticism are the several kinds of
difficulties which occur in the sacred writings, and which
must be removed in order to the right understanding of
these writings. As all difficulties must regard either the
reading or the sense, criticism is two-fold — corrective or emen-
datory, being employed in determining the true reading; and
explanatory or exegetical, discovering the genuine sense.
The latter is treated of in the chapter on Biblical Exegesis,
and the object of this chapter is to treat exclusively of the
former. The first writer who directed his attention to the criticism
of the Bible was Origen, who was bom in Egypt, in the
second century. His criticism was directed to the correction
of the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible
made at Alexandria for the benefit of the Greek Jews. He
ascertained that in the various manuscript copies of thel
Septuagint which he had collected there were alterations,
made either by design or carelessness of transcribers, which
caused them to differ materially from each other. The name
given to this work is Bibha Hexapla, or Bible in six columns.
The first column was occupied by — 1. The Hebrew, which
he made the basis or standard. 2. The Hebrew in Greek
characters. 3. The version of Aquila. 4. The version of
Symmachus. 5. The version of the LXX., or Septuagint.
6. The version of Theodotion. In those books which contained'

40 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
likewise two anonymous versions, and occupied, therefore,
eight columns, it was called Biblia Octapla, and in those
. passages where a third anonymous version was introduced,
it was called Biblia Enneapla. Inasmuch as out of the six
columns which ran through the whole work, only four were
occupied with Greek translations, the work has been called
by some Tetrapla. These, however, are only different names
of one work. It is said Origen was twenty-eight years in
making preparation for writing the Hexapla. It was begun
at Caesarea, and finished at Tyre. This immense work was
placed in the library at Csesarea, where it was consumed by
fire on the irruption ai the Saracens. Origen was followed
in his labors by Lucian, a presbyter of the Church at Antioch,
and Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop.
The Scriptures, as well as all other writings, being preserved
and diffused by transcription, were unavoidably hable to be
corrupted, and in the copies of them different readings are
actually found, whence arises the necessity of criticism for
determining the true reading. In order to this it will be
proper to ascertain the nature of a various reading — to point
out the sources of false readings — to distinguish the several
kinds of them, and to lay down rules for judging of the
genuine reading. This subject, which involves an inquirv
respecting fax:t, namely, what the author wrote, may be
compared to a judicial procedure, in which the critic sits on
the bench, and the charge of corruption in the reading is
brought against the text. The witnesses from whom evi
dence is to be obtained respecting what the author wrote, are
manuscript copies, ancient editions, old versions, and other
books of antiquity, the authors of which quoted the text
from manuscripts.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 41

CHAPTER H.
THE NATURE OF A VARIOUS READING.
However plain the meaning of a various reading may seem
to be, it has been sometimes understood so as to introduce
confusion or mistake. Some have allowed the name only to
such readings as may possibly have proceeded from the
author ; but this restriction is improper. According to this
definition all the differences of copies are reducible to four
heads. 1. Such as are improperly called various readings — sole
cisms, absurdities, palpable blunders of transcribers, typo
graphical errors, differences in syllabication, (fee, which take
in the greatest part of the variations found in copies, but are
to be reckoned, some corruptions, others trifles, none various
readings. To refuse these, however, the name of various
readings is improper, for it is to call that no reading which
is actually read in some copies ; and it is useless, for the
merit and the real occasion of a reading are often matters of
difficult discussion.
2. Such as it is doubtful whether they be improperly
various readings, or whether they be properly such as capable
of having come down from the author — readings, for in
stance, in quotations which may have been taken either from
a copy or from memory. Such, too, should be considered as
various readings till sufficient reason appear for rejecting
them on examination.
3. Such as are real and proper various readings, since
any of them might have been the original reading, but of
no importance — synonymous words, for example, or such as
do not alter the sense ; and of this kind there are many.
4. Such readings as are both real and important, as making
an alteration in the sense ; and these are not very numerous.

42 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
This division of various readings, when accurately defined,
amounts to no more than this, that some are genuine and
some corruptions ; some are important and some trivial ; but
it does not imply that all these kinds are not truly various
readings. To speak properly, wherever, in two copies of a writing,
there is a difference, that difference forms a various reading,
except only when it regards the manner of syllabication.
For example, Igrivrj or elprjvr], avret or avri, elgig or eptf,
nal or KE, (fee.
Every reading different from what was originally written
by the author is a false reading, or a corruption ; and evei-y
various reading shows that there is a corruption in some of
the copies; for two different readings cannot both be the
original one of the author ; but every various reading is not
of itself a corruption, for it may be the very one which pro
ceeded from the author.

CHAPTER III.
SOURCES OF FALSE READINGS.
For determining between various readings it is of great use
to know the sources of false readings, which are reducible to
two, viz., chdnce and design.
To chance are to be ascribed all the mistakes made by a
transcriber or copyist, without his intending them at the
time or perceiving them afterwards. Haste and carelessness
have produced many mistakes, and might introduce false
readings of every possible sort, and have rendered some
copies extremely inaccurate. A transcriber might become
inattentive and absent-minded, and thus not write what was in
his copy, but whatever he happened to be thinking about at the
time. To this cause some false readings are to be attributed,
and such, too, as seem most strange and unaccountable.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 43
To ascertain more fully the occasions of false readings, it-
ought to be observed that as a transcriber sometimes wrote
ft'om a copy before him, so, at other times, he wrote from
the mouth of a person who dictated to several at once, in
both of which cases mistakes might arise from reading wrong,
and, in the latter, from hearing wrong.
Many letters, both in Hebrew and Greek, are similar in
form, and more were similar, according to the modes of writ
ing used in some ages, than now ; such letters might easily
be, and have often been, put one for another ; and acquaint
ance with the several successive modes of writing will show
both the occasions of false readings thence arising, and the
times of their introduction.
Many false readings have arisen from confounding letters
or words similar in sound, especially by reason of indistinct
ness, either in pronouncing or in hearing, when one dictated
and others wrote.
A transcriber sometimes gave a false reading by writing a
word while the sound of a preceding word was still in his
mind. A transcriber having read or heard a whole clause at once,
and retaining the sense, but forgetting some of the precise
words, wrote a synonymous word in the place of what was
in his copy. To this head belong very many various read
ings. A reader or transcriber casting his eye on a preceding line
or word, and not observing the mistake, would write over
again what he had already written, which would especially
happen when, in the place on which he happened to cast his
eye, he found the same or similar words or letters as he had
last written ; or, if he cast his eye on a word or line subse
quent to where he was writing, and especially if he there
found a word similar to what he had written last, or to what
he should have written next, he would readily write from
that subsequent place, omitting all that intervened. Having
written one or more words from a wrong place, and not ob-

44 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
serving it, or not choosing' to erase it, he might return to the
right hne, and thus make an improper insertion of a word,
or a whole sentence. Or, when a transcriber had made an
omission, and afterwards observed it, he then subjoined what
he had omitted, and thus produced a transposition.
From these occasions of false readings, several principles
may be deduced for forming a proper decision in regard to
various readings.
1. If a reading which is easily accounted for, from an or
dinary blunder of a transcriber, be found only in a few man
uscripts, it is, in all probability, a false reading.
2. If a reading which yields no sense, or suits not the
connexion, or disagrees with other texts, can be naturally
accounted for by an ordinary mistake of transcribers, it is a
false reading.
3. Among different readings, that is probably the genuine
one from which the others may have easily arisen, but whicih
could not so naturally arise from them.
4. Hence the most unusual reading is, generally speaking,
the true one : for a transcriber would not so readily write it
by mistake as one to which he was more accustomed.
5. Hence, also, the fuller reading is generally the genuine
one, whenever there is no reason to suspect an interpolation ;
for a letter, a word, or a sentence, may be more easily omit
ted than added, when there is nothing to suggest the addi
tion. The second source of false readings is design. All such
as are made knowingly and wilfully are to be ascribed to
this source, and also such as, having been made accidentally,
are wilfully allowed to remain after being perceived. Mis
takes accidentally made have often been designedly permit
ted to remain uncorrected, that the beauty or price of the
manuscript might not be lessened by disfiguration.
Many false readings are owing to assimilation : when a
transcriber had once found or written a word wrong he pur
posely altered that, or related words, in conformity to the

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 45
mistake. Critical transcribers sometimes transferred what
they thought a clearer or fuller expression, or added a cir
cumstance to one place from a parallel passage — a liberty
often taken, especially in the Gospels ; and therefore of two
readings, one of which is exactly conformable to a corre
spondent passage, and the other not, but yet consistent with
it, the latter is preferable.
Critics sometimes corrected the New Testament from the
Greek version of the Old ; and therefore when one reading of
a quotation agrees exactly with that version,- and another not
so exactly, the former, if not well supported, is suspicious,
and the latter preferable. Critics sometimes altered the text
of the New Testament in conformity to the Vulgate or Latin
version, and readings plainly arising from this cause deserve
no regard. They sometimes also altered their copies with a
view to correct some word in them which they did not un
derstand, or considered faulty ; and, therefore, when of two
readings one is perfectly clear and the other difficult or ob
scure, but such as may be explained by the help of antiquity
or perfect knowledge of the language, the former is suspicious
and the latter is probably genuine. Critical transcribers
sometimes omitted words which they considered superfiuous.
Critics in transcribing sometimes added words for illustrating
what they thought defective or improper. It was common
to write alterations or additions for the sake of illustration, as
glosses on the "margin, from which transcribers afterwards
took them sometimes into the text, and for this reason the
fuller reading, whenever it could serve tor illustration or con
nexion, is generally suspicious, and to be rejected.
Persons have sometimes made alterations in the copies of
Scripture with a wilful intention of corrupting them, in order
to answer some particular purpose.
It has been a question whether the Jews have, in any in
stance, wilfully corrupted the Old Testament ? It is denied,
because of their veneration for the Scriptures, their not being
accused of it by Christ, the impossibility of their doing it

46 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
afterwards without detection, and their having left so many
predictions favourable to Christianity. But it is answered
that their veneration for the Scripturep gives no absolute se
curity — that there are good reasons why Christ did not ac
cuse them, though guilty — that they might hope to avoid
detection by the ignorance of Hebrew among the first Chris
tians — that the earhest who understood it do charge them
with wilful corruptions — that their not going all lengths- is
no proof that they have attempted none — ^that evidence of a
single instance would outweigh all general arguments — and
that though the charge against them has been carried too far,
yet there is sufficient evidence that for the honour of their own
nation, or from hatred to Christianity, they have wilfully
corrupted some texts, and in others given the preference to
false readings which had at first arisen from other causes.
Some false readings, though not so many as have been
imputed to them by the Fathers, and by others on their
authority, were introduced or attempted by the ancient her
etics, purposely in favour of their errors ; but such were easily
detected and soon rejected.
The prevailing party in the Church, who have always
called themselves the orthodox, had it much more in their
power to, introduce and transmit false readings, and they
have sometimes introduced them, and oftener given them the
preference after being accidentally' made, on purpose to favour
some received opinion, or to preclude an objection against it.
Mistaken zeal is forward to impute false readings to design
in those whom it opposes ; but we ought not to ascribe them
to this principle rashly, where they might have naturally
arisen from chance, or where there is no positive presumption
or evidence of design.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 47

CHAPTER IV.
KINDS OF FALSE READINGS.
False readings are of four kinds — 1. Omissions ; 2. Ad
ditions ; 3. Transpositions; and 4. Alterations — and each
of them may be either of letters, of words, or of sentences.
It will be useful to notice some of the most remarkable of
each kind, especially such as are found either in several
manuscripts, in received versions, or in printed editions, point
ing out how they have arisen and how they are corrected.
1. Omissions easily happen through carelessness, and
sometimes have been made by design, but always alter,
pervert, or destroy the sense, which will be restored by sup
plying. The omission of a single letter may happen very
readily, and from many different causes, and has happened
very frequently, but is often of great importance. Some
times by accident and sometimes designedly, when the intro
duction of the vowel-points was thought to render them unne
cessary, the vowel letters, in particular, have been improperly
omitted, especially vav and yodh, on account of their small-
ness,, and the omission has produced improper and even ab
surd readings. The improper omission _ of vav satiates the
language, or changes the sense, by altering the persons of
pronouns and the numbers of verbs, by taking away the
copulative, and, when it is conversive, turning the future into
the past, by suppressing the possessive pronoun. The im
proper omission of yodh, which has been very frequent, per
verts the syntax or the sense, by turning plural into singular
nouns, by changing the persons of verbs, by altering the
future into the past, by suppressing the affixed pronoun.
Omissions of entire words are very frequent, and always
introduce obscurity, absurdity, or a difference in sense.
There have sometimes happened omissions of several words

48 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. I
together, or of whole sentences, which in a variety of ways
mutilate or vitiate the sense.
2. Additions and interpolations have often been made in
transcribing the Scriptures, and perplex the sense, which will
be cleared by removing them. The interpolation or addition
of letters has been common among transcribers, but generally
destroys or alters the sense.
The arbitrary and improper insertion of vav changes the
personal pronouns, turns singulars into plurals, and gives su
perfluous conjunctions. The interpolation of yodh has in
very many instances turned singular nouns into plurals, the
second persons of verbs into the first, the past into the future,
and gives a suffix pronoun where there should be none, and,
in all these cases, introduces great impropriety or perversion
of the sense. There have been interpolations of words from
many causes, and particularly from taking marginal glosses
into the text, which disturb or destroy the sense. Several
words or whole sentences have been interpolated, to -the
great disturbance of the sense.
3. Other false readings are produced by transposition, and
often create difficulties which can be removed only by cor
recting them. The transposition of letters in a word often
changes its sense, or deprives it of all meaning, and, in
proper names, occasions an appearance of contradiction.
There are transpositions of words which produce confusion,
obscurity, or absurdity. There are likewise transpositions of
whole sentences, or periods, which occasion difficulties of va
rious kinds.
4. Finally, there are many false readings, productive of
difficulty or error, which consist in change or alteration..
Not only similar letters, but others also have been confounded
and interchanged by transcribers, and important alterations
in the sense have thence arisen. Transcribers have often
made a false reading hj putting one word instead of another.
There have sometimes been substitutions of whole sentences
in place of others totally different.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 49

CHAPTER V.

RULES OP JUDGING CONCERNING VARIOUS
READINGS.
The evidences by which various readings may be examined
are of two kinds — external and internal — the former arising
from the authority of manuscripts, versions, and quotations ;
the latter from the nature of the languages, the sense and
connexion, and the known occasions of false readings. Par
allel cases partake of tlie nature of both.
When the evidences of both kinds concur in favour of a
reading, there can be no doubt that it is the genuine reading,
and therefore we have full assurance of the genuineness of
the great bulk of the Scriptures as contained in all the com
mon editions.
When the evidence for and against a reading is divided,
the determination must be made according to the circum
stances of each particular case.
If the external evidence stands on the one side, and the
internal on the other, the former ought in general to deter
mine the question, for it is the most direct.
But the internal evidence may, notwithstanding, be so
strong as to overbalance a great degree of external evidence,
particularly where the reading supported by the latter is
palpably false, or where the introduction and prevalence of it
can be easily accounted for without supposing it genuine, as
in copies plainly framed in conformity to the Masora.
Often bbth the external and internal evidence is partiy for
one reading and partly for another, and they are divided
with so great varieties of circumstances that no rules of de
ciding, strictly universal, can be laid down.
But if we distinguish various readings into four classes —
certainly genuine, p-obable, doubtful and fahe — it may be
4

50 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
possible to determine -with sufficient precision the circum
stances which entitle a reading to be placed in one or another
of these classes.
1. There are readings certainly genuine, and there are
even different degrees of evidence which may ascertain them
to be .such, and all such ought to be adopted without hesitation.
Readings are certainly right, and that in the very highest
sense, if at all consistent with the existence of any various read
ing, which are supported by several of the most ancient, or
the majority of manuscripts — by all or most of the ancient
versions — by quotations — by parallel places, if there be any,
and by the sense; though these readings be not found in the
common editions, nor perhaps in any printed edition.
Again, readings are certainly right which are supported
by a few ancient manuscripts, in conjunction with the ancient
versions, quotations, parallel places, and the sense, • though
they are not found in most manuscripts nor in the printed
editions, especially when the rejection of them in these latter
can be easily accounted for.
Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the Samaritan
copy, a few Hebrew manuscripts, the ancient versions, par
allel places, and the sense, are certainly right, though they
are not found in the generality of Hebrew manuscripts nor
editions. Readings in the Pentateuch, supported by the Samaritan,
ancient versions, parallel places, and the sense, are certainly
right, though they are not found in any Hebrew manuscripts
now extant.
Ancient manuscripts, supported by some of the ancient
versions and the sense, render a reading certainly right,
though it is not found in the more modern.
Again, ancient manuscripts, supported by parallel passages
and the sense, may show a reading to be certainly right.
The concurrence of the most ancient, or of a great number
of manuscripts, along with countenance from the sense, is
sufficient to show a reading to be certainly right.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 51
The concurrence of the ancient versions is sufficient to es
tablish a reading as certainly right when the sense or a par
allel place shows both the propriety of that 'reading and the
corruption of what is found in the copies of the original.
In a text evidently coi'rupted a parallel place may suggest
a reading certainly genuine.
Readings certainly genuine ought to be restored to the
text of the printed editions, though hitherto admitted into
none of them, that they may henceforth be rendered as <3or-
rect as possible ; they ought likewise to be adopted in all
versions of Scripture ; and till this is done they ought to be
followed in explaining it.
2. There are various readings probably genuine, when the
evidence preponderates, but it is not absolutely decisive in
their favour ; of which kind — as criticism is not always sus
ceptible of certainty — are far the greatest part of various
readings, and the degrees of probability being almost infinite,
according to the numberless minute alterations of circum
stances, down from certainty to perfect doubtfulness, it is
impossible to enumerate fully all the cases which fall under
this heaci ; but the most general cases may be distinguished.
Of two readings, neither of which is unsuitable to the
sense, either of which may have naturally arisen from the
other, and both of which are supported by manuscripts, ver
sions, and quotations, the one will be more probable than the
other in proportion to the preponderance of the evidence
which supports it, and that preponderance admits a great
variety of degrees.
Of two readings equally or almost equally supported by
external evidence, that is probable which best suits the sense,
or the nature of the language, or which could not so readily
as the other have been written by mistake.
The sense and other external evidences may even render
the reading of a few manuscripts probable, in opposition to
that of the greater number, and of versions and quotations.
The Samaritan Pentateuch alone may render a reading

52 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
in the books of Moses highly probable, if it be supported by
the sense, connexion, or parallel places, in opposition to an
other found in irianuscripts and versions, but unsuitable to
these internal circumstances.
One or a few ancient versions may render a reading prob
able when it is strongly supported by the sense, connexion,
or parallel places, in opposition to one which suits not these,
though found in other versions and in manuscripts.
The concurrence of all 0r most of the ancient versions in
a reading not found in manuscripts now extant, renders it
probable, if it be agreeable to the sense, though not abso
lutely necessary to it.
Conjectural readings, strongly supported by the sense, the
connexion, the nature of the language, or similar texts, may
sometimes have probability, especially when it can be shown
that they would easily have given occasion to the present
reading ; and readings first suggested merely by conjecture
have in several cases been afterwards found to be actually in
manuscripts. Probable readings may have so high a degree of evidence
as justly entitles them to be inserted into the text in place of
the received readings much less probable. Such as have
not considerably higher probability than the common ones
should only be put on the margin ; but they and all others
ought to be weighed with impartiality.
3. Readings are doubtful when the evidence for and
against them is so equally balanced that it is difficult to de
termine which of them preponderates.
When manuscripts, versions, and other authorities, are
equally or almost equally divided between readings which
all suit the sense and connexion, it is difficult to determine
which of them shonld be preferred.
The sense, and other internal evidences, may plead sc
strongjy for one reading, and the authority of manuscripts
and versions so strongly for another, as to render it doubtful
which ought to be preferred.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM. 53
Both the external and the internal evidence may be so
much divided between two readings as to render it doubtful
which of them demands the preference.
There are passages, especially in the Old Testament, where
the fewness of independent manuscripts or their discordance,
the obscurity or the variations of the versions, or other de
fects of evidence for any one reading, render it very doubtful
what is the genuine reading, and leave room for different
conjectures. No doubtful readings should be taken into the text in
place of what is already there ; for no alteration ought to be
made in the received copies without positive reason, and such
doubtful readings as are already in the text should be marked
as such, and the others put on the margin ; but every person
is at liberty to use his own judgment in choosing which he
pleases. 4. There are readings which are obviously wrong, and of
this kind are far the greatest part of the variations from the
received copies ; but to it belong, likewise, several which
have, by the injudiciousness, the inattention, or the prejudices
of transcribers and editors, been admitted into these, and
such readings are certainly wrong.
All readings are certainly wrong which stand in opposition
to the several classes of readings certainly genuine, of which
many examples might be given. Some of these have been
received, though they bear plain marks of corruption, as im
plying barbarism, inconsistency, (fee.
Readings which imply barbarism, solecism, or absurdity,
may be pronounced certainly wrong, though we know of no
reading certainly right to be substituted in their place.
All readings are probably wrong which stand in opposition
to such as are probably genuine, and these, too, have been
already exemplified in many instances.
Readings which imply considerable irregularity or impro
priety are probably false, though it be not clear what rfeading ,
should be adopted instead of them.

64 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Readings certainly or very probably false ought to be ex
punged from the editions of the Scriptures, and departed
from in versions of them, however long and generally they
have usurped a place there, as being manifest corruptions,
which impair the purity of the sacred books.
Among texts the true reading of which is controverted,
the most remarkable, in several respects, is 1 John v, 7, 8,
where the words ev tS ovpavcji, b narfip, 6 Xoyog, Kat to
dyiov TTvevfia, Kal ovtoi ol rpeZf ev elaf Kal rpelg elaiv
fiaprvgovvTeg ev r^j .jxi, are by some held to be genuine,
and by others to be spurious ; and all the kinds of evidence,
both external and internal, having been urged on both sides,
it is only by a fair comparison of them that it can be deter
mined in which of the four classes this reading ought to be
placed.

fart %\xxh
BIBLICAL EXEGESIS.

CHAPTER I.
INTERPRETATION IN GENERAL.
Biblical exegesis relates to the interpretation of the Scrip
tures, and may be deiineSthatscience which teaches the
student to find not only the meaninsr of an author, but en-
¦ ables him to explain it_to others. Some have made a dis
tinction between hermeneutics and exegesis, making the former
to consist in the theory or science of interpretation, while the
latter relates to hsjiract^l^^^^icaiion. The etymology of
the words would seem to favour this idea, inasmuch as epay-
vevG) signifies to interpret, and k^rryeouai to lead out or
teach. The importance of both to him whose business it is
to explain the sacred text, will be readily conceded by all
who have correct views on this subject.
The interpretation of the sacred books is the most import
ant and the most difficult task of the theologian. This
will appear from the very nature of the work, from the expe
rience of all who are engaged in it, and from the common con
sent of all periods. All correct knowledge and judicious
defence of divine truth must originate from a right under
standing and accurate interpretation of the Scriptures. The
purity of the Christian religion has shone brighter or been ob
scured as the study of interpretation has flourished or decayed.
Christian doctrines are preserved only in written records,
and the interpretation of these is essential to a knowledge
of what those doctrines are, and without this knowledge we
can neither maintain their purity nor defend their principles.

56 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
The science of interpretation requires patient and diligent
research and the exercise of a sound discriminating judg
ment ; all these are necessary in enabling one to conduct an
exegetical inquiry to a successful issue. Th.e,,4iS£HiM&s '^'^^'
nected with this subject vanish as the student becomes fa
miliar with the peculiar dialect, irianners, customs^ucation,
style, modes of thought and expression, location, climate,
governmentr&c.7*of theautEors. This only will enaBle the
student to attach to an author's language the same meaning
which the author himself attached to it, and by this he will
be enabled to teach this meaning to others. We should
come to the work of the interpretation of a writer with a
mind unprejudiced and clear, and, having examined the
grammatical construction and idiom of the language he uses,
we. should next examine the context and design. His mean-'
ing may be further iUustrated by history, chronology, an
tiquities, (fee.
Exegesis, considered as the science of finding the true
sense of words, consists of two parts. The first comprises
general principles in respect to the meaning of words, and
the various kinds of words. On these principles the rules of
interpretation, and the reasons of them, are grounded.
The second consists of rules which are to guide us in in
vestigating the sense of an author's words.

CHAPTER IL
MEANING OF WORDS.
Every word must have some meaning. To every word in
the Scriptures there is unquestionably assigned some meaning
or sense— some idea or notion of a thing ; otherwise words
would be useless, and have no more signification than the
inarticulate sounds of animals.
The literal sense of words is that which is first presented

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 57
to the mind as soon as the sound is heard. It is the sense
of the letter. It is the primitive or original sense.
Words considered simply as sounds have no meaning, for
they are not the natural and necessary signs of things, but
conventional ones. Usage or custom has constituted a con
nexion between words and ideas. The connexion between
words and ideas is now rendered necessary by usage, what
ever may have been the case at first. This does not mean,
however, that a word may only have one meaning, for us^ge
contradicts this. We must not, in interpreting or using a
word, affix to it an arbitrary sense. A word cannot have a
double sense at the same time and in the same passage or
expression. An arbitrary sense can never, with propriety,
be substituted for a real one.
Although a word can have but one meaning at the same
time and in the same place, usage, which is the law of lan
guage, has gradually assigned many meanings to the same
word, lest words should be indefinitely multiplied, and the
difficulty of learning a language become too great. The
question, then, for an interpreter is simply this : Which one of
the significations attached to the words is connected with its
use in any particular instance ?
The meaning of a word in each case can be found from
the general manner of speaking — i. e., common usage, and
the words of the context. The primary meaning is attached
to the word unless the context or design requires another.
The doubtful meaning of words arises from various causes.
1. From the fault of writers. 2. From neglect in the con
struction and necessary connexion of words, care not having
been taken to guard the reader against uncertainty, and to
afford him the best means for finding the true sense.
3. From the manner in which common usage often forms
language, which, not being guided by the philosophy of
language, is frequently deficient in regard to accuracy.
From what has been said, we see the ground of all the
certainty which attends the interpretation of language : for

58 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
there can be no certainty at all in the interpretation of any
passage unless a kind of necessity compel us to give a par
ticular sense to a word, which sense must be one ; and unless
there are special reasons for a tropical or figurative meaning,
it must be the literal sense. A principle of interpretation
which allows many meanings to a word at the same time
and in the same place, must introduce very great uncertainty
into exegesis, than which nothing can be more pernicious.
The idea that the words of Scripture must be taken in
every sense at the same time and place, gives a license to
the introduction of allegory, prophecy, and mystery into
every part of the Bible. The Rabbinic maxim is : " On every
point of the Scripture hang suspended mountains of sense."
The Talmud says : " God so gave the law to Moses that a
thing can be shown to be clean and unclean in forty-nine
different ways." A modem commentator maintains that all
the possible meanings of a word in the Scripture are to be
united. The sense of words properly considered is not allegorical.
Allegory is rather an accommodation of the sense of words,
or an accommodation of things to the illustration of some
doctrine. Moderately used and well adapted it may be of
service, but in the hands of the injudicious and unskilful it
may degenerate into ridiculous triffing.
Property speaking, there is no typical sense of words.
Types are not words but things, which God has designated
as signs of future events. The explanation of them which
the Holy Spirit himself has given makes them inteUigible.
Beyond his instructions we should be careful never to
go. The Old Testament is to be no further regarded as
typical than the New Testament makes it so, as that is
the key which alone can discover to us what is typical in
the Old Testament. A word may be tropical and yet not
allegorical or mystical.
The sense of words, as we have already shown, depends
upon the usus loquendi, or common usage. If we understand

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 59
the usage, then, of course, we understand the sense of the
words. The way to determine the usus loquendi is by taking
into account the religion, sect, education, common life, civil
affairs, (fee, of all which have an influence on an author's
language, and characterize it. The same word is employed
in one sense respecting the ordinary things of life — in another
respecting the things of religion — ^in another still in the
schools of philosophy ; and even these are not all alike in
the use of words. To these causes, which operate upon the
usus loquendi, must be added the style of the writer.
Those who make one sense the grammatical and another
the logical, do not comprehend the true meaning of gram
matical sense. Interpreters now speak of the grammatico-
historical sense, and exegesis founded on the nature of lan
guage is called grammatico-histovical. The grammatical
sense is the only true one. If this were not the case words
would have as many kinds of senses as objects are multifari
ous. A grammatical sense may be either literal or tropical.
The principles of interpretation are common to sacred and
profane writings ; hence the Scriptures are to be investigated
by the same rules as other books. The Scriptures are a
revelation to men, and hence they are to be read and under
stood by men. If the same laws of language are not ob
served in reading this revelation as are common to men, then
they have no guide to the right understanding of the Scrip
tures, and an interpreter needs inspiration as much as the
original writer, and the Scriptures would be no revelation at
ali except to those who were inspired. But God has spoken
in the language of men, and he has spoken by men for
men. The interpreter is not to be guided in his work by the
analogy of faith. Things and the analogy of faith, as it is
called, assist an interpreter so far that when words are am
biguous, either from variety, structure, signification, or any
other cause, they may help us determine the meaning.
With many the analogy of faith is all the rule of interpre-

60 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
tation they have ; and this, instead of being a Scriptural
analogy, is nothing more nor less than a sectarian analogy.
The doctrines of the Bible are cast into this sectarian mould,
be it the decrees of the Council of Trent, the articles of the
Church of England, or the Saybrook platform, or any other
of the many sectarian standards ; and if the literal or tropi
cal sense agree not with these, they must be tortured into a
meaning correspondent thereto. With such, vox ecclesia
est vox Dei, and not the voice of the living oracles. Our'
present standard Enghsh version of the Bible, in some points
bears lamentable evidence of this fact; and every commen
tary, from the earliest period, is testimony to the fact. Some
commentators may have been less trammelled and more in
dependent than others, but all are more or less tinctured with
the pecuharities of the standard of doctrine which they have
embraced. Let the Bible speak out unfettered and free, ac
cording to the strict usus loquendi, and let us follow its teach
ings wherever they lead, according to their plain, obviousj
grammatico-historical sense. Vox Dei — et non vox ecclesiee — •
should, as all Protestant Christians concede, be the only rule
of faith and practice. • It is right and proper that we should
be governed, in our searches after the true meaning of inspi
ration, by Scriptural analogy, for inspiration then becomes
its own interpreter ; but then it is equally important that we
be certain in regard to that which is analogous.
The sense of Scripture is not arbitrary. The method of
ascertaining the true meaning of words is just the same as
that used in explaining or interpreting other books. We are
to be governed by the laws deduced from the nature of
language. No doctrine of the Scripture contradicts reason — i. e., there
is nothing contained in the Bible, when properly interpreted,
that is unreasonable. The meaning which, according to
grammatical principles, should be assigned to any word of
Scripture is not to be rejected on account of reasons drawn
from other things, or from previously-conceived opinions ; for

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 61
in this way interpretation would become uncertain. In books
merely human, if reason and the nature of the subject are
repugnant to the apparent sense of the words, we conclude
there must have been either a fault in the writer or an error
in the copyist In the Scriptures, if any sentiment does not
agree with our opinions, the weakness of human reason and
its finite nature must be taken into the account, as m'any
things may be in strict accordance with reason, though they
may be far above it It is remarkable that in this respect
more reverence is sometimes paid to mere human produc
tions than to the sacred books. In ancient authors, when
any difficulty occurs, correction or conciliation is sought for,
as if they must be rendered faultless. Multitudes of passa
ges in sacred writ, which have been given up as unreason
able, have subsequently been elucidated • by a superior criti
cism. Time and patient investigation will make all the dark
passages of the Bible plain and satisfactory to all inteUigent
Christians. In comparing reasons for the exegesis of particular passa
ges, gi'eater weight should be attributed to grammatical than
doctrinal ones. A thing may be altogether true in doctrine
which yet is not taught by some particular passage. Books
of theology exhibit many doctrinal interpretations, consen
taneous, indeed, with Christian principles, but not deduced
from the words interpreted — doctrinally true, but not gram
matically. Real contradiction does not exist in the Scriptures. As
the books of Scripture were written by men divinely inspired,
it is evident there can be no real contradiction in them. God
is certainly capable of seeing what is consistent and incon
sistent as well as what is contradictory, and when he speaks
he cannot iorgei what was said on former occasions. If
apparent contradictions occur, a proper method of conciliation
is to be pointed out which will satisfactorily remove all the
difficulty.

62 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

CHAPTER HI.
KINDS OF 'WORDS, AND THEIR VARIOUS USES.
 •
Words are proper and also tropical. The first important
division or distinction of words, in regard to their meaning,
is into proper and tropical — i. e., hteral and figurative, or, pri
mary and secondary.
A proper word is a definite name given to a certain thing,
and as such may be explained by adverting to the proper
names of persons.
A tropical word is one used out of its proper or original
sense. For instance, we have rosy face, snowy skin. Here
rosy and snowy cannot be predicated of skin literally and
properly. The names trope and tropical cpme from the
Greek rpoTrof. Tropes arise, 1. From similitude, real or
supposed ; for example, the vine creeps. This is called met
aphor. 2. From conjunction, which is either physical or
intellectual — i. e., supposed, believed. Physical or real, where
'a part of a thing is put to signify the whole, or the container
for the thing contained ; as, for instance, to tffer the cup, is to
offer what is contained in it. The conjunction is intellectual
or supposed when the cause is put for the effect, and vice
versa; for example, blushing for modesty — the sign for the
thijig signified, or the subject for the attribute. From con
junction arises that species of trope called metonymy.
Originally words were undoubtedly used in their proper or
hteral sense, because they were invented to indicate- things,
and by these things they might be easily explained, without
any ambiguity. A small number of words sufficed at an
early period, because there were few objects about which.
speech could be employed. In process of time, objects being
multiplied, there arose a necessity for using words in various
senses. Men began to speak concerning those things which

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 63
had hitherto been neglected, and, of course, to form ideas of
them in their minds, or to describe them in words. New
objects, also, were invented or discovered, to describe which
words became necessary. To serve this necessity men re
sorted to two different expedients. Either new words were
coined, or old ones were applied to new objects. In those
languages that were spoken by an ingenious people devoted
to science, or in those which by nature or art were flexible
and fitted for the coining of new words, new ones were most
usually coined. This usage, however, was not without ex
ceptions, for had new words been coined on every occasion
the number of them would have been multiplied without
end. In languages of a character differing from that just
mentioned, there was a greater necessit}^ of applying the
same word to the designation of several things.
Tropical words sometimes become proper O'aas. The
primitive or proper sense often becomes obsolete, and ceases
for a long period to be used. In this case the secondary
sense, which originally would have been the tropical one,
becomes the proper one. This applies especiaUy to the
names of things. Hence there are many words which at
present never have their original and proper sense, such as
etymology would assign them, but only the secondary sense,
which may in such cases be called the proper or literal
sense— such, for instance, in Enghsh, as tragedy, comedy, vil
lain, pagan, knave, (fee.
Usage sometimes converts tropical words into proper ones.
The tropical sense has also become so common by usage
that it is better understood than the original sense. In this
case, too, we call the sense proper, although strictly and
technically speaking one might insist on its being called trop
ical. If one should by his last will give a library to another,
we should not call the use of library tropical, although
strictly speaking it is so, for library originally meant the
shelves or places where books are deposited. Tropical names
become proper by transfer, when they are transferred to

64 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
things destitute of them : as, for instance, when we predicate
luxuriousness of a crop ; the words perception and liberty,
when predicated of the human mind. Tropes are used by
writers for the sake of variety in expression, and also to pre- '
veut tautology ; hence Heaven is used for God, sleep for death,
threshold for house, uncircumcision for Gentiles. Tropical
words are used for ornament, by poets and orators, to give
elegance to their style. ' Those who possess great fervour of
imagination and vividness of conception, more frequently use
tropes, even bold ones, and, as it often seems to others,
harsh ones. Tropes, therefore, must not be interpreted ety-
mologically. Tropes used from necessity differ from those used for variety
or ornament. In the first case a thing has a definite name
by which it is called, and in the second case the trope is used
for pleasure or ornament The former is grammatical — the
latter is rhetorical. The meaning of all words, tropical and
¦proper, is to be deduced from the design of those who em
ployed them.
From the custom of using tropical language, synonymous
words originate. The interpreter should not seek for any
definite distinction between synonymes, when they are intro
duced for the sake of variety, or where usage conjoins two
words, or where they are used for the sake of ornament, or
where excited feeling produces a repetition of the same idea,
while different words are employed, or where it is the habit
of an author to employ synonymes.

Emphf^is.
In the, use of language cases arise where the ordinary
signification of a word receives accession or augmentation.
This may be effected in two ways, the first of which consists
in the use of a word in an honorary or in a degrading sense.
For example, ev(jyr]fila and Sva^fiia — or, words of good or
evil import. The second class of words are those which re-

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 65
ceive augmentation in their extent or force of meaning.
These constitute what may with propriety be called emphatic
words. Emphasis, then, may be defined, an accession to the
ordinary signification of a word, either as to the extent or
force of its meaning. The word comes from kficpatveiv,
which signifies to show or make conspicuous. It is to lan
guage what a nod or a sign is to looks. What action is to
the orator, emphasis is to the writer.
No word is of itself emphatic. Each word has a certain
power, and designates a definite idea of a thing, either small
or great, in which there is no emphasis. It is not because
a word designates anything which is very great or very
small that it is emphatical. If this were the case, then
such words as God, the world, the sun, would be always
emphatical. Emphasis is either occasional or constant. We call it
occasional when it is <M)nnected with words in some particular
place, or at a certain time. From the animated feelings of
the speaker, or from the importance of the subject, a word
is chosen to express more than its ordinary import Constant
emphasis is that which usage makes invariably so, by em
ploying a word continually in an emphatic rather than in
the ordinary sense. But this is a departure from the ordi
nary definition. Antithesis.
'Where antithesis exists, if the sense of one part can
be found, the other may be easily known. As ideas are
often contradistinguished from each other, so the language
corresponds. When ideas are repugnant to each other, if you
understand the one, of course you must understand the
other, which is opposite — for what one asserts the other
denies. So in antithetic language, whether the subject or
predicate of a sentence, the rule is obvious that the interisre-
tation of the one part must be directed by that of the other,
which is understood either from the usus loquendi, or, where
5

66 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
this is various, from the context. For example, when multi
and pauci occur in the same sentence, and it is evident that
multi means all, it is of course evident that pauci cannot
h&,ve its ordinary sense, non omnes, without Hmiting the idea
to feloness of number. Of a like kind are crapl and nvevfia,
ypdfifj,a and nvevfia, in which the interpretation of the one
is to be accommodated to that of the other.

Abstract and Concrete Words.
Words are distributed into abstract and concrete. All
languages, specially ancient ones, often use abstract terms for
concrete ones. Abstract words are names of qualities or
attributes. Concrete word^ are names of things or subjects.
For example, divinity is an abstract word, meaning the
quality of divine nature ; G^d is a concrete term, meaning
the divine agent or being. The former is, by usage, often
put for the latter. The use of abstract words for concrete
arose from necessity. Those languages which have but a few
concrete terms necessarily employ abstract ones ; for example,
the Hebrew and its cognate dialects, in which abstracts are
often used in the place of concretes. This substitution also
arose from a' desire to render the subject spoken of more
prominent, and also to give an elevation and grandeur to
• the style.

CHAPTER IV.
RULES OF INTERPRETATION.
These rules define the mode by which we investigate rightly
and explain clearly the sense of words in any particular
author. They not only serve to assist in finding the mean
ing of words, but also in judging whether any particular
sense put upon words be true or false. By them we may

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 67
also be assisted to understand why a particular sense is erro
neous, as well as why the trae sense cannot be discovered.
The sense of words depends on the usus loquendi. The usus
loquendi, considered at large, has respect to a language gen
erally: but, specially considered, it has respect to the lan
guage of some particular writer. To the common usage of
words almost every writer adds something that is peculiar to
himself, whence arise the idioms of particular writers.
Usus Loquendi.
By the usus loquendi is meant the sense which usage at
taches to the words of any language. To find the sense of
words in a dead language the same means precisely are to
be empkyed which are used in finding the sense of words
in a living language. The meaning of a word must always
be a simple matter of fact. To find out that meaning re
course must always be had to appropriate and adequate
testimony. This testimony is direct or indirect. Direct tes
timony is derived, first, from the writers to whom the language
investigated was vernacular — either the same authors whom
we interpret, or from their contemporaries. Secondly, from
those who, though foreigners, had learned the language in
question. Thirdly, from scholiasts, glossographers, and ver
sions made while the language was spoken, and by those
who were acquainted with it. Thus, the writings of Marcus
Antonius, a Roman emperor, and of Philo and Josephus,
who were Jews, may be used to illustrate the meaning of
Greek words, because, although foreigners, they well under
stood the Greek language.
The testimony of contemporary writers may be drawn from
three sources. First, from the definition of words. In re
gard to these nothing more is necessary than to take good
care that the definition be well understood, and to consider
how much weight the character of the writer who defines
may properly give to it. Second, from examples and the
nature of the subject. In regard to thes6 it may be said

68 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
that a good understanding and considerable practice is
necessary to enable one to judge weU and make proper dis
tinctions. By examples is meant that the writer who uses
a particular word, although he does not directly define it, yet
gives, in some one or more passages, an example of what it
means, by exhibiting its qualities or showing the operation
of it Thus Paul uses the words crrot^eto toxi K6a\iov at
first without an explanation, but gives an example of the
meaning of them in 'Galatians iv, 9. Thus manq is iUus
trated by examples in Hebrews xi, and so of many other
words. The nature qf the subject helps in many instances
to define which meaning the writer attaches to it in any
particular passage. For example, %fflpff is divine benevo
lence, pardon of sin, temporal blessings. The sense is to be
determined by the nature of the subject in the passage.
Third, from the comparison of parallel- passages. Parallehsm
is verbal and real. The verbal occurs where a word is
doubtful, from the fact that neither the subject nor the con
text affords matter of iUustration, and this same word or its
synonyme is repeated in a similar passage with those attri
butes by which it may be defined, or with some plain ad
junct or intelligible comment. The sense of many words is
so plain that investigation by parallehsm is unnecessary.
Comparison is necessary in the following instances: 1. In
the illustration of words which belong to the Hellenistic or
Hebrew-Greek idiom. For example, ecpoPovvro Travreg is
often said when the event to which it relates is some special
favour. The language here may be compared with the syno
nymes Oavfiaaat and Oanfiriaai, by which it appears that
i(po(5ovvTo in such cases means admiration, astonishment.
2. Words should be compared which have a kind
of technical religious use. For example, fivarf^ptov.
Corapare Colossians i, 27; Ephesians iii, 4, 5. So
¦niaTig, SiKaioa-vvrj, nerdvova, Katvfj, Krlaig, et cetera.
3. Words of unfrequent occurrence. 4. Words. which are
ambiguous; for words which are so in one place are fre-

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 69
quently plain and easy to be understood in another, from
the connexion in which they stand. For example, Christ is
frequently called a stone of stumbling In 1 Peter ii, 8, those
who stumble are said wrzeidelv tS) Adyw, to reject, disbelieve,
or disobey the gospel of Christ. Again, 2 Corinthians i, 21,
Xpiaag 7]fj.ag Qeog: 1 John ii, 20, %pt(TjUcs is said to be
instruction in the truth. ParaUehsms appropriately so called
are of this nature, the one often serving to explain the other.
These are very numerous in the Old Testament, and con
siderably so in the New. Compare Matthew i, 20, with
Luke i, 35. Real parallelism occurs when there is a par
allelism of object or sentiment, although the words are not
the same ; or it occurs when the same object or sentiment is
expressed in other words more clearly or copiously. The
real parallelism may have respect to a fact or a doctrine
related or taught in different passages, and the student can
never feel too deeply the importance of a thorough compari
son of all those parts of Scripture which pertain to the same
subject. He should read parallel passages continuously and
frequently, that he may be able readily to trace the resem
blances between them. When apposite passages are com
pared, the rules of exegesis require that the obscure passage
shall be regulated by that which is the most clear and the
best sustained by the nature of the subject and the adjuncts.
Parallelisms of fact occur frequentiy in the Gospels, which,
in very numerous instances, relate the same facts. So also in
the books of Samuel and Kings, compared with Chronicles.
Parallelism of doctrine is where the same principles are
taught in both passages. To this head of parallel^m belong
repetitions of the same composition. For example. Psalms
xiv and Iiii ; Psalms xcvi and 1 Chronicles xvi ; Psalms xviii
and 2 Samuel xxii ; some of Jude and 2 Epistle of Peter,
with many other such passages.
Besides the verbal and real parallelisms, there is another
which constitutes one of the principal features of Hebrew
poetry, viz. : a correspondence of two parts 'of a verse with

70 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
each other, so that words answer to words and sentiment to
sentiment. This runs throughout the books of Job, Psalms,
Proverbs, Canticles, and most of the Prophets. See Psalms
i, ii, cxix ; Isaiah i, 2-5 ; xl. See also Luke i, 35-46 ; xi, 27,
and many parts of the Apocalypse, and in almost every
chapter of the New Testament.
Similarity of passages should be real in order to be com
pared, and not merely verbal. The same idea should be
presented by both; otherwise real likeness cannot exist be
tween them, and one cannot, of course, throw any light
upon the other. When this point is settled, viz., in regard
to similarity of idea, which is deterrained by the context,
then the interpreter must consider which of the two is the
most clear and definite, and regulate the exegesis of the
more obscure passage by that which is the more perspicuous.
Many parallel passage's should be compared. To compare
one passage only is not sufficient, whether you are endeav
ouring to find the usus loquendi by the aid of parallel passa
ges, or by testimony derived from the nature of the subject
and from examples. Specially is this the case if we are in
vestigating the sense of words that have a complex or gen
eric meaning, raade up of various parts. In this case
coraparisons should be made from numerous passages until
we perceive that what we are seeking is fully and entirely
discovered. Suppose the word maTig occurs in a particular
passage, where you are doubtful what sense should be applied
to it. nicTig is a generic word, having several meanings
related to each other, but still diverse as species under the
genus. "5Jou wish to determine how raany species of mean
ing moTtg has, and in order to accomplish this many pas
sages where it is used must be compared, in order that you
may know whether all the species are found. This being
done, you proceed to compare them with the passage under
investigation, and see which will fit it. In this way all gen
eric words must be investigated before the generic idea can
be determined."

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 71
The usus loquendi raay be found also by the testimony
from scholiasts, either given by themselves or cited by them
from others. Scholia means short notes upon any author,
either of an exegetical or grammatical nature. On all the
distinguished ancient Greek authors scholia have been writ
ten in more recent times. Many volumes of these scholia
written upon Homer, Thucydides, Sophocles, Aristophanes,
and others, are still extant. Many scholia are found on the
margin of manuscripts, or interhned, or placed at the end of
the book.
In a similar way is the testiraony of glossographers to be
estimated. Glossarium is a book or writing comprehending
yXHaaai. Among the Greeks yXHaoa meant either an
idiomatic word peculiar to a certain dialect only, and un
known iri others, or an obsolete or obscure word. Glossary
means a book containing explanations of obscure and difficult
words. It is of course not to be used as a lexicon, because
it is only a comraent upon particular passages.
The testimony of versions in finding the usus loquendi is
10 be estimated by their antiquity and by the knowledge of
the original which the translator possessed, and this is to be
determined by comparing the translation with the original ;
also the testimcfny of those writers who have explained to
their readers words and obscure expressions taken from an
other language. Cicero explains many Greek words, and
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, raany Latin ones, and writers
who have inserted translations from other languages.
To qualify an interpreter fully and fairly to enter upon his
work, he must make himself acquainted with the style of an
author, the nature of the composition, and the age, circum
stances, and idiom of the author.
First, the style of an author; and this may be known
from the writer's own testimony, either expressed or implied.
If an author have a manner of expression whoUy sui generis,
then his. own writings are the only legitimate source of infor
mation in respect to his style. It may be known from the

72 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUKE.
customs and principles of the sect to which he belongs, as
every rehgious sect has terms used in a sense peculiar to it
self. The same language will apply to a philosophical sect.
Again, the interpreter raust have a knowledge of the raanners
and customs of the age to which his author alludes, which
is to be obtained by consulting those who have given infor
mation on these topics ; and, lastly, the interpreter should
have a general knowledge of writere of the same age.
Second, the nature of the composition, the age in which
it was written, (fee. History is one thing, , poetry another,
oratory another ; and they are to be interpreted accordingly ;
history as history, and not as an aUegory or mythic fiction ;
poetry as poetry, and not as prose. Particular ages have
their special characteristics in each of these modes of com
position, and a due regard must be had to them.
The usus loquendi is also to be found by indirect testimony.
The first and best means under this head is to ascertain the
.'icope or design of a writer. The passage to be investigated
is to be compared with the general tenor of the whole. The
ground of this rule is that we ought not to suppose a good
and judicious writer has said what is inconsistent with his
design. Difficulty raay arise here from the fact that several
interpretations may agree with the scope 6t design of the
writer, and only a probability as it regards which is the true
exegesis may be arrived at. We must insist upon an e^^-
dent and necessary connexion with the scope of the discourse :
for, 1. Where a meaning plainly contradicts the tenor of a
discourse, it is to be rejected. 2. When it violates the prin
ciples of parallehsra and the conclusions drawn from them as ,
to the sense of a passage. 3. A meaning must be rejected
which gives an unfit and frigid sense. By a frigid sense is
meant one which contributes neither to argument, perspicuity,
nor ornament A meaning which infringes upon none of
these negative rules will be found to harmonize with the sub
ject of which the author is treating, unless he has violated
aU the rules of language and reasoning.

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 73
The usus loquendi is always the best evidence which can be
had of the meaning of a passage ; and nothing can be admitted
which shall contradict it, where it can be established by ad
equate testimony. In a case where doubt arises in regard to
what meaning the usus loquendi would assign, or at least allow,
to any word or phrase, the scope of the discourse may be
resorted to for the sake of obtaining the desired illustration.
The rule must have recourse to the antecedents and con
sequents of a passage — i. e., the context — ^in order that the
meaning may be determined. This is done for two reasons.
1. That we may choose out of several meanings one which
does not disagree with the usus loquendi; or, 2. That the
meaning of an uncommon word, not explained by the usus
loquendi, may be discovered. The evidence of the usus
loquendi is in very many cases built upon the context, and
'there are few if any rules in the whole science of hermeneu
tics of more importance and practical utility than this.
To discover the meaning of words which are ambiguous
and obscure, the comparing , of subjeet and attribute, nouns,
and adjectives, words accompanied by other words that
qualify them, which may consist of adverbs or of nouns,
joined to the word investigated by prepositions, and consti
tuting a kind of adverbial periphrasis, or finally of disjunc
tives, is of the greatest importance.
In relation to the comparison of subject with attribute it
may be remarked that we are to understand as tropical all
those expressions which ascribe hands, feet, eyes, ears, ascent,
descent, (fee, to God, who is a spirit. By the adverbial
periphrasis we have an example, Kar' oipiv Kplaig, which
serves merely as an adjective quahfying Kpiaig, and showing
that judgment from external appearance only is meant. By
disjunctives. By disjunctives are meant words placed in
antithesis. For example, heaven and earth, fiesh and spirit.
The rule for det'ermining the sense in the case is obvious ;
for whatever meaning one term has, the other must have an
opposite meaning.

74 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
Assistance in judging of the meaning of words is derived
from the analogy of languages. Analogy means simUitude.
For exaraple, from the meaning attached to the forms of
words, their position and connexion, in many cases, we argue
(» establish a simUarity of meaning where the phenomena
are the same in another. This analogy is the foundation of
all the rules of grammar, and of all that is estabhshed and
inteUigible in language. Grammatical analogy is not only
useful in finding the usus loquendi, but applicable to some
doubtful cases. For example, when the kind of meaning
generally considered is evident, we may judge of the special
force or power of the word by the aid of grammatical analogy,
as 1 Peter v, 5, where many critics have attached to eyKojtt-
jSuoacde an emphatic sense, we must compare the other
Greek phrases which relate to clothing or investing, and thus
we shall see that the prepositions Trept, dficpt, kv are used in
composition without any accession of meaning to the verb
thereby, and consequently that eyKOfifiuaaade is no more
• than ev6v(jaa6e. Another analogy is that of kindred lan
guages, either as derived frora one common stock, as Hebrew',
Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic, or from one another, as Greek
and Latin. Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, are ranked among
the dialects of the Hebrew, while Greek and Latin are called
cognate languages. In regard to this, however, there is a
difference of opinion. General usage makes the Semitic
languages ccfgnates. This analogy is of use to the interpre
ter, not only in assisting him by the aid of one dialect to
restore roots which have perished in another that is the sub
ject of his investigation, and thus opening a way of access
to the signification ,of words, but still more useful as a
means of illustrating and confirihing that sense of words
which the scope of the discourse commends. The fluctuating
use of words which prevails in all languages gives rise to
frequent changes in their meaning. There are but few words
in any language which always retain their radical and pri
mary meaning. Etymology often belongs rather to the

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 75
history of language than to the illustration of its present
meaning. Expressions which convey a similar meaning are to be
compared, although in respect to etymology they may difi'er.
Of this nature are newpafievog ¦uno rffv afiaprlav com
pared with the Latin addictus alicUi, and (Jf 6ia nvpog
(X)mpared with ambustus, when the Latin words are used
tropically. The foundation of analogy in all languages consists in the
fact that men are affected in nearly the same way by objects
of sense. Though they use language that differs in respect
to etymology, yet they mean doubtiess the same thing when
describing the same objects.
The meaning of words in each or any language is not to be
resolved into the authority of lexicons, but that of good writers.
Words, phrases, tropes, (fee, of any ancient languages, are
to be judged of by the rules of judging among those who
wrote that language, and not by those which prevail in
raodern tiraes, and have originated frora different habits and
tastes. Conclusions as to the meaning of words in the same
or different languages are not to be drawn from fanciful ety-
raology, similarity, or metathesis of letters, (fee. When the
sense of words can be ascertained in any particular language
by the ordinary means, other languages, even kindred ones,
should not be resorted to except for the purpose of increased
illustration or confirmation. Real simihtude should always
exist where comparison is made.
We must also resort to the nature of things and the an
alogy of the sentiment which the writer is inculcating, that
we may find the true meaning of his words, and not attribute
to thera more nor less than he did. Every writer spontane
ously, or from education, feels that his" readers must under
stand what he is saying, so that there is no danger of mis
apprehension. It happens not unfrequently that on this ac
count he uses language which is not altogether accurate, if
it be judged of by the rules of logical precision. Of this

76 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
nature are catachresis, hyperbole, hypallage,* and of those
phrases which assert generally what is true of only a part,
or of some particular kind. These and other like modes of
speech are introduced by common custom into every lan
guage, especially the oriental ones. They abound in poetry
and oratory. Nor is there any particular reason that a writer
should take special pains to avoid them. It is necessary,
therefore, in these cases, to have recourse, for the sake of in
terpretation, to the nature of things, to innate conceptions,
comraon sense, and the plain eleraents of knowledge. Gram
matical anomahes are not only free from fault when predomi
nant usage sanctions thera, but they becorde a part of the
lanuguage, so that one who departs from thera may be said
to write inaccurately.
¦' Catachresis is the use of a word so as to attribute to a thing
what cannot be predicated of it Example : " Hear, 0 heavens !
listen, 0 earth ! Let the floods clap their hands and the hills
skip." Hyperbole magnifies a thing beyond its real greatness.
Example : " It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a
needle, &c." Hypallage is a change of appropriate for inappro
priate language. Example : " His mouth and his tongue, uveuxQn-
In regard to that usage where a whole is put for a part, aud a
part for a whole, it is by no means unfrequent in the Scriptures.
How often do we meet with vuq or navreg, when only a large or con
siderable number is intended. A reference t'o the context and an
tithesis will determine the exegesis in all such cases. Ou the other
hand, a part is often put for a whole. For example, Psalm viii,
7. 8 ; Romans viii, 88, 39. The apostle does not here mean to say
that the things which he particularizes are the only things which
are unable to separate us from the love of Christ. As every
writer addresses himself to the common sense of his fellow-men,
common sense must therefore be appealed to in the interpretation
of parables, allegories, aud all kinds of figurative language and
proverbial expressions.-

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 77
CHAPTER V.
USUS LOQUENDI OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
The language of the New Testament is the later Greek lan
guage, as spoken by foreigners of the Hebrew stock, and
applied by them to subjects on which it had never been
employed by native Greek writers. Jews who spoke Greek
are caUed, in the New Testament, 'EAAjji'ttTTa^, and hence,
in modem usage, the Greek has been termed ¦Hellenistic.
The language of the writers is modelled after the Hebrew
not only in words, phrases, and figures of speech, but in the
general texture of the language. St Luke, who is usually-
thought to be the most pure in his style, has innumerable
Hebraisms. The very beginning of his Gospel, after a short
preface of pure Greek, immediately goes into the use of the
Hebrew idiom sq exactly that it seems to be translated ht-
erally from a Hebrew original.
The New Testament also contains Latinisms, Syriasms,
Chaldaisms, and Rabbinisms.
Having ascertained the character of the language of the
New Testament, the student is prepared to direct his attention
to the rules for finding out the usus loquendi. The inter
preter should be acquainted with the Greek and Hebrew
idioms, so that he can distinguish between pure Greek and
that method of writing which is derived from another lan
guage. This is, necessary in order rightiy to interpret either.
In regard to pure Greek he must study not only the writers
who have used the popuMr language, but those of a proxi
mate age who have imitated in some degree the Attic diction.
The basis of acquaintance with the Hebrew Greek must be
the Septuagint version; from the fact that the origin of speak
ing and writing in Greek concerning sacred things took its
rise from that version. Aquilia's Greek version, made not
very remote from the apostles, exhibits a similar diction.

78 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
In the doctrines of rehgion the Hebrew idiom is to be
specially regarded. In speaking of religious matters the
writers of the New Testament were accustomed to use the
phraseology of the Hebrew Scriptures. The interpreter will
be much assisted here by the analogy of doctrine, with which
he ought to be familiar, lest the words of the New Testament
should be drawn to a sense ahen from that which the authore
desired to express, and different from the essential points of
religion. The Hebrew idiom is specially to be regarded in
respect to ^he meaning of words and phrases, and the forms
and tenses 'of verbs, and also to the number of both nouns
and verbs. In respect to these things the idiom of the New
Testament not unfrequently departs from classical Greek, and
follows the Hebrew. When the Hebrew idiom fails in the
exposition of a word or passage, then recourse raust be had
to the Syriac, Chaldee, or Rabbinic.
There are many things in the New Testament which are
described in a novel way, because the things themselves are
new. Ancient doctrines are delivered in a language more
perspicuous, appropriate, and distinctive — the veil of figures
and allegories being removed. New words were therefore
necessary in order to describe new things; araong which
words are many that are adapted to designate certain things
on account of some simihtude to them. These words were
not invented by the apostles, and could not have been, for
such invention is a thing that, belongs to minds trained up
by literary discipline, and not to unlettered men. Terms of
this description were suggested by the Holy Spirit, which is
an argument in favour of the inspiration of the Scriptures.
Of this nature are such words as 6aiiiovi^eadai, rdprapog,
dvayevvav, and others. If it is asked why the Holy Spirit
did not dictate classic Greek instead of that which is denom
inated Hebrew Greek ? — the answer is that those for whom it
was mostly written could not have understood it without
inspiration. New words are to be explained by testimony direct and

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 70
indirect. They cannot be explained from the more ancient
usus loquendi, but have an interpretation peculiar to them
selves. This interpretation depends on the direct testimony
of the writers, and must be gathered from the collation of
similar passages. The testimony of the ancient Greek fathers
is also to be consulted, as their writings may exhibit the
interpretations of the primitive age of Christianity.
The ancient glossaries may be of use here,. specially that
of Hesychiu.s, in which are found raany things pertaining to
certain passages of the New Testament that were deduced
fi'om the most ancient interpreters of it. Others are more or
less important.
Glosses in some manuscripts, which have crept into the text
of the New Testament in place of the true reading, may be used
to assist the interpreter either to understand the true text or to
find means for illustrating or confirming the true interpreta
tion. Thus, for example, instead of epevvrjoov, in John vii, 5,
Chrysostom has the reading epuTTjaov, and explains it by jj-dde
TovTo yap koTiv epurrjaov. These glosses may have flowed
frora the ancient schools instructed by Origen, although some
may have proceeded from the Latin commentaries.
When all the above means which have been described
shall faU, we must then resort to the comteai, and to the well-
known nature of things themselves.
Our interpretation must be guided also by the anahgy of
Scripture and Christian doctrine, and nothing must be so
explained as to contradict that analogy. Analogy of doctrine
or faith does not consist in the doctrine which is approved
by any particular sect ; for then it would be various and in
constant, and there would be no true standard. Grammati
cal analogy is the rule of speaking or form of speech consti
tuted by the laws of the language, which is opposed to
anomaly, or a method of speaking in opposition to usage, or
varying from it. In like manner the analogy of sacred doc
trine or faith consists in the summary of religion and the
rules plainly taught in the Scriptures ; whence the Latin

80 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Church called it regula fidei. To this analogy all things are
to be referred, so that nothing may be discordant with it
When this is done the analogy of faith is said to be preserved.
,As to faith and practice, the analogy of Scripture does not
differ from the analogy of doctrine. Examples of analogy,
and of judgment agreeably to analogy, may be found in
Galatians vi, 15, 16; 1 Corinthians xv, 3-11, (fee. In all
the departments of learning analogy of such a kind has the
force of a rule, both in our judgment and interpretation of
a passage. In a special manner we must betake ourselves
to analogy in those passages which seem to teach what
disagrees with that which is plainly taught in other parts of
the Scriptures, and with common sense, concerning divine and
human things.
The student should make himself famihar with the more
difficult forms of speech in the sacred writers, or those forms
which differ from the idioms of our own language, and are
not adapted to express with simplicity and I&gical accuracy
principles of any doctrine. For example, many things are
affirmed simply and without any limitation, which, however,
are to be understood as having only a particular and partial
application. Specially is this the case in moral propositions.
Also, active verbs do not always indicate action, and some
times they indicate frequency of action. As there is scarcely
any form of speech in the sacred writings which is not to be
found in profane ¦authors, these should be examined. Those
things in the writings of Paul which appear hard to be un
derstood, wiU not be wondered at by those who compare the
writings of the apostle with those of Thucydides. Faults in
transpositions, and want of consistency in construction, which
at first sight may appear to be incompatible with the dignity
and sanctity of the Scriptures, wiU not create alarm.

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 81
CHAPTER VI.
TROPICAL LANGUAGE.
In regard to tropical language the office of an interpreter is
twofold. In the first place he must rightly distinguish it
from language not tropical, so as not to mistake the one for
the other, and so as not to pervert the proper sense of words
by a tropical interpretation. Secondly, he must rightly in
terpret tropes, and give their true sense. It often happens
that men think they have gained the tropical sense of words
when they understand only the literal one, and pervert the
trope by an etymological interpretation. Th'e literal meaning
is not to be deserted without evident reason or necessity, and,
wherever there is a plain and obvious reason for such a de
parture, the tropical sense must be adopted. Some apparent
repugnances may exist, however, in regard to things and
facts, which must hot readily be yielded to in the formation
of a judgment in regard to a change. The older writers
regard the phrase proper sense as of the same meaning with
literal or historic sense, and rightly teach that we should not
depart from the customary signification of a word without
a weighty and sufficient reason. In respect to many words,
however, the tropical sense is the customary or usual one.
We may generally understand at once whether a word is
to be taken tropically or not, by simply examining the object
spoken of, either by the external or internal senses, or by re
newing the perception of the object. To judge of figurative
language in such cases is very easy, because the objects spo
ken of are to be examined by our senses, external and inter
nal. In the Scriptures, however, doubts have arisen in re
gard to the nature of subjects there treated, which are such
as cannot be subjected to the evidences of the senses. For
example : The language which respects God and his opera
tions, and all that respects the invisible things of a future
6

82 MANUAL OF 'BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
state— heaven and hell, (fee. One of the things which the
mind learns very slowly is to detach itself from conceptions
that arise from material objects and to perceive that in all
the descriptions of a future state words are of absolute neces
sity employed which originally have a literal sense, because
language affords no other. Even the internal operations of
our own mind we are obliged for the same reason to describe
in language that of necessity must be tropically understood.
It is generally conceded that most of the language employed
to describe God and his operations is necessarily to be under
stood as tropical. ¦ So also of the language employed to de
scribe the heavenly world ; but what regards the day of
judgment, or the world of woe, in the estimation of some,
must be understood as strictly literal. With such the appre
hension is that if the language which respects the day of
judgment or the world of woe is figurative, then the reality
of them is destroyed. But this is simply ridiculous, inas
much as this view would also destroy the reality of the ex
istence and operations of God and the heavenly world.
Reality lies essentially at the basis of tropical as well as
literal language.
Those words are not to be regarded as tropical which have
lost their original and proper signification, and are used no
longer in any but a secondary sense.
Those phrases are tropical the subject and predicate of
which are heterogeneous, as where corporeal and incorporeal,
animate and inanimate, rational and in'ational, are conjoined;
and also species of a different genus. For example : The
fields smile, the stones cry out, the fioods clap their hands,
(fee. Things that cannot possibly exist in any particular sub
ject cannot be logically predicated of it, for the fundamental
rules of logic in respect to this are inherent in the mind.
If then such things appear to be predicated, the phrase must
be tropically understood. By this rule the language of the
New Testament should be interpreted which respects the per
son of Jesus Christ, to whom divine and human quahties are

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 83
attributed. The latter are attributed to hira as a man, the
former as a divine person.
In regard to divine things which can only be known by
revelation, and cannot be examined by the test of .our own
feelings and views, we can judge only from the usus loquendi
of the sacred writers whether their language is to be under
stood literally or tropically. This usage can be known only
from the comparison of similar passages, which is done in
various ways. 1. When different words are employed in
different passages respecting the same thing. For example,
the phrase to be born of water, John iii, 5, is tropical, for the
same thing is literally expressed in Mark x'vi, 16. So the
covenant which God made with Abraham is explained in
Galatians iii, 16, as meaning a promise. 2. When the
same word is used everywhere respecting the same thing it
has a proper sense. For example, dvdaraaig veKpihv, kyei-
perat a(i)(j,a, ^uoTroieiTai, are constantly used in respect to
that which is to take place at the end of the world, and
therefore, are not tropical. 3. When the same method of
expression is constantly used respecting divers things which
are similar, or which have some special connexion, it is to be
underst(X)d literally.
The context must also be consulted. When the whole
passage is aUegorical we must acknowledge a trope in par
ticular parts that are <»nnected 'with the whole allegory.
For example, Triip, 1 Corinthians iii, 13, which relates to
^Xa and ^oprov in the context. In hke manner the lan
guage is to be regarded as tropical when, although the pre
ceding context is to be literally understood, there is a mani
fest transition to allegory.
In regard to interpreting tropical language we may observe
there are two sources of aid. The one is the subject itself,
the other the usus loquendi. Interpretation by the aid of
the subject is easy when the nature of it affords an obvious
similitude. For example, (pUTianog is easily understood as
used tropically. In regard to the usus loquendi, the general

84 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
usage of the Hebrew tongue in respect to tropical words
must be first understood as in words corresponding to fwjy,
Odvarog, niirj, 86^a, (fee; then Greek usage in general.
Passages must also be compared in which the same thing is
expressed by a proper word, or in which such proper word is
employed in the context, so that the sense is obvious. Here
too we may use the comparison of words that are conjoined
and similar, examples of which will hereafter be produced.
We must not judge of tropes merely frora etymology.
For example, bpOorofielv, in 2 Timothy ii, 15, some have in
terpreted as implying a distinction between the law and the
gospel, which is ridiculous ; for Aoyof dXrjdeiag in the con
text means the gospel, and the law is not the subject of dis
course here. '^
For the purpose of adequately understanding what tropi
cal language is, substitute proper words for tropical ones.
It is also usefiil to make the experiment whether when the
image presented by the tropical expression is removed from
the mind any idea still remains in it different from the image
itself, which can be expressed by a proper word. This ex
periment is specially to be made when words designating
sensible objects are transferred to the expression of intellectual
ones. For example, ddvarog, fco?/, dtadi^KT], (fee, in respect
to which it is easy to be deceived. The context, the nature
of the subject, and parallel passages, are the most effectual
means of ascertaining this. ,
Allegories.
The term 'AXXriyopia is derived from dA/Ld dyopeverai;
that is, a different thing is said from that which is meant
It differs from metaphor, which is confined to a word. AUe
gory extends to a whole thought, or to several thoughts. It
may be expressed by pictures, Ezekiel iv, 1 ; by actions,
Ezekiel iii, iv, v; Luke xxii, 36, or by any significant thing.
In interpreting allegories the first thing to be done is to

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 85
ascertain the design, which is readUy obtained when it is
connected with a context explanatory of , its design. For the
most part, however, the design is expressly declared. For
exaraple, the design of the parable or allegory of the good
Samaritan is to illustrate the duty and extent qf beneficence.
The next thing is to find out the primar^ word, or that
which designates the leading design, and all the other words
are to be interpreted in conformity to it.
The design of the exhortation in form 'of allegory, found
in 1 Corinthians v, 6, is that the Corinthians should be puri
fied frora vicious inclinations and the evil practices arising
therefrom. Zvju?/, therefore, here means vice, and d^vfjog,
free from vice, or without vice, '^oprd^eiv, consequently,
is not to celebrate a feast, according to its proper signification,
for a tropical mea'ning is required. It raeans to serve God,
to worship God, to be a Christian, to be free from vices, and
worship him in purity. It is altogether incongruous to
understand one part literally and another tropicaUy, in the
same allegory, as those do who take Trvpog in 1 Corinthians
iii, 15 literally, when all the context is to be understood
tropically. The expression ug did Twpog makes it plain
that the word is to be figuratively understood.
To explain allegory we must sometimes resort to history.
For example, as when the kingdom of God is compared to
leaven and a mustard-seed. History shows the rise and
progress of the kingdom of Christ ; from small beginnings it
is spreading throughout the earth. In the next place, the
nature of the subject >vill assist in the interpretation. For
example : "Ye are the salt of the earth," (fee, Matthew v, 13.
The subject is the instructions to be given by the disciples.
The primary or leading word (salt) in the allegory means
instruction, and conveys an idea of the nature and efiects
of that instruction — preservative, conservative.
Not unlike the raethod of interpreting allegories is that
of interpreting parables, which often contain allegory. We
must guard against urging too far the meaning of all

86 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
parts of a parabolical narrative, and refer the particular pai-ts
to the main design^ so that all may be accommodated to it.
Therefore, in Luke xv, 11, (fee, we are not to seek for a
doctrinal meaning in aroXTJ, fiocxog, daKrvXiog, (fee Such
circumstances are commonly added to complete the form
of the narration, and to make it a' more finished picture of
what might be supposed to have happened.
Parable in Greek usage means any composition introduced
into a discourse. It raay be called an example taken from
things real or fictitious, designed for special and graphical
iUustration. AUegory differs from parable only in the style
and mode of expression. Take an allegory and express it
'in the historic style, and it is converted into a parable. The
same rules of exegesis apply to both.

CHAPTER VH.
RULES IN REGARD TO EMPHASIS.
Emphasis should not be deduced from the etymology of a
word, nor in tropical expressions should we recur to the
proper sense of the words to deduce emphasis from it, as
has been done in respect to the word epevvdv. Tropically
used, this word does not signify to seek with great exertion
and diligence; for the Holy Spirit is said epevvav rd fiddTj
rrig 'SeorrjTdg, to whom this emphatic meaning surely will
not apply. The ancient intei'preters used kpeirvdv in the
same sense as yivwoKetv. In both of the above points
errors are very frequent
Prepositions compounded with Greek words do not make
any accession or augmentation of signification. For example,
avd, diTo, npo, avv, Ik, nept, compounded as in dvaarav-
poiJv, dvavq^eiv, avufiapTvpelv, TrpoytvibaKeiv, (fee Many
are accustomed to buUd arguments on such imaginary
emphasis. These prepositions do not always change the

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 87
meaning of simple words, but are very commonly redun
dant Emphasis must not be deduced merely from the plural
number, supposing that where the plural is put for the sin
gular it necessarily denotes emphasis. This is not so, either
as it regards the Hebrew or Greek.
Emphasis is not to be attached to an abstract word when
it is merely used for a concrete one. The true ground of
using abstract words for concretes is either from necessity or
for the sake of perspicuity, and not on account of emphasis.
In the sacred books the necessity of it springs from the
Hebrew dialect, which often employs abstract word^ in this
manner, because it has only a few concrete ones.
In the sacred books, and especiaUy in lie Hebraisms of the
New Testament, we must not seek for and recognise empha
sis merely in the idiom which is so very dissimUar to our
own. In the oriental languages raany things, if translated
literally, appear hyperbolical which are not so in reality.
For example, in Lamentations it is said. My trouble is great
as the sea, which is simply equivalent to the Latin expression,
mala mea sunt maxima.
If there is no adequate testimony to show that any word
has a constant emphasis, we must consult usage. We should
first inquire whether, in all the passages where the word is
found, emphasis would be consistent Next, whether, in the
same passage, or a similar one, another word may be substi
tuted in the room of this, which other contains a special
designation of intensity.
If neither of these be the case, but the word in question
may be commuted for others which are plainly unemphatic ;
or, in some of the passages where the word occurs, a special
designation of intensity is made by adding some other word
for this purpose, then there is no emphasis to be recognised
in the word in question. For example, some have attached
emphasis to diroKapadoKta in Romans viii, 19; but in PhU-
ippians i, 20 it would be inconsistent. There it is used as a

88 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
synonyme vrith eXtrida, and, in fact, commuted with it in
verse 22. Nor is emphasis always attached to such phrases
as ^apdv xaipetv, for such phrases are often used when.
another word is added to indicate intensity ; for example,
Matthew ii, 10. This would be useless if they indicated in
tensity themselves.
The usual or temporary emphasis arising from the affection
of the speaker may be recognised without difficulty by the'
following mark, viz. : if the ordinary signification of the word
is far below the manifest intensity of the affection which the
speaker or writer feels.
If the usual force of the word or phrase would give a
frigid meaning, when, on the other hand, an apt one would
arise if some intensity were given to the word, there is a
plain necessity of emphasis, which is the best guide for find
ing it So in 1 Corinthians iv, 3, 4, dvaKpiveiv is constantiy
emphatic; meaning either to be tried by the judgment, or to
take to one's self the right of trying or judging, or to be able
rightly to judge. If translated simply to judge, a frigid
sense would be given to it not at all adapted to the context
In like manner mariv, in Colossians i, 4, is used, as the con
text shows, to denote the constancy, greatness, or fruitfulness
of faith. Pau}. was not Under the necessity of knowing by
report that the Church at Colosse had simply Christian faith,
inasmuch as he was himself the founder of that Church.
So in Romans i, 8, that faith must have been special which
was celebrated throughout the world. Also in Matt, iv, 2,
k-rreivaae must imply intensity, from the circumstances of
the case.
The usus loquendi must not be neglected ; and whatever
rules may be devised for finding out and establishing the
emphasis, the msms loquendi must not be contradicted, nor
anything admitted implying repugnance thereto.

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 89
CHAPTER vm.
THE AFFECTIONS OF INSPIRED WRITERS.
That an acquaintance vrith the doctrine of the affections is
an essential requisite in the exposition of the Scriptures, may
be proved from reason and from the authority of divines.
It may be proved from reason ; for the affections of love,
hatred, desire, hope, fear, joy, sorrow, (fee, are frequently to
be met with in Holy Writ. It is evident, therefore, that,
were we ignorant of these affections, we should be inadequate
to the exposition of no inconsiderable part of the sacred
writings. ,
When no affections are expressed we must necessarily consi
der them implied, and that every sentence is of their dictation.
In 2 Cor. ii, 4, Paul says himself that he wrote the former
epistle to the Corinthians "out of much affliction and anguish
of heart, with many tears." In PhU. iii, 18, he speaks of
the false teachers with " weeping ;" and in 1 Thess. ii, 7, (fee,
he describes his ardent love for the Thessalonians, in language
replete with energy and pathos. Does not reason then war
rant us in concluding that the affections here expressed are,
in similar passages, implied? When Paul, addressing the
converts, (1 Cor. iv, 15,) tells them, "Though ye have ten
thousand instructors in Christ, yet not many fathers, for in
Christ Jesus I have begotten you through the gospel," is he
not influenced by the affection mentioned in 1 Thess. ii, 7, (fee?
When he asserts, (2 Cor. ii, 17,) that "many corrupt the
word of God," (collate iii, 2, (fee,) who but infers that he is
actuated by the afl'ection noticed Phil, iii, 18? an affection
in which indignation, sorrow, pity, (fee, are blended together.
Hence it is evident that to neglect the affections because
they are not directly expressed, would be as palpable an error
as to pass them over without concern where they are plainly
and fully revealed. The indications of an affection are not

90 manual of BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
indeed always similar, nor uniformly perspicuous; but the
judicious and spiritual reader wiU ever find them to be fully
adequate and sufficient.
¦When we read the Scriptures we are bound to see that
our natural affections be amended and corrected, and that
our hearts, under the influence of the Holy Spirit, overfow
with gracious affections. Without, however, a knowledge
of these emotions, who can inspect the abyss of the human
heart, and the depth of those feehngs by which it is agita
ted ? And, without forming correct ideas of the affections
which it is proposed to imitate, how shall man, who is carnal,
"put them on?"
The nature of discourse confirms the position. Christ says,
(Matt, xii, 34, 35,) "How can ye, being evil, speak good
things? for out of the 'abundance of the heart the mouth
speaketh. A good man, out of the good treasure of t'he heart,
bringeth forth good things : and an evil man, out of the evil
treasure, bringeth forth evil things.'' These words decidedly
evidence that unless some affection influenced the heart, lan
guage would not be uttered ; so that a man's words are, in
fact, the index of 'his feelings or affections. What is "the
abundance of the heart," but those internal emotions which
inform and actuate the human soul, and which constitute, in
a holy man, holy affections, and, in an unholy man, unholy
aflections? So closely, indeed, are language and affections
connected together — so indissoluble is the union that subsists
between them — that it would be, in effect, just as unreason
able to divide soul from body as to separate these. Since,
then, the affections are so intimately connected with all lan
guage, none will suppose that they are banished from the
writings of the inspired penmen; and, because they are
closely united with the language of inspiration, it follows
that the sacred records cannot be adequately expounded by
those who are satisfied with the mere shell and contemn the
precious kernel of Scripture — who watch the lips, but never
enter into the feelings of the inspired penmen.

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 91
Since different ideas and views are communicated by dif
ferent affections, so that the same words pronounced under the
influence of various emotions wiU convey various meanings, it
becomes requisite to investigate and develop the affections
of the sacred penmen, lest we impose on their language a
sense they were not intended to dehver. Many other argu
ments which might be adduced we intentionally omit, because
a treatise on this subject wUl best demonstrate its high im
portance. Having shown the necessity of an acquaintance with the
doctrine of the affections, on the ground of reason, let us
proceed for a moment to enforce its claims on the authority
¦of divines. ,
Wolfgang Franzius, in.his invaluable book, " De Interpre-
tatione Scjripturae Sacrae," discusses the question so fuUy,
and illustrates his positions with examples so pertinent, as to
render his work deserving the serious attention of the inquir
ing reader.
Luther also was indebted to his knowledge of the affec
tions, and to his hvely mode of representing them, for that
eminent gift of exposition with which he was endowed. Of
this his Comment on Genesis, and his Discourses on the
Psalms, are conclusive evidences.
We next proceed to cite some observations from- the letter
addressed by Spener to the PhUo-bibhcal College at Leipsic.
This celebrated man observes — "No practice will prove more
pleasant or beneficial, and none more suitable to the college,
than after fervent, secret prayer, to discriminate and enter
into the affections of the inspired .writers with sabred atten
tion and perseverance, audi strive to unfold their nature and
character. This being done, and the thoughts being collected
and brought to bear on the subject in hand, the students
will be able to mark, with the highest delight and profit,
the indications of faith and of the mind of Jesus, together
with the more minute circumstances, and easily awaken in
their own bosoms affections of a kindred natiire. That emi-

92 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
nent divine, Luther, when speaking of this practice, says —
' Whoever adopts it wiU, I am satisfied, learn more himself
than he can gather fi'om all commentaries united. By means
of incessant and attentive reading, we should, as it were,
raise the writer from the dead and consider him as alive, so as
to form perfect conceptions, mentally, of what we cannot
actually 'behold. 'When engaged in the study of the Scrip
tures the idea formed in the writer's raind should be carefuUy
ascertained — the affections by which he was influenced — his
state of life, and his office, at the time he penned the book.
Much do I wish that the labour which Casaubon has bestowed
upon Horace, Juvenal, and Persius, in his Prolegomena,
were applied to the elucidation of the divine oracles, so as to>
give a just description of the genius, mind, condition, man
ners, and affections, peculiar to each of the sacred writers.
These are desirable subjects that yet remain untouched.'
Luther again remarks, ' that an expositor should, as it were,
invest himself with the author's mind, in order that he may
interpret him as another self Bernard hkewise excelled in
this heavenly art of correcting his own affections by those
of the sacred penmen, and it was thence he derived his spir
itual erudition." Thus far Spener's letter; and to these
names may be added that of Flaccus lUyricus, who also re
commends the study of the affections of the inspired pen
men.
- Let us now consider a few objections which may be made
to this view of the subject. There are persons perhaps who
think that the Holy Spirit is wronged when we attribute to
the sacred writers affections which are in reality the fruit of
his influence, and that the Scriptures are not to be referred
to those holy men, but rather to the Holy Ghost who speaks
by them. To this we answer that the fact of their being
divinely inspired, far from mihtating against our position,
tends itself to convince us that the Holy Spirit kindled sacred
affections in the writers' souls; for it is absurd to suppose
that in penning the Scriptures they viewed themselves in

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 93
the light of mere machines, or that they wrote -without any
feeling or perception what we read -with so great a degree of
both. Doubtless their minds were illuminated by the Spirit,
and their wills infiamed with pious, holy, and ardent affec
tions, so that they wrote as they felt, and as they were
^^ moved by the Holy Ghost" 2 Peter i, 21. Indeed, it ap
pears that the Spirit condescended to accommodate himself
to their peculiar genius and modes of writing, which evidently
vary in the different books of Scripture. Hence we conclude
that the minds of the sacred penmen were not unmoved,
but on the contrary active, enlightened, and replete with
holy aff'ections.
Besides, the inspired writers sometimes mention the affec
tions by which they are actuated, as has been already shown,
and this must form a complete answer to the objection pro
posed ; for who wUl have the temerity to affirm, when Paul
expressly declares his love, joy, desire, hope, that he really
is not influenced by these sacred passions ?
Again, it may possibly be objected that, on the principles
laid down, the language* of divine truth would become am
biguous, for that any one might give it what sense he pleased
by referring it to various affections. In reply to this objec
tion, we observe that we agree in considering it a matter of
high importance to develop the genuine and spiritual mean
ing of the written word, and then prrme it to be so, where
there is no gesture or modulation of voice to guide us in
judging of the affections. To infer, however, that we must
not examine into the affections of the inspired penmen, lest
this ambiguity should arise, were to conceal our ignorance,
and dissemble the difficulty rather than explain it Daily
experience testifies that even familiar conversation is capable
of various interpretations, according to the affections that
operate. Will, then, our ignorance remove these affections,
which nature implanted, and which grace does not restrain ?
This objection is in truth a cogent argument in favour of the
study of the affections ; for when we have acquired abihty to

94 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEEATURE.
develop them, (which certainly is attainable,) the Scriptures
will of course cease to be ambiguous. i
It forms no solid objection to our view of the subject that
many commentators neglect this branch of exposition, and
pass it over in silence. This consideration is abundantly
overruled by opposing to it the high authorities that have
advocated the cause of the affections. It might be added
that those persons are usually but indifferent examiners of
the Scriptures who, in searching into their meaning, depend
partially or entirely on authority. It evidences,, as Bernard
has observed, that they do not read the word in the Spirit,
under whose influence it was written.
Besides, a consequence deduced from the ignorance or
negligence of commentators can avail nothing against the
doctrine. It is indeed to be lamented that very few are
soKcitous to ascertain the spiritual meaning of the sacred
writings, but are anxious rather to be diffuse on critical, con-
troverted, and difficult points, where there is a wider field for
the range of natural intellect. This inattention to the affec
tions is a main reason why some commentaries are so meagre
and unsatisfactory to spiritual readers who, •with a view to
personal edification, search after the mind of the Spirit and
the revelations of the divine image. A comment written
¦without adverting to the affections, is so only in , name and
form.
_ An unrenewed man cannot attain to a just knowledge of
the affections as a help to exposition. This is evident from
the following considerations : —
An unrenewed person has no perception of any but natu
ral affections. He speaks of spiritual affections as a bhnd
man does of colours ; and even as it respects those which
are natural his views are not just, so long as he is immured
in the darkness and depravity of his corrupt nature. It is
spiritual affections, however, that are chiefly to be known;
for the raind of Christ best explains the mind of Christ
This is clear from 1 Cor. ii.

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 95
Again, the knowledge of the affections of which we speak
is practical; whereas an unrenewed man peruses the Scrip
tures theoretically, and believes it sufficient if he understand
them through the medium of natural reason. It hkewise
requires an inward perception, (a'iadrimg,) of which the un
renewed person is destitute, and after which, while in his
unregenerate state, he never seriously aspires.
It seems indeed an objection to this statement that we
daUy see ungodly men not only handle the Scriptures, but
also speak largely on its meaning, in books and commenta
ries, and indeed utter truths that cannot be controverted by
pious men. This difficulty is, however, fully explained when
we reflect that what is within the compass of a carnal man
in profane writings, is equally so as it respects the Scriptures.
He can, for instance, apprehend the terms as they are com
monly received, form the affirmation and negation, under
stand them when formed, and perceive the necessity of a
consequence, as weU in Holy Writ as in profane authors.
When an unrenewed person reads the precept, " Thou shalt
not kiU," he perfectly conceives what is meant by kiUing ;
he likewise understands what is prohibited, and, because the
precept is universal, he rightly infers that he is forbidden to
murder. But as it respects the spiritual meaning, which
the letter does not immediately convey, and the mind of the
Spirit, (rd (fipovrjiia rov nveiifiarog,) how is it possible for
a carnal, unrenewed man to have any perception of that
from which he is so entirely alienated ? In 1 Cor. ii, 11, 12,
Paul affirms that " the things of God knoweth no man, but
the Spirit of God, and they who have received not the spirit
of the world, but the Spirit which is of God."
As an example of this we cite James iii, where the apostle,
by implication, accuses the persons addressed of a breach of
the fifth commandment, and (ver. 17, 18,) describes the
mind of the Spirit in full, perspicuous, and energetic lan
guage — displaying that mind, as it were, before their eyes
in impressive points of view. It is indubitably certain that

96 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE,
a carnal man can apprehend the terms of the proposition
here advanced, and apply the precept, by legitimate conse
quence, to himself; but he will not, he cannot, have any
perception, or form any idea, of the habit of a soul that is
sanctified, and endued with heavenly knowledge and divine
perception. On this subject we may confidently appeal to
the believer's present and past experience. Since, then, an
unrenewed person has no knowledge of this habit of the
mind, how is it possible for him to have any perception of
the emotions of a holy soul ?
Observation and experience have likewise evidenced most
decisively, that in consequence of the incapacity already no
ticed, the mind of a carnal, unregenerate person is far from
adequately penetrating even into the sense of the letter, be
cause, from the very nature of things, there subsists the
closest connexion between words and ideas.
The consideration of the aff'ections is fourfold. If we ex
amine them generally, a definition that will comport with all
cannot be given ; nor is it indeed necessary. Let us, how
ever, notice them in the following points of view : —
1. As they belong to men, in common with brutes. Un
der this character we must class the motions of sensitive
appetite, arising from the imagination of good or evU,
whether real or only apparently so.
2. As they belong to the carnal man. In this class we
may range the motions (facultatis appetentis) of the desir
ing faculty, sensitive or intellectual, arising from the appre
hension of good or evil, whether this be of a sensitive or
intellectual nature.
3. As they belong to the spiritual man. In this view an
affection is the emotion of a soul sanctffied and actuated by
the Spirit.
4. As they are attributed to God himself, in the sacred
writings. This the grammarians call dvOpuno^Kadeia, (a
human affection,) a word which immediately suggests that
affections cannot be attributed to the Divine Being, but that

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 97
the Holy Spirit accommodates himself to human infirmity,
and condescends to speak of God in a way adapted to our
capacities. Luther explains the fijundation of dvOpurconddsia
in this way : — " Affections are attributed to God, sb far as
they are found in the sacred writers who were inspired by
him, and also in the ministers of the word. Thus we find,
Gen. vi, 6, that repentance is ascribed to God, go far as Noah,
a holy man, under the sacred influences of the Spirit, felt
grieved on account of the gross and universal depravity of
mankind. Affections are likewise attributed to God, so far
as the wicked feel them in their bosoms. Thus anger is as
cribed to the Di'rine Being because the sinner perceives, by
the disquietude of his conscience, that God is angi'y with
him." It will evidently be sufficient for our purpose if we con
sider the affections in the second and third modes ; that is,
as they attach to the carnal and to the spiritual man. This
will suggest all that is necessary to be known respecting the
other modes noticed.
As both the carnal and spiritual affectipns will come under
consideration, it should be remarked that affections may be
sinailar as to narae, and yet, on account of their source, object,
end, subjects, adjuncts, (fee, be essentially different By
raeans of some definite properties or characteristics, they can,
however, be readily distinguished.
Characteristics of Spiritual Affections.
1. A spiritual affection has for its source the Holy Spirit
and is the fruit of his influence.
2. A spiritual affection tends to a holy end.
3. A spiritual affection is engaged on objects that are
divine, eternal, spiritual, and invisible.
4.. A spiritual affection, when engaged on sensible objects,
is not employed on them as such, but only so far as they
havi relation to those which are unseen.
7

98 MANUAL OP BIBLI-jaL LITERATURE.
5. A spiritual affection is grounded pn faith and love.
When these do not operate, affections cease to be spiritual.
6. A spiritual affection influences the subject of it to seek
not himself nor his personal convenience as such, but God
and his glory,
7. A spiritual overcomes a carnal affection, though the
latter be othe^svise very violent
8. A spiritual affection is alvfays connected with humility.
The instant the mind is elated affections become carnal.
9. A spiritual affection excites no perturbation in the
mind, nor does it leave behind it any bitterness. It rather
assists in the regulation of the soul, receiving every dispen
sation with complacency, and acquiescing in God with joy.
10, A spiritual affection tends to the amelioration of na
ture, the increase of grace, and the edification of mankind ;
having no object but the glory of God.
Characteristics of Carnal Affections.
1, A carnal affection, as it is opposed to those which are
spiritual, so it has nature for its source, and is destitute of
grace. 2. A carnal affection has for its end the temporal preser
vation and amendment of nature, or it refers all things to
pleasure, and particularly seeks such pleasure not in mental
peace but personal convenience, and this often under a pre
text of duty.
3. A carnal affection is engaged on objects that are cor
poreal, local, temporal, and sensitive.
4. A carnal affection, if engaged upon spiritual objects,
does not dweU on them as such, neither with righteous -views
nor in a consistent manner, but only so far as they have re
lation to private gratification or convenience.
5. A carnal affection receives its existence and support
from perverse self-love.
6. A .carnal affection gives tiie preference to things natu-

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 99
rally pleasing, though others may approximate more nearly
to real excellence.
7. A cai'nal affection gradually disturbs the mind when it
is at all indulged, rendering it incapable of investigating
truth, or of performing righteous actions, and it leaves a de
gree of bitterness in the mind proportioned to the strength
of the affection. Cicero justly used to term them '¦^pertur-
bationes animi " — (the perturbations of the mind.)
8. A carnal .affection has always a degree of pride
(avddSeia) in it, though it is often very subtile. As long
as this has place in the mind, carnal affections are not put off.
9. A carnal affection often induces a visible change of the
body. The characteristics we have enumerated are by no means
all, but they are the more general ones — those which are
most consonant "with our present object, and which may
afford matter whence to derive others of a more special kind.
If the reader apply himself to do this, his labor -wiU not be
unprofitable. The object of the characteristics which have been adduced,
is to develop with more facihty the affections of the inspired
writers. Although the carnal affections are by these characteristics
separated from the spiritual affection's, we are not thence to
conclude that they are so separated in the heart of a renewed
person as that the former never mingle -with the latter. On
the contrary, the believer's daUy strife is to be more and
more delivered from the sinful affections of (amal nature.
It is according to the reigning affections that a man is de
nominated carnal or spiritual. To suppose, however, that
renewed and unrenewed men have the same perception of
the affections of the sacred writers, is a radical error. It
were impious to ascribe any mixture of good and bad affec
tions to the Holy Spirit, though we cannot deny that sacred
affections show themselves in a sanctified nature by external
and natural indications.

100 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
1. Affections are either simple or compound. The simple
affections are love, hatred, desire, aversion, joy, sorrow, hope,
despair, fear, confidence, anger. The Cartesian philosophy
not unreasonably classes with them the affections of admi
ration, contempt, and other emotions of the mind relating
chiefly to the intellect The compound are those in which
many affections concur, as compassion, indignation, envy,
emulation, (fee. It is not enough to have a general knowl
edge of the affections, since every word may flow fi'om a
different emotion.
2. In the consideration of the sacred text, a distinction is
to be made between the affections of the writer, those of
the person addressed, the affections of the subject of
discourse, and those which are attributed to the blessed
God. Hence it is evidently necessary not only to ascertain
the affection, but to deterraine the subject. This wiU have a
tendency to cause the thing itself to be more accurately, dis
tinctly, and duly weighed, and the delightful harmpny that
subsists between the affections of the different subjects will
be likewise raore fully unfolded. It wUl also assist us to
discern the principles of holy wisdom, according to which
affections may be regulated by affections. This is certainly
of high importance, though as a help it has hitherto been
seldom noticed or improved.
3. In examining the affections, those are to be considered
first which are expressly named, and afterwards those which
are not immediately declared. Thus, by proceeding from
easier to raore difficult points, we shall gradually enter into
the affections, even in those passages that afford no direct
indications of them.
4. When the affections are not expressly named, the text
should be examined according to the characteristics. Every
characteristic is to be so applied, both carnal and spiritual:
the former class to the affections of those persons who are
the subjects of the discourse, and to those of the writer ; and
the latter oftentimes to different subjects, but specially to the

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 101
sacred penraen. Wherever we recognise a characteristic we
must conclude there is a latent affection, for dissiraulation
has no place in the word of God.
It is proper here not only to have the general characteris
tics of the aft'eetions ascertained, but hkewise those which
are special, and accommodated to individual affections. The
reader will thus easily attain to a special as well as general
knowledge of holy affections.
The characteristics may be accommodated not only to
words, but hkewise to actions and entire details.
The several characteristics should be separately apphed to
the subjects whenever an indiscriminate application would
be an infringement on the Spirit speaking in the Scriptures.
The reader (especially if one of the Epistles be perused)
may be considered as standing in a college, where, while he
listens to the person speaking, and hangs, as it were, upon
his lips, the affections of those who are absent and those
who are present .are successively brought before him, and he
learns from both what to imitate and what to avoid.
It would be exceedingly useful to have the several affec
tions so practically developed, from carefully examining our
own, that we might without difficulty express their charac
teristics in perspicuous and suitable words. To adopt the
language of Franzius, "when the mind is thus engaged,
the word will become ineffably sweet and inconceivably
precious." He who reposes in God with placid and calm
affection may contemplate the turbulent passions of the hu
man heart, as well as the gracious emotions excited in a
sanctffied soul by the Holy Spirit, and by tasting of divine
wisdom perceive its nature and appreciate its worth. Here,
indeed, an inscrutable abyss will open to hj^ view, and, as
Luther hath remarked, " meditation, when strengthened and
supported by frequent exercise, will suggest raore, much
more, than all our commentaries united." May the reader
be encouraged to aspire after this most useful and profitable
help!

102 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
It raay be added that exercise will be cherished into habit,
and that the characteristics can be so farailiarized by patient
practice and pious experience as to leave the student at lib
erty to draw them from " the good treasure of his heart."
5. All the circumstances which the text supplies, or which
raay be otherwise known, should be weighed and examined,
if we aim at forming a right judgment of the latent affec
tion. Though only one circumstance remain unknown, a
very different affection may be often ascribed to the speaker,
of which we have frequent examples, even in familiar con
versation. The circumstances. Who ? What ? Where ? By
what means? Why? How? When? should be, as much
as possible, applied.
The circumstance which may be more remarkable in one
place than in another is to be chiefly urged, though, in par
ticular places, the major part contribute to give weight to
the affections.
All circumstances are not always necessary to be accom
modated to all words. Some words have peculiar reference
to particular circumstances, and, as it were, point them out.
It is, however, necessary sometiraes to exaraine all the cir
cumstances accurately, and, indeed, the more attentive the
student is, the more will he enter into the spirit of the text
and the mind of the holy penmen.
6. Love is justly considered as the foundation, or rather
source, of every affection in the inspired penmen.
The first fruit of the Spirit (Gal. v, 22) is love. This af
fection, however, sometimes receives different designations,
according to the circumstances. Love to God and man was
the preeminent affection in the soul of St. Paul. Hence,
when he addresses penitent sinners, (as in his Second
Epistle to the Corinthians,) we may plainly discover that his
desire, fear, hope, piety, joy, in short, that all his affections
spring frora love.
7. Pronunciation, or the modulation of the voice in utter
ing any text, is by no means to be neglected.

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 103
This ever follows the course of the affections and- the dic
tates of nature, and hence a discourse dehvered vivd voce is
much more easily apprehended than one written. So facts
which the eye witnesses are far more convincing than those
which are related to us.
The deficiency under which every student of Scripture, in
this respect, labours, may be supphed by first using every
method of eliciting the true meaning of the text, and then
pronouncing it according to the sense and affection previously
and carefully ascertained.
It is presumed, however, that no person will raise any in
terpretation of Scripture on the foundation of this or any
other help alone, but apply all rules of exposition in regular
order. He who neglects this injunction wUl often deceive
others and be deceived himself.
The punctuation and other distinctions which have in the
course of time been introduced into the text, materially affect
the pronunciation, and -will often lead the reader to attribute
affections which the passage, when divested of its human
appendages, would by no raeans warrant. On this account
we should lose sight of these arbitrary distinctions until the
affection be ascertained. Those ancient copies in which the
text is not divided into verses, are, in this view, to be pre
ferred. 8. In examining the affections, we profit chiefly by an ar
dent and- holy emulation of those sacred eraotions which we
contemplate in the inspired writers.
The more we " put on" their afi'ections, the more deeply
shall we enter into their writings and meditate on the truths
which they reveal. Whenever the affections of the sacred
penmen develop and unfold themselves, let us seek to possess
the same amiable emotions, and, if possible, the same degree
of them in our own bosoms ; and let us, by the grace of
God, strive to correct every irregularity of temper. The
meaning of Scripture, thus laid up in the heart rather than
the head, will transform our souls " from glory into glory,"

104 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
and we shall experience that " the word of God is quick
and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged sword;
piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit,
and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the
thoughts and intents of the heart"

CHAPTER IX.
MEANS OF HARMONIZING APPARENT DISCREPANCIES.
If it could be plainly shown that two passages of Scripture
contradict each other, and that no method of conciliation is
practicable, it raust necessarily follow that one of the read
ings in the usual copies must be faulty, and an emendation
of the text must be sought. Of this nature, perhaps, is the
passage in John xix, 14, compared with Matthew xxvii, 45
and Mark xv, 25 ; also, as many think, Luke iii, 36, compa
red with Genesis x, 24. Some add Matthew xxvii, 9, com
pared with Zechariah xi, 12, 13.
If the text of both passages plainly appears to be genuine,
so that it cannot fairly be questioned, then it must be under
stood that there is a mere appearance of inconsistency, which
should be removed, and the passage conciliated by a proper
interpretation. The appearance of inconsistencies sometimes occurs in
passages of a doctrinal, and sometimes of a historical kind.
The writers of the New Testament sometiraes appear to be
at variance with themselves, sometimes vrith each other,
and occasionally with the writers of the Old Testament
As an example of variance with themselves, instance 1 Cor.
¦viii, 1, compared with verse 7. For an example of variance
•with each other, Paul asserts that a man is justified by faith and
not by works. James asserts that a man is justified not by
faith only, but also by works. The difference is, however,
only in appearance, not in reality.

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 105
In doctrinal passages an apparent contradiction, that is to
be removed, arises for the most part either from the style of
the authors, which is rather of the popular kind than that
of nice refinement, or from the genius of the oriental lan
guages, which differs so widely from that of the westem
ones. An apparent contradiction, in respect to doctrines
plainly taught, is to be removed by theologians in the way
of explaining things rather than words merely, and so it
comes not directly within the province of the interpreter.
The method of harmonizing apparent doctrinal discrepan
cies may be regarded by the following rules: — 1. An ob
scure passage should be explained in accordaVice with what
is plain and without any ambiguity. For example, we must
explain all the anthropopathical expressions in regard to
God by the plain trath that his nature is spiritual. 2. A
passage in which a doctrine is merely touched or adverted
to, is to be explained by other passages which present plain
and direct exhibitions of it For instance, the subject of
justification in Romans iii is designedly treated at largfe ;
of the resurrection, in 1 Cor. xv. Such passages are called
classic, (loci classici,) and by them other expressions, which
simply occur obiter, are to be explained.
We must, however, be careful to harmonize apparent dis
crepancies, if it can be done, by recourse to the usus loquendi,
so that all occasion of doubt or ca-viUing may be removed ;
for it is very desirable that the usus loquendi should justify
that sense which we put upon any doubtful passage, from
ha-ving compared it with passages that are plain and clear.
Many things of a doctrinal nature are simply and abso
lutely declared, agreeably to comraon usage, in all languages,
which stiU have only a relative sense. This may be ac
counted for from the fact that there are parts of religion
which are commonly known and understood^ therefore such
parts do not need accurate limitations. For example, that
we are saved by faith is one of the elementary principles of
the Christian religion. The sacred writers, therefore, do not.

106 ¦ MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
on every mention of any duty, remind us of this principle,
inasmuch as they expect us to keep it always in memory.
When they say that alms-giving is acceptable to God, they
expect to be understood as meaning, if it be accompanied
by faith. In this way apparent discrepancies may be re
conciled, and the reconcihation becomes the more probable
as the reason for it can be given.
Apparent discrepancies, arising from oriental style or man
ner of expression, are quite numerous. For example, pluck
out the eye that offends ; cut off the hand that offends ; it
is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, (fee ;
to follow Christ one must hate parents, (fee, (fee The context,
passages similar as to the subject, the nature of the style,
the subject itself, (fee, are the means of finding the true
sense of such places, and then the harmony of these -with
other passages is ob-vious.
Apparent discrepancies with other writers, or between
different parts of the same writer, not unfrequently occur.
For example, in addition to what has been given supra, the
advice of Paul, 1 Cor. vii, respecting matrimony, is only pro
tempore, and dictated merely by the exigencies of the times
in which he wrote. In many other places his writings con
tain a different sentiment. Again, in Romans iii, 20 it is
said that a man cannot be justified by works ; but in ii, 1 3 it is
stated that noiriria, doers of the law, shall be justified. Here
one verse states the rule of legal justification, the other that
no man can claim it on the ground of that rule. Where it
is said we are justified by faith, the meaning is that we re
ceive pardon on the ground of gratuity ; but justification as
applied to the doers of the law, means reward on the ground
of merit or perfect obedience.
Discrepancies seem to exist at times between the writers
of the Old Testament and the New, merely from the differ
ent manner in which they express theraselves on the same
subjects, when this is rather to be attributed to the dift'erent
¦ degrees of light which the writers had, and tp the differences

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 107
in the eras, manners, and habits of each. For example,
the subject of war, of loving enemies, of benevolence to
the Gentiles, of God's equal and paternal regard to them,
of gratuitous justification, (fee. A representation less perfect
in the Old Testament need not be understood as contradict-
ing one raore perfect in the New.
Apparent discrepancies of an historical nature originate
from a dift'erent design and manner in narrating the same
thing, as often happens in the Gospels ; for a diversity of de
sign varies the choice of circumstances. Many circumstances
differ, after all, in nothing important as to designating the
ideas which the authors in comraon mean to designate ; and
oftentimes they may be either commuted for each other or
omitted. It is of no importance, sometiraes, whether a thing
be asserted in a generic or specific form.
Far raore frequently an appearance of discrepancy arises
from the mere manner of expression, which seeras at first
view to imply a difference in the things described, while it is
merely a difference in the mode of describing them. It is
very evident that the best and raost careful writers do not
always exhibit the same precise and accurate method in re
spect to the names of things, persons, or places. For ex
ample, Matthew xvii, 14, compare Luke ix, 38 ; Gadarene
and Gergasene; Matthew viii, 28, corapare Mark v, 2;
Matthew v, 1, corapare Luke vi, 17. Also in regard to
numbers. For example, Matthew xxvii, 44, compare Luke
xxiii, 39 ; Matthew viii,. 5— 9, corapare Luke vii, 1-10 ; Matt.
viii, 28, compare Mark v, 2 ; Acts vii, 14, compare Genesis
xlvi, 27 ; Acts vii, 6, corapare Gal. iii, 17. And in regard to
dates and years, see Luke ii, 2, compared with the history of
the Syrian proconsuls.
Where several names of the same object exist, they some
times exhibit one and sometimes another. In regard to the
manner of expressing time, places, and numbers, sometimes
they use the more common and indistinct method, and some
times the more accurate one. In designating time, they

108 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
vary. They sometiraes put genus for species, and vice
versa. Examples of such a nature occur in common histo
ries, as well as in the Gospels. We should make ourselves
acquainted 'with conciUations of passages in the best classic
authors. In historic discrepancies we must guard against confound
ing things which really differ, merely because they 'have
some similitude ; or deducing discrepancies therefrom, as has
often happened in the interpretations of profane authors.
Great efforts have been made to harmonize the Gospel
narrations. Several hundred harmonies have been written.
Some have chosen one Gospel as exhibiting the regular order
of time, and made the rest conform to it as a standard.
Others have rejected the supposition of perfect chronological
order in any. Some have made the number of facts related
as small as possible, and forced the language to a harmony ;
others have raultiphed the number of facts, so that every
narration comprising a single circumstance of discrepancy
from others has been supposed to contain a histoi'y of a
similar, but still of a separate fact Some have supposed the
public ministry of Christ to have continued for three years ;
others for more than seven. Some have supposed that Paul
went to Jerusalem soon after his conversion ; others that he
was from five to seven years in the deserts of Arabia and in
the city of Damascus prior to that visit.
Among the German critics numerous and contradictory
theories are found. From such a chaos of conflicting opinions
the young interpreter can find refuge in the diligent, thorough,
repeated study of the Gospels, with a candid mind and a
prayerful, beheving heart Let him carry -with him to his
study a fundamental knowledge of the nature of language,
that he may not be embarrassed with the mere form of
words ; as the sense of the Scriptures, and not the words,
which are the mere costume of the sense, is what should
govern him in his investigations. The notion which attaches
absolute perfection to the form of language, as well as to

BIBLICAL EXEGESIS. 109
the sense which it conveys, makes the reconciliation of them
impossible!" In some cases two, three, or even the four evan
gelists relate the same thing in different words. Now if the
fwm of ihe words in one is absolutely perfect, what is to
be said of the other three, who have adopted different forms ?
And if the form of a narration in Luke, with two or three
more circumstances interwoven, is absolutely perfect, what
becomes of the narrations in Matthew and Mark, where one
or more of these circumstances are omitted ?
It is a fact, which admits of no doubt, that the sacred -writ
ers differ from each other as much in respect to the mode of
writing as profane authors.
In harmonizing passages, those which are doubtful should
be interpreted by those which are plain. The doubtful and
uncertain must always be accommodated to the plain and
certain. As the subject respects occasional historical facts
merely, we may add, in conclusion, that nothing endangering
our salvation is connected with the discrepancies.

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS.

The analytical study of the Bible is that by which we insti
tute a logical analysis, and consider the structure, connexion,
and order of entire books and particular texts of the Old and
New Testaments ; that, being thus resolved into their first
principles, they may be understood -with the greater facility
and precision. This branch of study is not prescribed on the
supposition that, the sacred penraen affected to compose and
arrange their subjects according to the rules of logic, for it
were absurd to .suppose that it were necessary for men
divinely inspired thus to be obliged to a scientific arrange
ment but because order is so natural in the investigation of
all things, that it is right and proper to apply it to language
whether sacred or profane, and tends in no small degree
to render it perspicuous and easy to be understood.
This is evident in all language ; for, though it be of the
raost famUiar kind, it will not please even an illiterate person
unless its parts harmonize and order be observed.
The importance of obtaining an accurate kno-wledge of
logical analysis is e-vident from the following considerations : —
1 . As all helps calculated to expound the Scriptures recipro
cally explain, assist, and confirm each other, so analysis has h
great effect in determining the emphasis, idiom, literal sense,
inferences, and practical application. 2. Analysis causes the
several members, and even words of the text, to be considered
with more accuracy and precision. 3. It affords special aid
to meraory. 4. When anything is to be proven, or has been
proven from a text, it lays the whole connexion of the subject

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. Ill
open to inspection. 5. It assists in meditation, and in the
delivery of -a sermon. 6. It develops the gi-ounds on which
the inspired writers propounded their doctrines, which is a
point of rauch importance. 7. It conduces in no small de
gree to the decision of controversies.
Logical study is employed either on whole books or
particular texts. The solution of particular texts, however,
presupposes an acquaintance with the structure of whole
books. Those who begin -with texts are generally deficient,
as they are not prepared for that branch of analysis.
In logical study the books of Scripture must evidently be
considered under different points of view. First, the doctrinal
books are to be distinguished from the historical, prophetical,
undpoetical ; and these raust be distinguished from each other.
The doctrinal books consist of one or many subjects. If
they consist of many, they must be separated and analyzed
apart. For example, the First Epistle to the Corinthians
treats of the following subjects : —
1. The inconsiderate zeal of the Church, under the influ
ence of which one person preferred Paul and another Apollos,
to chap. 4 inclusive.
2. The incest which had been committed among them,
chap. 5.
3. Their law-suits, chap. 6.
4. Their fornication, chap. 6.
5. Of raarriage and divorce, chap. 7.
6. Of things offered to idols, chap. 8, 9, 10.
7. Of the external deportment of Christians in the public
congregation, chap. 11.
8. Of the abuse of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper,
chap. 11.
9. Of spiritual gifts, and the harmony subsisting between
such gifts in certain particulars, 'chap. 12.
10. Of Christian love, chap. 13.
11. Qf the manner of conducting holy assemblies and
teaching therein, chap. 14.

112 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
12. Ofthe resurrection, chap. 15.
¦ 13. Of alms, (fee, chap. 16.
If they consist of but one subject, the following rules must
be observed : —
1. By frequent reading, the scope or design and general
subject should be well ascertained and understood.
2. All conclusions affecting the principal design and gene
ral subject ofthe whole 'book, must be sedulously compared
with the design.
3. The middle terms must be thoroughly weighed, and
compared -with all the subordinate conclusions.
It raay prove sufficient, to give us a proper understanding
of the structure of a book, if we duly consider the design of
the whole, the conclusions accoramodated to the design,
and the middle terms prepared to produce these conclusions
all arranged in their proper order. That this may more
effectually be accomplished, it will be necessary to observe
the following remarks : —
1 . The greater number of the books in question are of a
polemical character, and tence, if the opposite proposition be
examined, it will afford material service in ascertaining the
design and in distinguishing it from that of other books.
This is evidently the case in the Epistle to the Galatians.
Most of the epistles are divided into four parts, or rather
contain two principal parts, of which the former is doctrinal
and the latter hortatory or practical, and applicatory — as
raay be seen in Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, and Colos
sians — and the two secondary parts contain the exordium
and conclusion. If an analysis of the doctrinal part be
properly instituted, but little difficulty wUl attend the others.
For instance, an analysis of Colossians will show the foUowing :
1. The occasion of its writing, namely : Paul's love for
the Church — the difficulties which had arisen in consequence
of the errors which had been introduced by Judaizing Chris
tians — the entreaties of Epaphras on their behalf. From
these, the design of the whole epistle may be easily ascer-

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 113
tained, which was, that Paul, in obedience to his duty as an
apostle, might confirm the Colossian converts in the doctrines
of faith and holiness, and that he might heal the difficulties
occasioned by Jewish errors. In regard to the division of
the epistle, it is so plain and natural as easily to be distin
guished by the careful reader. After the inscription, (chap, i,
ver. 1, 2,) the epistle may be said' to comprehend an ex
ordium, (chap, i, 3-8,) a proposition, (ver. 9-12,) a confirma
tion, (chap.i, 13, to iv, 7,) and a conclusion. The exordium
unfolds the occasiofi of writing the epistle — the proposition
reveals the dekign of its writing — the confirmation is designed
to establish the Colossians in faith and induce holiness. It is
doctrinal and elenchical, or confutatory. The conclusion refers
to the mutual communication of their several states — the
salutations of the brethren — special directions — a remem
brance of himself, and a prayer for their welfare.
Several books treat of the same, or at least of a kindred
subject, and some analytical aid raay be drawn from this
affinity. Thus, for instance, the Epistle to the Romans and
Galatians both treat of justification ; ' and the Epistles ad
dressed to the Ephesians, PhiUppians, and Colossians, touch
likewise on the same subject.
The historical books are attended with less difficulty, be
cause the order in an historical narration cannot but be
ob-vious. The different histories which they contain should,
however, be accurately separated, and then considered ac
cording to antecedents and consequents. It would be well
to study them, not by chapters, but by distinct subjects.
The prophetical books are verj' similar in nature to the
historical books, and borrow hght fi'om thera. The prophe
tical books relate to the future, as the historical books Relate
to the past.
The Psalms must be analyzed separately, and being short,
they will be solved with more ease than whole books, espec
ially if the student is careful not to infringe, by any. refined
logical subtleties, on the pyrophetic spirit, the affections of the
8

114 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
-writer, and the design of God, the Holy Spirit. When anal
ysis has in it anything forced, it must necessarily be defec
tive. A warm and glowing emotion will frequently, over
leap the limits of accustomed order. We do best when we
seek the order in the subject, and not the subject in an order
which we may have conceived.
In analyzing a doctrinal text, the foUo-wing rules must he
observed : —
1. The text should be referred to the propel subject and
general design of the whole book, for various things belong
to various scopes.
2. We must examine whether the text has not a nearer
connexion with some subordinate design, and consequently
a mediate rather than an immediate reference to the design
of the whole book.
3. It is proper to inquire whether the text refers to the
general design as a conclusion, as a middle term, or as a
perfect syllogism; and also whether the argument go to
prove, to explain, or to illustrate, — all which it will not he
difficult to ascertain when we are thoroughly acquainted
with the subject and structure of the whole book or section.
4. The proposition contained in the text must next be
formed and examined, and this not in different or more
simple language, (which belongs to exegesis,) but in the very
words of the text.
5. The subject and predicate of the- proposition must be
considered. 6. The accidental matter which may attach to the subject
and predicate raust be separated, and it should be ascertained •
what part of it belongs to the former and what to the latter,
as w^ell as what relation they bear to each other.
7. If there be several doctrines enuraerated in one text,
they must be examined separately, and afterwarcjs the
order in which they are connected should be ascertained —
a point to which the inspired writers are usually very at
tentive.

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 115
For instituting an analysis of any entire doctrinal book,
the following rules are necessary : —
1. The student, by frequent reading, should raake himself
thoroughly acquainted with the whole book in the original.
It should be read until the meaning is fully apprehended,
and the subject or subjects of the whole become clear. It
should be perused as we may suppose the Epistles of Paul
addressed to the several Churches were perused — frequently,
not with many interruptions ; not by cjiapters, but the whole
read at once, until the mind of the writer is fully under
stood. It would be vastly better if the Scriptures were read
without any regard whatever to the arbitrary and frequently
iraproper divisions of chapter and verse.
2. From this perusal, reperusal, and repetition, the student
must be careful to derive a proper knowledge of the design
which the author had in writing, and thus obtain an ac
quaintance with the general subject of the book.
The foUowing precautions are necessary : — 1. The student
should observe the words by which the writer declares his
object and design, which he frequently does in express terras.
2. He should observe the historical incidents noticed in the
text, from which some judgment may be forfiied of the state
of the controversy, as well as of the circumstances of the
Church or person to whom the book is addressed. 3. In
regard to the New Testament, when reference can be made
to the Acts of the Apostles, that book .should be examined
and collated with the text, as it throws light on the doctrinal
books. 4. Weigh every word attentively, and consider
whether it contains anything which may lead to a more ac
curate judgment ofthe design and subject ofthe whole.
When all this has been done, the student should resume
the book and, sedulously weigh the conclusions interspersed
through it. These are best ascertained by the particles
ovv, dpa, 6i6, (fee — wherefore, therefore, (fee. With regard to
these conclusions — 1. Some knowledge must be gained
of their meaning. 2. Compare them together, in order to

116 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
determine in what they agree and in what they differ.
3. Compare them with the design and subject of the whole
book, both of which, it is supposed, are become familiar to the
student. 4. Those things should be distinguished which
contain the entire design of the whole book, immediately in
themselves ; and those which are referred to it mediately,
that is, are as middle terms to the principal conclusion.
According to the accuracy with which the conclusions are
understood, and the , precision with -which they are dis
tinguished, will the work of logical analysis become raore or
less easy. For what is it to institute a separate reasoning
or logical analysis, but to search out the truth contained in
any proposition or conclusion, and the middle terms by which
that truth is demonstrated ?
The conclusions being thus examined, the student should
resume the book, and ascertain the middle terms or reasons
on which these conclusions are founded, whether they precede
or follow them. In a logical analysis it is proper to notice
that which proves, and to separate what is explanatory from
that which is illustrative.
Having thus thoroughly examined the .book, its com
ponent parts -will become very perceptible. If there be an
exordium or conclusion, a separation raust take place between
them, and each must be considered by itself. Should they
prove to be twofold, partiy doctrinal and partiy practical,
each branch must hkewise be examined apart
Since, however, this species of study is properly confined
to the letter of the word, we should be more solicitous to
analyze a text, than concerned about understanding and
applying it.
In further illustration of this study, -we shall present a full
and careful analysis of the Epistle to the Ephesians.
This Epistle consists of two parts — the first being com
prehended in the first three chapters, and the second in the
last three. The forraer is doctrinal, and the latter infe
rential and hortatory.

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. Il7
The doctrinal division contains one pincipal doctrine.
Si)ecial doctrines are interspersed ; but they are incidental, and
adduced to explain and enforce the principal one, or one
derived from it.
The principal doctrine is thus stated: — "Although a Jew
and Gentile convert differ, inasmuch as the forraer enjoyed
a priority of time in point of expecting and acknowledging
Christ, and through the grace of God the Jewish Church
was established before the Gentile, yet now the latter are
partakers of the same grace with them ; and being admitted
to this communion of grace, every real distinction is abolished,
and Jews and Gentiles constitute one body, of whom Christ
is the head. It was essentially necessary for the Ephesians,
and indeed for all Gentile converts, that this doctrine should
be asserted, because the contentious Jews, vain of their
national prerogative, would acknowledge none to be brethren
who did not submit their necks to the yoke of Judaism,
observe the law, and trust in it for justification. Hence
the apostle considers the subject not only in the present
Epistle, but in most others as above mentioned. In his
addresses, however, to the various Churches, his mode of
treating the subject was accommodated to the peculiar
circumstances of the persons addressed. Soraetimes it was
his object to prove that justification is of faith and not of the
law, because false apostles maintained the contrary ; at other
tiraes he exhorts the brethren to guard against such men,
adding his reasons for the admonition; sometimes he only
recalls them from the tenets of those persons to the true
faith. In this Epistle, however, he aims at subverting the
very foundation of the opponent's doctrine, which rested on
the boasted prerogative that the Jews enjoyed over the
Gentiles in point of time.
In order the more effectually to accomplish this object he
states in the first place the proper prerogative of the Jewish
nation, lest, by passing in silence over these privileges, he
should do an injury to hiraself as a Jew, and to his own

118 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEBATUEE.
nation, as well as to the truth itself, which was of infinitely
greater moraent To comprehend this position, the student
must examine the whole structure of the Epistle, otherwise
it may not readily be discerned. Let him, in the first
place, examine the distinction in the apphcation of the
personal pronouns. After using the pronouns of the first
person, we, us, (fee, as far as the 12th verse of the 1st chapter,
the apostle invariable adopts the second person in the fol
lowing verses. Hence he thus connects the 13th verse,
" In whom ye also," (fee, which cleariy indicates a change
in the subject; and he continues to use this pronoun until
he institutes a new comparison between the subjects. When
speaking in reference to the Jews, he says, " to us ;'' and
when speaking in reference to the Gentiles, he says, " to you."
If a collation is raade of chap. 2, verses 11, 12, 13, (fee, it
wUl be found that the different subjects hitherto represented
by the different pronouns are expressly named — "the
uncircumcision," -viz., the Gentiles ; and " the circumcision,"
-viz., the Jews.
The truth of the position assumed will appear secondly
from the circumstance that the predicate restricts the fonner
part of the chapter to the Jews — thus they are caUed " those
who first trusted in Christ"
The objection which lies agsanstpredestinate — npoopt^eiv —
on the ground of its being a general word, and indicative of
a priority of time and not of a priority of subjects, cannot
militate against " to trust first" — TrpoeXm^eiv — because '
this latter word must include both, since the trusting here
spoken of is inevitably to be referred to man and not to God.
Again, it is said in the ninth and following verses that the
mystery of the divine -will was revealed to them in order
that it might be dispensed — elg olKovofiiav — in the fulness
of time, and that all things. Gentiles as well as Jews, might
be brought under one head, even Christ The Jews first
received this general dispensation ; but the benefits of it had
been conferred upon the Gentiles in coramon with tiiem,

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 119
priority of time only excepted. The apostie asserts, " In
whom 2/e— Gentiles— aZ«o trusted after that ye heard the
word of truth, the gospel of your salvation ; in whom also
after that ye beheved, ye were sealed with that Holy Spirit
of promise which is the earnest of our" — the Jews' — "in
heritance." " Wherefore I, also, after I heard of your faith
in the Lord Jesus and love unto all the saints," (fee
The apostle pursues the same subject to the 3d verse of
the 2d chapter. " That ymi may know what is the exceeding
greatness of his power to ws-ward who beheve, according to
the working of his mighty power, which he wrought in Christ,
when he raised him from the dead, and set him at his own
right hand in the heavenly places, far above all principality,
and power, and might, and dominion, and every name that
is named, not only in this world, but also in that which is to
come; and hath put all things under his feet, and gave him
to be the head over all things to the Church, which is his
body, the fiilness of him that fiUeth all in all." "And you
who were dead in trespasses and sins ; wherein in tirae past
ye walked," (fee
Whenever the apostle descends to the original state of the
Gentiles, he institutes a comparison between it and the
primeval state of the Jews, lest the latter should take occasion
to assert some new prerogative. He proves, by the testimony
of the consciences of each, that Jews as well as Gentiles
were before Christ under sin, and that both were saved and
brought to newness of life by grace alone.
The above verses, united with the subsequent as far as
chap. 3d, comprehend 'iia^ principal conclusion of the whole
epistle, which fully develops its scope. The conclusion is,
" Though the Gentiles were not originally possessed of the
covenants of promise, or any foundation of hope, yet in
Christ they, together -with the Jews, were made partakers
of every benefit, Christ having removed all things which
opposed their union with the Jews, and forming them into
one body by abolishing the law. Hence the Gentiles were

120 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
not now — ^as was asserted by Jewish false apostles — strangers
and ahens, but being reconciled to God by the blood of
Christ, they were become fellow-citizens with the saints, and
of the household of God."
The connexion of the 1st verse of chap. 3d with the 14th
is not singular, but in perfect accordance with the design of
the apostle. If the first verse is examined, it will be seen
that he names the subject : — " For this cause, I Paul, the
prisoner of Jesus Christ for you Gentiles." He then forms
the predicate, and repeats the same words. " For this cause
— I say — I bow my knees." M] the words that intervene
between verses 2d and 14th are insulated. The length of
this parenthesis is no argument against the correctness of
the position, as instances of equally copious parentheses
occur in various parts of the Bible. Examples raay be found,
in the writings of the Fathers, of long parentheses ; besides, it
was a peculiarity in the writings of Paul, as may be seffli by
reference to 1 Timothy i, 8-17 ; PhiUppians i, 27, to ii, 16
inclusive. ,
The other part of this Epistle is hortatory, and fiows
from the doctrinal part as streams from a fountain. With
the apostle, the injunctions oi practice follow the positions of
theory. The best exaraple of this is in the Epistle to the
Colossians, one part of which refers to faith, or, what is to'
be believed, and the other to practice, or what is to be done.
The main exhortation that arises from, the principal doctrine,
is concord and peace between the Jew and Gentile. This is
the general scope of the whole Epistle.
The next design is, to present before Jew and Gentile the
difference between their present and former state. In order
to this, he first points out the difference from ver. 17 to 24 ;
second,, he lays down some particular precepts which are
universally binding, ver. 25 to chap, v, verse 21, inclusive;
third, he delivers to all, according to their particular station.s
in life, special commandments — to wives, verse 22 .o the
end ; t« chfldren, chap, vi, 1-3 ; to parents, verse 4 ; to ser-

BIBLICAL ANALYSIS. 12.1
vants, verses 5-8 ; to masters, verse 9. Here the apostle
adopts the same method, always placing inferiors before
superiors, and the weaker before the stronger. He Hkewise
puts generals before specials throughout the whole epistle,
which is the best mode of arrangement, — see Colossians
iii, 1 8, (fee, 1 Peter iii, 1-7, (fee, — and draws all his argu
ments, relative to any particular scope, fi'om the principal
doctripg proposed in the foregoing part, as plainly appears
from chap, v, verse 23, (fee He also furnishes means for
the attainment of the things enjoyed and for defending them
against the wiles of the devil, to chap, vi, 20, inclusive.
These things being explained, and Tychicus, the bearer
of the letter, being directed to give the Ephesians fuller in
formation concerning St. Paul, — verses 21, 22, — he concludes
by saluting them and invoking the divine blessing.

BIBLICAL ARCHJIOLOGY.

Biblical Archeology embraces everything in the Bible
worthy of notice and remembrance, whether it be merely
alluded to, or treated as something well known. It is con
cerned more particularly in the description of the Domestic,
Political, and Religious Antiquities of the Bible. Its import
ance to the Bible student wiU appear from the following
considerations : —
1. It enables him to go back raore fully into the age,
country, and situation of the sacred writers and their contem
poraries, and to understand and estimate the nature and ten
dencies of the objects which are presented to him.
2. It places him in a better situation to detect allusions
to ceremonies, customs, laws, peculiarities in the face of the
country, (fee, and tcS make himself sure of the precise import
of the passages where such allusions occur.
3. It proffere him new ability in answering the objections
of the opposers of Revelation, the greater part of which
originate in ignorance of antiquity.
4. It presents to his view, distinctly and impressively, the
adaptation of the different dispensations, the object of which
was to preserve and transmit religion to the character and
situation of the age.
5. It shows him where to separate raoral precept and
religious truth from the drapery of the figurative language
in which they are clothed ; since language, considered as the
medium of thought, takes its character in a measure from that
of the times.

biblical archeology. 123
6. It enables him to enter into the nature and spirit
of thesarguments in favour of the authenticity of the sacred
books. 7. Its importance may be seen, lastly, from the fact that
all who have undertaken to interpret the Scriptures while
ignorant of' its antiquities, have committed very great and
very numerous mistakes. ^
In order that the student may derive real profit by the
study of sacred antiquities, it is necessary that he should
bec(faie acquainted with the sources frora whence they are
drawn. These sources are, —
1. The Scriptures ; because they are, in fact, the testimony
of the people theraselves in regard to events and customs in
which they were the agents.
2. Ancient Monuments. These are in a manner living
testimonies. Such are the triumphal arch of Titus ; the ruins
of Persepolis ; the subterranean vaults or sepulchres in Syria,
Palestine, apd Egypt, where pyramids, obeUsks, and the
ruins of temples, bear testimony both to the perfection and
the antiquity of the arts; and the ruins of Babylon, Nineveh,
and Palmyra. These iUustrate what occurs in the Bible
relative to the edifices of Herod, and the temple of Jerusalem
in the time of our Sa-viour.
3. Ancient Greek, Phoenician, Egyptian, and Roman coins ;
also Jewish coins, with inscriptions in the old Samaritan
character, and those of a few other nations.
4. Contemporary writers. Such, for instance, as the works
of Philo the Jew and Josephus ; the former of whom resided
in Egypt, and the latter at firstin Judea, and subsequently
in Rome. Ancient Greek and Latin authors, particularly
Herodotus, Xenophon, Arrian, Strabo, Plutarch, Diodorus
Siculus, and almost all others of that age.
5. The Mishna, or the text of the Talmud, a collection of
traditions raade very nearly between the years 190 and 220,
accorapanied by the explanations of the Jerusalem and
Babylonian Gemaras.

124 MANUAL OP biblical LITERATURE.
6. Ecclesiastical writers who hved in Syria or other
oriental countries,^ particularly Jerorae and Ephraim Syrus ;
also sorae Syriac and Arabic books, especially the raost
ancient Finally, the journals of modern travellers who have
visited the East, marked the appearances of the country,
and given an account of the manners and customs of the
inhabitants.

CHAPTER I.
DOMESTIC ARCHAEOLOGY.
Dwellings.
In the primitive Condition of society men lived in plains,
valleys, aud on mountains, under the open sky, or under the
shade of trees, or in the clefts of rocks or eaves. The inhabi
tants of Arabia Petrsea, and the Troglodytes of Palestine,
and all those who are nomadic in their habits, thus dwelt
without a fixed habitation, except what nature afforded.
Tabernacles.
As caves could not always be readily found, and as it was
soraetimes gi'cat labour to excavate one, men were compeUed
by the exigencies of their situation to form sorae other sort
of residence. The shady trees, whose tops approached each
other and were fhtertwined, suggested the idea of cutting down
large branches, fixing them in the ground in parallel fines,
binding them together at the top, and covering them with
leaves, plants, reeds, branches, and even broad flat stones,
in order to shield themselves from the cold, the heat, and
the dew. Thus they buUt tabernacles, huts, or lodges. The
Romans called them mappalia. They were small and low^
in the beginning, so that a person could not stand erect, but
was obliged either to he down or to sit ; but afterwards were
bmlt higher. The use of these tabernacles did not cease

biblical archeology. 125
even after the erection of more stable and convenient
buildings. These rude dweUings are to this day erected by
the nomades and wandering tribes of Mesopotamia.
Tents.
As tabernacles could not readUy be moved from place to
place, and from a want of materials could not everywhere be
built, being partly made of skins, the design arose of erecting
a shelter wholly of skins, extended round a pole, and so
light as to be easily moved from one place to another.
Jabal, it is supposed, made tents of this kind. In the prog
ress of years they were no longer covered with skins, but
with various kinds of cloth, particularly linen. The nomades
of the east still use them. They pitch them in any place
which appears suitable, but they give the preference to a
spot near some shady tree.
The first tents which were made were undoubtedly
round in their construction and small in size; afterwards
they were made larger ahd oblong. The nomades of Arabia
Petrsea have two kinds, the one larger the other smaller.
Genesis xxxiii, 17.
The Arabians take pleasure in pitching their tents on hills,
in such a way as to form a circular encampment. When
thus pitched, being of a dark hue, in consequence of being
covered with a cloth made of goat's hair, they present a
beautiful appearance to the distantly-approaching traveller.
Cant, i, 5. The flocks and cattle are driven by night into
the enclosed area, and protected by dogs. Job xxx, 1.
Some one of the shepherds keeps watch during the night.
This duty is performed alternately. Isaiah Ivi, 9-11. The
tent of the Emir or chief is placed in the centre, and is larger
than the rest.
The larger kind of tents are divided by curtains into three
parts, as was done also in the holy tabernacle. In the
external division or apartment the servants lodge, and
during the night the young animals also, to prevent their

126 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
sucking the dam. -In the second apartment are the males.
The third or interior apartment is allotted to the women.
Numbers xxv, 8. The nomades, who are less jealous than the
inhabitants of the cities, watch the other sex less scrupulously.
Genesis xii, 15 ; xviii, 6-9 ; xxxiv, 1, 2. The bottom of the
tent is either covered with mats or carpets, and on these
they are in the habit of sitting. The chiefs and more wealthy
have coverlets, pillows, (fee, made of costly materials, on
which they repose at night. The utensils of the nomades
are few; they have vessels of shell and brass, viz., pots,
ketties, and Oups of brass, covered elegantly with tin, also
leathern bags. Their hearth is on the ground ; it consists
of three stones, placed so as to form a triangle. In the
middle of them is a sraall excavation of the earth, where the
fire is kindled, and the vessels placed over it upon the stones.
The table consists of a round skin spread upon the floor of
the tent. Clothing and military arms are hung upon naUs
in the poles of the tent. Houses.
In the progress of time, as tabernacles became larger, and
were defended against the injuries of the weather by broad
stones and earth heaped against them, it was found that
dwellings could be made of stones alone and moist earth or
clay. A want of stones in some places gave occasion for the
formation of tiles, which were raade by reducing a body of
clay to shape, and hardening it in the sun or burning it in
fire. These ancient attempts are mentioned in Genesis.
In Deut. viii, 12, mention is raade of elegant houses;
and in xxvii, 2-4, the use of hraestone is spoken of as if it
were common and well known.
Houses at first were small, afterwards larger, especiaUy in
extensive cities, the capitals of Empires. The art of multi
plying stories in a building is very ancient, as we may gather
from the construction of Noah's ark and the Tower of Babel.
Thehouses in Babylon, according to Herod., (lib. i, sec. 180,)

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 127
were three and four stories high ; and those in Thebes or
Diospolis, in Egypt, four or five stories. Consult Diod. Sic,
lib. i, chap. 45. • They appear to have been low in the
tirae of Joshua, in Palestine. Jeremiah praises houses of good
form and architecture. In the time of Christ, the houses of
the rich and powerful were splendid, and buflt according to
the rules of Grecian architecture.
Many of the larger houses were tetragonal in form, and
enclosed a square area. The roofs of the houses were flat,
such as are still seen in the East. They were formed of
earth heaped together, or, in the houses of the rich, of a
firmly constructed flooring -made of coals broken up, stones,
ashes, chalk, and gypsum, reduced to a solid substance by
apphcation of blows. The declivity of the roof from the
centre to the extremity is very smaU, scarcely an inch in ten
feet. On these roofs, which are covered with earth, plants
soraetiraes spring up ; but they soon perish with the heat of
the sun. The Orientals often ascend these roofs to enjoy a
purer air, or to witness an event which happens in the
neighbourhood. In the summer they sleep upon the.m, but
' not without a covering. They even erect tents and taber
nacles upon them, and spread their flax and cotton there to
be dried in the sun. They ascend their roofs to talk with
persons privately, to witness a public solemnity, to mourn
publicly, and to announce anything to the raultitude, to pray
to God, and to perform sacrifices. 2 Samuel xi, 2, 6, 7 ;
Isaiah xxii, 1 ; Matthew xxiv, 17; Mark xiii, 15 ; Joshua
ii, 6 ; 1 Samuel ix, 25 ; Judges xvi, 26, 27 ; Isaiah xv, 3 ;
Jeremiah xix, 13 ; xlviii, 38 ; Matthew x, 27 ; Acts x, 9.
The roofs are surrounded by a breastwork or balustrade,
to prevent one from falling. On the side next a neighbour's
house it is not so high, for the purpose of aUo-wing the oc
cupants to pass from one to another. This raiUng was
required by the law of Moses. Deut xxii, 8. It was this
which the men demolished, (Mark ii, ,4; Luke v, 19,) that
tbey might let down the paralytic.

128 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
The gate of the house, or door opening to the streets, is in
the middle of the front side of the house. The gates, not
only of houses but of cities, were usually adorned with the
inscription which, according to Deut. vi, 9 ; xi, 20, was to be
extracted from the law of Moses, a practice in which may be
found the origin of the modem mauzan, or piece of parch
ment inscribed with Deut -vi, 5-9 ; xi, 13-20, and fastened
to the door-post. The gates or doors were always shut, and
one of the servants acted as porter. Acts xii, 13 ; John xviii,
16, 17. The space immediately inside the gate is called the
porch. It is square, and on one side of it is erected a seat
for the accommodation of strangers, who are not admitted
into the interior of the' house. Near this porch are the
stairs which lead to the upper story and roof of the house.
Matthew xxiv, 16, 17. From the porch we are intioduced
through a second door into the quadrangular area, or court,
which is denominated the centre. 2 Samuel xvii, 18; Luke
V, 19. The court is usually paved with marble of various
kinds. In the centre of it soraetimes there is a fountain.
The (jourt is generally surrounded on all sides with a
cloister, peristyle, or covered walk, over which, if the house
has more than one story, is a gallery of the same dimensions,
supported by columns and protected by a balustrade.
Hence occur so many allusions to columns. Psalm lxxv, 3 ;
Proverbs ix, 1; Galatians ii, 9; 1 Timothy iii, 15. Large
companies are received into the court, as at nuptials, circum
cisions, (fee Esther i, 5 ; Luke v, 19. On such occasions a
large veil of thick cloth is extended by ropes over the whole
of it forming an awning to exclude the heat of the sun.
Psalm civ, 2. The veil, or curtain, of the area, is called in
the New Testament areyo]. Luke vii, 6 ; Mark ii, 4. The
back part of the house is allotted to the women, called in
the Arabic the harem, and in the Hebrew, by way of
eminence, the palace. The door is always kept locked,, and
is opened only when the master of the house wishes to enter.
2 Kings XV, 25 ; Proverbs xviii, 19. White eunuchs guard

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 129
the door externaUy, but maids and black eunuchs only are
permitted to serve -within. The latter are great favourites
with their masters. Isaiah xxxii, 14 ; Jeremiah xiii, 23 ;
2 Kings XV, 25. Behind the harem there is a garden, into
which the women enjoy the pleasure of looking from their
small but lofty apartments. The chambers are large and
spacious, and so constructed as to extend round the whole
of the open court. The doors of the chambers open in the
first story into the cloisters, and in the second story into the
gaUery. The Hebrews, at a very ancient period, had not only sum
mer and winter rooms,. but ^aZaces. Judges iii, 20; 1 Kings
-vii, 2—6; Amos iii, 15; Jeremiah xxxvi, 32. The houses
or palaces, so called, expressly made for sumraer, were large,
and, in point of altitude, did not yield much to our churches.
The .lower stories were frequently under ground. The front
of these buildings faced the north, so as to secure the advan
tage of the breezes. They were paved with marble. They
were supphed with a current of fresh air by ventilators,
which were perforations in the northern wall and on the top
of the building, resembling turrets, which received the air
and conveyed it below. One apartment worthy of notice
extended from the interior of the front side into the court,
sometimes a considerable distance beyond the cloisters and
galleries. Its roof was supported by two columns only, and
the front of it had no wall. In this apartment princes re
ceived ambassadors, transacted business, and dispensed jus
tice. The temple of Dagon, which was destroyed by Sam
son, was of similar construction. It was in an apartment
like this, in Herod's palace, where the Saviour seems to have
been tried before Pilate. In the winter rooms and houses
the -windows face the south, in order to have the advantage
of a southern exposure. They were not furnished with
stoves and fire-places, as among us. The coals and wood
are placed in a vessel which occupies a place in the center
of the paved floor, and the smoke escapes through the win-
9

130 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
dows. Isaiah xiv, 16 ; xlvii, 14. AU the rooms in the up
per story may be called rmepouv ; but this applies more ap
propriately to the chamber over the porch, which opens by a
door directiy upon the roof, being generally a story higher
than the other part of the house. This is a place for retire
ment, devotion, (fee Strangers are frequently lodged in it
1 Kings xvii, 19 ; 2 Kings iv, 10 ; xxiii, 12 ; Aots ix, 37-39.
The doors were valves, suspended and moved by pivots of
wood which projected from the ends of the two folds, both
above and below. The upper pivots, which were the longest,'
were inserted in sockets sufficiently large to receive them in
the lintel; the lower ones were received, in a corresponding
manner, in the threshold. The doors were fastened by a look,
Prov. xxvi, 14 ; or by a bar. Job xxxviii, 10 ; Deut iii, 5 ;
Judges xvi, 3. These bars were commonly of wood. Those
made of iron and brass were used as a security to the gates
of fortified places, or of valuable repositories. Isaiah xlv, 2.
The lock was nothing more than a wood slide attached to
one of the folds, which entered into a hole in the door-post,
and was secured there by teeth cut into it. Two strings
passed through an orifice leading outside the door. A man
going out, by means of one of these strings moved the shde
into its place in the post, where it -was fastened so among
the teeth as not to be drawn back. The one coining in, who
.wished to unlock, had a wooden key sufficiently large and
crooked, like a sickle. This was thrust through the orifice
of the door or keyhole, lifted up the slide so as to extricate
it from the teeth or catches, and by means of the other string
the bolt was drawn back and the door opened. The rich
and powerful had keys made of metal, adorned with ivory
handles. The keyhole was sojnetimes as large as to admit
a person's finger, and sometiraes doors were opened in that
way. Solomon's Song v, 4.
The windows look from the fi'ont chambers into the court,
and frora the female apartments into the garden. Occasion
ally a window is seen looking towards the street, but it is

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 131
guarded by a trelUs, and is thrown open only on public fes
tivities. Judges V, 28 ; Proverbs vii, 6 ; 2 Kings ix, 30 ;
Solomon's Song ii, 9. The windows are large, extending
almost to the floor. They are wide, not set with glass, but
latticed. In the winter they are protected by thin veUs, or
by valves. 2 Kings xin, 17; 1 Kings vii, 17; Solomon's
Song ii, 9. Over the windows are nails adorned -with beau
tiful heads, and not only sustain curtains by means of a rod
extending from one to the other, but are themselves great
ornaments. Hence the propriety of those illustrations drawn
from nails. Isaiah xxii, 23 ; Zechariah x, 4; Eccles. xii, 11.

Household Furniture.
In the most ancient periods these were the most few and
simple. A hand-mUl, and sorae sort of an oven to bake in,
could not of course, be dispensed with. Subsequently, do
mestic utensils were multiplied in the form of pots, kettles,
leathern bottles, plates, cups, and pitchers. The floors were
covered with mats or carpets, and supplied also, for the pur
poses of rest, with a sort of mattresses, of thick, coarse mate
rials. Judges iv, 18. Bolsters, which were raore valuable,
were stuffed with wool, or sorae soft substance. Ezekiel xiii,
18-21. The poorer class made use of skins, merely for the
purposes to which these mattresses and bolsters were applied.
The beds were sometiraes placed on a sort of gaUery against
the wall. The Hebrews had another sort of beds, adorned
with ivory, resembling the Persian sofas, having backs and
sides, six feet long, three broad, and, like the divans, nine
inches high. Amos vi, 4 ; Psalm xh, 3 ; cxxxii, 3. To pre
vent, as much as possible, the raats and carpets frora being
soiled, it was not lawful to wear shoes or sandals into the
room ; they were left at the door. Hence it was not nec
essary that the room should be often swept. Matt, xii, 44.
Lamps were fed with olive oil, and were kept burning all
night Job xviii, 5, 6; xxi, 17; Proverbs xiii, 9; xx, 20;

132 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
xxiv, 20; xxxi, 18. We may infer from the golden lamp
of the tabernacle, that those of the opulent were splendid.
Villages, Towns, Cities.
A number of tents or cottages together were caUed villa
ges. From these they increased, in progress of time, to
towns and cities. The Hebrews, in the time of Dawd, had
large cities. Jerusalem -must have been large, to accommo
date the three millions of people who assembled there
on the feast of the Passover. The streets were usually nar
row, the design of which was to make them shady. The
market-places were near the gates of a city, soraetimes within
and sometimes without. At these, different kinds of goods
were exposed for sale. In the days of Christ, markets were
held in an arched street. These streets were large, and fur
nished with gates. Aqueducts were common in oriental
cities, ruins of which are stiU found. The people of the
east metaphorically ascribe the character of females to cities.
They represent them as mothers of the inhabitants ; they
speak of them as wives of the kings; and when they revolt
against their sovereign they are adulteresses.
Shepherds.
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and their posterity, were shep
herds until they entered Canaan. The Nomades, or shep
herds of the east, possess vast flocks, large tracts of land, and
numerous servants. The masters, or chief shepherds, always
go armed, and spend their time in hunting, in the ovei',sight
of their affairs, and in predatory excursions. Part of the
servants are armed, in order to keep from the flocks robbers
and wild beasts. Part have only a staff and a pouch, which
were ancientiy the whole property of travellers, and those
who were not rich, except that instead of a pouch they car
ried a somewhat larger sack. 2 Kings iv, 42 ; 1 Samuel xvii.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 133
40-43 ; Psalm xxiii, 4 ; Micah 'vii, 14 ; Matthew x, 10 ; Luke
ix, 3 ; X, 4. In the Bible kings are called shepherds. The
term was appUed to God, who was the King of the Hebrews,
and as a shepherd guided and protected his flock, so He
guided and protected Israel. Psalm xxiii, 1-4 ; Isaiah xl, 11 ;
Ixiii, 11 ; Jeremiah x, 21 ; xxiii, 1 ; xxxi, 10 ; 1, 6 ; \\, 23 ;
Micah V, 5 ; Nahum iii, 18 ; Ezekiel xxxiv, 2-18 ; xxxvii, 24 ;
Zechariah xi, 15. In the New Testament it is appUed to
teachers of the Jews ; those who presided in synagogues ;
also to Christian teachers. Ephesians iv, 11 ; Matthew ix, 36 ;
John X, 12-14 ; Hebrews xiii, 20 ; 1 Peter ii, 25 ; v, 4.
Pastures.
The pastures of the Nomades, or shepherds, were the vast
deserts or wildernesses, which could not be monopolized by
any individual, but were open to all shepherds alike. After
the occupation of Palestine, there was open to the Israelites
not only the vast desert of Judah, but many other deserts.
This accounts for what we may gather from the Scriptures
in relation to the great wealth of the Hebrew Noraades.
2 Samuel xvii, 27, et seq. ; xix, 32 ; 1 Samuel xxv ; 1 Chron.
xxvii, 29-31. Corapare Isaiah Ixv, 10; Jereraiah 1, 19.
The shepherds occupy almost the same positions every year.
In the summer they go north, or on the mountains ; in the
winter they go south, in the valleys. The flocks live night
and day under the open sky, and this exposure renders their
wool flner than if confined in sheep-cotes.
Fountains and Cisterns.
Water was scarce in the deserts; hence it was highly
valued. Job xxii, 7 ; Numbers xx, 1 7-1 9 ; Deuteronomy ii,
6-28. The Nomades dug wells and cisterns, at certain dis
tances, which they concealed to prevent others fi'om steahng
the water. They occasioned great contention. Gen. xxi, 25 ;

134 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
xxvi, 13-22. Fountains were common to all. If they flow
all the year they are denominated faithful ; if they dry up
in the summer, deceitful. Job vi, 15-22 ; Isaiah xxxviii, 16 ;
Jeremiah xv, 18. Wells belonged to those peisons who dug
them. Sometimes they were owned by a number of shep
herds in coramon, where their flocks were admitted to drink
in regular order. Genesis xxix, 3-12 ; xxiv, 11-15 ; Exodus'
ii, 16; Judges v, 11. The waters of wells and fountains
are called living waters, and are much esteemed. Leviticus
xiv, 5-50 ; Numbers xix, 17. Hence they are made a sym
bol of prosperity, and God himself is compared to a fountain
of living waters. Isaiah xliii, 19, 20 ; xlix, 10 ; Jeremiah
ii, 13; xvii, 13; Psalm Ixxxvii, 7; Joel iii, 18; Ezekiel
xlvii, 1, et seq.; Zechariah xiv, 18.
Cisterns were the property of those by whora they were
made. These were sometiraes raade so large as to cover an
acre of ground, having a sraall mouth. They were filled
with rain-water and snow during the winter, and then closed
with fiat stones, over which was spread sand to prevent their
discovery. Sometimes these are destroyed by earthquakes,
and other casualties, and whole flocks perish in consequence.
A failure of water is used in Scripture to denote a great ca
lamity. Isaiah xli, 17, 18 ; xliv, 8. There is a large depo
sition of mud at the bottom of these cisterns ; and whoever
falls into them, when they are empty of water, dies a mise
rable death. Genesis xxxvii, 22 ; Jeremiah xxxviii, 6 ; Lam.
iii, 53 ; Psalras xl, 2, lxix, 15. They were soraetimes used
as prisons. Genesis xxxix, 20 ; xl, 15.

Flocks of the Nomades.
These consisted of goats and sheep. The sheep are homed,
and commonly white. Psalms cxlvii, 16; Isaiah i, 18;
Daniel vii, 9. Black ones-are very rare; some are spotted,
others are streaked ; and others, again, are distinguished by
variegated hoofs. Gen. xxx, 32-34; xxxi, 10-12. The

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 135
sheep mentioned in Ezekiel xxvii, 18, whose wool is of a
bright brown, inclining to a gray, are found in Caramania.
They are also distinguished by other varieties, such as cmn-
mon, deformed, superior, (fee The Nomades give to their
sheep titles of endearment, and the ram that is called out
by his master marches before the flock ; hence the rulers
of the people are called leaders of the fiock. Jeremiah xxv,
34, .35 ; 1, 8 ; Isaiah xiv, 9 ; Zechariah x, 3. The Arabians
have certain terms by which they can call the sheep either
to drink or to be milked. The sheep know the voice of the
shepherd, and go at his bidding. Sometimes a lamb is
brought into the tent, and trained like a dog. 2 Samuel xii, 3 ;
Jeremiah xi, 19. Before the shearing, the sheep are col
lected into an uncovered enclosure. John x, 11-16. The
object of this is, that the wool may be rendered finer by the
sweating and evaporation which would result from their be
ing crowded together. Numbers xxxii, 16, 24, 36; 2 Sam
uel vii, 8 ; Zephaniah ii, 6. Sheep-shearings were great
festivals. 1 Samuel xxv, 2-4 ; xviii, 36 ; 2 Samuel xiii, 23.
Goats are of a black colour ; sometimes parti-coloured. They
live under the open sky, with this exception only, that the
kids are sometimes taken into the ^ tent to keep them from
sucking the dam. Their milk is more precious than any
other. Proverbs xxvii, 27. Their flesh and hair are also
valuable. Bottles are made of their skins. Those for hold
ing water have the hairy side of the skin external, and those
for wine the reverse.
Geese, hens, and swine were not known among the domes
tic animals of the Nomades. At a somewhat recent period,
hens, in some places, were raised by the Hebrews. A hen
that does not hatch eggs is spoken of by Jeremiah x-vii, 1 1 ;
and in the time of Christ, when Peter denied his Master, the
cock crew in Jerusalem.

136 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Animals of the Ox kind.*
These aniraals are smaller in oriental countries than among
us, and are distinguished by certain protuberances on the
back, directiy over the fore-feet They were also possessed
by the Nomades, though they were used chiefly for agricul
tural purposes. Herdsmen were held in lower estimation
than keepers of flocks, but they possessed the richest pas
tures in Bashan, Sharon, and Achion. The oxen and bulls
of Bashan, which were strong and ferocious, were used as
symbols of ferocious enemies. Psalm xxii, 12; Ixviii^ 31;
Isaiah xxxiv, 7; Deuteronomy xxxiii, 17; Proverbs xiv, 4.
Heifers were symbolic of matrons. Amos iv, 1 ; Hosea
iv, 15, 16; X, 11; Jeremiah xlvi, 20. The horns of buUs
and goats and oxen were used tropically to express power.
Psalm lxxv, 10 ; lxxxix, 17-24 ; xcii, 10; Amos vi, 13 ; Jer
emiah xlviii, 25 ; Lam. ii, 3 ; Ezekiel xxix, 21 ; Daniel vii,
7, 8, 24 ; viii, 3-5 ; Luke i, 69. If the horns are represented
as made of brass or iron, the strength and power is insuper
able. 1 Kings xxii, 11; 1 Chronicles xviii, 10; Micah iv,
^ 13-16. Hence the ancient coins represent kings -with horns.
Oxen were yoked together to draw carts and ploughs, and
the Nomades transported goods on their backs, as they did
on camels. The milk of the cows was nutritive, and of this
they frequently raade cheese.' v In the Bible there is -no men
tion raade of butter. ) That which in the Vulgate .is ren
dered butter, was nothing raore than a drink. Ohve oU was
used instead of butter.

She-asses are considered the most valuable, on account of
the colts. The Noraades possessed a great number of these
animals ; and in the east, if rightiy trained up, they are not
" Those animals in Scripture called oxen, were bulls, as the
law did not allow castration.

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 137
only patient and diUgent, but active and beautiful in appear
ance. Their name is used tropically in the Scriptures for act
ive and industrious men. Genesis xlix, 14. Their colour is
red, inclining to a brown. Some are parti-coloured. They
are sometimes used for turning mills. Matthew xviii, 6.
Moses passed a law that the ox and ass should not be used
together in ploughing. Anciently, princes and great men
rode on asses. Genesis xxii, 3-5; 1 Samuel xxv, 20-23;
¦1 Kings ii, 40 ; xiii, 13 ; Zechariah ix, 9 ; Matthew xxi, 1-7 ;
Luke xix, 29, 36 ; John xii, 12-16. Horses were used al
most exclusively for war. They were saddled and bridled.
Mules are spoken of in the age of David, and were probably
known in the time of Moses. They were brought to the_
Hebrews from other nations. Wfld asses are of a fine figure
and rapid motion, frequenting desert places, and fieeing far
from the abodes of men. They can scent waters at a great
distance, and thirsty travellers often follow them.
Camels.
Camels are of two kinds. The Turkish is distinguished by
having two protuberances on the back. This kind is large
and strong, carrying from eight to fifteen hundred pounds, but
is impatient of the heat. The other kind, called the drome
dary, or Arabian camel, has but one bunch on the back, is
more rapid in its movements, and endures the heat better
than the other camel. Camels require but little food, and
can endure thirst from sixteen to forty days. The Nomades
and Arabs are esteemed of secondary rank if they do not
possess them. Genesis xxiv, 10, 64; xxxi, 17; 1 Chronicles
V,, 19-21 ; Jereraiah xlix, 29. Compare 1 Samuel xxx, 17 ;
1 Kings X, 2 ; Isaiah xxx, 6 ; Ezekiel xxv, 4. They are used
for the transportation of all kinds of merchandise. The No
mades drink the milk of camels ; when it becomes sour it
intoxicates. Judges iv, 19 ; v, 25. They also feed npon the
flesh, which was interdicted to the Hebrews. Leviticus xi, 4.
The hair is manufactured into cloth. Matthew iii, 4.

138 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUEE.
Horses.
We find horses in Egypt Genesis xlvii, 17; xhx, 17;
Exodus ix, 3 ; xiv, 6, 28 ; Job xxxix, 19. Joshua encountered
chariots and horsemen in the north of Palestine. Anciently,
horses were used exclusively for war ; hence they are opposed
to asses, which were used in times of peace. The Hebrews
first attended to the raising of horses in the time of Solomon,
who carried on a great trade in Egyptian horses. A horsS
was estimated at about one hundred and fifty, and a chariot
at six hundred shekels. The women rarely rode on horse
back ; but whenever they did, it was in the same manner
.with the men. They were not shod with iron until the
ninth century. Dogs.
The Nomades found use for these animals, in watching
and driving their flocks. Frequent as they are in oriental
cities, they were universally abhorred, with the exception of
the hunting dog's. Hence, to be caUed a dog is a cutting
reproach, full of bitter contempt. Job xxx, 1 ; 1 Samuel
xvii, 43 ; 2 Kings -viii, 13 ; Proverbs xxvi, 11. Corapare Luke
xvi, 21 ; 2 Peter ii, 22. The appellation of dead dog indi
cates imbecility ; that of dumb dog, unfaithfulness. The re
ward of prostitution is called dog's hire. The Jews, in the
time of Christ, called the Gentiles dogs. Their character and
habits illustrate many passages of Scripture.
Hunting.
Moses enacted laws on the subject of hunting, the object
of which was to preserve the wild aniraals of Palestine.
Exodus xxiii, 11; Leviticus xxv, 6, 7; Deuteronomy xxii,
6, 7. The implements of hunting were the same as those
of war, viz., the bow and arrow, spear and lance, a javehn
and sword. Hunters employed nets, in which lions were

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 139
taken ; likewise gins, snares, and pitfalls, which were excava
ted especially for hons. A pole was inserted in the centre,
with a lamb attached to it, which would cause the lion to
spring upon it, and, falling through the slight covering, he
could be easily taken. These instruments and modes of
warfare are used tropically to indicate the wiles of an ad
versary and great danger. Psalms ix, 16 ; Ivii, 6 ; xciv, 13 ;
cxix, 85 ; Proverbs xxvi, 27 ; Isaiah xxiv, 17 ; xhi, 22 ; Jer
emiah V, 27 ; vi, 21 ; xviii, 22 ; xlviii, 14 ; Luke xxi, 35 ; Ro
mans xi, 9. Death is represented as a hunter, armed with
his net, javelin, or sling, with which he takes and slays

Agriculture — Its Value and Importance.
Agriculture, as well as the keeping of flocks and herds
in the primitive ages, was a principal employment araong
men. Genesis ii, 15 ; iii, 17-19; iv, 2. Noah, after the Del
uge, bestowed attention upon it Babylon afid Egypt owed
their wealth and power chiefly to this sourc.e. The Hebrews
learned the value of this art whfle in Egypt. Moses made
agriculture the basis of the State. To every citizen he ap
portioned a certain quantity of land, and gave them the
right of ti'ansmitting it to their heirs. This land could not
be alienated for any longer period than the coming jubilee,
and thus land- monopolies were prevented. The land could
be redeemed at any time by paying the amount of profits
up to the year of jubUee. A tax of two-tenths of the in
come .was to be paid annually unto God, as their king. Le
viticus, xx-vii, 30 ; Deuteronomy xii, 17-19 ; xiv, 22-29. The
custom of marking the land by stones, although it prevaUed
a long time before Job, was confirmed and perpetuated by
Moses, and a curse was pronounced against him who, with
out authority, removed thera. The land of Palestine was
divided by Joshua, not only among ihe tribes, but each in-
di\ndual had his portion measured off to him. All who
were not set apart for rehgious duties, such as the priests and

140 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Levites, whether inhabitants of towns or the country, were
considered by the law as agriculturists or husbandmen.
None were so rich or noble as to disdain to put their hands
to the plough. 1 Samuel xi, 7 ; 1 Kings xix, 19. Compare
2 Chronicles xxvi, 10.
The soU of Palestine is very fruitful if the dews and vernal
and autumnal rains are not withheld. The Hebrews in
creased its richness in a variety of ways. They not only
divested it of stones, but watered it by means of canals, and
thereby imparted to their fields the richness of gardens.
The sofl was enriched, also, by means of ashes, to which the
straw, the' stubble, the husks, the brambles and grass that
overspread the land during the Sabbatical year were reduced
by fire, and finally the soil was manured with dung.

Different kinds of Grain.
The Hebrew word which is translated variously by the
Enghsh words grain, corn, (fee, is of general signification,
and comprehends wheat, millet, spelt, wall-barley, beans,
lentils, meadow-cumin, pepperwort, flax, and cotton. To
these may be added various species of the cucumber, and
perhaps rice. Barley, mixed with broken straw, affords food
for beasts of burden. Wheat grew in Egypt in the time of
Joseph, as it now does in Africa, on stalks, each one of
which produced an ear. With us this is called corn. Cot
ton grows not only on trees of a large size, but on shrubs.
It is enclosed in the nuts of the tree and the pods of the
shrub. Instruments of Agriculture.
At first the soil was cultivated by means of sharp sticks.
These were succeeded by spades and shovels, and subse-
quentiy by ploughs. All these implements were well known
in the time of Moses. The first plough was a forked limb
.of a tree, one of which forks was longer than the other.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 141
The shorter piece was sharpened, which, being turned into
the ground, made the furrows. At the end of the longer
was a transverse beam, to which the oxen were harnessed.
To this a handle was attached, by which the plough was
guided. The harrow was composed of a heavy piece of
wood, on which the driver sat and passed over the ploughed
field. The ox beneath the yoke afforded metaphors of sub
jugation. Hosea x, 11 ; Isaiah ix, 4 ; x, 27 ; Jeremiah v, 5 ;
xxvii, 2, 8, 12; xxx, 8; Nahum i, 13; Psa. cxxix, 3, 4;
Matthew xi, 29, 30. When it was prohibited by law to sow,
either in field or vineyard, seed of a mixed kind, and crops
of this nature became sacred — i. e., were given to the priests —
the seed-grain was carefully cleansed from all mixture of tares,
so often spoken of, and which in the New Testament are called
^i^dviov.0 The beverage formed by boiling water and tares
was called poison water, because it intoxicated and was inju
rious to the mind. Deut. xxix, 18, 19 ; Psa. lxix, 21 ; Jer.
viii, 14; xxiii, 15; Hosea x, 4. Such were their injurious
qualities that they are properly said to have been sown by
an enemy while the labourers were indulging in sleep at noon.
Matt xiii, 25, 40. Harvest.
In Palestine the crops are as far advanced in the month
of February as they are here in the month of May. Some
times the crops are blasted by frost, and soraetimes they are
so annoyed by easterly winds as to turn yeUow and never
come to maturity. This is called mildew. Deut. xxviii, 22 ;
Araos iv, 9 ; Hag. n, 17. The crops in the southern part of
Palestine, and in the plains, coxae to raaturity about the
raiddle of April ; but in the northern and raountainous regions
they are two or three weeks later. The cultivated fields
were guarded by watchmen, who sat upon a seat hung in a
tree or on a watch-tower made of planks, to keep off birds,
quadrupeds, or thieves. It was lawful for travellers to take
ears from another's field and eat, but they were not to use

142 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the sickle. Deut xxiii, 25. The second day of the Passover,
which was the sixteenth day after the new moon of April,
the first handful of ripe barley was carried to the altar, and
then the harvest commenced. John iv, 35. Harvest con
tinued from the Passover to the Pentecost, a period of seven
weeks. The reapers were masters, chfldren, men-servants,
maidens, and mercenaries. Ruth ii, 4, 8, 21, 23 ; John iv,
36 ; James v, 4. It was a time of great rejoicing. A rich
harvest was attributed to the beneficence of Providence,
while sterility was considered as a judgment. Sickles were
used. When the wheat was i cut down, it was bound and
carried away to a convenient place in the field. The glean
ings were left for the poor. The land yielded thirty, sixty,
and a hundred-fold. Threshing-Flodr.
This was in the field, -n'here the bundles had been carried
after being bound. Here the ground was levelled and beaten
down. Gen. 1, 10; 2 Sam. xxiv, 16, 24; Judges vi, 37.
The assemblages of bundles in th^ floor for threshing, was
used flguratively to denote reservation for future destruction,
Micah iv, 13; Isa. xxi, 10; Jer. Ii, 33. At first the grain
was beaten out with flaUs ; at a later period it was trodden
out by oxen, or beaten out with machines, such as are used
in the East at the present day. Threshing is used flgura
tively to denote great slaughter. The victors are represented
as huge machines that thresh and crumble even the moun
tains ; whUe the victims are represented by the bundles on
the threshing-floor, ground to pieces by the instruments.
Judges viii, 7 ; 2 Samuel xii, 31 ; Amos i, 3 ; Mie iv, 12, 13.
In Deut xxv, 4, it was forbidden to muzzle the ox that was
treading out the corn. Compare 1 Cor. ix, 9-12; 1 Tim.
V, 18. And the cattle which drew the threshing machine
were allowed to eat at pleasure.
After the grain was threshed out it was thrown into a
heap in the centre of the fioor, and being elevated by a fork,

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 143
it was exposed to an artificial current of wind, which blew
away the chaff and allowed the wheat to fall to the ground.
This operation was symbolical of the dispersion of a van
quished people, and also of the separation between the
righteous and the wicked. Isa. xli, 15, 16; Jer. xiii, 24;
XV, 7 ; h, 2 ; Job xxi, 18 ; Psa. i, 4 ; xxxv, 5, viii, 13 ; Matt.
iii, 12 ; Luke iii, 17. That part of the straw which was not
used for fodder and the manufacturing of brick, was burned,
and this afforded a figurative illustration of the destraction
of the wicked. Isa. v, 24; xlvii, 14; Joel ii, 5; Obad. 18;
Nahum i, 10 ; Jer. xv, 7 ; Mai. iv, 1 ; Matt, iii, 12. After
it was thus cleansed, it was put away in granaries.

Vines and Vineyards.
In some parts of the East — for instance, on the southern
shore of the Caspian Sea — vines grow spontaneously,
producing grapes of a pleasant taste. Mention is made
of wine at an early period. Genesis ix, 21 ; xiv, 18; xix,
32-35; xxvii, 25; xlix, 11, 12. The sofl of Palestine
yielded, in great quantities, the best of wine. The moun
tains of Engedi particularly, and the valleys of Eschol and
Sorek, were celebrated for their grapes. In a few instances,
the wine of Mount Libanus and Helbon is extoUed in the
Scriptures. Hosea xiv, 7 ; Ezek. xxvii, 18. Some of the clusters
grow to the weight of twelve pounds. Num. xiii, 24, 25. The
grapes of Palestine are mostly red or black, whence origi
nated the phrase, blood of grapes. Gen. xlix, 11 ; Deut.
xxxii, 14; Isa. xxvii, 2. The vine of Sodom is poisonous,
and its grapes are called poisonous clusters. Vineyards
were generally planted on the declivity of hUls and moun
tains. They were sometimes planted in terraces. Vines
were commonly propagated by suckers, and were of four
kinds, viz., those that ran on the ground, those that grew
upright of themselves, those that adhered to a single prop,
and those that covered a square frame. It is not our design

144 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
to treat of all these. To sit under one's own vine, tropically
denotes a peaceful and prosperous life. Jer. v, 17 ; viii, 13 ;
Hosea ii, 12; Micah iv, 4; Zech. iii, 10. Vineyar(Js were
defended by a hedge or waU. In the vineyards towers were
erected, which, at the present time, are thirty feet square
and eighty feet high. These were erected for watchmen.
The passing traveller was allowed to pluck gi'apes by the
way, though not to carry off any in a vessel.
The manner of trimming the vine, and also the singular
instrument of the vine-dresser, were well known even in the
time of Moses. A vintage from new -vineyards was forbid
den for the first three years, and the grapes of the fourth
year were consecrated to sacred purposes. Pruning in
March, April, and May, is mentioned by early writers. The
Hebrews dug their -vineyards and gathered out the stones.
The young vines, unless trees were at hand, were wound
around stakes; and around those -vines which ran on the
ground were dug narrow trenches, in a cu'cular form, to pre
vent the wandering ^shoots from mingling with each other.
In the metaphors drawn from vineyards, these practices must
be duly considered. Isa. v, 1-7 ; xxvii, 2-6 ; Psa. Ixxx, 9-13 ;
Matt xxi, 33-46.
The vintage in Syria commences about the middle of
September and continues to the middle of November. The
Hebrews were required to leave gleaning-grapes for the
poor. The season of vintage -«'as a most joyous one. With
shoutings on all sides, the grapes were plucked off and carried
to the wine-press, which was in the vineyard. The pesses
consisted of two receptacles, which were either buflt of stones
and plaster, or hewn out of the solid rock. The upper re
ceptacle is nearly eight feet square and four high. Into this
the grapes are thrown, and trodden out by five men. The
juice fiows out into the lower receptacle, through a grated
aperture made in the side, at the bottom of tiie larger one.
Figuratively, vintage gleaning and treading the wine-press
signified battles and great slaughters. Isa. xvii, 6 ; Ixiii, 1-3 ;

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 145
Jer. xlix, 9 ; Lam. i, 15. The must, as is customary in the
East, was preserved in large firkins, and buried in the earth.
Formerly new wine, or must,- was preserved in leathern
bottles, and, lest they should be broken by fermentation, the
people were careful to have the bottles new. Job xxxii, 19;
Matt, ix, 17 ; Mark ii, 22. Sometimes the must was boUed,
and made into honey. Sometimes the grapes were dried in
the sun, and were afterwards soaked in -wine, and pressed a
second time, from which was manufactured a sweet wine,
which was also called new wine — yXevKog. Acts ii, 13.

Gardens.
^Gardens were very ancient, and have always been numer
ous. In the Scriptures, gardens are denominated from the
prevalence of certain trees ; as the garden of nuts, and the
garden of pomegranates. The forest of palms, also, in the
plain of Jericho, was only a large garden. The Hebrews
frequently built sepulchres in their gardens. 2 Kings ix, 27 ;
xxi, 18 ; Mark xv, 46 ; Matt, xxvi, 36 ; John xviii, 1, 2. A
pleasant region is called " a garden of God." The trees
which gardens constantly displayed are often figuratively
used for men. Those which are fiourishing and fruitful de
note good men; the' unfruitful and barren, wicked men.
Lofty cedars, in particular, are emblems of kings. Job xxix, 1 9 ;
Psa. i, 3; xcii, 12-14; Hosea xiv, 6, 7; J,er. xvii, 8; Dan.
iv, 10-16 ; Luke xxiii, 31 ; Matt, iii, 10 ; vii, 17-20 ; xii; 33 ;
Ezek. xvii, 3, 4 ; xxxi, 3-13. An assembly of men is com
pared to a forest, and a multitude of -wicked men to briars.
Isa. ix, 10 ; x, 19, 33, 34 ; xi, 1.
Trees.
The cedar is a large and noble evergreen tree. Its lofty
height and far-extended branches afford spacious shelter and
shade. The wood is very valuable ; it is of a reddish colour
and of an aromatic smell, and reputed incorruptible. The
10

146 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
ark of the covenant, much of the temple of Solomon, and
the teraple of Diana, at Ephesus, were built of cedar. This
tree is much celebrated in Scripture, and is called the glory
of Lebanon. Tropically, it denotes great strength and sta
bility of character.
The olive has always been a syrabol of peace and prosper
ity among all nations. It yields an oil which is mentioned
at an early period by Moses. Palestine is famous for its
ohves. The Mount of Olives derives its name from this tree.
It is of great beauty, and remains, like the cedar, green aU
winter. Its multiplied branches make it the symbol of a
numerous progeny. Psa. lii, 8 ; cxxviii, 3 ; Hosea xlv, 6 ;
Jer. xi, 16, 17. It lives about two hundred years, and young
ohves spring up around it when it is. dead. One tree wiU
sometiraes yield one thousand pounds of oil. With tliis
article the Hebrews carried on an extensive comraerce with
the Syrians. The berries yielded the best kind of oil. The
presses for making the oil were of a pecuUar form. From
these the term Gethsemane was derived. This ofl was used,
when mixed with spices, for ointment, and also for sacrifices.
Fig-trees are very common in Palestine. They flourish
in a dry and sandy soil. They are not shrubs, but tall and
leafy. Their shade is grateful. Micah iv, 4. They begin
to sprout at the time of the vernal equinox. Luke xxi, 29, 30 ;
Matt, xxiv, 32. The fruit makes its appear.ance before
the leaves and flowers. The figs are of three kinds — 1. The
untimely fig, which puts forth at the vernal equinox, and he
fore it is ripe it is caUed the green fig, but when ripe the
untimely fig. It comes to maturity the latter part of June,
and in relish surpasses the other kinds. 2. The summer, or
dry fig. This appears about the middle of June, and comes
to raaturity in August. 3. The winter fig, which germi
nates in August, and ripens about the end of November.
Ali figs, when, ripe, but especially the untimely, fall sponta
neously. Nahum iii, 12. The parable in Luke xiii, 6, et seq.,
is founded in the oriental mode of gardening; and the method

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 147
of impro-^dng the palm, whose barrenness may be improved,
is transferred to the fig-tree.
Sycamore-trees, in size and figure, resemble the mulberry,
and are very common, not only in Egypt, but in Judea,
especially the lowlands. Its body is large, and its branches
numerous, by means of which it is easy of access. Luke
xix, 4, 5. It is an evergreen. Its wood, which is of a dark
hue, endures a thousand years. Its fruit does not spring
from the branches, but from the body of the tree itself. It
resembles the fig, though it has no seeds. It is very luscious,
and hence hurtful to the stomach. The fruit does not ripen
until it is opened, and the milk emitted ; then, when the
wound grows black, it , arrives at maturity. It yields its
fruit seven times a year.
The pomegranate grows in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Pal
estine. It is not tall, and at a little distance from the ground
it shoots out its branches. Its fruit is beautiful to the eye
and pleasant to the palate. It is about the size of a large
apple — two or three inches in diameter — and is encircled at
the upper part with something resembling a crown. It is
of a brownish colour, but the interior is yellow. Artificial
pomegranates were raade for ornament. Exodus xxviii, 33, 34 ;
1 Kings vii, 18.
Citron and orange-trees were introduced into Palestine
from Persia, and hence were exotics.
The balsam is both a fruit and a tree. The odoriferous
balsam, so salutary in some degree to health, is not gathered
from the tree in Yemen, called by the Arabic name Abu
Shamm, but is distilled frora a fruit which is indigenous on
the mountains of Mecca and Medina. It was cultivated at
a very early period in Gilead, and hence caUed the Balm
of Gilead ; and also in the vicinity of Jericho and Engedi.
Gen. xxxvii, 25 ; xUii, 11 ; Jer. yiii, 22 ; xlvi, 11 ; Ii, 8. There
are three species of the balsam: two are shrubs, the other
is a tree. They yield their sap in June, July, and August,
which is received into an earthen vessel. The fruit, also.

148 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
when pierced by some instrument, emits a juice of fhe same
kind, and in more abundance, but less rich. The sap ex
tracted fi-om the body of the tree, or shrub, is called opobal-
sanium ; the juice of the fruit is called carpobalsamum ; and
the liquid extracted from the branches, when cut off, the
xylobalsamum. The palm-tree is very common in the East, and in Africa.
It is not cultivated now in Palestine, and hence is rarely
seen. It requires a skilful hand to make a palm-grove
flourishing and productive. At a very early period they
were numerous in Palestine, which we may learn from Lev.
xxiii, 40; Deut. xxxiv, 3 ; Judg. i, 16 ; iii, 13 ; iv, 5. Also
from profane writers, and Jewish and Roman coins, which
exhibit the palm, a sheaf of wheat, and a cluster of grapes,
as a symbol ofthe Jewish nation. The palm flourishes most
in warm cUmates. It is commonly found most flourshing
in vaUeys and plains. Exodus xv, 27. It grows very straight
and lofty, and is destitute of limbs, except very near the top,
where it is surmounted with a crown of foliage that is always
green. The flgure of a palm-tree was carved in ornamental
work, 1 Kings vi, 32 ; and is used tropically of a beautiful
person. Cant, vii, 8; and also of a religious, upright man.
Psa. i, 3 ; xcii, 12. The dates grow on sraall stems, which
germinate at the angles formed by the stock of the tree and
the branches. Palm-trees exhibit what may be termed a
sexual distinction ; and in order to any fruit being produced,
the seed frora the flowers of the raascuUne palra must be
borne, at the proper season, to the tree of an opposite sex.
If this is not done, and at the proper time, the female palm,
like the male, bears no fruit. The productions of the palm
are large clusters of dates, which become ripe in August,
September, and October. Some of the dates are eaten in a
crude state, and the rest are strained through a press woven
of osiers, and, after the juice is forced out, are reduced
' into sohd masses and preserved. The juice pressed out is
the date wine, and is very celebrated. At the Feast of

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 149
Tabernacles, the Hebrews bore palm branches in their hands ;
they also strewed them in the way before kings, as they en
tered their cities on public occasions. The Greeks gave a
palm branch to those who conquered in the games. Com
pare Rev. vn, 9. This tree is regarded among the orientals
as of all others the most noble. Hence the saying, frrnn the
branch (i. e., the palm branch) to the rush or reed, ex
pressing and denoting the highest and lowest. Isa. ix, 14 ;
xix, 15.
Terebinths are large trees ' loaded -with branches and
foliage, and green through the year. They live one thousand
years, and, when they die, leave a scion which spreads a like
luxuriance of foliage, and lives to a like number of years, so
that where they once appear they will be perpetuated. On ac
count of their perpetuity, places were named from them.
Gen. xiii, 18 ; Judg. vi, 11 ; 1 Sam. x, 3 ; Isa. vi, 13 ; Ezek.
vi, 13. They are used figuratively as symbols ofthe good,
who, in Isa. Ixi, 3, are called terebinths (trees) of righteous
ness. The pistacia is a tree very much resembling the terebinth.
It bears a very rich species of nuts, which hang in clusters,
(Gen. xhii, 11,) and which become ripe in October. They
somewhat resemble almonds in appearance, but are of a much
better flavour, and are, therefore, most valued by the
Orientals. Walnuts are common in Palestine, but hazel-nuts
are scarce. The word which some suppose to mean hazel
is the name of the almond. Bees and Honey.
Palestine is often called the land flowing with milk and
honey. This is a tropical expression, and is applied to any
fruitful land. For instance, Egypt, in Num. xvi, 13.
Bees were very numerous in Palestine, not only in the hives
which were constructed for them of clay and straw, but
frequently in the woods, in the hollow trees, and fissures of
rooks. Deut xxxii, 13; Psa. Ixxxi, 17. They possess a

160 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
keen animosity and an equally keen sting, -with which they
make an efficient attack on their enemies. Tropically they
represent violent and ferocious enemies. Deut. i, 44 ; Psa.
cxvin, 11, 12. They could be allured by anything that made
a tinkUng sound to any particular place. Isa. vii, 18.
Honey is often mentioned in the Bible, both in a solid and
liquid state. Wild honey is also mentioned. 1 Sam. xiv,
25-27 ; Matt, iii, 4. The ancients were very fond of honey,-
and hence it is tropically used as expressive of pleasure
and happiness. Psa. cxix, 103; Prov. xxiv, 13, 14; Cant
iv, 11. Fish. )
Fish were esteemed by all Orientals, as well as Hebrews, a
great dehcacy. Numbers xi, 5. They were taken in great
numbers from the river Jordan, and the lake of Tiberias, or
sea of Galilee. Those only which were destitute of scales or
fins were interdicted. Lev. xi, 10. Hence mention is made of
the fish-gate at Jerusalem, so called from the circumstance
of fish being sold there. 2 Chron. xxxiii, 14 ; Neh. iii, 3 ;
xii, 39 ; Isa. xix, 8 ; Ezek. xxvi, 5, 14 ; xlvii. 10. Fishermen
are used- tropically for enemies. Isa. xix, 8 ; Hah. i, 15.
Some of the apostles, living hear the sea of Gahlee, were
fishermen, and this class of men were, in general, active and
experienced. Luke v, 1, et seq. Comp. Matt iv, 19. The
instruments used in fishing were a hook, iron spear, and
a net The Fallow Year.
Agriculture, on every seventh year, came to an end..
Nothing was sown and nothing was reaped. The vines and
the olives were not pruned ; there was no vintage and no
gathering of fruits, even of what grew wfld ; and whatever
spontaneous productions there were, were left to the poor,
the traveller, and wUd beasts. This was to let the ground
have rest, and recover its strength, and to teach the Hebrew.*

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 151
to be provident of their income. Extraordinary fruitfulness
was promised the sixth year. Lev. xxv, 20-24. During
the seventh year the time was spent in fishing, hunting,
taking care of bees, and flocks, and herds; manufacturing
and the mechanic arts were also carried on. They were
obhged to remain longer in the temple this year, during
.which the whole Mosaic law was read, and they were raore
largely instructed in rehgious and moral duties, and the
history of their nation. Deut. xxxi, 10-15. The seventh
year's rest, as Moses predicted, (Lev. xxvi, 34, 35,) was for
a long time neglected, but after the captivity it was more
scrupulously observed. Origin ofthe Arts.
The arts originated partiy in necessity, and partiy in
accident In the fourth generation, after the creation of man,
we flnd mention made of artificers in brass and iron, and also
of musical instruments. Gen. iv, 21-23.' From the construc
tion of the ark, we learn that the antediluvians must have
made considerable advancement in the mechanic arts. Not
long after the Deluge, we find mention raade of many things.
such as utensils and ornaments, which imply a knowledge of
the arts. Gen. ix, 21 ; xi, 1-9 ; xiv, 1-16 ; xii, 7, 8 ; xv, 10 ;
xvii, 10 ; xviii, 4-6 ; xix, 32 ; xxi, 14 ; xxii, 10 ; xxiii, 13 ; (fee.
Soon after the death of Joshua, a place was expressly allotted
to artificers. It was caUed the valley of craftsmen. 1 Chron.
iv, 14 ; Neh. xi, 35. Mention is made of artificers in gold
and sflver. Judg. xvu, 3-5. Women spun, wove, embroidered,
and made clothing for their faraiUes. Exod. xxxv, 25 ; 1 Sam.
ii, 19 ; Prov. xxxi, 18-31 ; Acts ix, 39. Artificers among
the Hebrews were men of rank. Jer. xxiv, 1 ; xxix, 2 ; 2 Kings
xxiv, 14. They received instruction from the Syrians. The
Talmudists taught that aU parents should teach their children
some art or handicraft. . Joseph, the husband of Mary, was
a carpenter. Matt xiii, 55 ; Mark vi, 3. Simon of Joppa
was a tanner. Acts ix, 43 ; x, 32. Alexander, a learned Jew,

152 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
was a coppersmith. 2 Tim. iv, 14. Paul and Aquila were
tent-makers. The art of alphabetical writing is attributed to an early
age. The precise time of its invention, however, is not known.
Forty-five years after the death of Moses, Cadmus, of
Phoenicia, introduced letters into Greece. Books and writing
are spoken of in the time of Moses. Exod. xvii, 14 ; xxiv, 4;
xxviu, 9-11; xxxii, 32; xxxiv, 27, 28; Num. xxxiii, 2;
Deut. XX vn, 8. Long before his tirae scribes kept written
genealogies. Exod. vi, 14 ; Deut xx, 5-9. In the time of
Jacob, seals, on which names were engraved, were in use.
Gen. xxxvin, 18 ; xli, 42. ' Hieroglyphics were inscribed by
Egyptians on stone. The law was inscribed on stones.
Exod. xxxn, 1 6-32. The scribes had schools for teaching the
art of writing, called schools of the prophets. 1 Sam. xix, 16 ;
2 Kings ii, 3-5; iv, 38; vi, 1. The materials for writing
were stones, tiles, brass, lead, leaves, bark, skins, wood, linen,
paper, made from papyrus, and the sand of the earth. The
instruments were the style, made of iron, for writing on hard
materials; a small brush, by which letters were painted on
cotton, cloth, paper, .skins, parchment, (fee ; or a reed or pen,
which was split. Ink was used at an early day. Num. v, 23 ;
Jer. xxxvi, 18. Books are known as early as Job xix, 23;
Num. xxi, 14; Exod. xvii, 14. They were written on flexible
materials, and rolled round a stick ; if they were veiy long,
on two, connected with the extremities ; hence is derived the
name of volume, or thing roUed up.
Poetry had its origin in the first ages of the world. " It
was cultivated among the Hebrews as far back as the age of
Moses. Exod. xv ; Deut xxxii ; Num. xxi, 24. The book of Job
is poetic. Hebrew poetry is characterized by ardent feelings,
splendid thoughts, and beautiful imagery. It is distinguished
^rom accidental poetry in several particulars, especially in its
metaphors and ornaments. •
Music is coeval with poetry. Musical instruments were
the invention of Jubal, Gen. iv, 21 ; and as early as Gen.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 153
xxxi, 27, we are introduced to a whole choir. The Hebrews
insisted on having music at marriages, birth-days, inaugura
tion of kings, pubhc worship, and great festivals. Isa. xxx, 29.
In the tabernacle and temple the Levites were the lawful
musicians. The holy silver trumpets were only blown by
the priests. Num. i, 1-10. David divided the four thousand
Levites into twenty-four classes, each of which were superin
tended by a leader. 1 Chron. xvi, 5 ; xxiii, 4, 6 ; xxv, 1-31 ;
2 Chron. v, 12, 13. This an'angeraent for singing was
transferred to the temple, and continued till the time of the
overthrow of Jerusalem. The harp was a stringed instru
ment ; the strings were originally swept by the hand, but
subsequently with a small bow or fret. The psaltery was 'a
ten-stringed instrument ; this was played by the fingers ;
its form was that of a right-angled triangle. The organ,
anciently called the shepherd's pipe, consisted at first of seven
pipes, made of reeds of (iifferent length. The hom, or
crooked trumpet, was made of the homs of oxen or rams.
The straight trumpet was a cubit in length, hollow through
out, and bell-shaped at the mouth. The timbrel or tabret
consisted of a smaU h(X)p, with a skin tensely drawn over it,
and hung round -with bells. The cymbdi consisted of two
thin pieces of metal of circular shape ; the musician held one
in his right hand and the other in his left, and smote them
together. Various other instruments of music were invented
from time to time, but the above are the more important
mentioned in Scripture.
Dancing among the Mohammedans is esteemed an
amusement unworthy the dignity of men, and hence is left
to women and children. It is practised among the Orientals
in a very indecorous manner ; among the Hebrews it was
sacredly used. Exod. xv, 20 ; Judg. xi, 34 ; 1 Sam. x-viii, 6, 7 ;
Jer. xxxi, 4-13 ; Psa. Ixviii, 26 ; 2 Sam. vi, 16-23.
The art of oratory never flourished in the East.

154 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Sciences.
In scientific knowledge the Egyptians and Babylonians
excelled all others. The Arabians are also favourably men
tioned in this respect, 1 Kings, iv, 30 ; also the Edomites.
Jer. xlix, 7. The Hebrews became renowned for their
inteUectual culture in the tirae of David, and especially in
Solomon's day. 1 Kings, v, 9-14. After this, literature
declined. The Hebrews, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians,
and Tyrians, had their historical annals. Arithmetical
calculations are spoken of in Gen. xxiv, 60 ; Lev. xxvi, 8 ;
Deut xxxii, 30. Mathematics, Astronomy, and Astrology
were cultivated at an early period. Time was divided into
years, weeks, and days, which were divided as follows, viz. :
break of day, morning or sun rise, heat of the day, mid-day,
cool of the day, evening ; and also into hours, the principal of
which were the third, sixtji, and ninth. Night was divided
into four watches. In addition to the week of days, the
Jews had the week of weeks, the week of years, and the
week of seven Sabbatical years. The changes of the moon
were employed in the measurement of time, and hence the
name of month. The months were ci\'il and sacred.
Medicine was cultivated at an early day. The Egyptians
carried their sick into the temples of Serapis, and the Greeks
carried theirs into those of .^culapius. Physicians are first
mentioned in Gen. 1, 2; Exod. xxi, 19; Job xin, 4. Dissec
tions were not raade till the time of Ptolemy. Among the
Hebrews and Egyptians the art of healing was committed
to the priests.
Natural Philosophy may be found in the book of Job,
and in the thirty-seventh, thirty-ninth, and seventy-third
Psalms. Natural History was also cultivated to some
extent.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 155
Commerce.
At a very early period traffic between different nations
was carried on to a considerable extent. Frequent mention
is made of public roads, fords, bridges, beasts of burden,
ships, weights, measures, and coins. The Phoenicians
anciently held the first rank as a commercial nation. The
ships of Tarshish were famed for their distant voyages.
The inhabitants of Arabia Felix carried on a trade with India.
Goods were transported across the country on camels.
Several merchants would band together and form a caravan.
Solomon sent ships through the Red Sea to Ophir. The
principal sea-port of Palestine was Joppa. A new port was
bmlt by Herod the Great at Cesarea.
Weights and Measures were regulated at a very early
period in Asia. After the time of Soloraon the models
for weights and measures were deposited in the temple.
A finger, or digit, was about g-jL of an inch ; a palm, a
hand-breadth ; a span, from the end of the thumb to that of
the little finger ; a cubit, from the elbow to the wrist ; a
measure, the length of a man's arm ; a measuring reed, the
length of the human body ; a stadium, four feet and 6y'^ ;
a Sabbath day's journey, two mUes; a day's journey, from
twenty to thirty mfles ; an omer, five pints and one-tenth ;
a'n ephah, three pecks and three pints ; and several other
measures of less importance.
There is no trace of stamped silver coin previous to the
captivity. Gold, even so late as the time of David, was not
used as a standard of value.
A grain of barley was the smaUest weight. The weight
most in use was the shekel. Clothing. I
Our first parents protected theraselves with the leaves of a
fig-tree, and afterwards with the skins of aniraals. The art
of manufacturing cloths by spinning and weaving is of great

156 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
antiquity. Gen. xiv, 23; xxxi, 18,19; xxxvii, 3 ; xxxviii, 28;
Job vii, 6 ; xxxi, 20. The Egyptians were celebrated for
such manufactures. Alexander found silks in Persia. White
was esteemed the most appropriate colour for cotton cloth, and
purple for the others. Kings and princes were clothed in
purple. Luke»xvi, 19; Rev. xviii, 12. The scarlet colour
is first mentioned in Gen. xxx-viu, 28. The hyacinth, or dark
blue colour, was highly esteemed araong the Assyrians.
Ezek. xxiii, 6. Black colour was used for common wear,
and particularly on occasions of moumin'g. Parti-coloured
cloth was rauch esteemed. Gen. xxxvii, 3, 23 ; 2 Sara, xiii, 18.
As early as the time of Moses, cloth was embroidered.
The tunic was the most simple and ancient garment;
it was a piece of cloth which encircled the whole body, bound
-with a girdle, and extending to the knees. The meil was a
garment which extended below the knees, open at the top,
so as to be drawn over the head. The ephod consisted of
two parts, united by a clasp or buckle on the shoulder.
The hat or turban, worn on the head, was early used. The
toga was a Roman garment, and the cloak a Greek garment.
Sandals were small pieces of wood, or leather, bound to the
bottom of the feet. To loose and bind on sandals' was the
lowest office of a servant. In contracts, the seller gave his
sandal to the buyer in confirmation ofthe bargain.
The beard was considered among the Hebrews a great
ornament. No one was allowed to touch it, except for the
purpose of kissing it. To cut, or shave, or mar it in any
way, was considered a gi'eat disgrace. 1 Chron. xix, 3-5 ;
2 Sam. X, 4-10. The beard was used tropically for distin
guished men of any nation. The shaving of it denoted
servitude. Isa. vii, 20. The Egyptians and Arabians were in
the habit of shaving the beard ; sometimes the Hebrews ap
plied the razor. Shaving was absolutely interdicted to the
Nazarites. Num. vi, 5 ; Judg. xiii, 7 ; xvi, 17. Baldness was
a source of contempt. The head was combed, set in order,
and the hair anointed, especially on festive occasions.

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 157
Females allowed the hair to grow long. They braided it,
and sometimes interwove gems and gold. Anciently the
hair was the only covering for the head. Afterwards, mitres
made of cloth were used. Those worn by the priests were
higher. The difference between the dress of the men and women
was small, and consisted chiefiy in the fineness of the
material and the length. The women wore a veU, which was
customary with afl, except maid-servants, and those in low
condition, and prostitutes. Veils were of different kinds.
The Hebrews carried a staff, to assist in a journey, as wefl
as for an ornament. Exod. xii, 11 ; Gen. xxxviii, 18, 25. They
also, in imitation of the Egyptians, wore a seed suspended
from the neck, over the breast. Gen. xxxviii, 18. Frequently
a ring, with some inscription on it, was used as a seal, by a
delivery or transfer of which, from a monarch, the highest
offices of the kingdom were created. Gen. xli, 42 ; Esth. iii,
10-12 ; viii, 2 ; Jer. xxii, 24 ; Dan. vi, 10 ; xin, 7. They
were worn as an ornament of the finger on the right hand.
The ladies wore a number of rings on their fingers, and also
in their ears, and sometimes in their nose. Gen. xxiv, 22 ;
Exod. xxxii, 2, 3 ; xxxv, 22. They also wore rings of sflver
and gold around their ancles : they also wore necklaces,
bracelets, (fee Hebrew women carried amulets for ornament,
and to keep off incantations.
Mirrors were made of polished brass. In Job xxxvii, 18,
the heavens are compared to a molten mirror. The ladies
carried their mirrors in their hands.
A man's girdle fulfiUed for him all the purposes of a purse.
The purse of a lady, which was made of solid metal, some
times of gold, and fashioned hke a cone, with a border of
rich cloth at the top, was suspended from the girdle which she
wore. Both sexes either wore napkins attached to their
girdle, or bore them upon their hand or left arm. The
dress used on festival occasions was very splendid, and
perfumed with myrrh, cassia, and aloes. Gen. xxvu, 27 ;

158 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Psa. xlv, 8 ; Cant, iv, II. Vast expense was bestowed on
these garments, both as respected their quality and number.
2 Kings V, 5; Matt x, 10; James v, 2. The mourning-
dress or sackcloth extended down to the knees. It is a coarse
dark cloth of goat's hair. Food and Feasts.
At first men lived on the fruit of trees, upon herbs, roots,
ahd seeds, and whatever else they could find nutritive in the
vegetable kingdom. Gen. i, 29 ; ii, 16. Afterwards, a
method was invented to bruise grain, and to reduce it to a
mass ; with this water, mflk, and honey were sometimes mixed.
Before the Deluge the flesh of animals was used for food.
Gen. vii, 2, 8. OriginaUy food of every kind was eaten
without being cooked, because there was no fire; and even if
there had been, its use in the preparation of food was un
known. Corn was eaten at first without any preparation at
all, and this custom had not gone into total desuetude in the
time of Christ Matt, xii, 1. Sorae, -who found a difficulty '
in mastication; broke the kernels with stones, which sug
gested the idea of mortars and mills. Meal is spoken of as
far back as the time of Abraham. As there were no public
bakers except the king's, each family owned ahand-mUl, con
sisting of two stones. One person could not take another's
mfll as a pledge. Deut xxiv, 6. Enemies taken in war were
condemned to turn the mUl. Judg. xvi, 21 ; Lam. v, 13.
The business of baking was performed by women, no matter
how high their station in life ; cooking was also done by the
matron of the family. The use of salt is very ancient
Num. xvifl, 19 ; 2 Chron. xiii, 5. It is a symbol of invio
lable friendship. A covenant of salt means an everiasting
covenant It is also used tropically for wisdom and for
preservation, Mark ix, 49, 50 ; Col. iv, 6 ; and salt that lost
its savour or saltness, on the contrary, folly and corrup
tion. Matt V. 13. Some sorts of food were interdicted : —
1st, Quadrupeds which do not ruminate, or have cloven feet;

BIBLIoIl ARCHEOLOGY. 159
2d, Serpents and creeping insects; 3d, Certain species of
birds ; 4th, Fishes -without scales or fins ; 5th, All food, all
liquids standing in a vessel, and all wet seed into which the
dead body of any unclean insect had fallen — water in
cisterns, wells, and fountains, could not be contaminated in
this way ; 6th, All food and hquids which stood in tie tent or
chamber of a dying or dead man, remaining uncovered ;
7th, Everything which was consecrated by any one to idols
or gods. 1 Cor. viii, 10. Blood was interdicted ; also, an
animal that died of itself, or was torn to pieces ,by wild
beasts ; and the fat covering the intestines, the large lobe of
the fiver, the kidneys, and the fat on them.
The Mohammedans drink water commonly, but the rich a
beverage called sherbet. The Orientals frequently use wine,
and sometiraes it .was used to excess, frora which circumstance
many tropes are drawn. Isa. v, 11-22; xxviii, 1-11;
xlix, 26; Jer. viii, 14; ix, 14; xvi, 48; Deut xxxii, 42;
Psa. Ixxvin, 65. Wines were sometimes mixed or adulter
ated, and sometimes dUuted. Their drinking vessels were a
cup of brass covered with tin, in form resemUing a hly ; the
bowl was also ofthe sarae forra; they were soraetimes of silver
and gold. The larger vessels were urns and bottles.
The time of taking refreshments was about eleven o'clock
of our time. Their principal meal was about six o'clock in
the afternoon ; hence their feasts were always at supper-time.
The table was a piece of round leather, spread on the floor,
around which they sat in a circle. They had neither knife,
fork, nor spoon. In the time of Christ the Persian custom
prevailed of recUning at the table. The guests reclined upon
the left side. Luke vii, 36-38; xvi, 22, 23; John ii, 8;
xiu, 23. Anciently females were excluded from the table,
with, the exception of Babylon and Persia. After supper
they usually drank. The cup is used tropically to represent
a man's lot Psa. xi, 8; lxxv, 8; Isa. Ii, 22; Jer. xxv, 15-27 ;
xxxv, 5; xlix, 12; Ezek. xxiii, 31-34; Matt xxvi, 39.
Feasts are mentioned at an early period. Gen. xxi, 8 ;

160 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
xxix, 22 ; xxxi, 27-54 ; xl, 20. In respect to the second
tithes, which originated from the vow of Jacob, (Gen.
xxviii, 22,) Moses was very particular in his laws. At the
feast ofthe second sort of first-fruits, servants, widows, orphans,
and Levites should be made free partakers. Deut. xvi, 1 1-14.
Jesus alludes to this festival, which was designed for the poor.
Luke xiv, 13. The guests appeared in white robes. These
feasts sometimes continued from evening tfll morning.
Feasts are symbolical of a state of prosperity and happiness;
and exclusion from them, of destitution and misery. The
kingdom of Christ is compared to a feast.
There being no public inns in the East, great hospitality
characterized the inhabitants. This extended to all classes ;
even the wandering Arabs receive and treat strangers with
hospitality to this day. State of Domestic Society.
Polygamy and fornication were condemned by that pi'i-
raeval institution which joined in marriage one man and one
womaii. Gen. i, 27, 28. Before the time of Moses, morals had
becorae very rauch corrupted, and not only the prostitution of
females, but of boys, was very comraon among many nations, ,
and even made a part of the' divine worship. To prevent
these evils, Moses made the following regulations : 1. Among
the Israelites no prostitute, male ¦ or female, was tolerated.
2. That the price of whoredom, though presented in return
for a vow, should not be received at the sanctuary. Deut
xxiii, 19. 3. A man who had seduced a female should
marry her, and, in case the father would not (jonsent, should
pay thirty shekels ; and, if violence had been offered, fifty.
4. That a person who, when married, was not found to be a
virgin, as she professed, was to be stoned. Notwith
standing the severity of these laws, prostitutes of both sexes
were set apart in the time of the kings for the service of
idols. Prov. ii, 16-19; v, 3-6; vii, 5-27; Amos ii, 7 ;
vii, 17 ; Jer. iii, 2 ; v, 7 ; 1 Kings xiv, 24 ; xv, 12.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 161
Lamech is the first mentioned having two wives. After the
Deluge the example of Noah and his sons was a good one,
but it was not followed. Polygamy prevaUed very much in
the time of Moses. Deut xvn, 17. Moses regulated polyg
amy by requiring the husband to bestow his attention on
each one at certain times. Exod. xxi, 10, 11 ; Gen. xxx,
14-16. Intercourse was prohibited during the menses on
pain of death. Uncleanness contracted by sexual connexion
continued through a whole day. The father of a family
selected •wives for his sons and husbands for his daughters.
Intermarriage with foreigners was prohibited, lest the
Hebrews should be seduced to idolatry. A priest was not
aUowed to marry a prostitute, or a divorced or profane
woman. A marriage covenant was a vow between the
father and brothers of the bride, and the father of the bride
groom. Wives were sometimes purchased. The honour
which is now rendered to the female sex originated from the
instructions of the apostles. An interval of ten or twelve
months clasped between the agreement to man'y and the
consummation, during which time there was no intercourse.
If the bridegroom, from any cause, was unwiUing to fulfil
his engagements by marriage, he was obliged to give her a
bill of divorcement, the same as if she had been his wife.
On the occasion of the mamage the bridegroom prepared a
feast. Judg. xiv, 17. In the evening the bridegroom, with
his company, came, and conducted the bride from the house
of her father to the place where the nuptials were celebrated,
with great feasting and rejoicings. After this the nuptial
blessing was pronounced, and the spouse, who up to this time
is vefled from head to foot,' is led to the bed-chamber.
Concubines were sometimes associated with individuals of
the other sex, and were entitled to claim the privUeges of a
wife; they were obtained in various ways. Exod. xxi, 9-12';
Deut. XX, 10-14. A large number of offspring was con
sidered an instancje of the divine favour, while sterility was
looked upon as a reproach and punishment. 1 Sam. i, 6, 7 ;
II

162 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
Psa. cxxvii, 3-5. The state of celibacy was also considered
a great reproach. If the husband died, leaving a widow
without issue, the brother of the deceased, or nearest male
relation, was bound to marry her.
If a married man has criminal intercourse with a married
woman, or one promised in marriage, or a •widow expecting
to be married with a brother-in-law, it is accounted adultery.
If the woman is unmarried it is fornication. Before the
time of Moses this was reckoned a crime, and was punished.
Gen. xxxviii, 24. In Egypt the nose, and in Persia the nose
and ears of ^n adultress were cut off. In the penal code of
Moses it was punished by death. Lev. xx, 10. The suspected
•wife was subjected to the ordeal oath. To this oath dreadful
penalties were attached. This was abrogated forty years
before the destruction of Jerusalem. In the latter periods of
the Jewish Church adultery and licentiousness in every form
abounded, so that few could be found innocent John viii, 1-8. ¦
Though the power of the husband over the wife was great,
the law did not permit him to repudiate his wife without
a bUl of divorce. Deut. xxiv, 1-4; xxiii, 14, 16. The
wife, under certain circumstances, could obtain a divorce.
Exod. xxi, 10.
Mothers were generally the only assistants of their
daughters at ehUd-birth. In cases of difficulty, midwives
were called in. The birth of a son was a time of rejoicing.
The mother, after the birth of a son, was unclean for seven
days, and remained at home thirty-three days. If a daughter
was born, the number of unclean days was doubled. After
the expiration, of this period she went into the tabernacle, or
temple, and offered a lamb, ot doves and pigeons, for a
sacrifice of purification. Lev. xu, 1-8 ; Luke ii, 22.
On the eighth day the son was circumcised, and by this
rite was consecrated to God. Circumcision was a prevent
ive of the disease called the anthrax, or carbuncle, originating
from the impurities which coflect under the foreskin. Gen.
xxxiv, 26. This rite was known previous to the time of

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 163
Abraham. It was practised in Egypt. Gen. xn, 10-16. A
name was given to the male child at the time of circumcision.
Gen. xvi, 11; xix, 37; xxv, 26; Exod. n, 10; xidii, 3, 4.
Names were given from the circumstances of birth, from
peculiarities in the history of the famfly, (fee They were
sometimes compound, one part being the name of the Deity,
and, among idolatrous nations, the narae of an idol. Some
times the Orientals had two naraes. A new name is tropic
ally used to denote distinction. The first-born inherited
pecuhar rights and privileges; he received a double portion
of the estate. Gen. xlviu, 5-8; Deut. xxi, 17. The first-
bom was the priest of the whole family. Num. iu, 12-18 ;
vin, 18. They had an authority over those who were
younger. Gen. xxv, 23.
In the first ages of the -world mothers nursed their children
themselves. The day when the child was weaned, which
was thirty months, was made a festival. If the mother died,
nurses were employed. The sons remained in the care of
the mother until they were five years old, when they were
taken by the father and instructed in the arts and duties of
hfe, in the Mosaic law, and all parts of their religion. Deut.
vi, 20-25 ; vii, 19 ; xi, 19. Sorae were sent to the schools
of the prophets. The daughters were always in the care of
their mothers, and spent their time in learning domestic
duties. Implicit obedience was required and enforced by the
father of his children. Gen. xxi, 14 ; xxxviii, 24.
At the death of the father his estate was divided among
his sons, the first receiving two, and the rest equal shares.
Presents were made by will to' the sons of concubines, and
sometinaes they were made equal. The daughters not only
had no portion in the estate, but, if unmarried, were considered
as making part of it, and could be sold by their brothers into
matrimony. If there were no brothers the estate fell to
thera. Slaves were sometimes made heirs. The widow of
the deceased had no right to any part of the estate. Widows
were often neglected. Isa. i, 17 ; x, 2 ; Jer. vii, 6.

164 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL MTERATURE.
Slavery existed and prevaUed before the Deluge. Gen.
ix, 25. Some of the patriarchs had thousands of slaves. The
laws of Moses permitted the Hebrews to own slaves, male and
female, but they were bound to circumcise thera, and instruct
thera in the worship of the true God. Gen. xvii, 13-17.
Though the Hebrews were permitted to hold foreigners in
slavery, yet they were prohibited from making slaves of the
Canaanites, and also the Gibeonites, the Kephirites, the
Berothites, and the inhabitants of Kiijath-jearim. Among
the many ways by which men were reduced to slavery, we
notice the foUowing: — 1st. Captivity in war. Deut. xx, 14;
xxi, 10, 11 ; Gen. xiv. 2d. Debts. 2 Kings iv, 1 ; Isa. 1, 1 ;
Matt xviii, 25. 3d. Theft. Exod. xxii, 2; Neh. v, 4, 5.
4th. Man-stealing. Exod. xxi, 16; Deut. xxiv, 7. 5th. The
children of slaves — those bornin one'shouse — chfldren of maid
servants. Gen. xiv, 14 ; xv, 3 ; x'vii, 23 ; xxi, 10. 6th. By pur
chase. (SeeJahn'sAi'chseology, p. 180 — -Andover, 1832.) The
medium pice of a slave was thirty shekels. Lev. xxvn, 1-8.
The food and clothing of slaves were of the poorest descrip
tion. All their earnings went to their master. Deut. xv, 18.
They had the consent of their master to marry, or hve with
a woman. The children addressed their owners as lord or
master. Gal. iv, 6 ; Rom. •viii, 15. The servant most discreet
and faithful was placed over the rest, and made steward of the
house. ,Some of the servants instructed the children of their
masters, while some waited upon their masters and others on
their mistresses. The law required the masters to treat their
slaves with humanity. Lev. xxv, 39-53. The master who slew
a servant was held responsible. Exod. xxi, 20, 21. An injury
inflicted by the master secured the freedom of the slave. Exod.
xxi, 26, 27. On the Sabbath and festivals they had a cessation
from labour. Exod. xx, 10 ; Deut v, 14. They were invited
to those feasts made of second tithes. Deut. xii, 17,18. They
were to receive an adequate subsistence fi-om their masters.
Deut xxv, ,4; 1 Tim. v, 18 ; 1 Cor. ix, 9. The master
was bound to provide for the marriage of maid-servants, unless

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 165
he took them as concubines or gave them to his sons.
Exod. xxi, 8. A servant of Hebrew origin was not obliged
to serve over six years. Exod. xxi, 2. He could, however,
give himself up to perpetual servitude. Exod. xxi, 5, 6 ; Deut.
XV, 16. The master, however, could not sell such to any out
of Hebrew territories. Ibid. Servants might redeem them
selves, or be redeemed by the purchase of their time. Lev.
xxv, 47-55. All Hebrew servants were emancipated in the
year of jubilee. Lev. xxxix, 25-41. Finally, a slave who
had fled from another nation was to be treated kindly, and
not forcibly retumedback. Deut. xxiu, 15, 16.
In other countries there was no Sabbath or rest of any
kind for slaves. Runaway slaves were branded in the fore
head. Gal. vi, 17 ; Rev. xiv, 9 ; xxii, 4. They were debar
red from a participation in all civil festivals and rehgious
exercises. Christianity araeliorated their condition in this
respect Gal. in, 28; Col. iii, 10, 11; Philemon 10; 1 Cor.
xu, 13; Eph. vi, 8.
Social condition of the Hebrews.
The forms of salutation which prevafled among the an
cient Hebrews were as follows: — 1. Be thou blessed of Je
hovah. 2. The blessing of Jehovah be upon thee. 3. May
God be with thee. 4. May peace and prosperity attend
thee. 6. Sir, be your life preserved. The gestures and in
flexions of the body, made on an occasion of salutation,
were varied, according to the dignity and station of the per
son saluted. The ceremony of advancing and receding,
kissing the hand and the beard, is sometimes as often re
peated as ten times. Hence it was anciently inculcated upon
messengers whose business required haste, to salute no raan
by the way. 2 Kings iv, 29 ; Luke x, 4. Prostration was
made before kings. 1 Kings ii, 19. •
In visiting, a person would stand at the gate and knock,
or call vvith a loud voice, till the master came out. If the

166 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
•visitor were a proper person, the females were required to
repair to their respecti^ve apartments, and he was introduced
into the house. 2 Kings v, 9-12; Acts x, 17. Presents
were carried by visitors. Gen. xxvii, 27 ; Exodus xxx, 37, 38.
Kings were in the habit of making and recei'ving presents.
Kings, princes, and national ambassadors, whenever on a
public occasion they enter cities, receive great attention and
honour. The windows are opened, and the flat roofe crowded
with spectators. The path is strewed with flqwers and
branches, and sometimes spread with carpets, while shouts
are echoed on every side. 2 Sam. xvi, 16 ; 1 Kings i, 40;
2 Kings ix, 13 ; Isa. Ixii, 11 ; Zech. ix, 9; Matt xxi, 7, 8.
The musicians first walk in the procession. 1 Kings xvui, 46 ;
1 Chron. xv, 27-29. The persons who sustain offices in the
government, and are attached to the palace, are the next in
the procession. Then follows the king. All are carried on
noble coursers. Anciently, on such occasions, kings rode in
chariots. Gen. xU, 43 ; 2 Sam. xv, 1 ; 1 Kings i, 5.
Conversation was usually held in the gate of the 'city,
where there was an open space fitted up with seats for the
accoraraodation of the people. Gen. xix, 1 ; Psa. lxix, 12.
Judicial trials were commonly investigated at the gate. Gen.
xix, 1 ; xxxiv, 20 ; Psa. xxvi, 4, 5 ; lxix, 12 ; cxxvii, 5 ;
Ruth iv, 11 ; Isa. xiv, 31. The ancient Asiatics were also
dehghted with singing and dancing, and instruments of mu
sic. Promenading was wearisome in the warm climates of
the East, and hence the people sought retired places, beneath
the shade of vines and fig-trees. 1 Samuel xxii, 6 ; Micah
iv, 4.
The bath was also very agreeable to the Orientals, not only
on account of its cool and refreshing nature, but the neces
sity of cleanliness, in order to health. Baths were frequented
by the ladies, and formed an agreeable resort. The Egyp
tians, at the earhest period, were in the habit of bathing in
the waters of the NUe. Exod. ii, 5 ; vii, 13-25. It was one
of the civfl laws of the 'Hebrews that the bath should be

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 167
used. Lev. xiv, 2; xv, 1-8; xvii, 15, 16; xxii, 6; Num.
xix, 6.
In conversation, the Orientals are candid and mild, very
rarely using any terras of reproach. The severest terms are
adversary, raca, or fool. Job ii, 10 ; Psa. xiv, 1 ; Isa. xxxii, 6 ;
Matt. V, 22 ; xvi, 23. The formula of assent or affirma
tion was ai) elrcag, thou hast said, or thou hast rightly said:
This explains the answer of Christ to Caiaphas, in Matt.
xxvi, 64. To spit, in company, in a carpeted room, was ap
indication of great rusticity of- manners. To spit in one's
face was an indication of great indignity. Matt, xxvi, 67 ;
Mark xiv, 65.
The Jews were insta'ucted, by the laws of Moses, to treat
strangers with hospitality. Of this class were all foreigners,
whether Hebrews or others destitute of>a home, as well as
all who resided in Palestine, but were not natives ; the latter
were strangers or foreigners, in the strict sense of the term.
Both these werd to be treated as citizens, and enjoy the same
rights. Lev. xix, 33, 34 ; xxiv, 16-22 ; Num. ix, 14 ; xv, 14 ;
Deut X, 18; xxiii, 8; xxiv, 17; xxvii, 19. At a later pe
riod, foreigners were compelled to labour on the pubhc edi
fices. 1 Chron. xxii, 2 ; 2 Chron. n, 16, 17. In the time of
Christ, the Jews had degenerated in hospltahty.
Although Moses made abundant provision for the poor, he
does nctt say anything in respect to beggars. The first notice
of mendicants is in Psa. cix, 10. In the time of Christ,
they were found sitting in the streets, at the doors and gates
of the rich, and also at the entrance of the temple and syn
agogues. Mark x, 46 ; Luke xvi, 20 ; Acts iii, 2. Some
times food and money were given to them. Matt, xxvi, 9 ;
Luke xvi, 21. Oriental beggars do not appeal to the pity
of those th ey solicit, but to their justice. Job xxii, 7 ; xxxi, 1 6 ;
Prov. iii, 27, 28; xxi, 21; Psalm xxiv, 6; Eccles. iv, 1;
xiv, 13, 14; Matt vi,'l.
Persons defiled from disease, or any other cause, were ex
cluded from the intercourse of society, and the tabernacle

168 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
and temple ; but they might, by ceremonial purification, be
restored. Lev. xiu, 3. The Levitical law regarded the fol
lowing persons as unclean : —
1. Those who had the leprosy. They were excluded from
cities ,and •villages, and were compelled to cry out, to all
they met, unclean I unclean I Lev. xiii, 45 ; Num. v, 2, et seq.
2. Those who had the gonorrhoea, whether in a mild or
viralent form. Lev. xv, 3.
3. Those who had emissio seminis, even in legitimate in
tercourse, were to be unclean till evening. Lev. xv, 16-22.
4. Women after the birth of a son were unclean for
seven days, and after the birth of a daughter twice as long.
In the former case they were excluded from the temple for
thirty, and in the latter, for sixty days. Lev. xii, 1-6 ; xv,
16-28. 5. Women during the period of the menses were unclean
Lev. XV, 19-21 ; Matt ix, 20.
6. A person who toucbed the corpse of a man, or the dead
body of an animal, or a sepulchre, or had been in the tent or
room of a dying or dead person. Priests wearing badges
of mouming were made thereby unclean ; and hence they
never wore them, except in case of the death of their rela
tives. Lev. V, 2; xi, 8-11; xxiv, 31; xxi, 1-5, 10, 11;
Num. xix, 11-16. Diseases.
The disease which is mentioned in 1 Sam. v, 6-12 ; vi, 18,
was the dysentery, according to some, and by others it
is supposed to have been an inflammation and sweUing of
the fundament, produced by the bite of a venomous ani
mal belonging to the spider class, but much larger. The
bite of these animals was fatal in its consequences.
The disease of King Jehorara, mentioned in 2 Chron. xxi,
12-16, 18, 19, was the dysentery.
, The leprosy was regarded by the ancients as a marked
exhibition of the justice and wrath of God. 'it was denom-

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 169
inated by the Hebrews the stroke or wound of the Lord.
Num. xii, 1-10 ; 2 Kings v^ 1 ; xv, 6 ; 2 Chron. xxvi, 20.
The disease Comraences internaUy, and finally develops itself
until it appears on the surface of the body. The first ap
pearance is small red spots about the nose and eyes ; and
they increase in size for a number of years, until they become
as large as a pea or bean, and cover the whole body. There
are four kinds of leprosy. The first kind is of so virulent
and powerful a nsjifure that it separates the joints, and mu
tilates the body in the most shocking manner. The second
is white leprosy, the tjiird is black leprosy, and the fourth is
red leprosy. The disease is alraost always fatal, however
long it may be in passing through the various stages. To a
certain extent it is hereditary, and passes down to the third
and fourth generation. There was a species of leprosy termed
Bohak, which was not infectious. Lev. xin, 38, 39. The
peculiarities belonging to real leprosy are — 1. It is incurable;
2. It is infectious; and, 3. It is hereditary.
The pestilence was any sudden calaraity which, in the form
of disease, fell upon the people, and speedfly put an end to
their existence ; as, for instance, the destruction of Sennach
erib's army.
Detnoniacal possession is frequently mentioned in the New
Testament. Some have supposed that there was no such
thing as demoniacal possession, or, what is the same thing,
that those said to be possessed were either madmen, epilep
tics, or pereons subject to melancholy. That deraoniacs
were really possessed with devils, will appear from the follow
ing considerations : —
1. They .expressed themselves in a way different from
epfleptic, melancholy, or insane persons. Matt •viii, 28 ; Luke
' •viii, 27 ; Mark v, 7. They possessed the supernatural power
of sundering all sorts of cords and chains. They requested
Jesus not to torment them. They answered, with propriety,
questions proposed to them. Demons departed from them,
and entered into swing.

170 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
2. No symptoms of disease are mentioned in the case of
the dumb demoniac in Matt, ix, 32, Luke xi, 14, and
Matt xu, 22.
3. The damsel of Philippi (Acts xvi, 16) practised divina
tion, which evidently could not have been done by an insane
person. 4. The demoniacs themselves say they were possessed with
a devfl. The Jews themselves assert the sarae thing. The
apostles and evangehsts allege that persl)ns possessed with
devils were brought to Christ, and that they departed at his'
command; and, finaUy, Jesus asserts 'himself that he cast
out 'devils.
6. The sacred writers make an express, distinction between
the demoniacs and the sick, and likewise between the exor-.
cisra of demons and the healing of the sick. Mark i, 32 ;
Luke vi, 17, 18 ; •vii, 21 ; vin, 2 ; xiii, 32.
6. Demoniacs knew what madraen, deranged, epileptic,
and melancholy persons could not of themselves know, viz.,
that Jesus was the Son of God, the Messiah, ihe son of Da
vid, (fee Mark i, 24 ; v, 7 ; Matt viii, 29 ; Luke iv, 34. ¦
7. Jesus speaks to deraons and asks their name, and they
answer him. He also threatens them — commands them to
be silent — to depart and not return. Mark i, 25 ; v, 8 ; ix, 25 ;
Matt •viii, 29-31 ; Luke iv, 35 ; vin, 30-32.
8. When the seventy returned frora their labours, they re
ported that the devfls were subject unto them, through the
name of Christ ; and Jesus rephed, " I saw Satan as light
ning fall from heaven."
9. When Jesus was accused of casting out devils by Beel
zebub, he replied that a house divided against itself could
not stand.
10. Jesus makes remarks in Matt, xii, 43 and in Luke
xi, 24 which could not apply to persons diseased.
11. The woman in Luke xin, 11 was bound by Satan.
Peter says. Acts x, 38, that all who had been oppressed with
the devfl were healed.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. I7l
12. The Church Fathers, without one dissenting voice,
erabraced the opinions expressed above, in regard to demo
niacal possessions.
The paralysis, or palsy, of the New Testament, had a
wide import. Many infibrmities were thus denominated.
1. Apoplexy, a paralytic shock which affected the whole
body. 2. The hemiplegy, which paralyzes one half of the body.
3. The paraplegy, which paralyzes all parts of the body
but the neck.
4. The catalepsy, which is caused by a contraction of the
mufecles in the whole or part of the body, and is very dan
gerous. 5. The cramp, which originates from the chiUs of the
night. Death, Burials, and Mourning.
Reception into the presence of God at death, is asserted in
only two passages of the Old Testament, viz., Haggai ii, 23
and Eccles. xii, 7. The opinion that life is a journey, and
death its terminus, where the traveller mingles with the'
hosts that have gone before, originated the following phrases :
To be gathered to one's people ; to go to one's fathers. Gen.
XV, 15; xxxvii, 35. The visiting of the fathers has refer
ence to the immortal part, and is clearly distinguished from
the burial of the body. Gen. xxxvu, 35.
Soraetiraes the Hebrews regarded death as a fiiendly raes-
senger, but more frequently as a formidable enemy. He was
figuratively represented as a hunter, armed with a dart or
javelin, and having a net and a mare, and when he made
captive the children of men he slew them. 2 Sam. xxvi, 6 ;
Psa. xvifl, 6, 6 ; cxvi, 3 ; 1 Cor. xv, 56, 66. Some repre
sented death as the king of the lower world, and had him
occupying a subterranean place cafled Sheol and Hades, in
which he exercised sovereignty over all men, even'kings and
warriors, who had departed frora this existence. This place

172 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
occurs also under the phrases, the gates of death, or Hades.
Job xxxvin, 17 ; Psa. ix, 13 ; xlix, 16 ; cvii, 18 ; Isa. xxxviii,
10-18 ; Matt xvi, 18. Mention is made in Psa. xviii, 4-5
of the rivers of Hades.
When a man died, the friends or sons of the deceased
closed his eyes. Gen. xlvi, 4. The corpse was washed 'with
water, and, except when buried immediately, was laid out in
an upper room or chamber. 2 Kings iv, 21 ; Acts ix, 37.
The Egyptians embalmed the body. There were three
methods of embalming, and these were determined by the
condition and circumstances of the person deceased. The
first method was adopted in embalraing the bodies of Jacob
and Joseph, which was very costly. Gen. 1, 2-26. Herodo
tus says that the process consisted in removing the intestines,
and washing the internal portion of the body with the wine
of the palm-tree, and then anointing it with a composition
of rayrrh, cassia, salt of nitre, (fee. The brain was also re
moved, and the cavity filled with aromatic substances. The
whole body was then wrapped around with hnen, and each
member was also bound separately, in the same raanner.
The process of embalming occupied thirty days. Genesis
1, 2-26. The other two modes took a much less time. After
the embalming, the body was placed in a sarcophagus of
sycamore-wood, resembling, in shape, the human form, and
was in this way preserved in the house, sometimes for ages,
leaning against the waU. Exod. xin, 19 ; Josh, xxiv, 32.
The Hebrews were accustomed to wrap linen round the
body, and place the head in a napkin. John xi, 44. They
also placed, in the folds of the linen, aromatic substances.
Matt, xxvi, 6-14 ; xxvii, 69 ; John xix, 39, 40 ; xx, 7 ; xi, 44 ;
Mark xiv, 8 ; Acts ix, -37.
Funeral ceremonies were different in different countries.
Not to inter the corpse, was considered a mark of great in
dignity. The patriarchs buried their dead in a few days af
ter death.' Gen. xxiu, 2-4 ; xxv, 9 ; xxxv, 29. Their pos
terity in Egypt deferred burial. In a subsequent age, the

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 173
Jews imitated the Persians, and buried the body soon after
death. Acts v, 6-10. The interment of Tabitha was delayed
on account of sending for Peter. A box or coffin was not
used for the dead, except in Egypt and Babylon. The
corpse was •wrapped in folds of linen, and placed upon a
bier, which was carried by four persons. In the tirae of
Christ, the bearers travelled very rapidly. Luke vii, 14.
Sepulchres, otherwise called the everlasting houses, were
situated beyond the limits of cities and villages. Isa. xiv, 18;
Eccles. xii, 5; Luke vn, 12; Matt, -vin, 28. Kings were
allowed to repose within cities. 1 Sam. xx-vin, 3 ; 2 Kings
xxi, 18 ; 2 -Chron. xvi, 14 ; xxiv, 16. The sepulchres ofthe
Hebrew Idngs were on Mount Zion. With the exception
of the burial of kings, the Hebrews chose gardens. Gen.
xxiii, 17 ; xxxv, 8. Sepulchres were the property of a single
person, or a number of families united together. Gen. xxui,
4-20; 1, 13. To be buried in the sepulchre of one's father's
wSs a distinguished honor, and to be excluded therefrom as
signal a disgrace. Kings 'who had incurred the hatred of
the people were not permitted to be buried in the royal
tombs. To .be buried hke an ass, without mourning or
lamentation, was considered a very great disgrace. Jer. xxn,
16-19; xxxv, 30.
Sepulchres of the common class of people were mere ex
cavations in the earth. Persons of rank and wealth had
vaults or crypts. Gen. xxiii, 6 ; Matt xxifl, 27-29 ; xxvu,
62, 53. The entrance to these tombs was by a descent
down a number of steps. The interior contamed niches or
cells for the bodies. The entrance was closed by a stone,
door, or slab. Psa. v, 9; John xi, 38; xx, 5-11; Matt.
xxvni, 2 ; Mark xvi, 3, 4. The doors of sepulchres were
painted white on the last month (Adar) of every year. The
object of the practice was to warn all who came to the Feast
of the Passover not to approach, lest they should be con
taminated. Matt, xxiu, 27 ; Luke xi, 14.
Mention is made of sepulchral monuments — [ivrijMetov —

174 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
from the time of Abraham down to the time of Christ.
Gen.xxui,6; xxxv,20; 2 Kings xxiii, 16, 17 ; Mattxxiu,27.
These consisted of stones, hewn and ornamented with an
inscription. Sometimes heaps of stones were piled up, and
these were constantly added to. The pyramids of Egypt
are supposed to be monuments of kings.
The ancient Hebrews considered the burning of the body
as a matter of great reproach, and rarely did so, unless they
wished to inffict »the greatest ignominy. Gen. xxx-viii, 24.
The body of Saul was burnt by the inhabitants of Jahesh
Gilead, to preserve it irom. further disgrace. 1 Sam. xxxi, 12.
The sentiment in regard to the burning of bodies was
changed at a later period. One hundred and forty years
after Saul, King Asa was burnt with many aromatic sub
stances, as a mark of honour. After this, not to be burnt
was raore a raark of disgrace than honour. 2 Chron. xvi, 14 ;
xxi, 19; Araos •vi, 10; Jer. xxxiv, 5. After the captivity
the Jews conceived a great hatred to this rite.
The mourning ©f the Orientals, on account of the dead,
was extrefme. As soon as a person dies, all the females of
the family, with a loud voice, set up a sorrowful cry. They
continue it as long as they can, without taking breath.
This they continue for eight days. Until the corpse is carried
away, the women wbo are related to the deceased sit on the
ground, in a circle. The wife, or daughter, or other nearest
relation of the deceased, occupies the centre, and each one
holds in her hand a napkin. Eulogists are present, to chant,
in mournful strains, the virtues of the dead. When the one
who sat in the centre gave the sign with her napkin,, the
persons who recalled the meraory of the departed remained
silent ; the rest of the feraales rose, and, wrapping together
their napkins, ran like raad persons. The nearest relative re
mained in her position, tearing her hair, and wounding her
breast, arms, and face, with her nails. Gen. 1, 3 ; Numbers
XX, 29; Deut xxxiv, 8 ; 1 Sara, xxxi, 13. The lamentations
began, Alas I alas I my brother I or, Alas I alas I my sister I

BlBMCAL ARCHEOLOGY. 175
If the king were dead, it was, Alas I alas I the king I
1 Kings xfli, 29, 30 ; 2 Chron. xxxv, 25 ; 2 Sam. i, 12. It was
customary for the women to go to the tomb, and pour out
their lamentations there. John xi, 31. Another indication
of grief consisted in rending the garment. Gen. xxxvu, 34 ;
Judges xi, 35 ; 2 Sam. i, 2 ; in, 31 ; 2 Kings v, 7, 8 ; vi, 30.
The Hebrews, when in mourning, sometimes walked with
their shoes off and their heads uncovered. They refused to
bathe, anoint themselves, or converse, with people; they
scattered dust and ashes into the air, or placed them on their
heads, or lay down in them. Job i, 20; ii, 12; Lev. x, 6;
xiu, 45 ; xxi, 10 ; 2 Sam. i, 2-4 ; xiv, 2 ; xv, 30 ; Jer. vi, 26.
They struck their hands t(jgether, threw thera up towards the
sky, smote their breast and thigh, and stamped with the
foot 2 Sara, xiu, 19 ; Jer. xxxi, 19 ; Ezek. vi, 11 ; xxi, 12 ;
Esth. iv, 1-3. They fasted, abstained frora wine, and avoided
mingling in festivals. 2 Sam. i, 11, 12; iii, 36; xii, 16;
Jer. xxv, 34. Elegies were composed on the death of dis
tinguished individufc. 2 Sam. iii, 33. Refreshments were
furnished, after the burial, for mourners, which was denomi
nated the bread of bitterness and the cup of consolation.
2 Sam. ifl, 35 ; Jer. xvi, 4-7 ; Hosea ix, 4 ; Ezek. xxiv, 16, 17.
Public calamities, such as famines, pestflences, incursions of
enemies, defeat in war, (fee, were occa.sions of mourning.
Ezek. xxvi, 1-18 ; xxvu, 1-36 ; xxx, 2, et seq. ; xxxii, 2-32 ;
Amos V, 1, et seq. Fast days were days of grief. Jonah
ifl, 5-7. It was customary for a person to rend his clothes
when he heard blasphemy.

176 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LitERATUBB.
CHAPTER IL
POLITICAL ARCH.a;OLOGT.
The posterity of Jacob, while remaining in Egypt, maintained
the patriarchal form of government Every father of a family
exercised a father's authority over those of his ovm house
hold. Every tribe obeyed its own prince, who was originally
the first-bom of the founder of the tribe, but, in progress of
time, appears to have been elected. As the people increased
in numbers, various heads of famUies united, in order to form
a compact, and selected some individual from their own body
as a leader. Num. ui, 24, 30, 36. The number thus asso
ciated was sometimes more and sometimes less than a thou
sand. 1 Sam. X, 19 ; xxiu, 23 ; Judg. vi, 15 ; Nura. xxvi, 5--50.
Princes and heads of famflies are mentioned under ' the
common names of seniors, or senators, and heads of tribes.
The princes of the tribes at first kept tro genealogical tables,
but subsequently they employed scribes, who, in the end,
took part in the government of the nation. Exod. v, 14, 16, 19.
It was by magistrates of this description that the Hebrews
were governed in Egypt, and the Egyptian kings made no
objection to it. Exod. iii, 16 ; v, 1, 14, 15, 19.
The posterity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were set
apart for the great object of preserving the true reUgio?;
Gen. x-ii, 3; xvu, 9, 14; xvui, 18; xxii, 18; xxviii, 14.
They were separated from idolatrous nations, and confined to
a small extent of country. Those of them who had been
tainted with Egyptian idolatry, were to be brought back
again to the knowledge of the true God. The fundamental
principle of the Mosaic institutions was to develop the great
truth, that the one living and true God, the Creator and
Governor of the universe, should alone be worshipped. To
secure this, God, through the instrumentality of Moses, of
fered himself as a king to the Hebrews, and was accepted

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 177
by the united voice of their community, and the land of Ca-
n aan was hence declared to be the land of Jehovah . In consid
eration of their acknowledgment of God as their Ruler,- they
were bound, hke the Egyptians, to pay a twofold tithe.
Exod. xix, 4-8 ; Lev. xxvii, 20-34 ; Num. xvifl, 21,22; Deut.
xn, 17-19 ; xiv, 22-29 ; xxvi, 12-15. God was their law
giver. Exod. XX. The people were taught that the tabernacle
was not only the temple of Jehovah, but the palace of theii
king — that the table supplied -with wine and shew-bread was
the royal table — that the altar was the place where the pro
visions of the monarch were prepared — that the priests were
the royal servants, and were bound to attend not only to
sacred but secular affairs, and were to receive as their salary
the first tithes, which the people, as subjects, were led to
consider a part of that revenue which was due to God, their
iraraediate sovereign. The commission of idolatry, by any
inhabitant of Palestine, was regarded as a defection from the
true king. It was, in fact, treason, and was considered a
crime equal in aggravation to that of murder, and was, con
sequently, attended with the severest punishment. Incan
tation, necromancy, and similar practices, were looked upon
as arts of a kindred aspect with idolatry itself, and were
punished in the same way. The law, with the penalty at
tached to it, had reference only to the overt acts of idolatry.
Deut. xiu, 2-19 ; x-vii, 2-6. It was not so rauch a religious
as a civU law.
The Mosaic ceremonies were instituted to preserve the He
brews from being seduced by idolatrous nations around them,
and to preserve their integrity to their God and king. Though
debarred by their rites from any close intimacy with these
nations, they were obliged to extend to them the rites of
liospitahty, and, under certain restrictions, were allowed to
form friendly treaties. The following nations were excepted :
1. The Canaanites, including the Philistines, not of Ca
naanitish origin. They were neither to be admitted to treaty
Qor to servitude, but to be destroyed by war or driven from
12

178 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the country. This was not only to be done because they
unjustly retained the pasture-grounds of the patriarchs, but
because they were idolaters, and hence traitors to God. Ex
odus xxui, 32, 33 ; xxxiv, 12-16 ; Deut. -vii, 1-11 ; xx, 1-18.
The Phoenicians were not included in this hostility, as they
dwelt on the northern shore of their country, and were shut
up within their own limits.
2. The Amalekites or Canaanites of Arabia Petrcea were
in lifce raanner to be destroyed •with universal slaughter.
This was to be done because they had attacked the weak
and weary Hebrews in their journey through Arabia, and
because the robberies which were committed by them on
the southern borders of Palestine could not be restrained in
any other way. Exodus X'vii, 8-14; Deuteronomy xxv, 17;
Judges vi, 3—5 ; 1 Sam. xv, 1 ; xxvii, 8, 9, and the 30th
chapter. 3. The Moabites and Ammonites were to be excluded for
ever fi'om the right of treaty or citizenship with the Hebrews,
but were not to be attacked in war. Deut. ii, 9-1 9 ; xxiu, 7.
The reason given that this middle course should be preserved
was, that they had granted, a passage through their country,
though they refused to supply thera with provisions. Deut
ii, 29 ; xxiu, 6. They afterwards invited Balaam to curse
the Hebrews, and finajly they allured them to idolatry. Deut.
xxin, 3-8. They ultimately crushed the Midianites, who had
conspired with the Moabites in their plans, in a war of dread
ful severity. Nura. xxv, 16, 17 ; xxxi, 1-24. War was car
ried into the country of the Ammonites in consequence of
the kings Og and Sihon refusing a free passage to the He
brews, and they were subdued.
Moses, 'by the advice of Jethro, his father-in-law, increased
the number of rulers by the appointment of an additional
number of judges. Some were to judge over ten, some over
fifty, some over a hundred, and sorae over a thousand.
Exodus xvui, 13-26. These judges were elected by tie
people frora among the rulers and princes. They occupied

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 179
a subordinate rank to Moses and the high-priest who consti
tuted the ultimate appeal.
The various civfl officers, such as heads of families, judges,
genealogists, elders or senators, princes of tlie tribes, (fee,
were dispersed, as a matter of course, in different parts of
the country. Those who dwelt in the same city or neigh
bourhood formed the comitia, senate, or legislative assembly
of .their immediate vicinity. Deut. xix, 12 ; xxv, 8, 9 ; Judg.
vin, 14 ; ix, 3-46 ; xi, 5 ; 1 Sam. •viii, 4 ; xvi, 4. When all
of those who dwelt in any particular tribe were assembled,
, they constituted the legislative assembly of the tribe ; and
when they were convened in one body from all the tribes,
they constituted the general assembly of the nation, and
were the representatives of all the ^ people. Judg. i, 1-11;
"xi, 5; XX, 12-24; Josh, xxfli, 1, 2; xxiv, 1. The priests,
who were a learned class in the community, and, besides,
were hereditary officers in the state — being set apart for civil
as well as religious purposes — had, by the divine command,
a right to sit in this assembly. Exod. xxxii, 29 ; Num.
xxxvi, 13 ; vifl, 5-26.
Each tribe was governed by its own rulers, and, to a cer
tain extent, constituted a civfl community, independent of
the other tribes. Judg. i, 21, 27, 33 ; xx, 11-46 ; 2 Sam.
ii, 4. Any affair concerning the whole or many of
the tribes was determined in the legislative assembly of the
nation. Judg. xi, 1-11; 1 Chron. v, 10, 18, 19; 2 Sam.
ifl, 17 ; 1 Kings xu, 1-24. All the tribes were bound to
gether by reciprocal ties. Rivalries sometiraes existed among
the tribes, especially between Judah, to which belonged the
right of primogeniture, and the rest ; and also the tribe of
Joseph, which had a double portion. Gen. xlix, 8-10 ;
xlviii, 5, 6. From these rivalries a schism arose, in progress
of time, which finally sundered the nation. 1 Kings xn.
The Legislative Assembly, or Congress of the nation, was
convened by the judge or ruler for the time being, or, in his
absence, the high-priest Num. x, 2-4 ; Judg. xx, 1, 27, 28 ;

180 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Josh, xxifl, 1, 2. The place of assembhng was the. door of
the tabernacle ; sometiraes other places were selected. Josh.
xxiv, 1; 1 Sam. xi, 14, 15; 1 Kings xii, 1. Whfle the
Hebrews were in the desert of Arabia, the assembly was con
vened by the blowing of trumpets. After they were settled
in Palestine, the members were notified of the meeting by
messengers. To these assemblies Moses, from time to time, announced
the commands of God, which were afterwards communicated
to the people by the genealogists or scribes. In these as
semblies the rights of sovereignty were exercised, wars were
declared, peace was concluded, treaties were ratified, ciril
rulers and generals, and eventually kings, were chosen.
The oath of office was administered to its members by the
judge, or the king of the. state ; and the latter, in turn,
received their oath from the assembly actiug in the name of
the people. Exod. xix, 7 ; xxiv, 2-8 ; Josh, ix, 15-21 ; Judg.
XX, 1, 11, 14; xxi, 13-20; 1 Sam. x, 24; xi, 14; 2 Sam.
xi, 14 ; ii, 4 ; ifl, 17-19 ; v, 1-3 ; 1 Kings xu. The assem
bly acted -without instructions frora the people, on their own
authority, and according to their own views, and the people
did not exhibit any disposition to interfere with their
deliberations ; stfll the assembly referred their decisions to
them for ratification. 1 Sam. xi, 14, 15; Josh, viii, 33;
xxifl, 2, et seq. ; xxiv, 1, et seq. When God was chosen as
king, it was not done by the assembly, but by the people
themselves, all of whom, as well as their rulers, took the oath
of obedience, even to the women and children. Exod.
xxiv, 3-8 ; Deut. xxix, 9-14.
God, as the chosen king of the Hebrews, enacted laws,
decided htigated points of importance, answered and solved
questions, threatened punishment, and actually inflicted it,
in some instances, on the hardened and impenitent. Num.
xvii, 1-11; xxvii, 1-11; xxxvi, 1-10; xv, 32; xi, 33-35;
xn, 1-16; xvi, 1-60; Josh, vii, 16-22; Judg. i, 1, 2,; xx,
18, 27, 28; 1 Sam. xiv, 37; xxiii, 9-12; xxx, 8;, Lev.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 181
xxvi, 3-46 ; Deut. xxvi and xxx. The form of government,
which is denominated theocratical, was of a nature well
suited to the character of that age. Although the form was
a theocracy, it was nevertheless not destitute of the usual
forms of civil government. The political affairs were con
ducted by the elders and princes. It was to them Moses
gave the divine commands, determined expressly their
powers, and submitted their requests to the decision of God.
Num. xiv, 6 ; xvi, 4, et seq. ; xxvii, 5 ; xxxvi, 5, 6. The
influence possessed by the people was such, that the Hebrew
govemment may properly be denominated a democracy.
Exod. xix, 7-8 ; xxiv, 3-8 ; Deut. xxix, 9-14 ; Josh, ix,
18, 19 ; xxiu, 1 ; xxiv, 2 ; 1 Sam. x, 24 ; xi, 14, 15 ; Num.
xxvu, 1-8 ; xxxvi, 1—9. In some respects, however, it as
sumed the aristocratical form.
The part sustained by Moses in the government was that
of a mediator, or internuncio between God and the people ;
he was also in a distinguished sense their leader. Joshua
became the successor of Moses in leading the Israelites into
Canaan. After this office ceased, by the death of Joshua,
judges or governors were appointed. 1 Sara, vni, 20 ; Isa.
xi, 4 ; 1 Kings ifl, 9. In the time of Samuel the govern
ment, in point of form, was changed into a monarchy ; the
election of king, however, was committed to God, who chose
one by lot, so that God was still the ruler, and the king the
vicegerent. The terms of government, as respected God,
were the same as before, and the same duties and principles
were inculcated. 1 Sam. viii, 7; x, 17-23; xfl, 14, 16, 20,
22, 24, 26. 'When Saul did not obey the commands of God,
the kingdom was taken from hira and given to another.
1 Sam. xiu, 5-14; xv, 1-31. Under this form of govern
ment the true religion was preserved, and propagated to other
nations, as was promised.

182 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

Kings, Officers of State, Sfc.
When we hear of the anointing of Je-wish kings, we are to
understand by it the same as their inauguration. 2 Sam.
u, 4 ; V, 3. As far as we are informed, however, unction, as
a sign of investiture with the royal authority, was bestowed
only upon the flrst two kings who ruled the Hebrews, viz.,
Saul and David, and subsequently upon Solomon and Joash,
•whose right to the succession was in danger of being dis
puted. 1 Sara. X, 24 ; 2 Sam. fl, 4 ; v, 1-3 ; 1 Chron.
xi, 1, 2; 2 Kings xi, 12-20; 2 Chron. xxiii, 1-21. The
ceremonies of inauguration were as follows : —
1. The king, surrounded with soldiers, was conducted into
some pubhc place — latterly the teraple — and was there
anointed with sacred oil by the high-priest. The kings of
Israel were not anointed because they could not obtain the
sacred oil, and no other would answer the pui'pose.
2. It appears from 2 Sam. i, 10, Ezek. xxi, 26, and Psa.
xlv, 6, that a sceptre was placed in the hand of the monarch
at his inauguration, and a diadem was placed on his head.
3. The covenant which defined and fixed the principles
according to which the government was to be conducted,
and hkewise the laws of Moses, were presented to him, and
he accordingly took an oath that he would rule according
to the principles of that covenant and the Mosaic Law.
1 Sam. X, 25 ; 2 Sam. v, 3 ; 1 Chron. xi, 3 ; 2 Kings xi, 2 ;
2 Chron. xxiu, 11 ; Deut. xvii, 18. The principal men of
the kingdom, princes, elders, (fee, promised obedience, and, in
proof of their pledge, they kissed either the feet or knees
ofthe person inaugurated. Psa. fl, 13.
4. After the ceremonies were completed, the king was
conducted into the city -with great pomp, amid the acclama
tions of the people and the cries of Long live the King I
Sacrifices, and subsequently feasts, were observed, as a con
firmation of the oath which had been taken. 1 Kings i, 1, 11,

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 183
19, 24, 34, 39, 40 ; 2 Kings xi, 12-19 ; 2 Chron. xxifl, 11 ;
Matt xxi, 1-11; John xfl, 3.
5. Finally, the king is seated upon the throne, and receives
the congratulations usually presented. 1 Kings i, 35-48 ;
2 Kings ix, 13; xi, 19.
The robe which was worn by kings was costly and
gorgeous, and the retinue was large and splendid. Ezek.
xxviii, 13-20 ; 1 Kings iv. The materials of which the robe
was made was fine white linen or cotton, though the usual
colour was purple, Tropcfivpa Kal fivaaog. The diadem was
costly and splendid, and among the Persians was decorated
with gems and pearls. It was composed of a band two
inches broad, bound around the head and tied behind.
Crowns were likewise in use. 2 Sam. xu, 30 ; Zech. vi, 11-14 ;
Psa. xxi, 3. In form they somewhat resemble the mitre.
The thrcme was a seat with a back and arms, and of so
great a height as to render a footstool necessary. Gen. xli, 40 ;
Psa. ex, 1. The throne of Solomon, which consisted wholly
of gold, ornamented with ivory, was a little curved in the
back, and near each arm was placed the figure of a lion.
1 Kings X, 18-20; 2 Chron. ix, 17. This throne was
elevated six steps, on which were twelve lions. It was cus
tomary for the high priest, previous to the time of the
monarchy, to occupy an elevated seat. 1 Sam. i, 9; iv, 18.
Both the throne itself, and sitting upon the throne, are used
tropically to denote power and government 2 Sam. in, 10 ;
Psa. ix, 7; lxxxix, 44; Isa. xlvii, 1. In some passages a
throne is assigned to God, not only as the king of the He
brews, but as the sovereign of the universe. Job xxui, 3 ;
Exod. xvn, 16; Isa. vi, 1 ; 1 Kings xxii, 19; Isa. lxvi, 1 ;
Matt. V, 34.
The sceptre of King Saul was a spear. 1 Sam. xviii, 10 ;
xxii, 6. A sceptre is used tropically for royal dignity and
authority ; and a just or righteous sceptre for a just govern-
raent. Gen. xlix, 10; Num. xxiv, 7; Amos i, 5-8; Jer.
xlviii, 1 7 ; Psa. xlv, 6.

184 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
The tables of Hebrew kings indicated exorbitant luxury
and immense quantities of provisions were consumed. 1 Kings
iv, 22, 23. They were set with numerous articles of gold ;
musicians and dancing ladies were present to enliven the
feast. Gen. xl, 20 ; Dan. v, 1 ; Matt, xxn, 1 ; Mark vi, 21.
The Hebrews were in the habit, at the season of their great
national festivals, of preparing a feast either at the tabernacle
or in Jerusalem, of the thank-offerings, and thus participated
in a season of joy, in which God might be considered as the
author. The blood of the sacrifices thus appropriated was
shed at the ft)ot of the altar.
The kings of the East are very rarely seen in public.
Among the Persians a person could not gain a sight of the
monarch only by special invitation. Esther iv, 11. There
was a free access, however, to the monarchs of the Jews.
2 Sam. xviii, 4 ; xix, 7 ; 2 Kings xxii, 10 ; Jer. xxxviii, 7.
It was considered a good omen to see the face of the king.
The tropical expression, therefore, " to see God," signifies to
experience his favour. When the kings of Asia make long
journeys, they send before them forerunners, or heralds, to
prepare their way. These, are called, in Persia, joyful mes
sengers. Mal. in, 1 ; Isa. Ixfl, 10-12. The Talmudists
contend that God has a forerunner, whom they call metatron.
His existence and character they derive from the foUowing
passages. Zech. hi, 1, 3, 4, 5 ; Gen. xvi, 10-14; xxii, 15;
Exod. iii, 4-20; xx, 2, 3; xxiii, 20-23; Isa. xlvin, 16;
xhii, 14. They regard him as uncreated, and in his character
approaches nearest to God himself. That he is the same
being who anciently appeared to the patriarchs, and is ex
pressly caUed God. iVide Buxtorf 's Chal. Talmudic and
Rab. Lex., col. 1192. Also Appendix to Jahn's Herme
neutics, Fasc. 1, pp. 58-63,v
The eastern monarchs sought for glory by buflding mag
nificent teniples and palaces, and by planting gardens and
erecting fortifications. The palace of the kings occurs in the
most ancient times, as well as at the present day, under tiie

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 185
name of the gate. 2 Sam. xv, 2 ; Dan. ii, 49 ; Esther ii,
19-21 ; in, 2, 3 ; Matt xvi, 18. Kings were objects of the
greatest veneration. 1 Sam. xxiv, 4-15 ; xxvi, 6-20. Want
of respect and veneration was punished with death. Magis
trates were sometimes called gods, both in poetry, Psa. Ixxxfl,
1, 6, 7 ; cxxxviii, 1 ; and also in pose. Exod. iv, 16 ; vii, 1.
This terra is never applied to kings, except, perhaps, in Psa.
xlv, 7, 8. Kings were cafled the Lord's anointed. Isa. xlv, 1.
In poetry, the king is soraetimes called the son of God,
2 Sam. vii, 14 ; 1 Chron. xvii, 13 ; hence the inauguration of
a king is called his birth. Psa. n, 6, 8, 12.
Appellatives for monarchs: — 1. Cesar, a general name for
king or emperor among the Romans ; 2. Ptolemy, used in
the same way among the raore recent Egyptians ; 3. Agag,
a coraraon name for the kings of the Amalekites; 4. Hadad,
Adad, or Ben Hadad, the name of the kings of Syria;
5. Abimelech, the same among the Philistines ; 6. Candace,
the usual appellation of Ethiopian queens. The proper
naraes Pharaoh and Darius, monarchs of Egypt and Persia,
signify king or monarch.
In poetry, kings are sometiraes denominated shepherds,
and sometimes the husbands of the state. The state is some
times called the wife of the king, sometimes a virgin, and
sometimes the mother of the citizens. It is like^vise repre
sented as a widow, and in some instances as childless. God
is represented as the husband of the Hebrew state, and
the state as his spouse ; and hence, whenever she became
idolatrous, she was denominated^ an adulteress or a for
nicatress. The Hebrews 'w'ere accustomed to expect of their kings the
fulfilment of two offices — those of judge and chieftain.
1 Sam. •viii, 5 ; xii, 12; 2 Chron. xx^vi, 21; Isa. xvi, 5.
Kings tried appeals from judges. 2 Sam. xv, 2 ; 1 Sam. xvn,
9-19. The powers and prerogatives of kings were regulated
by the institutes of Moses. Laws, prophecies, and instruc
tions were usually promulgated in the temple. Jer. vii, 2, 3 ;

186 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
xi, 6 ; XVU, 19, 20 ; xxxvi, 9-19 ; John x, 3 ; Luke u, 46 ;
Matt xxvi, 56; Mark xfl, 35; Acts ifl, 11 ; v, 12. Kings
could not arbitrarily tax their subjects or require any service,
unless legally prescribed. 1 Sam. x, 26 ; 2 Sain, v, 3.
The sources of royal revenue were derived as follows : —
1. Voluntary presents. .1 Sam. x, 27; xvi, 20.
2. The products of the royal flocks. 1 Sam. xxi, 7, 8;
2 Sam. xifl, 23 ; 2 Chron. xxvi, 10 ; xxxfl, 28, 29 ; Gen.
xlvii, 6.
3. The royal mansion, vineyards, and olive gardens, which
had been taken from a state , of nature, or were the con
fiscated possessions of (Criminals, and which were cultivated
either by slaves or coUquered nations. 1 Kings xxi, 9-16;
Ezek. xlvi, 16-18; 1 Chron. xxvii, 28; 2 Chron. xxvi, 10.
4. A tenth part of the income of the Hebrews; imposts
and tributes, and the customary taxes. 1 Sam. xvu, -25 ;
1 Kings iv, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13 ; 1 Chron. xxvii, 26.
6. The spofls of conquered nations. These nations were
also required to pay tribute of money, flocks, and grain.
1 Kings iv, 21 ; Psa. Ixxii, 10 ; 2 Chron. xxvn, 5.
6. Tribute imposed upon raerchants passing through the
territories of the Hebrews. 1 Kings x, 15. There was also a
tax on articles of consuraption, called the excise and the toll.
Ezek. iv, 14, 19, 20.
Judges maintained their authority after the introduction of
the monarchy, and acted the part of a legislative assembly
to respective cities in or near which they resided. These,
together with the genealogists, were appointed by the king,
as were also other royal^Scers, the principal of whom were
the foUowing : —
1. The royal counsellors. 2. The propliets. 3. The secre
tary or scribe. 4. The high-priest. The officers of the
king's palace consisted of, 1. The governor of the palace;
2. The keeper ofthe wardrobe; 3. The king's friend, pr
intimate; 4. The king's life-guard. These officers, with
their attendants, were immediately attached to the palace.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 187
Though Moses had interdicted the multiplication of wives
and concubines, yet the Hebrew kings, especially Solomon,
devoted rauch time and attention to the harem. No ex
pense was spared in decorating the persons of the women.
These harems were kept by eunuchs, brought from foreign
countries, as the laws of Moses forbade castration. Lev.
xxii, 24; Deut. xxifl, 1. That they were employed at
the Hebrew court, see 1 Kings xxfl, 9 ; 2 Kings viii, 6 ;
ix, 32, 33; xx, 18; xxiii, 11; Jer. xni, 23; xxxviu, 7;
xxxix, 16 ; xli, 16.
After the subjugation of the Jews by the Romans, certain
provinces of Judea were governed by that class of Roman
magistrates denominated Tetrarchs. The tetrarch was, of
course, subordinate to the king. Matt, xiv, 1 ; Luke ix, 7 ;
Acts xifl, 1. They were inferior in point of rank to
ethnarchs, who were sometimes addressed as king. Matt.
ii, 22. Procurators were sometimes Roman knights, and
sometimes the freedmen of the emperor. Felix was one of
the latter class. Acts xxifl, 24, 26 ;, xxiv, 3, 22, 27. Festus
also belonged to this class. The business of a procurator
was to exact tribute, administer justi(?e, and repress seditions.
They possessed the power of life and death. The mihtary
i'orce granted to the procurators of Judea consisted of six
cohorts, five of which were stationed at Cesarea, and one at
Jerusalem, in the castle of Antonia.
Revenues were collected by publicans or Roman knights,
who took their stations at the gates of cities and public ways,
and at the place cafled for that purpose the receipt of custom,
where they examined the goods that passed in, and received
the duty that was to be.paid. Matt, ix, 9 ; Mark fl, 14 ; Luke
V, 27-29. In consequence of their extortion; they were
regarded as great sinners. Luke in, 13; Mark fl, 16, 16.
The Pharisees would have no communication with them ;
and one ground of their reproaches against the Saviour was,
that he associated with them. Matt v, 46, 47 ; ix, 10, 11 ;
xi, 19 ; xviii, 17 ; xxi, 31, 32.

188 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
The half-shekel tax was required to be paid annually by
every Jew in the temple. This tax must be paid in Jewi.sh
coin. Matt, xxfl, 17-19. It was this that led money-changers
to take their places in the temple, for the purpose of ex
changing Roman and Greek coins for Jewish half-shekels.
The acquisition of property in this way was contrary to the
law, (Deut. xxifl, 20, 21,) and hence Jesus drove them from
the temple. Jews were appointed in Judea to collect the
taxes, and also araong foreign nations frora their brethren,
which they sent up yearly to Jerusalem.
Trials and Punishments.
The judicial establishment was reorganized after the cap
tivity, and two classes of judges, inferior and superior, were
appointed. Ezra •vii, 26. The more difficult cases, however,
and the appeals, were brought before the ruler of the state
or the high priest.
The Sanhedrim was instituted in the time ofthe Maccabees,
and was composed of seventy-two members. The high priest
generally sustained the office of president in this tribunal.
He was assisted by two vice-presidents, one of whom sat on
the right and the other on the left. It was composed of the
following merabers : — viz., chief priests, elders, and scribes,
or learned raen. These latter were elected, as also the elders,
frora the classes to which they belonged. The Sanhedrim
had also secretaries. The asserably met in a rotunda, half
of which was within, and the other half without the temple.
The members were seated in a semi-circular forra, and the
president, vice-president, and secretaries occupied the centre.
Appeals and other weighty matters were brought before this
tribunal. Its power was limited by the Romans in the tirae
of Christ; but still it was in the habit of sending its legates
to the synagogues in foreign countries, (Acts ix, 2,) and
retained the right of passing sentence of condemnation, though
the power of executing the sentence was taken frora it and
lodged with the Roman procurator. John x'viii, 31. This

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 189
Sanhedrim is not to be confounded with the seventy-two
counsellors appointed to assist Moses in the wilderness.
There was also in every city a tribunal of seven judges;
denominated in tbe New Testament Kplaig, or the judgment.
Matt V, 22. There were courts, also, of twenty -three judges,
which merely tried questions of a religious nature, and sen
tenced to no other punishment than ''forty stripes save one."
2 Cor. xi, 24.
The time at which courts were held, and cases heard, was
in the morning. Jer. xxi, 12 ; Psa. ci, 8. It was not lawful
to try causes of a capital nature in the night, or to execute
' the sentence on the same day on which the trial was had.
This law was, however, set at defiance in the cjucifixion of
Christ Matt xxvi, 67 ; John xviii,' 13-18.
The place for judicial trials, in ancient times, was the gate
ofthe city. Gen. xxifl, 10, et seq. ; Deut. xxi, 19 ; xxv, 6, 7 ;
Ruth iv, \,et seq. ; Psa. cxx-vii, 5. The Greek forum, dyopd,
was also a place for trial. The "Areopagus, apeiog ndyog,
i. e., the hill of Mars, was so cafled because justice was
said to have been pronounced there against Mars. Acts
xvii, 19.
Originally trials were everywhere very summary, except
in Egypt, where the accuser committed the charge to writing,
and the accused replied in writing, which was again repeated
before decision. Job xiv, 17. Moses pursued the summai'y
course, and made God a witness to the judicial transaction.
He interdicted, in the most express terms, gifts or bribes
intendedto corrupt the judges. Exod. xxn, 20, 21 ; xxiii, 1-9 ;
Lev. xix, 16 ; Deut xxiv, 14, 16. A trial was conducted in
the following manner : — -1st. The accuser and accused were
brought face to face. Deut. xxv, 1. A secretary was present,
who wrote down the proceedings. Isa. x, 1, 2 ; Jeremiah
xxxn, 1-14. 2d. The accuser was denominated iSatera, or <Ae
adversary. Zech. ifl, 1-3 ; Psa. cix, 6. The judge, or judges,
were seated, and the accuser and accused stood before him,
the one on the right and the other on the left. 3d. The

190 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
witnesses were sworn, and in capital cases the parties con
cerned. 1 Sam. xiv, 37-40; Matt xxvi, 63. To establish
the charges afleged, two witnesses were necessary besides
the accuser. The witnesses were examined separately, and
the person accused had a right to be present when their
testimony was given in. Num. xxxv, 30 ; Deut xvii, 1-15 ;
Matt, xxvi, 69. 4th. Parties made use of the lot in deter
mining points of difficulty between them. The sacred lot of
Urim and Thummira was anciently resorted to to detect the
guilty. Josh, vii, 14-24 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 5th. Very soon after
the completion of the trial the sentence was pronounced.
Josh, vfl, 22, et seq. ; 1 Sara, xxii, 19 ; 1 Kings n, 23. '
As the execution so soon followed, there was no need of
prisons. They are not to be found in Persia at the present
day. It was customary to confine prisoners in the house of
the judge. Gen. xl, 3, 4. The instrument of punishment
mentioned in Job xifl, 27; xxxfli, 11, the stocks, was prob
ably of Egyptian origin. There were a great variety of
prisons, employed both for the detention and punishment
of criminals. Jer. xxxvfl, 15-20. The Jews imprisoned for
debt. They soraetimes inflicted tortures and stripes.
Matt, xviii, 34 ; Acts xvi, 23. The Romans sometimes
fastened their criminals by one or both hands to a soldier ;
such remained in their own houses. Acts xxviii, 16. Keepers,
or jailors, who allowed prisoners to escape, were subjected to
the same punishment which had been intended for the
prisoners. Acts xu, 19; xvi, 27.
Those who had property due thera raight secure it by mort
gage or pledge, or by a bondsman. The creditor •n'ho took
a pledge was not aflowed to make his own selection. Deut.
xxiv, 10, 11 ; Job xxfl, 6 ; xxiv, 3, 7, 9. When a mifl, or a
mill-stone, or an upper garment, was given as a pledge, it
was not to be kept over night. A debt which remained tfll
the Sabbatic year was not to be exacted during that period,
and at that time lands which had been taken for debt were
restored to the original owner or his heirs. Prov. xxxi, 16.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 191
For debt, the man and his wife and children were hable to
be sold into slavery. Prov. xxfl, 27 ; Micah n, 9.
The laws of Moses prohibited the taking of usury from a
poor person, either for borrowed money or articles of consump
tion. A difficulty arose in determining who was a poor
person, and hence the law was altered, (Deut. xxifl, 20, 21,)
and was made to apply to all but foreigners. Deut xv, 7-11 ;
xxiv, 13 ; Psa. xv, 15 ; xxxvii, 21, 26 ; cxfl, 5.
Transgression of the ceremonial law, without malice pre
pense, could be atoned for by voluntarily offering a sacrifice.
Num. XV, 27-31. A sin-offering means the sin itself, and
the same of a trespass-offering. Both are expressly defined in
Leviticus, fourth and fifth chapters. Si'ns are -violations of
prohibitory statutes ; trespasses are violations of imperative
statutes. The guilty person incurred the expense of the victim.
Restitution was required. Lev. vi, 1-5; Num. v, 5-10.
The amount of fine or indemnification was to be deter
mined by the injured person. Exod. xxi, 30.
The amount to be paid to secure a commutation of
punishment, was to be determined by the avenger of blood.
Exod. xxi, 28-31.
If two men, contending with each other, injured a woman
with child, so as to produce premature birth, the fine was to
be determined by the husband and the judge.
If a servant was slain by an unruly bull, known to be such
by the owner, he was obliged to pay thirty shekels. Exod.
xxi, 32 ; Deut. xxfl, 19. These fines were all paid to the
person injured, and not to the State.
The restitution required in case of theft was double the
amount taken. Exod. xxii, 3, 6, 8. In case of a sheep it
was fourfold, and of an ox fivefold. Exod. xxfl, 1. If the
thief were unable to make restitution, he and his wife and
chfldren were sold into slavery. Exod. xxfl, 2 ; 2 Kings iv, 1 ;
Gen. xflfl, 19; xliv, 17.
Capital punishment was decreed only against a thief who
had stolen anything that was accursed. Josh, vii, 25. Who-

192 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
ever slew a thief who was attempting to break open a house
at night, went unpunished. Exod. xxii, 1.
Corporal punishment was inflicted with the rod, or
scourging. Lev. xix, 20 ; Deut. xxfl, 18 ; xxv, 2, 3. The
dignity or high standing of a person liable to this punish
ment could not avert it. Prov. x, 13 ; xvu, 26 ; Jeremiah
xxxvfl, 16-20 ; Psa. lxxxix, 32. Scorpions, or thongs set with
sharp iron spikes, called by the Romans horribilia, were
applied as a torture only by those who had no relentings of
heart, especially by cruSl masters in the punishment of slaves.
1 Kings xii, 11. Scourging was a punishment inflicted by
the lash upon the bare back. This kind of punishment
could not be inflicted on a Roman citizen. Acts xvi, 22, 25,
30, 37. The eyes of rebellious kings were sometimes put
out. Jer. hi, 1 1 ; 2 Kings xxv, 7.
If a man in a fight wounded another, so as to disable him,
he was bound to make indemnification. Exod. xxi, 18, 19.
If injury- was intentionally done to any member of the body,
or life was taken away, life was rendered for life, eye for eye,
tooth for tooth, burning for burning, wound for wound, hand
for hand, foot for foot. Exod. xxi, 23-25 ; Lev. xxiv, 19-22.
A false witness, according to the law of retaliation, was to
receive the same punishment which was decreed against the
crime concerning which he had falsely testified. Deut
xix, 16-21.
At a very early period criminals who had committed
homicide were punished -with death. Gen. ix, 6. The mode
of execution, however, is not stated.
Decapitation was early practised among the Egyptians,
Gen. xl, 17-19. From the following passages, it would ap
pear that this mode of punishment existed among the
Hebrews. 2 Sam. iv, 8 ; xx, 21, 22 ; 2 Kings x, 6-8 ; Matt.
xiv, 8-12; Acts xfl, 2. Beheading was not, however,
sanctioned by the laws of Moses. The mode corresponding
to it was slaying by the sword. Judges vfli, 21 ; 1 Sam.
xxii, 18 ; 2 Sam. i, 16 ; 1 Kings fl, 26, 29, 31, 34.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 193
Lapidation or stoning was a mode of punishment author
ized by the laws of Moses. The witnesses were ordered to
throw the fii'st stone, and afterwards the people. Deut. xni, 1 0 ;
xvu, 7 ; Josh, vii, 26 ; John vin, 7. The punishment of
stoning is to be understood whenever the mode of putting to
death is not mentioned. Lev. xx, 10 ; Ezek. xvi, 38-40 ;
John vifl, 5 ; Exod. xxxi, 14 ; xxxv, 2 ; Num. xv, 35, 36.
To cut off from the people, means some event in divine
providence which shaU eventuafly terminate the life of that
person's family. 1 Kings xiv, 10 ; xxi, 21 ; 2 Kings ix, 8.
This excision, or excommunication, as Jewish interpreters
have explained it, consists of three kinds : — •
1.. Separation from the synagogue, and suspension of all
intercourse -with the Jews, and even with one's wife and.
domestics. This separation lasted thirty days.
2. A curse was pronounced with imprecations in the
presence of ten persons ; such were excluded from all com
munion whatever with their countrymen.
3. A solemn and absolute exclusion frora all intercourse
with any other indi-vidual of the nation, and the crirainal
was handed over to the justice of God. 1 Cor. v, 5 ; 1 Tira.
i, 20. Punishraents which consist of posthumous insults were as
follows : — 1. The body of the criminal who had been stoned
was bumt. Gen. xxxviii, 24; Lev. xx, 14; xxi, 9; Joshua
vii, 15-25. 2. The suspension of the dead body on a tree.
Gen. xl, 17-19; Num. xxv, 4, 5 ; Deut xxi, 22, 23. The
body was taken do-wn and buried on the sarae day. 3. Heaps
of stones were raised, either on the dead body, or the place
where it was buried. Josh, vii, 26, 26 ; 2 Sara, xvifl, 17.
Other punishments were introduced among the Hebrews
at a later period from other nations. 1. Decapitation.
2. Strangulation. 1 Kings xx, 31. 3. Burning alive in a
furnace. Dan. ifl; Jer. xxix, 22. 4. The lions' den. Dan. vi.
5. Dichotomy, or cutting asunder. Dan. ii, 5; Luke xn, 46;
Matt xxiv, 51; 2 Sam. iv, 12. 6. Beating to death. This
13

194 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
was a punishment araong the Greeks, and designed for slaves.
Heb. xi, 36. 7. Sawing asunder. This punishment was
practised in Persia. Isaiah was put to death in this man
ner. David inflicted this punishment on the inhabitants of
Rabbath Amraon. 1 Chron. xx, 3. 8. The Romans com
pelled their criminals, and those taken captive in war, to
flght with wild beasts in the amphitheatre. They were als6
compelled to contend with one another, in the manner of
gladiators. 2 Tim. iv, 17 ; 1 Cor. xv, 32. 9. The Greeks
and Romans threw their criminals into the sea or river.
They were placed in a sack, and a stone tied around their
necks. Matt, xvifl, 6 ; Mark ix, 42. 10. Crucifixion was a
common mode of punishment among the Persians, Cartha
ginians, and Romans. Servants, assassins, robbers, and reb
els, were sentenced to the cross. Luke xxifl, 1, 6, 13, 15.
The person sentenced was deprived of all his clothes, except
something about his loins. In this state they were scourged.
Matt, xxvfl, 29; Mark xv, 17 ; John xix, 2-6. The crimi
nal was obliged to carry his own cross. The crime for which
the person suffered was inscribed on the transverse piece,
near the top of the perpendicular one. The victim, perfectly
naked, was bound to the cross, and spikes were driven
through the hands and feet. In this position he remained
until life was extinct. The corpse was not buried except by
express permission, which was sometimes granted by the
emperor on his birth-day ; but only to a very few. An ex
ception was made in favour of the Jews on account of Deut
xxi, 22, 23, and hence, in Judea, crucified persons were buried
on the sarae day. To hasten their death for burial, some
times a fire was kindled beneath the cross, to suffocate the
victim ; or their bones were broken, or a spear thrust into
the heart. An intoxicating potion was given, to render the
sufferer insensible to the pains. This Jesus refused. Matt
xxvn, 34 ; Mark xv, 23.
The execution of those guilty of homicide devolved upon
the brother, or next nearest relative of the deceased. If he

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 195
did not slay the guflty person he was considered infamous.
To prevent abuses growing out of this custom, Moses ap
pointed cities of refuge. Any one who had slain a person
without malice prepense, fled to one of these cities of refuge,
where he was to remain until the death of the high priest.
If, upon' examination, after gaining the city of refuge, a
person should be found guilty of murder, he was dehvered
up to the avenger of blood— the altar itself could not afford
a refuge for such. Exod. xxi, 12 ; Num. xxxv, 9-36 ; Deut.
xix, 1-13 ; 1 Kings fl, 28-34.
If one is found slain, and it is not known who kflled him,
the laws of Moses ordained that the elders of the nearest
city should take a heifer that had never been yoked, and, in
an uncultivated valley, it shall have its head struck off, and
the elders shall wash their hands over it, as a declaration of
the innocence of the judges and elders, and also of the homd
nature of murder. Military Affairs.
Various implements of war are' mentioned in the Penta
teuch. Subsequent to Solomon military arms were improved
in their construction, the science of fortification made ad
vancement, and large arraies were mustered. In the second
year after the exodus from Egypt, there was a general enrol
ment of all who were able to bear arms. A second enrol-
raent was raade forty years after the exodus. Nura. xxvi, 2 ;
Judg. XX ; 1 Sam. xi, 7 ; Exod. X'vii ; Num. xxxi ; Josh.
vn, 7, 11, 12. ,
Whenever there was an immediate prospect of war, a levy
•was made by the genealogists. Deut xx, 5-9 ; 2 Chron.
xxvi, 11 ; 2 Sam. 'viu, 17 ; xx, 25.
The following persons were excused from mflitary service.
Deut. xxj 6-8. 1. Those who had buflt a house, and had
not yet inhabited it. 2. -Those who had planted an olive or
vine-garden, and had not tasted the fruit thereof. 3. Those
who had bargained for a wife, but had not celebrated the

196 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
nuptials ; and also those who had not hved •with their wife a
year. 4. Those who were faint-hearted.
The army was divided into three bands, viz., the centre,
right and left wings. Gen. xiv, 14, 15; Job i, 17; Judg.
vfl, 16-20; 1 Sam. xi, 11; Exod. xiv, 7; xv, 4. When
the Hebrews left Egypt, they marched in mflitary order, in
ranks of fifty deep. Over each rank or file was a captain.
Other divisions consisted of a hundred, a thousand, and ten
thousand, each of which was headed by a commander. Num.
xxxi, 48; Deut i, 16; Judges xx, 10; 1 Sam. vfli, 12;
xvifl, 13 ; xxix, 2. The leader of the whole army was denom
inated the captain qf the host. There was also a muster-roll
officer and an engineer. The army of Da'vid consisted of
two hundred and eighty thousand men. Every twenty-four
thousand had a commander. These divisions served alter
nately, a month at a time. 1 Chron. xvu, 14-17. The gene
alogists had the right ' of appointing officers of the army.
"This practice ceased under the kings, and, when they were
not chosen by them, the office became hereditary in the
heads of families. Kings and generals had armour-hearers,
chosen from the bravest of the soldiery, who bore the arms
of their masters and carried their messages. The infantry,
the cavfdry, and chariots of war, were so arranged as to
raake separate divisions of the array. Exod. xiv, 6, 7. The
infantry were divided into light-armed troops and spearmen.
Gen. xlix, 19 ; 1 Sam. xxx, 8, 16, 23 ; 2 Sam. iii, 22 ; iv, 2 ;
xxii, 30 ; Psa. xvifl, 30 ; 2 Kings v, 2. The flght-armed
infantry were furnished 'with a sling and javehn, with a bow,
arrows, and quiver, and also a buckler. They fought the
eneray at a distance. The spearmen were armed "with spears,
swords, and shields, and fought hand to hand. 1 Chron. xfl,
24-34; 2 Chron. xiv, 8 ; xvii, 17.
The Roman soldiers were divided into legions, and each
legion into ten cohorts, and each cohort into three bands,
and each band into two centurions ; so that a legion con
sisted of thirty bands of six thousand men, and a cohort of

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 197
six hundred. Matt, xxvu, 27, 28'; Mark xv, l6; Acts x, 1 ;
xxi, 31 ; xxvfl, 1.
It is necessary to distinguish the Roman soldiers mentioned
in the New Testament, not only from the soldiers of Herod,
but from the band of Levites who guarded the temple, and
had a priest of high standing for their captain. Luke xxfl, 4, 52 ;
Acts iv, 1 ; V, 24.
The shield is first mentioned in Gen. xv, 1. The word
frequently occurs tropically as denoting defence or potection.
2 Sam. xxii, 31-36 ; Prov. xxx, 5 ; Psa. xlvii, 9 ; cxiv, 2.
Some shields were so large as to cover the whole body. They
were of different forms, and constructed of different materials ;
sometimes of light wood or osiers woven together and covered
with bull's hide. The hide was ofled, to render it smooth
and slippery, and prevent its being injured by wet. Shields
made whofly of brass were very uncommon. They were
soraetiraes covered with plates of brass, and also of silver and
gold. 1 Kings X, 16, 17; xiv, 25-28; 2 Chron. xiii, 13-16.
When an attack was raade, the shield was held in the left
hand ; and an array was able, by joining their shields, to op
pose a wall, as it were, against the assaults of their foes.
The phrases to seize the shield, (fee, are used tropicafly to
denote preparation for war. 2 Chron. xxv, 6 ; Job xh, 7 ;
Ezek. xxxviii, 45 ; Jer. xlvi, 9 ; fl, 1 1 .
The helmet was a piece of arraour which covered the
head, and was surmounted, for orpament, with a plume and
a horse-tail. Anciently, the spearmen alone wore the hel-
raet. Uzziah furnished an armory with helmets for the use
of his soldiers. 2 Chron. xxvi, .14. The helmet was raade
from an ox-hide, but usually covered "with brass. It denoted
tropically defence and protection. Eph. vi, 16.
' The breast-plate or coat-of-mail consisted of two parts,
one of which covered the fore-part of the body, and the
other the back— both pieces being united at the sides with
clasps or buttons. The breast-plate worn by Goliath was
made of brass. 1 Sam. xvii, 5, 38. It was very common

198 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
among the Hebrews after the days of David. It is also used
tropicafly for defence. Isa. lix, 17 ; Eph. vi, 14 ; 1 Thess. v, 8 ;
Rev. ix, 17.
The girdle, from which the sword was suspended, is fi'e-
quently mentioned among the articles of mihtary dress. Isa.
V, 27;' Eph. vi, 14.
Military fortifications were at first nothing raore than a
trench or ditch dug around a few cottages, on a hiU or moun
tain, together with the mound which was formed by the
sand dug out of it. A city of this kind was built and forti
fied by Cain ; for to build a city and fortify it are the same
thing. The art of fortification was encouraged and patron
ized by the Hebrew kings, and Jerusalem was always well
defended — especiaUy Mount Zion.' The principal parts of a
fortification were as follows : — 1. The wall. This was erected
round cities, and was sometimes double and triple. 2 Chron.
xxxii, 6; Jer. Ii, 58. The main wall terminated at the top
in a parapet 2. Towers, which were erected at certain dis
tances fi'om each other, on the top of walls. Towers were
also erected over the gates of cities. These were occupied
by watchmen, who, on the approach of an enemy, blew the
trumpet. 2 Sara, xifl, 34 ; xvin, 26, 27 ; 2 Kings ix, 17-19 ;
Nahura ii, 1 ; 2 Chron. xvii, 2. Large towers were also
erected in different sections of the country, on elevated
places. They were guarded by a railitary force. Judg.
vifl, 9-17 ; ix, 46, 49, 61 ; Isa. xxi, 6 ; Hab. ii, 1 ; Hosea v, 8 ;
Jer. xxxi, 6. Prophets are frequently compared to guards
stationed in towers. Ezek. ni, 17; xxvii, 11; xxxifl, 1-9;
Hosea xfl, 13. 3. ^asfo'ores, or protections to walls. 4. The
fosse, or an excavation by which the elevation of the walls
was increased. 2 Sam. xx, 15. This was filled with water.
5. The gates. These were constructed in the manner of
valve-doors, and were secured by raeans of wooden bars.
Sometiraes they were covered 'with plates of brass or iron.
The bars were secured by a sort of lock. Psa. evfl, 16 ; Isa.
xlv, 2.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 199
The arms used in fighting hand to hand were a club and
a battle-hamnier: The sword was used among the Hebrews.
2 Sam. XX, 8 ; 1 Sam. xvii, 39. The phrase to gird one's
self with a sword, tropically denoted to commence war; and
to loose the sword, to finish it. Sorae swords had two edges.
Psa. cxlix, 6 ; Isa. xh, 15 ; Judg. in, 16. From its being kept
highly polished, it was compared to hghtning. Gen. ifl, 24 ;
Psa. vii, 12. A sword is also attributed to God. Wicked
persons are represented as the sword of God. Magistrates,
also, in the execution of justice, are represented as the sword
of the Lord. The spear was a wooden staff, surmounted
with an iron point It was about eleven cubits long. Jave
lins were of two kinds, one larger and the other smaller.
They were missiles to be thrown by the hand. The bow and
arrows are weapons of a very ancient origin. Gen. xlviii, 22 ;
xlix, 24. Archers were very numerous in the tribes of
Ephraim and Benjamin. The bows were raade of wood,
sometimes of brass. The strings were made of thongs of
leather, horse-hair, and the sinews of oxen. Arrows were
made of reeds, and surraounted with an iron point. They are
sometimes used tropicaUy for lightning. Psa. vfl, 13 ; Deut
xxxfl, 23. Quivers were pyramidal in form, and suspended
from the back, so that the soldier could easily take therefrom
his arrows. The sling was perhaps the most ancient weapon
of warfare. Job xli, 28. The Benjamites were expert sling-
ers. Judg. xx, 6 ; 1 Chron. xu, 2. Engines of war were
erected by King Uzziah on the towers and angles of the
walls. They were of two kinds — catapults and ballistoe.
The former were immense bows, bent by means of a ma
chine, which threw -with gr^at force large arrows, javeUns,
and beams of wood. The latter threw stones and balls of
lead. Battering-rams are first mentioned by Ezek. iv, 1, 2 ;
xxi, 22 ; xxvi, 9. They were long and large beams of wood,
the ends of which were brass, shaped like the head of a ram.
They were suspended, by means of a chain, in equilibriura,
and thus, by raeans of soldiers, were driven against the

200 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
wall. Those engaged in the battery were protected from the
missiles of the eneray by a roof erected over them. Ele
phants were used in war, and sometimes carried a tower on
their backs, armed with thirty soldiers. The elephants also
fought •with their proboscis. Chariots were also early used
in war. Exod. xiv, 6, 23, 28. They could only be used,
however, in the level country. Deut. xx, 1 ; Josh, xvn, 16-18 ;
Judg. i, 19; fl, 7; iv, 3-7. They were used tropically
for protection and defence of the highest kind. 2 Kings ii, 12;
xni, 14. They were supported on two wheels, and drawn
by two horses, and sometimes by four abreast. The end of
the tongue and axles were armed with iron scythes, which
were very destructive.
Hunting and gymnastic sports were used as preparatory
exercises, to teach the youth skill in the use of arms, and
thus fit them fqr war. The gymnasia were large edifices of
an oblong square, with a portico. The eastern part of one
of these pfles of bufldings was separated by a wall from the
rest, and occupied more than half of the area allotted for the
erection of the whole. A range of porticos extended round
three sides of the interior of this part of the gymnasium,
but the fourth side was lined with a flight of chambers —
some for bathing, some for anointing tKe. body, and some to
serve as wardrobes. The middle of these chambers was de
nominated ephehium, where the ephebi, or youth, exercised.
The area, or the open court, including the porticos just men
tioned, one range of which — that on the north side — was
double, was denominated the palcestra, in which were wit
nessed games ahd exercises — dancing, wrestling, throwing
the quoit, and the combat with the osestus. The western
part of the gymnasium was an oblong, and was surrounded
by a portico, in which the athtetai exercised in unpleasant
weather. The porticos for this purpose are called xysii,
from which the other parts of the building, denominated
xysta, differed in the foUo'wing particulars, viz. : they were
surrounded with rows of trees, were not covered with a roof

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 201
at the top, and were used as places for promenading. At
the end of the western part of the gymnasium was the sta
dium. It was a large semi-circle, a hundred and twenty-
five geometrical paces long, and was furnished with seats,
which ran around it in a circuitous manner, and ascended
gradually one above another, for the accommodation of the
spectators. The games which were more particularly wit
nessed in the stadium, were races on foot, on horseback, and
with chariots.
The athletse, after the fourth century before Christ, went
wholly naked, with the exception of those who threw the
quoit, or rode in the chariot. Heb. xfl, 1. The cccstus, to
which an allusion is raade in 1 Cor. ix, 26, was a leather
strap, bound, by the athletse, round the right hand and fin
gers. This strap was wide enough to receive a piece of iron
or lead, which was rolled upon it, and was discharged, with
all the strength of the combatant, against his adversary. It
became the one against whom it was discharged to be on
the look-out, and avoid, if possible, the intended blow.
The chariot race, which was run in the stadium, and from
which Paul, in 1 Cor. ix, 24-27 ; 2 Tim. iv, 7, 8 ; Phfl.
ui, 11-14, borrows certain iUustrations, was as follows : — Four
chariots started at the same time for the goal, which was at the
farthei' extremity of the stadium. The one who reached it
first was the conqueror. Other competitors presented them
selves, and the course was run again, by four at a time, as
in the first instance. The one who successively gained the
victory over all, won the crown. This was woven of branches
of evergreen. A crown of this description was given to all
who were •victorious in any contests. 1 Cor. ix, 54; Phil.
ifl, 14 ; Col. ni, 15 ; 2 Tim. iv, 8. Wherever the victor went
he received a branch of palra, (Rev. vii, 9,) was robed in a
splendid dress, and conducted home with honour. The^ ath
letse were obhged to abstain from enervating food and wine,
and prohibited all intercourse with the other sex — not allowed
even so much as to look upon them. If any of the laws

202 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
regulating the contests were violated, no award of honour
could be given, though the person was victor. He must
strive lawfully. 2 Tim. fl, 5 ; iv, 8.
The Jews had a game of lifting a stone. The one who
could raise it the highest from the ground was the victor.
The theatre, which was introduced by Herod and his sons
into Palestine, was an edifice constmcted in such a manner
as to describe the larger half of a circle. The games were
exhibited in that part where a Hne would have passed to en
close precisely a semi-circle.
Amphitheatres may be described by saying that they were
two theatres united. They were, of course, oblong in point
of forra, and games were exhibited in the centre of them.
The seats extended round the interior, one above another.
In theatres of this kind comedies and tragedies were acted.
Asserablies were also held in them, and arabassadors received.
Acts xii, 20; xix, 29. Encampments.
The art of laying out an encampment was well understood
in Egypt before the- departure of the Israelites. Moses copied
after the Egyptians in forming encampments in the wflder
ness. Nura. i, 53 ; ifl, 21-38. The camps were guarded hy
sentinels. Judg. vii, 19; 1 Sam. xiv, 16; xxvi, 14-17. Mo
ses gives the following regulations in regard to encampments :
1. Every unclean person shall live out of it. 2. They were
to bury aU their evacuations without the camp, that there
raight be no filth.
The following was the order of marching : — As soon as
the cloud ascended over the tabernacle, the priests sounded
the sflver trumpets. Then immediately the tribes of Judah,
Issachar, and Zebulun, on the east, set forward. At the
second sound, Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, on the south, fol
lowed. The march was next commenced by the Levites,
who bore the parts of the tabernacle and the ark of the
covenant Then, at the third sound of the trumpet, foflowed
Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, from the west; and, at

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 203
the fouith sound, Dan, Asher, and NaphtaH, from the north,
who brought up the rear. Each one foUowed the -particular
standard of his corps and family. When the cloud descended
again, the encampment was formed as before.
Military Standards.
1. The standard denominated degel was of four kinds.
They were large, and ornamented with colours, in white,
purple, crimson, and dark blue. 2. The standard called oth
belonged to the separate classes of families. 3. The stand
ard cafled nes was not, like the others, borne from place to
place. It was a long pole fixed in the earth. A flag was
fastened to the top, which, floating in the •wind, could be
seen at a great distance. In order to render it visible as far
as possible, it was erected on the tops of the highest moun
tains, and thus was a signal to assemble soldiers. Whenever
it was hoisted the war-cry was uttered and trumpets were
blown. Isa v, 26 ; xifl, 2 ; xvifl, 3.
War.
The heathen nations consulted oracles, soothsayers, necro
mancers, and the lot which was ascertained by shooting ar
rows of different colours. 1 Sam. xxviu, 1-10 ; Isa. xh, 21-24 ;
Ezek. xxv, 11. The Hebrews, to whom things of this kind
were interdicted, in the early part of their history were in
the habit of inquiring of God by raeans of the Vrim and
Thummim. Judg. i, 1 ; xx, 27, 28 ; 1 Sam. xxifl, 2 ; xxvfli, 6 ;
xxx, 8. After the times of David, the kings of Pales
tine, according to the dift'erent characters which they sus
tained, consulted true prophets, and soraetimes /aZse prophets,
in respect to the issues of war. 1 Kings xxfl, 6-13 ; 2 Kings
xix, 2, et seq.; 20, et seq. Saci-ffices were offered, in which
the soldiers were said to consecrate themselves to war. Isa.
xfli, 3; Jer. vi, 4; fl, 27; Joel ifl, 9; Obad i. There are
instances of forraal declarations of war, and sometiraes of
previous negotiations. 2 Kings xiv, 8; 2 Chron. xxv, 17;

204 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
Judg. xi, 22-28; 2 Sara, x, 1-12. Military expedition^
coraraonly coraraenoed in the spring, (2 Sam. xi, 1,) and
continued in the summer. War is considered by the Orien
tals as a judgment sent from heaven. They considered that
God granted victory only to those whose cause was just
2 Chron. xx, 12; Isa. lxvi, 15, 16.
Before battle the various kinds of arms were put in the
best order ; the shields were anointed, and the soldiers re
freshed themselves by taking food. Jer. xlvi, 3, 4 ; Isa. xxi, 5.
The generals and kings were clothed in splendid habiliments,
denorainated the sacred dress. Psa. ex, 3. The army was
drawn up so as to forra a phalanx. It was the duty of the
priests, before battle, to exhort the Hebrews to exhibit that
courage which the occasion required. Deut. xx. 2, 6t seq.
This, in more recent times, was done by generals and kings.
The last cereraony previous to engageraent, after the offering
of sacrifices, was the sounding of the silver trurapets by the
priests. The Greeks coraraenoed the war-song when within about
a half of a mile ofthe enemy. 2 Chron. xx, 21. They then
raised a shout, dXaXd^eiv, which was also done among the
Hebrews. 1 Sam. xvii, 62 ; Josh, vi, 6 ; Isa. v, 29, 30 ; xvii, 12 ;
Jer. iv, 19 ; xxv, 30. The war-shout in Judg. vn, 20,
was, " The sword of the Lord and of Gideon." A common
stratagem among the Hebrews was that of dividing the
array and placing one part of it in arabush. Gen. xiv, 14-16 ;
Josh, vfli, 12 ; Judg. xx, 39. There is only one instance of
deception in war used by the Hebrews, and that was not
approved of. Gen. xxxiv, 25-31. It was the practice of
the Roraan armies to stand stfll and receive the shock of
their opposers. There is an allusion to this in the foflowing
passages: 1 Cor. xvi, 13; Gal. v, 1; Eph. vi, 14; Phil.
i, 27 ; 1 Thess. ifl, 8 ; 2 Thess. fl, 15.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 205
Sieges.
When a city was threatened with a siege, it was first
invited to surrender. Deut xx, 10 ; Isa. xxxvi, 1-20 ;
xxxvii, 8—20.
Circumvallation was known in the time of Moses ; also
the mound. Deut. xx, 19, 20 ; 2 Sam. xx, 15. The besiegers
dug a ditch between them and the city for their own secu
rity, and another parallel to it, outside, so as to enclose their
camp on both sides, and to prevent their being attacked on
the rear as well as front. The earth thrown out of the ditch
forraed a .wall, on which towers were erected. The inhabi
tants of a city shut up in this way perished by famine, pes-
tflence, and missfle weapons. 2 Kings xxv, 1 ; Jer. Hi, 4 ;
Ezek. iv, 10-12 ; xvii, 17 ; 2 Kings vi, 28-31.
The besiegers cast up a mound near the wall of the city,
and strengthened it on both sides with bearas of tiraber.
2 Sam. XX, 16; 2 Kings xix, 32; Jer. vi, 6; xxxii, 24;
xxxifl, 4; Ezek. iv, 2; xvii, 17-23 ; xxvi, 8. Frora this the
besiegers threw their weapons into the city.
Conquered Nations.
The p«Jwer of the conquerers owned no limitations. The
flocks, cattle, fruits of the earth, fields; gardens, houses, idol
gods, and afl, fell into their possession. The wives and chil
dren of those who had been subdued were sold ,for slaves,
and their cities were razed to the ground. 2 Sara, v, 21 ;
2 Chron. xxv, 14 ; Hosea x, 6, 6 ; Jer. xhn, 25 ; xWfl, 7.
Soldiers, artificers, engineers, and principal men, were sent
into foreign countries. Kings were sometimes allowed to
reraain in authority, by promise of good faith and payment
of tribute. If they rebelled they were treated with great
severity. Gen. xiv, 4; 2 Kings xxiii, 34; xxiv, 1, 14; Isa.
xxiv, 2 ; Jer. xx, 5, 6. Soldiers who were taken were de
prived of all their property, and sold naked into servitude.
When the city was taken by assault, all the men were slain.

206 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
and the women and chUdren were carried away as prisoners,
and sold for a very low price. Micah i, 11 ; Isa. xlvii, 3 ;
XX, 3, 4 ; 2 Chron. xxviu, 9-15 ; Psa. xliv, 12. When a city
was taken, afl who could escape fled and sought for safety
in the tops of mountains, in caves and rocks ; hence God,
on account of the protection he affords, is called a rock.
Judg. XX, 47 ; Jer. iv, 29 ; xvi, 16 ; xxfl, 20 ; Ezek. vii, 7, 17 ;
Isa. xxvi, 4.
Captive kings and nobles were bound, their eyes were put
out, their bodies mutilated, and they thrown on the g'round
and trodden under foot untfl they died. Judg. i, 6, 7 ;
2 Kings xxv, 7 ; Josh, x, 24. They were sometimes thrown
down upon* thorns, sawn asunder, or beaten to pieces with
threshing instruments. 2 Sam. xfl, 31 ; 1 Chron. xx, 3;
Judg. vifl, 7. Frequently, old men, women, and children
were slaughtered and thrown into heaps. 2 Kings vifl, 12;
Hosea x, 14 ; Isa. xiii, 17, 18. Even the women 'with child
were ripped up. Isa. xifl, 16-18; 2 Kings vifl, 12; Amos
i, 13. Everything was devotee? \o death, and the very land
desolated. Lev. xxvfl, 21, 28, 29; Nura. xvifl, 14; Deut
xiii, 17. In some cases the conquered nations were only
made tributary. 2 Sam. viii, 6 ; 2 Kings xiv, 4.
The people all went out, not excepting the women^ to meet
the conquerors, with singing and dancing. Judg. xi, 34-37;
1 Sam. xvifl, 6, 7. Triumphant songs were uttered for
the living, and elegies for the dead. Monuments, in honour
of victories, were erected, (2 Sam. viii, 13,) and the arms of
the enemy were hung up in the teraples, as trophies of •ric
tory. 1 Sam. xxxi, 10; 2 Kings xi, 10.
David instituted separate corps of mihtary men, com
posed of those most renowned for warlike deeds. 2 Sam.
xxifl, 8, 39. Character of Ancient Wars.
Ancient warfare was characterized by great cruelty
among aU nations, and the Hebrews must be judged by the

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 207
times in which they lived. The same clemency could not be
extended to enemies then as now, without exposure to all
sorts of injury. Num. xxxi, 14, 15 ; 2 Sam. xii, 31 ; Amos
, , i, 13 ; ii, 1 ; 2 Kings ifl, 27.
In regard to the Canaanites, God selected the IsraeHtes as
his agents to punish them for their great wickedness, (Gen.
XV, 16,) and hence their utter extirpation was but the carry
ing out of the divine wifl, as in the case) of the inhabitants
of Sodom and Gomonah. That they had a right to the
possession of the land, however, did not arise frora the con
sideration that they had conquered it in war, though might,
in such instances, has given the right, but arose from a very
different and less questionable consideration. Canaan origi
nally belonged to Abraham ; and he virtually declared, by
the wells which he dug and the altars he erected, his right
to the land, and his determination to hold it. Gen. xii,
5, 6, 8, 9; xxi, 25-30; xiii, 4, 14, 18; ixv, 7, 13, 21;
xvii, 8. The patriarch left the sofl, after his death, to Isaac.
not to Ishmael, who in turn transmitted it to Jacob, to the
exclusion of Esau. It had been occupied by the patriarchs
for a period of two hundred and fifty years ; and when Jacob
and his descendants emigrated to Egypt, they intended to
return. Gen. xlviii, 4, 21, 22; xlix, 1, 26 ; 1 Chron.
vfl, 31, 24. During the abode of the Israelites in Egypt, the
Canaanites, who had increased in numbers, occupied the
whole territory, and the Hebrews, thus excluded from their
own soil, had the right to repossess it; and if the Canaan
ites W0UI4 not acknowledge that right, a resort to arms was
perfectly justifiable on their part. Josh, xi, 19 ; ix, 3, 36.
Spoils.
The spoils of the enemy's army were divided araong the
victorious soldiers, as the reward of the toils they endured.
Gen. xlix, 27 ; Exod. xv, 9 ; Judg. v, 30 ; Isa. ix, 2, 3 ; Ezek.
xxix, 18-20 ; Psa. cxix, 1 62. Xhere was a propriety in this,
inasmuch as coramon soldiers paid their own expenses, or

208 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
were supported by their parents. Judg. xx, 10 ; 2 Sam. xvn,
17-20. Hebrew kings, however, in a subsequent age, made
provision for soldiers, in what was called store cities. 2 Chron.
xvn, 12 ; xxxfl, 28. Soldiers were sometimes hired; and
hence we find, in the New Testament, mention of the wages
of a soldier. Luke ni, 14 ; Rom. id, 23 ; 1 Cor. ix, 7 ; 2 Cor.
xi, 8 ; 2 Tim. u, 4. Men, women, and children were re
garded as spoils. Things of great value were the property
of the leader or commander. 2 Sam. •viii, 11, 12; xii, 30;
2 Chron. xxviu, 14-19. Cities devoted to the curse were
destroyed with all their spoils. Deut u, 34 ; iii, 7 ; Num.
xxxi, 9 ; Lev. xxvii, 28 ; Josh, vi, 24-26 ; vifl, 26, 28, 30.
After the comraencement of war, the people could make
plunder of the property wbich had been deposited with them,
or what they had borrowed. Exod. iii, 22 ; xi, 2. The word
literally to plunder, or rob, which in Exod. ifl, 22 is used in
reference to this subject, appears to be employed tropically,
and out of its usual signiflcation.
Four months of the year were regarded as sacred, and
during this tirae the Hebrews abstained from the use of
arms. Tfle same custom prevafled among the surrounding
nations, and this accounts for the fact that the Hebrew terri
tories were not invaded at such times. God had promised
them security from invasion during their solemn festivals,
and no instance occurs of their country being invaded at
such times.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 209
CHAPTER m.
SACRED ARCH.aiOLOGT.
Historical View of Religion.
It is not unreasonable to suppose that when Adara was cre
ated he was raade a perfect man, not only in his form, but
also in the accomplishments of his mind ; for to imagine that
he came from the divine hand in a state of stupidity and
ignorance, would not only be doubting the wisdom and
goodness of God, but the truth of the Bible. Created in
the very image of God, he was endowed with full capacity
of knowing him, and he was also perfectly adapted to ap
preciate and enjoy the Eden of happiness over which he pre
sided as lord of the lower world. When, in , the fufl and
unrestrained exercise of his emotions and volitions, he viola
ted the divine prohibition, he fell from his perfect and happy
estate into one of sin and misery, and involved his whole
posterity in the lamentable consequences of his . defection.
His knowledge of evil was purchased at the terrible price of
his happiness for time and eternity, and that of his race. By
his act the bitter fountain of death and sorrow was unsealed
in the very bowers of life, and the dark, deadly streams were
made to flow, blasting the joys of Eden, and spreading
lamentation, mourning, and woe over all the earth.
The curse which was pronounced upon Adam for his trans
gression, and the punishment inflicted upon Cain for murder,
were clear indications of the odiousness of sin in the raind
of the Creator, and were designed to reraain as perpetual
raonitions that misery and wretchedness are inseparable con
comitants of transgression. These visible punishments, how
ever, did not deter the race from sin. As the human famfly
increased in numbers it increased in crimes, until the whole
earth was filled with •violence and slaughter. About the
year of the world 235, wickedness was carried to such an
14

210 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
extent that the rehgious portion of it thought it necessary to
take to themselves the narae of the sons, or worshippers of
God, in contradistinction from the sons of men, or those who
had forgotten God, and were hurried, by the impulse of cor
rupt passions, to every species of wickedness. These evils
were increased frora the circumstance that the sons or wor
shippers of God married the daughters of men, or the irreli
gious. Wives of this description neglected the right instruc
tion of their chfldren ; and as this devolved on them rather
than on their fathers, the children foUowed the former rather
than the latter. Gen. iv, 26 ; vi, 1. In this way corruption
increased and prevailed to such a degree that the warnings
of God were of no avail. Gen. vi, 3. The destruction of the
entire race, with the exception of the righteous, which con
sisted of but one family, was determined by the Almighty,
and a deluge swept the guflty world of mankind from exist
ence. This terrible destj'uction of every living thing was predicted
one hundred and twenty years before its consummation,
(Gen. vi, 3,) so that {he family of Noah raight know that it
was sent from God, aud that the object of it was to leave, by
such a signal event, , a long- to-be-remembered impression
tiiat G(5d is the govei'nor of all tilings, to whom the vices of
men are abhorrent ; and that, however long-suffering, he
will at last punish the guilty. A command was given hy
the Almighty, after the Deluge, that every homicide should
be punished with death, and a promise, also, that the Deluge
should no more return. The rainbow was raade a visible
sign of this promise, as well as a confii'mation of it. The
posterity of Noah laid up in their minds the principles and
instructions which had been comraunicated ; and when, after
wards, they attempted to build a tower, and were confounded
and scattered from each other, they easfly learned from that
event that their conduct was displeasing to God. They
reproved Nimrod for a similar attempt, and, in aUusion to his
conduct, called him the rebel, and made his meraory a pro-

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 211
verb, saying, "Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter." At a
later period, as men degenerated, and were unable to direct
tJiemselves, and forgetting God, or not liking to retain a
knowledge of him, they turned aside and looked for help
from surrounding inanimate objects, and rocks, trees, rivers,
winds, the sun, moon, stars, and dead raen, and finally, also,
living aniraals, became deities. Then followed sculptured
images and teraples. At first, as we have seen, they worship
ped God as the ruler and governor of all things; but, finaUy,
the creature usurped the place of the Creator, and as their
dumb idols uttered no comraands, they gave loose rein to
their evil imaginations, and the greatest crimes were com
mitted, and raade a part of the religious worship offered to
their idols.
This corruption continued to spread itself wider and wider,
until God gave a peculiar call to Abraham, whose ancestors
had, from the beginning, sustained a religious character,
(Gen. V, 1-31 ; xi, 10-32,) but who at length becarae
involved in the general idolatry. Josh, xxiv, 3. It was
designed, in the providence of God, that Abraham the Chal
dean, and his posterity, should preserve and transmit his
' religion to other nations. As the descendant of Shem, God
promised to Abraham a large posterity, possession of the land
of Canaan, and also that, through his seed, all nations should
be blessed and receive the true rehgion. Gen. xfl, 1 3 ; xvfli, 1 8 ;
xxii, 18. With these promises were connected the rite of
circumcision. Gen. xviii, 19. God afterwards repeated the
sarae proraises to Isaac and Jacob, (Gen. xxvi, 4; xxviii, 14,)
who faithfully perforraed their various duties, taught the true
worship of God to their domestics, and left it to their
posterity. Gen. xxvifl, 20-22 ; xxxv, 2, 7, 9, 13 ; xxxix, 9 ;
1, 17-20. These promises, and the fulfilment of their corre
sponding duties, form the fundamental principle of the ancient
covenant, and with them tbe new covenant is very intimately
connected. The knowledge of the true God, which was coeval with

212 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the existence of the human race, was originally comraunicated
by revelation. The worship of God was siraple and uncon
strained, such as was prompted by conscience and approved
by reason, and consisted chiefiy in tithes, vows, and prayers,
and in the erection of altars and the offering of sacrifices.
Gen. iv, 3, 4; viii, 20; xii, 7, 8; xiii, 4-18; xiv, 20;
XV, 18-20; (fee
The Sabbath was consecrated from the beginning, as may
be inferred from Gen. fl, 2 ; vfl, 4-10 ; viu, 10-12 ; xxix, 27.
Many traces of moral discipline occur. Gen. iv, 6-16;
vi, 3-8; xi, 4-6; xiii, 8; xiv, 14-24; xviii, 19.
When Moses was sent as a divine messenger to break the
chains of Hebrew servitude, many of them were addicted to
the worship of Egyptian gods. Exod. fli, 13. To rescue the
Hebrews from bondage, who were destined to be the defend
ers of the true rehgion, and to bring them back to that
worship which 'they had lost while in Egypt, gave occasion
for the most surprising rmvades,-^miracles which not only
compelled Pharaoh to dismiss the Hebrews, and brought
destruction upon his army when he pursued them, but were
also a new and overwhelming proof to the Hebrews them
selves that there is indeed a God all-powerful and omnis
cient, and that Moses, by whom these wonderful works had
been predicted and performed, was his messenger. Exod.
•vi, 7 ; vii, 6 ; ix, 14, 16, 29 ; x, 2 ; xiv, 4, 17, 18, 31 ; xvi, 12 ;
xix, 4-9 ; Deut iv, 35-39. It was also shown,. at the same
tirae, that the Egyptian gods were destitute of power, and
altogether unable to protect their votaries. Exod. xii, 12.
Nothing but this wonderful manifestation, from time to time,
of their miracle-working God, could have preserved the whole
nation from being seduced into idolatry.
To preserve the true religion, and keep constantly before
the raind of the nation the true nature and character of Go_d,
the Sabbath was rigidly observed, and the Pentecost, the
Jubilee, the Passover, and tho Feast of Tabernacles, were
sacredly observed. The book of the law was publicly read,

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 213
every seven years, in the tabernacle, and every Hebrew was
commanded to comrait to raemory the thirty-second chapter
of Deuteronoray, as a perpetual raonitor of their duty.
The laws of Moses enjoined a supreme love to God, as the
creator and governor of the universe; a love to the neigh
bour ; prohibited hatred and revenge, cruelty and inhumanity
to servants ; and enjoined benevolence and beneficence to the
poor, especially widows and orphans ; and the whole institu
tion was a system of moral discipline, designed to secure
uprightness and integrity of heart:
The laws of Moses contained historical and moral types.
This is evident from the passover and feast of tabernacles ;
(Exod. xii, 1, 13, 16 ; Lev. xxiii, 4-8 ; Deut xvi, 1-8 ;) also
from the rite of circumcision, and the gold mitre of the high
priest ; for a typical import is expressly assigned to the last of
these by Moses himself Exod. xxviu, 3 8 ; Deut. x, 1 6 ; xxx, 6.
The influence of the institutions of Moses was retained
through many ages of trial. Whenever religion was endanger
ed by neglect or by idolatry, the invariable consequence
was that there were calamities and evils which admonished
the people of the necessity of choosing rulers who would
restore their religion. Sometimes God sent public calamities,
and he also sent his prophets, who reproved kings and
princes, and threw great obstacles in the way of their wicked
attempts to introduce idolatry. When at length admonitions
ceased to be of any avail, and everything was growing worse
and worse, the Israelitish commonwealth was overthro'wn,
two hundred and fifty-three years after their separation from
Judah, and seven hundred and twenty-two before Christ.
The people were carried away into Assyria, and Gozan, and
Chalacene, cities'' of Media. Tlie kingdom of Judah was
overthrown three hundred and eighty-seven years after the
separation, and five hundred and eighty-eight before Christ,
by the Chaldeans, and the people were carried captive to the
banks of the river Chebar, in Babylonia.
The return of the Jews from captivity witnessed a return

214 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
to true rehgion, and in this revival an utter extinction was
given to idolatry among them as a nation. Synagogues
were buflt, sacrifices offered, and the law of Moses read in
those synagogues every Sabbath day ; while schools were
estabhshed for the education of the rising generation.
True rehgion was not restored, as sorae suppose, by the
exaraple of the Magian worship, or by philosophic develop-
raent, but by a recurrence to their ancient histoi'y, their
ancient miracles, and the fulfilment of prophecy.
A Future State.
The ancient Hebrews had some idea of a future life, and
this we learn from the sacred record. Their views, however,
were hmited and obscure, as will be seen by a reference to
the distinction which they made between the subterranean
residence denorainated sheol, and the grave, or place of
interment for' the body. Gen. xxv, 8 ; xxxvfl, 36 ; xlix, S3 ;
1, 2-10; Num. xx, 24-26; Deut xxxiv, 7; xxxi, 16;
1 Kings xi, 43.
That they believed in the existence of the soul after the
death of the. body is evident from the credit they gave to
necromancy, by means of which the Jews believed that the
spirits of the dead were summoned back to the present scene
of existence. Lev. xix, 31 ; xx, 6, 7, 26, 27 ; Deut xvui, 11;
1 Sam. xxvfli, 3-10; 2 Kings xxifl, 24; 1 Chron. x, 13;
Isa. xix, 3 ; xxix, 4 ; Ivfl, 9 ; Zech. xfli, 2-6.
The ancient Hebrews believed that the spirits of the dead
were received into sheol, a large subterranean abode. Gen.
xxxvii, 36; Num. xvi, 30-33; Deut. xxxii^ 22. Into this
abode the wicked were driven suddenly, but the good
descended into it tranquflly. This spacious dwelling-place is
described as dark, sorrowful, and inactive. Job x, 21 ; Psa.
vi, 5; Ixxxvifl, 11, 12; cxv, 17; Isa. xxxviu, 18. In other
places — such as Isa. xiv, 9, Job xxvi, 5, 6, and 1 ' Sam.
xxviii, 7 — it is represented as full of activity. A superhuman
knowledge is ascribed to its inhabitants. In this abode

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 215
departed spirits rest. Job fli, 1 3 ; and there the living hope
again to behold their ancestors and children. Gen. xxxvfl, 35 ;
xxv(, 10 ; xxxv, 28 ; xlix, 29 ; Num. xx, 24-26 ; 1 Kings
ii, 10, 11.
It is supposed by some fhat the passages in Dan. xii, 2,3, 13
were a confirmation bf the resurrection of the dead, and also
Haggai ii, 23 ; Zech. in, 7. This doctrine was at length
adopted by the Jews, with the exception of the Sadducees.
It remained for the gospel to bring life and immortality
to light. Propagation of Judaism.
During the foui- centuries preceding the destruction of
Jerusalem, the Jews were scattered abroad extensively among
the nations. . This dispersion enabled the Jews to propagate
their religion, and such was their zeal and success that they
won whole nations. The Iduraeans, Itureans, and" Moabites
made profession of the Jewish faith, and underwent the rite
of circumcision. The King of Yemen, in Arabia Felix, be
carae a Jew ihore than one hundred years before Christ, and
his successors defended and propagated the Jewish religion.
The Jews in Asia Minor, in Greece, and, in the progress of
tirae, at Rorae also, were the raeans of drawing numbers
within the pale of their country's religion. In Rome they
became so numerous as to have a majority at the elections.
Proselytes, especially from the female sex, who were not
subjected to the inconvenience of circumcision, were perpet
ually multiplied. See Acts ii, 11; vi, 1; xifl, 43-50;
xvi, 14; X'vii, 4 ; xviii, 7-13; xix, 29. Providence thus pre
pared the way for the introduction of the Christian religion
into all parts of the world, and the apostles found everywhere
in their travels those who had embraced the Jewish religion ;
and they not only had liberty to preach in their synagogues,
but they were essentially aided by Jewish proselytes in an
nouncing Jesus Christ to the heathen. Acts ii, 5-11 ; xi, 19;
xiii, 4, 6, 13, 52; xiv, 1-28 ; xvi, 1-40; xii, 1-17.

216 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
The Jews preserved great harmony among themselves,
and those who lived in foreign countries maintained a con
nexion with each other by means of the temple at Jerusalem.
The Jews of Egypt, who inhabited Leontopolis, in the district
of Heliopolis, from the' year 149 before Christ to Anno
Domini 73, had a temple of their own, though they still kept
up a connexion with the Jews at Jerusalem.
Though the Jews were divided into three prominent sects,
the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, yet their harmony or
unity was not affected thereby.
Doctrines of the Pharisees.
The Pharisees boasted that they were pecuHarly accept
able to God, on account of their accurate knowledge of the
Jewish law and rehgion. The following were the opinions
entertained by them : —
1 . They agreed •with the Stoics in teaching the doctrine of fate,
or an immutable order of things fixed by the decree of God.
2. They taught that the souls of men were immortal, and
dwelt after the present life in sheol. They further taught that
the spirits of the wicked were tormented with everlasting
punishments, and that they at times made their reappearance
upon the earth to vex men with epilepsy, mental derange
ment, madness, and melancholy ; and that the good, on the
other hand, received rewards, and at length passed into other
huraan bodies. Matt, xiv, 2 ; xvi, 14 ; John ix, 2-34.
It is nowhere reraarked by Josephus that they beUeved in
the resurrection of the dead, though it is evident, from severa)
passages, they held such belief. Matt, xxfl, 24-34 ; Mark
xfl, 18-23 ; Luke,xx, 27-36; John xi, 24.
3. They believed in, and taught the existence of angels,
both good and bad. They believed that angels were the
ministers of God on earth, and that some one of them was
assigned to every kingdom, and also to every individual, and
at times made his appearance. Matt, xviii, 10 ; Luke iv, 10 ;
Heb. u, 5 ; Acts xfl, 15 ; xxfli, 8, 9.

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 217
4. They beHeved, furthermore, that God was under obliga
tion, and bound in justice, to bestow favours upon the Jews,
to render them partakers of the kingdom of the Messiah,
to justify and to render them eternally happy, and that he
could not condemn aijy of them. With them the ground of
justification was Abrahara's , faith and works, the know
ledge of God which existed among them, together with
circumcision and the offering of sacrifices. Rom. ii-xfl,
Heb. X, 1-18.
They put a very lax construction upon the laws of Moses
in regard to the law of retaliation, the divorce of a wife, and
the loving one's neighbour. They maintained that the oath in
which God was not expressly named was not binding. They
forbade the gathering a few ears of corn, and healing the
sick on the Sabbath. They gave the preference to ceremonial
laws ; and they esteemed anger, and the exercise of impure
affections, of httle consequence. They manifested great
anxiety in making proselytes, and were avaricious, fond of
pleasure, vain glory, uttered their prayers pubhcly, and took
pride in ornamenting their tombs.
They observed a multitude of traditions, and placed these
unwritten ordinances of the ancients on an equality with the
divine laws themselves. These they collected, and formed
out of thera the Talraud. Various other observances, not
above enumerated, were regarded by them, such as the
washing of hands before meals, not eating vrith Gentiles or tax-
gatherers, /asiiw^ twice a week, enlarging .their phylacteries
and the borders of their garments, (fee, (fee Phylacteries
were pieces of parchment, on which were written four pas
sages of Scripture. Exod. xiii, 1, 10, 11, 16 ; Deut. v, 4-9 ;
xi, 13-21. Doctrines ofthe Sadducees.
Their opinions were pecuhar. They believed —
1. That besides God there was no other spiritual being-,
whether good or bad. They beHeved that the soul and

218 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
body died together ; and that there neither was, nor ever
could be, a resurrection. Matt xxii, 23 ; Acts xxifl, 8.
2. They rejected the doctrine of fate, and maintained, on
the contrary, that the events which happened depended upon
the free, unconstrained actions of raen. They held that the
traditions received by the Pharisees were not binding. It is
supposed by sorae that in progress of time they admitted the
existence of angels and the immortaUty of the soul.
Doctrines ofthe Essenes.
The principal ground of difference between the Essenes and
the Therapeutce consisted in this: — The former, were Jews,
who spoke the Aramean ; the latter were Greek Jews. The
Essenes Hved chiefly in Palestine; the Therapeutse lived in
Egypt. The Therapeutse were more rigid than the Essenes,
since the latter, although they made it a practice to keep at
a distance from large cities, Uved, nevertheless, in towns and
viUages, and practised agriculture and the arts, with the
exception of those which were subservient to war. The
Therapeutse, on the contrary, fied from all inhabited places,
dwelt in fields, and deserts, and gardens, and gave themselves
up to contemplation. They both held their property in
common. Candidates for admission araong the Essenes
gave their property to the society, but those among the
Therapeutse left theirs to their friends. After a number of
years of probation they raade a profession, which bound both
of thera to the exercise of the strictest uprightness.
The Essenes offered prayers before sunrise, after which
each one was sent, by the person who was placed over them,
to his respective employment. About eleven o'clock they
left their work, and assembled to partake of their bread and
pottage. In the evening, also, their supper was in common.
Before and after meals the priest offered up prayers. On the
Sabbath the Essenes Hstened to the reading of the law in
their synagogues, which was attended with an allegorical
explanation ; they also read books by themselves in private

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 219
on that day. They pretended to possess the secret naraes of
angels, which it would have been an act of impiety to have
comraunicated to profane persons. They never took an oath,
except when joining the order. They asserted slavery was
repugnfint to nature. Some of them made pretensions to the
gift of prophecy. They avoided matriraony, except araong
a particular class of thera. The rest lived in celibacy, because
they had no confidence in the virtue of woraen. In point of
doctrine they very nearly resembled the Pharisees.
The TherapeutEe agreed in most things with the Essenes,
but they all lived unmarried. They received females into their
sect ; but they remained virgins, and followed the same mode
of life* with the raen. They kept •vigils on the night of the
Sabbath, sung hymns, and led sacred dances.
Hellenists.
This name was given to the Jews who are mentioned in
Acts vi, 1 ; ix, 29 ; xi, 20 ; and who, not only in Egypt, Asia
Minor, and Greece, but in all places, spoke the Greek lan
guage as their vernacular tongue. They do not appear to be
the same as those mentioned in John vn, 36, James i, 1,
and 1 Peter i, 1, and are called the dispersed among the
Gentiles ; for it appears that the Hellenists were found at
Jerusalem, (Acts vi, 1,) and they were likewise found among
the dispersed Jews who spoke the Araraean ; as, for instance,
Paul, who was born at Tarsus. 2 Cor. xi, 22 ; Phfl. in, 6.
Proselytes.
Proselytes, npoarjXvroi, i. e., those who have come in, are
mentioned at a very ancient period in connexion with the
journey through Arabia, and in the history of David and
Solomon. In the tirae of Christ and the Aposties they were found
everywhere in great numbers, sorae circumcised and some
uncircumcised. The former were called just or righteous
proselytes, and the latter the proselytes of the gate. These

220 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
worshipped the one true God, but refused to obey the laws
of Moses : such were the Kenites and the Rechabites. They
observed the precepts of Noah, viz.: — 1. That men should
abstain from idolatry. 2. That they should worship the
true God. 3. That they should hold incest in abhorrence.
4. That they should not commit homicide. 5. That they
should not steal or rob. 6. That they should punish a
raurderer with death. 7. That they should not eat blood,
nor anything strangled.
They frequented the synagogues in company with the
Jews ; and although they were at liberty to offer sacrifices
to God in any place where they chose, they preferred visiting
the temple of Jerusalem, and offered sacrifices through the
priests. The other class of proselytes, denominated the just, were
united "with the great body of the Jewish people not only by
circumcision, but by baptisra also, which was a symbol of
regeneration. Exod. xix, 10-14; xxiv, 8; Gen. xxxv, 2.
Christ speaks of this baptism in such a way as to imply that
it was well known. John ifl, 10.
Samaritans.
The people who were sent by Shalmaneser and Esarhaddon
from Cuthah, Ara, Hamath, and Sepharvaim into that
portion of country which formerly belonged to the tribes of
Ephraim and Manasseh, united with one another, and with the
Israelites who were left there, and formed one people. They
were called Samaritans, from their principal city, Samaria.
At first these people worshipped the respective gods of
their own nation, but, being harassed by hons, they attributed
their sufferings from this source to the circumstance of their
not worshipping the God of the country where they now lived.
They therefore received back from the King of Assyria an
exiled Hebrew priest, who took up his residence in Bethel,
where the golden calf had formerly been. This priest taught
them the worship of Jehovah, frora the books of Moses, but

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 221
mingled with it the idolatry of the calf, and represented that
animal as the embodied form of the Deity, and thus the
people were led into the worship of idols and Jehovah at
the same time. 2 Kings xvii, 26-34; 2 Chron. xxx, 1-10.
They proposed to assist the Hebrews in rebuilding the
teraple after their return from exfle, but their proposals were
finally rejected, which occasioned an implacable hatre(i on
their part, and they impeded the work as much as possible.
Manasses, the son of the high priest, who had married the
daughter of Sanballat, the ruler of the Samaritans, refusing
to comply with the order of Nehemiah, in regard to putting
away his wife, on account of her foreign extraction, went over
to the Samaritans, and his father-in-law buflt a temple on
Mount Gerizira, and placed hira over its sacred observances.
While Manasses fulfilled the office of high priest among them,
they appeared to have dismissed their idols. Jews, who
had transgressed the laws to evade punishment, fled to
Samaria, and thus the hatred increased on both sides. One
hundred and sixty-seven years before Christ, Antiochus
Epiphanes, king of the Syrians, consecrated their temple
to Jupiter, but they returned afterwards to the religion of
Moses. About thirty-eight years after this, John .Hyrcanus
destroyed their temple. At the time of Christ there was no
intercourse whatever between the Jews aud Samaritans.
Luke xvfl, 16 ; John iv, 9. The Jews, out of hatred, changed
the name of the city of Sichem to Sychar, which means
drunken. John iv, ,6. The Samaritans only received the
Pentateuch as of divine authority ; they nevertheless expected
the advent of the Messiah, (John iv, 26,) and grounded their
expectations on Gen. xfl, 3; xvifl, 18; xxii, 18; xx-vi, 4;
xxviii, 14. They contended that the proper place of worship
was Mount Gerizim, and not Jerusalem. John iv, 20.
SACRED PLACES.
In the earliest ages of the world there was no distinction in
regard to the time or place where God was worshipped.

222 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
The earliest altar of which we have any account, was that
erected by Noah on Mount Ararat Gen. viii, 20. Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob erected a number of altars in the land of
Canaan, particularly in places where they had been favoured
with the di-vine communications. Gen. xii, 7; xfli, 4-18;
xxvi, 25 ; xxxifl, 20 ; xxxv, 1, 3, 7. Moses, and the author
of the Book of Joshua, both speak of idols, altars, and groves',
but are sflent respecting temples. The first temple of which
we have any account was the one at Shechera, which was
dedicated to the god Baal-berith ; but, as it was furnished
with a tower, there had probably been others before it
Judg. ix, 4. Moses constructed a tabernacle, while marching
through Arabia, which could easily be transferred from place
to place. This was not the first of its kind. Amos v, 26.
With respect to the temple, which was subsequently erected
in Palestine, Moses gave no command on the subject.
The Tabernacle.
The place where public worship was held, frora the time
of Moses till Solomon, was the tabernacle, variously denomi
nated a tent, a habitation, a sanctuary, a house, the dwelling-
place of Jehovah's glory, Jehovah's tent, and palace, and the
tent of the congregation. It was divided into three parts.
The first part was the area or court of the tabernacle, a
hundred and fifty feet long and seventy-five feet broad. It
was sun'ounded on all sides with curtains, to the height of
seven or eight feet. They were suspended frora rods of
silver, which reached frora one coluran to another, and rested
on thera. The columns on the east and west were ten, and
on the north and south twenty, in number, and were made
of acacia, (shittira-wood.) The columns, in order to prevent
their being injured by the moisture of the earth, were sup
ported ou bases of brass. Near the top of the columns were
silver hooks, in which the rods that sustained the curtains
were inserted. That part of the court of the tabernacle
which formed the entrance was on the east side, and thirty

BIBLICAL 'ARCHEOLOGY. 223
feet in extent. The entrance was closed by letting faU a sort
of tapestry, which hung frora rods or poles, resting on four
columns, and which was adorned with figures in blue, purple,
and scarlet. When the entrance was opened the tapestry
was drawn up. The curtains in the entrance were different
fi'ora those that were suspended around other parts of the
court of the tabernacle. Exod. xxvii, 9-19; xxxix, 9-20.
The tabernacle, strictly so called, was situated in the middle
of the western side of the court. It was covered on every
part, and, in point of forra, was an oblong square, being
thirty cubits, or forty-five feet long, from east to west, and
ten cubits, •* or fifteen feet broad, frora north to south. The
walls were coraposed of forty-eight boards, or planks, viz.,
twenty on the north side, and twenty on the south side, and
six on the west. The two at the angles were doubled,
raaking forty-eight. Exod. xxvi, 16-30. The eastern side
was not boarded. The boards were of acacia, fifteen feet
long and twenty-seven inches broad, and overlaid with plates
of gold. They rested on bases of silver, and were united
together by bars _^or poles, also of gold. The tabernacle
thus constructed was shielded by four coverings. The first,
or interior or lower covering. Was raade of fine twined linen,
extending down within eighteen inches of the earth, and
displaying pictures of cherubira, wrought into it with the
various colours of blue, purple, and scarlet. The second was
a fabric woven of goats' hair, and extended very nearly ,to
the ground. Exod. xxvi, 7-13. The third was of raras'
skins, dyed red ; the fourth of the skins of sorae sea animal
of a sky-blue colour. The eastern side, or entrance, was
closed by raeans of a curtain raade of cotton, which was
suspended frora silver rods that were sustained by five
colurans, covered with gold.
The interior of the tabernacle was divided into two parts,
the first thirty feet long and fifteen broad and high, and was
separated from the second, or inner apartment, by a curtain
or veil, which hung down from four colurans overlaid with

224 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
gold, and was denominated the inner veil. Exod. xxvi, 36, 37.
The first apartment was called the holy, and the inner
apartment the most holy, and, sometimes, the inner taber
nacle. Altar and Brazen Laver.
Nearly in the centre of the outer court was the altar. Exod.
xl, 29. It was a kind of coffer, four and a half feet high, and
seven and a half feet long and broad, made of acacia. The
low,er part rested on four short columns, or feet, the sides of
which were gates of brass, through which the blood of the
-victim flowed out. The sides of the upper part »f the altar
were covered with brass, and the interior space was fifled
-with earth, upon which the fire was kindled. The four cor
ners of the altar projected upwards, so as to resemble horns.
At the four corners were rings, through which poles were
placed, for the purpose of carrying it from place to placed
On the south side there was an ascent to it, made of earth
heaped up. Exod. xx, 24 ; xxiv, 4 ; xxvii, 1-8 ; xxxvfli, 1-7 ;
Lev. ix, 22.
The appurtenances, or furniture of the altar, were the
urns for carrying away the ashes, the shovels for collecting
them together, the skins for receiving and sprinkflng the
blood of the -victims, a sort of tongs for turning the parts of
the victim in the fire, the censers for burning incense, and
other instruments of brass. Exod. xxvii, 3 ; xxxvifl, 3.
Between the altar and the tabernacle, a little to the south,
stood a circular laver, which, together -with its base, was made
of brazen ornaments which the women had presented for the
use of the tabernacle. Exod. xxx, 18; xl, 7. The priests,
when about to perform their duty, washed their hands in this
laver. Golden Candlestick.
The golden candlestick was placed in .the first apartment
of the tabernacle, on the south side. It stood on a base,
from which the principal stem arose perpendicularly. From

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 225
this stem three branches on each side projected upwards,
describing paraUel curves. They arose frora the main stem
at equal distances, and to the same height with it The
height of the whole was five feet, and the distance between
the exterior branches three and a half feet. The stem and
branches were adorned with knops, fiowers, and other orna
ments of gold. The seven extremities of the main stem and
branches were employed as so many separate lamps, all of
which yrere kept buming in the night, but three only in the
day. Exod. xxx, 8 ; Lev. xxiv, 4. In the morning the priest
put the lamps in order with his golden snuffers, and carried
away the filth that might have gathered upon them, in golden
vessels made for that pui-pose. The weight of the whole
candlestick was one hundred and twenty-five pounds. Exod.
xxv, 31-40; xxvii, 20; xxxvii, 17-24; Lev. xxiv, 1-4;
Num. iv, 9. Table of Shew-Bread.
In the flrst apartment of the tabernacle, on the north side,
was a table, raade of acacia wood, three feet long, one and
a half broad, and two and a quarter high, covered over with
leaves of gold. The top of the leaf of this table was encir
cled with a rim or border of gold. The frame of the table,
immediately below the leaf, was encircled with a piece of
wood about four inches broad, aroun(i the edge of which
there was a rim, the same, as around the leaf. A little lower
down, but at equal distances from the top of the table, there
were four rings of gold fastened to the legs of it, through
which staves or poles, covered with gold, were placed, for
the purpose of carrying it. Exod. xxv, 23-28 ; xxxvu, 10-16.
The rings were not found iii the table of shew-bread which
was afterwards made for the temple, nor, indeed, in any of
the sacred furniture where they had, previously been, except
in the ark of the covenant. Twelve unleavened loaves were
placed upon this table, which were sprinkled over with frank
incense, and, it is stated in the Alexandrine vereion, with salt
15

226 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
likewise. They were placed in two pfles, one above another,
were changed every Sabbath day by the priests, and were
called the bread of the face, because it was exhibited before
the face or throne of Jehovah. Lev. xxiv, 6, 7 ; 1 Chron.
xxiii, 29.
Wine was placed upon the tables in bowls, some larger and
some smaller ; also in a sort of vessels that were covered,
and in cups which were employed in pouring in and taking
out the wine from the other vessels. Exod. xxv, 29, 30 ;
xxxvii, 10-16 ; xl, 4, 24 ; Lev. xxiv, 5-9 ; Nura. iv, 7.
Altar of Incense.
The altar of incense was placed between the table of shew-
bread and the golden candlestick, towards the veil which en
closed the interior apartment of the tabernacle, or holy of
holies. It was constructed of acacia wood, eighteen inches
square and three feet high. It was ornamented at the four
corners, and overlaid with leaves of gold ; hence it was called
the golden altar, also the interior altar, in contradistinction
from the altar for the victims, which was in the large court
The upper surface of this altar was encircled by a border,
and on each of the two sides, at equal distances, were fastened
two rings, for the admission of the rods of gold, by which it
was carried. Incense was offered on this altar daily, morn
ing and evening, a description of which is given in Exodus
xxx, 1-10, 34-37 ; xxxvii, 25-29 ; xl, 5-26.
Ark of the Covenant in the Holy of Holies.
The ark of the covenant was deposited in that part of
the tabernacle called the holy of holies, a place so secluded
that the light of day never found an entrance within it It
was a chest of an oblong shape, made' of acacia wood,
twenty-seven inches broad and high and three feet long, and
covered on aU sides with the purest gold. It was orna
mented on its upper surface with a border or rim of gold,
and at equal distances, on each of the two sides, from the

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 227
top, were two gold rings, in which were placed, to remain
there perpetually, the rods of gold by which the ark was car
ried, and which continued with it after it was deposited in
the temple. It was so situated in the holy of holies that the
ends of the rods touched the veil which separated the two
apartments of the tabernacle. Exod. xxv, 10-15 ; xxxvii, 1-9 ;
1 Kings viu, 8.
The lid or cover of the ark, IXadT-qpiov emdri[ia, was of
the same length and breadth, and made of the purest gold.
Over it, at the two extremities, were two cherubim, with their
faces turned toward each other, and inclined a little to the
lid, otherwise called the mercy-seat. Their wings, which
were spread over the top of the ark, formed the throne of
God the king, whfle the ark itself was his footstool. There
was nothing within the ark ex(Mpting the two tables of
stone, on which were inscribed the ten fundamental laws of
the Jewish rehgion and commonwealth. A quantity of
manna was laid up beside the ark in a vase of gold. Exod.
xvii, 32-36 ; also the rod of Aaron, Num. xvii, 10 ; and a
copy ofthe Books of Moses. Deut. xxxi, 26.
Temple of Solomon.
The temple was erected on the summit of Mount Moriah,
encircled by a wall of hewn stone, rising up from the valleys
around it, from four to six hundred feet in height. The area
of the temple was about the eighth of a mfle square. This
area was divided into the exterior and interior courts, the
latter of which was called the court before the temple, or the
court of the priests. 1 Kings vi, 36; •vii,12; 2 Kings xxiii, 12;
2 Chron. iv, 9 ; xx, 6 ; Ezek. xl, 28.
Wliether these two courts were separated from each other
by a wafl, or merely a lattice or trellis, does not clearly ap
pear. 1 Kings vi, 1-^38 ; vii, 13-51 ; 2 Chron. iii, 1, 4, 22.
There were various buildings and apartments in which
provisions were kept, also the vases and other utensils which
belonged to the temple, and sorae of which were occupied

228 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
by the priests and Levites, whfle they were employed there
in the fulfilment of their sacred duties. 1 Chron. ix, 26-33 ;
xxiii, 28; xxvfli, 12; 2 Chron. xxxi, 12; Jer. xxxv, 2-4;
xxxvi, 10.
The altar in the interior court was buflt of unhewn stones.
It was thirty feet long and fifteen high and broad, and cov
ered with brass. 2 Chron. iv, 1-10.
The vases, and other utensils belonging to the altar, were
much more numerous than in the tabernacle. 1 Kings rii,
40-47. The very large brazen laver cafled the molten sea
was in the form of a half globe, forty-five feet in circumfer
ence, fifteen in diameter, and seven and a half in depth. It
could contain three thousand baths, and was adorned, in its
upper edge, with figures that resembled fllies in bloom. It
was also enriched with various ornamental figures, and rested
on the backs of twelve oxen, three facing each of the cardi
nal points. There were, in addition to the brazen sea, ten
smaller brazen lavers, which were also set off with various
ornaments, five on the north and five on the south side of
the court. They rested on bases and wheels of brass, were
each six feet in circumference, and held forty baths. The
flesh of the victims that, were sacrificed was washed in
these lavers. 1 Kings •vii, 27-39 ; 2 Chron. iv, 6.
The sanctuary was ninety feet long, thirty broad, and
fort3'-five high, with the exception of the part called the
sanctissimum or most holy, the height of which was only
thirty feet, so that there remained above it a room fifteen
feet high. The windows were latticed.
In front of the sanctuary was the porch, one hundred and
eighty feet high, thirty broad from north to south, and
fifteen long frora east to west. 1 Kings •vi, 3 ; 2 Chron. iii, 4.
Two columns of brass were erected near the entrance of this
porch, each eighteen feet in circuraference. The one to the
north was called Jachin ; the other, to the south, was cafled
Boaz. The height of the shafts of these columns was
twenty-seven feet, the capitals seven and a half, and the base

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 229
nineteen and a half, making in all forty-five feet. These
piUars were profusely ornamented with carved representations
of leaves, pomegranates, net, and lily work. They were
hollow within, and the brass of which they were raade was
four inches thick. 1 Kings vfl, 15-20; 2 Chron. ui, 15-17.
A gallery extended along the sides of the sanctuary, with
the exception of the eastern, which was three stories high.
It was constructed of beams and planks, and there was an
ascent to it on the south by raeans of a flight of winding-
stairs. 1 Kings vi, 5, 6-8. The sanctuary itself was con
structed of square stones, covered with boards of cedar
within and without, in which a variety of ornaraental figures
were cut, and which was overlaid with leaves of gold. The
passage into the porch was very lofty and broad ; but it was
merely an open entrance, without any door. The entrance
into the sanctuary, on the contrary, was closed by a valve or
folding-door, made of the oleaster or wild olive, which was
ornamented with speciraens of carved work, in the shape of
cherubira, palms, and flowers. It was covered with gold,
and turned on golden hinges. 1 Kings vi, 33-35.
The door" that opened into the sanctissimum or holy of
holies, which was pentagonal in form, was adorned and en
riched in the same way with that of the sanctuary. Both
doors were covered with a veil of linen, wrought with em
broidery. Within the sanctuary was the altar of incense, overlaid
with gold, ten tables, also overlaid with gold, and ten golden
candlesticks, five on the north and five on the south side.
On these tables were placed twelve loaves and a hundred
golden cups. The other vessels of the sanctuary were like
wise more nuraerous than those in the tabernacle.
The ark of the covenant was placed in the holy of holies.
Its position was such that the rods touched the veil, fi'ora
which circurastance it may be inferred that the door of this
apartment stood open. 1 Kings vin, 8 ; 2 Chron. v, 9.
Near the ark were two cherubim, made of the wood of

23'0 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the wfld oUve and covered with gold, each of which was fif
teen feet high, and each extended one of its wings over the
ark to the middle of it, and the other to the wall. 1 Kings
vi, 23-28 ; 2 Chron. ifl, 10-13.
The temple of Zerubbabel, which was completed B. C. 615,
was, in height and breadth, ninety feet. Its length is not
known. It differed from Solomon's Temple in several re
spects, the more important of which were that there was only
one candlestick and one golden table. The ark of the cove
nant, the sacred oil, the Urim and Thummim, and the sacred
fire were gone, and also that singular cloud, the Shekinah,
which anciently was seen over the tabernacle, and afterwards
filled the temple. 2 Chron. v, 13, 14; vi, 1; vfl, 1-3;
1 Kings viii, 10-12.
Herod rendered the temple, by repairs and additions, exceed
ingly magnificent. As improved by Herod, it had three courts,
or open areas, each one of which was situated above the other.
The first court was enclosed by that outer wall which has
been described, and which was raised from the base of the
mount. In the middle of this court was an ascent of four
steps, which led to an enclosure of stone. On the gates that
opened through this enclosure, and on the columns contigu-
"ous, were inscriptions in Hebrew, Greek and Latin, which
interdicted, under penalty of death, any further entrance to
the unclean and the Gentfles. Immediately back of this
wall succeeded an ascent of fourteen steps, into a level space
flfteen feet broad, which was succeeded by another ascent of
five steps, to the gate of the second wall, which was sixty
feet high outside, and thirty-seven within. This waU en
closed the court of the Israelites, while the first court, where
the inscriptions were, was that of the Gentiles.
Between the courts of the IsraeHtes and the Gentiles, on
the east side, was the coui^t of the Hebrew women, which
was separated from the court of the IsraeHtes by a wafl so
low as to permit them to see the men, whfle they themselves
remained unseen. The entrance to the court of the women

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 281
was through two gates, one on the north and the other on
the south side.
The quadrangular area, immediately around the altar and
the sanctuary, was called the court of the priests. It was
surrounded by a low but elegant enclosure, so that the
people had an opportunity of looking into it, while, at the
sarae time, they were not permitted to enter.
The largest gate was situated in the outer wall, on'*the
east side. It was called The Beautiful, Ovpa upaia, and
was splendidly ornamented with Corinthian brass, which was
reckoned preferable to silver or gold. This gate equalled
the sanctuary in height, which, in the highest place, was
more than a hundred and fifty feet. The folds of this gate
were seventy-five feet high and sixty broad, and were cov
ered with plates of gold and silver. The ascent to it was
frora the valley of Kedron, over many steps. To the south
of the temple there was a valley six hundred feet deep.
There was a gate, nevertheless, in that direction, leading from
the wall into the lower part of the city. On the west side
two gates led, by numerous steps, into the valley below,
which ran in a southem direction, and was fiUed with houses.
On the western side there were also two other gates besides
these, one of which connected the temple with Mount Zion,
by means of a bridge over the vaUey, and the other con
ducted into the lower part of the city. On the north there
was no gate, but the tower or castle! of Antonia was con
nected with the temple by means of a subterranean passage.
On the' north and south sides of the inner wall there were
six gates, three on each side, which faced each other. On
the eastern side there was a gate which corresponded to The
Beautiful Gate, and led into the court of the women. The
western side of the inner wall, which was contiguous to the
sanctuary, had no gate. All these gates had folds. They
were forty -five feet high and twenty-two broad. The thresh
olds and the posts, as well as the gates, were covered with
silver and gold. The'v were all surmounted with a sort of

232 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
turret, which increased the height to sixty feet. Around
the gates were vacant spaces, where the people were in the
habit of assembling.
A triple porch extended around the southern wall of the
court of the Gentiles ; but the porches that were contiguous
to the northem, eastern, and western sides or waUs of this
court, were riierely double. The porches in the court of the
Isr^lites were double likewise. Each double porch rested
on a triple, and each triple porch on a quadruple row of
columns, the last row being contiguous to the wall. The
columns, which were Corinthian, were hewn out of white
marble, and were thirty-seven feet high ; but the entire alti
tude, including pedestals, capitals, cornice, and roof, was
nearly sixty-five. The colurans were so large that three men
could scarcely extend their arras round them. The roof,
which was flat, was constructed of cedar-wood. Each of
these porches was forty-five feet broad and seventy-five feet
high, with this exception, that the middle one, on the south
side, was sixty-two feet broad and one hundred and fifty high,
from the roof of which to the valley below was seven hun
dred and flfty feet. It was this porch, without doubt, that
St. Matthew (iv, 5) cafled -nrep-vyiov toi; lepov, the pinnacle
of the temple. The eastern porch of the court of the Gen
tiles was (jailed Solomon's.
All the porches were paved with marble of various col
ours. Those in the court of the Gentiles were resorted to
by money-changers and those who sold animals destined for
the altar.
The altar for the ¦victims was constructed of unhewn
stones, twenty-two feet high and seventy-five in length and
breadth, the corners of which projected upwards like homs.
The ascent to it was on the south side.
The sanctuary, or temple proper, was constmcted of white
marble, and higher than the court of the priests. It was
approached by an ascent of twelve steps. The pm-ch of the
sanctuary, irpovaog, was a hundred and fifty feet high and

BIBLICAL ABCHiEOLOGY. 233
as raany broad. The open space which served as an en
trance into it, and which was destitute of folds or door of
any sort, was one hundted and five feet high and thirty-
seven broad.
The interior of the porch was one hundred and thirty-five
feet high, seventy-five from north to south, and thirty fi'om
east to west; so that on the north and south there was
room for recesses or chambers, of thirty feet in extent.
The entrance, which opened into the sanctuary, was sev
enty-seven feet high and twenty-four broad. Ovex it was
the figure of a vine, in gold, of the size of a man, and loaded
with golden clusters. This entrance was closed with an
embroidered veil. It was in the porch of the temple that
Judas cast down the thirty pieces of silver. Matt, xxvfl, 6.
The sanctuary itself was thirty feet broad, ninety long,
and ninety high. It was surrounded on three sides with a
structure three stories high, making an altitude of sixty feet.
It equalled the porch in breadth, into the two chambers of
which there was an entrance from it. On the fiat roof of
the sanctuary were erected long, sharp rods of iron, covered
with gold.
From the sanctuary we enter the sanctissimum, or holy
of holies, which was thirty feet long, thirty broad, and thirty
high, so that> there were two stories above, each of thirty
cubits. In the sanctuary were the golden candlestick, the
golden table, and the altar of incense ; but in the most holy
place nothing was deposited. The walls within and without
were covered with gold, and it was separated frora the sanc
tuary by an embroidered veil.
Synagogues.
Although the sacrifices could not be offered, except in
the tabernacle or temple, all the other exercises of religion
were restricted to no particular place. Accordingly we find
that the praises of God were sung, at a very ancient period,
in the schools of the prophets ; and those who felt any par-

234 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
ticular interest in religion, were assembled by the seere on
the Sabbath and the new moons, for prayers and religious in
struction. 1 Sam. X, 6-11; xix, 18-24 ; 2 Kings iv, 23.
During the Babylonish captivity the Jews, who were then
deprived of their custoraary rehgious pri^rileges, were wont to
collect around sorae prophet, or other pious man, who taught
them and their chUdren in religion, exhorted to good con
duct, and read one of the sacred books. Ezek. xiv, 1 ; xx, 1 ;
Dan. vi, 11; Neh. vifl, 18. These assemblies or meetings
became,, in progress of time, fixed to certain places, and a
regular order was observed in them. This was the origin
of synagogues.
In speaking of synagogues it is worthy of notice that they
were first established in the reign of the Maccabean princes.
In foreign countries it is supposed they existed at an earlier
day, inasmuch as the apostles found thera wherever they
travelled araong the Jews. They were built in imitation of
the temple, with a court and porches. In the centre of the
court is a chapel, supported by four colurans, in which is
placed, on an elevation, a roll of the Book of the Law,
which is publicly read on appointed days. The seats near
est the chapel were called the uppermost, and esteemed the
most honourable. Matt xxiU, 6 ; James fl, 3.
The poseuchoe, npoaevxal, are supposed to have been
smaller synagogues, where the Jews asserabled for religious
exercises. They were distinguished from the synagogue
proper in not being set apart especially for divine worship.
Acts xvi, 13-16. When the Jews had no synagogues they
held their religious meetings in dwelling-houses. The apos
tles imitated them in this ; hence we hear of Churches in
houses. Rom. xvi, 5 ; 1 Cor. xvi, 19 ; Col. iv, 15 ; Philem. 2 ;
Acts fl, 46 ; V, 42.
Xvvayuy?] raeans literally a convention or assembly ;
tropically, it is used as the place of meeting. In the same
way kKKXrjaia means literally a caUing together ; tropicaUy,
the place of convocation.

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 235
SACRED SEASONS.
Sabbath.
In speaking of sacred seasons, the Sabbath, cdfifiarov, is
particularly worthy of notice. The practice of consecrating
the Sabbath, or seventh day of the week, originated from what
is stated in Gen. fl, 1-3. That it was observed from the
creation is evident from the form ofthe commandment, (Exod.
XX, 8,) Remember the Sabbath, (fee It was no new thing,
and it had been previously spoken of in Exod. xvi, 22-30.
The Sabbath was designed to exhibit a symbolic represen
tation that God was the creator of the universe, and ought to
be worshipped ; hence the same punishment, viz., death,
was attached to a violation of this institution, that there was
to an open defection frora the true God. Exod. xxxv, 2 ;
Nura. XV, 32-36.
The more recent Jews distinguished certain Sabbaths by
particular naraes. The Sabbath, for instance, imraediately
preceding the Passover, was denominated the Great Sabbath.
John xix, 31. Another kind of Sabbath is called the second
first, odpiiaTOV devTepoTrpUTOV. Luke vi, 1. It is difficult
to tell what this meant.
The name of Sabbath, which signifies rest, is an intimation
that all ordinary labour is to be suspended on that day.
There were exceptions to this in the following things : —
The healing of the sick was not forbidden; nor a walk or
journey of a thousand geometrical paces ; nor the plucking a
few ears of corn to appease hunger ; nor the performing any
act of necessity, such as feeding cattle, plucking them from
the ditch, (fee. Matt, xii, 1-15 ; Luke -vi, 1-5 ; xifl, 10-17 ;
Mark iii, 2 ; John v, 2-18 ; ix, -1-34.
Certain duties of a religious nature were not prohibited,
such as circumcision on the eighth day, the slaughter and
burning of victims, and the labours in general connected with
the observances practised in the tabernacle. Lev. vi, 8 ;
Num. xxvfli, 3 ; Matt xii, 2 ; John vii, 23.

236 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Sorrow on the Sabbath day was an indication of great
calamity. Hosea fl, 11 ; Lam. u, 6. The Hebrews spent
the day in dancing, singing songs, and playing on instru
ments. These, however, were reUgious exercises. Exod. xv,
20, 21; xxxii, 6, 7 ; 2 Sam. vi, 14; Psa. Ixviii, 25-27;
cxlix, 3 ; cl, 4. Sabbatic Year.
As the period of seven days was completed by the Sabbath,
so a period of seven years was corapleted by the Sabbatic
year. It was the design of this year to afford a longer op
portunity for irapressing on the raind the great truth that
God was the creator and governor of the world, and alone
ought to be worshipped. During the feast of tabernacles this
year the law was to be pubhcly read f6r eight days together,
either in the tabernacle or temple. Deut. xxxi, 10-13.
Debts were not coUected, (Deut xv, 1, 2,) though they were
not cancelled. Year of Jubilee.
The Jubflee followed seven Sabbatic years, i. e., it was on
the fiftieth year. Lev. xxv, 8-11. The return ofthe year of
jubilee was announced on the tenth day of the seventh
month, or Tishni — October — being the day of propitiation or
atonement, by the sound of the trumpet. Lev. xxv, 8-il3 ;
xxvii, 24 ; Num. xxxvi, 4 ; Isa. Ixi, 1,2.
AU the servants of Hebrew origin, on the year of jubflee,
obtained their freedom. Lev. xxv, 39-46 ; Jer. xxxiv, 7,
et seq.
All the fields throughout the country, and the houses in
the cities and villages of the Levites and priests, which had
been sold on the preceding yeare, were retumed on the year
of jubilee to the sellers, with the exception of those which had
been consecrated to God, and had not been redeemed before
the return of said year. Lev. xxv, 10, 13, 17, 24, 28 ; xxrii,
16-21.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 237
Debtors, for the most part, pledged or mortgaged their
land to a creditor, or left it to his use till the time of pay
ment; so that it was in effect sold to the creditor, and was,
accordingly restored to the debtor on the year of jubUee.
At this time there wks a general cancelling of debts.
New Moons.
The return of the new moons was announced by the
sounding of the silver trumpets. It was commanded that,
on the new moons, in addition to the daily sacrifices, two
bullocks, a ram, and seven sheep, should be offered to God,
together with a meal-offering and a libation. These were
to constitute the burnt-offering, and a goat the sin-offering.
Passover.
The festival of the Passover was instituted for th'e purpose
of preserving the memory of the deUverance of the Hebrews
from Egyptian servitude, and of the safety of their first-born
on the night in which the first-born ofthe Egyptians perished.
Exod. xii. It was celebrated for seven days, viz., from the
16th to the 21st of April Exod. xii, 1-28; xxiii, 16 ; Lev.
xxiii, 4-8; Num. xxvifl, 16-25; Deut xvi, 1-8. During
the whole of this period the people ate unleavened bread,
and hence it was called the feast of unleavened bread. Exod.
xfl, 18 ; xfli, 6, 7 ; xxifl, 15 ; Lev. xxfli, 6 ; Nura. xxvifl, 17.
On the 10th day of the month the master, or head of a
family, separated a ram or a goat of a year old, which he
slew on the 14th, between the two evenings, before the altar.
Deut xvi, 2, 5, 6. The priest sprinkled the blood upon the
bottom of the altar. In Egypt it was sprinkled on the
Hntels and door-posts. Exod. xu, 7. The ram or kid was
roasted whole, with two spits thrust through it, the one
lengthwise, and the other transversely crossing, near the fore
legs, so that the animal was in a manner crucified. Thus
roasted, it was served up with a salad of wild and bitter herbs,
and with the fiesh of other sacrifices. Not fewer than ten,

238 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
nor more than twenty persons, were admitted to these
sacred feasts. The command not to break a bone was ob
served ever after the original foundation of this feast
The master of the family, after the paschal supper is pre
pared, blesses the bread, and breaks it, and divides it among
the rest, who are seated around hira, so that each one may
receive a part, and has liberty, if he chooses, to dip it, before
eating, into a vessel of sauce.
The third cup of wine which is drunk on this occasion is
properly termed the cup of benediction. Matt, xxvi, 27 ;
1 Cor. X, 16. After this, songs of praise are sung, and
another cup is drank, (Mark xiv, 26,) and another Psalm
sung. The wine is mingled with water.
On the second day ofthe Passover, i. e., the 16th, a sheaf
of barley was offered up ; also a lamb of a year old, for a
burnt-offering ; also a raeal-offering and a libation. On every
day of the Paschal week there were offerings more than
usual, and victims were immolated for sin. Num. xxviii,
16-26. Pentecost.
Forty-nine days after the 16th of April introduced the
Pentecost, TTevTrjKoarrj, i. e., the fiftieth. It was also cafled
the feast of weeks, from the circumstance that it foUowed a
succession of seven weeks. Exod. xxxiv, 22 ; Lev. xxui,
15, 16; Num. xxvifl, 26; Deut xvi, 10; Acts ii, 1. It
was a festival of thanks for the harvest, and was accordingly
called the feast of the harvest. And it was for the same
reason that two loaves, made of new meal, and the tenth
part of an ephah of grain, were offered as the first-fruits.
Lev. xxifl, 17 ; Num. xxviii, 26. Hence the Pentecost
is sometiraes called the day of the first-fruits. On this
day many Jews from foreign countries assembled at
Jerusalem.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 239
Feast of Tabernacles.
The feast of tabernacles was celebrated from the iSth to'
the 23d of October. The last day was the one most par
ticularly distinguished as a festival. Leviticus xxiii, 34-42 ;
Num. xxix, 12-35 ; Deut xvi, 12-15 ; Neh. vfli, 18 ; John
vii, 2-37.
It was instituted in memory of the journey through the
Arabian wilderness. During its continuance the Jews dwelt
in booths or tents, as they did in their journey from Egypt
Lev. xxiu, 42, 43. It was also called the. feast of the
gathering, in honour of the vintage. It was a season of
great joy among the Jews.
More public sacrifices were directed to be offered on this
occasion than on the other festivals. Num. xxix, 12-39 ;
Deut. xvi, 14, 15 ; Lev. xxfli, 38-40.
The fifth day before the feast of tabernacles, viz., the
10th of October, was the day of propitiation or atonement.
Lev. xvi, 1-34; Exod. xxiii, 26-30; Nura. xxix, 1—11. It
was a day of fasting, and the only one during the whole
of the year when food was interdicted frora evening to
evening. Lev. xxifl, 27-29 ; xxv, 9.
The high priest himself conducted the sacred services of
this day, and the ceremonies now to be mentioned, which
diff'ered from those on other occasions, were performed by
him alone. When he had washed himself in water, put on
his white linen, hose, and coat, and adjusted his girdle, he
conducted to the .altar, with a sacerdotal mitre on his head, a
bullock, destined to be slain for the sins of himself and his
famfly ; also two goats, for the sins of the people ; the one of
which was selected by lot, to be sacrificed to God, the other
was permitted to make an unraolested escape. Lev. xvi, 6-19.
Presently he slew the bullock for his own sins, and the goat
which had been selected by lot for that purpose for the sins
of the people. He then filled a censer with burning coals
from the altar, and putting two handfuls of incense into a

240 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
vase, he bore the incense into the sanctissimum, or holy of
holies. Having here poured the incense, he returned, took
' the blood of the bullock and the goat, and went again into
the most holy place. With his finger he first sprinkled the
blood of the bullock, a,nd afterwards the blood of the goat,
upon the lid of the ark of the covenant ; and seven times,
also, he sprinkled it upon the floor before the ark. He then
retumed from the most holy, to the holy place or sanctuary,
and sprinkled the horns of the golden altar, which was there
placed, with the blood of the bullock and the goat, and
scattered the blood seven times over the surface of the altar.
This was done as an expiation for the uncleanness and sins
ofthe chfldren of Israel. Lev. xvi, 11-19. The high priest,
then going into the court ofthe tabernacle, placed both hands,
with gi'eat solemnity, on the head of the scape-goat, as a
symbolic representation that the animal was loaded with' the
sins of the people. It was then delivered to a man, who led
it away into the wilderness, and let it go free, to signify the
liberation of the Israelites from the punishment due to their
sins. The goat which was slain for the sins of the
people, and the bullock slain for those of the high
priest, were designed to signify that they were guflty,
and that they merited punishment; and were to be burnt
whole beyond the limits of the camp or the city. Lev.
xvi, 20, 22, 26, 28. The high priest then took off his
white vestments, and assuraing the splendid robes of his
office, offered a holocaust for himself and the people,
and then offered another sin-offering. Lev.,x'ri, 23-25;
Num. xxix, 7-11. Fasts.
The Hebrews were in the habit of fasting whenever any
calamity came upon them. Judg. xx, 26 ; 1 Sam. rii, 6 ;
xxxi, 13 ; 2 Sara, iii, 35; Isa. Ivifl, 3-12. About the time
of the captivity they instituted anniversary fast days, as
foUows : —

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 241
1. The seventeenth of July, in memory of the capture of
Jerusalem. Jer. Hi, 6, 7 ; Zech. -vifl, 19.
2. The ninth day of August, in memory of the burning of
the temple. Zech. vii, 3 ; -riii, 19.
3. Tlie third day of October, in memory of the death of
Gedaliah. Jer. xl, 4; Zech. vfl, 6; •viii, 19.
4. The tenth day of January, in memory of the com
mencement ofthe attack on Jemsalern. Zech. vfli, 19.
Feasts or Festivals.
The feast of purim, or lot, was held on the fifteenth day
of March, in commeraoration of the deUverance of the Jews
from the cruel designs of Haman. Esther ifl, 7 ; ix, 26.
The festival of enccenia, or the purification ofthe temple.
The temple was profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes in tbe
year 167, and was purified in the year 164 before Christ
Its dedication, at the time of its being purified, was celebrated
eight days with raany sacrifices, beginning on the twenty-
fifth of December. This dedication was converted into an
anniversary. 1 Mac. iv, 52, 59 ; 2 Mac. x, 1-8 ; John x, 22.
SACRED THINGS.
Sacrifices.
A sacrifice is that which is offered directly to God, and is
in some way destroyed or changed, which is done, as far as
respects the flesh employed in the sacrifice, by buming it,
and as far as concerns the libation, in this : in ' a sacrifice,
there raust be a real change or destruction of the thing
offered ; whereas an oblation is but a siraple offering or gift.
It is accordingly to be understood, that neither the wood
necessary for cherishing the fire of the altar, nor any presents
which raight at any tirae be offered for the use of the temple
or sanctuary, are properly called sacrifices.
Sacrifices were coeval with the existence of the human
race. Gen. iv, 3-6 ; viii, 20 ; xfl, 7 ; xfli, 4 ; xv, 9-21 ;
IG

242 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
xxfl, 13. Some of the sacrifices that were authorized by
Mo^es were bloody, (slain victims,) others were not; the
latter consisted of cakes, wafers, meal, and libations of wine.
The bloody sacrifices were sorae of them expiatory and some
of them thank-offerings. The expiatory offerings were either
holocausts, sacrifices for sin, or trespass-offerings. The
holocausts were offered for the whole people. The expiatory
secured expiation in a civil point of •view. Sacrifices
of this kind were .slain to the north of the altar, and were
regarded as most .holy. The thank-offering was slain to the
south of the altar, parts of which were burnt, parts were
given to the priests, and parts to the person who brought the
sacrifice. The victims to be offered were only of the ox kind, and
sheep, and goats — no wild beasts being permitted; also,-
turtle-doves and young pigeons. They raust all be perfect,
having no defect.
The person who offered the victira presented it before God,
i e., led it before the altar in the court, with its head turned
towards the door of the sanctuary. ' The offerer placed his
hand upon the head of the victira, and by this imposition
the victira was substituted in the place of the person who
brought it to the altar.
Holocausis.-were saciifices in which the victims were wholly
consumed. The •victims were bullocks of three years old,
goats and lambs of a year old, turtle-doves and young
pigeons. The victims selected for sin-offerings 'were as follows, riz.,
a bullock for the high priest, a goat for the civfl magistrate,
a kid or lamb for private pereons, a turtle-dove and a young
pigeon also a lamb for mothers at childbirth, a goat, dove,
or pigeon for a leper, and a dove or pigeon for a contaminated
Nazarite. Trespass-offerings were not required of the people as a
bod}'. They were offered by persons who, through ignorance,
mistake, or want of reflection, had committed trespasses, and

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 243
were subsequently made conscious of their error. Lev. iv,
1-16; v, 1-19.
Peace or thank-offerings were sacrifices offered as an in
dication of gratitude, and were accompanied 'with unleavened
cakes and ofl. Lev. iii, 1-17 ; vii, 11, 23, 27, 28, 35.
First-Born.
The first-born, both of men and animals, was to be
consecrated to God. The firet-bom children were to be
presented before the Lord, and were to be redeemed accord
ing to the estimation of the priest; but the amount of
the sum paid in this redemption could not exceed five
shekels. They could not be redeemed before the age of a
month, and for the most part were not so till the ceremony
of purification for childbirth. Num. xvifl, 14-16 ; Exod.
xifl, 13; Luke ii, 22.
The first-born cattle of sheep and goats, from eight days
to a year old, were to be offered in sacrifice, and the parts
designated being bumt, the remainder was left to the priests.
Num. xvifl, 17, 18 ; Lev. xxvii, 26. It was in this way that
the Hebrews exhibited their gratitude to God, who preserved
their first-born in Egypt from the impending destruction.
Exod. xifl, 2, 11, 16 ; Num. ifl, 12, 13. The first-born sons
were by birth priests, and were to be redeemed from serving
at the altar. Num. Hi, 20-51. First-Fruits.
The firet sheaf of barley, on the second day of the^ Pass
over, and the first loaves on the feast of Pentecost, were
offered in the name of the people. Individuals were obliged
to offer the first-fruits of the vine, of fruit-trees, of their grain,
honey, and wool, by means of which offerings they exhibited
that gratitude which was due to God for the country he had
given them. Exod. xxifl, 19 ; Lev. ii, 12 ; Num. xv, 17-21 ;
xrifl, 11-13; Deut xxvi, 1-11. The offerings thus made

244 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
became the property of the priests. Num. xvifl, 11-13;
Deut xvifl, 4.
Second first-fruits were appropriated to the eucharistical
sacrifices. Tithes.
Tithes are very ancient, and were exacted in the earliest
times among almost all nations. Abraham offered the tithes
of his spoils to Melchizedec, priest of the most high God-
Gen, xiv, 20. Jacob vowed unto God the tenth of all his
income. This vow w^s observed by himself and all his
posterity. Gen. xxvfli, 22. Tithing is mentioned as a
practice well known. Deut xii, 11, 17, 19; xiv, 22, 23.
Tithes were presented every year at the tabernacle, with one
exception. Every third year they were permitted to make a
feast of them at their own houses, for servants, widows,
orphans, the poor, and the Levites. Deut. xiv, 28, 29 ; xxvi,
12-15. Tithes were of the first and second kind. Lev. ,
xxvfl, 30 ; Num. xviii, 20-24 ; Deut xiv, 22, 23 ; Neh.
xifl, 5-12. Sacred Oil.
The sacred oil with which the tabernacle, the ark of the
covenant, the golden candlestick, the table, the altar of in
cense, the altar of burnt-off'erings, the laver, and all the
sacred utensils, and, indeed, the priests themselves were
anointed, was composed of the oil of oflves, the richest
myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, apd sweet calamus. Exod. xx.'c,
20-23. Oaths.
The person who confirmed ,his assertion by a voluntary
oath pronounced the sarae with his right hand elevated.
Sometimes the swearer omitted the imprecation, as if he
were afraid to utter it. Gen. xiv, 22, 23; Psa. cvi, '26;
Ixxx, 18; Ezek. xvfl, 18.

BIBLICAL ABCHEOLOGY. 245
'When the oath was exacted by a judge it was put in
forra, and the person responded, " So let it be" or, " Thou
hast said." Num. v, 19-22 ; Lev. v, 1 ; 1 Kings xxii, 16 ;
Deut. xxvii, 16-26.
As an oath- was an appeal to God, the taking a false oath
was considered a heinous crime, and peijury was accordingly
forbidden iu those words, " Thou shalt not take tlie name of
the Lord thy God in vain." Exod. xx, 6. It was common
in Egypt to swear by the life of the king. The Hebrews
also swore by cities and consecrated places, such as Hebron,
Shilo, and Jerusalem.
The Jews, in the time of Christ, were in the habit of
swearing by the altar, by Jerusalem, by heaven, by the earth,
by themselves, by their heads, by the gold q^ the temple,- h-y
sacrifices, (fee, (fee Because the narae of God was not in
these oaths they considered them as imposing but small
obUgation. Matt v, 33-37 ; xxfli, 16-22.
Vows.
Vows were solemn promises made by persons to consecrate
themselves to God, or something which they intended to set
apart for his service. The earliest vow is that of Jacob.
Gen. xxvifl, 22. The father and husband had power of an
nulling the vows of a daughter or a wife. Num. xxx, 2-1 7.
Vows were of two kinds, affirmative or negative. Affirm
ative vows consisted in the consecration of money, lands,
houses, animals, servants, sons, and the person hiraself to
God. Negative vows consisted in abstaining from anything
lawful, and were denominated a j'estraint on the appetite.
The principal araong this class of vows was that of the Naz
arites. ' Prayers.
It was' at fir.st an unspoken eraotion of reverence and
gratitude to God that constituted prayer. Supplications
were subsequently added. Gen. xii, 8 ; xxi, 33 ; xxiv, 26-48 ;
xxvi, 25; xxxfl, 9-12; Deut xxvi, 3, 10, 13, 15.

246 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Our Lord's prayer (Matt 'vi, 9-13) is a selection of the
most devotional and -appropriate sentiments from the Jewish
formularies extant in his time.
Hymns were sung on particular occasions, accompanied
•with sacred dances and instruments of music. Exod. xv;
Judg. v; 1 Kings vifl, 14, 21, 23, 53; Psa. Ixxii, 20; Neh.
viii, 6.
Private prayer was uttered aloud. 1 Sara, i, 12-15 ; Luke
xvifl, 10-14. The Hebrews prayed in various attitudes, such
as standing, laieeling, and prostration on the ground. They
raised their hands, and sometiraes sraote up(3n their breasts.
Ancientiy there were no fixed hours for prayer. Daniel, at
a raore recent neriod, prayed three tiraes a day.
Worship was held in the synagogues on the Sabbath day.
The exercases consisted in reading from the Mosaic law, sing
ing the doxology, and reading from the prophets! ' The
apostles gathered the first Churches. After they were exclu
ded frora them they assembled at evening, at the house of
some friend, which was lighted for the purpose with lamps.
Acts XX, 7-11. The reader or speaker stood — ^tbe others sat
All arose in time of prayer. Whatever was stated in a
foreign tongue was imraediately interpreted. 1 Cor. xiv, 1-33.
Note. — The above part was compiled from the foUo'wing
authors, viz. : — ^Jahn, Michaelis, and Kitto. Should the reader
wish to extend his researches, he may consult the writings of the
ahove authors with great profit. It is modestly conceived, how
ever, that all essential to Biblical archaeology will be found in the
above pages.

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.
THE FIRST RACES OP MANKIND.
In treating of the nations of the Bible, as we have of the
times, manner's, and customs, events, countries, and languages
of the Bible, it shall be our object to confine ourselves strictiy
to those mentioned in its history, and in doing so shall call
attention to thera, as far as practicable, in the order in which
they occur in the sacred record. The nations of the Bible
raay be divided into the ante and post diluvian. In regard
,tq the forraer we know but little. The period frora the Cre
ation to the Deluge erabraced ten generations, and it is sup
posed, by one of the ablest writere on the patriarchal age,
that the population of the earth was as great at that time as
it is at the present. Whether the inhabitants before the
Deluge were united in one, or divided into many nations,
we have no means of knowing. One thing is certain : the
race had become numerous and po'werful, as well as wicked
and revengeful ; and, in the days of Enoch and Noah, their
extraordinary crimes involved the whole race, with the ex
ception of one family, in destruction. We shall not stop
here to discuss the question in regard to the unity of the
human race, touching their oneness of origin. These ques
tions are now undergoing an investigation, in the hands of
naturaHsts and historians, and, they do not, in the least, affect
the verity of the sacred record. Whether mankind proceeded
from one or a dozen pairs is a matter of no consequence, as
it does not involve the Bible account of our comraon origin.

248 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
It is enough for us to show what nations took their origin
in Adam, and the several relations they sustained to the
events of the Bible. It is the subject of Biblical ethnography
we propose to discuss in this chapter, and hence we shall
nowhere run across, nor even so much as touch the hues of
controversy, in relation to the primitive races of the earth.
The generations of the Bible are given in clear historical
narrative, unmixed with fable, and present an unbroken
stream from Adam to Noah, embracing a period of near two
thousand years. From the sons of Noah, Europe, Asia, and
Africa were peopled by the different races which originally
inhabited them. From Japheth descended, the Germans,
Turks, Hungajians, Fins, Modes, Spaniards, Greeks, Romans,
Tartars, Muscovites, and Thracians. This is denominated the
Caucasian, or white race. From Shem proceeded the Per
sians, Assyrians, Jews, Arabians, Lydians, and Syrians. This
is denominated the olive, or Mongolian race. From Ham
descended the Babylonians, Egyptians, Libyans, and Phoeni
cians. Ham was the father of the black race.
These sons, and their descendants, went out from the val'
ley of the Euphrates, toJbufld cities and found nations. As
population increased, they conceived the idea of building a
tower of immense size and height, that would prove a bond
of union, and form a great central point for all the families
and tribes. Up to this time there was but one language,
and Jehovah, to break up this arrangement, evidentiy with
the design of scattering them abroad, that all parts of the
earth might be peopled, confounded their language, or, what
was equivalent, gave them different forms of speech. From
this confusion of tongues the tower was afterwards named
Babel, as significant of the miracle which had been wrought
by the Almighty.

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 249
CHAPTER IL
THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS.
From this date the Assyrian empire took its rise, about one
hundred and twenty-seven years after the Deluge. The As
syrians derive their name from Ashur, who, according to the
Mosaic account, left the land of Shinar after the confusion
of Babel, and built Nineveh and other cities. The city of
Nineveh was rich in magnificence beyond any city of an
tiquity. The history of the Assyrians is involved in the
greatest obscurity, and all the satisfactory information we
have respecting them is drawn frora the sacred annals. The
Babylonian erapire, which was founded about the same
time, by Nimrod, " the mighty hunter" of Scripture, lay on
both sides of the Euphrates, near its mouth, and also bore
tbe name of Chaldea. It is thought by some that before the
confusion of tongues Babylonia was founded. The city of
Babylon, built upon the site of Babel, was made, in after
years, to excel, if possible, in magnificence, the proud city
of Nineveh. The Assyrians and Babylonians were governed
by monarchs whose will was supreme. They were at once
the heads of Church as well as State, and claimed divine
honours. Their reUgion was a species of Sabeanism. They
were consideraljly advanced in the raechanic and fine arts.
They were among the earliest nations that possessed the art
of alphabetical writing. Their language was the Semitic, of
which the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syri^ are branches, the
characters of which are to this day undecipherable. Should
a key to this long-lost language be discovered, the characters
which have recently been found engraven on brick and tile,
and alabaster slabs, as brought to light by the excavations
of Layard, wfll throw much valuable light upon the history
of these once vast and flourishing empires. The nations
have passed away like their mighty cities, and the descend-

250 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
ants of Ishmael have taken their places, only, however, to
wander in wildness over theu' plains and guard their ruins.
The destruction of Babylon and Nineveh were of divine ap
pointment, and serve as melancholy memorials of the fate
of all nations that forget God. Belshazzar haring taken,
•with impious hands, the holy vessels of the temple of the
Lord, and prostituted them to the •vfle purposes of his mid
night bacchanal, the hand^writing of God, interpreted hy
Daniel, revealed the fate of his kingdom, and, on the same
night, Cyrus ha^ring diverted the course of the river, his
army entered the city and slew the king, and the empire
passed under the dominion of the Persians.

CHAPTER IIL
THE EGYPTIANS.
We shall next call attention to the Egyptian nation. This
nation, founded by Menes in the year of the world 2188, is
remarkably identified with the Bible. Its history is inter
woven with sorae of the raost interesting events of the sacred
narrative, and hence must be deeply interesting to the Bibli
cal scholar. According to the commonly-received standard
of chronology, the Egyptian empire was founded about
one hundred and three years after the Assyrian; though
in regard to this there is no certain knowledge. Egypt is
stifl, though in ruins, a land of wonders. ObeUsks, sphinxes,
tombs, teraples, and pjrraraids, raany of which are standing
alraost as perfect as when they were finished by the artist
two thousand years ago, meet the eye of the traveUer where-
ever he goes. The " land of Ham" was early peopled with
the dispersed from Babel, and the rich and fertile valley of
the Nfle presented even greater attractions to the adventurer
than those of the Euphrates and Tigris. Here were the
magnificent cities of Thebes and Memphis. In an early

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 251
day Egypt was invaded by shepherd kings from Arabia,
who possessed themselves of a part of the country. Abra
ham visited the city of Memphis, and was received at the
court of the reigning Pharaoh with great hospitality. About
two hundred years subsequent to the departure df Abraham
from Egypt, a melancholy affair arose in the house and ftimfly
of Jacob. The peculiar partiality shown by this patriarch
for one of his sons, elicited the envy and consequent enmity
of the rest, and they made the beloved of their father a •ric
tim of that enraity. They determined on putting him to
death, but commuted it to bondage and expatriation. Ara
bian merchants, on their way to Egypt, purchased Joseph,
and sold him to a captain of Pharaoh's guard, named Poti-
phar. While serving in the house of his master, he was
charged by his mistress with a crime of which he was .not
guilty, and thrust into prison. While there he interpreted
Pharaoh's dreams, in relation to the years of plenty and
famine, was restored to liberty, and made •rice-regent over all
Egypt. During the prevalence of the famine the brethren
of Joseph came into Egypt to purchase corn. A recognition
and reconcihation .took place, and the whole family, on the
iu'ritation of Pharaoh and Joseph, consisting of seventy per
sons, removed from Canaan to Egypt, and settled in Goshen.
Here they led a pastoral life, and raultipUed exceedingly,
under the blessing of God. The days of Jacob were
numbered, and, obtaining a promise of burial in his native
land, he departed this life, was embalmed, and borne to
Machpelah, by a procession of Egyptian magnificence which
peculiarly impressed the Canaanites, where he was entombed
beside those whom Uring he loved, and from whom in death
he desired not to be separated.
After Uring in Egypt nearly a hundred years, Joseph also
finished his day and slept with his fathers. He was also
embalmed, and placed in a sarcophagus in Egypt. After
Joseph's death, with that of all his brethren and his genera
tion, there arose another king who "knew not Joseph" —

252 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
supposed to be one of the shepherd kings — who, envying
the prosperity of the IsraeHtes, and fearing their power, de-
•rised means for their destruction. A decree was passed that
all the male children should be cast into the river. Whfle
this decree wa^ in force Moses was born. When he was
three months old his mother raade an ark of bulrushes, and,
placing the chfld therein, deposited it araong the flags, near
the bank of the river. Little did that fond mother know
that the fate of Egypt and Israel was contained in that frail
vessel. He who guided Joseph into Egypt, and preserved
him there, watched over Moses, and, by a wonderful train
of providences, he was, like Joseph, introduced to royalty,
and made an heir to the crown. When he arrived at ma
turity he espoused the cause of his oppressed and down-
trojlden people, and was obliged to flee from the country and
take refuge in the raountains of Media. While there the
Lord Jehovah appeared to him on Horeb, and, investing him
with power, commissioned him to return to Egypt and deliver
his brethren from bondage. On the refusal of Pharaoh to
let the people go, the Almighty, by the hand of Moses, sent
upon the whole land the most wonderful judgments. After
a residence in Egypt of four hundred and thirty years, during
which the children of Israel suffered many cruel hardships
from their oppressors, upwards of six hundred thousand men,
besides women and children, entered upon their journey to
the land which the Lord had promised to their fathers. This
happened during the reign of Thothmes the Third. This
monarch succeeded in expeUing the Hyk-sos from the coun
try, who had kept possession of Lower Egypt for two hun
dred and fifty-nine, years.
It will be interesting to consider the condition of Egypt
at this period. It was the most celebrated for its learning,
opulence, and magnificent monuments, of any country in
the world. It had reached a high state of cultivation in the
arts. The mysterious rites of its worship, the grandeur of
its morality, and, above all, the perplexing enigma of its

BIBLICAL ETHNOGEAPHY. 258
written monuments, threw an impenetrable veil over its his
tory. The learned approached this shadowy land as if, in
the most obvious facts, they had to decipher a hieroglyp'hic
legend, and inclined to look upon the Egyptians as a people
that, eVhn in the. more modem periods of their history, re
tained the faint tints and ill-defined traits. of remote antiquity,
and which, consequently, might boast an antiquity beyond
computation. By the persevering study of numerous schol
ars, at the head of whom stand Young and ChampoUion,
the mysteries hidden beneath their hieroglyphics have been
brought to light, and the lost history of this people, thus
revived, takes its stand by the side of other empires. The
paintings and sculptures found upon existing monuments
reveal all the processes of the arts and of domestic Hfe, the
manners and customs of the earliest ages, with a definiteness
and minute accuracy surpassing the most lucid and truthful
narrative. The whole public and private life — from the bloody
arena of mafled warriors to the puppet-show, from the dig
nified monarch to the nursery sports of children — is engraved
and painted on these enduring monuments — fixed an^^change-
less as eternity — ever ready to reveal to the student the
events of ages gone by.
From this tirae on to the close of their history as a nation,
the Egyptians were almost constantly engaged in offensive
or defensive wars with contiguous nations. Five hundred
years after the departure of the IsraeHtes, Shishak, king of
Egypt, with an immense army, aided by the Ethiopians, in
vaded Judea, and plundered Jerusalem.
Two hundred years later, An'y-sis the Blind was expefled
by Sab'a-co, an Ethiopian conqueror, and a dynasty of three
kings reigned in succession on 'the united thrones of Egypt
and Ethiopia. After another period of one hundred years,
Psarameticus obtained suprerae power, and with him termi
nated all historical uncertainty. A few years subsequently,
Pharaoh Necho subdued all Asia, as far as the Euphrates.
He was finally defeated by Nebuchadnezzar. Pharaoh Necho

254 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEEATUEE.
was succeeded by Psammis, and Pharaoh Hophra, and Amsr
sis, and, finally, by Psammenitus, the last" of Egyptian kings.
Cauibyses, the Persian monarch, invaded Egypt ; the Egyp
tian army was entirely overthrown, the nobles afl put to
death, with their king, and their wives and children reduced
to slavery. Cambyses slew afl the sacred animals of the
Egyptians, destroyed their altars and idols, scourged their
priests as slaves, and pfllaged their temples. They made
many ineffectual efforts to regain their independence, hut
prophecy had sealed the fate of the nation, and it was made
desolate, and dispersed among the countries around them.

CHAPTER IV.
THE JE'WS.
The nation which now claims our attention as the most
prominent and eventful nation of the Bible, has been desig
nated bylseveral names, as Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews;.
these having been given to them in the successive periods of
their history. The last is the name by which they have
been called from the days of Judah, and is the cognomen by
which they are called to the present day.
Without any reference to its reUgious history, this nation
is perhaps the most remarkable in the annals of mankind.
It sprang from one definite parent stock, in the year of the
world 2000, and has ever since retained its individual, isola
ted character, amid an almost infinite variety of character.
The Jews were called to be a " pecuUar people," and they
have ever been known as such, whether united in national
sovereignty, under varying forras of government, or expelled
frora their native land and dispersed among other nations.
They constitute, perhaps, the only unmingled race which can
boast very remote antiquity, and, though hated, scorned, and
oppressed in all countries, they subsist, a numerous and

BIBLICAL ETHNOGEAPHY. 255
thriring people. In all the changes of manners and opinions
around them, they rigidly preserve their divinely-appointed
and time-hallowed institutions,, their national spirit, and their
deathless hope of restoration to grandeur and happiness in
the home of their fathers. In the language of one, " If we
speak of pedigrees, fhe Talbots, Percys, a,nd Howards are
like mushrooms of yesterday. Show me a Jew, and you
show me a man whose genealogical tree springs from Abra
ham's bosom — whose farafly is older than the decalogue —
and who bears incontrovertible evidence, in every line of his
oriental countenance, of the authenticity of bis descent
through hundreds of successive generations. You see him a
living argument of the truth of the Bible. In hira you be
hold the Hteral fulfflment of its prophecies. With him you
ascend the stream of time, not voyaging by the dim, uncer
tain, and fallacious light of tracHtion, but guided by an ema
nation of the same Ught which to his nation was ' a piUar of
cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night.' In him you see
the representative of the once chosen and favoured people
of God — to whom he revealed himself as legislator, protector,
and king — who brought them out of the land of Egypt, and
out of the house of bondage. You behold him established, as
it were, forever, in the pleasant places allotted him. You trace
him, by the pecuhar mercy of his God, in his transition state
from bondage to freedom, and, by the innate depravity of
his huraan nature, frora prosperity to insolence, ingratitude,
and rebeUion. Following him on, you find him the serf of
Rome. You trace him from the smouldering ashes of Jeru
salem, an outcast and a wanderer in all lands ; the persecu
tor of Christ, you find him the persecutor of Christians —
bearing all things — suffering all things — strong in the pride
of huraan knowledge — stiff-necked and gainsaying — hoping
all things. ' For the Lord wfll have mercy upon Jacob, and
will yet choose Israel and set thera in their own lands, and
the strangers shaU be joined with them, and they shall cleave
to the house of Jacob.' "

256 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
There is no religious history of any people so pecuUar and
extraordinary. It informs us in regard to opinions and cer
emonies, events and transactions of a kind •widely different
from any others, and instructs mankind in a mode unknown
to other narratives, because it brings directly into riew the
supernatural operations of God. Throughout the whole his
tory the divine design seems to be kept in ¦riew, in setting
apart one family from the rest of the nations ; that is, to
preserve the true reUgion in the world, and to prepare the
way for the establishment of Christianity in after ages. The
national faith, amid all its exposures and temporary suspen
sions, is identified with the history of the nation. To a Jew
the State and Church were ever identical; his government
was his religion, and his religion his -government
The father of the Jewish nation was Abraham, or, as it
was originally called, Abram. The place of his natirity was
Ur, a district of Chaldea, now known as Orfa, in Mesopo
tamia, where the Mohammedans have erected a splendid
mosque to his meraory. His father's name was Terah, and
his brethren Nahor and Haran. The country was open, dry,
and barren, and the inhabitants were idolaters. A change
of location, so coraraon to the nomadic tribes of the East,
at length took place, and the family of Terah removed to
Charrae, or Haran. They had not remained here long when
the command of God came to Abraham to leave his cpuntry
and kindred, for the purpose of establishing an independent
tribe, in a distant, and, to hira, unknown country. Abra-
hara was now in his seventy-fifth year, and Lot, his nephew,
chose to accorapany him in his journey. Starting with his
family, which consisted of several persons, with all their ser
vants and flocks, he travelled a distan(!e of three hundred
miles, taking the desert of Syria in his route, and finally
settled in Palestine, in the fei'tile valley of Sichem, between
the mountains of Ebal and Geririm. After this he removed
to a mountain on the east of Bethel, and from thence jour
neyed south. When he first came to the country, " the Ca-

BIBLICAL ETHNOGEAPHY. 257
naanite was in the land," and hence he knew that Canaan
was the counti'y to "which he was called, and which had
been promised as his inheritance, and that of his descend
ants. The Canaanites were descended from the son of Ham
and his brethren, which were eleven in number.. Trade and
war was their chief occupation, and they flourished exceed
ingly in all their undertakings. They also engaged in manufac
tures, and became opulent. They settled colonies over almost
all the islands and maritime provinces of the Mediterranean.
Including the Phcenicians, they must be considered as among
the more early cirilized communities. Among them were
different classes of merchants, artificers, soldiers, shepherds,
and farraers. Their religion seems to have been that of their
fathers, and they had kept it pure and uncontarainated to
the days of Abrahara. Melchizedek was one of their priests,
and divinely accredited of God. The Phoenicians early de
voted theraselves to learning. The sciences of arithmetic
and astronoray were invented, or, at least, greatly improved
by them, and it is a matter of certain history that they intro
duced letters into Greece. The arts and sciences of the Phoe
nicians were •widely diffused araong the Canaanites. The
occurrence of a famine induced Abraham to remove into
Egypt, one of the greatest corn countries of antiquity. We
have already alluded to his visit to Egypt, an(i his hospitable
reception there. Having, while there, acquired great pos
sessions, he retumed again to Canaan, and re-occupied his
former dweUing-place, between Bethel and Hai. The district
of country he possessed, however, could not well support the
large flocks owned by Abraham and Lot. This created a
difBculty between the herdsmen of the two patriarchs, and.
to settle it, they agreed to separate. Lot, going eastward
into the rich and populous valley of the Jordan, settied in
Sodom, and Abraham pitched his tents in the "plain of
Mamre that was in Hebron." Near this time the first wars, '
the details of which are recorded in history, occurred. Sodom
and all the adjacent country was ravaged and subdued by
17

258 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
the arms of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. Thirteen years
before, this king, in confederacy with predatory tribes on the
Euphrates and Tigris, attacked the princes of the vaUey, and,
subduing them, subjected them to the payment of a tribute,
which, on their refusal, involved them in a second war. Lot,
with others, was taken captive. One who had escaped com
raunicated the intelligence to Abraham, who, taking with
him three hundred and eighteen of his own servants, and
some confederates, pursued the enemy to the sources of the
Jordan, where, attacking them in the night, he vanquished
them, and brought back Lot and the other captives in safety.
He also recovered the booty which they had taken away.
He was greeted, on his return, as a rictorious leader. One
extraordinary personage paid him peculiar honour. Mel
chizedek, the king of Salem, Jerusalem, who united in his
person the offices of king and priest, and worshipped the
one true God, brought forth bread and wine, and blessed the
deUverer of his country. Prosperous in external circumstan
ces, still the pious patriarch had no heir. His anxiety on
this subject, however, was relieved by an audible voice from
heaven, which assured him not only of an immense progeny,
but of a territory for their possession, extending from the
Euphrates to the Mediterranean. By his maid-servant, Ha
gar, he had a chfld born to him, whom he named Ishmael.
To this child he was strongly attached. About this time
the rite of circumcision was instituted — a rite which was to
distinguish the chosen seed. A short tirae subsequent to
these transactions, Abraham was visited by angels, who tar
ried with him on their mission to destroy Sodom and the
surrounding cities. After partaking of his hospitalities, and
assuring him of the birth ofthe promised seed, and promis
ing, upon his intercessions, if there were ten righteous persons
in Sodom, to spare it, they journeyed on. But, alas, these
licentious cities had fitted themselves for destruction. Their
guflt was universal, and their ruin was inevitable. Lot, with
his family, his wife excepted — being, by her dalliance, in-

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 259
volved in the ruin — having made their escape, a fiery inun
dation swallowed them up. Present appearances of the
vaUey covered by the Dead Sea, as well as the records of
history, attest the nature of the judgment described in the
Bible. All who risit this region unite in their testiraony in
regard to its peculiarities. These cities occupied the raost
fruitful and beautiful valley in the world. Inspiration com
pared it, in Lot's time, to the garden of Eden. It is a sad
and melancholy fact, connected with the history of our race,
that the most lovely and beautiful spots on our earth have
been the most defiled by sin, and for this have been blasted
of God forever. A dark and sullen sea of bitter waters, des
erts of desolation, interspersed with heaps of decaying ruins,
all over the eastern world, raark localities which once smiled
with beauty, and charmed the eye with their magnificence
and grandeur. They are to us soleran warnings from the
dead, speaking to us in tones of sadness from the grave of
buried joys.
Resuming our narrative, we corae to a period in the his
tory of Abraham when he found it necessary to remove from
the plains of Mamre to the country of the Phfllstines. Here,
when he had attained the age of a hundred years, Isaac, the
child of promise, was born. This event was hailed with
every deraonstration of joy. But life is a state of trial, and
ofl^n clouds of gloora are perraitted to cast their shadows
over the brightest scenes. The free-born chfld occasioned
jealousy to Hagar and her son ; for the former had scarcely
attained his tenth year, when his, mother, perceiving
that Ishmael treated him with disrespect, resolved to part
them forever. Sarah's request, enforced by^the divine sanc
tion, induced the patriarch to send Hagar and her son away.
Though the son of the bond-woman might have no part in
the inheritance, yet, according to dirine promise, Ishmael
was to become the father of a great nation. And such, in
fact, he became. The Arabians are a vast nation, and, like
the Jews, have been kept separate and distinct from all others.

260 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
It is said in Scripture that "Ishmael shaU be a wild man;
his hand shaU be against every man, and every man's hand
against him;" and this has been literally fulfiUed, to the
present day, by his descendants, the Arabs. • " God has sent
them out free, loosed from all political restraint The •wil
derness is their habitation, and, in the parched land, where no
other human beings could live, they have their habitation.
They scorn the city, and, therefore, have no fixed dweUings.
For their multitude they are not afraid, and, when they
make depredations on cities, they retire with such precipi
tancy that all pursuit is eluded. In this respect, the crying
of the driver is disregarded. They may be said to have no
lands, their soil not being portioned out to them in fee-simple ; ¦
yet the range of the mountains is their pasture. They pitch
their tents and feed their flocks where they please. They
search after every green thing. Every kind of property they
meet with is their prey."
About twenty-five years after Hagar and her son were
sent into the wilderness, the faith of Abraham, in being com
manded by the Almighty to take Isaac upon Mount Moriah
and off'er hira up in sacrifice, was put to a severe test. Not
withstanding the alarraing nature of the dirine requirement,
Abraham bowed in obedience, and, just as he was going to
slay the youth, having bound him to the altar for that pur
pose, an angel stayed his hand, and he was directed to take
a ram, caught in the thicket by his horns, and perfect the
sacrifice. He nanied the place where his faith was so
severely tried, Jehovah-Jireh — the Lord will provide. Soon
after this Sarah died, and Abraham procured for her a place
of interment in the territory of a neighbouring prince. The
place of sepulture which he purchased was naraed Machpe
lah. As the Jews were to Ave alone, their burial-places
were also to be kept separate and distinct frora all others ;
hence he refused the offers of the chiefs of the tribe of Heth
to deposit her remains in the national ceraetery. Not long
subsequent to the death of his raother, Isaac was raarried to

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 261
Rebekah, of his own kindred. The descendants of Abraham,
by his second marriage, were settled in Arabia, apart from
the inheritance of Isaac, where it is supposed traces of them
are to be found at the present day. Nothing more is recorded
of this distinguished patriarch, except that at the age of one
hundred and seventy-five he died, and was buried in Mach
pelah. No personage of antiquity is more renowned than
Abraham. The Arabs boast their descent from " the father
of the faithful" — the "friend of God," and he is equally
venerated by Jew, Christian, and Mohammedan. He was
selected from that nomadic race which stretches from the
north-eastern extremity of Asia to the north-western shores
of Africa. His simple, unadulterated mind, had become
impregnated with the central truth, the one idea of the
existence of one God, and he became the proper witness of
it to the chief nations of the earth, with which he was
respectively brought into contact, especially if Ur was, as
some maintain, on the borders of Northern India. He was
in fact a princely missionary from country to country, be
tween nation and nation. In the year of the world 2167
two sons were born tp Isaac, Esau and Jacob. In temper
and disposition they were, opposite. Esau was fierce, rest
less, and sensual ; Jacob was gentle, cautious, quiet, and
calculating. The red-haired, rough Esau, was occupied and
delighted in rude scenes and exercises. The smooth Jacob
sought the pastoral occupation, and cherished the peaceful,
practical thoughts which it inspired, and was, of coui'se, far
better fitted to become the father of a united, settled people,
than his brother. Their natures indicated their destinies.
Esau became the father of the Edomites, or Iduraeans, and,
though they reached a higher civflization and were farther
removed from barbarism than the Bedouins, who sprung
from Ishraael, yet in their scattered condition and continual
wars, either among themselves or with others, they could not
but be regarded as antagonistic to the purposes that were
sought in the isolation of the Abrahamic race. According

262 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
to the declarations of the Bible, they were to Uve as their
father, by the sword and the bow.
Jacob was destined to inherit the blessing or privileges of
the first-born. After a day of unsuccessful hunting, and
consequent hunger and exhaustion, Esau sold his right of
primogeniture to his brother for a mess of herbs. In addi
tion to this, Jacob obtained, through the counsel of his mother,
by craft, the solemn blessing of his father, confirming the
right of primogeniture, in the foUo'wing words: "Be thou
lord over thy brethren, ,and let thy mother's sons bow down
before thee."
This act aroused all the rindictiveness of Esau, and he ¦
deterrained on having revenge. Fearing his wrath, Jacob
fled to Mesopotaraia, where he subsequently married two
•wives, for whom and his cattle he served twenty years.
Taking his famfly and servants, he set out, on his return to
• the land of his natirity. When he arrived at the neighbor
hood of Seir, he learned, by his messenger, that Esau, being
apprised of his approach, set out with four hundred men
to meet him as an eneray. Finding hiraself , involved in tiie
greatest danger, he made all the arrangements that pru
dence would dictate, and betook himself to prayer. During
the night, while engaged in supplication, the Scriptures
inform us he wrestled with an angel, and at day-light pre
vailed, receiving an assurance of victory over his brother.
It was not to be achieved by might or power, but by the
Spirit of the Lord, which holds and guides the hearts of all
raen. Consequently, Esau met his brother with every token
of kindness and affection, and, after many solicitations,
accepted the gifts presented by Jacob. The brotiiere sepa
rated in peace, and Jacob took up his residence in Shechem,
a short distance west of his former position, and nearly cen
tral in Palestine. A melancholy event happening to his
only daughter, and avenged by her brothers, induced him to
leave this part of the country. He tarried awhfle at Luz,
where he raised an altar, and called the place El-Bethel.

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 263
From Bethel he proceeded to Ephrath, and, haring survived
Rachel and erected' a raonuraent to her raeraory, he sought
a new settlement beyond the tower of Edar, supposed to
have been near Jerusalem. Family aflHiction again induced
him to move his residence to Hebron, where Isaac, his
father, who was stifl alive, resided. Soon after this, however,
Isaac, haring attained the age of one hundred and eighty
years, died, and both Esau and Jacob paid fiUal respect
to his venerable remains. From this period an entire sepa
ration in the family of Isaac ensued ; Jacob remained in
Canaan, and Esau took his possessions in Mount Seir or
Arabia Petrsea. Ten years after the death of Isaac, circum
stances which we have already detailed caused the migration
of Jacob and his family into Egypt, where they passed
through various fortunes, during a period of four hundred
years, and were finally led out into the wilderness of Arabia
by the hand of Moses, and, after wandering forty year^, they
entered Canaan- — the land promised to their fathers. Canaan
and the adjacent country, as we have already intimated, was
inhabited by many powerful native tribes, and it is impor
tant to our purpose to give a brief description of them. In
the south part of Syria the earliest inhabitants known seem
to have been a race of giants, or a people of large stature,
which distinguished them from the Canaanites. The Arites
in the south-west were partly exterminated and partly driven
south, by the Phihstines, a colony from Crete. The Horites,
" cave-dwellers" or Troglodytes, seera to have been invaded
by and to have mingled with the Canaanites. They inhab
ited Mount Seir also, whence they were exterminated by the
Edomites. The Rephaim were a very ancient people of East Canaan,
tall of stature, dirided into sevepl families, and having many
cities which were in the sequel destroyed, founded anew or
occupied by the later Canaanites. Connected 'with them
were the Emiras, or Terribles, so cafled by the Moabites, and
a wealthy people, of high stature, whose territory was after-

264 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.
wards called the land of Moab. The Zamzuraraim also, as
the Ammonites caUed them, were a rich people, of extraordi
nary stature. Their territory was called the land of Rephakn,
and, after their extirpation, the land of the Ammonites. A
plain and valley contiguous to Jerusalem on the south-west
bore the name of these giants. The Rephaim of the king
dom of Bashan, called the land of Rephaim ; probably the
only remnants of this people were exterminated by Moses.
The Anakim, that is, giants, were a mountain race, very
formidable to the Israelites. Like the Rephaim, they were
divided into several faraiUes, as the NephiUra about Hebron,
of whom were probably Arba, Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai ;
the Anakim of the raountains, not only of Hebron, but of
Debir, Anah, and raost of the mountains of Judah and
Israel, both in the north and south of Canaan, these were
all destroyed by Joshua. The Anakim of Gaza, and Ashdod,
and Gath, were alone left. Of the last-named was GoHath.
The Kenites dwelt in the land in Abraham's time, and were
probably driven southward by the Canaanites and settled
among the Midianites, as Hobab is said to have been their
father. In the tirae of Moses they resided in the mountains
, near Moab and Amalek. Saul, when about to invade Ama-
lek, warm^the Kenites to depart from among them, lest they
be destroyed 'with them. The Kenizzites are thought to
have dwelt in Edom. The Kadmonites, that is, " Easterns"
or "Orientals," resided about Mount Hermon, . and were
probably Hivites. The Perizzites, that is, " dwellers in the
plain," were between Bethel and Ai, and about Shechem
also, in the lot of Ephraim and Manasseh, and in South
Judah.

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 265
CHAPTER V.
THE CANAANITES AND NEIGHBOURING- NATIONS.
The Canaanites were descended from the eleven sons of.
Canaan, the son of Ham. The descendants of five of these
sons, named respectively Sidon, Arki, Arvadi, Hamathi, and
Sini, settled in Syria and Phoenicia, and their history v/ill
be given with that of the Syrians and Phoenicians. The
descendants of the other six sons of Canaan, namely, Heth,
Jebusi, Araori, Gergashi, Zeraari, and Hivi, settled in Canaan
proper. We shall now endeavour to give an account of
these Canaanites proper.
The children of Heth, or Hittites, dwelt among the Amo-
rites, in the mountains of Judah : they possessed Hebron in
Abraham's time, and he bought of them Machpelah, which
was raade the family tomb of the patriarchs. It is still
shown, beneath the mosque of Abraham at Hebron. Esau
married two Hittites, whfle his father resided at Beersheba.
Sculptures on Egyptian monuments show that in patriarchal
tiraes they were waging a continual war with the Egyp
tians. Uriah, the Hittite, was one of David's officers.
Solomon was the first to render thera tributary, and Hittites
were found in his harera. The last we hear of thera is on
the return of the Jews from their captirity in Babylon,
where they are mentioned as one of the heathen tribes
from which the Jews unlawfully took wives.
The Jebusites dwelt in the city and mountains of Jeru
salem, and, after Darid took the place, they remained there
still under his laws. He purchased the temple area on
Mount Moriah of a Jebusite. Egyptian monuments show
that this people, also, warred with the Egyptians.
The Amorites are found in Abraham's time about Engedi,
a fertfle spot, with a tropical climate, lying on the western
coast of the Dead Sea, improved afterwards by Solomon as

206 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITEBATUBE.
a botanic garden. Spreading thence over the mountainous
country which forms the south part of Canaan, they gave
their name to it Jacob speaks of a piece of ground he
obtained from them by force of arms, as far north as Shechem.
Before the time of Moses they had founded two kingdoms,
Bashan on the north and another south to Arnon, driring
out the Amraonites and Moabites from between that river
and the Jabbok. This latter territory Israel took from this
Amorite king, Sihon.
The Gergashites dwelt between the Canaanites and Jeb
usites, and a region east of the sea of Galilee is called the
" country of the Gergesenes.'' This is the only tribe we miss
in subsequent history except the Zemarites, who are men
tioned but once, though a city Zemaraim is spoken of in
Joshua. The Hivites were in the northem part of the land, at the
foot of Anti-Lebanon or Hermon, in the land of Mizpeh.
Some yet remained in David's tirae, and they, with the Amo
rites, Perizrites, Hittites, and Jebusites, were taxed for bond
service by Soloraon. The Gibeonites and Shechemites were
of this race.
The Amalekites sprang frora Esau's grandson, a duke of
Edom : there seeras, however, to have been a rautual aver
sion between the Edoraites and Araalekites. They jccupied
the country from South Canaan to the very angle of the
Sinaitic peninsula. They attacked the rear of the IsraeHtes,
on their march from Rephidim to Horeb, but were put to
flight after a hard-fought battle. In conjunction with the
Canaanites, they repulsed the Israelites frora the southern
slope of Judea. They also allied theraselves with the king
of Moab, Eglon, and the Ammonites, and afterwards witii
the Midianites under Zeba and Zalraunna, to root out the
IsraeHtes, but by a stratagem of Gideon were raade to destroy
each other. Nothing more is heard of them until the time'
of Saul. The sentence of extermination pronounced on them
by Joshua, when their deadly hostility to Israel first mani-

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 267
fested itself, was partially executed by Saul, more completely
by David, and finaUy consummated by the Simeonites, in
the reign of Hezekiah. Saul invaded them with an immense
army, and all that could be taken, men, woraen, and children,
were put to death.'' Their king, Agag, a very.graceful person,
of noble bearing and address, was spared on that account ;
but Sarauel afterwards, in obedience to the divine comraand,
hewed him in pieces.
Lot's posterity, the Moabites and Ammonites, destroying ,
the gigantic Emiras, spread themselves to the eastward of
the Dead Sea, which still bears the narae araong the Arabs
of Lot's Sea. The country of the Moabites — forty miles
square — was bounded south by the brook Zered, Midian, and
Edom ; east by the Arabian Desert ; north by the Amraon
ites ; and west by the Dead Sea and Jordan. The Israelites
were forbidden to disturb thera, notwithstanding great pro
vocations. When the IsraeHtes under Moses had subdued
Sihon, they pitched their carap in that part of their new
posisessions called the plains of Moab. The king of Moab,
disraayed at their presence and unable to resist them, assera
bled the most eminent men of his nation, and also the
sheikhs of the Midianites, and, on consultation with them,
it was thought best to send for Balaam, a distinguished
])i'ophet to curse Israel. Balaam, after receiving two mes
sages and a liberal promise of reward, undertook to curse
them, but was forbidden by the Lord. He however gave
them advice of the raost wicked character, which proved
infinitely worse than any verbal curse. His advice was, that
the Israelites should be seduced to heathenisra by the charms
of Moabitish and Midianitish woraen. The very chief men
of the nation did not hesitate to send their daughters on
this infamous errand. The scheme succeeded but too well ;
the enamoured Israelites found the blandishments of the
beautiful idolatresses more forraidable than the mightiest
engines of war. Their debaucheries infected them with a
deadly disease, which carried off twenty-four thousand.

268 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITEEATUEE.
besides those whom Moses ordered to be put to death. The
Moabites became subject to David and Solomon, and
remained so until the revolt of the ten tribes. The kings
of Judah, Israel, and Edom, leaguing together, defeated the
Moabites, demplished their cities, except Kir-haraseth, in
which the Iring of Moab shut himself up ; after several
other unsuccessful wars, passing through a variety of fortunes
until Nebuchadnezzar's time, when they partook of the fate
of the other people of Syria. In the time of Josephus
they were a. populous nation ; but in the third century they
lost their name, and became included under the general
designation of Arabians.
The Ammonites — descendants of Lot — destroyed the gi
gantic Zamzumraira, and occupied their territory, which fell
into the possession of Moses, who divided.it to Gad and
Reuben. It is described by traveUers as a charraing country
of hills, groves, valleys, and streams, presenting lovely images
of pastoral beauty, and the Arab proverb extols it as incom
parable. Amraon joined Moab, under Eglon, in opposing Israel, as
already alluded to. About two hundred years later, we find
thera as principals in a war against the Israelites, under an
unknown leader. This prince attempted to recover the an
cient country of the Amraonites, which had passed through
the hands of the Araorites to Israel. He invaded this land,
and held it in subjection raany years. Encouraged by suc
cess, he crossed the Jordan, and pfllaged Judah, Benjamin,
and Ephraim. Returning, he. aimed to make a complete
conquest of the whole country, at the same time. Jephthah
attacked hira, near Aroer, and defeated him with great
slaughter, which put an end to Araraonitish tyranny. The
next of the kings of the Amraonites was Nahasli, who lived
in 'Saul's tirae. He revived the old, claim, and fought with
great success. At last he besieged Jabesh Gilead, and it
was just at the point of falling into his hands, on the condi
tion that each of its inhabitants should lose an eye, when

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 269
Saul made an assault upon the carap, and a terrible battle
ensued, in which they were corapletely routed, so that no
two of them could be seen together. About sixty years after,
they treated David's messengers with the raost sharaeful in
dignity, which brought on a war. Their king, Hanun, alUed
himself with a vast host of Syrians, Moabites, and Amraon
ites, but was defeated by Joab, and again by David, in per
son. Joab laid siege to Rabbah, their capital, and David
took it by storm, wreaking terrible vengeance. About one
hundred and forty years after, they allied themselves again
with Moab, and invaded Judah ; but the aUied arraies quar-
relk'd, and destroyed each other. Uzriah defeated thera and
made thera tributary, but they rebelled against his son Jo-
tham. Again defeated, they were compelled, to pay one
hundred talents of silver, ten thousand measures of wheat,
and as raany of bariey — that is, one hundred and sixty
r thousand bushels — for three successive years. When Reuben
and Gad were carried away captive, the Ammonites occupied
their empty cities.
In Zedekiah's attempt to throw off the yoke of Nebuchad
nezzar, Baalis, the last king of Ammon, seems to have
joined him; but when Jerusalem was destroyed, the Am
monites exulted over its ruin. BaaUs advised Ishraael to
assassinate Gedaliah, appointed by the king of Babylon to
govern the poor remnant of Jews. A long time after, we
find them united with the Arabians, Moabites, and Saraari-
tans, in attempting to prevent the rebuilding of the city of
Jerusalem. Probably Cyrus had restored them, as we find
them, even prerious to this, subject to Egypt, and then to
Syria. Under the leadership of Timotheus, their governor,
they fought with Judas Maccabeus, who at last burnt their
city, murdered its inhabitants, and extinguished thera as a
nation. Their name was finaUy raerged in the general ap
pellation of Arabs.
The Midianites dwelt south and east of Edora. Moses
found them about Sinai, and one of their chief cities, Midian,

270 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
was in the north, towards Rabbath-Moab, and another of
the same name, in the south, by the Red Sea, on the eastern
shore of the Gulf of Akaba. They are thought to have
sprung from Abraham's fourth son. We find thera early
confounded with the Ishmaelites ; later with the Nabatheans ;
and, in the tirae of Moses, the Midianites and Moabites ap
pear to have been alraost one people, alike in religion and
interests. This numerous people were early known as rovers,
divided into two classes, the shepherds and the merchants ;
the latter, as early as the tirae of Joseph, were engaged in
the trade from Gilead to Egypt. The merchants moved in
caravans, and carried on a trade between the Mediterranean,
India, Assyria, and Egypt. They left the care of their cattie
to wometi, and hence Jethro's daughters were found tending
the flocks of their father. Jethro, the "prince-priest," a
Kenite, Uved in the city of Midian. His seven daughters were
insulted by shepherds, and Mo*s defended thera. For this
vindication he 'wias admitted to the hospitalities of their father's
house, and subsequently became the husband of Zipporah.
From this period the Midianites are lost to history for a
half century. They had grown rich in trade, which con
sisted mostly of costly jewelry. They were early famfliar
•with letters. Traces of the worship of the crescent planet
Venus, or the 'crescent moon, are found among thera, indi
cating their attachment to Islaraisra. The Midianites had no
reason to exult over the s'uccess of Baalara's wicked advice,
in which they heartily cooperated; for Moses sent twelve
thousand men against thera, under Phineas, and, notwith
standing their stout resistance, they were defeated and put
to the sword, including the wicked prophet; and all their
towus and castles were burnt. Every person was destroyed, '
except thirty-two thousand virgins, who were raade prisoners.
The whole country was laid waste, and the cuttle driven off,
amounting to the number of two hundred and eight thousand,
of different kinds; besides, the spoil of gold, silver, and iron,
was immense.

' BIBLICAL ETIINOGBAI'HY. 271
A century and a half later, by the stratagem of Gideon,
with the trumpet and lamps at midnight, one hundred and
twenty thousand were slain in this battle and one subsequent ;
so that doomsday had come to Midian. Many ages after,
the tribe was distinguished for its wealth and the magnifi
cence of its tents ; but, in the course of time, its distinctive
name .shared the fate of its contemporaries, and was merged
in that of the Arabs. ''
The raost vigorous, highly civiUzed, and respectable of
all these nations reraains yet to be noticed. The Philistines
were only inferior in attainments to the Phcenicians and
Egyptians. The Phihstines were Misraimites, supposed to
have migrated frora India. They drove out^the Avites, and
settied upon the southern half of one of the raost fertile
and beautiful plains in the world. It is bounded on the
north by Carrael, south by the desert, west by the Mediter
ranean, and east by the mountains of Judah. This energetic
race was under five lordships, each with its head city, namely,
Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron. They were not
destined to extermination, but Joshua atta'cked them. Until
David's time they had their kings, and some of them oppressed
Israel for many years.
David subdued thera, as also Jehorara and Uzriah ; but, in
the reign of Ahaz, they annoyed Judah. They were again
subdued, but they became free. They were partially conquered
by Esarhaddon and Psarameticus ; afterwards by the Persians
and by Alexander, who destroyed Gaza. After this they fell
under the Asmonean governraent, which is the last we hear of
them in history. Two of their towns sustained famous sieges.
Ashdod, afterwards called Azotus, withstood the whole force
of Egypt, under Psararaeticus, for the space of twenty-nine
years. This is the longest siege recorded in history.
Their country having become the theatre of war between
the mighty nations of Assyria and Egypt, they finally lost
their independence, and became tributary to the succeeding
empires. From the hieroglyphics upon the contemporary

272 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
monuments of Egypt, we learn that their personal appearance
resembled the Egyptians, except that they were whiter, and
shaved both beard and whiskers, and differed in arms and
equipments from all other nations east of Egypt.
We now retum to the journeyings of the Israelites, who
were on their way tp the occupancy of the country inhabited
by the nations we have described. During their forty years'
wanderings they passed through many remarkable scenes.
The giring of the law on Sinai — constant miraculous sup-
pUes — the death of Moses — the passage of the Jordan — ^the
destruction of Jericho — the capture and occupancy of Ca
naan — all were marked by the most signal interposition of
divine power in their behalf, and should have forever im
pressed them with a sense of grateful dependence, and
prompted them to the most cheerful obedience.
After the termination of the wars in Canaan the IsraeHtes
proceeded- to attend to the instructions given to them by
Moses, which were the solemn recognition of the Lord as
king, and swearing allegiance to the constitution. They
next proceeded to the survey and partition of the land, with
the location of the several tribes.
Joshua, after having gathered together all the people, ex
horted them to obedience, and renewing the oath of fealty
and aUegiance, died, aged one hundred and ten years, B. C.
1426. After his decease, and that of the elders, there suc
ceeded a generation of men who disregarded the pious cus
toms of their fathers, and mingled •with the Canaanites in
marriages and idolatrous worship. During the period of
the judges, personal activity, courage, and craft were quali
ties which gave distinction ; and hence this was called the
heroic age, contrasting with the Homeric and Grecian con
temporaries. Samson is compared with Hercules ; Shaingai
with Achilles ; Jephthah with Agamemnon ; Saul with Hec
tor, (fee, (fee. Also the domestic life of the Homeric age, as
described by Homer, was contrasted with the pleasant pic
ture of Hebrew rural life given in the Book of Ruth.

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 273
Voltaire says: "These times and manners have nothing in
common with our own, whether good or bad ; their spirit is
not ours ; their good sense is not ours." On this very ac
count, the five books of Moses, Joshua, and the Judges, are
a thousand tiraes raore instructive than Horaer and Herod
otus. During this period, the nation was involved in nuraerous
wars, and exhibited scenes of capture and deUverances. Be
coming tired of the theocratic form of government, the people
desired a monarchy, and, accordingly, Samuel, the prophet, •
anointed Saul as king over Israel.
This kingdora, under the successive reigns of David and
Solomon, became rich and powerful, and extended its terri
tory from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and frora
Phoenicia to Edom.
Soloraon, the wisest of kings, erected a most magnificent
temple for the worship of God. He also erected sumptuous
palaces in and around Jerusalem, and, during his reign, the
kingdom embraced the largest extent of territory it ever did,
extending from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, and
from the borders of Tyre and Sidon to the Elanitic Gulf of
the Red Sea. The population of the empire was estimated
at eight millions. Commerqe and the arts of life were pro
moted, and literature and science more highly cultivated than
at any former period.
During the reign of Rehoboam, the successor of Solomon,
ten of the twelve tribes rebelled against the government,
which was regarded by the people as tyrannical. These
tribes renounced their allegiance, and made Jeroboam their
king. The separate kingdoms of Judah and Israel were
soon embrofled in wars, which proved disastrous to both. The
kingdom of Israel fell into the most grievous idolatry, from
which, however, it was restored in the days of the prophet
Elijah, and the ancient religion revered. Under the reign
of Ahaziah, the kingdoms were joined in a confederacy,
which lasted two years. After several successive reigns of
18

274 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
various fortunes, the kingdom at last feU into anarchy, and,
being besieged by the king of Assyria, its independence was
destroyed, and the ten tribes were scattered . abroad, none
knows whither.
The contemporaneous history of Judah is involved, more or
less, with that of Israel Her kings were, many of them,
devoted to the religion and institutions of the country. A
few of them, however, imitated the profligate kings of Israel ;
but a reign of misrule and irreligion was almost invariably
succeeded by a return to order and the national faith.
The Jewish kingdora, in the year 610 B. C, was subdued
by Nebuchadnezzar, and the temple was plundered, and the
people were carried as captives to Babylon. This captivity
lasted seventy years, after which they were permitted by
Cyrus, king of Persia, to return and rebuild their temple,
which had been destroyed. The king of Persia sent Ezra,
the priest and scribe, to officiate as governor, and appoint
superior and inferior judges, rectify abuses, enforce the ob
servance of the laws, and various means were aUowed him
for the use of the temple. He read the books of the law to
the assembled people, and collected aU the manuscripts of
the prophets and sacred writers, and placed them in their
present forra. Neheraiah was sent as governor in 444 B. C,
and under bis direction the walls of the city were built.
One hundred years, afterwards, the country was invaded
by Alexander, and he reraoved one hundred thousand of the
Jews to Egypt. Subsequently, Ptoleray, king of Egypt, at
tacked Jerusalera on the Sabbath-day, and, meeting with no
resistance, in consequence of the regard of the Jews for the
Sabbath; it was taken. It was twice wrested from his hands
by Antigonus. Ptolemy, however, had it made part of his
share as one of the successors of Alexander. He carried
away one hundred thousand captives, whom he settied chiefly
in Alexandria and Cyrene. Under the fir,st three Ptolemies,
the Alexandrine and native Jews enjoyed raany marks of
royal favour.

BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. 275
Antiochus Epiphanes, the king of Syria, in the year 176
B. C, marched against Jerusalem, sacked and pfllaged the
temple, destroyed forty thousand of the inhabitants, and
seized as many more, to be sold as slaves. These outrages
were followed by attempts to aboflsh the worship of God,
and force the Jews to forsake their rehgion. The Samari
tans disowned their relation to the Jews, to whom, in pros
perity, they pretended alhance, and they consecrated their
temple on Mount Gerizim to Jupiter. In the midst of the
most fierce and bitter persecutions, to induce the Jews to re
nounce their religion, they were firra.
Mattathias resisted the officer of Antiochus, who came to
execute the edict against the Jewish reUgion, in the place of
the priests' residence. He was supported in this by his five
sons, who fell upon the king's commissioner and put hira to
death. Mattathias then suraraoned all the citizens who
were zealous for the law, to follow him to the mountains.
One thousand of thera perished in their caves, as they would
not defend themselves on the Sabbath, when attacked by
the Syrians. After this, Mattathias and his followers dis
carded that view of the Sabbath. After the death of Matta
thias, Judas Maccabeus, one of his sons, assumed the leader
ship in the glorious enterprise. ApoUonius, the governor
of Samaria, who came against hira, was slain, and his army
totally defeated. Seron, governor of Lower Syria, advanced
to avenge the defeat of ApoUonius, but met a similar fate,
and lost eight hundred men. The next year Antiochus sent
an army of forty-seven thousand men against hini, but he
defeated them with an immense slaughter. Then foUqwed
Lysias, with a still larger force ; but he was overcome by Judas,
and lost five thousand men. The Maccabean then trium
phantly entered Jerusalem, purified the- teraple, and placed
a wall around Mount Zion. From thence, he carried his
victorious arras into the tenitories of the Iduraeans and the
Ammonites, and enlarged his boundaries.
In the meantime Antiochus died in Persia, and was sue-

276 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
ceeded by his son Antiochus Eupator, 162 B. C. He made
peace with the Jews, but soon violated it by putting Mene-
lalis, the high-priest, to death, and conferring the priesthood
on Alcimus. In the meantime Demetrius Soter, lineal heir
to the throne of Antioch, had escaped from Rorae and came
to Syria, where he caused himself to be crowned king, and,
after some struggle, overpowered Lysias and Antiochus, and
jjut them to death.
At the instance of Alcimus, the high-priest Demetrius sent
Nicanor, with a great army, against Judas ; but his army
was routed, and he was slain. After this, to secure the in
dependence of the country, Judas entered inito a formal treaty
of aUiance with Rome; but, before its consuramation, the
heroic Maccabean had terminated his brilliant career. De
metrius sent Alcimus and Bacchides, with a new army of
twenty thousand men, against him. Judas was abandoned
by all his troops, except eight hundred, yet he would not be
prevailed upon to retreat. He fell, nobly fighting to the last,
161 B.C.
His brother Jonathan was chosen general in his stead.
He consummated the alliance with Rome, and obliged Bac
chides to make a league, and withdraw his anny from Judea.
Alexander Balas, who announced himself as the son of Anti
ochus Epiphanes, came with an army into Syria ; the garrison
o^ Ptolemais opened their gates to hira, on account of their
hatred to Demetrius, and the latter prepared himself for war.
Alexander courted an aUiance with the Jewish general, and
conferred on Jonathan the high-priesthood, who imraediately
assumed the pontifical robes, and, in his person, coraraenoed
the reign of the Asmonean princes, 152 B. C.
Demetrius and Alexander, having come to a battle, the
forraer was defeated and slain. His eldest son, Demetrius
Nicanor, entered Cilicia with an army, 148 B. C. ApoUo
nius, his general, receiving the comraand of Syria, attacked
Jonathan, the high-priest, who overcarae hira, took Joppa
and Azotus, and burnt the temple of Dagon.

BIBLICAL ETHKOGBAPIIT. 277
In the year 144 B. C, Tryphon took Jonathan by strata
gem, and subsequently put him to death. His brother Si
mon was chosen in his stead. The Roraans renewed their
leagues with Simon, and wrote them in tables of brass.
Soon after this, Simon intrasted the comraand to his sons,
Judas and John Hyrcanus. In 107 B. C, Aristobulus, the
eldest son of Hyrcanus, succeeded his father. He was the
first, after the captivity, who set a crown upon his head, and
changed the State into a monarchy.
There were several successors of the Asmonean race in the
kingdom, — Alexander, Jannseus, Alexandra, Aristobulus IL,
Hj'i'canus IL, and Antigonus, — whose rule, including that of
the founder of the dynasty, continued about one hundred
and twenty-six years. In the year 63 B. C, Porapey came to
Jerusalem to settle the affairs of Judea. He restored Hyrca
nus, between whom and his brother, Aristobulus, there had
been a contest for the crown, with the title of "PrinCe of
the Jews," and conferred the government of the country on
Antipater, an Idumean proselyte. He made the Jews tribu
tary to the Romans.
. Herod, afterwards named the Great, was a younger son
of Antipater, the Idumean. His father had appointed him
to the government of Galilee, in the year 47 B. C. In the
year 38 B. C, he took Jerusalera, raarried the beautiful Ma-
riame, the daughter of Hyrcanus, of the Asmonean family,
and was made king of Judea by the Roman power. Pie
was the last independent sovereign of Palestine, and began
his reign 37 B. C. His reign was one of unmitigated cru
elty. The last year of his life he ordered the murder of the
chfldren of Bethlehem, for the purpose of securing the death
of Christ, who was born at that time ; and the last act of his life
was the execution of his own son, Antipater. He had married
ten wives, and his family was numerous. To his two sons by
Malthace, a Samaritan, Herod Antipas and Archelaus, he
divided his dominions. Antipas had Galilee and Perea ; and
Archelaus, Idumea, Samaria, and Judea. The Roman gov-

278 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
emment gave Phihp a share in the govemment of Judea.
Archelaus received only the titie of Ethnarch, and, under
this name, he assumed the government of Judea, three years
before Christ. After a reign of nine years of great cruelty,
he was deposed and banished by the Roraan emperor, and
Judea was reduced to a Roman province.
Augustus, the emperor of Rorae, appointed a nuraber of
successors to the government of Judea, none of whora rc-
raained in office for any length of time. Tiberius adopted
a different policy, and, during his reign of twenty-three years,
Judea had only two rulers — Valerius Gratus, A. D. 16; and'
Pontius Pflate, A. D. 29. It was before Pontius Pilate that
Jesus Christ was led by the Jews. After haring declared
him innocent, he, nevertheless, sentenced hira to crucifixion,
A. D. 33.
During this period, the other two sons of Herod reigned
in peace — Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee ; and Philip in
Perea. After the death of Philip, his territory was annexed
to the province of Syria, and subsequently his vacant
tetrarchate was given by Caligula to Agrippa, the son of
Aristobulus, who also received the title of king. On the
accession of Claudius his territories were enlarged. He
endeavoured to gain the favour of the Jews by observing the
Mosaic law with great exactness. In this spirit he also
commenced the persecution of the Christians. He put to
death James, and threw Peter in prison. Having reigned
over the whole of Palestine for three years, he died in
extreme agony at Cesarea Palestina, A. D. 44.
He left one son, who succeeded his father, but was too
young to bear the burdens of royalty, and Judea relapsed
mto a Roman prorince. Cassius Longinus was appointed to
the presidency of Syria, and Fadus was sent as governor of
Judea. Tiberius Alexander succeeded Fadus, but his gov
ernment was short and eventful. He in turn was followed
by Ventidius Cumanus, and the ktter by Claudius Felix,
who was born a slave and addicted to all raanner of crimes.

BIBLICAL ETHNOGEAPHY. 279
Porcius Festus next was appointed governor. His admin
istration was rigid, but upright. He was succeeded by
Albinus, and he in turn by Gessius Florus, in whose time
the most fearful calamities befell the Jews. Diificulties arose
in Cesarea among the Jews and the Greek magistrates.
The spirit of insubordination extended to Jerusalem ; and
Florus, for the purpose of suppressing an insurrection, to
which he had driven the people, had thirty-six hundred raen,
women, and children, butchered in the streets. He also had
twenty thousand Jews slain in Cesarea. The Jews were
driven to madness, and went out through the land destroying-
city after city, and being in turn themselves destroyed by
the Romans. The Jews offered such a deadly resistance to
Roraan power that Nero selected his most valiant railitary
commander, Vespasian, to conduct the war. Vespasian sent
his son Titus to Alexandria, to conduct the fifth and tenth
legions, while he himself travelled with all speed by land to
Syria, gathering armed forces in his train. Vespasian
desolated every city he visited, and continued his war of
extermination until he received intelligence that he was
elected emperor, when he repaired to Rome, and his son
Titus became eoraniander-in-chief. Titus determined on
taking the city of Jerusalera, and raarched his army up to
its walls. After a desperate and long-continued effort, in
' •which thousands died from starvation within the walls and
tens of thousands in defending the city, an entrance was
made, and a scene of slaughter and destruction ensued which
beggars all description. The whole city was laid •waste ;
temple, palace, tower, all alike fell beneath the stroke of the
ruthless invader. During the wars of Vespasian and Titus,
it is coraputed that one raUlion five hundred thousand
were slain, including one hundred thousand who perished in
gladiatorial fights and by wUd beasts in the amphitheatre at
Rorae. Josephus, King Agrippa, and his sister Berenice,
escaped the general wreck of the country, and, while Jose
phus became a favourite and •w^ote his histories in Rome,

280 MANUAL OF BIULICAL I.ITER.\TURK.
vouched for by Titus, Berenice would have been taken to
the throne by Titus, who became enamoured of her beauty,
but for the prejudices of his subjects — she being an Idumean.
The political existence of the Jewish nation was now at
an end, and from that time to the present they have been
scattered and oppressed among the nations of the earth.
Here Biblical Ethnography closes in regard to this nation,
and their subsequent history belongs to another department

BIBLICAL HISTORY.

History in general is an authentic narrative of facts and
events in the Order in which they occured. Biblical His
tory is a narration of the facts and events of the Bible,
and differs widely from a history of the Bible. These are
often confounded by Bible historians, when they should be
kept entirely separate and distinct.
Bible history, according to the above definition, is simply
a narrative of the contents of the Bible ; whereas a history
of the Bible is confined as specifically to an account of its
origin, structure, and character, together with the times in
which and the authors by whom it was written, as well as
the languages in which they wrote. It also embraces an
account of the manuscripts, their transcription and preserva
tion, and the various translations which have been made
from time to time, and the extent of their circulation. This
department gives the historian the widest field of observa
tion, inasmuch as it pertains to everything connected with
the origin, progress, and. fate of the Scriptures.
. Biblical history confines the writer to the simple text. It
is only with the contents of the books of the Old and New
Testaments that he has to do ; and hence the design of this
part wiU be to give a succinct analysis of the subjects
embraced in each particular book of the four divisions of the
Old, namely, the .Pentateuch, the Historical, Poetical, and
Prophetical ; and the three of the New Testament namely,
the Historical, Doctrinal, and Epistolary.

282 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
CHAPTER I.
HISTOEIOAL BOOKS OE THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Genesis.
A. M. The first book of the Pentateuch, which is called
1 ...
¦ — ¦- — Genesis, derives its appellation from the titie it
bears in the Greek Septuagint version, BIBAOS PENE-
SEfiS, [Biblos Geneseos,) which signifies the Book of the
Generation or Production, because it comraences with the
history of the generation or production of all things.
Different opinions have been entertained in regard to the
tirae when Moses, its author, wrote it ; but the raost probable
conjecture is that which places it after the departure of the
Israelites frora Egypt, and the giving of the law on Sinai.
It comprises the hi.story of about two thousand three hundred
and sixty-nine years, according to the comraon computation
of time.
This book is dirided into four parts. The first part con
tains the origin of the world, chapter first and second. The
second part contains the history of the former world, chapter
third to seventh. The third part contains the general his-
torg of mankind, after the Deluge, chapter eighth to the
eleventh. The fourth part contains the particular history of
ihe patriarchs, chapter twelfth to the fiftieth.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Creation — The Fall of Man fi-om his Innocency — His Expulsion
from Eden— The History of Adam aud his Posterity— Translation of
Enoch— Noah and his Preaching— The Increase of •Wickedness in the
"World— Its Destruction by a Deluge— The Preservation of Noah and his
Family — The Division of the Earth among the Sons of Noah — The Build
ing of Babel — The Confusion of Tongues — The Dispersion of Mankind 
The Particular History of the Patriarchs— Destruction of Sodom— The
History of Abraham and his Family— Birth of Isaac— The Trial of
Abraham— The Death of Sarah— Marriage of Isaac— Death of Abraham-
History of the Church, under the Patriarchs Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph,
containing Remarkable Instances of Particular Providences.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 283

Exodus.

A. M. The title of this book is also derived from the
¦" ¦ Septuagint version, and is significant of the principal

transaction it records, namely, the ES0A02, (Exodos,)
Exodus, or departure of the IsraeHtes from Egypt. It com
prises a history of the events that took place during the
period of one hundred and forty-five years — from the year of
the world 2369 to 2514, inclusive — from the death of Joseph
to the erection of the tabernacle. This book shows the ac
complishment of the dirine promises made to Abrahara of
the increase of his posterity ; and their departure from Egypt,
after, suffering great affliction. It contains —
1. An account bf the oppression of the Israelites, and the
transactions previously to their departure out of Egypt, chapter
flr.st to the eleventh.
2. The narrative of the Exodus, pr departure of the Isra
elites, chapter twelfth and thirteenth.
3. Transactions subsequent to the Exodus, chapter four
teenth to the eighteenth.
4. The promulgation of the law on Mount Sinai, chapter
nineteenth to the fortieth. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The design of this book •vvas evidently to preserve the memorial of
the departure of the children of Israel out of Egypt, and the wonderful
providence of God in their deliverance and preservation as a nation. It
records events -which are the fulfilment of promises and prophecies made
to Abraham. The contents of the book may thus be summed up ; —
The Affliction of the Israelites under Egyptian Task-masters — ^The De
struction of all the Male Children at Birth — The Birth of Moses — His
Preservation — His Adoption into the Family of Pharaoh — His Flight to
Midian — The Burning Bush — His Commission to deliver Israel — ^A Sign
given hira — His Return to Egypt, and Message to Pharaoh — Miracles
"wrought by him — -Magicians of Egypt imitate thera- -The Ten Plagues — ¦
The First-born slain — -The Departure of the Israelites — Sanctification of
the First-born — Pillar of Cloud and Fire — ^Passage of the Bed Sea — D(^
struction of the Egyptian Array — Marah sweetened— Manna given —

284 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
The Covenant of Sinai^-Ten Commandments given — Law concerning
Altars — Judicial Laws — Moral and. Ceremonial Laws— Sabbatical Year —
Israel's Covenant with God — Moses converses with God, in the Mount,
Forty Days — Directions for making the Ark, and the Furniture of the
Tabernacle — The Veil and the Altar of Burnt-ofi'ering— Aaron set apart
for the Priesthood — The Drim and Thummim — ^Patterns of the Priestly
Eobes — Consecration of the Priests — Altar of Incense — ^Ransom of Souls
— Sacred Perfume — Sabbath, a Perpetual Covenant — The Tables broken
by Moses — He intercedes for the People — God talks with him — Tables
renewed — God's Instruction to Moses — Comes down from the Mount —
Contributions for the Tabernacle — Construction of the Tabernacle, and
Making of its •Furniture — The Altar of Burnt-ofi'ering, and the Offerings
made thereon — Holy Garments, and Dress of the Priests — The Tabernacle
completed, and filled with Glory — ^Burnt-offerings of the Flocks.
Leviticus.
A. M. Leviticus, caUed in the Septuagint AETITIKON,
(Iicvitikon^ derives its name frora the circurastance

of its containing the laws concerning the religion of -the Is
raelites. It is of great use in explaining raany passages of
the New Testaraent, especially the Epistle to the Hebrews,
which, otherwise, would be inexplicable. The book may be
divided as follows : —
1. The laws concerning sacrifices, in which the different
kinds of sacrifices are enumerated, together with their con-
coraitant rites, chapter first to the seventh.
2. The institution of the priesthood, in which the conse
cration of Aaron and his sons to the sacred office is related,
together with the punishraent of Nadab and Abihu, chapter
eighth to the tenth.
3. The laws concerning purifications, both of the people
and the priests, chapter eleventh to the twenty-second.
4. The laws concerning the sacred festivals, vows, things
devoted, and tithes. SUMMARY or SUBJECTS.
The Ceremonial Law of the Israelites, such as Burnt-offerings of the
Flocks — ^Law of Peace-offering and Sin-offering for the People—Law in
Relation to Unclean Things — Trespass-offering — ^Meat-offering — ^Peace-

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 285
offering— Portion of the Priests — Aaron and his Sons consecrated — ^The
Ram of Consecration — High Priest's Offering — Aaron enters on the
Priestly Office — Death of Nadab and Abihu — Clean and Unclean Ani
mals — Casualties making Meats unclean — Ceremonial Purification —
Law concerning Leprosy — Cleansing the Leper — ^Rites and Sacrifices —
Ceremonial Purifications — High Priest's Sin-offering — The Live Goat —
Directions concerning Sacrifices — Blood forbidden to be eaten — Incest
defined and forbidden — Ceremonial and Moral Laws and Ordinances
repeated — ^Laws .against Iniquity — Moral Laws — Laws concerning the
Priests and Sacrifices — Divers Feasts and Offerings — Yearly Sacrifices and
Solemn Feasts — ^Blasphemy punished with Death — Sabbatical Year and
Jubilee — Redemption of Servants — Promises aud Threatenings — Mercy
promised to the Repentant; — Law concerning Yows.

Numbers.
A. M. This book was entitied APieMOI, (Arithmoi,)
and, by the Latin translators, it was termed Numeri,

Numbers, from whence the English title is derived, because
it contains an account of the numbering of the children of
Israel. Besides the numeration and raarshalling of the Is
raelites for their journey, several laws, in addition to those
delivered in Exodus and Leviticus, and like'wise several re
markable events, are recorded in this book. It contains a
history of the Israelites, from the beginning of the second
month of the second year after their departure from Egypt,
to the beginning of the "eleventh month of the fortieth year
of their journeyings; that is, a period of thirty years and
nine months. This book raay be divided into four parts : —
1. The census of the Israelites, and the marshaUing of
thera into a regular carap, each tribe by itself, under its own
captain or chief, distinguished by his own pecuUar standard,
and occupying an assigned place with reference to the taber
nacle. The sacred census of the Levites, the designation of
them to the sacred office, and the appointment of them to
various services in the tabernacle, are related in chapters third
and fourth.
. 2. The institution of various legal ceremonies, chapter fifth
to the tenth.

286 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
3. The history of their journey from Mount Sinai to the
land of Moab, which may be described and distinguished by
their eight remarkable murmurings in the way, every one of
which was visited with severe chastiseraents, chapter eleventh
to the twenty-first.
4. A history of the transactions which took place in the
plains of Moab, chapter twenty-second to thirty-sixth.
SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The Numbering of the Men of 'War, and all the Israelites — The Le
vites are exempted — Stations of the Several Tribes — Separation of the
Israelites — ^Levites numbered — OflSce of the Levites — Unclean put out ,
of the Camp — The Bitter •Waters, of Jealousy — The Law concerning
Nazarites — A Form of Benediction appointed — The Offerings of the
Princes upon dedicating the Altar — The Light of the Sanctuary — Law
of the Passover — Pillar of Cloud and Fire — ^Use of Silver Trumpets —
Moving of the Camp — Murmurings of the Israelites^Manna loathed —
Prophecy ofthe Seventy Elders — Miriam smitten with Leprosy — Mission
of the Twelve Spies — Murmurings — Intercession of Moses — Death of the
Evil Spies — Laws concerning Sacrifices — Sabbath-breaker stoned — ^Re
bellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram — Their Destruction — ^Blossoming
of Aaron's Rod — Maintenance of the Priests — Ashes of Purifiqatiou —
The People murmur for "Water — Miraculous Supply from the Eock —
Death of Aaron — The . Brazen Serpent — Balak and Balaam — Balaam's
Journey to Balak — ^Balaam's Ass speaketh — Balak's Sacrifice — ^Balaam's
Parables of Israel's Prosperity — The Zeal of Phineas — Numbering ofthe
People in the Plains of Mo'ab — -The Land divided — Moses warned of his
Death — Joshua named as his Successor — L5,ws concerning Sacrifices —
Solemnities of the Seventh Month — Concerning Vows — Slaughter of the
Midianites — Spoil of the Midianites, and the Distribution thereof —
Request of the Reubenites respecting their Inheritance — ^Encampment
of the Israelites — Canaanites doomed — Boundaries of Canaan — The Law
of Murder. Deuteronomy.
A. M. The-fifth book of Moses derives its narae from
J^^ the titie AETTEPONOMION, (Deuteronomion,)
prefixed to it by the translators of the Septuagint, which is
a compound term, signifying the second law, or the law re
peated, because it contains a repetition of the law of God,,
given by Moses to the IsraeHtes. The period of tirae com-

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 287
prised in this book is about two raonths. It has four parts,
as follows : —
1. A repetition of the history related in the preceding
books, chapter first to the fourth.
2. A repetition of the moral, ceremonial, and judicial law,
chapter fifth to the twenty-sixth.
3. The confirmation of the law, chapter twenty-seventh to
the thirtieth.
4. The personal history of Moses, chapter thirty-first to
the thirty-third.
The thirty-fourth chapter was, in aU probabUity, written
by Joshua. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Cities of Refuge — ^Law of Inheritance — ^Moses rehearseth the Story
of God's Promises. — Seed of Esau and Lot spared — History of the Moab
ites — Sihon and Og subdued — Allotment of the Conquered Land — ^Moses
exhorts to Obedience — Cities of Refuge — The Decalogue repeated — Ca
naanites to be destroyed — Conditions of God's Mercy— Idolatry to be
avoided-^ Moses's Charge continued — Israel's Rebellion rehearsed —
Renewing the Two Tables — Obedience recommended — Charge continued
— Place of Burnt-offering — Blood forbidden — Cautions against Idolatry
— Meats Clean aud Unclean — Concerning Tithes — ^The Year of Release —
Yearly Feasts — Authority of the Judges — Idolaters must be slain — Du
ties of a King — ^The Great Prophet — Cities of Refuge — Laws to be ob
served in "War — Hittites to be destroyed — Of Uncertain Murder — The
'Wicked Son — Punishment of Fornication — Punishment of Rape — Clean
liness enjoined — ^Law of Divorce — Justice and Generosity — Amalek to
be destroyed— -First-fruits and Tithes — The Curse from Ebal — Promises
— Threatenings in Case of Disobedience — The Covenant renewed — Mer
cies to the Penitent — Advantages of Revelation — Solemn "Warnings —
Apostasy foretold — The Song of Mose^ — Moses's Blessing on the Twelve
Tribes — ^Moses's "View from Pisgah — His Death aud Burial.
Joshua.
A. M. . The book of Joshua, which, in all the copies of
the Old Testament, imraediately foUows the Penta

teuch, is thus denorainated because it contains a narration
of the achievements of Joshua, the son of Nun, who had

288 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
been the minister of Moses, and succeeded him in the com
mand of the chUdren of Israel. It has always been received
by the Jews as part of their canon of Scripture. This book
comprises the history of about seventeen years, and, some
chronologers think, thirty. It contains —
1. The history of the occupation of Canaan by the Israel*
ites, chapter first to twelfth.
2. The dirision of the conquered land, chapter thirteenth
tp the twenty-second.
3. The assembling of the people, by the dying address
and counsels of Joshua — his death and burial, chapter twenty-
third to the twenty-fourth. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Joshua succeeds Moses — The Two Spies and Rahab — Joshua's Approach
to Jordan — ^Passage over Jordan — -God magnifies Joshua — The Manna
ceases — Siege of Jericho— Jericho destroyed — ^Israelites smitten at Ai —
The Sin of Achan — ^Destruction of Ai — Reading of the Law — The Gibe
onites' Craft — Sun and Moon stand still — Five Kings slain— rJoshua's
Victories — Opposition of Jabin — Hazor taken and burned — Distribution
of Canaan — Caleb's Inheritance — The Borders of Judah — Othniel's Val
our and Reward — Cities of Judah — Borders of the Sons of Joseph — Tab
ernacle, at Shiloh — ^Inheritance of Benjamin — ^Simeon's Inheritance — Lots
of Several Tribes — Joshua's Inheritance — Six Cities of Refuge — ^Forty-
eight Cities given by Lot to the Levites — ^Two Tribes and a half dis
missed — Altar of the Reubenites — Joshua's Farewell and Exhortation —
His Death and Burial. Judges.
A. M. The book of Judges derives its name from its
2579 containing the history of the Israelites, from the

death of Joshua to the time of Eli, under the administration
of thirteen judges, and, consequently, before the estabhshment
of the regal government. It was supposed to have been
written by the prophet Samuel, and contains the following
parts : —
1. The state of the Israelites after the death of Joshua
until they began to turn aside from serving the Lord, chapter
first to the third.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 289
I
2. The history of the oppressions of the Israelites, and
their deliverances by the judges, chapter fourth to the six
teenth. 3. An account of the introduction of idolatry among the
[sraelites, and the consequent corruption of reUgion and
raanners among them, for which God gave them up into the
hands of their enemies, chapter seventeenth to the twenty-
first. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Judah's Commission to fight the Canaanites — ^An Angel rebukes the
Israelites — Idolatry of the Israelites — ^Bglon slain by Ehud — ^Israel en
slaved by Jabin — ^Defeat and Death of Sisera — Song of Deborah and Ba
rak — Call of Gideon — Gideon's Deliverance — Gideon's Fleece — Gideon's
Stratagem — His Victory — Suocoth and Penuel punished — Gideon's Ephod
— The Cruelty of Abimelech — GaaFs Insurrection — Abimelech's Ven
geance—His Death — Israel oppressed by the Ammonites — Jephthah's
Expedition to Ammon — Jephthah's Rash Vow — The Ephraimites quarrel
— An Angel appears to Manoah — ^Manoah's Sacrifice — The Birth of Sam
son — Samson's Riddle — Slaughter of the Philistines — ^Delilah's Treachery
— Death of Samson — Micah and his Gods — Expedition of the Danites —
The Levite and his Concubine — The "Wicke.dness of Gibeah— The Israel
ites roused to Revenge — ^War with the Benjamites — Their Defeat — Lam
entation for them— The Virgins of Shiloh surprised.
Ruth.
A. M. The book of Ruth is generally considered as an
appendix to that of Judges, and an introduction to
that of Samuel. It is, therefore, with great propriety, placed
between the books of Judges and Samuel. It relates, with
great beauty and simpUcity, the history of a Moabitish dam
sel, who renounced idolatry, and, by marriage, was engrafted
among the Israelites. David descended from her. The
adoption of Ruth, a heathen convert to Judaism, into the
line of Christ, has generally been considered as a pre-inti-
mation of the admission of the Gentiles into the Church.
A further design of this book is to evince the care of Divine
Providence over those who sincerely fear God, in raising the
19

290 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. '
pious Ruth from a state of the deepest adversity to that of
the highest prosperity. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The History of Elimelech and Naomi — Ruth's Constancy to Naomi —
Kindness of Boaz to Ruth — ^Ruth's Visit to Boaz— Her Marriage to Boaz
—The Birth of Obed. Books of Sam.uel.
A. M. In the Jewish canon of Scripture these two books
form but one, termed, in the Hebrew, the book of

Samuel, probably because the greater part of the first book
was written by that prophet, whose history and transactions
it relates. According to the Talmudical writers, the first
twenty-four chapters of the first book of Samuel were written
by the prophet whose name they bear, and the remainder
of that book, together with the whole of the second book,
was committed to writing by the prophets Gad and Nathan,
agreeably to the practice of the prophets, who wrote meraoirs
of the transactions of their respective times.
The first book of Samuel contains the history of the Jew
ish Church and polity, from the birth of Samuel, during the
judicature of Eli, to the death of Saul, the first king of Israel,
a period of nearly eighty years. It comprises —
I 1. The transactions under the judicature of Eli, chapter
first to the fourth.
2. The history of the Israelites during the judicature of
Samuel, chapter fifth to the thirteenth.
8. The history of Saul, and the events of his reign, chap
ter fourteenth to the thirty-first.
The second book of Samuel contains the history of David,
the second king of Israel, during a period of nearly forty
years. This book consists of three principal dirisions, relating
the triumphs and troubles of David, as follows: —
1. The triumphs of David, chapter first to the tenth.
2. The troubles of David, and their cause, together with

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 291
his repentance and recovery of the divine favour, chapter
¦ eleventh to the twenty-fourth.
3? David's restoration to the throne, and subsequent trans
actions, chapter twentieth to the twenty-fourth. The two
books of Samuel are generally regarded as a»key to the book
of Psalms. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The History of Elkanah and Hannah — Hannah's Prayer — 'Wickedness of
Eli's Sons — Eli and his House threatened — The Call of Samuel — The Isra
elites overcome by their Enemies — Death of Eli— The Ark among the Phil
istines — Restoration of the Ark — The Philistines smitten — Request for a
King— Saul seeks his Father's Asses — His Interview with Samuel — Samuel
anoints him— Saul among the Prophets — The Election of a King— Samuel's
Discourse to Israel — He calls for Thunder — The Philistines war against
Israel — Jonathan's Miraculous Success — Saul's Harsh Oath — Jonathan
condemned — The Araalekites destroyed — Saul's Dethroneraent foretold
— Samuel kills Agag — David anointed by Sarauel — Goliath's challenge
to Israel — David comes to the Camp and slays Goliath — Jonathan's Love
to David — Saul seeks to kill him — David marries Saul's Daughter — ¦
Saul's Jealousy of David — Saul prophesies before Samuel — Jonathan's
Covenant with David — David at Nob with Abiraelech — David iu the Cave
of Adullam — Saul destroys the Lord's Priests — David in the Wilderness
of Ziph — David spares Saul in a Cave — Death of Samuel — Nabal's Prov
ocation of David — ^David threatens to kill Nabal — Abigail pacifies David
— David spares Saul's Life — Saul acknowledges his Fault and ceases
his Persecution — He consults the "Witch of Endor, who raiseth Samuel
— Saul's Ruin foretold — The Amalekites burn Ziklag — David recovers
the Spoil — Death of Saul and Jonathan — ^David laraents for Saul.
A. M. The second book of Samuel contains the following : — The
.^94:8. Ascension of David to the Throne of Israel — ^Asahel slain by
Abner — Abner's Desertion to David — Joab's Murder of Abner — Death of
Ishbosheth by his Servants — David reigns over all Israel — ^The Bringing
of the Ark from Kirjath-jearim — Joy on the Restoration of the Ark —
God's Covenant with David — David's Conquests — His Kindness^to Jona
than's Son — Hanun's Usage of David's Servants — David's Sin with Bath
sheba — Nathan's Parable — Death of David's Child — ^Solomon's Birth —
Amnon's Incest — Absalom causes Amnon's Death — Joab's Art in Absa
lom's Favour — Absaloni's Return — Absalom's Rebellion — David's Flight
. — He is cheated by Ziba, and cursed by Shimei — Ahithophel's Counsel —
Hushai's Counsel accepted — Ahithophel hangs himself — Death of Absa
lom — David's Lamentation over him— Shimei pardoned — ^David returns

292 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
to Jerusalem — Sheba's Rebellion — Amasa slain— The Gibeonites avenged
— The Giants subdued — David's Song of Praise — ^David's Last "Words —
His Mighty Men— Solomon proclaimed— David's Dying Chargex-The
People numbered — The Numbering punished.

Books of Kings.
A. M. The two books of Kings are closely connected
2989 . .
with those of Samuel. The origin and gradual in

crease of the united kingdom of Israel, under Saul and
David, having been described in the latter, the books now
under consideration relate its advancement and glory under
Solomon — its division into two kingdoms, under Rehoboam
— the causes of that division, and the consequent decline of
the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, until their final sub
version — the ten tribes being carried captive into Assyria,
and Judah and Benjamin to Babylon.
In the Jewish canon these books constitute but one, termed
Kings, having been divided, at some unknown period, into
two parts, for the convenience of reading. In the Septuagint
and Vulgate they are termed the third and fourth book of
Kings. They are generally ascribed to Ezra.
The first book of Kings embraces a period of one hundred
and twenty-six years, from the anointing of Solomon and
his adraission as a partner in the throne, to the death of
Jehoshaphat. It may be divided into two principal parts,
containing —
1. The history of Solomon's reign, embracing the latter
days of Darid. The reign of Solomon to the dedication of
tho temple, and subsequent transactions, chapter first to the
eleventh, and second to the forty-sixth, and chapter third to
the eighth.
2. The history of the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel,
including the accession of Rehoboam and the division of the
two kingdoms. The reigns of Rehoboam and Jeroboam.
The reigns of Abijam and Asa, kings of Judah, and the
contemporary reigns of Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri,

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 293
and the reigns of Jehoshaphat, and Ahab, and Ahariah,
chapter eleventh to the twenty-second.
The second book of Kings continues the contemporary
history of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, from the
death of Jehoshaphat to the destruction of the city and
temple, a period of three hundred years. The history con
tained in the book may be divided into two parts —
1. The conteraporary history of the kingdoms of Israel
and Judah to the end of the former, chapter first to the
seventeenth. 2. The history of the decline and faU of the kingdom of
Judah, chapter eighteenth to the twenty-fifth.
SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Adonijah's Invasion of the Throne — Solomon proclaimed — David's
Dying Charge — Adonijah's and Joab's Death— Destruction of Shimei —
God's Appearance to Solomon — The "Wisdom of Solomon — Solomon's
Princes and Officers— His Distinguished Reputation — His Agreement
with Hiram — ^Building of the Temple— Ornaments and Sacred Ves
sels — Dedication of the Teraple — Solomon's Prayer — He blesses the
Congregation — God's Answer to Solomon — Solomon's Buildings — Visit
of the Queen of Sheba — Solomon's Degeneracy — God's Anger against
Solomon — Death of Solomon — Revolt of the Ten Tribes — Jeroboam's
Idolatry— Jeroboam's Hand withered — The Deceived Prophet slain —
Jeroboam threatened — ^Rehoboam's Disgrace and Death — Asa's Ex
cellencies and Defects — ^Baasha's "Wicked Reign — Zimri's Treason and
Death— Ahab's "Wickedness — ^Elijah fed by the Ravens — ^Elijah's Inter
view with Obadiah — Trial of the False Prophets — Elijah's Flight from
Jezebel — The Call of Elisha — Benhadad's Siege of Samaria — Death of
Benhadad — Ahab's Folly reproved — Naboth murdered by Jezebel —
Ahab's Humility — Jehoshaphat's League with Ahab — ^Micaiah's Predic
tion — Ahab's Death — Jehoshaphat's Death.
A. M. The Second Book of Kings contains : — The Rebellion of Moab
^^Q^- — Elijah brings Fire from Heaven — His Translation to Heaven
— Elisha heals the "Waters of the Jordan — ^Defeat of the Moabites — In
crease of the "Widow's Oil— The Restoration of 'the Shunemite's Son— The
Healing of the Deadly Pottage — Miracles by Elisha — Cure of Naaman's
Leprosy^— Gehazi's Sin and Punishment — The Syrian ensnared — Famine
in Samaria — Samaria plentifully supplied — ^The Shuneraite's Land re
stored — Hazael's Barbarity predicted — ^Jehu anointed King — Jorara and
Ahaziah slain — ^Death of Jezebel — ^Baal's Worshippers slain — Jehu's In-

294 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
consistency' — Death of Athaliah — "Wicked Reign of Jehoash — Death of
Elisha — Jehoash defeats Amaziah — Reign of Azariah — ^Reigns of Shal-
lum, Pekahiah, Pekah, &c. — Reign of Ahaz — The Israelites carried Cap
tive — The Samaritans' Idolatry— Hezekiah's Good Reign — Sennacherib
invoides Judea — Rabshakeh's Blasphemous Speech — Hezekiah sends to
Isaiah — Sennacherib's Fall predicted — Hezekiah's Sickness and Recovery
— Manasseh's Impious Reign — His Ruin foretold — Josiah's Pious Reign
— Destroys Idolatry and reforms Judea — ^His Zeal — Death of Josiah —
Jehoiachin carried into Captivity — ^Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalera —
The High-priest and Nobles slain.
f Books of Chronicles.
A. M. The Jews coraprise the two books of Chronicles
 '- into one, which they call The Words of Days, because
they were corapiled out of diaries or annals. In the Septua
gint they are called Paraleipomena, or things omitted, be
cause raany things oraitted in the forraer part of sacred history
are here recorded. The appeUation of Chronicles was given by
Jerome, because they contain an abstract, in the order of tirae,
of the whole of sacred history, to the time in which they
were written. They are a compilation from other books.
The period of time embraced in thera is about three thousand
four hundred and sixty-eight years. They may be divided
into four parts —
1. Genealogical tables, frora Adara to the tirae of Ezra,
1 Chronicles, chapter first to the ninth.
2. The histories of Saul and David, chapter tenth to the
twenty-ninth. 3. The history of the united kingdom of Israel and Judah,
under Solomon, chapter twenty-ninth, verses twenty-third to
thirtieth ; 2 Chronicles, firet to the ninth.
4. The history of the kingdom of Judah, frora the revolt
of the ten tribes to its terminatiorl, 2 Chronicles, tenth to the
thirty-sixth. As the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, relate to
the sarae histories, they should each be read and collated
together, as they give a coraprehensive history of the Jewish
nation, and serve to illustrate each other.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 295

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Genealogies — The Sons of Israel — The Family of David — Genealogies
— Defeat of the Hagarites — Posterity of Judah — The Line of Reuben —
The Sons of Levi — The Sons of Issachar — ^The Sons of Benjamin — gen
ealogies of Israel and Judah — Saul's Overthrow and Death — David made
King of Israel — ^The Armies that helped David — David removeth the
Ark — ^Hiram's Kindness to David — ^David's Psalm of Thanksgiving — Na
than's Message to David — ^David's Victories — ^David's Messengers ill-
treated — Rabbah taken and spoiled — The Plague stayed — Preparation
for the Temple — Solomon raade King — The Order of Aaron's Sons — The
Nuraber of the Singers — The Division of the Porters — The Twelve Cap
tains — ^David's Exhortation — David's Reign and Death.
A. M. The Second Book of Ohronicles erabraees ;— Solomon's Offering
'^°°°' — Soloraon sends to Hiram— Building of the Temple — The Ves

sels of the Teraple — ^Temple finished — Solomon's Blessing— His Sacrifice
— Builds Cities — Queen of Sheba's Visit to Solomon— Rehoboam raade
King — Judah strengthened — Rehoboam's Reign and Death — Abijah's
Victory over Rehoboam— Asa destroys Idolatry — His Covenant with
God — His Death and Burial — Jehoshaphat's Good Reign — Micaiah's
Prophecy — ^Jehoshaphat's Care for Justice — -His Fast and Prayer — Jeho-
ram's Wicked Reign — Ahaziah's "Wicked Reign — Joash made King —
Zechariah stoned — The Edomites overcome — Uriah's Leprosy — Jotham's
Good Reign — Ahaz's "Wicked Reign — Hezekiah's Good Reign, — The Pass
over proclaimed — ^Provision for the Priests— Hezekiah's Death — ^Manas
seh's Wicked Reign — Josiah's Good Reign — Josiah slain in Battle — Jeru
salem destroyed. Ezra.
A. M. The books of Ezra and Neheraiah were regarded
by the Jews as one volume^ and were divided by

them into the first and second books of Ezra. The same
division is recognised by the Greek and Latin Churches.
Ezra is generally admitted to be the author of the book
which bears his name. Every page of the book, indeed,
proves that the writer of it was pereonaUy present at the
transactions which he has recorded. The book harraonizes
with the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah. It evinces
the paternal care of the Almighty over his chosen people,
and consists of two parts —
1. A naiTative of events from the retum of the Jews,

296 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
under Zerubbabel, to the rebuilding of the temple, chapter
first to the sixth.
2. The arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem, and the reformation
made there by him, chapter seventh to the tenth.
The meraory of Ezra has always been held in the highest
feneration by the Jews.

V

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Proclamation of Cyrus— The Retui'n of the People from Babylon—
The Erection of the Altar— The Decree of Artaxerxes— Tatnai's Letter
to Darius — ^The Temple finished — ^Ezra's Journey to Jerusalem— Keeps
a Fast — ^His Prayer — ^Ezra's Mourning. Nehemiah.
A. M. This book was written bv the pereon whose narae
' it bears. Neheraiah was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes

Longimanus. This book contains-
1. An account of Nehemiah's departure from Shushan with
a royal commission to rebuild the waUs of Jerusalem, and
his arrival there, chapter firet; second, 1—11.
2. An account of the building ofthe walls, notwithstand
ing the obstacles interposed by Sanballat, chapter second,
12-20 ; third to the seventh, 4.
3. The first reformation accomplished by Nehemiah, chap
ter seventh to the twelfth.
4. The second reformation, on his second retum to Jeru
salem, and his correction of the abuses which had crept in
during his absence, chapter thirteenth.
His administration lasted about thirty-six years.
SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The Book of Nehemiah contains : — His Lamentations for Jerusalem —
Artaxerxes's Encouragement to Nehemiah— Names of the Builders — The
Appointment of a Watch— Reformation of Usury — Sanballat's Practices
— Hanani and Hananiah's Charge — The Reading of the Law — Solemn
Fast appointed — ^Points of the Covenant — ^Persons dwelling at Jerusalem
— The High-priest's Succession — Divers Abuses reformed — Nehemiah's

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 29*7
Prayer — He is sent to Jerusalem — ^Malice of Sanballat — Rebuilding of
the "Wall — Opposition of Sanballat — Precaution of Nehemiah — Plot of
Sanballat — Completion of the "Wall — Return of the Captives, and Regis
ter of their Families — The Joy of the People — ^Prayer of the Levites at
the Solemn Fast — Sealing of the Covenant — ^Renewal of the Sacred Rites
— Distribution of the People — Dedication of the "Wall — ^Abuses rectified
— Charge respecting the Sabbath — ^Dismissal of Strange Wives.
Esther.
A. M. This book is termed by the Jews the volume of
.  '— Esther, because it chiefly consists in the relation of
her history. The history contained in this book comes in
between the sixth and seventh chaptere of Ezra. It consists
of two parts —
1. The promotion of Esther to the throne of Persia, aud
the essential serrice rendered to the king by Mordecai, in
detecting a plot against his life, chapter firet to the second.
2. The advancement of Haraan — his designs against the
Jews, and their frustration — and the advanceraent of Mor
decai, chapter third to the tenth.
In our copies the book of Esther terrainates with the third
verse of the tenth chapter; but in the Greek and Latin
there are ten more verses annexed, together with six addi
tional chapters, which the Greek and Eoman Churches con
sider canonical. As they are not extant in the Hebrew they
are expunged from the sacred canon by Protestants, and are
supposed to have been compUed by some Hellenistic Jew.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Ahasuerus's Royal Feast — ^Esther made Queen — Haman despised by
Mordecai — ^Mourning of the Jews — Esther obtains the King's Favour —
Mordecai's Good Services — ^Haman is Hanged — ^Rejoicing of the Jews —
Haman's Ten Sons hanged — ^Mordecai's Advancement.

298 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
CHAPTER II.
POETICAL BOOKS.
The poetical books, denorainated by the Jews the Hagio
grapha, are placed between the historical and prophetical
books, without any reference to date. They are called poet
ical, because they are almost wholly composed in Hebrew
verse. Job.
A. M. This book has derived its title frora the venerable
patriarch whose name it bears. Some critics have

doubted the existence of such a character as Job. That
point, however, is satisfactorily proven by the prophet Eze
kiel and the apostle James, both of whom mention him as
a real character. The length of his Hfe places him in patri
archal times, and some are of the opinion that he lived
about one hundred and eighty-four years before the time of
Abraham. It is in the form of a dramatic poera, and was,
in all probability, written by Job, and transcribed by Moses,
when he was an exile in Arabia. It has been quoted by
alraost ever}'^ Hebrew writer from the age of Moses to that
of Malachi. It may be dirided into six parts —
1. Contains the exordium or narrative, written in prose,
chapter first and second.
2. Comprises the first debate or dialogue of Job and his
friends, chapter third to the fourteenth.
3. Includes the second series of debate or controverey,
chapter fifteenth to the twenty-first.
4. Comprehends the third series of controverey, chapter
twenty-second to the thirty-first.
5. Suras up the arguraent, chapter thirty-second to the
thirty-seventh. 6. Jehovah determines the controversy. Job humbles

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 299
hiraself — is accepted — restored to health and prosperity,
chapter thirty-eighth to the forty-third.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
An Account of Job's Losses and Temptations — Smitten with Boils —
Curses the Day of his Birth — Eliphaz reproves him — Job wishes for
Death— Excuses this Desire — Bildad showeth God's Justice — The Inno
cent often afilicted — Job expostulates with God — Zophar reproves Job
— God's Omnipotenoy maintained — Job's Confidence in God — The Con
ditions of Man's Life — ^Eliphaz reproves Job — Job reproves his Fi'iends
— His Appeal to God — Bildad's Reproof — Job's Complaint — The Portion
of the "Wicked — The Destruction of the "Wicked — Job accused of Divers
Sins — God's Decree Immutable — Sin goeth often unpunished — Man
cannot be justified hefore God — Job reproves Bildad — The Hypocrite
without Hope — ^Wisdom is the Gift of God — Job bemoans himself — His
Honour turned to Contempt — Professes his Integrity — Elihu reproves
aud reasons with Job — God cannot be Unjust — Comparison cannot be
made with God — The Justice of God's "Ways — God's Great "Works — His
"Wisdom is Unsearchable — His Power in his Creatures — Job's Humility —
God's Power in Creation — Job's Prosperity, Age, and Death.
Psalms.
This book is called, in Hebrew, the book of hymns or
praises, because the praises of God constitute their chief
subject, and as they were set to be sung not only with the
voice, but also to be accompanied with instruments. The Sep
tuagint designates them Bt/3/lof ¦iaXfiuiv, [Biblos Psalmon,)
the book of Psalms ; and this appellation is retained in our
Bibles. They are generally termed the Psalms of David —
that Hebrew raonarch being their chief author. Many of
them bear his name. We have no information when these
divine poems were collected into a volume.
The book of Psalms being coraposed in Hebrew verse.
must be studied according to the laws of Hebrew poetry.
To enable one to enter into their force and raeaning, it is
necessary to attend to the following hints : — •
1. Investigate the argument of each Psalm.
2. Examine the historical origin of the Psalm, or the cir
cumstances which led to its composition.
3. Attend to the structure of the Psalms.

300 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The Happiness of the Godly— The Kingdom of Christ— The Security
of God's Protection — ^Prayer for Audience — David's Profession of Faith^
His Complaint in Sickness — ^The Destruction of the Wicked — God's Love
to Man — God praised for his Judgments — The Outrage of the "Wicked —
God's Providence and Justice — David's Plea to God for Help — Boasts of
the Divine Mercy — The Natural Man described — David's Hope of his
Calling — A Citizen of Zion described — ^His Confidence — ^Praise to God^
Prayer for Grace — The Church's Confidence in God — Thanksgiving for
Victory — Complaint aud Prayer — Confidence in God's Grace — God's 'Wor
ship in the "World — Confidence in Prayer — ^David resorteth unto God —
His Love to God's Service — Blesseth God — Reasons for honouring God —
Praise for Deliverance — ^Rejoicing in God's Mercy — The Blessed — God is
to be praised — "Who are blessed — Prayer for Safety — Excellency of God's
Mercy — ^Persuasion to Patience — God moved to Compassion — The Brevity
of Life — Obedience the Best Sacrifice — God's Care of the Poor — David's
Zeal to serve God — ^His Prayer to be restored — The Church's Complaint
to God — The Majesty of Christ's Kingdom — The Church's Confidence in
God — The Kingdom of Christ — The Privileges of the Church — "Worldly
Prosperity contemned — God's Majesty in the Church — ^David's Prayer and
Confession — His Confidence in God — The Natural Man described — Da
vid's Prayer for Salvation — His Complaint — His Promise of Praise — ^De
scription of the"Wioked — Prayer for Deliveranoe-»-Comfort in Proraises —
Vows of Perpetual Service — No Trust in "Worldly Things — Thirst for God
— Coraplaint of Enemies — The Blessedness of God's Chosen — Exhorta
tion to Praise — Prayer for God's Kingdom — ^Prayer at the Removing of
the Ark — Complaint — ^Prayer for the Godly — ^For Perseverance — Prayer
for Solomon — The Righteous sustained — Prayer for the Sanctuary — ^Re
buke of the Proud — God's Majesty in the Church — David's Combat with
Diffidence — God's "Wrath against Israel — ^Prayer for the Church — Exhort
ation to praise God — Reproof of the Judges — The Church's Enemies —
Longing for the Sanctuary — ^Prayer for Mercies — Complaint of the Proud
— Nature and Glory of the Church — David's Complaint — God praised for
his Power — His Providence set forth — The State "of the Godly — God
Praised for his Great "Works — The Majesty of Christ's Kingdora — The
Danger of tempting God — ^Praise for God's Greatness — The Majesty of
God — All Creatures exhorted to praise God — He is to be worshipped — ¦
To be praised cheerfully — ^David's Profession of Godliness — ^Mercies to
be recorded — God blessed for his Constancy — "Wonderful Providences —
David's Confidence in God — Plague of .Egypt — Israel's Rebellion — Com
plaint — ^The Kingdom of Christ — Happiness of the Godly — ^An Exhorta
tion to Praise — The Vanity of Idols — Thankfulness — ^Praise for Mercy
and Truth — Trust in God — Meditation, Prayer, and Praise — ^David's
Prayer against Doeg — Safety of the Godly — Joy for the Church — Confi-

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 301
dence in God — ^Prayer for the Godly — Church prays for Mercy — ^Virtue
of God's Blessing — Fear of God — Haters of the'Church cursed — Hope
in God — Humility — Care for the Ark — Saints' Comraunion — Exhorta
tion — ^Praise for Judgments — Manifold Mercies — Constancy of the Jews — ¦
Confidence in God — ^The "Wicked defied — Prayer for Deliverance — For
Sincerity — Comfort in Trouble — ^David's Complaint — ^Prayer for his King
dom — Help to the Godly — Vows of Perpetual Praise — ^Praise for Provi
dences — ^All Creatures should praise God— God praised for his Benefits —
Praised upon Instruments. Proverbs.
A. M. The book of Proverbs has always been ascribed
.  '— to Solomon. The general opinion is that several
persons made a collection of them ; and that Hezekiah, Agur,
Isaiah, and Ezra, were among the number. It is frequently
quoted by the apostles. It may be divided into five parts,
viz. : —
1. In the proera, or exordium, containing the first nine
chapters, the teacher gives his pupil a series of admonitions,
directions, and cautions, as well as excitements to the study
of wisdom.
2.' Extends frora chapter tenth to the twenty-gecond, and
consists of what raay be strictly and properly called prov
erbs — namely, unconnected sentences, expressed with beauty
and simpUcity.
3. Reaches frora chapter twenty-second, verse seventeen,
to chapter twenty-fifth, inclusive. In this part the teacher
drops the sententious style, and addresses his pupil as pres
ent. 4. The proverbs contained in this part are supposed to
have been selected from some larger coUection of Solomon,
by the -prophets whom he employed to restore the service
and writings of the Jewish Church. This part extends from
the twenty-fifth to the thirtieth chapter.
5. Comprises chapters thirtieth and thirty-first. The first
are the instructions given by Agur, and the latter the pre
cepts given to Lemuel by his mother, a Jewess, married to
some neighbouring prince.

302 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Use of the Proverbs — The Benefit of "Wisdom — ^Exhortation to
Sundry Duties — Persuasions to Sundry Duties — Mischiefs of Licentious
ness — Seven Things hateful to God — ^Description of a Harlot— The Call
of "Wisdom — ^The Doctrine of "Wisdom — ^Virtues and Vices contrasted —
Observations about Kings — Sundry Maxims — Observations on Impiety —
Of Public Government — Agur's Prayer — ^Lemuel's Lesson of Chastity.

Ecclesiastes.
A. M. The titie of this book is derived from the Septu-
3027 agint, and signifies a preacher, or one who harangues'

a pubHc congregation. In Hebrew it is terraed The Words
of the Preacher. Although this book does not bear the
name of Solomon, it is evident he was the author of it. Its
design is to demonstrate the vanity of all earthly objects,
and draw off men from their pursuit, as an apparent good,
to the fear of God and communion with him as a permanent
good. It consists of two parts, viz. : —
1. The vanity of all earthly conditions, occupations, and
pleasures, chapter first to the sixth.
2. The nature, excellence, and beneficial efi'ects of true
religion, chapter sixth to the twelfth.
The conclusion, chapter twelfth.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Vanity of all Earthly Things — The Common End of "Wisdom and
Folly— A Tirae for All Things— The Good of Contentment— The Vanity
of Riches — The Conclusion of Vanities — Remedies against Vanities —
Kings are to be respected — ^Wisdom is better than Strength — "Wisdom
aud Polly — ^Directions for Charity-The Preacher's Care to edify.
Song of Solomon.
^Qon' '^^'^ book has always been reputed to be the pro

duction of the Hebrew monarch. This poem was
composed on the occasion of Solomon's marriage. All inter-

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 303
prefers agree that it is a mystical poem, or allegory. It can
only be explained by the aid of Oriental literature and raan
ners. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Church's Love to Christ — Christ's Care of the Church— -Christ the
Church's Glory — The Graces of the Church — Christ's Love to his Church
—The Church's Faith in Christ— Graces of the Church- The Calling of
the Gentiles.

CHAPTER HL
PEOPHETICAL BOOKS.
Isaiah.
A. M. ¦ This book is larger than aU the twelve rainor
3224
 ¦— prophets put together. Isaiah was the son of Ara oz,
and discharged the prophetic ofiice in the days of Uzziah,
Jothara, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. No prophet
has so clearly predicted the circumstances relative to the ad
vent, suff'erings, atoning death, and resurrection of the Mes
siah, as the author of this book ; and hence he is styled the
evangelical prophet. The unfulfiUed predictions of the ulti
mate triumph and extension of the Redeemer's kingdom,
contained in this book, are unrivalled for the splendour of
their imagery, and the beauty and sublimity of the language
in which they are conveyed. This book may be dirided
into six parts, viz. : —
1. Contains a general description of the condition and
state of the Jews in the several periods of their history,
the promulgation and success of the gospel, and the coming
of Messiah to judgraent, chapter first to the fifth.
2. Coraprises the predictions delivered in the reigns of
Jotham and Ahaz, chapter sixth to the twelfth.
3. Contains various predictions against the Babylonians,
Assvrians, Philistines, and other nations, with whom the

304 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Jews had any intercourse, chapter thirteenth to the twenty-
fourth. 4. Contains a prophecy of . the great calamities which
should faU upon the people of God, his merciful presei'va-
tion of a remnant, and their restoration to their country, and
their convereion to Christ, and the destruction of Antichrist,
chapter twenty-fourth to the thirty-third.
5. Comprises the historical part of the prophecy of Isaiah,
chapter thirty-sixth to the thirty-ninth.
6. Coraprises a series of prophecies delivered, in all
probability, towards the close of Hezekiah's reign, chapter
fortieth to the sixty-sixth. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The Complaint of Judah — Prophecy of Christ's Kingdom— Oppression
of the Rulers — Christ's Kingdom a Sanctuary — God's Judgments for Sin
— Isaiah's Vision of God's Glory — Christ promised — ^Israel and Judah
threatened — The Church's Joy in Christ's Birth — God's Judgments upon
Israel — Calling of the Gentiles — ^Thanksgiving for God's Mercies — Baby
lon threatened — ^Israel's Restoration — ^Lamentable ^ate of Moab — Syria
and Israel threatened — God's Care of his People — ^The Confusion of
Egypt — ^Egypt and Ethiopia's Captivity — The Fall of Babylon — The In
vasion of Jewry — ^Tyre's Miserable Overthrow. — Judgments of God for
Sin — Praise to God — God's Care of his Vineyard — ^Ephraim threatened —
God's Judgment on Jerusalem — God's Mercies toward his Church — ^Des
olation foreshown — ^Privileges of the Godly — ^Vindication of the Church
— ^Blessings of the Gospel — Insult to Hezekiah by Rabshakeh — ^Hezekiah's
Prayer — His Thanksgiving — ^Babylonian Captivity foretold — ^Promulga
tion of the Gospel — God's Mercies to his Church — Christ's Mission to the
Gentiles — Comfort to the Church — The Vanity of Idols — Cyrus called-^
God's Judgment upon Babylon — The Intent of Prophecy — Christ sent to
the Gentiles — Christ's Sufferings and Patience — ^The Certainty of God's
Salvation — Christ's Free Redemption — The Humiliation of Christ — The
Church's Enlargement — ^The Happy State of Believers — ^Exhortation to
Holiness — God reproves the Jews^Hypocrisy reproved — The Covenant
of the Redeemer— The Glory of the Church— The Office of Christ— God's
Promises to his Church — Christ shows his Power to save— The Church's
Prayer- The CalUng of the Gentiles— The Growth of the Church.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 305

Jeremiah.

A. M. The prophet Jeremiah was one of the sacerdotal
2876 race, being one of the priests that dwelt in the land

of Benjamin, about three miles north of Jerusalem. He
entered upon the prophetic office early in life, and prophesied
about forty years. He followed the remnant of the Jews on
retiring into Egypt. His prophecies are leveUed against the
crimes of his countrymen. His prophecies are not in the
chronological order in which they were delivered. Chrono
logically arranged, they may be thus divided : —
1. Prophecies delivered in the reign of Josiah, chapter
firet to the twelfth, inclusive.
2. Prophecies delivered in the reign of Jeboiakira, chapters
thirteenth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, thirty-fifth,
thirty-sixth, forty-fifth, forty-eighth, and forty-ninth.
3. Prophecies delivered in the reign of Zedekiah, including
chapters twenty-firgft, twenty-fourth, twenty-seventh, thirty-
fourth, thirty-seventh, thirty-ninth, and ft)rty-ninth.
4. Prophecies delivered under the governraent of Gedaliah,
frora the taking of Jerusalem to the retreat into Egypt, and
' prophecies delivered in that country, including chapters for
tieth and forty-fourth. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
/ The Calling of Jeremiah — ^Israel spoiled for his Sins — God's Mercy to
Judah— Israel called to Repentance — God's Judgments upon the Jews —
Enemies sent against Judah — Jeremiah's Call for Repentance — ^The Ca
lamities of the Jews — Jeremiah's Lamentation^rhe Vanity of Idols —
God's Covenant proclaimed — The Prosperity of the "Wicked — An Exhort
ation to Repentance — The Prophet's Prayer — Jeremiah's Complaint —
The Utter Ruin of the Jews— The Captivity of Judah— The Type of the
Potter — The Desola'tion of the Jews — Pashur smiteth Jeremiah — Nebu
chadnezzar's War — ^The Judgment of Shallum — Restoration of God's
People — ^The Type of Good and Bad Figs — Jeremiah's Reproof of the Jews
— He is arraigned — ^Nebuchadnezzar's Conquests — Hananiah's Prophecy
— Jeremiah's Letter — The Return of the Jews — ^The Restoration of Is
rael — The Imprisonment of Jeremiah — Christ, the Branch, promised —
Zedekiah's Fate foretold — God blesses the Rechabites — Jeremiah's Proph-
20

306 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
ecies — The Chaldeans' Siege raised — Jeremiah cast into a Dungeon — Je
rusalem taken — Jeremiah set at Liberty — ^Ishmael killeth Gedaliah —
Johanan's Promise — Jeremiah carried to Egypt — Judah's Desolation — ¦
Baruch comforted — Overthrow of Pharaoh's Army — Destruction of Phi
listines — Judgment of Moab — Restoration of Elam— Redemption of Is
rael — God's Judgments — Zedekiah's "Wicked Reign.
Lameritaticms.
A. M. That Jeremiah was the author of these elegies,
' or lamentations, has never been doubted. This

book contains five chapters, forming as many pathetic
elegies. In the first four the prophet bewails the calamities
of his country, and the fifth is an epilogue to the preceding

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The Carrying away of King Jehoiakira, with Ten Thousaud ofthe prin
cipal Hebrews — fhe Assault of Jerusalem — The Calamities undergone
by the Prophet — The Overthrow of Jerusalem — The Carrying away of
King Zedekiah, and the Slaughter of the Hebrews — The "Wretched Con
dition of the People after the Destruction of the City,

Ezekiel.
A. M. Ezekiel was the son of Buri, of the sacerdotal
race, and one of the captives carried away to Baby

lon. The principal Scene of his predictions was some place
on the river Chebar, which flows into the Euphrates, about
two hundred miles to the north of Babylon, where the prophet
resided. He entered upon his prophetic ofiice in the thirtieth
year of his age, and continued in it about twenty years. His
prophecies are chronologically arranged, and may be divided
into four parts, riz. : —
1. His caU to the prophetic office — his commission and
instructions for executing it — chapters first, second, and
third. 2. Denunciations against the Jewish people, chapters third
and fourth to the twenty-fotirth.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 307
3. His prophecies against various neighbouring nations,
enemies to the Jews, chapter twenty-fifth to the thirty-second;
4. Contains a series of exhortations and promises to the
Jews of future deliverance, under Cyrus, and their final res
toration and conversion to the Messiah, chapters thirty-third
to the forty-sixth. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Ezekiel's Vision — His Commission — ^Eating of the Roll — Type of the
Siege — Type of Hair — Israel threatened — Israel's Desolation — Vision of
Jealousy — The Marked preserved — ^Vision of Coals of Fire — The Pre
sumption of the Priest — The Type of Removing — Lying Prophets — ^Idola
ters exhorted — Rejection of Jerusalem — God's Love to Jerusalem — The
Eagles and the Vine — ^Parable of Sour Grapes — Of the Lion's "Whelps —
Israel's Rebellions — Prophecy against Jerusalem — Jerusalera's Sins — Aho-
lah and Aholibah — Jerusalem's Destruction — Ammonites. threatened —
The Fall of Tyrus — Tyrus's Rich Supply — Zidon threatened— The Judg
ment of Phariioh — ^Desolation of Egypt — ^The Glory and Fall of Assyria —
The Fall of Egypt — Ezekiel admonished— <}od's Care of his Flock —
Ju<fgment of Seir — Israel comforted — ^Vision of Dry Bones — The Malice
of Gog — Elescription of the Temple — Ornaments of the Temple — The
Priests' Chambers — Return of God's Glory — The Priests reproved — Divi
sion of the Land— Ordinances for the Princes — Vision of the Holy Waters
— ^Portions of the Twelve Tribes. Daniel.
A. M. Daniel was of royal birth, and, at an early age,
was carried away a captive to Babylon. Having

heen instructed in the language and literature of the Chal
deans, he afterwards held a very distinguished office in the
Babylonian empire. He was a contemporary with Ezekiel,
and his extraordinary piety and wisdom were proverbial.
He lived in great credit with the Babylonian monarchs, and
his uncomraon merit procured hira the sarae regard from
Darius and Cyrus, the first two sovereigns of Pereia. His
prophecy may be dirided into two parts : —
1. Comprises the historical portion of this book. It con
tains a narrative of the circumstances which led to Daniel's
elevation, chapter first to the sixth.

308 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
2. Comprises various prophecies and risions of things fii-
ture, until the advent and death of the Messiah, and the ulti
mate conversion of the Jews and Gentiles to the faith of the
gospel, chapter seventh to the twelfth.
This amaring series of prophecies extends through many
successive ages, from the first estabUshment of the Pereian
erapire, five hundred and thirty years before Christ, to the
general resuiTCction. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Daniel's Captivity — His Advancement — The Account of Shadraoh, Me
shach, and' Abednego — Nebuchadnezzar's Pride and Fall — Belshazzar's
Impious Feast — ^Daniel's Interpretation of the Mysterious Writing — He
is invested with Power — Decree of Darius — ^Daniel iu the Den of Lions —
Vision of the Four Beasts — Interpretation — Vision of the Rara and He-
goat — Gabriel's Interpretation — Confesses Israel's Sins — Comforted hy
an Angel — Overthrow of Persia — Israel's Deliverance.
Hosea.
A. M. Hosea was an Israelite, who lived in the kine'dom
3219 .
 ¦-— of Saraaria. His predictions are chiefly levelled
against the Israelites, for their sins. His book contains four
teen chapters, and may be divided into five parts, riz. : — •
1. Their idolatry is described, and they are exhorted to
foreake it. Promises are introduced on the general conver
sion of the twelve tribes to Christianity, chapters first, second,
and third.
2. A reproof of the bloodshed and idolatry of the Israel
ites, against which the inhabitants of Judah are exhorted to
take warning, interspereed vrith promises of pardon, chapters
fourth to the sixth.
3. The prophet's exhortations to repentance proring inef
fectual, God complains of their obstinacy, and threatens
them with captivity, chapters sixth, seventh, and eighth.
4. Captirity and" dispersion further threatened. Eeturn
to their own country foretold. Further threatenings on ac
count of idolatry, chapters ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and
thirteenth.

«
BIBLICAL HISTORY. 309
5. Denunciation of punishment. Exhortation to repent
ance. Their restoration from idolatry, and their convereion
to the gospel foretold, chapters thirteenth and fourteenth.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Judgments for "Whoredom — Idolatry of the People — ^Desolation of Is
rael — Judgment ttaeatened — ^Israel a Treaohei;ous People — ^Exhortation
to Repentance — ^Reproof of Manifold Sins — Israel threatened — Captivity
of Israel — Israel's Impiety — ^Ingratitude to God — Ephraim reproved- ¦
Ephraim's Glory vanished — ^Blessings promised.

Joel.
A. M. This prophet was a contemporary with Araos and
Hosea. His book consists of three chapters, which

may be divided into so many parts, viz. :-
1. An exhortation to the priests and people to repent, by
reason of the famine brought upon them by the palmer-worra,
in consequence of their sins. A denunciation of greater ca
lamities, if they continued impenitent, chapter first.
2. An exhortation to keep a pubHc and soleran fast, with
a proraise of reraoving the calamities of the people, and an
effusion of the Holy Spirit, chapter second.
3. A prediction of their general conversion and return,
•vrith the destruction of their opponents and the glory of the
Church, chapter third. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
God's Sundry Judgments — He exhorteth the People to mourn, and pre
scribes a Fast — Terribleness of God's Judgments — ^Exhortation to Re
pentance — ^The Prophet comforts Zion — ^Merciful Promises of Restoration
— God known in Judgment — The Blessings of God upon his Church.
f Amos.
A. M. This prophet was a native of Tekoa, a small town
in the kingdom of Judah, about four leagues south

of Jerusalem. His prophecy consists of three parts, viz. :-

t
310 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
1. The judgments of God denounced against the neigh
bouring nations, riz. : the Syrians, Philistines, Tyrians, Edom
ites, Ammonites, and Moabites, chapters first and seeoiid.
2. The divine judgments denounced against Judah and
Israel, chapters second to lunth.
3. Consolatory promises to the Church, describing her
restoration to the Messiah, chapter ninth.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Judgments against Nations bordering upon Palestine — God's Wrath
against Moab — Judah — ^Israel — Complains of their Ligratitude — Neces-
' sity of 'God's Judgments against Israel — Publication of it, with the Causes
thereof — Israel reproved for Ojipression, Idolatry, and Incorrigibleness —
Lamentation for' Israel — ^Exhortation to Repentance — God rejects their
Hypocritical Service — "Wantonness of Israel — Threatened with Desolation
. — The Judgments of Grasshoppers and Fire diverted hy the Prayer uf
Amos — The rejection of Israel symbolized by a "Wall and a Plumb-line — .
Amaziah's Complaint of Amos — Ames's Vindication — ^Amaziah's Judg
ment — The Propinquity of Israel's End shown by a Basket of Summer
Fruit — Oppression reproved — A Famine of the "Word threatened — The
Certainty of the Desolation — ^Restoration of the Tabernacle of David.
Obadiah.
A. M. This prophet was contemporary with Jereraiah,
 '— one of whose predictions constitutes the greater part
of this book. This prophecy may be divided into two
parts, riz. : —
1. A denunciation of the country of Edom, for its pride
and security, and for the cruel insults and enmity of the
Edomites to the Jews, verse tenth to the sixteenth.
2. Consolatory promises. The restoration of the Jews,
and their rictory over their enemies, verse seventeenth to the
twenty-first. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS. •«
Destruction ofthe Edomites, for their Pride and Carnal Security — Their
Land made Desolate, because of their Refusal to let Israel pass through
Idumea^-The Total Extinction of the Edomites foretold — ^The Salvation
and Victory of Jacob foretold, and the Judgment of Esau.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 311

Jonah.
A. M. Jonah was a native of Gath Hepher, in Gahlee.
3317 . ' r »
He is supposed to have prophesied to the ten tribes.

under the reign of Joash. The design of the book is to
show, by the very striking example of the Ninevites, the
divine forbearance and long-suft'ering towards sinners who
are spared on their sincere repentance. ¦ It consists of two
parts, viz. : —
1. Jonah's mission to Nineveh, and his attempt to flee to
Tarehish. The judgment which feU upon him, chapters first
to the second.
2. His mission, and its happy result to the Ninerites,
chaptere third and fourth.

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Jonah sent to Nineveh — His Flight to Tarshish — ^Betrayed by a Tem
pest — ^Thrown into the Sea, aud swallowed by a Fish — Prayer of Jonah
— His Deliverance — Sent again to preach to the Ninevites — God averts
his "Wrath on their Repentance — Jonah is reproved for repining at God's
Mercy in sparing the Ninevites.

Micah.
A. M. This prophet was a native of Morasthi, a small
3254 .
town in the southem part of the territory of Judah.

He prophesied in the reigns of Jotham and Hezekiah, and
was, consequently, contemporary with Isaiah, Joel, Hosea,
and Amos. His book may be dirided into three parts,
viz. : —
1. The introduction, or title, chapter first.
2. Comprises the prophecies dehvered in the reign of
Jotham, in which the divine judgments are denounced
against both Israel and Judah for their sins, chapter second.
3. Contains the predictions delivered in the reign of Hez
ekiah, chapters fourth, fifth, and seventh.

312 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
The fifth chapter contains a prediction of the place of the
Messiah's natirity. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Micah shows the "Wrath of God against Idolatry — ^Exhortation to
Mourning against Oppression — A Lamentation — ^A Reproof of Injustice
and Idolatry— A Promise of Restoration to Jadob — The Cruelty of the
Princes— Falsehood of the Prophets— Security of both — ^The Glory,
Peace, Kingdom, and Victory of the Church — Birth of Christ, his King-.
dom and Conquest — God's Controversy for Unkindness, Ignorance, In
justice, and Idolatry — Complaint of the Church, on Account of the Pau
city of her Numbers, and the General Corruptions-Confidence in God,
not Man— She triumphs over her Enemies — God comforts her by Prom
ises — Confounds her Enemies, and manifests his Mercies.
Nahum.
A. M. Nahum was a native of Elkosha, a viUase in
3291 • . .
GalUee, and lived between the Assyrian and Baby

lonian captirities. He denounced the final and inevitable
doom of Nineveh, and the Assyrian empire, by the Chalde
ans. His prophecy is one entire poem, opening with a sub
Ume description of the justice and power of God, tempered
"vrith long-sufifering, chapter firet, 1-8. He foretells the de
struction of the Assyrian empire, (9-12,) together with the
deUverance of Hezekiah, (18-15.) The destruction of Nin
eveh is then predicted, with singular minuteness.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Majesty of God revealed iu Goodness to his People, and Severity
to his Enemies — The Fearful and Victorious Armies of God against Nin
eveh — The Awful Ruin of Nineveh for its CrimBs.
Habakkuk.
A. M. This prophet exercised his office in the reign of
 '— Jehoiakim, and, consequently, was a contemporary
with Jeremiah. His book consists of two parts, riz. : —
1. A dialogue between God and the prophet, ip which

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 313
the Babylonish captirity is announced, with a promise of
deliverance, and the ultimate destruction of the Babylonian
empire, chapter first.
2. Contains the prayer or psalm of the prophet, in which
he implores God to hasten the deliverance of his people,
chapter second. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
The Vision of Habakkuk — Complaint of the Iniquity of the Land—
. Fearful Vengeance by the Chaldeans — Complains of the Agency by which
the Land is desolated — The Prophet is taught to wait for an Answe* by
Faith — Judgraent upon the Chaldeans for Insatiableness, Covetousness,
Cruelty, Drunkenness, and Idolatry — Habakkuk trembles iu viev of
God's Majesty — His Confidence in God.
Zephaniah.
A. M.' This prophet was the son of Cushi, and discharged
the prophetic office before Josiah had reformed the

corruptions and abuses of his dominions. ' His prophecy may
be divided into four parts, viz. : — ¦
1. A denunciation against Judah for their idolatry, chapter
first. 2. Repentance the only means to avert the dirine judg
ments, chapter second.
3. Prophecies against the Philistines, Moabites, Amraon
ites, Ethiopia, and Nineveh, chapter second.
4. The captivity of the Jews, and their future restoration
and ultimate prosperity, chapter third.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
God's Severe Judgments against Judah for Divers Sins — ^An Exhorta
tion to Repentance — The Judgment of the Philistines — Of Moab, Am
mon, Ethiopia, and Assyria — Reproof of Jerusalem for Divers Sins — An
Exhortation to wait for the Restoration of Israel — Rejoicings for her
Salvation by God.

314 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE,

Haggai.
A. M. This prophet was the first who declared the wUl
 ¦— of God to the Jews, after their captivity. He en
couraged them in the work of rebuUding the temple. His
book raay be divided into three parts, viz. : —
1. A severe reproof for neglecting the rebuilding of the
temple, chapter first.
2. Comforts the aged men by assuring them that the
glory of the latter house should be greater than that of the "
fonner, chapter second.
3. Foretells the establishment of Messiah's kingdom,
chapter second. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Haggai reproves the People for neglecting the Building of God's House
— ^Incites them to the "Work — ^Promises God's Assistance — ^Encourages the
People in their "Work, by Promised of Greater Glory to the Second Temple
than was in the First — ^Their Sins hindered the "Work, shown by the Type
of Holy and Unclean Things — God's Promise to Zerubbabel.
Zechariah.
A. M. This prophet was contemporary with Haggai.
His book consists of two parts, viz. : —

1. The restoration of the teraple, interepereed with Messi
anic predictions, chapters first to the sixth.
2. Comprises prophecies relating to more remote events,
viz., the war of the Romans against the Jews, chapters sev
enth to the fourteenth. St>MMART OP SUBJECTS.
Exhorts to Repentance — The Vision of the Horses — Comfortable Prom
ises made to Jerusalem, at the Prayer of the Angel — ^The Vision of the
Four Horns and the Four Carpenters — Jerusalem measured — The Redemp
tion of Zion — Promise of God's Presence — Restoration of the Church
shown under the Type of Joshua — Christ promised under the Similitude
of a Branch — The Good Success of Zerubbabel's Foundation shown by
the Golden Candlestick — The two Anointed Ones foreshown by the Two

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 315
Olive-trees — ^The Curse of Thieves aud Swearers shown by the Vision of
the Flying Roll — ^The Final Destruction of Babylon shown by the Pressing
of a "Woman in an Ephah — ^Vision of the Four Chariots — The Temple and
'Kingdom of the Branch shown by the Crown of Joshua — ^Inquiry of the
Captives in regard to Fasting — Sin the Cause of their Captivity — Restora
tion of Jerusalem — Encouragement to build by God's Favour shown —
Good "Works required, and Enlargement promised — ^Defenc^ of the Church
— ^Rejoicings for the Coming of Christ — ^Promised Victory — God, and not
Idols, to be sought after — Restoration promised — The Destruction of Je
rusalem — Howling of the Shepherds, and Spoiling of their Glory — The
Staves of Beauty and Bands broken by the Rejection of Christ — The Type
and Curse of a Foolish Shepherd — Jerusalem a Cup of Trembling to her
self, and a Burdensome Stone to her Adversaries — The Victorious Resto
ration of Judah, aud the Signal Interposition of God-r-Repentance of Je
rusalem — Fountain of Purgation for Jerusalem from their Idolatry and
False Prophecy — The Death of Christ, and the Trial of the Third Part —
Jerusalem's Destroyers destroyed — Coming of Christ, and the Graces of
his Kingdora — ^Plagues on Jerusalem's Enemies — ^Turning of the Rem
nant, and the Sanctification of their Spoil.
Malachi.
A. M. This prophet delivered his predictions whUe Ne-
¦ hemiah was govemor of Judah — more particularly

after his second coming frora the Persian court. The people
having relapsed into irreligion, the prophet was commissioned
to reprove them, and also the priests. The book may be
divided into two parts, riz. : —
1. Reproof to the Jews for want of reverence to God, their
benefactor, and judgments denounced therefor, chaptere firet
and second.
2. Foretells the coming of Christ and his harbinger, John,
to purify the sons of Leri, chapters third and fourth.
SUMMARY or SUBJECTS.
Malachi complains of Israel's Irreligion, Unkindness, and Profanity-
Reproves the Priests for neglecting their Covenant with God— Reproves
the People for Idolatry, Adultery, and Infidelity — The Messenger of
Christ  The Majesty and Grace of Christ — Rebellion, Sacrilege, and Infi
delity of the People — The Promise of Blessings to those that fear God
and think of his name — God's Judgraents on the "Wicked, and his Bless
ings on the Good— Exhortation to the Study of the Law— The Coming of
Klijah, and his Office.

.316 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
CHAPTER IV.
HISTOEIOAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

Matthew.
A. M. Matthew, surnamed Levi, was the son of Alpheus,
 ¦— a native of GalUee. Before his conversion to Chris

tianity he was a publican, or tax-gatherer, under the Romans,
and collected th,e custoras of all goods exported or iraported
at Capernaura, a maritime town on the Sea of Gahlee, and
also received the tribute paid by all passengers who went by
water. While employed at the receipt of custom, Jesus
called him to be a witness of his words and works — thus
conferring upon him the honourable office of an apostle.
After the ascension of the Saviour he continued at Jerusalera
with the other apostles, and with them, on the day of Pen
tecost, was endued with the gift of the Holy Spirit. He was
the first of all the evangelists who wrote. His Gospel was
written in Judea, for the Jewish nation, and designed to con
firm Jewish converts in the truth of Christianity. It consists
of four parts, 'riz. : —
1. Treats of the infancy of Jesus Christ, chapters first and
second. 2. Records the discourses and actions of John the Baptist
and of Jesus Christ, preparatory to the coramenceraent of
the public ministry of the Sariour, chapters third and
fourth. 3. Relates the discourses and actions of Christ in Galilee,
by which he demonstrated that he was the Messiah, chapters .
fourth to the twentieth.
4. Contains the transactions relative to the passion and
resurrection of Christ, chapters twentieth to the twenty-
eighth.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 317

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Genealogy of Christ, from Abraham to Joseph — Conceived by the
Holy Ghost, and born of the Virgin Mary, when she was espoused to
Joseph — The Angel satisfies the Mind of Joseph, and interprets the
Names of Christ — Wise Men from the East are directed to Christ by a
Star— The "Worship of the Magi— Their Offerings of Gold, Frankincense,
and Myrrh— Joseph's Plight into Egypt with Jesus and his Mother —
Slaughter of the Children by Herod — Herod's Death — Christ is brought
back again into Galilee, to Nazareth — The Preaching of John — His Office,
Life, and Baptism — ^He reprehends the Pharisees, and baptizes Christ in
Jordan — Christ's Fast and Temptation iii the "Wilderness — Angels min
ister to him — ^Dwells in Capernaum — Begins to preach — Calls Peter and
Andrew, James and John — Heals all Diseases — Sermon on the Mount —
Declares who are blessed — "Who are the Salt of the Earth, the Light of
the World — Came to fulfil the Law — ^Its Nature — ^Exhortation to suffer
"Wrong, love Enemies, and labour for Perfection — Giving of Alms — Prayer
— Forgiveness— Fasting — Teaches where to lay up our Treasure — Cannot
serve God and Mammon — ^Exhortation to seek first the Kingdom of God
— Reproves Rash Judgraent — Things Holy should not be cast to Dogs —
Exhortation to Prayer, and to enter the Strait Gate — ^Warns of False
Prophets — ^Exhorts to be Doers of the "Word, and not Hearers only — Good
Foundatiou^Cleanses the Leper — Heals the Centurion's Servant, Peter's
Mother-in-law, and many others-^Shows how he is to be followed — Stills
the Tempest on the Sea — ^Drives Devils out of two Men, and suffers them
to enter the Swine— Cures the Palsy — Calls Matthew — Bats with Publicans
and Sinners — Defends his Disciples for not Fasting — Cures the Bloody
Issue — Raises the Daughter of Jai'rus to Life — Gives Sight to two Blind
Men — Heals a Dumb Man possessed of Devils, and has Compassion on
the Multitude — Sends out his Twelve Apostles, and gives them Power to
work Miracles — Gives thera their Charge, and promises a Blessing upon
all who receive thera — John sends his Disciples to Christ — Christ's Testi
mony concerning John — The Opinion ofthe People — The-Unthankful-
ness and Impenitency of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum — Gospel
revealed to the Simple — The Burthened invited — Blindness of the Phari
sees' concerning the Sabbath reproved — The Dumb and Blind Man re
stored — Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost not forgiven — Reproves those
who seek after a Sign, and shows who are his Brother, Sister, and Mother
—The Parable of the Sower and the Seed, and its Exposition — The Par
able of the Tares, Mustard-seed, Leaven, Hidden Treasure, Pearl, aud
Drag-net — Herod's Opinion of Christ — John beheaded— Jesus departs
into a Desert-place, where he feeds Five Thousand with Five Loaves and
Two Fishes — •Walks on the Sea — Heals the Sick by the Touch of the Hem
of his Garment — ^Reproves the Pharisees fortransgressing the Command
ments by Traditions — Heals the Daughter of the Syro-Phosnician Woman,
and many others — Feeds Four Thousand with Seven Loaves iind a few-

318 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Little Fishes — Pharisees require a Sign — Jesus warns his Disciples against
the Hypocrisy of the Pharisees and Sadducees— The People's Opinion of
Christ — ^Peter's Confession of him — Jesus foreshows his Death, and re
proves Peter— Those who will follow him must bear the Cross — Transfig
uration of Christ— Heals the Lunatic— Foretells his own Passion, and
pays Tribute— "Warns his Disciples to be Humble, Harmless, avoid Of
fences, and not despise Little Ones — Teaches how to deal with our
Brethren when they offend us, and how often we must forgive them— Il
lustrates Forgiveness by a Parable— Heals the Sick- Answers the Phar
isees concerning Divorce — Shows when Marriage is necessary — Receives
Little Ohildren— Instructs the Young Man how to attain Eternal Life,
and how to be Perfect— Tells his Disciples how hard it is for a Rich Man
to enter into the Kingdom of Heaven — Promises a Reward to all who
forsake anything to follow him — Similitude of the Labourers in the Vine
yard — Foretells his Passion by answering the Mother of Zebedee's Chil
dren — Teaches his Disciples to be Lowly, and restores to Sight two Blind
Men — Rides in Triumph into Jerusalem — ^Drives the Buyers and Sellers
out of the Temple — Curses the Fig-tree — Puts to Silence the Priests and
Elders — Similitude of the Two Sons and the Husbandmen-^Parable
of the Marriage of the King's Son — ^The Calling of the Gentiles — The
Punishment of him who had not on the Wedding Garment — Tribute paid
to Cesar — Confutes the Sadducees concerning the Resurrection — ^Answers
the Lawyer — Admonishes the People not to follow the Examples of the
Scribes g.nd Pharisees — The Disciples raust beware of Ambition — De
nounces Eight Woes against Hypocrisy and Blindness — Prophesies the
Destruction of Jerusalem — Foretells the Destruction of the Teraple —
Preceding Calaraities — Signs of his Coming to Judgment — Day and Hour
unknown^ — ^Exhorts to Watchfulness — Parable of the Ten Virgins — Of
the Talents — ^Description of the Last Judgment — Rulers conspire against
Christ — The Womaii anoints his Head — Judas sells his Lord — Christ eats
the Passover — ^Institutes his Holy Supper — ^Prays in the Garden — Is be
trayed by a Kiss — Gamed to Caiaphas — ^Denied by Peter — Delivered
bound to Pilate — Judas hangs himself — ^Pilate, admonished by his Wife,
washes his Hands — ^Liberates Barabbas — Christ is crowned with Thorns,
crucified, reviled, dies, is buried — His Sepulchre is sealed and guarded
— His Resurrection is declared by an Angel to the Woraen — He hiraself .
appears to them — The Chief-priests bribe the Sentinels — Christ appears
to his Disciples — He sends them to teach and baptize all Nations, and
promises to be with them to the End of the World.
Mark.
A. M. The Hebrew narae of this evangelist was John.
He was the son of Mary, a pious woman who dwelt

at Jerasalem, and at whose house the apostles and firet
Christians often assembled. He wrote his Gospel at Rome,

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 319
between the years sixty and sixty-three. It may be divided
into three parts, viz. : —
1. The transactions fl'om the baptism of Christ to his en
tering on the raore pubUc part of his ministry, chapter first.
2. The discourses and actions of Jesus Christ to his going
up to Jerusalem to the fourth and last Passover, chapters first
to the tenth.
3. The passion, death, and resurrection of Christ, chapters
eleventh to the fourteenth. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Office of John the Baptist — ^Baptism of Jesus — His Temptation
His Preaching — Calls his Disciples — Heals one who had a Devil — Heals
Peter's Wife's Mother, and many others — Cleanses a Leper — Heals one
sick of the Palsy — Calls Matthew — ^Eats with Publicans and Sinners —
Excuses his Disciples from Pasting, and for plucking Ears of Corn on
the Sabbath — Heals the Withered Hand, and many other Infirmities —
Rebukes the Unclean Spirits — Chooses his Twelve Apostles — Confutes
the Pharisees' Blasphemy, and shows who are his Brother, and Sister,
and Mother — Parable ofthe Sower, and its Exposition— Must communicate
the Light of our Knowledge to others — The Parable of the Seed growing
secretly — ^Parable of the Mustard-seed — Christ stills the Tempest — ^De
livers the possessed of a Legion of Devils — The Woman healed — Jai'rus's
Daughter raised — Christ contemned of his Countrymen — Gives the Twelve
Power over Unclean Spirits — Divers Opinions of Christ — ^John beheaded
and buried — Apostles return from Preaching — Miracle of Five Loaves
and Two Fishes — Christ walks on the Sea, and heals all who touch him
— ^Pharisees find fault with the Disciples for eating with Unwashed
Hands — They break the Commandments of God by their Traditions-
Meat defileth no Man — Healing of the Syro-Phcenioian's Daughter, and
one that was Deaf and Dumb — Christ feeds the Multitude miraculously,
and refuses a Sign to the Pharisees — Admonishes his Disciples to beware
of the Leaven of the Pharisees — Restores Sight to the Blind — Acknowl
edges himself to be the Christ — ^Exhorts to Patience in Persecution — ¦
Is transfigured — ^Instructs his Disciples in regard to the coming of Blias
— Casts ont the Deaf and Dumb Spirit — Foretells his Death and Resur
rection — Exhorts to Humility — ^Must not prohibit those who are not
against us, nor give Offence to any — Disputes with the Pharisees con
cerning Divorce — Blesses Cliildren — ^Rich Young Man instructed— Dan
ger of Riches — Advantage of forsaking anything for Christ — Foretells
his Death and Resurrection — ^The Two Ambitious Suitors — ^Bartimeus
restored to Sight — Entry into Jerusalem—Fig-tree cursed — Purges the
Temple — ^Exhortation to Steadfastness and Forgiveness of Injuries — De-

320 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
fends the La^wfulness of his Actions by the Witness of John — ^Parable of
the Vineyard — Tribute to Cesar — Error of the Sadducees — ^Answers the
Scribes — Refutes their Opinions of him — ^Warns against Ambition and
Hypocrisy — ^Commends the Poor Widow — ^Foretells the Destruction ofthe
Temple — Persecutions of the Gospel' — ^Must he preached to all Nations — •
Calamities upon the Jews foretold — ^Manner of his coming to Judgment
— The Hour unknown — To watch and pray the Duty of all^ — Conspiracy^
against Christ — ^Anointed by a Woman — Judas sells his Master for Money
— Christ foretells his Betrayal — ^Passover eaten — ^Lord's Supper instituted
— ^Predicts the Flight of his Disciples, and the Denial of Peter — Judas
betrays him — Apprehended in the Garden — Falsely accused and impiously
condemned — Shamefully abused — Denial of Peter — 'Bound and accused
before Pilate — Murderer released, and Jesus delivered to be crucified—
Crowned with Thorns— Spit on and mocked — ^Faints in bearing his Cross
— Hanged between Two Thieves — Suffers the reproaches of the Jews, hut
confessed by the Centurion to be the Son of God — Honourably buried hy
Joseph — His Resurrection declared to Three Women — ^Appears to Mary
Magdalene — To two others — To the Apostles, whom he sends to preach,
and afterwards ascendeth to Heaven. Luke.
A. M. Luke was descended from Gentile parents," and
3999 . ¦ , r ?
 -^ m youth had embraced Judaism, from which he
was converted to Christianity. He was, for the most part,
the companion of the Apostle Paul. His Gospel was written
about the.year sixty-three or sixty-four, for Gentile Christians.
It may be divided into five parts, viz. : —
1. Contains A narrative of the birth of Christ, with the
precedent, attending, and foUo'wing circumstances, chaptere
first and second.
2. Comprises the particulars relative to our Sariour's in
fancy and youth, chapter second.
3. Includes the preaching of John, and the baptism of
Christ, whose genealogy is annexed, chapter third.
4. Comprehends the discourses, miracles, and actions of
Jesus Christ, during the whole of his ministry, chapter
fourth to the ninth.
5. Begins with chapter ninth, and contains an account of
our Saviour's last journey to Jerusalem ; consequendy, this
part comprises everything relative to his passion, death, res-

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 321
urrection, and ascension to heaven, chapter tenth to the
twenty-fourth. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Preface to the Gospel — Conception of John and Christ — ^Prophecy of
Blizabeth and Mary — Nativity and Circumcision of John — The Prophecy
of Zacharias — The Roman Empire taxed — The Birth of Christ related to
the Shepherds — Circuinoision of Christ— Purification of the Virgin Mary
— Simeon and Anna prophesy of Christ — Christ with the Doctors — Suh
ject to his Parents — Preaching and Baptism of John — His Testimony
of Christ — John imprisoned— <!hrist baptized — Age and Genealogy of
Christ, from Joseph to Adam — Temptation and Fasting of Christ--Over-
comes the Devil — ^Begins to preach — Cures one possessed of a Devil,
Peter's Mother-in-law, aud divers other Sick Persons — Devils acknowl
edge Christ — ^Preaches through the Cities — Teaches the People out of
Peter's Ship — ^Miraculous Draught of Fishes — Cleanses the Leper — Pravs
in the Wilderness — Cures the Palsy — Calls Matthew — Eats with Sinners
— Foretells the Fastings and Afflictions of his Disciples, after his Ascen
sion—Parable of Worn Garments aud Old Bottles — ^Reproves the Phari
sees about the Sabbath, by Scripture, Reason, and Miracle — Chooses
Twelve Apostles — Heals the Diseased — Preaches to his Disciples before
the People — Blessings and Curses — Obedience of Faith — Constancy — ¦
Great Faith of the Centurion Gentile — Raises the Widow's Son at Nain
— Answers John's Messengers — His Opinion of John — ^Denounces the
Jews for their Unbelief — Mary Magdalene — Women minister to Christ —
Parable of the Sower and the Candle — ^Declares who are his Mother and
Brethren — Rebukes the Winds — Casts out a Legion of Devils — Is rejected
of the Gadarenes — Heals the Woman, and raises Jairus's Daughter —
Sends his Apostles to work Miracles and preach — Herod desires to see
him — ^Feeds FiVe Thousand — ^Inquires what Opinion the World had of
him — Foretells his Passion — Proposes a Pattern of Patience — Transfigu
ration — Cures the Lunatic — Commends Humility — ^Divers would follow
him, on their own Conditions — Sends out Seventy Disciples to preach —
Admonishes them wherein to rejoice — Thanks his Father for his Grace
—Magnifies the Happy Estate of the Church — Instructs the Lawyer — ¦
Reprehends Martha, and commends Mary — Teaches Instant Prayer —
Casts out a Dumb Devil — ^Rebukes the Blasphemy of the Pharisees — ¦
Shows who are blessed — ^Preaches to the People — Reprehends the out
ward show of Holiness in the Scribes and Pharisees — Preaches to his
Disciples to avoid Hypocrisy and Fearfulness in publishing his Doctrine
—Warns the. People to beware of Covetousness, by the Parable of the
Rich Farmer — ^Ready to give Alms — Christ's Ministers raust see to their
Charge — Look for Persecution — ^People must improve the Time of Grace
— Fearful Thing to die without Reconciliation — Repentance preached
upou the Punishment of the Galileans — The Fruitless Fig-tree may not
21

322 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
stand— Christ heals the Crooked Woman— Shows the Powerful Working
of his Word by the Parable of the Grain of Mustard-seed and the Leaven
—Exhorts to enter in at the Strait Gate— Reproves Herod and Jerusalem
—Heals the Dropsy on the Sabbath— Teaches Humility— Teaches to
feast the Poor— Parable of the Great Supper— Must count the Cost in
becoming Christians— Backsliders like Salt that hath lost its Savour-
Parable of the Lost Sheep— The Piece of Silver— The Prodigal Son— The
Unjust Steward— Hypocrisy of the Pharisees reproved— The Rich Man,
and Lazarus the Beggar — Occasions of Offence to be avoided — One
must forgive another— Power of Faith — Our Obligations to God — Christ
heals Ten Lepers — The Coming, of the Son of Man — The Unfortunate
Widow — ^The Pharisee and Publican — Children brought to Christ — A
Ruler that would follow Christ, but is hindered by his Riches — The Re
ward of those who would leave all for his Sake — Foretells his Death — ¦
Restores a Blind Man to Sight — Zaccheus, a Publican — The Ten Pieces of
Money — Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem — ^Weeps over the City — ^Purges
the Temple — Teaches in it daily — Rulers desire to destroy him — Declares
his Authority by John's Baptism — Parable of the Vineyard — Tribute to
Cesar — Sadducees convinced — Christ the Son of David — Warns his Disci
ples to beware of the Scribes — Commends the Poor Widow — ^Foretells the
Destruction of the City and Temple — Signs before the Last Day — Exhort
ation to Watchfulness — Jews conspire against him — Judas prepared by
the Devil to betray him — Passover — Holy Supper — Warning against
Ambition — Promise to Peter — ^Prays in the Garden, and sweats Blood — Is
betrayed — Heals Malchus's Ear — Denied of Peter Three Times — Shame
fully abused — Confesses himself to be the Son of God — Accused before
Pilate, and sent to Herod — Herod mocks him — Herod and Pilate make
Friends — Barabbas loosed, and Christ sent to Crucifixion — He tells the
Women that lament him of the Destruction of Jerusalem — Prays for his
Enemies — Two Evil-doers crucified with him — His Death aud Burial —
His Resurrection declared by Two Angels — Appears himself to the Two
Disciples, on the Way to Emmaits — Appears to the Apostles — Gives them
a Charge — Promises the Holy Ghost, and ascends to Heaven.

John.
A. M. Saint John, the evangelist and apostle, was the
son of Zebedee. He was eminently the object of

our Lord's regard and confidence, and was, on various occa
sions, admitted to free and intimate intercourse •with him —
so rauch sd that he was characterized as that disciple whom
Jesus loved. He wrote his Gospel about the year ninety-
seven. The general design of John, in common with the rest of

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 323
the evangelists, was to prove that Jesus was the Messiah, the
Son of God. Besides this, there were two special motives
that induced him to compose his Gospel. One was, to sup
ply those important events in our Sariour's life which had
been omitted by the other evangelists — ^the other was that
he might refute the heresies of Cerinthus and the Nicolaitans,
who had attempted to corrupt the Christian doctrine. Of
the Nicolaitans nothing certain is known ; but concerning
Cerinthus we have the following : — He was a Jew, and had
studied Uterature and philosophy at Alexandria. He attempt
ed to construct a new system of reUgion, by combining the
doctrines of Jesus Christ with the opinions and errors of the
Jews and Gnostics. From the latter he borrowed their ple-
roma, or fulness — ^their ceons, or spirits — their demiurgus,
or creator of the risible world. He taught that the Most
High God was utterly unknown before the appearance of
Christ, and dwelt in a remote heaven eaWed pleroma, with
the chief spirits, or oeons : that this Suprerae God generated
an only-begotten son, Monogenes, who again begat the Word,
Logos, which was inferior to the first-born : that Christ was
a still lower ceon, though far superior to some others : that
there were two higher xons, distinct frora Christ, — one called
Zoe, or life ; and the other, Phos, or the light : that frora the
seons again proceeded inferior orders of spirits, particularly
one, Demiurgus, who created this visible world out of eternal
matter : that this Deraiurgus was ignorant of the Supreme
God, and rauch lower than the seons, which were wholly in-
inrisible : that he was, however, the peculiar God and pro
tector of the IsraeHtes, and sent Moses to thera, whose laws
were to be of perpetual obUgation : that Jesus was a raere
man, of the most illustrious sanctity and justice — the real
son of Joseph and Mary : that the seen, Christ, descended
upon him in the form of 'a dove, when he was baptized, re
vealed to hira the unknovsTi Father, and empowered hira to
work miracles : that the aeon, light, entered John the Bap-
sist in the same manner, -and, therefore, that John was, in

324 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
some respects, preferable to Christ : that Jesus, after his
union with Christ, opposed himself with rigour to the God
of the Jews, at whose instigation he was seized and crucified
by the Jews ; and that, when Jesus was taken captive, and
came to suffer, Christ ascended up on high, so that the man
Jesus, alone, was subjected to the pains of an ignominious
death : that Christ will again return, and, renewing his
union with the raan Jesus, will reign in Palestine one thou
sand yeare, during which tirae his disciples will enjoy the
most exquisite sensual delights. John's Gospel is divided
into three parts, riz. : —
1 . Contains doctrines in opposition to those of Cerinthus,
chapter first.
2. A proof of those doctrines, in an historical manner, chap
ters first to the twentieth.
3. Conclusion, or appendix, chapter twentieth to the
twenty-first. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Divinity, Humanity, and Office of Jesus Christ — ^The Testimony
of John — The Calling of Andrew, Peter, et. dl. — Christ turns Water into
Wine — Goes to Capernaum and Jerusalem — Cleanses the Temple — Fore
tells his Death and Resurrection — Many believe, because of his Miracles
— Christ teaches Nicodemus the Necessity of Regeneration — The Great
Love of God to the World — Condemnation for Unbelief — The Baptism,
Witness, and Doctrine of John, concerning Christ — Christ talks with a
Woman of Samaria — ^His Disciples marvel — Declares his Zeal for God's
Glory — ^Many Samaritans believe on him — Goes to Galilee, and heals the
Ruber's Son, at Capernaum — Cures a Man who had been diseased Thirty-
eight Years — Jews cavil because he did it on the Sabbath — He answers,
and presents Testimony of himself — ^Feeds^'Five Thousand — The People
desire to make him a King — He walks on the Sea — Reproves the People
— Declares himself the Bread of Life to True Believers — Many depart
from him — ^Peter confesses him— Judas is a Devil — Jesus reproves the
Ambition and Boldness of his Kinsman — Goes frora Galilee to the Feast
of Tabernacles — ^Teaches in the Temple — Opinions concerning him —
Pharisees are Angry .because he was not tftken hy their Officers— Nico
demus takes his Part — Christ delivers the Woman taken in Adultery —
Proclaims himself the Light of the World— Answers the Jews who boasted
of Abraham — ^Restores Sight to the Blind — The Pharisees are offended
at it, and cast the Blind Man out of the Synagogue — Christ is the Door
and the Good Shepherd — ^Proves by his "^orks that he is the Son of God

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 325
—Escapes the Jews, and goes beyond Jordan, where many helieve on
him — Raises Iiazarus from the Dead — ^Many JewS believe — Chief-priests
and Pharisees conspire against him — Prophecy of Caiaphas — Jesus hides
himself — They inq[uire for him at the Passover — ^Excuses Mary for anoint
ing his Feet — ^People flock to see Lazarus — Chief-priests consult to kill
him — Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem — Greeks desire to see Jesus —
He foretells his Death — Jews generally blinded — ^Many Rulers believe,
but do not confess him — He washes his Disciples' Feet — Exhorts them to
Humility and Charity — Foretells the Betrayal of Judas — Commands
them to love one another, and warns Peter of his Denial — Comforts his
Disciples with a Hope of Heaven — ^Professes himself the Way, the Truth,
and the Life, and One with the Father — Asks for Love and Obedience
— ^Promises the Holy Ghost — ^Leaves his Peace with them — Parable of the
Vine — Comfort in the Hatred and Persecutions of the World — The Office
of the Holy Ghost — Office of the Apostles — Comfort to the Disciples, in
view of Persecution — ^Peace in the Lord, though in the World Tribula
tion — Christ prays to the Father to preserve the Apostles in Unity and
Truth, and to glorify them, and all other Believers — Judas betrays ^im
—The Officers fall to flie 'Ground— Peter cuts off Malchus's Ear— Christ
is taken — ^Peter denies him — Examined before Caiaphas — Before Pilate
— His Kingdom — Barabbas loosed— Christ scourged, crowned with Thorns,
and beaten — ^Pilate delivers him to be crucified — Lots cast for his Gar
ments — Commends his Mother to John — He dies — ^Is pierced — Buried by
Joseph and Nicodemus — Mary comes to the Sepulchre — Peter and John
also— Jesus appears to Mary — Incredulity and Confession of Thomas —
The Scripture suflicient to Salvation — Appears again to his Disciples,
and is known by the Great Draught of Fishes — Dines with them, and
gives Charge to Peter — ^Rebukes his Curiosity.
Acts of the Apostles.
A. M. This book is a postscript to the Gospels, and an
introduction to the Epistles. It was written by

Saint Lukei, about the year sixty-three, and may be divided
into three parts, viz. : —
1. Contains the rise and progress of the mother Church,
at Jerusalera, from the time of our Saviour's Ascension to
the first Jewish persecution, chapter first to the eighth.
2. The dispersion of the disciples, the propagation of
Christianity among the Samaritans, the conversion of Saint
Paul, and the foundation of a Christian Church at Antioch,
chapter eighth to the twelfth.
3. The conversion of the more remote Gentiles, by Bar-

326 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
nabas and Paul, and his associates, chapter thirteenth to the
twenty-eighth. t
SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Christ prepares his Apostles to behold his Ascension — Commands them
to wait at Jerusalem for the Gift of the Holy Ghost — Warned by Two
Angels to depart — Return and give themselves to Prayer — ^Day of Pente
cost — Apostles filled with the Holy Ghost — Speak all' Languages — ^Peter
preaches — A Great Number converted and baptized — Apostles work
Miracles— Church daily increases in Numbers— A Lame Man healed— Pe
ter preaches — ^Exhorts to Repentance and Faith in the Lord Jesus, for
the Remission of Sins — ^The Rulers offended at Peter's Sermon — ^Peter
and John imprisoned, and commanded no more to teach in the Name of
Jesus — Church resorts to Prayer — The Place' moved where they were as
sembled — ^Ananias and Sapphira struck dead for Lying — The Apostles are
again imprisoned, but are delivered by an Angel — Gamaliel's Intercession
. — Apostles are beaten, but they glorify God, and cease not Preaching —
Provide for the Poor by the Appointment of Deacons — Stephen falsely
accused of Blasphemy — Answers to, the Accusation — He is stoned tb
Death — ^Prays for his Murderers, and coraraends his Soul to Jesus —
ChuWh in Samaria — Philip's Preaching —Simon the Sorcerer — Peter and
John confirm the Church, by the Imposition of Hands, and the Gift of
the Holy Ghost — Simon civets the Power of the Apostles — The Angel
sends Philip to teach and baptize the Ethiopian Eunuch — Saul, on his
Way to Damascus, is stricken to the Earth, and called to the Apostleship
— ^Baptized by Ananias — ^Preaches Christ boldly — The Jews lie in wait
to kill him — So, also, the Grecians — The Church having Rest, Peter heals
Eneas of Palsy, and restores Tabitha to Life — Cornelius sends for Peter
— ^Peter, in a Vision, is taught not to despise the Gentiles — He preaches
Christ to Cornelius — ^The Holy Ghost falls on them, and they are bapti
zed — Peter is accused for going to the Gentiles — ^Makes his Defence —
Barnabas sent to confirm the Disciples at Phenice, Antioch, and Cyprus
— The Disciples called Christians — Tliey send Relief to- Brethren in
Judea, in the Time of Famine — Herod kills James, and imprisons Peter
— In his Pride he is smitten of God, and dies — After his Death the Word
of God prospers — ^Paul and Barnabas chosen to go to the Gentiles — Ser-
gius Paulus, and Elymas the Sorcerer — ^Paul preaches at Antioch — The
Gentiles believe, but the Jews gainsay and blaspheme — They turn to the
Gentiles — Those ordaine to Life believed — ^Paul and Barnabas persecu
ted at Iconium — ^At Lystra Paul heals a Cripple— Paul is stoned— Pass
through Divers Churches, confirming the Disciples, and return to Anti
och — Great Dissension about Circumcision — The Apostles consult about
it, and send their Decision to the Churches — Paul and Barnabas separate
—Paul circumcises Timothy— Baptizes Lydi,a — Dispossesses the Damsel
of the Evil Spirit — He aud Silas are whipped and imprisoned — Prison

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 32'7
Doors are opened — Jailer is converted, and they are set at Liberty — ^Paul
preaches at Thessalonica — Is sent to Berea, and preaches there — Goes to
Athens — ^Preaches, and many are converted — Preaches at Corinth to the
Gentiles — Encouraged in a Vision — Accused before Gallic — ^Passing from
City to City, he strengthens the Disciples — Apollos preaches Christ — The
Holy Ghost given by Paul's Hands — The Jews blaspheme his Doctrine,
which is confirmed by Miracles — Jewish Exorcists — Conjuring^ Books
burned — Demetrius's Opposition to Paul — Town-clerk interposes— Paul
goes to Macedonia — Celebrates the Lord's Supper — Eutychus restored to
Life — Paul at Miletus — Calls the Elders of the Church — Commits the
Flock to them — ^Warns them of False Teachers — Commends them to God
in Prayer — Goes to Jerusalem — ^Philip's Daughters — ^Paul is apprehended
at Jerusalem — ^Permitted to speak for himself — Declares how he was
converted — Clamour raised against him — Claims the Privilege of a Ro
man Citizen — While pleading his Cause, Ananias commands him to be
smitten — ^Dissension among his Accusers*— God encourages him — He is
sent to Felix, the Governor — TertuUus accuses Paul — He answers for
hiraself — Preaches Christ to the Governor and his Wife, and is left iu
Prison — The Jews accuse him before Festus— Answers, and appeals to
Cesar — Before King Agrippa — Declares his Life and Wonderful Conver-
sion-^Ships for Rome — Foretells the Danger of the Voyage — Shipwrecked
— All saved — ^Entertained by the Barbarians at Malta — A Viper fastens
on his Hand — He heals many, and departs for Rome — Resides and
preaches there Two Years.

CHAPTER V.
DOCTRINAL BOOKS.
Epistle to the Romans.
A. M. This epistle was written by the Apostle Paul,
about the year fifty-eight. The design of the apos

tle in writing it was to comfort the converts at Rome, in the
midst of their trials, and reconcile the diflferences among
them, arising from the early prejudices of the Je"wish and
Gentile converts, in regard to certain rites.
It may be dirided into four parts, viz. : —
1. The introduction, chapter first, 1-13.
2. The doctrinal part of the epistle, concerning justifica
tion, chapters first and second, to the eleventh.

328 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
3. Comprises the hortatory, or practical part, chapter
twelfth to the fifteenth. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Paul commends his Calling to the Romans — He shows that the Gospel
is for the Justification of Men, through Faith — They that sin, though
they condemn it in others, have •no Excuse for themselves^Gentiles and
Jews in like Condemnation — The Jews' Prerogative — The Law convinces
them of Sin — ^No Flesh justified by the Law — Justification by Faith only
— The Law not abolished — Abraham's Faith imputed to him for Right
eousness — ^By Faith he received the Promise — Abraham the Father of all
that believe — Our Faith imputed for Righteousness — ^Being justified by
Faith, we have Peace with God — ^We are reconciled by the Death of
Christ — Sin and Death came by Adam — ^Righteousness and Life by Jesus
Christ — Grace more abundant than Sin — ^We may not live in Sin who
are dead to it — Sin must not reign in us, for Death is the Result — No
Law has Power over Man when he is dead — 'We are dead to the Law
— The Law is not Sinful, but Holy, Just, and Good — Those who are in
Christ, and live according to the Spirit, are Free from Condemnation —
The Harm that comes of the Flesh, and the Good of the Spirit — Privi
lege of being God's Children — ^Nothing can sever ns from the Love of
God — ^Paul's Sorrow for the Jews — ^All the Seed of Abraham not the
Children of Promise — ^The Calling of the GeAiles, and the Rejection of
the Jews — The Reason why so few Jews embraced Righteousness by
Faith — The Scriptures show the Difference between the Righteousness
of the Law and that of Faith— Jews and Gentiles saved hy Faith — Israel
was not Ignorant of these Things— God has not cast off Israel— Some
were elected, though the Rest were hardened — ^There is Hope of their
Conversion — The Gentiles may not insult them — God's Judgments are
Unsearchable — God's Mercies must move us to please him — ^None must
think too highly of himself— .Duties required of us — ^Revenge forbidden
— Obedience to Rulers enjoined — Love is the Fulfilling of the Law 
Gluttony, Drunkenness, and Works of Darkness, are out of Season in the
Time of the Gospel — ^Men must not he condemned for Things indifferent
— We must not give Offence — The Strong must bear the Weak — ^Must
not please ourselves— Imitate Christ — ^Paul excuses his Writing, prom
ises to see them, and asks their Prayers — ^Desires the Brethren to greet
many — Advises them to take heed of those who cause Dissensions — ^Ends
with Praise to God. First Epistle to the Corinthians.
406o" '^'^'^ epistie was written from Ephesus, in the
 ¦— year fifty-seven. The Corinthian Church consisted
partly of Jews, and partly of Gentiles ; and hence the apostie

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 329
had to combat Jewish prejudices and heathen licentiousness.
The peace of this Church was disturbed by the intrusion of
false teachere. Strifes arose araong the disciples, and parties
were forraed affecting the unity of the Church. The design
of this epistle was to correct the errors and abuses which
had crept in during his absence. It may be divided into
three parts, viz. : —
1. The introduction, chapter first, 1-9.
2. A discussion of various particulars adapted to the state
of the Corinthian Church, chaptere first to the sixth, and
fifteenth. 3. Conclusion, containing various exhortations and direc
tions, chapter sixteenth. SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
After his Salutation and Thanksgiving, he exhorts them to Unity, and
reproves their Dissensions — The Wisdom of the Wise destroyed -by the
Foolishness of Preaching — ^Paul's Manner of Preaching the Gospel, and
its Design — Strife and Division are Arguments of a Fleshly Mind — He
that plants, and he that waters, Nothing — ^Ministers are God's Co-labour
ers — Christ the only Foundation — How to account of God's Ministers —
Paul's Afflicted State — ^The Incestuous Person — ^The Old Leaven is to be
purged out — Heinous Offenders to he shunned — Going to Law with
Brethren — ^Unrighteous shut out of Heaven — Our Bodies Members of
Christ — ^Temples of the Holy Ghost, and must not be defiled — ^Marriage
a Remedy for Fornication — ^Every Man must be content with his Voca
tion — Virginity wherefore to be erabraced — ^Reasons for marrying and
not marrying — Abstinence from Meats offered to Idols — ^Must not abuse
our Christian Liberty — Subject our Knowledge to Charity — Paul shows
his Liberty, and how Ministers should live by the Gospel — ^Life compared
to a Race — ^The Sacrament of the Jews — ^Punishments are Examples —
Idolatry — ^Table of the Lord must not be perverted — Things indifferent
— ^Reproof for Men appearing in Holy Assemblies with the Head covered,
and Women with their Heads uncovered — ^Profaning the Lord's Supper
with their Feasts — Exhortation — Spiritual Gifts are diverse, and to that
End were diversely bestowed — Unity of the Merabers of the Body — The
Excellence of Charity — Speaking, Praying, and Giving of Thanks, in an
Unknown Tongue — ^Arguments in Proof of the Resurrection of the Dead
—The Manner of the Resurrection — The Apostle commends Timothy —
Salutation.

330 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

Second Epistle to the Corinthians.
A. M. This epistle was written from Philippi, in Mace
donia, within a year after the preceding. It is •vin

dicatory and commendatory, and consists of three parts,
riz. : —
1. The introduction, chapter first, 1, 2.
2. The apologetic discourse, chapters second to the seventh,
eighth, and ninth, and tenth to the thirteenth.
3. The conclusion, chapter thirteenth.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Corinthians encouraged to put their Confidence in God — Paul's Excuse
for visiting Corinth— Ministration ofthe Law and the Gospel— Tribulations
of the Apostles — Doctrine of the General Judgment — Ministry of Recon
ciliation — ^Paul's Faithfulness in the Ministry — Exhortation to Purity of
Life — -Liberality of the Macedonians — ^Exhortation to Liberality — Titus
<ind others commended — ^Paul vindicates his Person and Ministry — His
Concern for, the Corinthians — Character of False Apostles — ^Paul glories
in his Affliction-r-His Fear for the Corinthians — ^Exhortation to Self-ex
amination. Epistle to the Galatians.
A. M. This epistle was written from Corinth, about the
4056 .
latter part of the year fifty-two. The design of the

apostle in writing it was to assert his authority as a teacher,
and the doctrines he taught in opposition to the erroneous
teachings of others, and to confirm the Church in the princi
ples of Christianity. It consists of three parts, viz. : —
1. The introduction, chapter first, 1-5.
2. The discussion of the subjects which occasioned the
epistle, chapters first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth.
3. Conclusion, consisting of a summary of the topics dis
cussed, chapter sixth.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 331

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.

Paul's Concern for their having left him and the Gospel — His Accusa
tion against those who preach any other Gospel — Gives his Reasons for
going to Jerusalem — His Conduct while there — The Foolishness of the
Galatians — The Law not in Opposition to the Promises — Paul's Remem
brance of the Galatians — Exhortation to abide in Christian Liberty— An
Enumeration of the Fruits of the Spirit — Procedure against Offenders —
Liberality to Teachers enjoined — ^Paul's Glorying in Christ.
Epistle to the Ephesians.
A. M. This epistle was written about the year sixty-one,
and its design was to guard the converts at Ephesus

against the heathen practices and customs of that rich and
voluptuous city, and to urge them to walk in a raannfer he
coraing the gospel of Christ.

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Salutations — ^Doctrine of Election and Adoption a Great Mystery — Char
acter and Conversion of the Ephesians — The Manner of Edifying the
Church — Salvation of the Gentiles revealed— Exhortation to Unity of
Spirit — Exhortation to Holiness, and to avoid all Bitterness and Wrath
— Husbands comraanded to love their Wives — Duty of Children to Pa
rents, Servants to Masters, and Masters to Servants.

Epistle to the Philippians.
A. M. This epistle was written about the end of the
year sixty-two. Its design was to confirra the Philip

pians in the faith of the gospel, and to guard thera against
Judaizing teachers, who preached Christ through envy and
strife. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Paul testifies his Gratitude to God, and his Love for his Philip-
plan Brethren — His Exhortation to Love,' Unity, Huraility, and a
Careful Walk in the Way of Salvation — His Earnestness in the Chris
tian Course — An Exhortation to walk in his Steps — Commendation for
their Liberality — His Confidence in the Providence of God — Commends
the Philippians — Salutations.

332 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Epistle to the Colossians.
A. M. This and the preceding epistie bear a strong re
semblance. Its design is to show that all hope of

man's redemption is founded on Christ our Redeemer, and
to caution the Colossians against the insinuations of Judaiz
ing teachers, philosophical conceits, and human traditionsi
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Paul thanks God for their Faith — ^Prays for their Increase in Grace —
Describes the Nature and Office of Christ — Shows how he preached
Christ — Exhortation to Steadfastness — To beware of Philosophy and Vain
Traditions — Worshipping of Angels, and Legal Ceremonies — Shows where
Christ should be sought^^Bxhorts to Mortification — To put off the Old
Man and put on Christ — ^Exhortation to Charity and Humility — ^Fervency
in Prayer — Deportment towards those without — Salutes them, and wishes
them all Prosperity. First Epistle to the Thessalonians.-
A. M. The first epistle to the Thessalonians was the first
of all the apostles' writings. Its date is about the

year fifty-two. It was written to confirm the faith of the
Church, and animate its merabers to all holy conversation.
It raay be dirided into four parts, riz. : — •
1. The rairacles wrought by the first preachers, in attesta
tion of their divine coraraission, chapter first.
2. The truth of the gospel sustained by character, chap
ters second and third.
3. The gospel shown to be worthy of God, by the sanctity
of its precepts, chapter fourth.
4. The resurrection of Christ frora the dead estabUshes his
claims as the Son of God aud the Judge of the world, chap
ters fourth and fifth. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Paul's Regard for them at All Times— His Belief in their Faith and
Sincerity— The Manner in which the Gospel was brought and preached
to them— Reasons of his Long Absence — His Great Regard for them —
Exhortation to Holiness- Moderate their Sorrow for the Dead — ^The
Coming of Christ to Judgment — Divers Precepts given — Greetings.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 333

Second Epistle to the Thessalonians.

A. M.
4056.

This epistie was -written soon after the first, and
its design was to rectify the mistake into which the
Thessalonians had fallen, in supposing that the former epistle
taught that the day of judgment was just at hand. It con
sists of five parts, -riz. : —
1. The inscription, chapter first.
2. St. Paul's thanksgiving and prayer for them, chapter
first. 3. The rectification of their mistake, and the man of sin,
chapter second.
4. Various adrices relative to Christian virtue, chapter
third. 5. The conclusion, chapter third.

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Commendation for their Faith, Love, and Patience — ^Reasons for Com
fort in Persecution — Steadfastness in the Truth — Apostasy predicted —
Discovery of Antichrist — Exhorts and prays for them — His Confidence
in them — Asks their Prayers in his Behalf — Gives Divers Precepts, espe
cially to shun Idleness and Vain Company — Concludes with Prayer and
Salutation.

First Epistle to Timothy: ;
A. M. This epistie was written about the •vear sixty-four.
4069 . • . .
Its design was to instruct Timothy in the choice of

proper officers in the Church, as well as in the exercise of a
well-ordered ministry ; as well as to caution hira against the
infiuence of false teachers, and urge him to zeal and fideUty
in the sacred office. It consists of three parts, viz. : —
1. The introduction, chapter first, 1, 2.
2. Instructions to Timothy, chapter second to the sixth.
3. Conclusion, chapter sixth.

334 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATUBE.

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Timothy is reminded of his Charge — The Right Use and End of the
Law — ^Paul's Vocation — Hymeneus and Alexander — Prayer should be
offered for All — The Dress of Women — Not permitted to , teach — They
shall be saved if they continue in the Faith — Qualifications of Bishops,
Deacons, and their Wives — ^The Church and th£ Blessed Truth taught
therein — Paul foretells a Departure from the Faith — ^Divers Precepts—,
Rules to be observed in Reproving — Widows — Elders — Timothy's Health
— Sorae Men's Sins go before to Judgment — ^Duty of Servants — Gain.^of
Godliness — ^Love of Money — Exhortation to flee Youthful Lusts, and fol
low after Charity — Contentment enjoined — ^Admonitions.
Second Epistle to Timothy.
A. M. The design of this epistle was to acquaint Tirao- -
thy with the writer's circumstances, and request

him to come to Rome. It contains a variety of adrices rela
tive to the Church, and to himself — exhorting him to stead
fastness in the gospel.

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Paul's Love to Timothy — ^His Mother and Grandmother — Exhortation
to stir up the Gift within him — Steadfastness in Faith and Doctrine
recommended — ^Phygellus and Hermogenes — Onesiphorus — Exhorted to
Fidelity, and to shun Babblings — ^Hymeneus and Philetus— The Sure
Foundation of God — ^In what Manner he should behave — ^Informed of
the Times to come — Paul describes to him the Enemies of the Truth 
Exhibits his own Example, and commends the Holy Scriptures — ^Informs
him of his Near Approach to Death — ^Desires him to come speedily, and
bring Mark — ^Warns him of Alexander — Benediction.

Epistle to Titus.
A. M. Titus was left in Crete, to settle the Churches in
¦  '— the several cities on that island. The Epistie was
written to assist him in this work. It consists of three parts,
riz. : —
1. The inscription, chapter first.
2. Instruction concerning the ordination of elders, and
directions in regard to advice to the respective ages and

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 335
sexes. Obedience to the ciril magistrate, chapters second
and third.
3. An invitation to risit the writer, &c., chapter third.
SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Paul's Statement of his Character, his Hope, and his Office — His Ad
dress to Titus, and his Reason for leaving him at Crete — Qualifications
of Elders and Bishops — ^False Teachers — Character of the Cretans — The
Pure and the Impure — ^False Professors — ^Directions to Aged Men — Aged
Women — ^Young Women^-Relative to his own Conduct — To Servants —
•What the Gospel of the Grace of God teaches All Men — Glorious Pros
pect held out by it — Salvation from all Sin, and Final Glory — ^Directions
concerning Teaching — Rejection of Obstinate Heretics — Appoints the
Time of his Coming to him.

Epistle to Philemon.
A. M. Philemon was a citizen 9f Colosse, and an opu-
¦ lent Christian. The design of this epistie is to re

comraend Onesimus, his forraer runaway slave, but now
converted Christian, to his master, and induce hira to receive
and treat him as such.

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Paul rejoices to hear of the Faith and Love of Philemon— Desires him
. to receive Onesimus, his Slave, and treat him as a Brother — Salutations.

Epistle to the Hebrews.
A. M. 'The Hebrews were Jewish Christians, resident in
¦ Palestine. This epistie was written about the year

sixty-two. The design of the apostle in writing this letter
was to show the deity of Jesus Christ, and the excellency of
his gospel, when compared with the institutions of Moses ;
and to prevent the Hebrew converts from relapsing into
those rites and ceremonies which were now abolished, and
were totally insufficient to produce reconciliation with God.
It was also designed to show the nature, efficacy, and tri-

336 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
umph of faith, by which saints of all ages had been accepted
of God. It consists of three parts, viz. : —
1. Demonstrates the divinity of Christ, by the declara
tions of Scripture, and his superiority over angels and raen,
chapters first to the ninth.
2. Comprises the application of the preceding arguments
"and proofs, chapters tenth to the thirteenth.
3. The conclusion, containing a prayer for the Hebrews,
and apostofical salutations, chapter thirteenth.
SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
Christ preferred above Angels, both in Person and Office — Obedience
to Christ — Took upon himself our Nature — ^More Worthy than Moses —
We shall, in rejecting him, he more Guilty than the Jews — Christian Rest
attained by Faith— The Power of God's Word— The Son of God, our
High-priest, subject to Infirmities, but not to Sin — Boldness in approach
ing the Throne of Grace' — Authority and Honour of our Saviour's Priest
hood — Negligence in the Knowledge thereof reproved — ^Exhortation not
to fall back frora the Faith — Diligence and Faith in the Work of Salva
tion — God's Promise — Christ a Priest after the Order of Melchisedec —
More Excellent than the Priests of Aaron's Order — ^Levitical Priesthood
abolished — Description of the Rites and Sacrifices of the Law — The Sac
rifice of Christ— The Sacrifice of Christ's Body— One Offering— Exhorta
tion to hold fa«t the Faith, with Patience and Thanksgiving — ^Definition
of Faith — Without Faith God cannot be pleased— Fruits of Faith — Ex
hortation to Constancy in Faith — New Testament above the Old — Ad
monitions to Charity, and Divers Other Graces — Obedience to Governors
^Prayer for Ministers — The Conclusion — Salutation.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 337
CHAPTER VI.
EPISTOLARY BOOKS.
Epistie of James.
A. M. James was distinguished as one of the apostles of
the circumcision, and, soon after the death of Ste

phen, was appointed president of the Christian Church at
Jerusalem. On account of his distinguished piety, he was
surnamed the Just. This epistle was written about the year
sixty-one. The persons to whom it was addressed were He
brew Christians, who were in danger of faUing into those
sins which abounded among the Jews at that time. It di-
rides itself into three ^arts, without the introduction, viz. : —
1. Contains exhortations to patience, huraility, and suit
able dispositions to receive the word of God aright, chapter
first. 2. Condemnation of various sinful practices and erroneous
opinions in regard to the doctrine of justification, chapters
second to the fifth.
3. Comprises various exhortations and cautions, chapters
fifth t« the seventh. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Rejoicing under the Cross— Prayer for Wisdom from God in Trials —
Not to impute our Weakness or Sins to God — Not to regard the Rich, and
despise the Poor — Any One Breach of the Law involves Guilt — Faith
without Works is dead — Rash Reproof condemned — Government of the
Tongue — True Wisdom — Cause of Contention— How to overcome Lusts,
and gain God's Favour — Warnings of God's Judgments — ^Patience —
Prayer in Adversity — Labours for the Conversion of Sinners.
First Epistle of Peter.
A. M. Simon, surnamed Cephas, or Peter, was the son
 '— of Jonah. This epistle of the apostle Peter was,
22

338 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
like that of James, addressed to Hebrew Christians^ and de
signed to support them under their affiictions and persecu
tions. It may be divided into four j^arts, exclusive of the
introduction, viz. : —
1. Contains an exhortation to the Jewish Christians to
maintain steadfastiy their faith i|jto the end, chapters first
and second.
2. Comprises exhortations to a holy life, and a particular
discharge of their relative duties, chapter third.
3. Contains an exhortation to patience and submission^ by
considering the example of Christ, chapters third and fourth,
4. Directions to ministers of the Churches, and conclusion,
chapter fifth. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
The Apostle blesses God for the Hope of Iramortality — ^The Salvation
of Christ foretold — Exhortation against Uncharitableness — ^Privileges
of Believers — Duty of Wives and Husbands — Exhortation to Unity —
Suffering for Righteousness' Sake — Exhortation to cease from Sin, by
the Example of Christ — The End of All Things — Exhortation to feed the
Flock of Christ — The Younger to obey the Elder — Resistance of the Devil.

Second Epistle of Peter.
A. M. This epistie, like the other, was addressed to He
brew Christians, under persecution from the Empe

ror Nero. It consists of three parts, viz. :-
1. The introduction, chapter first.
2. An exhortation to improve in Christian graces, chapter
second. 3. The conclusion, chapter third.
SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Peter salutes the Christians, and admonishes them of the Promises
and Gifts of the Gospel — Foretells thera of False Teachers — ^Their Impi
ety and Punishment— The Certainty of Christ's Coming to Judgment —
Exhortation to Godliness — His Doctrine agrees with Paul — Sums up —
Conclusion.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 339

First Epistle of John.
A.M. This epistle was written about the year sixty-
-:;^ eight. Being written for the use of Christians in

all countries, it is of interesting importance to mark its con
tents. It consists of six parts, viz. : —
1. Asserts the true divinity and humanity of Christ, and
urges the union of faith and holiness of life, chapter first.
2. Shows that all have sinned, and explains the doctrine
of Christ's propitiation, chapter second.
3. Asserts Jesus to be the same person with Christ, chap
ter second.
4. The pririleges of true believers, chapter third.
5. Criteria by which to distinguish Antichrist, chapter
fourth. 6. Shows the connexion between faith in Chmt and vic
tory over the world. Shows that a sinful life is inconsistent
with Christianity. ''summary of SUBJECTS.
John declares what he had seen and heard of the Word of Life — To
have Fellowship with God, he enjoins Holiness — Christ our Advocate
and Propitiation — To know God aright is to keep his Commandments —
Must beware of Seducers — The Love of God toward us declared — Obedi
ence is keeping the Comraandments, and loving one another — Spirits
must be put to the tesi: — Reasons for Brotherly Love — He that loves God
loves his Children — True Faith — Believers have Eternal Life. •
Second and Third Epistles of John.
A. M. The second epistle is addressed to an eminent
¦ Christian lady, whose name was Electa, who is

commended for her care in giving her children a religious
education. The third is addressed to a converted GentUe, called Gains.
Its design is to commend his faith.

340 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
John's Regard for a certain Pious Lady and her Children — He exhorts
them to Perseverance in the Faith, and to beware of Seducers — Com
mends Gains for his Piety and Hospitality — Censures Diotrephes, whose
Evil Example is not to he followed.
Epistle of Jude.
A. M. There is a marked similarity between this epistle
¦ and the Second Epistle of Peter. It is addressed to

aU who had embraced the gospel, and its design is to guard
them against false teachers, and induce them to contend
earnestly for the faith. SUMMARY OF SUBJECTS.
Exhortation to Eaimestness in defence of the Faith — ^False Teachers
who turned the Grace of God into Lasciviousness — Judgment of Fallen
Angels — Doom of Sodora — ^Destruction of False Teachers — Their Charac
ter described — ^Exhortation to Prayer, and Faith, and Holiness — Dedica
tion. Revelation of St. John the Divine.
A M. The revelations contained in this book were made
 '— to St. John whUe in exile on the Island of Patmos,
in the .^Egean Sea, toward the end of the Emperor Domi-
tian's reign. It was pubUshed at Ephesus, about the year
ninety-seven. The design of the book is twofold : — First, to
communicate a knowledge of the then present state of the
Church ; and, secondly, a revelation of events which should
transpire iu the future, in relation to the Church, through all
tirae. It consists of two principal divisions, viz. : —
1. Epistles to the seven Churches of proconsular Asia,
which lay in the form of an amphitheatre, and were addressed
according to their geographical positions, chapter first to the
third. 2. Contains prophecies, some of which have been fulfilled,
and others which time alone can expound, chapter fourth to
the twelfth.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. 341

SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS.
John's Salutation to the Seven Churches— The Coming of Christ  His
Glorious Power and Maje%— What is commanded to be written to the
Churches— The Angel of the Church of Sardis is reproved, commanded
to repent, and threatened — The Angel of the Church of Philadelphia is
approved — ^The Angel of the Church of Laodicea rebuked — Christ stands
at the Door and knocks — The Vision of the Throne of God in Heaven 
The Four-ana-Tweuty Elders— The Four Beasts, full of Eyes— The Pros
tration of the Elders before the Throne — The Book sealed with Seven
S.eals — The Lamb slain praised by the Elders — The Opening of the Seals
in Order— Prophecy of the End of the World— Servants of God sealed in
their Foreheads — The Number of the Sealed — Their Robes washed in the
Blood of the Lamb — Seven Angels with Seven Trumpets — Four of them
sound their Trumpets — ^Plagues follow — A Star falleth from Heaven — The
Pit opened — The First Woe passed — Four Angels, that were hound, loosed
— An Angel with a Book open — Two Witnesses prophesy — They have
Power to shut Heaven — The Beast fights against them and kills them —
The Second Woe is past — A Woman, clothed with the Sun, in travail —
The great Red Dragon ready to devour her Child — ^When she is delivered,
she flies into the Wilderness — Michael and his Angels fight with the
Dragon, and prevail — The Dragon, cast dowu, persecutes the Woman —
The Dragon gives Power to a Beast which rises out of the Sea, having
Seven Heads and Ten Horns — Another Beast comes out of the Earth —
Men worship it, aud receive its Mark — The Larab on Mount Zion, with
his Company — An Angel preaches the Gospel — The Fall of Babylon — The
Harvest of the World, and putting in the Sickle — The Vintage and
Wine-press of the Wrath of God — Seven Angels, with the Seven Last
Plagues — Song of those who overcome the Beast — Seven Vials full of the
Wrath of God — The Angels pour out their Vials full of Wrath — Plagues
— Christ comes as a Thief — Blessed are they that watch — Woman ar
rayed in Purple and Scarlet — ^Interpretation of the Seven Heads and Ten
Horns — The Victory of the Lamb — The Punishment of the Whore — ^Fall
of Babylon — People of God commanded to leave her — Kings of the Earth,
and others, lament her — ^The Saints of God rejoice in the Judgments of
Babylon — God is praised in Jleaven or judging the Great Whore and
avenging the Blood of his Saints — The Marriage of the Lamb — The An
gel will not be worshipped — ^Fowls called to the Slaughter — Satan bound
for a Thousand Years — The First Resurrection — The Blessed that have
Part in it — Satan let loose again — Gog and Magog — The Devil cast into
the Lake of Fire and Brimstone — The Last and General Resurrection —
A New Heaven and New Barth — The Heavenly Jerusalem — The Kings of
the Eatth bring their Riches to it— The River of the Water of Life — The
Tree of Life— The Light of the City — The Angel will not be worshipped
—Nothing may be added to the Word of God, or taken therefrom.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

The science of Biblical chronology relates to the tirae in
which the events recorded in the Bible transpired, and the
order in which they occurred. As various efibrts have been
made, by the infidel world, to invaUdate the chronology of
the Bible, it raay not be inappropriate, in this connexion, to
allude to thera, and show their utter faUacy. A great dis
play of learning has been atterapted by the eneraies of Di
vine Revelation, and scarcely any idepartment of science has
been exempted frora torture, in the vain attempt to falsify
the sacred record.
The dynasties of China and India have been consulted,
their records unrolled, and the names and Uves of kings have
been produced, many cycles before the accounts of Moses.
The craters of extinct volcanoes have been explored, and
their indurated scorice have been examined, to make them
tell of ages anterior to the birth of man. Shafts have been
sunk to the very foundations of the mountains, and the dif
ferent strata of rocks, to the priraeval formation, have been
examined, to find a record, in their geological structure, con-
ti'adicting the cosmogony of Moses. To these objections the
attention of the reader is briefly directed, and, although this
work is not designed as a defence of the Bible frora the at
tacks of infidels, but as a help to the student in the investi
gation of its facts, prophecies, and raysteries, it raay not be
irrelevant to assist in dissipating the vapours which have
been evoked frora the stagnant sea of error, to obscure the
J^ndmarks bounding the coast of truth.
Ip regard to the antiquity of India, it has been clairaed that

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 343
astronomical tables were discovered that were formed at least
three thousand five hundred years before Christ, and that they
were but the raere fragments of an earUer and far more perfect
science. It is known that the origin of astronomy in Persia and
India has suffered the same fate that it has araong all other
ancient nations, being lost in the darkness of their early history.
Laplace reraarks : — " There is no reason to beUeve that these
Indian tables can claira a high antiquity ; besides, the con
junction of the planets which these tables describe, could
not possibly have taken place." The monstrous claims in
regard to the antiquity of China, in which the names of long
lines of kings are displayed, and accounts of dynasties fur
nished, extending back millions of ages, is answered by Sir
William Jones, one ofthe raost distinguished Oriental schol
ars in the world, in the following language : — " On the most
liberal construction, the existence of an established govern
ment in the East can be traced back no further than two
thousand years before the Christian era — the age of Abra
ham — when there was an estabUshed dynasty in Egypt, and
commerce and literature fiourished in Phoenicia."
Equally absurd are the claims of Volney, in regard to the
antiquity of Egypt. He has no hesitancy in placing the
formation of the sacerdotal coUeges in Egypt thirteen thous
and three hundred years before the Christian era, and calling
that early period the second epoch of their history. Huge and
half-formed colossal images, subterranean temples, together
with the zodiacs found at Dendera and Esneh, which were sup
posed to represent the state of. the heavens at the tirae in
which the temples where they Vere found were erected, were
appealed to as bearing a date vastly anterior to the chronol
ogy of the Bible. Through the labours of ChampoUion, in
hierology, the mysterious and hitherto undecipherable char
acters found on the obelisks, in the pyramids, tombs, and
temples of Egypt, were explained, and the language of hie
roglyphics, long unknown, and whose meaning was supposed
to have been forever lost, disclosed the fact that the zodiacs

344 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
extended back no further than the time of Nero and Tiberius,
as he read on one of them the narae of Tiberius, and on the
other that of Nero.
There is but one raore subject upon which the enemies of
the Bible depend to invaUdate its chronology, and that is
the science of geology. This science, Uke that of astronoray,
and many others, is but yet in its infancy. System after
system has risen, conflicting with each other on many im
portant points. In 1806 there were no less than eighty '
computed theories, contradicting each other, and all opposed to
the Scripture cosmogony ; not one of wbich has stood to the
present time. The geologist proves that the earth has existed
through an indefinite series of ages, haring only assumed
its present form a few thousand years ago, when it became
the habitation of man. He has shown, in the language of
Harris, " that the mere shell of the earth indicates an un
known series of ages, in which creation followed creation, at
mighty intervals ; and though he cannot estabUsh its chro
nology, it nevertheless has a history. The first step below
the surface of the earth takes the geologist below the dust
of Adam, and beyond the Umits of recorded tirae. . The
nearest beds of the tertiary forraation exhibit no traces what
ever of huraan reraains." In the language of the " Pre- Ad
amite Earth," " Let our graves be ever so shallow, we have
to make them in the dust of a departed world. As we pro
ceed downward, formation follows forraation, coraposed chiefly
of sand, clay, and lime, presenting a thickness of more that
a thousand feet each. As we descend through these, wb
find ourselves on a road •tfhere the lapse of duration ib
marked — not by a succession of seasons and years, but bj
the slow excavation, by water, of deep vaUeys in rock raai
ble — by the return of a continent to the bosom of an ocean,
in which, ages before, it had been slowly formed — or by tho
departure of one world and the formation of another. Ii
our first step took us below the line consecrated by human
dust, but few steps more we will find that the fossil remniiii

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 345
of all those forms of animal life with which we are most fa
miliar, become more and more scarce, untU their places are
gradually supplied by strange and yet stranger forms, tiU, in
the last fossiliferous formation of this division, traces of ex
isting species become exceedingly rare, and extinct species
everywhere predominate. The secondary rocks receive us
into a new fossiliferous world, or into a new series of worlds.
Taking the chalk formation as the firet meraber of this series,
we find a stratification upwards of one thousand feet thick.
Who shall compute the tracks of time necessary for its slow
sedimentary deposition ? So vast is it, and so widely differ
ent, in its physical conditions, frora those which follow, that
only one trace of animal species now living is to be found
in it. Crowded as it is with conchological remains, for ex
ample, not a shell of one of all the seven thousand existing
species is discoverable. Types of organic life, before un
known, arrest our attention, and prepare us for still more
surprising forras. The next systera in order is the oolitic,
¦with its raany subdirisions, and its thickness of about half a
raile discloses new proofs of the dateless antiquity of the
earth. Enormous as this bed is, it evidently was formed
by depositions from sea and river water, the operation of
•which was so gradual and tranquil that, in some places, the
organic reraains of the difi'erent strata resemble the shelves
of a well-ordered cabinet. Here, too, the last trace of ani
mal species, still Uring, has vanished. The last Unk is bro
ken and gone. We have arrived at a time when the earth
was in the possession of the monster animals, more appalling
than ever was feigned by the poet's fancy ; and these are
their catacombs. After passing through a thousand feet of
red sandstone and saliferous marls, our subterranean path
brings us to the carboniferous system, or coal formations.
These coal strata, many thousand feet thick, consist entirely
of the spoils of successive ancient vegetable worlds. In the
rank jungles and vegetable wildernesses which are here accu
mulated and compressed, we recognise no plant of any exist-

346 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
ing species. Here, too, we have passed below the last trace
of reptile life. The speaking foot-prints impressed on the
preceding rocks are absent here. There is no indication
that these primeval forests ever echoed to the voice of birds.
Between these strata, beds of limestone, of enormous thick
ness, are interposed, each proclaiming the prolonged exist
ence and final extinction of a creation. These Umestone
beds are not so much the charnel-house of fossil aniraals as
the remains of the animals themselves. The raountain
masses of stone which now surround us, extending for miles
in length and breadth, were once sentient existences — testa
ceous and coralUne — Uring at the bottom of ancient seas and
lakes. How countless the ages necessary for their accumula
tion, when the forraation of only a few inches of strata
required the life and death of many generations. In this
region the mind is not merely carried back through immeas
urable periods, but amidst the petrified remains of this suc
cession of primeval forests, and extinct races of animals, piled
up into sepulchral raountains, we seem to be encompassed
by the thickest shadows of the valley of death.
" On quitting these stupendous monuments of death, we
leave behind us the last vestige of land-plants, and pass
down to the old red sandstone, the geological formation of
which tells us of the fiight of Innumerable ages. Though
raany thousand feet in depth, it is obviously derived from
the materials of more ancient rocks, fractured, decomposed,
and slowly deposited in water. The gradual and quiet na
ture of the' process, and, therefore, its immense duration, are
evident frora the numerous platforms of death which mark
its formation, each crowded with organic structures, which
lived and died where they are now seen, and which, conse-
qu*itly, must have perished by sorae destructive agency, too
sudden to allow of their dispersion, and yet so subtle and
quiet as to leave the place of their habitation undisturbed.
Immeasurably far behind us we have left the fair face of the
extant creation, while traveUing into the night of ancient

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. 34Y
time ; yet we feel that we are but standing upon the thresh
old of the next SUiirian systera, and, looking down to the
foundations of the earth, we find that we have not descended
half-way. On surveying the fossil structures in this region,
we are struck with the total change in the petrified inhabi
tants of the sea, as compared with what was found in moun
tain limestone, implying the lapse of long periods of time.
Below this we reach the Cambrian system, of equal thick
ness, and forraed by the sarae slow process. In this region
the gradual decrease of aniraal reraains admonishes us that ,
even the vast and dreary empire of death has its limits, and
that we are on its very outskirts. There is a solitude greater
than that of the boundless desert, and a dreariness more
impressive than that which reigns in a world entombed. On
leaving the slate-rocks of the Cambrian, and descending to
those of the Cumbrian formation, the worids of organic re
mains are past — a region is found older than death, because
it is older than life itself. Passing down farther, through
beds of raica schist, raany thousand feet in depth, the great
gneiss formation is reached, and stratification itself ceases.
" The succession of worlds through which we have passed,
frora the surface of the earth, only extends to the depth of
ten railes. Below us are the granitic masses, unexplored by
man, extending to a depth of nearly four thousand miles.
Geology here stands in an immeasurable night of time, hav
ing for her days and years ages and cycles of ages."
In view of these' facts, what becomes of the chronology
of the Bible ? The common idea is, that the divine historian
makes the earth but about six thousand years old, while
geology shows it to have an antiquity almost beyond the
power of computation.
This, however, is not the true interpretation of the sacred
record. It says : — " In the beginning God created the heav
ens and the earth ;" but it nowhere fixes the time of that
beginning. From the night that reigned over a succession
of extinct worlds, Jehovah spake into existence the present

348 MANUAL OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
order of things, at the time specified by Moses, and the
records of geology attest the truthfulness of his statements.
He teUs us when Eden was planted and man created ;
and there are no traces indicating their existence beyond
that period. Among all the fossil remains of the difi'erent
orders of animals found in the various strata of worlds
through which the geologist has passed, not one human bone
has yet been found.
The great stand and starting point of the Bible is the cre
ation of man, as an occupant of the beautiful world fitted up
for his special residence.
The first verse of the Bible is but a distinct announceraent
of the fact that the material universe was priraarily origina
ted by God, out of elements not previously existing ; and
that the originating act was quite distinct fi'om the acts in
cluded in the six natural days of the Adamic creation.
The Bible is thus found to be perfectiy coincident with
the teachings_ of geology, and the time of the facts and
events which it records is accurate beyond all question.
It is thought proper, in the further discussion of this sub
ject, to divide the facts and events of the Bible into distinct
periods, or ages. Beginning at the first year qf the world,
as recorded in the Bible, all the principal events, in the order
of time, shaU be noted, embracing a period of four thousand
one hundred years.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

349

FIEST AGE.

Reduction of chaos to order — Planting of Eden
—Creation of man— Fall of man — Promise of
a Saviour.
Birth of Cain and Abel.
The earth flrst peopled after the expulsion from
Paradise.
The sacriflces of Cain and Abel— The murder of
Abel— Banishment of Cain.
The birth of Seth.
The birth of Enos— Men begin to call on the
name of tho Lord.
The birth of Cainan.
Mahalaleel bom.
Jared born.
Enoch" born 
Methuselah born.
Lamech born 

Death of Adam — First notice of idolatrous sa
crifices 
Enoch translated, -having first predicted a fu
ture judgraent.
Death of i^eth 
Noah born 
Mighty men introduce great violence and licen-
tiousneiiis 
Noah commanded to preach repentance and to
build the ark 120 years before the flood.. .

Birth of Japheth.
Birth of Shem.
Lamech djea 

Death of Methuselah .

The Deluge.
Waters subside — Noah comes out of the ark—
Offers a bumt-oflfering — God makes a cove
nant with him— Eainbow 

SECOND AGE.

Aashur.

Lati guages confound-

The earth divided araong the sons of Noah —
First foundation of the Assyrian monarchy laid
by Nimrod.
Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, built.
Commencement of the building of the city of ]
Babylon and the Tower of Babel 
Menes, supposed to be the Mizraim of the Bible,
establishes the kingdom of Egypt.
Mizraim leads colonies into Egypt, aud lays the
foundation of a kingdom which lasts 1663^
years.
Death of Noah  lAged 950— lived 350
I years after the flood.

In all the records of an
tiquity, for a period of
2000 years from the
commencement of
the creation of man,
nothing can be found
deserving the name
of authentic history.
The period alluded to
ia usually denomina
ted the Fahulous Age.
Astronomy first stud-
ied-by Seth.
The seventh man.
The fiither of Noah.
Attempts at naviga
tion.
Aged 930 years.
Aged 365 years.
Aged 912 years.
Speech of Lamech the
oldest extant poetry.
Cannes teaches art and
letters.
Manufacture of musical
instruments. Work
ing of metals.

The flrst man who died
a natural death be
fore his father.
Aged 969 years, the old
est man.
Plants a vineyard and
becomes intoxicated
with wine.

350

MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

SECOND AGE.

Abram bom.
Ninus is supposed to reign in Assyria. At his
death, Semiramia, his queen, assumes the
govemment and moves the seat of govern
ment from Nineveh to Babylon, whicli she
greatly enlarges and improves.
Chedorlaomer subdues the kings of Sodom, Go
morrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Bela, who serve
him twelve years.

THIRD AGE.
Promise of the Messiah made to Abram— Com
manded to enter upon the land of Canaan.
Famine in Canaan — Abrajn and family go into
Egypt — Same year Abram and Lot return to
Canaan — Separate — Lot goes to Sodom —
Abram builds an altar in Hebron — Returns
from the slaughter of the kings, and is blessed
by Melchizedek.
God makes a covenant with Abram, and in
token changes his name to Abraham— Cir
cumcision instituted — Isaac promised — God
reveals to Abraham the destruction of Sodom
— Intercedes for Lot and his family — Sodom
and the neighbouring cities destroyed.
Isaac born.
The trial of Abraham on Mount Moriah.
Jacob and Esau born 

Death of Abraham.
Jacob supplants Esau.
Jacob wrestles with an angel and is called Is
rael. . . .-  '. 

The age of Job 
Joseph sold by hia brethren to Ishmaelites, who
carry him into Egypt.
Interprets Pharaoh's dreams, and is made gov
ernor of Egypt— Seven years of plenty begin.
Commencement of the seven years of famine.
Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to buy corn —
Joseph is made known to his brethren, and
hia father is sent for  1 
Death of Joseph. — Here the hook c^ Genesis ends,
containing the history of 2369 years.
Commencement of the bondage of the children
of Israel.
Moses boru — Becomes the adopted son of Pha
raoh's daugl^ter 

Moses flees to Midian, where he dwells forty
years  , 

Period of the Patri
archs.

Expulsion of the shep
herd kings from
Egypt.

Inachus, a Phoenician,
ia supposed to have
founded the kingdom
of Argos. He erects
a temple ^ Apollo on
Mount Lycaon.
Ogyges in Attica.

Israelites settle in
Goshen, a province
of Lower Egypt.

Scamander founds the
city and kingdom of
,. Troy.
Cecrops founds Athens
—Thebes built by
Cadraus.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

351

THIRD AGE.

God appears to Moses on Mount Horeb in a burn
ing bush — la sent to deliver the Israelites— The ten
plagues of Egypt.

FOURTH AGE.

May 4th.

The Paasover instituted— Same month, at midnight,
600,000 Israelites, exclusive of their children, take
up their march for the Red Sea — The army is con
ducted by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of
flre by night— The waters ^re divided— Egyptians
drowned— The following month they reach the wil
derness of Zin, between Blim and Sinai.
Arrive at Sinai— God publishes his law on tables of
stone— 3,000 idolatersdestroyed by the I^evites— God
passes by Moses, and shows him his glory — The taber
nacle, ark of the covenant, altar, table of show-bread,
priests' garments, holy ointment, candlestick, and
other utensils and vessels belonging to the Sacrifices,
are finished in the desert at Sinai and brought to
Moses.
The tabernacle is set up, and priests consecrated-r
Nadab and Abihu are struck dead by flre from heaven
—God speaketh to Moses iVom the mercy-seat — The
second passover is instituted — Spies sent to the land
of Canaan.
Encampment at Kadesh-barnea.
Destruction of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, with 250
of their associates, for mutiny — Destruction of 14,700
men for murmuring against Moses and Aaroh —
Aaron's rod buds— Laid up in the ark for a me
morial.
After travelling nearly ^ years, the Israelites en
camp in the wilderness of Zin— Death of Miriam-
People murnmr for water- Rock smitten — For speak'
ing unadvisedly, Moses and Aaron are debarred
admission to Canaan— Aaron dies »n Mount Hor —
Plague of flery serpents— Brazen serpent erected-
Encampment at Mount Pisgah— Sihon, kiiig of the
Amorites, slain— Og, king of Bashan, and all his
people destroyed — Encampment at Moab — Balak
sends for Balaam, a prophet in Mesopotamia, to come
and curse Israel— Through the influence of the wo
men of Moab and Midian, 24,000 men are hung, slain
by plague, and killed by sword, in one day — The high-
priesthood settled forever on the house of Phineas—
Number of the Israelites 601,730, besides the Le
vites, whose number was 23,000 — Land of Canaan
divided among the tribes on this side of the river
Jordan— The people commanded to set up great
stones and engrave thereon the ten commandments
 Moses writes the law, and deUvers it to the priests
and elders of the people to be keptr-Same day writes
his song, and teaches it to the people to be sung—
Finishes the book of the law, and commands it to
be kept in the ark— Blesses every tribe by way of
prophecy, save tlie tribe of Levi— Ascends Mount
Nebo— lielioUU the Land of Promise, aud dies— ilelAged 120 years.

The five books of
Moses written.

Aged 123 years.

352

MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

FOURTH AGE.

BEUABKS.

is mourned for 30 days — Close of the Pentateuch,
embracing a history of 2,552 years — Succeeded by
Joshua — Israelites cross the Jordan on dry ground —
Twelve stones set up in the channel— Circumcision
revived after having been omitted 40 years — Pass
over celebrated for the first time in Canaan — The
Lord Jesus Christ appears to Joshua with a drawn
sword in his h^nd as Captain ofthe hosts of his Father
— Book of the law read in the ears of the people.
The rise of the Sabbatical years taken from the autumn
of this.
The land divided in Canaan proper among the remain'
ing tribes — ^The giants of the land deatroyed.
The tabernacle set up at Shiloh 

Death of Joshua 
The Israelites, for their idolatry and forgetfulness of
God, are delivered into the hands of Chushan, king of
Mesopotamia, who holds them in subjection 8 years.
Othniel defeats Chushan, and delivers the children
of Israel from bondage — The land has rest for 40
years 
On the death of Othniel, the people fall into sin, and
are enslaved by Eglon, king of Moab, 18 years.
Ehud kills Eglon — Gathers the people, and slays 10,000
valiant men— The land rests 80 years.
On the death of Ehud, the people relapse again into
sin, and are enslaved by Jabin, king of Canaan, for
20 years.
Deborah, Barak, and Jael, overcome and destroy Sisera,
and deliver Israel — Again the land has rest 40 years.
Israelites sinning again, are enslaved by the Midian
ites for a period of 7 years— Are delivered by Gideon
— He refuses the government but receives gold ear
rings, which, converting into an ephod, the people
become idolaters — The land again has rest 40 years.
Death of Gideon — Idolatry of Israel.
Abimelech, wishing to obtain' the kingdom which his
father refused, slays 70 ojthis brothers.
Abimelech, having reigned 3 years over Israel, is con
spired against — Flees, and is killed . . .^ 
Tola judges Israel 23 years.
Jair succeeds Tola, and judges Israel 22 years.
Israelites worship the gods of other nations, and are
enslaved 18 years— Jephthah devotes his daughter,
and j udges Israel 6 years — He slays 42,000 Ephraim
ites for their insolence 
Ibzau succeeds Jephthah, and judges Israel 7 years.
Elon succeeds Ibzan.
Abdon succeeds Elon.
Eli, the high-priest, succeeds Abdon, and judges Israel
40 years— For the sin of the Israelites they are
again enslaved for a period of 40 years 
Samson is born at Zorah.
Samson slays 30 men of Askelon.
Destroys the vineyards and olive-gardens of the Philis
tines—Slays 1,000 Philistines.
Betrayed by his concubine— His eyes put out — Pulls
down the temple of the god Dagon, slaying more at
his death than in all his life.

Remains for 328
years.
110 years old.

First dawn of
poesy— Period
of the Judges.

Argonautic Ex
pedition.

Theban war.

Troy destroyed
by the Greeks.

Iu the mean time
Eli dies.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

353

FOURTH AGE.

Israelites lose 4,000 men in one battle with the Philis
tines — They bring the ^.rk of the Lord into the camp
from Shiloh, which is taken, and 30,000 Israelites
are slain — Eli falls fi-om his seat at the dreadful in
telligence and is killed — Philistines set the ark in
the temple of their god Dagon — The image falls be
fore it twice and is broken in pieces — Plagues fol
low wherever it is taken until they send it home
— Upwards of 50,000 men are smitten.
Israelites repent at Mizpeh, and God delivers them.
laraelites require a king to be given them — Samuel
anoints Saul, and he ia proclaimed king.
David born.
God rejects Saul, and sends Samuel to anoint David.
David, having Saul twice in his power, refuses to hurt
him.
David flees from Saul to Gath.
Saul consults the witch of Endor— In battle, Saul falls
on his own sword, and dies by the hand of an Ama-
lekite, whom David puts to death — Abner makes
SauP? son king over part of Israel.
Abner joins David, but is -treacherously murdered by
Joab — David anointed king the third time,
David with all Israel marches to Jerusalera, and takes
the fort of Zion— Calls it the city of Dav id, and makes
Jerusalem the seat of his kingdom, where he reigns
33 years.
The ark of the covenant brought from the house of
Abinadab in Kirjath-jearim, and placed in Zion,
30,000 choice men attending it and singing the 68th
Psalm.
David communicates to Nathan his desire to build a
house for the Lord — It is answered, that not he,
but Solomon should build it— David, by many wars
with surrounding nations, extends his kingdom.
David is guilty of adultery and murder.
Repents, and composes the 51st Psalm.
David marries Bathsheba— Solomon born.
Amnon, David's eldest son, deflles his sister Tamar,
Absalom avenges his sister by Killing Amnon, and flees
to Syria.
Returns to Jerusalem, and after two years is reconciled
to his father.
Absalom steals away the hearts of the people from his
father David.
Engages in a rebellion against his father, and causes
him to flee from Jerusalem— Ahithophel hangs him
self—Absalom, having lost 20,000 men, in fleeing is
caught in the bough of an oak, and is run through
by Joab.
David, tempted by Satan, comraands Joab to number
the people— God sends a pestilence, during which
70,000 men die in one day— On David's repentance,
the plague is stayed.
Rehoboam is born to Solomon.
Solomon anointed king— David dies.
Pharaoh, king of Egypt, gives his daughter in mar
riage to Solomon— God gives him wisdom, riches,
and honour- Wisdom manifested in j udging between
two harlots. 23

Mariner's .com
pass in u^e in
China.

354

MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE,

FIFTH AGE.

Solomon lays the foundation of the temple.
Temple finished, having been seven and a half years
in building.
Dedication of the temple celebrated with great mag
nificence 
Solomon writes Ecclesiastes— Death of Solomon — Re
hoboam made king— Revolt of ten tribes under
Jeroboam, who become idolaters, and worship the
golden calves set up by the king at Bethel and Dan,
Rehoboam becomes an idolater.
Shishak, king of Egypt, spoils Jerusalem and the
temple.
Abijam, son of Rehoboam, succeeds hia father.
Obtains a great victory over Jeroboam— Kills 500,000
men in one battle, and takes Bethel.
Asa succeeds his father Abijam.
Nadab succeeds his father Jeroboam in the kingdom
of Israel.
Nadab is slain— The whole race of Jeroboam destroyed.
Asa destroys idolatry, and establishes a standing army.
Zerah with an innumerable army invades Judah — Asa
overcomes him, and makes a covenant with God.
Elah succeeds his father in the kingdom of Israel.
Zimri conspires against Elah, and kills him and reigns
in his stead — Destroys the "family of Baasha^The
army makes Omri their king— Zimri sets fire to the
palace, and perishes.
The people of Israel divided into two factions,
Omri removes the seat of his kingdoip to Samaria.
Ahab succeeds his father in the kingdom of Israel —
Does evil in the sight of the Lord.
Jehoshaphat succeeds his father Asa.
Destroys the groves and high places, and sends Le
vites to instruct the people in the law ofthe Lord.
Ben-hadad, king of Syria, lays seige to Samaria, but
suffers great loss.
Ahab obtains Naboljh'a vineyard by fraud — Elijah de
nounces judgments against him.
Ahab makes his son Ahaziah an associate in the gov
ernment of the kingdom — Jehoshaphat also asso
ciates with him his son Jehoram.
Ahab consults 400 false prophets — Is slain at Ramoth-
gilead 
On the death of Ahab the Moabites revolt from the
kingdom of Israel— Elijah destroys the men sent by
Ahaziah to arrest him by fire from heaven— ^rehoram
succeeds his brother Ahaziah in the kingdom of Is
rael— Elijah is taken up to heaven in a chariot of fire
and horses of fire.
Jehoshaphat invests his son Jehoram with the throne
—After the death of his father, he puts all his breth
ren Ob the aword— The Edomites revolt from the
kingdom of Judah.
Jehoram, following the advice bf his wicked wife, es
tablishes idolatrous worship 

Ahaziah succeeds his father in the kingdom of Judah.
Jezebel cast out of the window, and eaten by dogs —
Ahab's family destroyed — The priests of Baal slain —

Age of Homer
and Hesiod.

Dido founds Car
thage.
Caranus founds
the Macedo
nian kingdom.

Lycurgus estab
lishes his cele
brated consti
tution.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

355

FIFTH AGE.

Jehu kills Ahaziah and 42 of his kinsmen — Atha
liah, the daughter of Ahab, usurps the kingdom, and
destroys the royal family, with the exception of Je
hoash, an infant son.
Jehoash anointed king, and Athaliah slain.
Jehoash orders the repair of the temple — Jehoahaz
succeeds his father, Jehu, in the kingdom of Israel.
Jehoash, the son of Jehoahaz, is taken into consortship
in the kingdom of Israel.
Zechariah is stoned to death in the court of the house
of the Lord, for reproving the people for idolatry.
This was done at the command of king Jehoash, who
is next year murdered in his bed and succeeded by
his son Amaziah.
Jehoahaz dies, and is succeeded by his s6n Jehoash —
Visits Elisha— Elisha dies, and adead man is brought
to life by being laid in the prophet's grave.
Jeroboam the Second taken into consortship with his
father in the kingdom of Israel.
Jehoash overcomes Amaziah in battle, and takes him
prisoner— -'Breaks down 400 cubits of the 'wall of
Jerusalem— Spoils the temple and the king's palace,
of vast treasure.
Jehoash dies — Jeroboam the Second reigns.
Amaziah is murdered at Lachish — Succeeded by his
son Uzziah.
The thirteenth Jubilee held— Isaiah, Joel, Jonah, Ho
sea, and Amos lived: at this time— Inhabitants of
Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, repent at the preach
ing of Jonah.
Jeroboam dies— Kingdom falls into anarchy— An in
terregnum of eleven years and a half 

Zachariah begins his reign over Israel.
Shallum murders Zachariah, and reigns one month—
Menahem kills Shallum— Unnatural murder of wo
men in Tiphsah.
Menahem prevents the king of Assyria from invading
his country by giving him 1,000 talents of silver.
Pekahiah succeeds his father Menahem.
Pekah, one of his captains, kills him in his own palace,
and reigns in his stead.
Jotham succeeds his father, Uzziah, in the kingdom
of Israel— He subdues the Ammonites— Under him
and his two successors the propheta Micah, Hosea,
and Nahum execute their otfice.
Ahaz succeeds his father, Jotham— y/iei>7-omweo/Jm-
manuel, to be born of a virgin— Ahaz forsakes God,
hia deliverer— 120,000 of the men of Judah slain,
and 200,000 carried into captivity.
Hoshca, the son of Elah, murders Pekah, and usurps
'the kingdom— The state without any form of gov
ernment. •'*
Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, comes up against Hoshea,
and makes him pay tribute. »
Hezekiah succeeds his father, Ahaz, in the kingdom
of Judah— Destroys idolatry— Celebrates a soleran
passover.

First Olympiad,
— an era from
which the
Greeks reck
oned time.

The age of Amos.

TheageofHoi and Micah.

356

MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

FIFTH AGE.

Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, destroys the kingdom
of Israel, and carries the Israelites captive to his
own country 
Sennacherib besieges Judah, but Is appeased by a
tribute— Hezekiah obtains a prolongation of his life
— The sun goes ten degrees backward.
Sennacherib violates the treaty of peace— An angel
of the Lord slays 185,000 of the Assyrian army — Sen
nacherib is slain by his own sons— Hezekiah dies.
Manasseh succeeds his father — Sets up idolatry — Car
ried away captive to Babylon — Repents, and is re
stored to his kingdom 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Assyria, sends Holofernes to
Judea to besiege the country — At Eethulia his head
is taken off" by Judith, a woman of the tribe of
Simeon  ? . .

Amon succeeds his father Manasseh — An idolater as
his father, but no penitent — Is murdered by his
servants.
Josiah, a child eight years old, succeeds his father Amon
—In his time lived Jeremiah and Zephaniah, proph
ets, and Huldah the prophetess ; 
Commences a reformation in Judah and Jerusalem. ..
Orders the repair of the temple— The book of the law
found — Ordered to be read to all the people — Burns
dead men's bones on the altar of Bethel, and cele
brates a solemn passover.
War between the kings of Egypt and Assyria — Josiah
engages in it and is slain in the valley of Megiddo —
His death bewailed by pubhc mourning — The Lam
entations of Jeremiah coraposed in remembrance of
his death — The people anoint Shallum, one of his
sons, king — He is deposed by Pharaoh-necho, who
places his elder brother, Eliakim, king over Judah
and Jerusalem, and changes hisname into Jehoiakim.
Uriah and Jeremiah prophesy against Jerusalem — The
former is put to death — The latter ia acquitted and
set at liberty 
Nebuchadnezzar the Great raade by his father, Nabo-
polassar, his associate in the kingdom of Assyria
and Babylon- Jehoiakim is put in chains, and car
ried to Babylon— 70 years captivity coraraenced —
The choicest youth of the royal family educated in the
language and science of the Chaldeans, for the ser
vice of the king.
Nabopolassar dies, and is succeeded by Nebuchadnez
zar — Carries the vessels of the temple to Babylon —
Places them in the temple of his god Belus.
Daniel recovers Nebuchadnezzar's dream, and inter
prets it — He and his companions are promoted 
An army of Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites, and Am
monites invade Judea, and carry away 3,0^3 captives
— Jehoiakim is put to death, and left unburied at
the gate-of Jerusalem— Jehoiachin succeeds his fa
ther— Against him Nebuchadnezzar leads an^army,
besieging Jerusalem— Makes all prisoners — Takes
all the treasure in the king's palace — Breaks all the

The kingdom of
Israel stands
divided from
that of Judah
254 years.

Theageoflsaiah.

The age of Na
hum, Jonah,
Joel, Habak
kuk, and Oba
diah.

Zephaniah and
Jeremiah.

The ageof Daniel.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

357

FIFTH AGE.

vessels of gold and furniture which Solomon had
made for the temple— Carries to Babylon the king,
his mother, wives, courtiers, magistrates, and 10,000
able men out of Jerusalem, leaving none but the
poorer sort — From the country he carries away
8,000 artificers- An epistle is sent from Jeremiah
warning them to beware ofthe idolatry in Babylon.

Nebuchadnezzar makes Zedekiah king of Judah—
Jerusalem is again taken by Nebuehadnezzar-
Zedekiah's eyes are put out, and he sent to Baby
lon — The temple and city are fired and reduced to
ashes — Obadiah denounces judgments against Edom
for taunting the people of God. in their calamity—
So also Jeremiah and Ezekiel.

SIXTH AGE.
Nebuchadnezzar deprived of his reason, and driven
out from the society of men.
His reason and kingdom restored to hira — Soon after
dies — Evil-merodach succeeds hira — Liberates Jehoi
achin — Promotes him to honour.
Evil-merodach murdered, and succeeded by his son
Belshazzar — Daniel has his vision of the four beasts,
signifying the four great monarchies of the world.
Daniel's vision of the ram and he-goat, betokening
the destruction of the Persian monarchy 
Belshazzar's guilty feast — Mysterious characters on the
wall— Interpreted by Daniel— Proclaimed President
of the kingdom— The same night Belshazzar is slain
— Babylon is taken by Cyrus— Given to the Medes
and Persians- Cyrus makes Darius the Mede king,
and reserving some palaces for himself, returns to
Persia — Daniel's greatness excites envy— An un
righteous decree made— Cast into the den of lions —
Receives no hurt — His enemies devoured by the
lions.
Daniel's prophecy of the 70 weeks.
Cyrus becomes emperor of Persia and Media — His
proclamation, liberating all the Jews, and sending
them back to Jerusalem, with a command to imme
diately rebuild the temple— Restores all the holy
-vessels— 42,360 return to their own land— Levites
appointed to oversee the work — Samaritans disturb
the Jews in their work— Artaxerxes forbids the Jews
from going on with their work of rebuilding.
In the second year of the reign of Darius Hystaspis,
Zerubbabel and Jeshua recommence the work-
Prophecy of Haggai that the glory of the latter tem
ple should exceed that of the former 
Zechariah exhorts the Jews to repentance.
Ahasuerus puts away his wife Yashti, ^nd marries
Esther, the niece of Mordecai the Jew.
The temple completed — The dedication celebrated
with great joy — Passover also celebrated.
Haman offended at Mordecai— Resolves to take ven
geance on the whole nation— Obtains an edict for

Solon, the legis
lator of Athens
and benefactor
of the human
race.
Geographical maps and
globes first in
vented.

Zoroaster, Con
fucius, g

The age of Hag
gai and'Zecha-
riah.

358

MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

SIXTH AGE.

A.M. 3494

34953537
3549355235893669

their indiscriminate slaughter — Mordecai, Esther,
and all the Jews fast and pray— Ahasuerus hearing
it read in the Chronicles that Mordecai had discov
ered a conspiracy to him, has him publicly hon
oured—Esther, at a public banquet, accuses Haraan,
The gallows Haman had prepared for Mordecai he
is hanged on himself 
Ezra, the priest, a man skilled in the law of Moses.
obtains a large commission from Artaxerxes to set
tle the Jewish commonwealth and to reform the
Church at Jerusalem— Ezra sets out with a great
multitude of Jews from Babylon,
All who had taken strange wives are ordered by
Ezra to send them back — Neheraiah, the governor
of Judea, has permission to rebuild the walls.. .*
He returns to Persia 

3727

38273828

3829
3832

3834

3835

The twenty-flrst Jubilee, the last that the prophets of
the Old Testament ever saw— Malachi's prophecy.
Here ends the chronology ofthe Old Testament, as ob
tained from its canonical books.
Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, passes out of
Europe into Asia and invades Persia 
Sanballat obtains leave frora Alexander to build a
temple on Mount Gerizira— Makes Manasses high-
priest thereof— Alexander prevented from besieging
Jerusalem by the reception he meets with from the
high-priest and people all in white — Sacrifices in
the temple — Bestows favours upon the Jews and
natives.
The Persians are overcome — Darius slain — Alexander
universal monarch of the world.
Alexander dies — His dominions divided among his gen
erals: Asia, to Antigonus; Babylon, to Seleucus; the
Hellespont, to Lysimachus; Macedon, to Cassander ;
Egypt, to Ptolemgex^s.
PtolemEeus makes himself master of Jerusalem by
stratagem — Sends colonies of Jews into Egypt.
Ptolemseus Philadelphus, son of Ptolemaeus Soter, be
ing a great friend of learning, builds a most magnifi
cent library at Alexandria — Demetrius Phalereus,
to whom he had committed the work of selecting
books from all countries, persuades him to employ
72 Jews to translate the Holy Scriptures out of the
original Hebrew into the Greek tongue.
Heliodorus is struck down for invading the temple.
Seleucus is succeeded by Antiochus Epiphanes in the
kingdom of Syria.
Jason obtains the office of high-priest by corrupting
King Antiochus.
Menelaus obtains the priesthood by bribery and cor
ruption.
Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, de
stroys 40,000 of the inhabitants, and sells many
more— Endeavours to abolish the Jewish worship —
Samaritans disown them in their adversity, and
consecrate their temple on Mount Gerizim to
Jupiter. '
The kingdom of the Macedonians ends.

Roman republic.
Time of Ezra.

The age of Mal
achi,
Herod otus—Th u-
cydides — Soc
rates.

Apocryphal pe
riod.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

359

SIXTH AGE.

A.M.
13837

3856
385838593860
3861

38653870

King Antiochus commands all nations to embrace the
worship of the Grecians on pain of death— Many
Jews suffer martyrdom — Matthias, a priest, with his
five sons, slays those who are sent to compel them
to offer s|icrifl;ce to idols-rThey flee to the desert,
are pursued, and, because they do not defend them
selves on the Sabbath, are killed.
Matthias dies, and Judas Maccabeus takes hi^ place,
and delivers his country from abominations — Apol-
lonius is slain by him, and his army discomfited —
Seron, governor of Lower Syria, invades Judea—
Judas slays 800 of his men, and puts the rest to
flight
He defeats a great army which Antiochus had sent
into Judea — Lysias returns with greater poWer—
Judas kills 5,000 of his men, and the rest retreat-
He purifies the temple after it had been desolate
three years, and builds a wall around Zion.
The judgments of God fall upon Antiochus — He dies,
and his son, Eupator, reigns in his stead — Onias re
tires into Egypt, where Ptolemgeas Philometer and
Cleopatra, his wife, permit him to build a temple at
Heliopolis, where they constitute him high-priest —
Demetrius Soter escapes from Rome, comes to Syria
—Puts to death Antiochus and Lysias, and is crowned
king.
Demetrius sends Nicanor with a great army against
Judas — Is slain — Demetrius sends another army of
20,000— Judas meets it with 800, and is slain— His
brother, Jonathan, is chosen general in his stead —
Jonathan enters into an alliance with the Romans —
The flrst league ever known between the Romans
and Jews.
Alcimus is struck dead for commanding the inner
court of the teraple to be pulled down 

Demetrius is slain in battle by Alexander— Alexander
Balas is married to Cleopatra.
The temple of Dagon burned by Demetrius Nicanor-
Ptolemjeus takes his daughter from Alexander, and
marries her to Demetrius.
Ptolemseus dies — Jonathan besieges the citadel of
Jerusalem.
Demetrius is vanquished, and Jonathan renews his
league with the Romans.
Jonathan is decoyed to Ptolemais by Tryphon, where
he is taken prisoner, and his men put to the sword-
Jonathan put to death— Tryphon murders the young
Antiochus, and puts the crown on his own head—
The Romans and Lacedaemonians write their league
on tables of brass.
Simon, the son of Jonathan, has the government and
high -priesthood settled on him— Drives all idolaters
out of the city of Zion.
Antiochus slain— Simon and his two sons barbarously
murdered by Ptolemseus, the son of Abubus.
John Hyrcanus takes Shechem— Demolishes the tem
ple on Mount Gerizira.

Rome, the arbi-
tress of nations
from th^ At
lantic to the
Euphrates.

360

MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

SIXTH AGE.

BEUAKKS.

A.M. 3897

S916
39418955

3977
3986
3999 4004

4008

4030

4032

Judas, eldest son of Hyrcanus, succeeds his father in
the government and high-priesthood — Sets a crown
upon his head, and changes the state into a mon
archy 
Anna, the prophetess, becoming a widow, remains in
the temple, where she serves God day and night, by
fasting and prayer, 84 years.
Jerusalem taken by Pompey, and the Jews made
tributary to the Romans 

Herod, the son of Antipas, an Idumean, is made king
of Judea.
Hillel, a descendant of David, lives in Jerusalem— His
disciple, Jonathan, is the author of the Chaldee
paraphrase  ' 

Gassar Augustus assumes the title of emperor — The re
public ia changed into a monarchy.
The angel Gabriel appears to Zachary, the priest, as
he is offering inceuae in the temple.
The same angel sent to the Virgin Mary — The annun
ciation.
John the Baptist born six months before Christ.

SEVENTH AGE.
The advent of our Lord and Saviour.
The eighth day after his nativity he is circumcised
and named Jesus— The Magi bring presents^— Joseph
flees into Egypt— Herod commands the infants in
Bethlehem to be slain— Herod dies, and Archelaus
is made tetrarch by Csesar- Christ is brought back
from Egypt. ;
Our Lord goes with his parents to Jerusalera to attend
the Passover— Disputes with the doctors— Augustus
dies, and Tiberiu.? succeeds him.
Josephus, called Caiaphas, is made high-priest of the
Jews.
Pontius Pilate made procurator of Judea.
John the Baptist preaches and baptizes in the wilder
ness of Judea— Baptizes Christ in Jordan — Christ is
tempted in the wilderness.
Christ returns to Galilee— Andrew, Peter, Philip, and
Nathanael acknowledge him the Messiah— Marriage
at Canar— The flrst passover of Christ's public min
istry—Christ enters the temple and drives out the
nioney changers—John cast into prison by Herod-
Christ discovers himself to the woman of Saraaria.
Christ goes through Galilee and tt-aches in the syna
gogues, working miracles— Matthew called to be a
disciple— The second Passover held— Christ heals
the impotent man at the pool of Bethesda— The
twelve Apostles chosen— Sermon on the Mount.
The twelve sent out two by two to preach the gospel
and heal the sick—John the Baptist is beheaded—
Christ feeds 5,000 raen. besides women and children,
with the five loaves and two fishes — Refuses to be
made king— The third Passover held— The trans
figuration on the mount — Christ pays tribute to

Thefirstinstanc^flk of the kind
since the cap
tivity.

Judea dependent
upon the Ro
mans.

Herod takes pos
session of Jeru
salem and Ju
dea.

The first miracle.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.

361

SEVENTH AGE.

A.M. 4032

403440354038

4044 4045

4046

40524053

4054

Csesar — The seventy disciples sent ont two by two to
preach and work miracles.
The disciples taught to pray — Lazarus raised from the
dead— Caiaphas' s prophecy concerning the death of
Christ — Conversion of Zaccheus — Bartimeus re
stored to sight — Mary, the sister of Lazarus, anoints
the feet of Jesus — The triumphal entry of Christ
into Jerusalem — He curses the fig-tree — ^The fourth
Passover celebrated — The sacrament of the Lord's
Supper instituted— Christ washes the disciples' feet
— Christ is betrayed by Judas — Next day condemned
by Pilate and crucified — The third day (April 5th,
A. D. 33,) he rises from the dead — Appears first to
Mary Magdalene — Afterwards appears to hia disci
ples, and dines with them — ^Promises to them the
effusion of the Holy' Ghost — Commissions them to
teach and baptize all nations— Ascends from Mount
Olivet to heaven — The day of Pentecost — Gift of
tongues— 3,000 converted— Peter and John cast Jnto
prison — Ananias and Sapphira struck dead.
Seven deacons ordained— Stephen stoned to death-
Great persecution — Philip preaches in Samaria —
Simon, the sorcerer, believes, and is baptized.
The Ethiopian converted and baptized— Saul is con
verted on his way to Damascus— Preaches the gospel.
A conspiracy agg-inst Saul — Receives instructions to
leave Jerusalem — Goes to Tarsus, Cilicia, and Syria
— Peter visits the Churches of Judea, Samaria, and
Galilee — Cures Eneas, and restores Tabitha to hfe.
Cornelius instructed to send for Peter— He is converted
and baptized — ^The disciples from Phenice and Cy
prus come to Antioch— Send for Barnabas — He and
Saul preach there a whole yeai" — ^Disciples flrst called
. Christians.
Herod Agrippa beheads James — Imprisons Peter
— He is smitten of God at Cesarea, and eaten of
worms.
Barnabas and Saul start out and plant the Christian
faith iu Seleucia, Cyprus, and other places^Sergius
Paulus — Elymas, the sorcerer, struck blind — Saul's
name changed to Paul — They preach at Antioch and
Iconium.
Persecuted, they fly to Lystra and Derbe, in Lycaonia—
Are called gods : Barnabas, Jupiter; and Paul, Mer-
curius— Paul stoned and dragged out of Lystra aa
dead — Next day departs with Barnabas to Derbe —
Timothy, a child, embraces the Christian faith.
Judaizing teachers introduce circumcision— Council
held at Jerusalem to settle the matter— Decrees of
the council sent to the Churches.
Paul and Barnabas, disagreeing, separate— Barnabas
and Mark go into Cyprus, and Paul and Silas go into
Syria and Cilicia— Paul takes Timothy from Derbe—
His raother being a believing Jew, he causes him to
be circumcised — He is admonished by a vision lo go
into Macedonia— Arrives at Philippi — Lydia con
verted—Paul and Silas imprisoned — Miraculously
delivered— Phi lippian jailer converted.
They journey through Araphipolis and Apollonia—
Oome to Tlicsi^iilumca— Go to Borca. and tlionce to

362

MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

SEVENTH AGE.

A.M. 4054

4055
40564057
40584060

4062
4063
406440f^
4066

4067
4070

Athens — Dionysius, the Areopagite, converted —
Goes to Corinth — Meets Aquila and Priscilla, who
had been banished from Rome — Remains here i
year and six months — Writes to the Thessalonians,
Accused by the Jews, and brought before Gallio, pro
consul of Achaia.
Leaves Corinth and goes to Ephesus — From thence
to Jerusalem — Goes to Cesarea, Antioch, Galatia,
and Phrygia.
Returns to Ephesus, and disputes daily in the school
of Tyrannus.
Writes his epistle to the Galatians.
Demetrius, a silversmith, opposes hira — ^A schism arises
in the Church at Corinth — He writes his First Epistle
to the Corinthians — Leaves Ephesus and goes to
Macedonia — Writes his second letter — Goes to Cor
inth, and writes his letter to the Romans — Goes to
Philippi, and from thence to Troas, where he re
stores Eutychus to life — Goes to Miletus — Goes to
Jerusalem — Is apprehended and imprisoned in the
castle— t)l aims the privilege of a Roman citizen —
Pleads his cause before Ananias, high-priest — He is
sent to Felix — Imprisoned at Cesarea.
Accused before Felix by Tertullus, the orator— Paul
befoae Festus— Appeals r.o Csesar— Paul makes his
defence before Kiilg Agrippa. ^
Taken to Rome, a prisoner at large, where he preaches
two years.
From Rome Paul writes to the Philippians, to Phile
mon, to the Colossians, and to the Ephesians.
He is set at liberty, and writes to the Hebrews —
Preaches the gospel in the Isle of Crete.
Writes his letters to Timothy and Titus— Peter writes
his letters — St. John and St. Jude write about this
time.
St. Peter and St. Paul sufffer martyrdom.
Jerusalem besieged, taken, sacked, and burned by Herculaneum
Titus— 1,100,000 Jews perish ; 97,000 are taken pris- and Pompeii
oners  destroyed.
St. John is banished to the Isle of Patmos by Domi
tian — Writes his Revelation — ^Returns to Ephesus,
and, at the request of the Church, writes his Gospel.

Here the events connected with Bible chronology end.
Those of a collateral character might have been more copi
ously adduced, but what we have given are thought to be
sufficient for all the purposes of the present work.

BIBLICAL GEOQRAPHY.

Under this head ve propose to give the names of the prin
cipal countries of the Bible, embracing the mountains, seas,
lakes, rivers, cities, towns, &c., &c. We shall present them
in alphabetical order, ^ud briefly notice whatever is remark
able as connected with the localities enumerated.
As most of the scenes of the Bible lie in Palestine, it may
not be improper, in this place, to make some remarks in re
gard to the climate and face qf the country.
The state of the atmosphere is different in difi'erent places,
but it is not so changeable as in some parts of Europe. Du
ring the first part of the year, which is called the harvest,
extending from the middle of April to the middle of June,
the sky is serene, the atmosphere is warm— sometimes op
pressively so= — excepting in the valleys, or on the shores of
the sea, where it is temperate. During the second part of
the year, which is called summer, extending fi-om the middle
of June to the middle of August, the heat is intense, and the
inhabitants sleep, in the night, under the open sky. The
third season, from the middle of August to the middle of
October, is called the hot season, for then the heat has reached
its greatest intensity ; but it soon abates. From the time
of harvest, or fi'om the middle of April to the middle of Sep
tember, there is neither rain nor thunder. Prov. xxvi, 1 ;
1 Sam. xii, 17. In the months of May, June, July, and
August, not a cloud is to be seen, and the earth is only
moistened with the dew, which is everywhere used as a
symbol of the divine benevolence. Gen. xxvii, 28 ; xlix, 25 ;
Deut. xxxii, 2 ; xxxiii, 13 ; Job xxix, 19; Micah v, 1. The

364 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
fourth part of the year is called the seed-time. It extends
from the middle of October to the middle of December.
The autumnal rains begin in the latter part of October. The
leaves fall in the latter part of November, and the snow in
December. Some do without fire the whole winter. The
fifth part of the year extends from the middle of December
to the middle of February, which is called the unnter. The
snow soon melts away, and only remains on the mountains.
As January departs, and February enters, the grain-fields
flourish, and the trees put on their foliage. The sixth period
is called the cold season, because, in the commencement of it,
the weather is still cold, though it lasts but for a short time.
Palestine is a mountainous country. Two ranges, the one
on the east and the other on the west of the Jordan, extend
from Syria into Arabia, interrupted, however, in various
places, by valleys. The principal mountains are Lebanon,
Carmel, Tabor, Mountains of Israel, and the Mountains of
Gilead. Abana — A river in Syria, spoken of by Naaman the
leper, when he was directed to wash away his leprosy in
Jordan. Abarim — A mountain in Palestine, on the suflamit of
which Balak and Balaam had an interview, and the latter
was entreated to curee the IsraeHtes, who were encamped in
the plain.
Abdon, or Hebron — A city of the Levites, in Palestine.
Abel — A town or province in Palestine, of which Lysa-
nias was tetrarch.
Abel of the vineyards — in Palestine ; the place where Jeph
thah smote the Ammonites.
Abel, Plain of.
Abel of Beth-Maachah — Palestine. Joab pursued Sheba
to this place, who was afterwards slain.
Abel-Maim — Palestine. Taken by Benhadad, king of Syria.
Abel-Meholah — Palestine. Here the Midianites were routed
by the Israelites, under Gideon.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 365
Abel-Mizraim — Palestine. Here Joseph mourned seven
days for Jacob his father.
Abel-Shittim — Palestine ; an encampment of the Israelites,
on the plains of Moab.
Aben-Bohan — Palestine ; a boundary-stone between Ben
jamin and Judah.
Abez — Palestine ; a boundary-town between Issachar and
Manasseh. Abila, or Abel — Palestine.
Abilene — Syria. Lysanias was tetrarch of this place.
Abimael — Persia.
Abumah — Palestine.
Accad — A city in Turkey, built by Nimrod.
Accaron, or Ekron — Palestine. The Canaanites were never
expelled fi-om this place.
Accho, or St. Jean d'Acre — Palestine. The Canaanites
were never expelled from this city.
Aceldama — Palestine ; a field purchased by Judas for the
price of his Lord.
Achaia — ^Turkey. Here Paul was accused before Gallio.
Achmetha, or Ecbatana — Persia. Here the records were
found, relating to the rebuilding of Jerusalem.
Achor — A valley in Palestine, where Achan was stoned
by the children of Israel.
Achshaph — A Levitical city of Palestine.
Achzib — Palestine. The Canaanites were never expelled
from this city.
Acrabbim — The southern boundary of Judea.
' Adadah — Palestine.
Adam — Palestine. From this place to the Dead Sea the
waters of the Jordan were dried up, during the passage of
the Israelites.
Adamah — A fortified city of Palestine.
Adar — A boundary-town between Edom and Judah, in
Palestine. Adithaim — Palestine.

366 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Admah — One of the cities of Palestine, in the valley of
Siddim, destroyed by fire.
Adoraim — A city of Palestine, built by Rehoboam.
Adramyttium — Turkey.
Adria — The Mediterranean. Here Paul was shipwrecked
Adullam-— Talestiae. In a cave, near this city, David hid
himself when pursued by Saul.
Adummim — Palestine.
JEnon, or Enon — ^The fountain of On, in Palestine, where
John baptized.
Ahava — A river of Assyria. Here Ezra proclaimed a fast,
previous to the return of the Israelites.
Ahlab — Palestine.
Ai, or Hai — Palestine. Taken and burned by Joshua.
Aiaih — Palestine.
Aijalon — Palestine. Elon, one of the judges of Israel, was
buried here.
Aijalon, or Aiaja — A city of the Levites, where the Philis-.
tines were subdued by Samuel.
Aijalon — A valley of Palestine, where the sun and moon
stood still, at the command of Joshua.
Ain, or Gin — Palestine.
Ain, or Ashan — A Levitical city.
Ain — A valley.
Alemeth — A Levitical city.
Alexandria — A city of Egypt, ffom whence St. Paul sailed
for Rome.
Alton — Palestine.
Allon-Bachuth — Palestine. Here Deborah, the nurse of
Rebecca, was buried.
Almodad — Persia. A colony of Joktan, son of Shem.
Almon-Diblathaim — Palestine. A station of the Israelites.
Aloth, District of — A territory in Palestine, under the
government of one of Solomon's purveyore.
Alush — An encampment of the Israelites, in Arabia.
Amalek — Arabia.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 367
Amana, or Anti-Lebanon — On Mount Lebanon ; celebrated
for the growth of its cedars.
Ammah — A hill in Palestine, to which Joab and Abishai
pursued Abner.
Ammon-Ham — Palestine.
Ammo-n^No — Egypt.
Amorites, Mount of — ^Turkey. The Canaanites were never
expelled from this place.
Amphipolis — Turkey. Paul preached in this city.
Anab — Palestine. From this place Joshua cut ofi' the An-
akims. Anaharath — A boundary-town between Issachar and Ma
nasseh. •
Ananiah — Palestine.
Anamim — Egypt ; a colony of Mizraim.
Anathoth — A Levitical city in Palestine. Jeremiah had
a possession here.
Anem — A Levitical city.
Antioch — Syria. Disciples first called Christians at this
city. Here Paul and Barnabas separated. Here Paul was
stoned, but afterwards recovered.*
Antipatris— Syna. From here Paul was sent to Cesarea.
Antonia, Castle of — Syria. At this place Paul was confined,
previously to being sent to Felix. ,
Aphek — Syria. The Canaanites were never expelled fi-om
this place.
Aphekah^— Syria. Here the Philistines overcame the Is
raelites. Aphek in Syria — Here the Syrians, and thirty-two kings,
under Benhadad, were defeated by Ahab.
Apollonia — Syria. Paul visited this city, on his way to
Thessalonica. Appii-Forum — Italy. Here Paul was met by his brethren,
on the way to Rome.
^raJ— Syria. This place was given, by command of Je
hovah, to Lot.

368 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Ardbah — Syria. A boundary-town of Benjamin.
Arabia — Through part of this country (Arabia Petrsea,)
the IsraeHtes, under Moses, wandered for forty years.
Arad — Syria. A royal city, and one of the thirty-one
kingdoms subdued by Joshua.
Aram, or Padan Aram — Mesopotamia. The country of
Nahor, Abram, Jacob, <fec.
Aram — Syria.
Ararat, or Armenia — Erivan.
Ararat, Mount — Armenia. On this mount the ark rested
after the Deluge, and from thence the descendants of Noah
peopled the earth.
Arba — Syria. The place of Abraham and Isaac's sojourn
ing. Arbah.Arbel — Syria.
Archi — Syria. A boundary-town.
Areopolis — Syria.
^r^oS^Syria. This place was under the government of
one of Solomon's purveyors.
Argob, Regions of— Syria. The cities of which were taken
by the Israelites.
Ariel, Jebus, Salem — Palestine. Ancient capital of the
East, and the birth-place of Solomon.
Arimathea — Palestine. The birth-place of Joseph the
counsellor. Arkites, Country of the — Syria. A colony of Canaan, a
son of Ham.
Armageddon — Palestine ; mountains and valley of.
Armenia, or Ararat — Erivan.
Arnon, Fords of— Palestine. These waters are said to have
divided for the passage of the Israelites.
.Amon, River — Syria.
Aroer — Palestine. A city built by the children of
Gad. ^roer— Palestine. A city which David smote.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 369
Arpad — Syria. A place of the grossest idolatry.
Arphaxad — Turkey.
Arvad — Syria. Celebrated for its snipping in the time
of Solomon.
Aruboth — Turkey. Under the government of one of
Solomon's purveyors.
Arumah — Palestine. The place where Abimelech dwelt.
Ashan — Palestine. A city of the Levites.
Ashdod, or Azotus — Palestine. A place of idol-worship.
The Phihstines placed the ark here, in the temple of Dagon.
Here Philip was found, after the conversion of the eunuch.
Ashdoth-Pisgah — Palestine.
Asher — Palestine. A boundary of Manasseh.
Ashkenaz — Turkey.
Ashkenaz, Sea of, (Pontus Euxinus) — Turkey and Russia.
Ashtaroth — Palestine.
Ashteroth Karnaim — Palestine. Here Chedorlaomer smote
the Rephaims, or giants.
Asia (Proper) — Turkey.
Ama Minor — Turkey.
Askelon or Ashkelon — Palestine. Taken from the Philis
tines by the tribe of Judah. Here Samson gave his mamage-
feast, propounded his riddle, and smote thirty of the Philis
tines. Asshur, or Assyria — Persia.
Assos — Turkey. A port of Asia Minor, in which the gos
pel was generally difi'used. ^
Atad — Turkey. Here the Israelites mourned over the
body of Jacob seven days.
Ataroth — Turkey. A boundary between Gad and Reuben.
Athens — Greece. Here Paul found an altar to the un
known God, and preached on Mars' Hill.
Ather — Syria.
Alroth — Palestine.
Attalia — Turkey. Paul and Barnabas here took ship for
Antioch. 24

370 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Ava — Persia. A place of captivity.
Aven — Turkey. Denounced by the prophet Amos.
Aven — Palestine. The Philistines sent the ark of the
covenant to this place.
Aven, or Beth-Shemesh — Egypt. Pharaoh gave Asenath,
a daughter of the high-priest of this place, to Joseph.
Avim — Palestine.
Azekah — Palestine. Here the Amorites were defeated by
Joshua. Azmon — Palestine. A boundary-town between Judah and
Arabia. Azza, or Gaza — Palestine. This was the capital of the
country of the Philistines.
Baal, high places of — Palestine.
Baalah, or Kirjath-jearim— Paies^ne.
Baalah, Mount — Palestine.
Baal-Berith — Palestine.
Baal- Gad, Mountain and town of
Baal-Hamon — Palestine. At this place Solomon had
vineyards. Baal-Hazor — Palestine. Here Absalom killed Amnon.
Baal-Meon — Palestine. A fenced city of Gad. A place
of idolatry.
Baal-Peor — Palestine. Here Balaam came to curse Israel.
Battl-Perazim—Pa]e&tine. Here David smote the Phihs
tines. Baal-Shalisha — Palestine. The inhabitants of this place
sent presents to Elisha, at Gilgal. South of this place stood
Micah's house of idolatry.
Baal-Tamar — Palestine. Here the Israelites smote the
Benjamites. Baal-Zephon—Egyft. Opposite this place the Israelites
pitched their tents, previous to pa-ssing through the Red Sea.
Babel, or Babylon— Twrkey. Here the Lord confounded
the language of the children of Noah during the building of
the Tower of Babel.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 371
Babylon, or Babel. The royal city of the kings of Assyria.
The place of the captivity of the children of Israel.
Babylonia, or Chaldea — Turkey.
Baca, Valley of—Palestine. Celebrated for its mulberry-
trees. Bahurim — Palestine. At this place Shimei cursed David.
Bamoth — Palestine. An encampment of the Israelites.
Bashan — Palestine. Celebrated for its large oak-trees.
Bashan-Havoth. All the cities in this country were taken
by Jair, the son of Manasseh.
Bashan, Hill of — Palestine.
Bealoth — Palestine. A boundary-town between Judah
and Dan.
Beer, or Beer-Elim — Syria. Here the IsraeHtes halted,
and sang praises, after finding water.
Beer, or Beeroth — Palestine. Here Jotham, the son of
Jerubbaal, secreted himself from his brother Abimelech, who
sought to slay him.
Beer-lahai-roi — Palestine. Here an angel appeared unto
Hagar, and promised her a son, who was called Ishmael.
Beersheba — Palestine. Here Abram planted a grove, and
built an altar, after his covenant with Abimelech, king of
Gerar, to whom he represented his wife as being his sister.
Beersheba, Wilderness of — Here the angel appeared unto
Hagar, and pointed out a spring of water.
Beta, or Zoar — Arabia. One of the cities of the plain,
from which Lot and his two daughters fled, previous to its
destruction by fire.
Bene-Berak — Syria.
Bene-Jaakan — Arabia. A station of the Israelites.
Berachah, Valley of—Palestine. The place of thanks
giving of Jehoshaphat and his army, after they had defeated
the Moabites in Seir.
^erea— Turkey. Here Paul and Silas preached.
Berotha — Turkey. David conquered this city, and found
great treasures of brass.

372 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Besor, River — Here David met with an Egyptian, who
conducted him to the army of the Amalekites.
Besor, Desert of — Palestine.
Betah — Turkey.
Be ten — Palestine.
Bethabara — Palestine. Here John baptized our Lord,
and here the ark rested, while the Israelites passed the Jor
dan. Bethanah — Palestine. A fenced city.
Bethany — Palestine. This was the abode of Lazarus and
his sisters. Here Christ cursed the fig-tree.
Beth-Arabah — Palestine. A boundary-town.
Betharabel — ^Palestine. Denounced by the prophet Ho
sea. Beth -Aven — Palestine. From this place Joshua sent spies
to Ai, which city he afterwards subdued.
Beth -Aven, Wilderness of — Palestine. Near this place the
children who derided Elisha were destroyed by two bears.
Beth-Barah — Palestine. Gideon took possession of the
countries between this place and Jordan.
Beth-Car — Palestins. The Philistines were subdued by
the Israelites at this place.
Beth-Dagon — Palestine. A boundary-town on the bor
ders of Syria.
Bethel, or Luz — Palestine. Here Jacob dreamed that he
saw a ladder, and set up his pillow of stone as a pillar of
testimony. Bethel, Mountains of — Palestine. At this place a great
battle was fought, between the Israelites and Philistines.
Bethel, Wilderness of — Palestine.
Bethesda, Pool of — Miraculous waters. Here Christ healed
ajinan who had been waiting thirty-eight years.
• Beth-Jeshimoth — Palestine. An encampment of the Is
raelites. ,
Bethlehem-Ephratah — Palestine. The birth-place of our
Saviour. Here David was crowned king by Samuel.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 373
Beth-Maachah — Syria. This city was taken from the Is
raelites by Benhadad, king of Syria.
Bethmillo — Syria. Here Abimelech was made king.
Bethonnaba — Syria. A city of the priests. Here Abi
melech, the priest, furnished bread, and the sword of Goli
ath, to David, when he was pursued by Saul.
Bethphage — Syria. From this place Christ made his tri
umphant entry into Jerusalem.
Beth-Rehob — Syria. A city of the Levites.
Bethsaida of Galilee. At this place Christ restored sight
to a blind man.
Bethsaida, or Chorazin — Syria. Denounced by Christ on
account of the unbehef of its inhabitants.
Bethshalisha — Syria. See Baal-shalisha.
Bethshan — Syria. A principal city of Decapolis. The
bodies of Saul and his three sons were fastened to the waHs
of this city by the Phihstines.
Bethshemesh. An idolatrous city of Egypt.
Bethshittah — Syria. The Midianites fied to this city
when pursued by Gideon.
Bezek — Palestine. At this place the kingdom of Israel
was confirmed to Saul.
Bezek. At this place Judah defeated the Canaananites
and Perizzites.
Bezer, or Bozrah, in the wilderness of Palestine. A city
of refuge, and a city of the Levites.
Bithynia — Turkey. Paul and Timotheus were prevented
by the Spirit from visiting this country.
Boaz, Field of— Syria. Here Boaz first saw Ruth.
Boscath — Syria. The birth-place of Jedidah, Josiah's
mother. Bozez, Rock of— Syria. This rock formed a pass, and here
Jonathan and his armour-bearer smote twenty Phihstines.
Afterwards the lot was cast between Saul and Jonathan.
Near this place Samuel anointed Saul.
Bozrah. A capital city of Svria.

374 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Buz — Turkey. A city in alhance with the princes of
Edom. Cabul — Palestine. Given by Solomon to Hiram king of
Tyre for sixscore talents of gold.
Calah — Turkey. Built by Asshur.
Caleb — Palestine. Here Hezron, one of the judges of Is
rael, died."
Caleb's Land. Caleb's Field and Tomb.
Calneh — Turkey. A city built by Nimrod.
Calvary, Mount. This was the common place of execution
in Judea. Here Christ was crucified.
Camon — Palestine. Jair, a judge of Israel, was buried
here. Cana of Galilee. Here the Saviour performed his first
miracle by turning water into wine.
Canaan — Palestine. The scene of the principal events
recorded in the Scriptures.
Capernaum — Palestine. The place where Christ com
menced his public ministry.
Caphar-Sorek — Palestine. The residence of Delilah be
fore she became the wife of Samson.
Caphtorim — Lower Egypt.
Cappadocia— Tmkey. A country visited by Paul.
Carbon — Syria.
Carchemesh — Turkey. Besieged and taken by Nebu
chadnezzar. Caria — Turkey. The coast visited by Paul.
Caria, Sea of — Mediterranean. Sailed over by St. Paul.
Carmel — Palestine. Here Nabal had possessions, and
Abigail his wife sent presents to David.
Carmel, Mount. On this mount Elijah was answered by
fire from heaven.
Casiphia — Persia. The country from whence Ezra
brought the Nethinims to Jerusalem.
Casiphia, Sea of— Persia. The Caspian Sea.
Cedron or Kedron. David, in fieeing from Absalom,

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 376
crossed this brook, and Christ crossed it to enter the garden
where he was betrayed.
Cedron, Fields of. To this place the idolatrous images and
vessels were taken from the temple at Jerusalem and des
troyed by order of Josiah.
Cenchrea — Greece. The .port where Paul performed his
vow. Cesarea Philippi — Palestine. Here our Saviour revealed
himself to his disciples.
Cesarea. Here Peter preached the gospel to Cornelius
and his household.
Chahor — Persia. A place of captivity under Tilgath-pil-
neser. Chaldea or Babylonia — Turkey. This was the country
where Daniel prophesied.
Charran — Turkey. Here Abraham sojourned and re
ceived the command to go to Canaan.
Chebar, River — Turkey. Here Ezekiel had his visions.
Chemosh — Palestine. A place of idol worship built by
Solomon. Cherith, Brook of — Palestine. Here Elijah was fed by
the ravens.
Chezib — Palestine. The birth-place of Shelah.
Chimham — Palestine. The residence of Chimham.
Chios, Isle of — Levant. An island where St. Paul touched
on his way to Miletus.
Chor- Ashan — Palestine. To the inhabitants of this city
David sent the spoil which he had taken from the Amalekites.
Chun — Palestine. David took the shields of gold from
the inhabitants of this place.
Cilicia — Turkey. A country visited by St. Paul, and the
place of his nativity.
Cinnereth, Lake of Gennesa.reth — Palestine. On this sea
and- on the coasts thereof, Christ wrought many miracles.
Here Peter walked on the water. Here also Christ stilled
the tempest.

376 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
City of Palm-trees, or Jericho — Palestine. The Israelites
were conquered at this place by Eglon, king of Moab, for
their disobedience.
Clauda, Isle of — Mediterranean. An island under which
Paul sailed with danger, on his way to Rome.
Corinth — Greece. Here Paul became acquainted with
Aquila, and here he resolved to go to the Gentiles.
Outh — Russia. A place of idol-worship.
Cypus, Isle of — Mediterranean. The birth-place of
Barnabas. Cyrene — Batbary. The birth-place of Simon, who bore
the cross of the Saviour.
Dalmanutha — Palestine. Visited by the Saviour after he
had performed the miracle of the loaves and fishes.
Dalmatia — Turkey. Here Titus ministered the gospel.
Damascus — Syria. Near this place Abram defeated the
armies under Chedorlaomer. Near this place Saul was mi
raculously converted.
Dan — Palestine, near the springs of Jordan.
Danneh — Palestine. A city in the mountains.
David, City of. The southern part of Jerusalem, which
was built by David.
Dead Sea — Palestine. This was formerly the plain of
Jordan, and the most fertile and beautiful valley in the
world. Debir — Palestine. A city taken by Joshua.
Decapolis — Palestine. A country which was visited by
the Saviour.
Derbe — Turkey. Visited by Paul immediately after he
was stoned.
Dothan — Palestine. Here Joseph was sold by his breth
ren to the Ishmaelites, and here the army which came to
take Elisha was smitten with blindness.
Dumah — Palestine.
Dung Gate. An eastern gate of Jerusalem repaired by
Nehemiah.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

^77

Dura, Plain of. Here Nebuchadnezzar set up his image,
ninety feet high, for refusing to worship which, the thrfee
Hebrew children were cast into the furnace of fire and were
preserved. East Country — ^Media and Persia. The country from
whence Abram came.
Ebal, Mount — Turkey. Here Moses pronounced twelve
curses, and Joshua erected an altar for burnt-off'erings.
Ebenezer, stone called — Palestine. Here the IsraeHtes
defeated the Philistines.
Eber — Persia. A colony of Arphaxad.
Ed — Syria. An altar erected by the IsraeHtes in testi
mony of their vows to God.
Edar, Tower of — Persia. The tents of Israel were spread
near this spot for a temporary residence. This tower is sup-
])osed to have been occupied by the shepherds at the time
the angels announced the birth of Christ to them.
Eden, Garden of — Turkey. Its present location supposed
to be on the banks of the Arab River, not far fi-om the mouth
of the Euphrates. Here God created Adam and Eve.
Edom — Arabia.
Eglaim — ^Arabia. Referred to by Ezekiel.
Eglcm — Palestine.
Egypt, or Land of Ham. Here Moses was miraculously
preserved from death in infancy, as also our Lord by the flight
of Joseph and Mary. It was also the scene of Joseph's life.
Ekrcm. — Syria. Here the ark rested on its way to Ashdod.
Elah, Valley of. Here David slew GoHath.
Elam or Persia.
Elam in Syria. .
Elath — Arabia. A principal sea-port from whence Solo
mon brought gold from Ophir.
El-Bethel — Palestine. Jacob erected an altar here when
he fled from Esau.
El-Elohe-Israel. An altar erected by, Jacob in the Prom
ised Land.

31% MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Elim — Palestine. An encampment of the Israelites
where there were twelve weHs and seventy palm-trees.
Elisha, Isles of— Levant. Celebrated for the production
of blue and purple linen.
Elkosh — Palestine. The birth-place of Nahum the
prophet. Emmaits — Palestine. A village near Jerusalem to which
two of the disciples were journeying on the day of the res
urrection when Christ appeared to them and talked with
them. Endor — Palestine. Here Saul invoked a witch to raise
Samuel, who appeared and announced the destruction of
his army and his own death with that of his sons next
day. En-Eglaim — Arabia.
Engedi — Palestine. Here David took refuge in a cave,
and here he spared the life of Saul.
En-Hakkore — Palestine. Here Samson slew one thou
sand men with the jaw-bone of an ass.
Enon — Palestine. Here John baptized.
Enrogel — Jel-usalem. Here Adonijah usurped the king
dom of David, and here he was slain by the order of Sol
omon. Ephesus — Turkey. One of the seven Churches.
Ephraim, Mount. Here Joshua the son of Nun had an
inheritance. Ephraim, Wood of. Here Joab killed Absalom.
Ephraim or Ephron — Palestine. Here Jesus retired with
his disciples after raising Lazarus. '
Ephrath — Palestine. Near this city Rachel died and was
buried. Ephron, Field of — Palestine. In which was the cave
where Abraham and Sarah were buried.
Erbonah — Arabia. A station of the IsraeHtes.
Esek. A well dug by the servants of Isaac near Beer
sheba.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 379
Eshcol — Palestine. From this place the spies sent by
Moses brought grapes and pomegranates.
Eshtaol — Palestine. Samson was born and buried be-.
tween this place and Zorah.
Etam, Rock of— Palestine. Here three thousand men of
Judah assembled against Samson.
Etham. A part of the Desert of Arabia where the Israel
ites wandered forty years.
Ethiopia — Turkey.
Euphrates — Turkey. A principal river of Eden.
Ezel, Stone of — Palestine. Here David and Jonathan
made a covenant together.
Ezion-Geber — Arabia. A port for Solomon's navy.
Fair Havens — Mediterranean. A port touched at by
Paul on his voyage to Rome.
Fish-gate — Jerusalem. Rebuilt by the son of Hassenaah.
Fuller's Field — Palestine. Here Isaiah met Ahaz, and
predicted that a virgin should conceive.
Gaash, Valley and Brooks of — Palestine. An inheritance
of Joshua. Gaash, Hill of. Here Joshua was buried.
Gadara — Palestine. Here Christ dispossessed of the evil
spirits the man who dwelt among the tombs.
Galatia — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached the gospel
and established a Church.
Gilead — Palestine. Jacob made a covenant with Laban
at this place.
Galilee. One of the principal divisions of the Holy Land.
The scene of the principal events in the Hfe of Christ, and
the place appointed by him previous to his death for an in
terview after his resurrection with his disciples.
Galilee, Sea of. A bod}' of fresh water seventeen miles
long and eight broad, abounding in fish.
Gath — Palestine. David fears Saul, feigns himself mad,
and goes to the king of this place.
Gath-Hepher — Palestine. The birth-place of Jonah.

380 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
G'aga— Palestine. Samson carried away the gates of this
city to the toj^of a hill.
. Geba — Palestine. Here Jonathan smote the garrison of
the Philistines.
Gebal — Arabia. A seaport of Syria.
Gennesaret — Palestine. The sick were healed here by
touching the hem of Christ's garment.
Gerar — Palestine. The dwelHng-plaoe of Isaac during
the famine. Here he denied his wife.
Gergesa — Palestine. Here Christ performed the miracle
of the swine.
Gerizim, Mount — Palestine. Here Moses pronounced
twelve blessings, Joshua wrote the law of Moses on stone,
and Jotham delivered his parable of the trees.
Geshur — Palestine. Absalom fled to this place after kill
ing his brother Amnon.
Gethsemane — Palestine. An occasional resort of Christ.
The scene of his agony and the place of his betrayal.
Gezer — Palestine. The king of this city with the whole
of his army was defeated by Joshua.
Gibeah — Palestine. At this place the Levite slew his con
cubine. Saul dwelt here, and seveji of his sons were slain
by the inhabitants.
Gibeon — Palestine. Five kings of the Amorites slain here
by a hail-storm. During the battle the.sun and moon stood
still. Giblum — Syria. The Giblites were employed by Solo
mon to prepare stones and timber for the temple.
Gidom — Palestine. The Benjamites were smitten by the
children of Israel and pursued hither.
Gihon, River — Persia. The second river in Eden.
Gihon, Fountain of. Solomon was here anointed.
Gilboa, Mount. The scene of Saul's death — cursed.
Gilead — Palestine. The place where Joseph was sold.
Gilead, Ramoth. A city of refuge.
Gilgal This was the first place taken by Joshua west of

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 381
the Jordan. Here Samuel hewed Agag king of the Ama
lekites to pieces.
Giloh — Palestine. The birth-place of Ahithophel, the
counsellor of David.
Goath, Valley of. Between Jerusalem and Mount Car
mel, and declared to be holy unto the Lord forever.
Gog. — Russia. A colony of Japheth.
Golan — Palestine. A city of refuge.
Golgotha, or Calvary — Palestine.
Gomorrah — Palestine. One of the cities of the plain and
destroyed by fire from heaven.
Goshen — Palestine. Here Joshpa defeated the Canaanites.
Goshen — Egypt. Here Joseph received his brethren.
This land was exempted from the plagues which were in
flicted by the Almighty on other parts of Egypt.
Gozan — Persia. A place of captivity.
Great Sea — Mediterranean — Navigated by Paul.
Greece or Achaia. >
Gur — Palestine. At this place Jehu smote Ahaziah, after
which he fled to Megiddo and died.
Gur-Baal — Palestine. Uzziah smote the Arabians that
dwelt in this place.
Habor — Persia. Pul and Tiglath carried the Reubenites,
Gadites, and half tribe of Manasseh, captives to this place.
Halah — Russia. The Israelites were carried captive to
this place.
Ham, Land of. Includes the whole of Africa, Arabia, and
part of Persia.
Hamath. A kingdom of Syria.
Hamath — Palestine. Northern boundary.
Hammon-Gog — Palestine. Ezekiel prophesied that this
should be the burial-place of Gog and his multitude.
Hapharim — Arabia. A station of the Israelites.
Haran — Mesopotamia. Terah, Abram and family, re
sided here.
Ho.reth, Forest of — ^Palestine. Here Saul commanded his

382 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
servants to slay the priests of the Lord. They refusing,
Doeg the Edomite killed eighty-five of them.
Harod, Well of. Here the Midianites fell by the hand of
Gideon — the stratagem of lamps and pitchers.
Harosheth — Palestine. Sisera's vast army was defeated
here by Deborah and Barak. Jael slew him by driving a
nail through his head.
Havilah — Turkey. A part of the land of Eden.
Hazerim — Arabia. The dwelHng-place of the Avims.
Hazeroth — Arabia. A station of the Israelites. Here
Miriam was struck with leprosy.
Hazor — Syria. The tent of Jael was near here.
Hebron — Palestine. A city of refuge. Here Sarah died.
Here Joab killed Abner, and David wept over his grave.
Hebron, Vale of — Palestine. Here Joseph was thrown
into the pit.
Helam — Palestine. At this place David conquered the
Syrians. Helbah — Palestine. The Canaanites were never expeUed
from this place.
Helbon — Syria. Celebrated for its wine and white-wood.
Helkath — Palestine. Here twelve vaHant men of Ish
bosheth and David slew each other.
Hepher — Palestine. The king of this place was taken by
Joshua. Heres, Mount — Palestine. The Amorites kept possession
of this place in despite of the IsraeHtes.
JTesASoM— -Palestine. A city of the Amorites taken by
Joshua. The fish-pool was here.
Hiddekel, River. One of the rivers of Paradise.
Hierapolis — Turkey.
Hill Country — Palestine. The city of Hebron was here.
Hinnom, Valley qf— Palestine. Jeremiah declared that
it should be called the Valley of Slaughter, because the Jew
ish parents ofi'ered children in sacrifice to Moloch in this
place.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 383
Hobah — Syria. At this place Abram gained a victory
over Chedorlaomer and his alHes.
Hor Mount, or Seir — Arabia. Here Aaron, after being
stripped of his priestly robes by Moses, died and was buried.
Horeb — Arabia. Here God commanded Moses to strike
the rock to supply the Israelites with water.
Hormah, or Zephath — ^Palestine. Here the Israelites were
smitten by the AmalekHes and Canaanites.
Hukok — Palestine. A Levitical city.
Hur — Palestine. Smitten by the Israelites under Moses.
TSZeaTO— Palestine. A city of the Levites.
Iconium — AnadoHa. In the province of Lycaonia. Here
St. Paul preached in the synagogue.
Idumea, or Edom — Arabia. The Greek name of Edom.
This place was denounced by Isaiah. From this place a
great multitude followed Christ.-
Ijon, or Ivon — Palestine. A fenced city, smitten by Ben
hadad king of Syria.
Illyricum — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached the gospel.
India — Hindoostan. So named from the river Indus.
Ish-toh — Syria. Here the Syrians came to help the chil
dren of Ammon.
Isles of the Gentiles. Islands in the Mediterranean.
Jabbok, River — Palestine. Sihon king of the Amorites
was defeated at this place.
Jabbok, Fords of — Palestine. At this place Jacob wrest
led with the angel and called the place Peniel.
Jabesh- Gilead — Palestine. Here Saul destroyed the Am
monites and afterward became the first king of Israel. Here
also the bodies of Saul and Jonathan were deposited.
Jabneh — Palestine. A strong city of the Philistines con
quered by Uzziah.
Jacob's Well — Palestine. Here Christ conversed with
the woman of Samaria.
Jahaz — Palestine. A city of the Levites. Sihon king of
the Amorites was defeated htre by Moses.

384 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Japhet — Asia. So called from one of the sons of Noah
who peopled the whole of Europe and part of Asia.
Japho, or Joppa — Palestine. The port at which materials
were received for the building of the temple.
Jazer — Palestine. Taken by the Israelites under Moses.
Jehoshaphat, Valley qf^-Palestine. This place is called
the King's Dale. Here Absalom set up a piUar. It was a
favourite cemetery of the Jews. *
Jehovah-jireh — Palestine. At this place Abraham was
about to offer up Isaac as a burnt-oflfering,, but the angel of
the Lord prevented him.
Jehovah-Nissi — Arabia. Here Moses erected an altar
and here Aaron and Hur held up his hands while he prayed.
Jehovah- Shalom — ^Palestine. Here the angel appeared
CO Gideon and brought fire out of the rock.
Jericho, or City of Palm-trees — Palestine. Here the
spies of Joshua were hid by the harlot Rahab.
Jericho, Plains of — Palestine. On the arrival of the Isra
eHtes at this place the manna ceased and they ate of the fruit
of the land of Canaan.
Jericho, Waters of — Palestine. The impurity of these
waters was removed by Elisha.
Jeruel, Wilderness qf— Palestine. Here the inhabitants of
Jerusalem overcame the combined forces of Ammon, Moab,
and Mount Seir.
Jerusalem, Salem, Jebus, or Ariel — Palestine. Supposed
to have been founded by Melchizedek. It was afterward
taken by the Jebusites who erected the fortress cahed Jebus,
on Mount Zion. David expelled them, and built the city of
David, and made it the seat of government. Here David
died and was buried.
Jezreel — Palestine. Near this place was Naboth's vine
yard. Jezreel, Valley or Plain of—Palestine. Here the Spirit of
the Lord descended upon Gideon, and he received a sign by
which the fieece was wet or dry at his bidding.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 385
Jogbehah — Syria. Here the army of Zebah and Zalmun-
na was overthrown by Gideon.
Joppa — Palestine. Here Jonah took ship for Tarshish.
Here Peter restored Tabitha to life.
Jordan, Plains of — Palestine. This was chosen by Lot
on his separation from Abraham.
Jordan, River. The principal river of Palestine — rises in
Mount Lebanon and empties into the Dead Sea. Our Lord
was baptized in its waters.
Judah, on Jordan — The bridge supposed to be Jacob's is
near this place.
Judah, Mountain of — Palestine. Hebron, a city of refuge,
stood on this mountain.
Judea — One of the grand divisions of Palestine in the
time of our Saviour, and of which Herod was tetrarch.
Judea, Wilderness of — Palestine. It was to this place
Jesus was led by the Spirit ; here he fasted forty days, and
was tempted by the devil.
Kadesh — Arabia. Here Miriam, the sister of Moses, died
and was buried.
Kadesh- Barnea — ^Arabia. Here the IsraeHtes encamped.
Kadesh-Merihah — Arabia. Here the rock gave water,
and Moses offended the Lord.
Keilah — Palestine. Here David smote the Philistines,
for robbing the threshing-floors of Keilah.
Kenath — Palestine. Taken from the Amorites by Nobah,
who afterwards called it by his own name.
Kidron, or Cedron, Brook of — Palestine. Shimei was
forbidden by Solomon to pass over this place, on pain of death.
Kidron, Fields of — ^Palestine. Here Hilkiah burned the
images and vessels of idolatry, by order of Josiah.
Kir-Hareseth — Syria. Here the Moabites were deceived
by the miraculous appearance of water. The king of Moab
offered his eldest son as a burnt-oflFering.
Kirjathaim — Palestine. The Emims, in this place, were
smitten by Chedorlaomer. 25

386 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Kirjath-arba — Palestine. Here Sarah, the -wife of Abra
ham, died.
Kirjath-huzoth — ^gyria. Here Balak brought Balaam,
to curse the people of God.
Kirjath-jearim — Palestine. The ark of the Lord was
brought from Abinadab's house, and Uzzah was struck dead
for touching it.
Kishen, Brook — Palestine. Here the prophets of Baal
were slain, by the order of Elijah.
Lachish — Palestine. Taken by Joshua, who smote Horam,
king of Gezer, who came to defend it.
Laish — Palestine. Here the children of Dan robbed Mi-
¦cah of his idols, and took his priest with them.
Lasea — Mediterranean. St. Paul sailed under this place,
in his voyage to Rome.
Laodicea — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached, and wrote
his First Epistle to Timothy.
Lebanon, Mountains of—Syria. Celebrated for its cedars.
Lebanon, Valley of — Palestine. Joshua destroyed all the
cities and inhabitants from Mount Halah unto this place.
Lebonah — Palestine. Near this place the Benjamites car
ried off the daughters of Shiloh.
Leshem — ^Palestine. Taken by the children of Dan, who
called it Dan-Laish.
Lycaonia — Turkey. A province of the Roman Empire,
in Asia, in the time of the apostles.
Lydda — Palestine. Here Peter cured Eneas of the palsy,
after he had kept his bed eight years.
Lydia — Turkey. A province of the Roman Empire.
Lystra — Turkey. Here Paul healed a cripple.
Maacha — Palestine. Here David defeated the Ammon
ites. Macedonia-r-Turkey. A pro\dnce of Greece, visited by
the Apostle Paul.
Machpelah, Pave qf— Palestine. The burial-place of Abra
ham and his wife Sarah.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 387
Madon — ^Palestine. The king of this place, with several
others, was destroyed by Joshua, at the waters of Me-
rom. Magdala — ^Palestine. Christ took shipping and sailed to
this place, after feeding five thousand miraculously.
Mahanaim — Palestine. So named by Jacob, after he
met the angels.
Mahaneh-Dan — Palestine. The birth-place of Samson.
Mamre, Plain of — Palestine. Here Abraham entertained
three angels, who revealed the destruction of Sodom. Here,
also, he received the promise of a son.
Manasseh, on this side Jordan.
Marah — Arabia. Here Moses sweetened the waters, by
throwing into them the branch of a tree.
Maralah — Palestine. Here Asa smote the Ethiopian,
who came out against him with a great army. Here, also,
the prophet Micah was born.
Mars' Hill — Turkey. Here was the court of the Areo-
pagites, and here Paul preached to the Athenians.
Massah, Rock of — Arabia. So caHed by Moses, after he
had smitten the rock, from whence water was obtained.
Mattanah — Palestine. Here the princes of the Israelites
dug a well, by the direction of Moses, with staves.
Meah, Tower o/— -Palestine. Rebuilt by EHashab, the
high-priest. Media — Persia. One of the countries of the Bible.
Megiddo — Palestine. One of the purveyorships of Solo
mon. Melita — Malta. An island in the Mediterranean, where
St. Paul was shipwrecked.
Memphis — ^Egypt. The residence of the kings of Egypt.
Merom, Waters of— Palestine. Here divers kings were
overcome by Joshua.
Meroz — Palestine. The inhabitants cursed.
Michmash — ^Palestine. Here Samuel announced to Saul
that his kingdom should not be continued to him.

388 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Midian — ^Arabia. Moses fled to this place and married
an Egyptian woman, named Zipporah.
Miletus — Turkey. Visited by Paul, on his way to Jeru
salem. Millo, House of. Built by Solomon, in the city of Jeru
salem. Here the men of Shechem made Abimelech king.
Mitylene — ^Asia. Visited by Paul, on his way to Jerusalem.
Mizpeh — Palestine. Here Jephthah made his rash vow.
Mizpeh, of Moab — Palestine. David came to this place
with the four hundred men who joined themselves to him
at the cave of Adullam.
Mizpeh, or Stone of — Palestine. Set up by Samuel.
Mizraim — Egypt, or land of Ham.
Moab — Palestine. Taken by Sihon, king of the Amorites.
Moab, Plains of — Palestine. From thence Balak first
sent for Balaam.
Moreh, Vale of. Abram passed through this place, on
his way to Bethel.
Moriah, Land of — Palestine. The country to which Abra
ham was commanded to take his son, and offer him on a
mountain, which was to be shown him.
Moriah, Mount. Palestine. Here was the threshing-
floor of Oman. Here the Lord accepted the sacrifice of
David, and stayed the hand of the destroying angel. Here
Solomon erected the temple.
Myra — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul.
Nahor, City of-— Algezira. To this place Abraham sent
his servant, to get a wife for his son Isaac.
Nain — Palestine. Near the gate of this city Christ raised
the widow's son to life.
Nazareth — Palestine. This was the dwelHng-place of our
Saviour until he was thirty years of age. Here the Jews
threatened to cast him from the brow of the hill.
Neapolis—Tmkey. Visited by St. Paul.
Nebo, il/bMn.«— Palestine. From this mount Moses had
a view of the promised land. Here he died.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 389
Nicopolis— Turkey. From this place St. Paul wrote his
Epistle to Titus.
Nimrod, Kingdom of—Turkey. The first kmgdom on
record ; estabhshed by a son of Cush.
Nineveh — Turkey. A city buUt by Asshur. The inhabi
tants, repenting at the preaching of Jonah, were saved.
No — A celebrated city of Egypt.
Nob — Palestine. This city, and its priests, were' destroyed
by Saul.
Nod, Land of — Persia. Cain fled to this place, after the
murder of his brother.
Og, Kingdom of — Palestine. Subdued by Joshua.
Olives, Mount of, or Mount Olivet — Palestine. From this
place our Lord made his triumphant entry into Jerusalem.
Ophir — India. From this place Solomon obtained his
gold. Ophrah — Palestine. Here an angel appeared to Gi
deon. Oreb, Rock qf — Palestine. The rock on which two princes
of the Midianites were slain, by order of Gideon.
Padan-Aram — Turkey. The country of Nahor, Abram,
Isaac, and Jacob.
Palestine — Turkey. The name of the country formerly
occupied by the Phihstines ; now the Holy Land.
Pamphylia — Turkey. Here Paul and Barnabas parted.
Paphos — Syria. Here Elymas, the sorcerer, was struck
blind, at the word of Paul.
Par an. Wilderness qf— Arabia. The dwelling-place of
Ishmael. Parvaim — Persia. From this place gold was carried for
the ornaments' of the temple.
Patara — Turkey. St. Paul touched here, on his way
to Phoenicia.
Patmos, Isle qf— Archipelago. Here the Apostle John
was banished, and here he had his revelation, which closed
the canon of Scripture.

390 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Peor, Mount — Palestine. On this mount Balaam pro
nounced a blessing upon Israel.
Perea — Palestine. A province of the Roman Empire, in
the time of Christ.
Perez -Uzzah — Palestine. So named' from the judgment
infiicted on Uzzah.
Perga — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul.
Pergamos — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia.
Pethor — Turkey. The dwelling-place of Balaam.
Pharpar, River — A river in Syria.
Phoenicia — Palestine. Here Paul and Barnabas preached.
Phenice — Levant. A port in the island of Crete, where
St. Paul encountered the Euroclydon, and was shipwrecked.
Philadelphia. — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of
Asia. Philippi — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul, and from whence
he wrote his epistles to the Corinthians.
Phrygia — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul.
Pirathon — ^Palestine. Here Abdon, one of the judges of
Israel, died and was buried.
Pisgah, Mount. The highest peak of Mount Nebo, where
Moses had a 'view of the promised land.
Pisidia — Turkey. Visited by St. Paul.
Pison, River — Persia. The ih-st river of Paradise.
Pithom — Egypt. A city buUt by the IsraeHtes, under
their task-masters.
Plain, Sea of the — ^Palestine. The Dead Sea.
Pontus — Turkey.
Potter's Field — Palestine. The burial-place of strangers
in Jerusalem.
Ptolemais — Palestine. The Canaanites were never ex
peUed from this place. Here Paul sojourned, at the house
of Phihp.
Puteoli — Italy. St. Paul stopped here seven days, on his
voyage to Rome.
Rabbah — Palestine. Besieged by Joab.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 391
Rachel's Tomb — Palestine. A piUar was erected here
over Rachel's grave by Jacob,
Rahah — Egypt.
Ramah or Arimathea.
Ramah — Palestine. Between this place and Bethel the
prophetess Deborah dwelt under a palm-tree.
Ramath-Lehi-r-V^^e&trae. Here Samson slew one thou
sand PhUistines.
Rameses — Egypt. A city buUt by the IsraeHtes, in
bondage. Ramoth-Gilead — ^Palestine. A city of refuge. At the
instigation of false prophets, Jehoshaphat and Ahab went
up against this place, and the latter was slain.
Red Sea — Arabia. The chUdren of Israel crossed this on
dry ground. The Egyptians following them were drowned.
Rehob — Palestine. The spies sent by Joshua searched
the land from the Wilderness of Zin to this place.
Rehob, Kingdom of — Syria. The inhabitants of this
place were smitten by the Israelites under Joab.
Rehoboth — A city built by Asshur in Turkey.
Rehohoth, Well of — Palestine. A weU dug by the herd-
men of Isaac after their contention with the herdmen of Gerar.
Rephidim — Arabia. At this place the Israelites defeated
the Amalekites.
Rhegium — Italy. Paul touched here on his way to Rome.
Rimmon, Rock of — Palestine. Here six hundred Benjam
ites hid themselves in caves for four months from the fury of
the IsraeHtes.
Rogelim — Syria. BarziUai came down fi-om this place
and went over the Jordan with David.
Rome — Italy. Here Paul dwelt two years, and here he
wrote Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, PhiUppians, Co
lossians, PhUemon, and the Second Epistle to Timothy.
Salamis — Syria. Here Paul preached in the synagogues.
Salcah — Palestine.. A country of giants conquered by
the IsraeHtes under Moses.

392 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Salem — Palestine. Here Jacob purchased a portion of
land, pitched his tents and built an altar. Near this place
John baptized.
SalmMne — Candia. Passed by Paul, on his way to
Rome. Salt, Valley of — Syria. Here Amaziah slew ten thousand
Edomites. Samaria — Palestine. BuUt by Omri. Ahab was buried
here. Samaria, Hill of. Purchased by Omri, who buUt a city
thereon. Samaria, Pool of — Palestine. Here Naboth was stoned
by a stratagem of Jezebel wife of Ahab, and here the dogs
Hcked her blood.
/Samos— Archipelago. Touched at by Paul.
Samothracia — Archipelago. Visited by Paul.
Sardis — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia.
Sechu, Well qf — Palestine. Saul sent to this place for
Samuel and David. (1 Sam. xix, 22.)
Seir, Land of — Syria. To this place Jacob sent messen
gers to propitiate his brother Esau.
Seir, Mount — Palestine. Given to Esau for a possession.
Seirath — Palestine. Ehud fled here after killing Eglon.
Selah — Arabia. . Here Amaziah slew those servants who
had slain Joash, his father.
Seleucia — Syria. Paul and Barnabas came to this place
immediately after they were sent to preach the gospel to the
Gentiles. Seneh, Rock of — Palestine. Seneh and Bozez are the two
rocks forming- the passes of Michmash where Jonathan mi
raculously defeated the Philistines.
Sheba — Arabia. The queen of this country ha'Wng heard
of Solomon's wisdom, came to prove him -with hard questions.
Shebarim — Palestine. The Israelites were driven to this
place by the men of Ai.
Shechem — Palestine. Here Joshua made a covenant with

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 393
the chUdren of Israel and set up a great stone as a witness
unto them. This was the last pubhc act of his Hfe.
Shem — Persia. Peopled by the descendants of Shem.
Shiloh — ^Palestine. The tabernacle was set up at this
place. Shinar, Land qf— Turkey. Part of the kingdom of Nim
rod. Shittim, Valley qf— Palestine. A place of captivity.
Shunem — Palestine. At this place Elisha and his ser
vant were entertained by a woman who had a chamber built
for him. The prophet promised her a son, whom he after
ward restored to life.
Shushan — Persia. The winter residence of the Persian
monarchs, and the place where Daniel prophesied.
Sidon — Palestine. Founded by the eldest son of Canaan.
Sihon, Kingdom of — ^Palestine. Conquered by the Isra
elites. Sihor, or Nile. The great river of Egjrpt.
Siloam, Pool qf^-Palestine. A blind man washed in this
pool and was restored to sight.
Siloam, Tower of — Palestine. Eighteen persons were
kiUed by the falHng of this tower.
Sin, Wilderness of — Arabia. At this plac,e the Israelites
murmured for bread, and manna and quails were given them.
Sinai, Mount — Arabia. The Lord descended in a cloud
upon this mount and gave Moses the law of the Ten Com
mandments. Sirah, Well of — Palestine. Joab sent messengers to this
place after Abner.
Smyrna — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia.
Sodom — Palestine. Here Lot dwelt and entertained the
angels, who warned him to flee from it.
Sorek, Valley of — Palestine. At this place Samson abode
with DelUah, and here she betrayed him;
Succoth — Egypt. Jacob built him a house and Hved here
for a time.

394 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Syracuse — Naples. At this city Paul tarried three days
on his way to Rome.
Tabbath — Pafestine. Here the Midianites were defeated
by Gideon.
Taberah — Arabia. The fire of the Lord burned here
upon the Israelites for their complaining against him.
Tabor, Plain of — Here Saul's heart was changed and he
was numbered among the prophets.
Tabor, Mount — Palestine. Here Barak and Deborah as
sembled ten thousand men against Sisera and defeated his host.
Tadmor in the Wilderness — Syria. A city built by Sol
omon. Tarshish — Spain. The most celebrated port in the time
of Solomon from whence ships traded to all the then known
parts of the world.
Tarsus — Turkey. The birth-place of St. Paul.
Taverns, The Three — Italy. To this place the brethren
came to meet Paul when he was on his way to Rome.
Tekoa, Wilderness of — Palestine. Here Jehoshaphat as
sembled his army previous to battle.
Telabib — Turkey. Here the spirit of prophecy was given
to Ezekiel.
Telaim — Palestine. Saul was sent by Samuel to this place,
to utterly destroy the Amalekites ; but sparing Agag their
king and the best of the cattle, he was I'ejected of the Lord.
Teman, Idumea, or Edom.
TAcJes^Palestine. From a tower of this city a woman
dropped a stone upon the head of Abimelech, after which
he was slain at his own request by his armour-bearer.
Thessalonica — Turkey. Here St. Paul preached in the
synagogue of the Jews.
Thyatira — Turkey. One of the seven Churches of Asia.
Tiberias, Sea qf— Palestine. On the shores of this sea
Christ wrought many miracles,
Timnath — Palestine. Here Samson chose his wife and
kiUed a lion.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 395
Timnath-Serah — Palestme. The inheritance of Joshua,
and here he was buried.
Tiphsah — Turkey. This city was despoUed by Menahem,
and wanton cruelty was inflicted upon the women.
Tirzah — Palestine. A royal city, and some time the seat
of govemment.Tabor — Palestine. The residence of Jephthah. Here
Christ was transfigured.
Tophet — Palestine. Places of idol worship were erected
here by the childreii of Judah.
Troas — Turkey. Here the brethren waited for Paul, and
here he celebrated the Lord's supper with them.
Trogyllium — Turkey. Here Paul tarried on his way to
Jerusalem. Ulai — Persia. Here Daniel saw the vision of a ram -with
two horns.
Ur of the Chaldeans — Turkey. The primitive abode of
.Terah, Abram, Nahor, and Haran.
Uz, Land of — Syria. The country of Job, a wealthy prince
of Arabia Petrsea. '
Valley-gate — Palestine. Uzziah built towers near this gate.
Vineyards, Plain of — Palestine. Near this place the
daughter of Jephthah came to meet her father.
Water-gate — Palestine. Here the people gathered to
gether and requested Ezra to bring out the Book of the Law
of Moses, which he read distinctly, gave the sense, and caused
them to understand its meaning.
Zair, or Seir — Syria. Here Joram smote the Edomites.
Zalmon, Mount — Palestine. Here Abimelech cut wood,
with which he burned the tower of Shechem and one thou
sand men and women.
Zanoah — Syria. The inhabitants of this place repaired the
valley-gate of Jerusalem together with the wall and dung-gates.
Zarephath — Palestine. To this place Elijah was com
manded to go to a woman who would support him. Here
he restored the meal and oil.

396 MANUAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
Zaretan — Palestine. Near this place the IsraeHtes crossed
the Red Sea. Hiram king of Tyre caused the immense brass
piHars for Solomon's Temple to be cast between this place
and Succoth.
Zeboiim — ^Palestine. A, city of the plain destroyed by fire
from heaven.
Zeboiim, Vale of — Palestine. At this place the IsraeHtes
were obliged to go down to the Philistines to sharpen their
axes, coulters, and mattocks.
Zelah — Palestine. Here was the sepulchre of Kish, in
which the bones of Saul and Jonathan were finaUy deposited.
Zelzah — Palestine. Rachel's sepulchre was near this place.
Here also Saul was anointed by Samuel.
Zephathah — Palestine. Here Asa king of Israel overcame
the vast army of the Ethiopians under Zerah, which consisted
of one miUion soldiers and three hundred chariots.
Zereda — Arabia. The birth-place of Jeroboam.
Ziklag — Palestine. A city given by Achish king of Gath ,
to David.
Zion — Palestine. Taken by David from the Jebusites.
Ziph, Wilderness of — David fled from Saul to this place,
and Jonathan comforted him.
Zoar — Palestine. A city in the .vale of Siddim, to which
Lot retired by the permission of the Lord previous to the
destruction of Sodom.
Zobah — Syria. Saul made war against this country.
Zoheleth, Stone of — Palestine. Here Adonijah conspired
against David and usurped the kingdom.
Zophim, Fields of — Palestine. One of the three places
where Balak caused seven altars to be erected, and brought
Balaam to curse Israel.

INDEX.

Abstract Words  Page 66
Acts ofthe Apostles  325
Affections, Characteristics of Spiritual  97
 , Carnal  98
Agriculture  ,  139
 , Instruments of.  140
Allegory  38
Allegories  84
Altar  224
 of Incense  226
Amos  309
Analogy of Faith  60
 of Languages  74
 , Grammatical  74
 , Scriptural  79
Analysis, Biblical  110
 of Epistle to the Corinthians  Ill
 of Epistle to the Ephesians  116
 , Eules of  115
Animals  136
Antithesis  65
Archijeology, Biblical... .,  122
—, — , Domestic  124
Ark of the Cgvenant  226
Arts, origin of  161
Asses  136
Autographs, Evangelists' and Apostles', not extant  32
Bees  149
Bible, a book of facts  '.  16
 , adaptation to every grade of intellect  13

398 INDEX.
Bible, classification of facts of the  Page 17
 , English translation of the  .-  24
 , inspiration, authenticity, and genuineness of the  13
 , its prophecies  17
 , its truth attested by the physical and moral world  16
 , its monuments and testimonial signs  17
 , introductions to the study of, history of  18
 , inexhaustible nature ofthe  14
 , not inconsistent with reason...'  16
 , number of books of, and where -written  16
 , order in the study of the  14
 , original languages ofthe  23
 , spirit and letter ofthe  ,  18
 , style of composition ofthe  17
 , translations of the  ;  23
 , unerring guide in all matters of faith and practice  14
Book of Chronicles  294
Book of Kings  292
Book of Samuel  290
Brazen Laver.  224
Burials  171
Camels  137
Canaanites and neighbouring nations  265
Catachresis  76
Character of ancient wars  206
Chronology, Biblical  342
Cisterns..  133
Cities  132
Clothing  166
Colossians, Epistle to  '.  332
Commerce  ,. ... 165
Concrete words  , 66
Conquered nations  205
Corinthians, Epistle to  328
Criticism, Biblical objects of  .'  36
 , first writer on Biblical  39
 , twofold  39
Daniel, Book of.  307
Death;  171
Deuteronomy, Book of  286

INDEX. 399
Discrepancies, apparent, means of harmonizing  Page 104
 between the writers of the Old and New Testaments  106
 , doctrinal  104
 ,, historical  104
Diseases  168
Doctrinal Books  327
Dogs..  138
Dwellings  124
Dynasties of China aud India  342
Ecclesiastes, Book of.  302
Egyptians  260
Emphasis, occasional or constant  65
 , rules iu regard to  «  86
 , what  64
Encampments  202
Ephesians, Epistle to  381
Epistle to Romans  327
Epistolary Books  '.  337
Esther, Book of.  297
Essenes, doctrines of  218
Ethnography, Biblical  7. 247
Exegesis consists of two parts  56
 , definition of Biblical  65
 , importance of  '.  66
Exodus, Book of.  283
Ezekiel, Book of  306
Ezra, Book of.  295
Fallow Year  160
Feasts  168
Festivals  241
Fifth ageof the world  354
First age of the world  349
Firstborn  •'  243
Firstfruits  243
First races of mankind  247
Fish  150
Flocks  134

Food..

158

Fourth age of the "vrorld  361
Fountains..  1^^
Francke, Professor, mode of studying the Greek language  33

400 INDEX.
Franek^'s mode of studying the Hebrew language  Page 35
Furniture, household  131
Future  214
Galatians, Epistle to  330
Gardens  .. 146
Geography, Biblical  363
Gejlogy  344
Glossarium  71
Golden Candlestick  224
Grain, different kinds of.  140
Greek, common dialect of.  31
 , dialects of.  31
 Fathers  79
 , language of New Testament  31
 , language of literature in Egypt, Greece, and Syria  32
Habakkuk, Book of  312
Haggai, Book of.  314
Harvest  141
Hebrews, Epistle to  335
Hebrew, first medium of a written revelation  28
 idiom  78
 , most ancient of Oriental languages  25
 , language of Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage..  28
 , vernacular to what countries  25
Hebrews, social condition of.-.  165
Hellenists  219
Hieroglyphics of Egypt  343
History, Biblical  281
Historical Books ofthe Old Testament  282
Holy of Holies  226
Honey  149
Horses  138
Hosea, Book of  308
Houses  126
Hunting  138
Hypallage  76
Hyperbole  76
Inspired writers, affections of  89
Interpretation in general  65
 , most imnortant and difdcult task of a theologian  55

INDEX. 401
Interpretation, rules of  Page 66
 , what it requires  66
Isaiah, Book of  303
James, General Epistle of  337
Jeremiah, Book of.  305
Jewish nation  254
Jews, number of  29
 preserved the Bible in their captivity in Babylon  30
Job, Book of  298
Joel, Book of.  309
John, Gospel of  322
.John, Epistle of  339
Jonah, Book of.  ;  311
Joshua, Book of.  287
Judaism, propagation of  216
Jude, Epistle of  340
Judges, Book of  ,  288
Kings  182
Lamentations, Book of  306
Language, Aramean or Syrian  25
 , Chaldee  25
 , Greek  31
 , Hebrew, most ancient  26
 , rules to be observed in the stiidy of a  36
 , tropical  81
Leviticus  284
Luke, Gospel of  320
Malachi, Book of  315
Mark, Gospel of  318
Matthew, Gospel of.  ¦  31 6
Meaning of words  66
M'Clintock, First and Second Book in Greek  38
Micah, Book of  ¦  311
Military affairs  195
 fortifications  198
 standards  ¦  203
 sieges  206
Mourning  ¦  1^1
26

402 INDEX.
Nahum, Book of  '.  Page 312
Nehemiah, Book of  296
New moons  ,  237
New Testament, Hebrew characteristics of  .'... 31
 , usus loquendi of.  77
Numbers, Book of.  286
Oaths  ;  244
Obadiah, Book of  310
Origen, Biblia Enneapla of.  40
 , Biblia Hexapla of  39
 , Biblia Octapla of  40
Ox  136

Palestine, climate of.  363
Palmyrene, inscriptions on bricks of Babylon  28
 , Hebrew character descended from  28
Parallelism, verbal and real  08
Passover  237
Pastures  [  133
Pentecost  288
Peter, Epistles of  237
Pharisees, doctrines of.  216
Philemon, Epistle to  335
Philippians, Epistle to  ,  331
Philology, Biblical, what  23
 , importance of.  23
Poetical Books  298
Political Archaeology.  176
Prayers  245
Proselytes  *  219
Prophetical Books  1  303
Proverbs, Book of.  301
Psalms, Book of.  .'   299
Punishments  .•  188
Rabbinical style of writing  28
Readings, certainly genuine  62
•  , Concurrence of ancient versions sufBcient to establish
right..;  61
 , conjectural  52
 , controverted texts  i  54

INDEX. 403
Readings, evidence by which they may be examined  Page 41
 , kinds of false  47
 , principles by which to determine false  44
 , probably genuine  61
 , rules of judging concerning various  49
 , sources of false  42
 , various, nature of  41
 , various  49
 , what constitutes various  42
 , what improperly called various  41
Revelation of St. John the Divine  340
Romans, Epistle to  327
Ruth, Book of...;  ?  289
Sabbath  236
SabBatic year  236
Sacred Archaeology  209
Sacred oil  244
Sacred Places  221
Sacrifices  241
Sadducees, doctrines ofthe  217
Samaritans  220
Scholia  71
Sciences  164
Scriptures, additions and interpolations in transcribing  47
 , most ancient copies written on papyrus  32
 preserved by transcriptions  40
Second age of the world  349
Seventh age ofthe world  360
Shepherds  132
Sixth age of the world  357
Society, state of domestic  160
Song of Solomon  302
State, ofBoers of  ,  182
Sports, gymnastic  200
Spoils  207
Synagogues  233
Tabernacle  222
Tabernacles  124
 , feast of.  239
Table of shew-bread  225

404 INDEX.
Tefft, Professor, plan for studying the Greek language. ..Page 36
Temple of Solomon  :  227
Tents  125
Testament, New, corrected from the Greek version of the Old.. 46
 , sometimes iu conformity with Vulgate  46
Text-books, for study of the Hebrew and Greek  38
Thessalonians, Epistle to  332
Third age of the world  ,  360
Threshing-fioor  142
Timothy, Epistle to  333
Tithes  244
Titus, Epistle to  334
Towns  ?.  132
Trees  145
Trials  188
Usus loquendi  67
Villages  132
Vines  143
Vineyards  143
Vows  -.  245
War  203
 , character of ancient  206
Words, causes of doubtful meaning of  67
 , grammatico-historical  69
 , how to find meaning of  67
 , literal sense of  66
 , meaning of.  56
 , proper and tropical  62
 , typicalsense of.  68
Writers, inspired, affections of.  89
Year of Jubilee  236
Zechariah, Book of.  314
Zephaniah, Book of  313
Zerubbabel, Temple of  ,  230

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more. It contains also more than three hundred of the most popular old
and new tunes in print, and is offered at a very low price for a book of its
cost, in the hope that it may be generally adopted.
Autobiography of Peter Cartwright.
Edited by W. P. Strickland.
12mo., pp.525. Muslin  $100
This il one of the most interesting autobiographies of the age. The
s&le of this remarkable book has averaged two thousand copies per month
since its appearance. Thirty-two thousand have been printed, and stil.
the orders come. It is useless to add anything by way of commendation.
The people mil have it, and we are prepared to supply, the continued
demand.
What must I do to he Saved?
By Jesse T. Peck, D.D.
18mo., pp. 192. Price  $0 36
A new revival book, written by req^uest, designed to awaken the sinner,
suide the penitentto Christ, and establish the young convert.

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CARLTON & PORTER,
200 Mulberry-Street, New York.
Harmony of Bivine Dispensations.
Harmony of the Divine Dispensations, Being a Series of Dis
courses on Select Portions of Holy Scripture, designed to show
the Spirituality, Efficacy, and Harmony of the Divine Revelations
made to Mankind from the Beginning. With Notes, Critical,
Historical, and Explanatory. By George Smith, E. A. S.,
Member of the Royal Asiatic Society, of the Royal Society of
Literature, Fellow of the Genealogical and Historical Society,
etc., etc. Svo., pp. 319. Sheep  $1 60
 Half calf  ;  2 00
This is a new work, being reprinted from the London edition to corre
spond with the "Patriarchal Age," "Hebrew People," and "Gentile
Nations," by the same distinguished author. It will be sold in connection
with the others, or separately. It is a profound work, and will have i.
large sale.
lady Huntingdon Portrayed.
Including Brief Sketches of some of her Friends and Co-laborers.
By the Author of " The Missionary Teacher," " Sketches of Mis
sion Life," etc.
Large 16mo., pp. 319. Muslin  $0 73
_  Morocco  1 75
Hihbard on the Psalms.
The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, with Historical Intro
ductions, and a General Introduction to the whole Book. By
F. G. Hibbard.
8vo., pp. 589. Muslin  $2 00
 Half Morocco...  2 50
 Morocco  5 00
This book occupies an important place in Biblical interpretation, and
is a valuable contribution to Biblical literature.
The Object of Life:
A Narrative Illustrating the Insufficiency of the World, and the
Sufficiency of Christ. With four Illustrations.
large 16mo., pp. 357. Price  $0 75
 '¦  Morocco  175

The Living Way;

Or, Suggestions and Counsels concerning some of the Privileges
»nd Duties of the Christian Life. By Rev. John Atkinson.
16mo., pp. 139. Price  $0 40

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CARLTON & PORTER,
200 Mulberry-street, Hew York.
Ministering Children.
A Story showing how even a Child may be as a Ministering Angel
cf Love to the Poor and Sorrowful.
large 16mo., pp. 542. Price  $0 90
 '-  ¦  Illustrated edition, gilt edges...- 1 25
 ¦  Morocco, gilt  2 00
This is one of the most moving narrations in the whole list of our pub
lications. Its sale in England has reached Foktt Thousahd copies. The
illustrated edition contains more than a dozen superb cuts on plate paper.
Life in the Itinerancy;
In its Relation to the Circuit and Station, and to the Minister's
Home and Family.
12mo,, pp. 335. Price  ••  $1 00
Life in the Laity;
Or, the History of a Station. By Rev. L. D. Davis, Author of
" Life in the Itinerancy."
16mo., pp. 200. Price  $0 50
Chart of Life.
By Rev. James Porter, D.D.
12mo., pp. 259. Price  $0 60
The design of this book is to indicate the dangers and securities con
nected with the voyage of life, all which are accurately and admirably
iescribed.
Heroines of Methodism ;
Or, Pen and Ink Sketches of the Mothers and Daughters of the
Church. By Rev. Geokge Coles.
12mo., pp. 336. Price  $0 90
Heroes of Methodism.
Containing Sketches of Eminent Methodist Ministers, and Char
acteristic Anecdotes of their Personal History. By Rev. J. B.
Wakeley. With Portraits of Bishops Asbury, Coke, and
M'Kendree. 12mo., pp. 470. Price  $1 00
 Morocco  2 00
Life-like and interesting sketches of early Methodist preachers, their
toils hardships, and achievements, interspersed with anecdotes lively
and entertaining.

NEW BOOKS,
PUBLISHED BY CARLTON AND PORTER,
200 Mulberry-street, New- York.
rOR SALE Also BT J. P. KAGEE, 5 CORNHILL, BOSTON, AND
H.H. ons, SENECA-STliEET, BUITALO. '
GIFT AND LIBRARY BOOKS. Square Form.
EYERY-DAT BOOK FOR BOYS AND GIRLS.
Harry Budd.
iH various styles of bvnding., at prices from 50 cents upward.
This is decidedly the best book of its class we Jiave ever read. The Orphan's
story has nothing of the marvelous in it, yet it is so conducted as to impress —
indelibly impress — the most instructive lessons of religion— true evangelical
Eiety in its most delightful form — 6n the heart and conscience ; so to direct the
fe and secure the great end of our being; so to worship and serve G-od, aa to
obtain his favor here and eternal life at his hand in the world which is to come.
— Dr. Bond, JEdMor Ch/risHan Ad/vocate a/nd Jmtrnal.
Pictorial Catechism.
Pictorial Catechism, mnslin, 55 cents ; gilt, 70 cents.
Pictorial Gatherings.
Pictorial Gatherings, muslin, SO cents ; gilt, 65 cents.
Child's Sabbath-Day Book.
Child's Sahhath-Day Book, paper covers, 20 cents ; muslin, 25 cents.
Little Frank Harley.
Little Frank Harley, paper covers, 20 cents.
The Great Journey.
The Great Journey, mnslin, 35 cents.
Here and There.
Here and There, paper covers, 15 cents.
Childhood; or, Little Alice.
Childkood ; or, Little Alice, 37 cents.

A String of Pearls.

A String of Pearls. Bmhracing a Scripture Verse and Pious Refle»
tions for Every Day in the Year, 30 cents.
Henry's Birthday.
Henry's Birthday ; or. Beginning to be a Missionary, 35 cents

NEW BOOKS,
PUBLISHED BY CARLTON AND PORTER,
200 Mulberry-street, New-York.

rOR SALE ALSO BT J. P. IIAGEE, 5 CORNHILL, BOSTON, AND
H.H.OTIS, SENECA-STREET, BUPPALO.
The Life and Times of Bishop Hedding.
Life and Times of Rev. Elijah. Hedding, D. D., late Senior Bishop of
the Methodist Episcopal Church. By Rev. D. W. Claek, D. D.
With an Introduction, by Rev. Bishop E. S. Janes. Pp. 686. Price,
large 12mo., $1 50 ; 8vo., $2 00.
A memoir of the llev. Dr. Hiding, late senior bishop of the Methodist Church,
has been prepared by the Rev. Dr. Clark, which is published in a handsome
volume. It professes to portray the life and times of this venerable man, and
involves almost the entire history of this denomination, at least for some thirty
years past. In the controversies and vicissitudes of the denomination during
this jieriod, Bishop Hedding took always a prominent part, giving the character
istic form and policy to the issue. He was evidently a man of great energy and
power, and possessed those personal qualities which make fast friends and gave
him a preponderating influence in the Church of which he was so long bishop.
The religious traits of his character were prominent as well as peculiar. Tho
memoir is composed with great beauty of style and affection ateness of feeling :
and altogether it will be regarded by the denomination as a welcome and
instructive work. — New -York Evangelist.
We have received a copy of this work, which presents, mechanically, an
elegant- appearance. We have not yet found time for its perusal, but when wo
do, we shall speak more minutely of it. The name of Bishop Hedding linger;-
in the memory of the Church like thejragrance of a rose after its beauty hath
departed, and is cherished with a filial fondness, while that of the talented
author is a surety that his onerous but honorable task is well performed. This
Dtjok must have a large and ready sale. — North- Westem Christian Advocate.
Life of Rev. Robert Newton,
The Life of Rev. Robert Newton, D. D., by Thomas Jackson, em
bellished with a fine portrait. 12mo., pp. 427. Price, $1 00.
rhisvolumeisdestinedtohaveagreatrun. Although it has been published in
London but a few weeks, sixteen thousand copies have already been sold.
Temporal Power of the Pope.
The Temporal Power of the Pope : containing the Speech of the Hon
Joseph R. Chandler, delivered in the House of Representatives of
the United States, January 11, 1855. With Nine Letters, stating
the prevailing Roman Catholic Theory in the Langjiiage of Papal
Writers. By Johx M'Clintock, D.D. 12mo., pp. 154. Price, 45
cents.
A series of letters to the Hon. J. R. Chandler, stating the prevailing Roman
Catholic theory in the language of papal writers, forms the substaac^ of tliia
volume. They were prepared in reference to the speech of Mr. Chandler,
delivered at the last session of Congre.ss, and from the position and character of
the writitr, as well as from his modp of treating the subject, are eminently
deservingof public attention.— i^''. Y. Trihimf.
Carlton & Phillips, No. 200 Mulberry-street, New-York, have just issued a
neat duodecimo volume of one hundred and fifty-four pages, with the foregoing
title. It needs not tliat we say the work is a mo.st timely and niKSterly proJuc-
k\n^~ WcatKi-u Chrintlitii Adoocutt..

NEW BOOKS,
PUBLISHED BY CARLTON AND PORTER,
200 Mtilberry-street, New- York.
fOR SAIE ALSO BT J. P. MAGEE, 5 COENHILL, BOSTON, AND
H.H.OTIS, SENECA-STREET, BUFFALO.
Bishop Baker on the Discipline.
A Guide-Book in the Administration of the Discipline of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. By Osaioif C. Bakek, D. D. 12mo., pp. 253. Price,
60 cents.
We are glad this long-expected and much -desired book has at length made its ap
pearance. Since the first announcement that such|ft book was forthcoming, our
ministry have looked for it with no little degree oTimpatience as a sure aid tc
tiicir right and beneficial administration of Discipline, The title of this vpork, and
Che sonrce from "whence it was furnished, warranted such expectation. After a
careful perusal of the volume, we have no hesitancy in asserting that the most san
guine of those expectants will more than realize all they hoped for. We have hero
striking proof of that careful, patient investigation which precedes all the decisions
and productions of Bishop Baker. Our author has evidently made our '¦ excel
lent hook of Discipline" a subject of long and earnest study. For many years
he has been making note of the decisions given in annual and General Confer
ences by his able predecessors in office, on all difficult questions pertaining to our
denominational administration. This result of his labors is an invaluable boon
to onr ministry. No Methodist minister can well afford to be without it The
possession of this volume will save oxxspmrlor preachers a great amount of study.
much perplexity, and many troublesome errors. The clearness, conciseness, ami
evident correctness ofthis production are marvels of mentalinvestigation, acumen,
and discernment. — Zion''s ITerald.
The Yonng Man Advised.
The Young Man Advised : Illustrations and Confirmations of some of
the Chief Historical Facts of the Bible. By B. 0. Haven, D. 1). 12mo.,
pp. 329. Price, 75 cents.
Let uo one suppose that we have hero a book of commonplace counsels to the
young. The writer has seized upon some of the chief historical facts of the Bible,
from which he has drawn illustrations, which he commends to the study and in
struction of his readers, and thus in a new and most striking forra has conveyed
great practical truths which can hardly fail to make a deep impression upon the
youthful mind. He displays no slight degree of research in his own studies, and
the whole is clothed with such historical beauty as will charm while his words
will instruct the student — ^ew-York Observer.
This book differs from all others we have ever seen addressed to this class of
readers. It plods not o'er the old beaten track of the numerous volumes bearing
similar titles. Its design is to fortify the young against the assault" of infldtility,
never perhaps more generally, more craftily, or more insidiously made than now.
In prosecuting this design it presents the greatest leading facts of the Bible, con-
(irming them by the most conclusive evidence, historical and philosophical,
(iri.ving beyond all controversy the .superhuman, the divine origin of the Word
.'if Ood. This volume has none of that cold, stiff, dry argument which has char
acterized similar productions, repelling the young from their perusal. Dr.
Haven's method of defending the "book of books" has a novelty about It which
must hold the attention of every young man who commences the perusal of
bis work. His style and diction are of such a character as invest a powerfully
argumentative treatise with all the charms of a "well-told lale." If this book
does not sell extensively, and do immense good, the author is not at fault We
commend it to parents who would save their sous from moral wreck. Let pas
'OTs join issue with parents in scatterins this potent antagoni.=t to the ij»<''ielit»
of the times Zeta. — ZioiCfs tJi.'.i uiu.

*NEW BOOKS
PUBLISHED BY CARLTON & PORTER,
300 Mulberry-street, New York.
Six Steps to Honor.
Six Steps to Honor ; or, Great Xnitha TllTistrated. Square 12mo
Price, 65 cents.
Contents. First Step— Obedience. Second T-tip— Truthfulness. Third
Step— Honesty. Fourth Step — Kindness. Fifth Btep— Energy and Perse
verance. Sixth Step — Piety.
Beautifully illustrated with six engravings. It is designed as a gift-book for
the holidays, and should be read by all the boys in the land, as it contains
truths and suggestions which, if rightly followed out, will be the means of
making them good and useftil men.
Henry's birthday;
Or, Beginning to be a Missionary. A new Gift-Book, beautiftillj
illnstrated. Square 12mo. Price, 35 cents.

A Winter at Wood Lawn.

A Winter at Wood Lawn; or, the Armor of Light Illustrated. Square
12mo. Price, muslin, 65 cents.
This charming volume is intended as a gift-book for boys and girls between
the ages of eleven and fifteen. In a series of interesting conversations con
cerning the armor of the Christian, which are relieved by lively incidents, it
imparts many valuable religious lessons, and communicates many important
feicts. It is elegantly and profusely illustrateji.
Boys and Girls' Illustrated Olio.
Square Svo. Price, muslin, 70 cents.
This is literally a picture-book, for it contains one hundred illusteations.
A more elegantly illustrated gift-book, for boys and girls between the ages of
nine and fourteen, will not, we feel sure, be issued in this country. Its read
ing matter is instructive and unexceptionable.

Faithful Nicolette.

Faithful Nicolette ; or, the French Nurse. 18mo. Price, muslin,
27 cents.
This Is a charmingly written little book, translated from the German by Mrs.
Myers. It illustrates the fidelity of a servant, the cheerful submission of two
lovely children to great trials, and the providence of God in caring for those
who trust in him. We shall be disappointed if the name of Good^ Nicolette
does not become a household word in thousands of families. The volume bad
geveral very superior engritviugs.
Poor Nelly.
Poor Nelly ; or, the Golden Mushroom. 18mo. Price, muslin, 32 cents.
'his is a delightful little book, containing the singular history of an orphan
Mirl as related by herself when slj-e became :in old woman. Poor Nelly's triala
will make many weep, while her goodncs.^ will coramand admiration.

NEW BOOKS/
PUBLISHED BY CARLTON AND PORTER,
200 Mulberry-street, New-York.

FOR SAIE Also BT J. P. MAGEE, 5 COMHILL, BOSTON, AM»
an. OTIS, SENECA-STUEET, BUFPAIO.

Heroes of Methodism.
The Heroes of Methodism. Containing Sketches of Eminent Methodist
Ministers, and Characteristic Anecdotes of their Personal History.
By Rev. J. B. Wakeley, of the New- York Conference. With Portraits
of Bishops Asbury, Coke, and M'Kendree. Large 12mo., pp. 470.
Price $1 00, with the usual discount to wholesale purchasers.
Dr. M'Clintock, who examined the work in manuscript, and is familiar witn
it, says. In the April number of the Quarterly Keview : " It is a work of great
interest to the Methodist public, aud will doubtless have a great mn."
With laudable industry, Mr. Wakeley has gleaned, from a great variety of
sources, anecdotes and llliutrations of tho life and character of men to whom not
only the Church of which they were ministers, but the world at large, and more
especially these United States, are largely indebted. They were the pioneers of
Christianity, men of burning zeal and undaunted perseverance ; spending their
lives for the welfare of their fellow-men-^in journeyings often, in perils of waters,
in perils of robbers, in perils by their own countrymen, in perils in the city, and
most especially in perils in the wilderness. With equal truth may it be said also
of these heralds of salvation, that they were " In weariness and painfulness, in
watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness."
The perusal of this volume cannot fail to kindle anew the flagging zeal of the suc
cessors of these truly great men. We have entered into their labors, and it is
owing to the blessing of the great Head of the Church upon their toil that we
have' such a goodly heritage. Mr. Wakeley has executed his task with ability,
and his beautifully printed volume, illustrated witb portraits of Asbury, Coke, and
M'Kendree, will doubtless have, as it deserves, a wide circulation. — Ncttiondl
Magazine.

Pioneers of the West.

The Pioneers of the West; or, Life in the Woods. By W. P. Stkiok-
i-AND. Price $1.
The table of contents is quite attractive : The West ; Pioneer Explorers of tho
West; Hunters of the West* Pioneer Settlers; Pioneer Preachers; Pioneer In
stitutions and Professional Men ; Pioneer Boatmen ; The Prophet Francis ; Lo
gan, the Mingo Chief; The Mountain Hunter; Indian Captivity; The "Old
Chief," or, the Indian Missionary; The Hermit; Panther Hunting; The Squat
ter Family; The Lost Hunter; Wisconsin Schoolma'am. These vivid pictures
are sketches from life. The author takes his readers with him as he traces the
path of the pioneer explorer, settler, hunter, or preacher, and we follow the blazed
path in the wilderness, and witness the thrilling scenes which start up on every
hill, and in every valley, and glen, and river, until the blood chilis at some deed
of savage warfare, or warms at the recital of some of the thrilling scenes and he
roic incidents with which the work abounds. The interest is kept up through
tlie whole volume, and the reader closes with the conviction that truth is as
strange and as entertaining as fiction, and certainly more instructive. The book
ta embelltahed with some nue wood-cuts. — OhrisUan Advocate uTui Journal

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