>IIIIIIYALE UTJIVBRjSrfYlR > SCHOOL OF THE FINE ARTS < A HISTORY OF EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN SCULPTURE A HISTORY OF EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN SCULPTURE FROM THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD TO THE PRESENT DAY BY CHANDLER RATHFON POST ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF GREEK AND OF FINE ARTS IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY VOLUME II CAMBRIDGE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON : HUMPHREY MILFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1921 COPYRIGHT, I92I HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Ui P z. . CONTENTS OF VOLUME II PART IV THE BAROQUE AND THE ROCOCO CHAPTER XVI General Character of the Baroque. Italian Sculpture of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. page i. Introduction . 3 2. General Character of the Baroque . ..... 3 3. Italian Sculpture of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries ... 6 Bernini and his Pupils . . . ... 6 The Conservatives of the Seventeenth Century . . . 10 The Eighteenth Century . . .11 CHAPTER XVII The Baroque and Rococo. France. 1. The Seventeenth Century. Introduction 2. The Reign of Henry IV . . 3. The Reign of Louis XIII and the Minority of Louis XIV . . 4. The Reign of Louis XIV . .... 5. The Eighteenth Century. General Character of the Rosoco 6. The First Generation of the Eighteenth Century .... 7. The Second Generation of the Eighteenth Century 8. The Third Generation of the Eighteenth Century *517l9 2628 3°36 CHAPTER XVIII The Baroque and Rococo. The Low Countries and England. 1. Belgium . The Seventeenth Century. Introduction The Transition The Developed Sculpture of the Seventeenth Century The Eighteenth Century 2. Holland .... 3. England The Seventeenth Century The Eighteenth Century V APR 5 1922 42 42 4344 45 47 50 5°53 19 0 4 vi CONTENTS CHAPTER XIX The Baroque and Rococo. Germany and Related Countries. i. The Seventeenth Century . . ... • ¦ 5^ 2. The Later Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries . °i Introduction . . . °i The Foreign Colony . . °i The Native Masters . . . 64 Austria ... . . . . . 68 CHAPTER XX The Baroque and Rococo. Spain. 1. The Seventeenth Century. Introduction ... . 72 2. The School of Valladolid . . . . -73 3. The School of the South . . 74 4. The Eighteenth Century . ... 76 PART V NEOCLASSICISM CHAPTER XXI Neoclassicism. 1. General Characteristics of the Neoclassic Style . 83 2. Italy . .... 85 3. Denmark 4. France 5. Germany and Related Countries . 6. England . 7. Belgium and Spain 8. The United States 9298 103106 107 PART VI MODERN SCULPTURE CHAPTER XXII The General Characteristics and Development of Modern Sculpture. 115 CHAPTER XXIII Modern Sculpture. France. 1. Chronological Development . . . 121 2. The Interval between the First and Second Empire ... ... 121 The Progressives .... . . . .121 The Conservatives . 130 CONTENTS vii 3. The Second Empire . .... 132 The Progressives . . 132 The Conservatives 138 4. The Third Republic. The Elder Generation ... 138 The Progressives . . . .... 138 The Conservatives . . ... 146 5. The Third Republic. The Younger Generation . 149 CHAPTER XXIV Modern Sculpture. Germany and Related Countries. 1. The First Half of the Nineteenth Century 159 Introduction . . 159 Rauch and his Pupils . 159 Dresden ... . 162 Munich . . 163 Austria . . 164 2. The Second Half of the Nineteenth Century . 164 Introduction . .... 164 Berlin . 165 Dresden ... . . . 170 Munich . . . . . ... 170 Austria ... . 171 3. The Present Generation . 175 Introduction . . . 175 Hildebrand and his Circle . 175 Klinger . 180 Austria . ....... ... 182 CHAPTER XXV Modern Sculpture. Belgium. 1. The School of 1850 . . 184 2. The Modern Naturalistic Group 184 3. The Modern Academic Group . . 190 4. Stylization in Belgium . . . . 194 CHAPTER XXVI Modern Sculpture. Italy. 1. Introduction ... . . . . 2. The Rebels against Neoclassicism . 3. Vela and Verism . ... 4. General Characteristics of More Recent Italian Sculpture 5. Monteverde and Ferrari ... 6. The Schools of Naples and Palermo . 7. The Schools of Turin and Venice 196 196 198 200201 201 203 Medardo Rosso .... 205 Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER XXVII Modern Sculpture. Great Britain. i. Introduction 2. The Break with Neoclassicism 3. General Characteristics of More Recent British Sculpture 4. The First Manipulators of the New Style 5. Typical Exponents of Gallicism ... 6. The Sculptors of the Arts and Crafts Movement 7. Ford 206207 208 209 211212 215 Modern Sculpture. 1. Spain 2. Scandinavia 3. Russia . 4. Jugoslavia CHAPTER XXVIII Spain, Scandinavia, and the Slavic Countries. 216 220 222 224 CHAPTER XXIX Modern Sculpture. The United States. 1. From Neoclassicism to the Centennial General Characteristics of the Transitional Period The Progressives The Italianates 2. The Modern Period. General Characteristics The First Signs of the New Style 3. The Modern Period. The First Generation The More American Group The Less American Group . . . 4. The Younger Generation . . 227 227 228233 236238 240 240254262 CHAPTER XXX Modern Sculpture. Post-Impressionism. BIBLIOGRAPHY . INDEX TO NAMES OF SCULPTORS INDEX TO PLACES MENTIONED IN PARTS I AND II. 266271291 301 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS VOLUME II Figure To face page 1 1 6. Bernini. Apollo and Daphne. Villa Borghese, Rome 6 117. Bernini. Bust of Francesco I d'Este. Gallery, Modena 7 118. Bernini. Tomb of Urban VIII. St. Peter's, Rome 8 119. Bernini. Ecstasy of St. Theresa. S. Maria della Vittoria, Rome. . 9 120. Algardi. Altarpiece of St. Leo and Attila. St. Peter's, Rome . ... 12 121. Serpotta. Humility and Putti. Oratory of S. Lorenzo, Palermo . . . 13 122. Sarrazin. Sepulchral Effigy of the Cardinal de Berulle. Louvre, Paris 20 123. Coysevox. Portrait of the Sculptor Himself. Louvre, Paris .... 21 124. Girardon. Tomb of Richelieu. Church of the Sorbonne, Paris ... 22 125. Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou I. Louis XIV Crossing the Rhine. Versailles 23 126. Guillaume Coustou I. Horses of Marly. Champs £lysees, Paris . . 24 127. Puget. Milo of Croton. Louvre, Paris 25 128. Lemoyne. Bust of Gabriel. Louvre, Paris ... .... 30 129. Pigalle. Mercury. Metropolitan Museum, N. Y. 31 130. Pigalle. Tomb of Comte de Saxe. St. Thomas, Strassburg . . 32 131. Falconet. Bathing Girl. Louvre, Paris 23 132. Caffieri. Bust of Rotrou. Comedie Francaise, Paris . . ... 2& 133. Clodion. Nymph and Satyr. Metropolitan Museum, N. Y 37 134. Houdon. Bust of Paul Jones. Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia .... ... 40 135. Houdon. Voltaire. Comedie Francaise, Paris 41 136. Verbruggen. Pulpit. Cathedral, Brussels 46 137. Hendrik de Keyzer. Tomb of William the Silent. Nieuwe Kerk, Delft ... 47 138. Roubillac. Tomb of Lady Nightingale. Westminster Abbey . . . 54 139. Bacon. Tomb of Elder Pitt. Westminster Abbey . . 55 140. Schluter. Monument of the Great Elector. Berlin . . 64 141. Wagner. Putti. Gardens of the Palace, Wiirzburg 65 142. Donner. Fountain. New Market, Vienna 70 143. Fischer von Erlach and Assistants. Trinity Column. The Graben, Vienna . . .... 71 144. Montafies. Virgin of Immaculate Conception. Cathedral, Seville . 74 145. Pedro de Mena. St. Francis. Cathedral, Toledo 75 146. Salzillo. Agony in the Garden. Ermita de Jesus, Murcia 78 147. Canova. Cupid and Psyche. Louvre, Paris 79 148. Thorvaldsen. Morning. Replica in Villa Albani, Rome . . . . 94 149. Bosio. The Nymph, Salmacis. Louvre, Paris 95 150. Chinard. Madame Chinard . . . . 98 x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure To face page 151. Dannecker. Ariadne. Bethmann's Museum, Frankfort . . 99 152. Schadow. Princesses Louise and Friederike. Royal Palace, Berlin . 102 153. Flaxman. Tomb of Earl of Mansfield. Westminster Abbey . 103 154. Chantrey. Washington. State House, Boston . . . 108 155. Greenough. Washington. Smithsonian Institute, Washington 109 156. Powers. California. Metropolitan Museum, N. Y. . . no 157. Crawford. Bronze Doors, Capitol, Washington . . in 158. Rude. Monument of Marshal Ney. Place de l'Observatoire, Paris . . 124 159. David d' Angers. Thomas Jefferson. Capitol, Washington . . 125 160. Barye. Jaguar Devouring Hare. Louvre, Paris 132 161. Carpeaux. The Dance. Facade of the Opera, Paris . . 133 162. Fremiet. Jeanne d'Arc. Place des Pyramides, Paris 136 163. Dalou. Monument to the Republic. Place de la Nation, Paris 137 164. Falguiere. Hunting Nymph . .... . . 144 165. Chapu. Tomb of Regnault, Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris ... . 145 166. Paul Dubois. Tomb of General Lamoriciere. Cathedral, Nantes . 152 167. Rodin. The Kiss. Musee Rodin, Paris .... . 153 168. Rodin. Bust of Henri Rochefort. Luxembourg, Paris . . 154 169. Maillol. Squatting Woman . . 155 170. Bartholome. Monument to the Dead. Pere Lachaise, Paris . 160 171. Rauch. Monument of Frederick the Great. Berlin . 161 172. Begas. Fountain. Berlin . . . 166 173. Siemering. Washington Monument. Fairmount Park, Philadelphia . 167 174. Schmitz, Hundrieser, and Geiger. Monument, Kyffhauser Plateau 172 175. Viktor Tilgner. Mozart Monument. Albrechts-Platz, Vienna 173 176. Hildebrand. Youthful Masculine Nude. National Gallery, Berlin 176 177. Klinger. Beethoven. Museum, Leipzig . . 177 178. Meunier. Return of the Miners . . 186 179. Lambeaux. "L'lvresse." ... . . 187 180. Lagae. Busts of Sculptor's Parents . . . 190 181. Minne. Fountain. Folkwang Museum, Hagen, Westphalia . . 191 182. Vela. Napoleon. Versailles . . . ... . . 200 183. Gemito. Young Fisherman. Bargello, Florence .... . . 201 184. Bistolfi. Tomb of Sebastiano Grandis. Cemetery of Borgo San Dal- mazzo . . . 204 185. Alfred Stevens. Tomb of Wellington. St. Paul's, London . . 205 186. Thornycroft. The Kiss. Tate Gallery, London .... . 210 187. Alfred Gilbert. Monument to Queen Victoria. Winchester . . 211 188. Frampton. Dame Alice Owen. Owen School, Islington, London . . 216 189. Bellver. Tomb of Cardinal Siliceo, Cathedral, Toledo . . . 217 190. Stephan Sinding. Valkyr . . . . . . 222 191. Troubetzkoi. Princess Baratinsky . . . 223 192. MeStrovic. Equestrian statue of Kraljevic . . . . . . 224 193. Brown. Washington. Union Square, N. Y. .... 225 194. Ball. Washington. Public Garden, Boston . . . 230 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi Figure To face page 195. Ward. Garfield Monument. Capitol, Washington 231 196. Rinehart. Clytie.. Peabody Institute, Baltimore 238 197. Warner. Bronze Doors. Congressional Library, Washington . . . 239 198. Saint-Gaudens. Sherman. New York 244 199. French. Milmore Monument. Forest Hills Cemetery, Boston 245 200. Dallin. Medicine Man. Fairmount Park, Philadelphia 252 201. Solon Borglum. On the Border of the White Man's Land. Metropoli tan Museum, N. Y . .253 202. Barnard. Group at Left of Entrance, Capitol, Harrisburg 256 203. MacMonnies. Bacchante. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston . . 257 204. Manship. Briseis . 266 205. Brancusi. Mile. Pogany . . 267 PART IV THE BAROQUE AND THE ROCOCO CHAPTER XVI GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE BAROQUE ITALIAN SCULPTURE OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES i. INTRODUCTION The seventeenth and, in places, the first half of the eighteenth century were dominated by the style commonly called baroque (whatever be the origin of the word), and it was as the originator and disseminator of the baroque that Italy still exhibited her marvellous genius for esthetic invention. France, however, soon began to encroach upon the artistic authority of Italy. During the seventeenth century she so thoroughly consolidated her military and political ascendancy that even when it collapsed in the eighteenth century its force was still great enough to control Europe in manners, art, and literature. Once again she gradually and proudly assumed the cultural dictatorship which she had enjoyed in the Middle Ages but which had passed to Italy during the Renaissance. In the second half of the seventeenth century the stately magnificence of life and art at the court of Louis XIV already set the standard for a large part of Europe. Throughout the eighteenth century French civilization was so superior that all countries eagerly imitated the graceful elegance of Louis XV's reign. The lighter and more refined form of the baroque that emanated from France is known as the rococo. As the century progressed, on every side, both in writers on esthetics and in their artistic exponents, began to appear signs of the reaction from the baroque and rococo and of the stricter and more scientific imitation of the antique which were to develop into neoclassicism. 2. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE BAROQUE Enthusiastically received in its own day, the baroque became a term of opprobrium with the revival of classicism in the later eighteenth century and so continued after the return to the "primitives" in the nineteenth. The twentieth century has felt itself far enough removed from the contamination of the baroque to view it with less apprehen sion, and the inevitable result of the reaction has been that the pendu lum of criticism has swung to the other extreme of a renewed and 4 THE BAROQUE rather indiscriminate admiration for its idiosyncrasies. The modern apologists for the baroque have taken their stand, more or less con sciously, upon the precarious argument that whatever has sincerely, truthfully, and skilfully expressed the spirit of a given epoch is good art. The reaction, however, has done a service also to the student who seeks to base his judgments upon more absolute esthetic principles. It has enabled him, while recognizing the faults that the previous generation stigmatized in the baroque, to refrain from wholesale con demnation and even to discern in the style certain eminent virtues. To whatever conclusions we ourselves shall come in the course of our discussion, the baroque will at least have taught us, befuddled as we are with admiration for the Orient, the perennial creative energy of western art. It proves once again that no sooner had one style burned itself out than another fresh and vigorous movement arose from its ashes. A rehearsal of the oft repeated censures is almost superfluous. The rebellion against the frigidities of the sixteenth century, which was preceded and guided by the somewhat earlier revolution in Italian painting, tended towards an impatient rejection of the canons that had been evolved by classicism. The most palpable feature of the style is perhaps a tumultuous passion, which resumes the precedent set by Michael Angelo but forgotten by many of the elegant later mannerists and which makes of the great Florentine a precursor of the baroque. The passion often expresses itself in a return to Michael Angelo's contortions, and it seems to belie the monumentality of stone or bronze. Wherever the subject in any way suggested, and often where, to the ordinary mind, the subject would not seem to suggest it, the figures were represented in movement. As in con temporary painting, there was an effort to break with the simpler and stiffer arrangements of classicism and to increase the sense of agi tation by an emphasis upon the diagonal in composition. No baroque artist had much regard for his medium. Possibly because of a de pendence upon the reaction in painting, the sculptor sought more definite pictorial effects than ever before. He conceived his figures in pictorial postures and groups, often, as we have seen, in movement, and he set them in the midst of rocks, fabrics, and other scenic acces sories. In his reliefs, although he seldom attempted the elaborate perspective of the fifteenth century, he modelled such elements as clouds more nearly as he saw them in contemporary pictures. As partial compensation for the polychromy of the Middle Ages he fre quently substituted arrangements of colored marbles. He even con fused the two arts in the same work, using painted backgrounds for GENERAL CHARACTER 5 sculptured figures, adorning the frames of pictures with figures in the round, or placing painted and sculptural decoration side by side, some times with the purpose of preventing the spectator from realizing where one began and the other ended. Lead, tin, and copper were occasionally forced into service, since they had the additional advan tage of lending themselves more easily to the swirling lines and swell ing surfaces of the baroque and also emphasized the contrasts of light and shade. If the virtues of the baroque cannot hide, they can at least offset these defects. The two centuries of the Renaissance had now devel oped a perfection of technical skill, which dazzles the critic even when it clothes faults of taste. Although it was inevitable that the forms should be influenced by the achievements of classicism, the expres sionless heads and coldly statuesque bodies were now instilled with a revived naturalism which was more pronounced in Caravaggio and the school of painting in the seventeenth century that he founded. There was still a widespread devotion to the antique, but it was not so servile, and often consisted merely in the use of ancient subjects. The pleasantest manifestations of naturalism are seen first in the portrait busts, which are once more vigorously individualized as com pared with the vacuous specimens of the Cinquecento, and, second, in the putti, which rival those of the Quattrocento in charm. The seventeenth century also ushered in an improvement in the sphere of religious expression. The sacred art of the day was largely dominated by the attitude and taste of the Jesuits. It is the fashion to disparage the piety of this art as hysterical and insincere. Undoubtedly it ex ercised certain baneful influences upon art. The restlessness of the sculpture is most painful when it agitates sacred subjects, and natu ralism carries with it a disagreeable note when, in the spirit of con temporary Christianity, it makes celestial visions very concrete. Yet with all its shortcomings, the perfervid Catholicism of the epoch quickened its figures with more real feeling than the largely formal Christianity of the Cinquecento. Another manifestation of religion and of culture in general was the creation of new allegorical personi fications, such as Gentleness and Truth, foreboding the inordinate popularity of these subjects in our own day. But the crowning virtue of the baroque was that it attained a grandiose impressiveness. That this is one of the legitimate aims of good art, no one but such an ex treme purist as Ruskin would deny. If the compositions of baroque sculpture are theatrical, they have at least the same value as well managed stage pictures, and the worst that one could say of them would be that they again confuse two forms of art, the dramatic and 6 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO the plastic. Yet the closest parallel to the baroque is not the theatre, at least the theatre of the present day. The artist of the seventeenth century conceived his arrangements, postures, and gestures rather in the more pompous mode of grand opera. If ostentation is the essence of the style — ostentation of technical dexterity and ostentation of general effect — even its detractors must acknowledge that it suc ceeded brilliantly in its purpose. 3. ITALIAN SCULPTURE OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES BERNINI AND HIS PUPILS The influence of the theatre upon sculpture became again as im portant as it had been in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance.: A striking example is afforded by the greatest of the baroque sculptors,: Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, who not only staged but actually wrote dramas. Born at Naples in 1598, the young boy was brought by his father, Pietro Bernini, to Rome, which now, especially under the splendid patronage of Urban VIII (1 623-1 644), so far superseded Florence as an artistic capital that it left the latter in the position of a more of less unproductive provincial town. He was initiated in the ways of the baroque by his father, and developed remarkable artistic gifts at a juvenile age, though not at so astoundingly a precocious date as has sometimes been accredited to him. Launched at once upon a career of great artistic fertility and popularity, in architecture as well as sculpture, he remained the darling of the many popes of the century until his death in 1680. His ascendant star was dimmed only once, by the transitory coolness of Innocent X. The atmosphere of Rome was so congenial to his temperament that he left it for but one long journey, a triumphal visit in 1665 to the court of Louis XIV at Paris, chiefly in the capacity of architect for the Louvre. He, however, executed some works of sculpture for France and designed others. Many elements of the baroque existed embryonically in the sculp ture of the late sixteenth century, but it was the genius of Bernini that gathered them together, developed them, and impressed upon the baroque its definitive form. At about the age of twenty and in the im mediately succeeding years, he created three academic, mythological groups in the manner of Giovanni Bologna's Rape of the Sabine Woman : the Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius, the Pluto and Proser pina, the Apollo and Daphne (Fig. 116), all now in the Villa Borghese. The derivation of the Aeneas from the Christ of S. Maria sopra Mi nerva shows that he is still following somewhat the precedent of imi tating Michael Angelo. The other two groups possess already the Fig. i i 6. BERNINI. APOLLO AND DAPHNE. VILLA BORGHESE, ROME (Photo. Fratelli Alinari) Fig. 117. BERNINI. BUST OF FRANCESCO I D'ESTE. GALLERY, MODENA (Photo. Fratelli Alinari) ITALY 7 greater movement of the baroque. The choice of a more fleeting moment than is usual to the monumental nature of sculpture in the round and the accessories of bark and foliage make the Apollo and Daphne thoroughly pictorial. A comparison of the David in the Villa Bofghese, executed at the same time, with the treatments of the sub ject by Donatello, Verrocchio, and Michael Angelo, provides a con crete example of the agitation of the baroque. In contrast to the postures of rest used by Bernini's predecessors, the hero of the Old Testament is represented at the evanescent instant of extreme activ ity, facial contraction, and muscular strain. The similarity of the David and the Daphne to figures of Guido Reni is indicative of the general dependence of baroque sculpture upon painting, but Bernini studied also the late antiques, though he seldom imitated them di rectly but rather learned from them technical secrets. His customary high and even polished finish is Graeco-Roman, and the pose of the David may have been suggested by the Borghese Warrior that had been recently excavated and is now in the Louvre. This whole series of phenomenal achievements exhibits a technical dexterity rarely, if ever, equalled in the world's history. We may condemn the appli cation of this dexterity to the counterfeiting of skin and flesh in the Daphne, as in other works of Bernini we take exception to the simu lation of various fabrics, but we cannot withhold our amazement. Even when his esthetic aim seems to us misguided, we must recog nize in him from the first a power and a masterly ease in accomplish ing it that have been the despair of subsequent sculptors. Bernini's clay models, nevertheless, especially the many fine specimens in the Brandegee Collection, Brookline, prove that even such a genius as he understood the necessity of painstaking study and labor. The output of Bernini's long maturity was chiefly religious. Of his secular productions, most notable are the contributions to the large number of magnificent fountains with which Rome was now being decorated in rivalry with the Tuscan examples of the sixteenth cen tury. The two most famous specimens by Bernini are the smaller Fountain of the Triton in the Piazza Barberini and the towering Fountain of the Four River-Gods supporting an obelisk in the Piazza Navona. The figures of the latter were made by his pupils. Both are superb pieces of monumental and imposing composition, appropriately constructed of marine deities, monsters, and picturesque accessories of vegetation, shell, and cliff. No reservations are necessary in speaking of his portrait busts. In place of the pompous vacuity of Bandinelli and Cellini, the breath of life has once more been breathed into the heads as in the Quattro- 8 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO cento. Not only are they incisive characterizations, but by a selec tion of the best qualities in his sitters, by stress upon the elements in their personalities common to the several constantly recurring types to which they belong, by a slight idealization, and by ingenuity in com position, he has raised them from the sphere of the particular into objects of universal interest and beauty. If one were forced to choose from the long series, he might decide upon: the busts of Bernini's first patrons, Paul V (of several examples, particularly the one in the Villa Borghese) and Scipione Borghese (in the Academy, Venice), by reason of their very early date; the head of his innamorata, Costanza Buonarelli (in the Bargello) because of its biographical significance; the Innocent X (in the Palazzo Doria, Rome) for the sake of compari son with Velazquez's painting; and the Louis XIV (at Versailles) and Francesco d'Este (in the Gallery at Modena) (Fig. 117) because of the freedom which he has lent to the forbidding stiffness of contem porary costume. Not less fine are the effigies for his two great tombs of Urban VIII (Fig. 118) and Alexander VII in St. Peter's (the latter carried out chiefly by his pupils). Gathering together suggestions from Vasari's tomb of Michael Angelo and from Guglielmo della Porta's tomb of Paul III, he established the definitive type for the restless baroque sepulchres in distinction from the staid repose of earlier . centuries. The seated or kneeling figure of the pontiff is exalted upon a high pedestal. In the former monument, according to the tendency of the period,- an active pose is given to the effigy of the deceased, in this case the attitude of benediction. A sarcophagus of the kind used by Mi chael Angelo for the Medici is placed beneath, flanked by personifica tions of Charity and Justice, and surmounted by the skeleton, Death, writing the mortuary inscription upon a tablet of black marble. The situation of the. latter monument over a door prevented the introduc tion of the sarcophagus; he therefore utilized the door as if it were the entrance to a mortuary vault, he spread about it and beneath the pedestal a carpet of yellowish marble, set in the front folds the appari tion of Death, holding an hour-glass, and surrounded the pedestal with the more usual number of four personifications, Truth, Charity, Jus tice, and Wisdom. Allegories had long been a commonplace on Italian tombs, but now they are made to mourn for the deceased. They, no longer stare forth at the spectator as entities disassociated from the effigy except in their symbolism; by their emotional relation to the main subject they make the tomb a unified whole. Nowhere is the baroque addiction to polychrome effects of different marbles com bined with gilded bronze better illustrated. Fig. 118. BERNINI. TOMB OF URBAN VIII. ST. PETER'S, ROME (Photo. Fratelli Alinari) Fig. 119. BERNINI. ECSTASY OF ST. THERESA. , S. MARIA DELLA VITTORIA, ROME (Photo. Fratelli Alinari) ITALY 9 The most renowned religious work of Bernini is probably the altar- piece of the Cornaro chapel in S. Maria della Vittoria, Rome, the Ec stasy of St. Theresa (1646) (Fig. 119). All the signs of the baroque are present in their most typical expression, the unpleasantly realistic conception of the heavenly experience, the fervor of Jesuitical Cathol icism, dramatic postures, the endlessly broken and disordered dra peries, the pictorial setting of clouds and gilded rays, the theatrical lighting from an unseen source. On the lateral walls of the chapel, indeed, busts of the Cornaro family view the scene as from two boxes at the playhouse. The craftsmanship of Bernini, however, is at its highest. Henceforth there was a constant crescendo in the passionate abandon and tragic intensity of his sacred figures. As characteristic may be taken the large amount of decoration that he executed and superintended in S. Maria del Popolo, Rome, especially the Daniel of the Chigi Chapel, the St. Jerome and Magdalene of the Chigi Chapel in the cathedral of Siena, the two angels of the Passion by his own hand for the Ponte S. Angelo at Rome, now in S. Andrea delle Fratte, and the dying Beata Ludovica Albertoni in S. Francesco a Ripa, Rome. In the last two instances, even the most loyal apologist for Bernini must admit a certain exaggeration. He never seems to have felt much beauty in his draperies. They are voluminous, but often lank and stringy, and on the statues of saints, especially, they are flung wide in great emotional sweeps for the sake of emphasizing the expression already given to the figure. His most pretentious sacred composition in which sculpture has a leading part is the shrine for St. Peter's Chair that forms so garish but so impressive an accent for the extreme east end of S. Pietro in Vaticano (1 656-1 665). More golden rays than ever, more sculptured clouds, now filled with as tumultuous a throng of nude angels as Correggio ever painted ! Even the light of the glass window is coerced into the scheme as the central radiance in the midst of which soars the dove of the Holy Spirit. Against the lowest cloud- bank floats the throne encasing the Chair, unsupported! At the corners gesticulate four of Bernini's most impassioned figures, four Fathers of the Church. Mutatis mutandis, the whole operatic ensemble has the same effect and merit as the transformation scene at the close of Gounod's Faust. Bernini's achievement sums up the tendencies of the baroque in so inclusive a manner that little would be gained by delaying over his many immediate pupils, who by their assistance made possible the completion of his numerous gigantic schemes and who, when they worked alone, reproduced the master's style less convincingly. Some of them, however, were men of considerable talent, they continued the io THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO process of transforming Rome into a baroque city, and they spread the new fashion to other parts of Italy. The peninsula is crammed and overladen with monuments of the baroque, which is so congenial to certain aspects of the Italian temperament, but they are usually by artists that have made no claim upon the remembrance of posterity. THE CONSERVATIVES OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY There are two sculptors who are usually asserted to have been the leaders of a more conservative, classic tradition that was more faith ful to the antique and was partially opposed to the innovations of Bernini — Francois Duquesnoy, a Fleming, and therefore called il Fiammingo, and Alessandro Algardi. The former, born in 1594 and living in Italy from about 1620 to his death in 1643, certainly did not indulge in such passionate expression as Bernini. One of his two famous monumental statues, the St. Susanna of S. Maria di Loreto, Rome, based upon an ancient Urania in the Palazzo dei Con- servatori, is a charming example of restraint and of idealized maiden hood. He was renowned also for his gentle forms of putti, in which he was among the first, if not the first, in sculpture, to render adequately the peculiarly unformed quality of infantile anatomy. The "mussed" but delightful treatment of the hair recalls Desiderio. A typical specimen is the Cupid carving himself a bow in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin. A series, making music, may be seen in the chapel of the Filomarini in the church of the Santi Apostoli, Naples. Yet neither Duquesnoy nor any other could stand against the onsweeping stream of the baroque. Two of his most captivating putti are set amidst folds of marble drapery and uphold a marble cloth with the mortuary inscription on the monument of Adrian Vryburch in S. Maria dell' Anima, Rome, a pictorial type that established a precedent for simple tombs of the period. His other celebrated monumental statue, the St. Andrew of the crossing at St. Peter's, has much of Bernini's religious style. Duquesnoy was also popular for his small terracottas, ivories, and bronzes. Alessandro Algardi, born at Bologna in 1602, was even more influenced by the Bolognese school of painting than were other sculp tors. To this training he added a painstaking study of the antique, especially in the Gonzaga collections at Mantua. Since, when he came to Rome in 1625, he was obliged to support himself in the face of Bernini's phenomenal vogue, he worked chiefly as a restorer of ancient statues and, like Duquesnoy, as a craftsman of objects of virtu; but despite his life-long familiarity with Graeco-Roman sculpture, he never understood it so thoroughly as did Bernini through artistic intuition, and he imitated its accidents rather than its substance. Dur- ITALY n ing Bernini's temporary eclipse at the beginning of Innocent X's pontificate, Algardi was the papal favorite, but he died a year before his patron in 1654. He lacked Bernini's sense of imposing decorative composition, and his women, his more delicate putti, and his draperies sometimes have a prettiness which is foreign to Bernini's earnestness and which is a foretaste of the rococo. The principal modern writer on Algardi, Hans Posse, has gone further and sought to differentiate him very sharply from Bernini, discerning in him greater antiquarian- ism and solicitude for naturalistic detail. To the ordinary eye, at least, the divergence will not seem so marked. In his best portraits, such as the bronze statue of Innocent X in the Palazzo dei Conserva- tori, the sepulchral bust of the cardinal Millini in S. Maria del Popolo, or the hypothetically attributed busts of the cardinal Zacchia in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin and of Innocent X in the Metro politan Museum, the realism may be somewhat more meticulous than in the broader manner of Bernini, and they certainly possess a quality that Posse has not noted, a more forceful individualization. But the pose of Innocent X is derived from Bernini's Urban VIII, and there are other instances in Algardi of a study of his rival's productions. His religious figures, such as those above the door in the interior of S. Ignazio, Rome, often follow prevailing fashion. His tomb of Leo XI in St. Peter's corresponds, in general, to that of Urban VIII, although the two allegorical figures are more coldly classical and are not so well keyed to the emotional tone of the monument. Both sepulchres were executed about the same time, but since Bernini conceived his as early as 1628, the honor of creating the prototype of baroque tombs probably may be ascribed to him. Algardi's best known work, the altarpiece of St. Leo and Attila for the Cappella Leonina of St. Peter's (Fig. 120) is a more absolute transcription into marble of a dramatic and agitated painting in the Bolognese style than Bernini ever per mitted himself. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Two purveyors of the new mode, who carry us over into the eight eenth century, were Giovanni Battista Foggini and Giacomo Serpotta. The former (1 65 2-after 1737), educated in the school of Bernini, was responsible for the only important baroque sculptures at Florence. The monument of Galileo in S. Croce, executed with the assistance of others, conforms to the type established by Bernini. The three large reliefs from the life of St. Andrew Corsini in the Cor sini chapel of the Carmine are in the pictorial style of Algardi's St. Leo and Attila, and the smiling sweetness of the feminine types, angels, and putti already savors of the rococo. [2 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO Giacomo Serpotta of Palermo (1656-1732) merits a much higher place in the history of art than has hitherto been allotted him. He brought to its culmination a school of sculpture which, after the lumbering production of the Gagini bottega in Sicily, turned, for archi tectural decoration, during the Cinquecento, to the ancient Roman medium that had been recovered by the Renaissance and attained the height of its popularity everywhere in the seventeenth century — stucco. He must have studied the achievements of the great con temporary masters at Rome, and his increasingly pronounced rococo tendencies almost force us to assume some contact with the art of France. His only extant works, executed with the aid of pupils, are • the extensive stucco decorations of a large number of churches and small oratories at Palermo and of one church at Alcamo. The walls are almost completely invested with elaborate designs formed of alle gorical figures, effigies of saints, framed reliefs of sacred subjects, and multitudes of grouped putti. Of his early period, the Oratory of S. Lorenzo, adjoining the church of S. Francesco d'Assisi, is the finest and most complete specimen (Fig. 121, Humility surrounded by putti). Certain figures are given the emotional baroque postures; the putti are arranged in the agitated compositions of Bernini and Du quesnoy; the reliefs, though, for the most part, curiously constructed of detached forms set in a kind of deep box, have pictorial elements; pieces of illusive stucco drapery are flung everywhere in the manner of the baroque; and yet the feminine allegorical personifications are characterized by a classical beauty and restraint that are sometimes not cold and empty, as in the Cinquecento, but infused with the chaste expressiveness of the Quattrocento. Nor are the putti less de lightful, in their similarity to the children of Donatello, Desiderio, and Amadeo. They differ in some respects fro'm those of the early Renaissance^ but they will bear comparison with the best of that epoch. They have the infantile naturalism of Duquesnoy, and at the same time more sprightliness and compelling charm. As in the other aspects of his work, Serpotta reveals an absolutely inexhaustible in vention in disposing them in varied groups and in endowing them with varied playful activities. Of his later period, the decorative figures in the Museum, from a chapel of the Chiesa delle Stimmate, have more of the real baroque license and passion than any of Serpotta's other creations, and the translation of the swooning or dead St. Monica to heaven, a part of the stucco embellishment in S. Agostino, may be derived from Ber nini's St. Theresa. Even in the pieces of the Museum, however, there is much of the volatile grace and prettiness of the rococo. Fig. 120. ALGARDI. ALTARPIECE OF ST. LEO AND ATTILA. ST. PETER'S, ROME (Photo. Anderson) Fig. 121. SERPOTTA. HUMILITY AND PUTTI. ORATORY OF S. LORENZO, PALERMO (Photo. Fratelli Alinari) ITALY 13 This proclivity may be observed in Serpotta's earliest efforts, and now in his maturity it is more clearly defined. Although his ability in single figures and groups is unimpaired, the chief production of this period, the luxuriant ornamentation of the Oratory of S. Cita, has, to a certain degree, that effect of a lady's boudoir which was relished by the French of the eighteenth century. Here and in other places, such as the Oratory of the Rosary in S. Domenico, Serpotta advanced so far in the ways of the rococo as often to garb his women in the artificial costume of the age or to combine it with classical drapery. Generally speaking, nevertheless, the rococo obtained little hold in Italy, and the baroque persisted, not much modified, until the neo- classic revolution of Canova at the end of the eighteenth century. At the end of the Secento, indeed, Italy resigned to France the artistic hegemony that she had exercised for two hundred years, and be came, if not less productive, at least less important. Pietro Bracci (1700-1773) may be taken as typical of the high eighteenth century at Rome. A concrete illustration of the general indebtedness of the cen tury to Bernini is afforded by the dependence of Bracci's Visions of St. Agnes of Montepulciano and of St. Rose of Lima, in the church of S. Caterina in the Piazza Magnanapoli, upon the famous Ecstasy of St. Theresa. But his feminine forms, his angels, and his allegorical personifications have that somewhat greater tenderness and sweetness which are almost the only signs in Italy of the presence of the rococo. Very often the faces soften into a smile. Among Bracci's most cele brated achievements are: the standing effigy of Benedict XIV, the only part that he himself executed for the tomb that he designed for this pope in St. Peter's; the Humility and Chastity above, and the angels beside, the altar of the Annunciation in S. Ignazio; and the Neptune, Tritons, and sea-horses of the Fontana Trevi. It was he, also, who carried out in St. Peter's Barigioni's design for the tomb of the wife of the English Pretender James III, Maria Clementine Sobiesky. It belongs to a less pretentious sepulchral type often employed by Bracci, in which the large medallion of the deceased, sculptured, painted, or rendered in mosaic, is accompanied by a single personifi cation or angel. His portrait busts, such as the Benedict XIV ascribed to him in the Metropolitan Museum, are not only less penetrating characterizations than those of Bernini; they lack, like Bracci's other works, Bernini's force of passion and feeling for style. CHAPTER XVII THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO. FRANCE i. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. INTRODUCTION With the very important exception of the tombs of the later seven teenth and the eighteenth centuries, the baroque obtained less hold in France than in any other great European countries save Holland and England. Religious sculpture, in which the baroque was most at home, was not so copious in France during these two centuries as in other Catholic lands. What religious sculpture there was often fol lowed the baroque precedents, but it did not always incline to such fondness for the theatrical as in Italy. The closest analogies to the productions of the Italians may perhaps be seen above the altars of the chapel at Versailles. As far as the Italian models were imitated, it was, except in this sacred sculpture and in the later tombs, rather the mannered style of the end of the sixteenth century that set the fashion; but neither the French nor other Europeans attained that feeling for plastic form which until the last century has survived in Italy all changes of taste. The personal rule of Louis XIV from the death of Mazarin in 1661 to his own death in 171 5 was marked by the triumph of a peculiarly French classicism, derived from the late Italian Renaissance and the antique, but impressed with a dryness, elegance, and formality that may be paralleled in French literature of the period. Inevitably this classic style adopted certain baroque char acteristics, such as the addiction to movement and pictorial acces sories, accommodating them to its more sedate and ordered harmonies. The centralization of power in the monarch localized all artistic effort about the court, confined its themes to the glorification of the King and his circle, bestowed upon it a certain pompousness, and re duced it to a more or less monotonous unity that tended to suppress artistic individuality. Sculpture lost the intimacy and vitality that had attached to it in the Middle Ages through its connection with the life of the people, and became as haughty as the aristocracy whose concern alone it now was. Statues were as aloof from peasant or bourgeois actuality as the characters of Corneille's tragedies. This general evolution was assisted, as early as 1648, by the formation of 14 FRANCE !5 the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, analogous to the previously established literary Academy. Finally victorious over opposition in the second half of the century, the Academy followed the universal proclivity of the times in subjecting art to a system of definite rules, and it infused into painted and sculptured figures the stately and con trolled rhetoric of contemporary verse. Colbert, the financial minister of Louis XIV, by taking the Academy under his wing, made it, too, an instrument for the concentration of art about the person of the monarch. He also founded in 1666 a French Academy at Rome to receive those who were sent to Italy to study, and he diligently gathered antiques to be the inspiration of his proteges. All this movement meant partial desertion of nature as a mistress. The old Gallic naturalism, resuscitated by Pilon, persisted in the portraits and sepulchral effigies, but even here it was often muffled, to a certain extent, by the tyranny of classicism. 1. THE REIGN OF HENRY IV The accession of the Bourbons with Henry IV (1 589-1 610) began a period of transition from the Renaissance proper to the style of Louis XIV. Under Henry IV a considerable influence was exercised by the works of Giovanni Bologna, one of whose chief followers, Pierre Franqueville or Francheville (1548-f. 1618), was then enjoy ing a great vogue in France. A Fleming by birth, he had finally be come a pupil of Giovanni Bologna in Italy and left there a number of works in a style more mannered than his master's. For the garden of Jerome de Gondi at Paris, he made his best known statue, the Orpheus, now in the Louvre. It was this achievement that attracted the attention of Henry IV and induced him to take the sculptor into his service in France about 1601. Franqueville's David, of the Louvre, is a kind of dandified Faun. For the equestrian statue of Henry IV, by Gian Bologna and Pietro Tacca, he executed the slaves around the base, now also in the Louvre — an idea of his master which he here carried out with much less success than Tacca at Leghorn. The two prominent sculptors of this reign were Barthelemy Prieur and Pierre Biard the Elder. The former (c. 1540-1611) fol lowed the artistic tradition of the French Renaissance even in adopt ing Protestantism. The individualization is not very forceful or incisive in his extant sepulchral effigies, the recumbent Constable Anne de Montmorency and his wife, the kneeling Marie de Barbancon-Cany, first wife of Jacques Auguste de Thou, and the less certainly attributed bust of Christophe de Thou, all now in the Louvre. The three bronze allegories of Peace, Justice, and Abundance from the monument for 16 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO the heart of Anne de Montmorency, now also in the Louvre, suggest not so much the highly personal treatment of women by Goujon and Pilon as the rather frigid and mannered treatment by Giovanni Bologna. The figures of Fame, or, as the French then called them, Renommees, and the four little genii of human activities, that he did for the exterior of the Petite Galerie of the Louvre, betray, in com parison with Goujon's carvings for the same palace, the tendency to a more arid and heavier classicism. The works of Pierre Biard (1559-1609) have much the same character. The angels and palm-bearers on the choir-screen of St. Etienne du Mont, Paris, are less skilful and graceful than Goujon's decorative forms, and classicism has partially emptied them of the artist's individuality. The fine bronze figure of Fame, which is pre served in the Louvre from the tomb of Marguerite de Foix, is a su perior piece of technical achievement, a tour de force in movement, perhaps suggested by Giovanni Bologna's Mercury. Its effect is somewhat vitiated by a certain corpulency that oppresses much of the sculpture under Henry IV. The use of such an unblushing nude as a sepulchral motif betrays the same obtuseness to a sense of the fitting and the same academic attitude that sometimes characterize Italian altars of the Cinquecento. During these years the kneeling statues for tombs in different parts of France were very respectable pieces of craftsmanship. The most interesting sculptured portraits, however, are those of the King, who emphasized the practice, which became general in the royal house, of erecting effigies of himself. The earlier and jauntier Henry IV is represented by a vigorous marble equestrian relief at Fontainebleau, the work of a member of a large artistic family, MathieuJacquet called Grenoble, who likewise did panels of the King's military achievements. The equestrian relief is now set over a modern fire place. To Mathieu Jacquet is attributed also a fine bronze head of the sovereign in the Louvre. The older and more genial Henry IV is represented in a bronze bust of the Andre Collection at Paris and in a standing and rather graceless marble statue of the Louvre, both by Barthelemy Tremblay, the latter finished by his son-in-law, Gissey. A wax bust of the same type in the Museum at Chantilly is assigned to the great medallist, Guillaume Dupre, who also did a few other sculptured portraits and continued his activity through the next age, the reign of Louis XIII. FRANCE 17 3. THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIII AND THE MINORITY OF LOUIS XIV From the death of Henry IV to Louis XIV's personal assumption of rule in 1661, the advance towards classicism became more perceptible, largely through the centralizing measures of the ministers Richelieu and Mazarin. The sculptors of the time, who usually studied in Italy, were good, honest masters, but rarely inspired. Simon Guillain (c. 1 581-1658), despite his Italian training, exhibits much of the old naturalism in his masterpieces, the three bronzes of Louis XIII, Anne of Austria, and the young Louis XIV, done for the Pont au Change in 1647 and now in the Louvre. The portrait of the strong- willed Queen is the best. The cluttered relief of seated Captives for the pedestal betrays a frequent muscular form of classicism. Jacques Sarrazin (1588-1660) is important in the history of French tombs for stressing the use of the allegorical figures that were the fad of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. On the destroyed monument for the heart of Louis XIII, he employed medallions of the cardinal Virtues, now in the Louvre; on the monument for Dreux Hennequin, a medallion of Grief, also in the Louvre; on his one great extant tomb for the heart of Henri de Conde, now in the chapel of Chantilly, four seated bronzes of the cardinal Virtues, two young genii, one with the sword and the other with the inscription, and four large reliefs of Petrarch's Triumphs. A rather cold and rhetorical classicism has already set its mark on these figures by Sarrazin as upon his cary atides for the attic of the Pavilion de l'Horloge of the Louvre. The naturalistic tradition, however, reasserts itself in the kneeling Car dinal de Berulle of the Louvre (Fig. 122), one of two effigies that Sar razin executed for the prelate. It is curious to find his St. Denis in St. Jean-St. Francois, Paris, conceived and posed like a kneeling sepulchral figure. Both classicism and naturalism are likewise present in Gilles Guerin (1606-1678): the kneeling Duke and Duchess de la Vieuville in the Louvre are meritorious portraits ; the youthful Louis XIV crushing the Fronde at Chantilly is coldly and pompously idealized into a Roman emperor. Much the same contrast exists between two works of Dupre's follower, the gifted medallist Jean Warin of Liege, who in his rare pieces of sculpture retained the per spicacious attention to detail that he derived from his Flemish training in bronze: the bronze bust of Louis XIII in the Louvre is a vital likeness, the marble statue of Louis XIV at Versailles has the ana chronistic antiquarianism affected by Guerin. 1 8 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO A flourishing trade in mortuary effigies was carried on by two fami lies at Paris, who used to be confused and who have been undeservedly slighted by historians of art, the Boudin and the Bourdin. Though they supplied also religious statuary, they found their prin cipal patrons in those who desired tombs. Their figures shared with the rest of contemporary sepulchral sculpture a certain lack of vivac ity, which impresses one alternately as an unpleasant heaviness or an agreeable and solid dignity. As portraits, they are always creditable, sometimes even distinguished. To Thomas Boudin, who died in 1637, belongs the kneeling Diane de France, a natural daughter of Henry II, in the crypt of St. Denis; to his son, Barthelemy, the superior effigy of Sully in the Hospital at Nogent-le-Rotrou. Michel Bourdin I, active under Louis XIII, began by rebuilding the tomb of Louis XI, which may now be seen, further remodelled, in the church of Notre Dame at Clery. From the notable characterization of this effigy, he proceeded to the works of his maturity, the Amador de la Porte of the Louvre and the Jean Bardeau of Nogent-les-Vierges. To these real masterpieces, the six busts by his son, Michel Bourdin II, for the tomb of Francois Le Gras now in the chateau of Luart (department of Sarthe), are not equal; but the bust of the tragic poet, Gamier, an ancestor of Le Gras, has a great literary interest. The tombs by the provincial Nicolas Blassel the Younger (1600-1659) at Amiens have a more definite Christian tone in that they set the effigies before a sacred figure or scene. In the productions of the Anguier brothers, sons of a wood-carver and both pupils of Guillain, little medieval realism is left. The extant work of Francois Anguier (1604-1669) is principally sepulchral. A monument that retains moreof the old realism is the tombof Jacques Auguste de Thou in the Louvre, for which Prieur had done the statue of his first wife. In Francois Anguier 's other sepulchres, even the por traits are classical. In the chapel of the Lycee at Moulins, against the great Renaissance structure for Henri de Montmorency, which is decked with mythological and allegorical figures, are set upon the sarcophagus the half-recumbent Duke and his kneeling wife, both in ancient costume. Jacques de Souvre, now in the Louvre, and Henri Chabot, Duke of Rohan, now at Versailles, are even represented nude or semi-nude. Agonizing like dying Gauls, they foreshadow the later dramatic conceptions of the tomb. The monument for the hearts of the Dukes of Longueville, now in the Louvre, is also prophetic of sub sequent sepulchral developments in its use of a tall pyramid sur rounded by four classic but rather lovely Virtues. FRANCE 1 9 In contrast to his brother, the better known Michel Anguier (1612-1686) found his talent to lie in the direction of architectural adornment. The ceilings of Anne of Austria's apartments on the ground floor of the Petite Galerie in the Louvre he embellished lav ishly with antique and allegorical motifs in stucco, the taste for which material he may have acquired in Italy studying under Algardi. Into the midst of the classic style Michel Anguier has here introduced much charm. The single figures, groups, and medallions are agreeably disposed among the paintings with which they are combined, the varied and lively postures are skilfully rendered, and the French feel ing for femininity and graceful drapery is still preserved. The series of ceilings form a Gallicized interpretation of Italian baroque decoration. The mood is the same in his statue of Amphitrite, executed for Ver sailles and now in the Louvre. He also tried his hand at similar ecclesi astical adornment in the pendentives of the dome and above the arches of the nave in the Parisian church of Val-de-Grace. His Nativity in St. Roch, Paris, is very baroque, the Virgin in sentiment, St. Joseph in movement and drapery. His most familiar achievements, the alle gorical figures and reliefs for the Porte St. Denis in honor of Louis XIV's German victories, reveal, like his other works, a truer sense of the beautiful and more technical ability in manipulating the cramped classical style than do any of the other productions in the same man ner hitherto considered. 4. THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV Michel Anguier transports us into the personal reign of Louis XIV. This sovereign carried centralization to such a point that he made his chief palace of Versailles, and not Paris, the capital of France, and he lavished works of art upon it in order to raise it to the dignity of such an honor. From now on until the end of the eighteenth century, virtually all the sculptors assisted in the decoration of the chateau and grounds at Versailles, and the writer has not always thought it necessary in these pages to refer specifically to the part that each artist played. Even the sculpture of the period was dominated by the favorite painter and esthetic arbiter of the court, Charles Le Brun. He it was who often drew the designs from which the sculptors worked. Particularly in sepulchral monuments, his influence united with that of Bernini to produce the dramatic and pictorial effects which did not attain their full development until the eighteenth century and which make these later tombs of France as important objects in the history of art as the examples of the Middle Ages. The general mortuary types were already established, though not yet perfected, in the 20 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO seventeenth century. The researches of Florence Ingersoll-Smouse 1 facilitate certain classifications. The whole monument was usually enclosed in an arched recess. A first class would include those mau soleums in which the entire form of the deceased was represented,; either kneeling in prayer or half-reclining, on the sarcophagus sur-: rounded by allegorical figures. When kneeling, he was clad in con temporary costume, and the allegories remained disassociated symbols; When reclining, he was often clad in antique draperies, he was con ceived as dying, and the dramatic idea was extended to the allegories,. who were ordinarily brought into unity with him by performing some such activity as the supporting of his body. In a second group of monuments the dead was shown issuing from a coffin at the Resur rection. By the end of Louis XIV's reign, the personification of Death, who had been given a function by Bernini and had been :. represented by Nicolas Blassel as vanquished, had already begun. his career as a prominent sepulchral actor. It had also become the! custom, at first for less affluent patrons, to represent the deceased only' by a bust or by a medallion; sepulchres of this sort may be assigned to. a third class. The bust or medallion might be placed above an epitaph' of a sacred subject or of pure design. The sarcophagus with the alle gories might serve likewise as a base for the bust. In three tombs by Girardon the medallion was set over the sarcophagus against a pyra mid, a decorative element symbolizing immortality the popularity of which now constantly increased. At other times the medallion with out the sarcophagus was simply upheld by an allegorical figure or genius. As a fourth group, there were a few prototypes of the tombs of the eighteenth century in which no effigy appeared but merely a sepulchral urn. The pyramid was employed especially for a fifth ! type, the curious French monuments enshrining the hearts of the dead. For this same purpose an urn was elevated upon a column or' was itself the principal motif. The most characteristic sculptor under Louis XIV was Antoine Coys evox, whose life (1640-1720) was virtually coextensive with his master's. Within the limits of classicism, he was a good artist, pos sessing vigor, invention, high technical ability, and a lively sense of personal beauty. In the sphere of mythology and allegory, the fol lowing works may be taken as typical: the crouching Venus, the charming Nymph with theShell (both based upon antique originals),' the piping Shepherd and young Satyr, the River-god of the Rhone, all in the Louvre; and the mounted Fame and Mercury, done for the royal chateau at Marly and now at the entrance to the gardens of the 1 Florence Ingersoll-Smouse, La sculpture funeraire en France att XVIII' Steele. Fig. 122. SARRAZIN. SEPULCHRAL EFFIGY OF THE CARDINAL DE BERULLE. LOUVRE, PARIS Fig. 123. COYSEVOX. PORTRAIT OF THE SCULPTOR HIMSELF. LOUVRE, PARIS (Photo. Giraudon) FRANCE 21 Tuileries. The statue of Louis XV's mother, Marie Adelaide of Savoy, as Diana, now in the Louvre, like other late works by Coysevox, is transitional to the lighter and more graceful manner of the eighteenth century. It is more highly idealized than his portraits of the grand roi, "in which the sovereign is pompously clad, according to contem porary taste, as a Roman conqueror. Definitive examples of such portraits are the stucco relief of Louis as equestrian conqueror in the Salon de la Guerre at Versailles, and the really impressive standing bronze in the H6tel Carnavalet. The only real chance, however, that a classicist like Coysevox had to practise the old French naturalism was in portrait busts or sepulchral effigies. Of the former, there exist a long series in which the power of the characterization is scarcely dimmed by the tendencies of the times, except in so far as the inevitable wigs create an impression of artificiality. The most memorable in the Louvre are perhaps the bronze bust of the grand Condi, and the marble busts of Colbert, of Le Brun, and especially of himself (Fig. 1 23) . Coysevox was employed on a very large number of tombs, particularly between 1692 and 1702, usually collaborating with others or working upon others' sketches.. On the monument of Colbert, for instance, in St. Eustache, Paris, he did the kneeling effigy and the Abundance. On that of the musician, Lulli, in Notre Dame des Victoires, he probably did the bust. The whole tomb of Le Brun in St. Nicolas du Chardonnet seems to be by his hand. The church of Asnieres-sur-Oise contains a fine sepulchre of his last. period (minus much of the decoration), that of Henri de Lorraine, Comte d'Harcourt, designed by Robert de Cotte. The best known mausoleum upon which he was the chief collaborator and the most pretentious example of the type with the kneeling statue and alle gories was erected for Mazarin and may now be seen in the Louvre. For the monument of the Marquis de Vaubrun in the chapel of the chateau of Serrant, Le Brun designed and Coysevox executed one of those dramatic scenes from domestic life to which so startling a de velopment was given in the eighteenth century. The art of Francois Girardon (1628-1715), Le Brun's favor ite sculptural agent, does ri6t differ essentially from that of his younger, rival, Coysevox. It is somewhat less heroic, more graceful, and there fore more French. Characteristic are the stucco decorations, of the Galerie d'Apollon in the Louvre under the direction of Le Brun and the leaden relief of bathing Nymphs, surprising in their easy freshness and naturalism, for the Fontaine du Bain des Nymphes at Versailles. The small model, in the Louvre, of the large equestrian statue of Louis XIV, which was designed by the painter Mansart and destroyed 22 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO in the Revolution, follows exactly the haughty, classical style of Coysevox's representations of the sovereign. Girardon worked very extensively at Versailles, ordinarily after Le Brun's designs. The Ab duction of Proserpina in the Bosquet de la Colonnade, suggested by Giovanni Bologna's Rape of the Sabine Woman, is distinguished from the majority of Girardon's sculptures by its colossal proportions and extreme frigidity; the pictorial relief around the pedestal is in his more usual and pleasanter manner. The visitor to Versailles should- also not fail to notice the two leaden fountains of the Pyramid and of Saturn or Winter, the latter in the Bassins des Quatre Saisons. The bust of Boileau in the Louvre is a less gripping likeness than Coysevox's portraits. Girardon's most famous work is the tomb of Richelieu in the church of the Sorbonne (Fig. 124), in all probability designed by Le Brun according to a sepulchral scheme which he used in varied ways several times and by which he brought the different figures together in greater unity than Bernini. The top of the sar cophagus is conceived as the bed of death; the dying cardinal is upheld by Religion and lamented by Science at his feet. The bodies and draperies are disposed with a more orderly grace than Coysevox culti vated, and the folds of the garments fall in a languor consonant with the subject. Francois Anguier, Girardon's teacher, had gone so far as to represent the deceased agonizing, although he had not actually draped the sarcophagus as a bed; in the case of another tomb from the many that Girardon executed or helped to execute, the monument of Francois Michel Le Tellier, now in the chapel of the Hospital at Tonnerre, the similarity to Anguier's mausoleum for Henri de Montmorency is so close as again to imply a relationship. The persistent presence of Belgian or Netherlandish artists in the Parisian milieu may be illustrated in the person of Martin van den Bogaard of Breda, called Martin Desjardins (1639 or ^o- 1694). His works, such as the Diana in the gardens of Versailles, are in the French style of the epoch. Most notable are the excellent por trait busts of Colbert and Mignard in the Louvre.1 Robert Le Lorrain, Girardon's principal pupil (1666-1743), who has suffered perhaps more than any other sculptor from the de-: struction of his works in the Revolution, is chiefly remembered for his relief of the Steeds of the Sun over the entrance to the stables of the H6tel de Rohan, now the National Printing-Office. Against a baroque background of clouds and rays, the customary coldness of the two classical nudes is forgotten amidst the superbly rearing horses in one 1 Not to be confused with the bust of Mignard by Girardon (cf. L. Courajod, Le buste de Pierre Mignard, Gazette des Beaux Arts, 1884, I, pp. 153-165). Fig. 124. GIRARDON. TOMB OF RICHELIEU. CHURCH OF THE SORBONNE, PARIS (Photo. Bulloz) Fig. 125. NICOLAS AND GUILLAUME COUSTOU I. LOUIS XIV CROSSING THE RHINE. VERSAILLES (Photo. Fratelli Alinari) FRANCE 23 of the most truly spirited compositions in all sculpture. The formality of the fine design has an architectural appropriateness rare at the period. Coysevox's nephews and pupils, Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou I,1 belong partly to the reign of Louis XV; but although in theory they may have somewhat rebelled against classicism, in fact their style reveals little, if any, divergence from the principles of the grand siecle. The elder, Nicdas (1658-1733), was little more than a gifted follower of his uncle. His achievement may be studied at Versailles in the decorative France Triumphant of the Chambre de Louis XIV. In the Louvre he is well represented by the following works: the relief that he modelled as his morceau de reception into the Academy, Apollo showing to France the bust of Louis XIV; the re posing Adonis; the strongly characterized Julius Caesar; and the standing marble of Louis XIV as Jupiter. The two latter statues have a certain magnificence and animation of pose that the sculptor not infrequently attained. For the pediment of the old Customs House at Rouen, he produced a characteristic allegory of Commerce. In the Hotel de Ville of Lyons is the bronze feminine figure of the Saone, executed originally for the pedestal of Desjardins's equestrian Louis XIV; the companion piece, the masculine figure of the Rhone, was the work of his younger brother, Guillaume I, with whom he often collaborated. Nicolas likewise began and Guillaume finished the stately allegorico-historical relief of Louis XIV crossing the Rhine in the vestibule of the chapel at Versailles (Fig. 125). Guillaume Coustou I (1 677-1746) was perhaps less bound by the classic traditions. Whereas Nicolas was intent on general grandiose impressions and was less concerned with correctness of detail, his brother was of a distinctly more realistic turn of mind. His master pieces are the renowned prancing horses and their nude tamers, done for Marly and now at the entrance to the Champs Elysees (Fig. 126). The subject and general composition were doubtless derived from the Graeco-Roman group on the Quirinal at Rome. The animals are superior in modelling and movement to those of Coysevox, to which they stand opposite on the Place de la Concorde; they do not lose by comparison with those of Le Lorrain. Lady Dilke has pointed out that the use of horses as principal motifs denotes a return from the realm of mythology and allegory to an interest in nature. The statue of Louis XV's queen, Marie Leczinska, as a nymph, in the Louvre, has already the sprightliness and prettiness of the eighteenth century. The bust of his own brother, Nicolas, in the same Museum, has 1 To distinguish him from his son, Guillaume II. 24 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO sloughed off the pompous idealization of the seventeenth century under the spell of the growing and sincerer naturalism. His two kneeling figures for his simple tombs, the cardinal Dubois in St. Roch, Paris, and the cardinal Fortin-Janson in the cathedral of Beauvais, are convincing pieces of characterization. The best known but Overrated French sculptor of the seventeenth century lived away from the atmosphere of the court and the Acad emy — Pierre Puget (1620-1694). Born in Marseilles, at about the age of eighteen he went to Italy and eventually studied a long time in Rome under the painter Pietro da Cortona. Returning to Marseilles in 1643 and changing his residence to Toulon in 1644, he himself exercised the profession of painter, and at this time and throughout his life he was also employed in the navy-yards of Toulon as a decora tor of the garish war-ships of the epoch. During his sojourn in Italy and possibly in a hypothetical later visit to Rome, he interested him self also in the baroque sculpture of Bernini and his pupils. Disasso ciated from the classicism of Paris, he thus became the only thor oughly baroque sculptor among great French masters; but he was characterized by a greater addiction to the colossal and muscular than the Italians of the Secento and by a less highly developed sense of physical beauty. His figures have the passionate elan and wide-flung draperies of the baroque; they are accompanied by the usual pictorial accessories. The taste for the powerful and for contortions belongs to the tradition of Michael Angelo, but with Puget it is only a physical energy, and in the agonized features spiritual expression is absent. As in the case of Giovanni Bologna, there is sometimes an unpleas ant incongruity between the huge forms and the exquisite gestures. Because of such shortcomings, the admirers of Puget are likely to dwell upon his acknowledged mastery of anatomy and technical skill. His first sculptural works, begun in 1656, were the two robust and straining half-lengths of athletes or figures of Atlas supporting the balcony of that south facade of the Hotel de Ville at Toulon of which he was the architect. The decoration of the pedestals with shells helps to give the pictorial effect of the baroque. This achievement gained for him two commissions in the north of France ¦ — the Her cules and the Hydra for the Norman chateau of Vaudreuil, now in the Museum of Rouen, and the sitting Hercule gaulois for Fouquet's palace, now in the Louvre. Fouquet's disgrace sent him for patronage to Genoa, where he executed a series of religious statues in the most typical and extreme baroque style, such as the Sts. Sebastian and Ambrose of S. Maria di Carignano, and the Immaculate Conception Fig. 126. GUILLAUME COUSTOU I. HORSES OF MARLY. CHAMPS ELYSEES, PARIS (Photo. Giraudon) Fig. 127. PUGET. MILO OF CROTON. LOUVRE, PARIS (Photo. Giraudon) FRANCE 25 of the Oratory of S. Filippo Neri. Beginning with about 1670, the protection of Fouquet's successor, Colbert, brought Puget the orders for his three most renowned works, all now in the Louvre, the Milo of Croton (Fig. 127), the Perseus delivering Andromeda, and the relief of Alexander and Diogenes. In consideration of what has already been said of his style, it is necessary here only to point out that the group of Perseus and Andromeda (suggested perhaps by the academic pieces of Giovanni Bologna and Bernini), despite its spirited composition, is in certain respects a failure, particularly in the dis proportionate smallness of the feminine nude. In the Alexander and Diogenes, as the sculptor Falconet later declared, the perspective of architecture is incorrect and arbitrary; nowhere is the fondness for the sturdy Roman types more unrelieved and the obtuseness to beauty of person more unpalatable. The relief of St. Charles Borromeo pray ing against the plague, in the Intendance Sanitaire of Marseilles, done just before Puget's death, is in the pictorial fashion of Algardi, and, judged by absolute standards, one of his best achievements. The Metropolitan Museum, New York, has recently acquired a Marsyas, the characteristics of which are so typical of Puget that the attribution seems justified. Of the several French sculptors who, in their sojourn at Rome, found employment on Italian monuments, one, Pierre Monnot, did almost all his important work while residing in the eternal city, and another, Pierre Le Gros the Younger, became virtually a natu ralized Italian, a follower of Bernini. The former (1657— 1733), during his Roman period, executed chiefly two tombs. The monument of Innocent XI in St. Peter's, after the design of Carlo Maratta, con forms to the type established by Guglielmo della Porta and Bernini. The monument of John Cecil, Count of Exeter, in -.St. Martin's, Stamford, England, was executed by Monnot at Rome and sent to its destination. Curiously enough, it is not Italian, but belongs to the same class as Girardon's sepulchre for Le Tellier. Pierre Le Gros (1666-1719) was one of those who, like Foggini and Serpotta, gave to the baroque that prettier and more feminine tone which announced the advent of the rococo. The group' of Religion vanquishing Heresy beside the altar of St. Ignatius in the Gesu and the Sts. Thomas and Bartholomew that he executed for the series of Apostles in the Lateran follow the more strictly baroque prec edents. The pictorial relief of the Glorification of St. Louis Gonzaga for an altar in S. Ignazio is sweeter and gentler. The same note of the eighteenth century is found in the statue of the dying St. Stanislas Kotzka in S. Andrea al Quirinale, derived from Bernini's Ludovica 26 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO Albertoni and indulging in an extravagant use of marble polychromy. Of four tombs done by him, the most significant at Rome itself is that of Gregory XV in the Ludovisi chapel of S. Ignazio. An elaboration of the type established by Bernini, it adds a canopy over the seated Pope, two figures of Fame (executed by Monnot) flying in the midst of the outspread curtain, a medallion of the cardinal Ludovisi upheld by two putti beneath the sarcophagus, and in four niches of the chapel, four Virtues in stucco (executed by the Italian baroque master, Camillo Rusconi). The mausoleum of Frederic de Bouillon for Cluny, designed by Oppenord and made at Rome by Pierre Le Gros, was so pretentious that the Parliament of Paris forbade its erection. The marble parts may now be seen at Cluny in the Hospital and in the Musee Lapidaire. The most interesting element is the uniting of husband and wife upon the sarcophagus for the first time in a single dramatic episode chosen from the life of the deceased. 5. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE ROCOCO Another period in the history of French sculpture may be broadly limited, on one side, by the accession of Louis XV in 171 5 and, on the other, by the beginning of the Revolution in 1790. The relation be tween this art and that of the preceding century was much the same as between the Gothic styles of the fourteenth and thirteenth centu ries. As the idealism of the thirteenth century became in the four teenth mannered and petty, so in the eighteenth century the old classicism of Louis XIV remained but it was modified by a greater dain tiness and prettiness. The generalizing sentiment of the statuary of the former century gave way to a certain "individualization and even intimacy" of feeling and to the desire for sensitiveness in art. To this sculpture the name of the contemporary architectural style, rococo, is often applied. Rococo really refers to the greater exuberance of architectural decoration which was a further development from the baroque and was loath to leave any part of an edifice unembellished. Compared to the baroque, the rococo ornament is lighter and airier in spirit, more fantastic and saccharine in its motifs, and more adverse to straight lines and angles. The painter Boucher ruled only less ab solutely than Le Brun under Louis XIV, because of the partial de cline of centralization. All interiors were conceived more or less in the mode of a lady's boudoir. When the figure was employed in monumental decoration, it naturally conformed to the prevalent standards; and even detached statues and reliefs, not designed for any building, were affected by the tendency of the time. Sporadically, FRANCE 27 the classical tradition persisted undisturbed; but very generally, especially by the middle of the century, the bodies became slighter, the staidness of the seventeenth century yielded to movement and to great cleverness in its rendition, the draperies floated and wound hither and thither, a statue or a group was cluttered with distracting accessories according to what has been called the "centrifugal" pro clivity of the rococo, and the composition was involved. The ultra- refinement of society was reflected in the extreme nicety and subtlety of the sculpture. There was a note, also, of artificiality in harmony with the temper of contemporary pastoral masqueradings. Even religious sculpture conformed to the general gaiety and sweetness of the rococo. The masculine saints were likely to be conceived as pretty ephebes, the feminine as exquisite shepherdesses. By a strange paradox, in the midst of this factitious civilization, the tendency to return to real nature also manifested itself, inspired in some degree by the writings of Rousseau. The partial destruction of the academic barriers assisted in opening the way to more naturalism in art, especially during the second half of the century. Sometimes the increased naturalism took the shape of a sensuality in accord with French life under Louis XV. Often it did not go very deep, and it was most prominent in the portrait busts and statues. Shaking off the ham pering pomposity of Louis XIV's age, these portraits often avoided even the mannerisms of the rococo, so that, as direct, simple, and vigorous likenesses, they vie with the best that the world has produced. Another influence made for greater freedom. As in the fourteenth century personal patrons succeeded to the cathedral corporations, so now the court lost something of its monopoly upon art and was obliged to share its esthetic interests with the enlightened Parisians. The artistic output was still largely centralized, but the centralization was expanded to include Paris as well as Versailles. The exhibitions in the Salon at Paris became great affairs, and statues executed merely for them or for private dwellings, apart from any architectural or monumental purpose, were one of the innovations of the epoch. The analogy to the second Gothic period, however, should not be pressed too far. Whereas the fourteenth century was artistically inferior to the thirteenth, the style of the eighteenth was certainly superior to that of the seventeenth. In its vivacity and elegance, in its apprecia tion of femininity, in its marvellous skill in reproducing different fabrics and the texture of the skin, the sculpture of the eighteenth century is one of the most characteristic expressions of the French genius. Its greatness is only beginning to be comprehended again in our own day. 28 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO To the more archaeological and quieter form that the French rococo assumed in the second half of the century at the approach of neoclas sicism, the term, the style of Louis XVI, is sometimes applied. The eighteenth century revealed fresh vigor also in its treatment of tombs. The arched recess as a frame was often abandoned. Although the old types still enjoyed some degree of popularity, beside these there appeared the fully developed dramatic mausoleum, already adumbrated in the sepulchral conceptions of Le Brun and here and there virtually realized as in Le Gros's monument for Frederic de Bouillon. However false the theatrical agitation may seem to our eyes, however unsuited to the solemnity of death, yet it must be ad mitted that the age showed astounding ingenuity in devising and sur prising power in executing its conceptions. The allegorical figures were knit together in some action glorifying the deceased, or some event in his life was reproduced allegorically. Most interesting are the several tombs in which Death is one of the actors, now summoning the victim, now struggling with the victim's husband or wife, or with a representative of Immortality. On the other hand, the monu ments were often simple, without any representation of the dead, in cluding, for instance, merely a mourning woman or an urn adorned with flowers by children. During the second half of the century, especially in the dramatic assemblies that the writer Diderot was allowed to plan, the allegories, which now often embodied conjugal love, not infrequently inclined towards sentimentality. At the same time premonitions of the approaching neoclassicism were occasionally manifested in the style of the figures, in a rejection of the sepulchral drama, in the employment of colder, more rhetorical, and less unified allegorical themes, in a commoner substitution of the urn for the effigy of the dead, and in the obtrusion of such antique elements as the stele. 6. THE FIRST GENERATION OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Of the earlier sculptors of the eighteenth century, Edme Bou- chardon (1698-1762), a pupil of Guillaume Coustou I, chiefly upheld the standard of the old classicism, although in his admiration for Graeco-Roman art he was influenced also by the theories of neo classicism. He spent the usual period of study at Rome (1723-1732), where he enjoyed a popularity astonishing for a foreigner. Of his three principal works, the destroyed bronze equestrian statue of Louis XV, known to us in engravings and in two small bronzes of the Museums of the Louvre and Versailles, was most severely academic FRANCE 29 in its stately restraint and classic costume and initiated the fashion of slimmer steeds that was to prevail in the rococo period; it is impossible to determine how far Pigalle, who was commissioned to finish the undertaking at Bouchardon's death, remodelled the latter's ideas for the caryatides and reliefs of the pedestal. His second preeminent achievement, the fountain of the Rue de Grenelle, Paris, has likewise a noble simplicity and lack of involution in architectural composition and detail. The three central figures of Paris, the Seine, and the Marne might almost have been done by Coysevox or Nicolas Cous tou, except that the first is more strictly archaeological in the spirit of the embryonic antiquarianism. The four adolescent genii of the Seasons and the accompanying reliefs of putti, symbolizing the activi ties of the Seasons, are therefore somewhat of a surprise, in that the mannered poses and realistic nudes of the youths and the softness, naturalism, and playfulness of the children smack strongly of the rococo. His Proteus and two putti with marine monsters for the Bassin de Neptune at Versailles still hark back to the preceding century. The conception of Cupid cutting himself a bow from the club of Hercules — his third important work, now in the Louvre — is in the temper of the period. Its lines, however, are so purely classical that it looks as if it came from the hand of Canova. Better perhaps than any other example it illustrates the high finish in which Bouchardon delighted. In general, one gets the impression that his production tended to be labored, conscious, and theoretical. His rather numer ous drawings often exhibit unexpectedly the reviving naturalism of the century. It is curious that he did only two or three portrait busts and that these are not very incisive characterizations. Jean Baptiste Lemoyne (1704-1778) was the son of a sculp tor, Jean Louis Lemoyne, and was called the Second to distinguish him from his uncle who had an identical name and who followed the same profession. He inaugurated the style of Louis XV more definitely than Bouchardon. His non-extant equestrian statue of Louis XV at Bordeaux did not vary essentially from the classical norm; but the bronze model in the Louvre for the destroyed monu ment to Louis XV at Rennes shows him working in a more gallant and less stilted manner than that employed by the seventeenth cen tury for similar enterprises. The finely animated figure of the King stands upon a shield upborne by kneeling soldiers. His Bathing Flora has the daintiness and feminine charm so peculiar to the period; and he has projected this mood even into the religious sphere in his Baptism in St. Roch, Paris. It is his long series of busts that in their directness, liveliness, and lack of affectation best proclaim the new 30 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO age. Typical are the Fontenelle at Versailles, the architect Gabriel of the Louvre (Fig. 1 28), the Due de Richelieu in the George J. Gould Collection, N. Y., the actress Mile. Dangeville in. the Theatre Fran-: cais, and another actress in the Andre Collection, which possesses several of Lemoyne's works. His most famous bust is the Mile; Clairon in the Theatre Francais. Michel-Ange Slodtz (1705-1764), the son of a sculptor who had immigrated from Antwerp, and a distinguished representative of the energetic animation sometimes found in the eighteenth century^ was the author of two most impressive and characteristic tombs. Both of them possess in a superb degree the baroque feeling for magnificent effects. The monument of the Archbishop de Montmorin in the cathedral of Vienne was ordered by the Cardinal de la Tour d'Au- vergne in 1740, and finished in 1747. It embodies the nearest ap-- proach to a straightforward treatment of an episode in the life of the deceased, without the intervention of allegory. Upon a sarcophagus and in front of a pyramid, the former prelate, beautifully posed and executed, chooses as his successor his friend, the second prelate, clad in the augustly sweeping robes of his office. It is allegorical in so far as it represents, not an actual event, but a crystallization of Mont- morin's desire. The other tomb, with rich polychrome effects of marble and bronze, for the Abbe Languet de Gergy, in St. Sulpice, Paris, follows the more ordinary tradition. For the principal motif, an angel is conceived as showing to the kneeling priest the beatitude of the future life; in the background of flying fabric spread by the angel, the vanquished spectre of Death succumbs. Slodtz also has left numerous works at Rome, where he resided as a younger man for many years. 7. THE SECOND GENERATION OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Of the second generation of sculptors under Louis XV, Jean Bap tiste Pigalle (1714-1785), a pupil of LeLorrain and Lemoyne, was perhaps the most comprehensive embodiment of his age. He illus trated all its aspects, some of them, however, not in their most pro nounced form. The favorite of Mme. de Pompadour, in the decade from 1750 to 1760 he devoted himself to typically rococo themes, such as the representation of that lady as Amitie, now in the Collection of Edouard de Rothschild, Paris, and the group of Amour and Amitie in the Louvre, the latter figure of which is a less exact likeness of the King's mistress. Throughout his life he occasionally turned to these subjects. Among his separate ideal statues, his masterpiece is the Fig. 128. LEMOYNE. BUST OF GABRIEL. LOUVRE, PARIS Fig. 129. PIGALLE. MERCURY. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, N. Y. (Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum) FRANCE 31 Mercury attaching his sandals, which was already ideated before he re turned from Rome and which exists in three famous repetitions, the first terracotta sketch in the Altman Collection at the Metropolitan Museum (Fig. 129), a marble statuette in the Louvre (his morceau de reception), and a large marble in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin. The choice of a kinetic rather than a static moment, the other pictorial elements, the complication of attitude, the svelte grace of the body, the anatomical science, and technical dexterity — all these qualities make the Mercury a touchstone by which we may prove the art of the eighteenth century. The companion piece of a seated Venus, also in the Museum of Berlin, though characteristic of the period, is less inter esting and rather vapid. To the same iconographical range belongs the girl Thorn-Extractor in the Andre Collection, Paris, recently recog nized as a late work of Pigalle. He appealed to the taste of his con temporaries also in his forms of children engaged in pretty little activities; the most accessible examples are the two infants of the Louvre, one with a bird and apple and the other with a deserted bird cage. Even in the religious sphere he transfused his Virgins of St. Eustache and of St. Sulpice, Paris, with the loveliest phase of rococo charm. In general, nevertheless, his feminine figures do not accord quite so thoroughly with the standards of the time as do those of Falconet and Clodion. They are not so essentially permeated with that fashionable, graceful subtlety. They are more serious and less bewitching. Pigalle himself possessed a robust and vigorously masculine character and had to accommodate his style to the taste of his day; but he expressed himself more naturally in public monuments and stately tombs. Several of the works already mentioned illustrate that side of his ar tistic personality which made of him the most definite exponent of the trend towards realism in the eighteenth century. The faithfulness to actuality in the first terracotta sketch for the Mercury is partially sacrificed in ever increasing degree, together with other small changes, first in the. marble statuette and then in the statue at Berlin. The girl Thorn-Extractor depends more closely upon the model than the nymphs of Falconet or Allegrain, and the bodies of Pigalle's putti are triumphs of naturalistic skill. In the extant symbolic bronze figures of Beneficent Government and the Contented Citizen on the base of his destroyed statue of Louis XV at Reims, the old academic tradition for public commemorative allegories is modified by greater realism and ease. The nude Citizen is a portrait of Pigalle. The high degree of anatomical skill here exhibited is paralleled in other achievements of his, and may be partially explained by his friendship with physicians, 32 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO of whom he did at least four portrait busts. A misunderstanding of ancient practice, a desire for the heroic, and perhaps the suggestion of Diderot combined with this anatomical enthusiasm to provoke the incredible anomaly of representing Voltaire as nude in the statue now in the entry of the Library of the Institut, Paris, and of using an old soldier as the model for the body. Pigalle was not the greatest and most popular portraitist of his time, and yet he has bequeathed to posterity a number of distinguished busts, which outdo those of Houdon in the quality of realism. Only two feminine busts are extant, one of which, that of Mme. de Pompa dour, America is fortunate enough to possess in the Collection of Jules S. Bache, New York. But in portraits as in ideal figures he es sayed the forms of women with less success than those of men. In the list of his most powerful characterizations, the names of the following sitters should be mentioned: George Goguenot (De Soucy Collec tion, Paris) ; Thomas Desfriches and his negro servant (Museum of Orleans); Dr. Ferrein (Ecole de Medecine, Paris); Voltaire (in the possession of Mme. Jacques Gompel, Paris); Major Guerin and Diderot (both in the Louvre). The tombs by Pigalle incorporate the highest development of the sepulchral drama.1 He here attained that grandeur of style which was often suppressed in him by the tyranny of the rococo. The most famous tomb was erected for the great French Marshal, the German-born Comte de Saxe, in the church of St. Thomas at Strass- burg (Fig. 130). From the steps of a pedestal, at the back of which rises the pyramid with the inscription, the erect Comte de Saxe de scends towards the sarcophagus beneath, the lid of which is held open by Death. At the left of the sarcophagus, Hercules mourns, a symbol of Fortitude or of the French army. At the Marshal's left, the figure of France tries to defend him from Death; behind her, a mourning Cupid is said to stand for the general's conquests in love. At his right, the leopard of England, the lion of Flanders, and the eagle of the Empire are represented in discomfiture. His effigy, from the standpoints of realism, majestic pose, and dignified movement, is one of the supreme achievements of the century. Another great mausoleum for another great Marshal of France, Henri Claude, Comte d'Harcourt, in the cathedral of Paris, was built by Pigalle towards the end of his life. According to a dream of the countess, her husband's cadaver struggles out of the coffin. Death stands at his head, and his wife kneels in the foreground beseeching for his deliver- 1 The attribution to Pigalle of the monument of the Marquis Ludwig Wilhelm in the Pfarrkirche at Baden-Baden is now discredited. Fig. 130. PIGALLE. TOMB OF COMTE DE SAXE. ST. THOMAS, STRASSBURG (Photo. Braun) Fig. 131. FALCONET. BATHING GIRL. LOUVRE, PARIS (Photo. Braun) FRANCE 33 ance. A mourning Hymen or guardian angel at his feet adds to the conjugal sentimentality that is so common a sepulchral theme in the second half of the century. Pigalle' s rival and, to a certain extent, enemy was the alternately brusque and kindly E tien ne Maurice Falconet (1716-1791), who has succeeded to a revived popularity in our own day and who may well be reckoned the greatest French sculptor of the mid-eighteenth century. He studied under Lemoyne, but his morceau de reception, a small marble group of Milo of Croton and the Lion, in the Louvre, indicates his admiration for Puget. Very different in composition from Puget's work, it has the complication and projecting details of the rococo. Yet Falconet's interest in Puget betokens a more essen tially sculptural nature than was usual in the eighteenth century. Ex cept in his small decorative pieces, he did not again indulge in the "centrifugal" proclivity. His true and noble plastic sense was, how ever, often more or less sacrificed to the exigencies of contemporary taste. One has to go to his writings, which have been collected in six volumes, to find what his ideals really were. Born of humble parents, he acquired through his own efforts, not only his artistic training, but a familiarity with ancient and with the French literature of his day. An intimate friend of Diderot, in addition to the practice of his art, he found time to be an indefatigable reader throughout his life. After his departure from Petrograd in 1778, he surrendered himself wholly to the gathering and publication of his separate essays, although for the last eight years he was an invalid. Despite the fact that he appreci ated the antique and through its inspiration sought to curb the extrav agant and unsculptural tendencies of the rococo, his writings are directed, first, against the excessive devotion to ancient art that was preparing the way for neoclassicism. Because the archaeological movement was championed by famous men of letters, he was obliged to take up the pen, in the second place, against the whole practice of esthetic criticism by litterateurs, ancient and modern, who were not themselves sculptors or painters and who, therefore, he believed, could not be adequate judges. The hostility to an indiscriminate accept ance of the antique appears in his earliest essay, the Reflections on Sculpture, and here he also declaims against the frivolity and lack of concentration in the rococo, a reaction from which he partially achieved in his own production. On the other hand, it is in accord with, at least, some of the sculpture of his time, that he proclaims the essence of nature, rather than its superficialities, as the proper goal of the artist. 34 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO After the Milo, Falconet did not really find himself until 1750. Then followed a series of typical works in marble. In the Music of the Louvre, done for Madame de Pompadour, he calmed and restrained the flutterings and involutions of the rococo that appear in their most unmistakable form in the companion piece, the Lyric Poetry of Lam bert Sigisbert Adam. The Bathing Girl of the Louvre (Fig. 131), a motif essayed by many sculptors because it was so much in harmony with the spirit of the epoch, is the first of several similar statues or statuettes which illustrate the return to nature and which, in their realization of feminine loveliness, again today command an expensive market. Its greater truth and its freedom from Lemoyne's rococo mannerisms in the treatment of the same subject are characteristic of Falconet. The Galatea of the Pygmalion group, preserved to us in small marble and porcelain copies, has the same charm from which even pictorial accessories cannot detract. In the Amour Menaqant of the Louvre, he tried his hand at Pigalle's specialty of children. Al though the Cupid has Falconet's peculiar winsomeness, the modelling is less accurate and realistic than his rival's. Like the majority of his contemporaries, he furnished models for the manufacture of Sevres china, which was then the rage in small decorative pieces for interiors, and his larger works were also repeated in the medium. From 1757 to 1766 he was superintendent of the modelling. The drawings of the painter Boucher often were forced upon the sculptors as the basis for their models, but Falconet some times managed to adapt them to his own ideas. These objects of virtu were also frequently executed in marble. The question of au thenticity is a difficult one because others successfully imitated Fal conet's style. Besides several examples of sitting bathers or of groups in which the feminine form is prominent, the most important un doubted work is the clock of the three Graces, existing in marble in the Camondo Collection of the Louvre and also in a number of Sevres repetitions. As Edmund Hildebrandt has shown, in contrast to the impression of true maidenhood achieved in his larger statues, he here conformed more to the standard of Boucher and the rococo, which sought to fuse the general effect of adolescence with the fully de veloped feminine physique. At the same time Falconet was adorning the church of St. Roch with baroque religious sculpture, of which only Christ in Gethsemane and the decorative sections are extant. The culmination of his career was the bronze statue of Peter the Great at Petrograd, which shares with Saly's monument of Frederick V at Copenhagen the honor of alone being preserved from the many French equestrian figures FRANCE 35 erected at this period. He was absent at Petrograd from 1766 to 1778, highly esteemed by Catherine II, his friendly correspondence with whom may still be read. He himself finally had to undertake the casting, the history of which is almost as interesting as that of Cellini's Perseus. The statue was not unveiled until 1782, four years after his departure. According to the proclivities of the age and perhaps in de pendence upon Puget's sketch for an equestrian statue of Louis XIV, both rider and horse are represented in activity, the former blessing his people and the splendid animal prancing in the air. Though the sovereign is clad in classical costume, the conception is completely different from the usual equestrian compositions of the seventeenth and, for that matter, of the eighteenth century. The choice of a bare, unhewn rock for a pedestal denotes the originality that occasionally dared to show itself at this period. The head of Peter the Great the master entrusted to his pupil, Marie Anne Collot (1748-1821), who has left us several excellent busts, among them that of Falconet himself in the Hermitage at Petrograd. For Catherine II, who ordered the monument, Falconet did a medallion upheld by a lovely feminine allegorical personification, now in the Andre Collection. Christophe Gabriel Allegrain (1710—1795), Pigalle's brother-in-law, is remembered for two bathing ladies in the Louvre, one dubbed a Diana, which appeal to the same taste as Falconet's similar creations but which, though more coldly classical, are yet less chaste and girlish. Of the many other sculptors belonging to the second generation, two more must be singled out for special mention. Guillaume Coustou II (1716-1777), the son of Guillaume I, inclined more and more to neoclassicism. His two great mythological works are the Venus and Mars in the palace at Potsdam. Both have some rococo accessories; the Venus has much of the delicate charm that the eight eenth century lent to feminine nudes, but the Mars is a closer approxi mation to the antique. At the end of his life, he carried out his other important commission, the tomb of the Dauphin, Louis XV's son, and the Dauphine in the cathedral of Sens. Designed by Cochin, who took suggestions from the last of four of Diderot's plans for the monument, it is typical of the second half of the century in its sub stitution of urns for the effigies, in the classicism of its figures, and in its stress upon domestic pathos, in this case justified by the love of the royal pair. On one side of the monument, Religion places a wreath of stars upon two urns, Immortality forms a trophy of the attributes of the Virtues, and at their feet mourns a little genius of the Arts and Sciences with his symbols. On the other side, the mas- 36 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO culine personification of Time stretches a veil from the urn of the Dauphin to that of the Dauphine, and Hymen looks at an infant who is breaking a chain of flowers. All the figures are beautifully executed in the cold and statuesque manner of the neoclassicists; the Hymen, particularly, as Lady Dilke has surmised, may be derived from an Antinous. Jean Jacques Caffieri (1725-1792), belonging, like so many of these men, to a numerous and long established family of artists, although he produced a large amount of sculpture of other kinds, lays a claim upon the consideration of posterity principally because of his portrait busts. Of these the most famous are the- ten examples of literary and theatrical celebrities for the Theatre Francais. His busts, though excellent characterizations, are often not so simple and direct as those by Houdon. He sought to give them the effect of decorative sculptures by turning the drapery and even the hair in pretty rococo swirls. Particularly upon the portraits of dramatic writers long dead, such as that of Rotrou (Fig. 132), he impressed a certain haughtiness and heroic idealization. A degree of the samp thing is perceptible in the likenesses of his contemporaries, such as Nivelle de la Chaussee and Piron. The Corneille and Racine are less assuming. Apparently he made a specialty of the histrionic profes'- sion; the delightful plaster bust of a Danseuse in the Library of the town of Versailles is one of three versions of the same subject. Caffieri should be of interest to Americans because he constructed a cenotaph without figures for General Montgomery, now to be seen under the portico of St. Paul's, New York, and because he made at least-six busts of Benjamin Franklin. The only one that is now known is that of the Institute of France, Paris. Though it has the penetrating and nervous gaze peculiar to Caffieri's portraits, it is fittingly executed iii a plain style without affectation. The busts of Franklin seen in this country are usually copies after the type of Caffieri, not, as has been wrongly supposed, after the type of the Italian Ceracchi, who, as far as we know, never did a portrait of the American diplomat. Houdon^s type did not achieve such a vogue in the United States. 8. THE THIRD GENERATION OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY The mention of Houdon supplies a transition to the third generation of sculptors, who lived through the beginning of the nineteenth cen tury but were only slightly affected by the new tendencies. Augus- tin Pajou (1 730-1 809), a pupil of Lemoyne, remained a confirmed devotee of the rococo until the latter part of his life, stressing pleas- Fie. 132. CAFFIERI. BUST OF ROTROU. COMEDIE FRANCAISE, PARIS Fig. 133. CLODION. NYMPH AND SATYR. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, N. Y. (Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum) FRANCE 37 antly the sweetness of the style, gifted with too great productive facility, and therefore often rather slovenly in his modelling. Char acteristic are the Bacchante and Marie Leczinska as Charity in the Louvre and the extensive sculptural decoration of the Opera at Ver sailles. His busts, the most famous of which is the Mme. du Barry of the Louvre, are among the best of the period. By his sixtieth year, however, he had begun, in the Psyche of the Louvre, to make conces sions to the new movement. His soft sensuality, to be sure, he has but slightly modified in the figure itself, but in the decorative motifs of the seat and cushion he has become an archaeologist. Claude Michel, called Clodion (1738-18 14), like Pajou, whose son-in-law he was until his young wife, apparently with good reason, divorced him, managed throughout the greater part of his life to steer clear of the icebergs of neoclassicism. He was born at Nancy. His father became a mediocre sculptor late in life, and on his mother's side Clodion was connected with the well-known family of sculptors of Lorraine named Adam. He actually studied under the artistic head of this family, his uncle, Lambert Sigisbert Adam, and for a few months also with Pigalle. A long period of training he spent at Rome, from 1762 to 1 77 1, and on his return was able to secure for himself an important position in the Parisian milieu. It is indeed curious that the rococo should have waited until the moment of its dissolution to find in him its most pronounced exponent. He first realized the full possibilities of its daintiness and playfulness. He treated his abundant nudes with more fresh naturalism than any of his predecessors or contemporaries. Sensuality he often turned into licentiousness, and he reflected the temper of his art in his own loose morality. No other attained to such a degree of the alertness of movement demanded by the esthetic ideals of his day; his figures are on the qui vive, and even the mouths are usually open. The supreme dexterity with which he met the exigencies of this animation and of other aspects of his art is another token of the times. His subjects of predilection were nymphs and satyrs, bacchantes, sports of Nereids, and romps of putti. It is by this, the principal phase of his achievement, that the personality of Clodion is usually defined. It was employed in decorative friezes for houses but especially in small statuettes and groups of terracotta, a medium in which his facile hand and his genius for improvisation expressed his conceptions most characteristically. With his brothers and other partners and assistants he constituted a firm for the production of these objects, and they extended their enterprise to include the adornment of such articles as candelabra, vases, and clocks. Because of his commercial interests and for other reasons 38 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO he was never actually admitted to the Academy, luckily perhaps, for his style may thus have remained more spontaneous. Nor did he find patronage with the court so much as with the private amateurs of Paris. The firm employed also other mediums than terracotta, for instance, marble, plaster, and porcelain; and Clodion himself used stone and marble for his larger figures and panels. There seems to have been little connection between him and the manufactory at Sevres. But he had at his command another style, and if he had so willed, he might have been a great monumental sculptor. As evidence, we may refer to the baroque St. Cecilia for the choir-screen of the cathe dral of Rouen, now in a side chapel, and to a still greater surprise, one of the noblest French portraits, the majestically draped and con ceived statue of Montesquieu, ordered by D'Angiviller, Louis XVI's architectural director, to be one of a series of great Frenchmen and now in the Institute of France. The relief of St. Cecilia's death for the choir-screen has more of rococo prettiness and elaboration. His better known style may be illustrated, in architectural decora tion, by the little fauns and their mothers about the oculi, and the panels of sporting putti as friezes, in the court of the Hotel de Cham- brun^Paris, and, somewhat less agitated and more monumental than was his wont, the panels of the four Seasons on a facade in the Rue de Bondy. Among the best of his terracottas are the Faun and Fauness with their children in the Cluny Museum, the Bacchus and Nymph of the Andre Collection, and the Satyr and Nymph of the Altman Collection in the Metropolitan Museum (Fig. 133). After the Revolution, which drove him for a time to Nancy, Clo dion, though he still produced some works in his old manner, demon strated the breadth of his genius by passing successfully into the ranks of the neoclassicists. A typical example is the relief of the entry of the French into Munich on the Arc du Carrousel. Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828) was the greatest French sculptor of the epoch covered by the seventeenth and eighteenth cen turies and one of the greatest sculptors of all times. His achievement is the more amazing when we remember that he was the son of a domestic servant in a private house at Versailles and progressed, with out the stimulus of an artistic family or financial and personal back ing, merely by the force of his own talent. He advanced steadily in the local schools until he obtained the Prix de Rome, and spent four years in the eternal city. After his return in 1768, his life, despite the political upheavals and changes, was one long period of triumphant artistic fecundity. In 1785 he visited America that he might familiar- FRANCE 39 ize himself with Washington, for whose statue he had received the order. Houdon impresses us as very modern because, like so much recent art, his production is more or less independent of any esthetic move ment or century and is the sincere expression of his own ideas. If it were not for the costume and characterization of his portraits, it would be hard to say when they were created. He largely disembarrassed himself of contemporary tendencies and enrolled himself in the school of nature. The return to nature, was, indeed, one of the elements of eighteenth-century art, but Houdon followed her as a preceptress with far more absolute devotion than could have been inspired by the timid naturalism of his day, already half engulfed under the growing tide of neoclassicism. If his style must be traced to some source, it should rather be described as a revival of French medieval realism. In a few of his imaginative statues, he inevitably paid homage to the tastes of his fellows. His beautifully modelled morceau de reception for the Academy, the marble Morpheus of the Louvre, is a rococo modification of the style of Louis XIV. In the marble Baigneuse of the Altman Collection he surpassed Falconet in Falconet's own man ner. In the two marble groups of busts of kissing couples, formerly in the Morgan Collection,1 he successfully and delightfully intruded into Clodion's sphere. The Vestal Virgin of 1 787, formerly in the same Collection, may be remotely derived from the so-called Pandora of the Capitoline Museum, and is somewhat neoclassic; yet even here Houdon's instinct led him to avoid the hardness of the style by soften ing the lineaments of the countenance and by disposing the dra peries with a noble but gentle grace. On the other hand, the St. Bruno, which he did while at Rome for S. Maria degli Angeli, belongs neither to the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the baroque, nor the rococo. It is a simple and unaffected portrait of some Carthusian monk, properly idealized for the religious purpose. Another renowned early work, the Diana, is classical only in subject and rococo only in its love of femininity. In reality, it is a superb and naturalistic study of a feminine nude. It exists in at least five replicas of life-size, two of them of a type that treats the nude with the utmost frankness. Of these two, the marble in the Hermitage at Petrograd is the better known; of the other three (in one of which, the -plaster of the Museum of Gotha, the slight modification in the interests of decency seems certainly due to Houdon himself), the bronze in the Louvre is the most accessible. The same comparative immunity from contemporary tendencies ap- 1 For the replicas of Houdon's works, cf. Georges Giacometti, Houdon et son ipoque, vols. II and III. 40 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO pears in the Shivering Woman or Winter, which he repeated, with some variation, several times and which is most familiar in the mar ble of the Museum at Montpellier. But it is rather his vast number of portrait busts and his few por trait statues, many of them done for Americans, which have made Houdon's fame secure and which most unmistakably demonstrate his independence of any school. No other sculptor, except a few of the greatest Italian masters of the fifteenth century, has realized so well the aim of true portraiture, the emphasis upon the most characteristic traits of the sitter, to the exclusion of the irrelevant, and the ennoble ment and beautification of the whole so that, in addition to a likeness, the portrait becomes an enduring work of art. As Rodin has said, Houdon's busts reveal even the period, race, and profession of their subjects. He concentrated special effort upon the vividness of the glance, and he took pains to render the individual variations from the norm in each countenance. In addition to the statue of Wash ington in the Capitol at Richmond, he executed busts of the following Americans : Washington (the terracotta example in the Louvre is par ticularly memorable; the Morgan Library contains the mask taken from life) ; Franklin (of the examples in this country, especially the marble of the Metropolitan Museum and the plaster of the Boston Athenaeum); Paul Jones (Fig. 134, the terracotta example in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts) ; Jefferson (casts from the lost original in the New York Historical Society and the American Philo sophical Society, Philadelphia); Robert Fulton (a plaster in the Dubosc Collection, Le Havre, and a terracotta in the National Acad emy of Design, New York); Joel Barlow (plasters in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and at New York in the National Acad emy of Design and the Historical Society; probably authentic marble in the possession of Judge P. T. Barlow, New York). His most re nowned portrait is perhaps that of the seated Voltaire in the Theatre Francais (Fig. 135), of whom he made also many busts; the costume of an ancient sage, in contrast to the ineffective nudity employed by Pigalle, is a contributory factor in alleviating the realism of the countenance and of the sardonic smile and in disengaging it from the ephemeral. Of his other busts, those of the following persons deserve the superlative: the the oughly royal Madame Victoire, the aunt of Louis XVI, in the Wallace Collection, London; his own wife (terracotta example formerly in the Morgan Collection) ; his daughter Sabine at the age of ten months (marble in the Gary Collection, and plaster in the Lydig Collection, New York); the children of the architect Brongniart, Alexandre and Louise (in the Louvre; marble Fig. 134. HOUDON. BUST OF PAUL JONES. PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS, PHILADELPHIA (Courtesy of Detroit Publishing Co. and of the Pennsylvania Academy) Fig. 135. HOUDON. VOLTAIRE. COMEDIE FRANgAISE, PARIS (Photo. Giraudon) FRANCE 41 of the former in the Widener Collection, marble variant of the latter in the Altman Collection) ; La Fayette, in the State Library at Rich mond; the mathematician Laplace, in the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, Paris; Louis XVI and Napoleon as Emperor, both at Versailles; Lavoisier, Buffon, and Mirabeau in the Louvre (in the last, as in the bust of Gluck, even the pock-marks are indicated, but the effect is re lieved by Houdon's customary partial idealization) . CHAPTER XVIII THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND i. BELGIUM THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. INTRODUCTION For remaining Catholic, Belgium was rewarded by receiving, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, an abundant decoration of re ligious sculpture. The necessity of readorning and refurnishing the churches, which had suffered so much from the devastation wrought by the religious wars and persecutions of the preceding century, called forth a kind of second Renaissance of Flemish art. The tradition of Italian schooling, established at the beginning of the sixteenth century, persisted, and the production of this period was therefore essentially baroque. Even during the real Renaissance the sculpture of Flanders had especially tended towards this consummation. Italianism was often affected by the form that it took in Rubens, and the great painter sometimes provided sketches upon which the sculptors worked. His buxom feminine figures were peculiarly popular. French culture, however, obtained such a domination over Europe by the second half of the seventeenth century that a certain amount of French influence upon Belgian art was a foregone conclusion. Parisian artists, indeed, were still partly recruited from Flanders, as in the Middle Ages, and the sculpture in Belgium itself now and then inclined towards French classicism. In particular, the dramatic and allegorical tombs of France were occasionally imitated. Sometimes, nevertheless, the simple old medieval form of sepulchre was kept, a high base with re cumbent effigy, and not seldom this was covered by a canopy sur rounded by allegorical figures. In another type, the deceased was represented as sleeping on his side upon the sarcophagus. Since sculp tured production, just as in medieval Flanders, was still considered largely industrial, artistic individualities do not yet stand out sharply, and marked differences in style are hard to distinguish. As in France, the profession of sculpture was often exercised by whole families. The craftsmen of Belgium profited by extensive patronage in England and Germany, which in the seventeenth century did not develop adequate schools of their own. 42 THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 43 THE TRANSITION In the first half of this century, the field was occupied by the Italian style that was transitional from the late Renaissance to the baroque. Its representatives were chiefly the families Colyns de Nole of Antwerp and the Duquesnoy of Brussels. The tabernacle in St. Martin's, Alost, shows Jer6me Duquesnoy I, the father (before 1570-1641), to have been a belated and uninteresting exponent of the late Renaissance. Of the sons, Francois has already been studied as one of the classicists opposed to Bernini at Rome. The other son, Jer6me II (1602- 1654), was also trained at Rome, but he brought back his brother's manner to their native land. His masterpiece is the tomb of the Bishop Anton Triest in the cathedral of Ghent, ordered from Francois, but executed almost wholly by Jerome. Like many Flemish mausoleums of the epoch, it is set against the inside of the choir enclosure and looks out into the church through a screen of openwork in the background. The monument itself is derived from Italian sepulchres of the late Renaissance, and the indebtedness of Flanders to Italy at this time is revealed by the dependence of almost every figure upon an Italian prototype. In the midst of a structure of black marble trimmed with white, remotely suggested by the triumphal arch and framed by twisted white columns, the sarcophagus with little genii and the in scription rests upon the pavement and is surmounted by the reclining figure of the prelate, inspired by Ammanati's effigy of the Cardinal del Monte in S. Pietro in Montorio, Rome, and executed with realistic inspiration. In the two niches of the background are the Saviour, suggested by Michael Angelo's Christ of the Minerva, and the Virgin, perhaps derived from the Susanna of Francois Duquesnoy. The use of two statues at the head and feet of the deceased, one of them often allegorical, is a Belgian sepulchral custom that may be traced back at least as far as Du Broeucq. Above, putti support the escutcheon, on the sarcophagus a pair of putti extend the inscription, and beside the sarcophagus two more (by Francois) hold, respectively, an hour-glass and a reversed torch. Jerome also patterned after his brother in the manufacture of small ivories. With the exception of the expatriated Francois Duquesnoy, the most talented sculptor in this transitional group was Artus Quel- lin I (1609-1668), a pupil of Francois and a member of another artistic family of Antwerp. He reminds us of contemporary French classicists, but he had more respect for nature and a more pronounced inclination towards the baroque. His greatest undertaking, in con junction with his disciples, was the elaborate decoration of the ex terior and interior of the Town Hall, now the Royal Palace, at 44 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO Amsterdam. In the east pediment, which is incomplete, the feminine personification of the city is honored by the deities of the ocean; in the west, by the allegorical figures of the Dutch colonies, bringing their gifts from the different parts of the world. Above the pediments stand other allegorical figures. The masterpiece of Artus Quellin is the east wall of the court-room. Four caryatides, two symbolizing Dis grace and two Punishment, support an entablature, under which are three large reliefs, Brutus and his sons, the Judgment of Solomon, and Zaleucus sacrificing himself for his son, standing respectively for Justice, Wisdom, and Mercy. The reliefs reveal a moderate form of the baroque pictorial treatment. The caryatides, the opulence of whose forms is derived from Rubens, possess the surprising naturalism in the modelling of the nude that is characteristic of Quellin. The rest of the interior is full of allegorical and mythological figures and reliefs by the master and his assistants. Another typical work by Quellin is the group of Hercules and Fame around the arms of Plantin over the entrance to the Musee Plantin-Moretus at Antwerp; forms like those evolved by French classicism, except for their greater freshness, are set in the midst of baroque accessories. The marble bust of the bur gomaster De Graeff in the Ryks Museum, Amsterdam, goes about as far in individualization as the portraits by Coysevox, which it resembles. Another pupil of Francois Duquesnoy was the Carthusian, Rob ert Henrard (1617-1676), active at Liege. The statues of Con- stantine and of St. Helen in the church of Ste. Croix are excellent examples of the kind of religious sculpture created by those who stood intermediate between the Renaissance and the baroque. THE DEVELOPED SCULPTURE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY The sculptor who most faithfully transcribed the ideas of Rubens into his own mediums was Lucas Fayd'herbe (1617-1697), a member of an artistic family of Malines and an actual and beloved pupil of the painter. His most accessible productions are in the churches of Malines and Brussels. The tomb of Jean de Marchin and his wife, in the church of Modave, is a sepulchral monument of the old medieval type, with two recumbent figures of honest workmanship upon a high base. On the tomb of the Archbishop Cruesen, however, against the enclosure of the choir in the cathedral of Malines, the deceased kneels dramatically, against the usual open screen, before the risen Christ. The other of the two customary statues on Belgian sepulchres is the figure of Time behind the prelate. He also did small ivories after Rubens's designs, for instance, a charming goblet in the THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 45 Art-History Museum, Vienna, and a no less lovely salt-cellar in the Historical Museum, Stockholm. Baroque traits may be seen in most of Fayd'herbe's output, but the chief representative of this style in its developed form during the second half of the seventeenth century was Bernini's close pupil, Jean Delcour, active principally in Liege (1 627-1 707). His draperies are thrown into an even more confused agitation than those of Bernini; but he was a sculptor of greater distinction than has usu ally been accredited to him, and he was endowed with a noble sense of personal beauty. In addition to his essentially religious work, he was in demand for the erection of tombs. The monument of the Bishop Eugene d'Allamont in the cathedral of Ghent is like the first dramatic tombs of France, except that the sacred figures are much more Italian. The prelate kneels upon a sarcophagus engaged in a colloquy with Death, who holds the Biblical inscription proclaiming the universal mortality of mankind. At the head of the sarcophagus, upon a ledge, stands the Virgin with the Child, according to the Flemish sepulchral arrangement; at the foot is an angel with a flaming sword. Dramatic unity is obtained by the Child's bestowal of a benediction and the angel's protecting gesture. Compared to the fine effigy of this tomb, the sepulchral figure of the Countess d'Hinnisdael, done towards' the end of Delcour's life for her tomb in the church of the Hospital at Tongres, is already weak and mannered in the worst rococo fashion. The bronze sepulchral bust of the episcopal Chancellor Lambert de Liverloo in the Archaeological Museum at Liege has the power of Bernini's and Algardi's portraits; the vestments are cleverly and beautifully disposed so as to give the fullest value to the different stuffs and to avoid monotony. Another dramatic mausoleum in the cathedral at Ghent was erected towards the end of the seventeenth century for the Archbishop Philippe van der Noot by several sculptors, on the designs of the painter Louis Cnudden. The prelate sinks upon the sarcophagus, in a posture perhaps suggested by Girardon's Richelieu, and his gaze is directed by an angel to a group of the Flagellation upon a pedestal at the foot of the bier; beneath the crowning arch putti cling to an obliquely placed cross. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY In the eighteenth Century, the baroque continued to reign, now with extreme license, until the classical revival, but the sacred figures often assumed the rococo modifications. The most peculiarly Belgian ex pression of the style is found in the wooden pulpits, which carry the extravagances of the baroque to their furthest point. With the wood 46 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO was occasionally combined the use of marble. The structure was made into a pictorial scene, which looks like a section from one of the old- fashioned panoramas of about 1 890. The lower part or even the_ whole pulpit became a bower of landscape or a rocky grotto, sometimes con cealing the box of the pulpit altogether. In the midst 0/ this setting, a religious or allegorical episode is enacted by large figures in the round. The canopy over the pulpit was also treated in the elaborate pictorial manner, carved with clouds and putti, with a sacred figure among baroque appurtenances, or with a continuation of the landscape from below. The balustrades and other parts were laden with such baroque details as large birds and foliage and with the properties required by the scene. When the body of the pulpit was not concealed, its sides were bedecked with medallions of sacred personages, less often of sacred episodes. Typical examples are: the pulpits of St. Jean, Ma lines, with the chief episode of the Good Shepherd, and of Notre Dame d'Hanswyck, Malines, with the Sin of Adam, both by The odor Verhaegen (1701-1759); the pulpit of the cathedral of Brussels (Fig. 136), with the chief episode of the Expulsion from Eden, by Hendrik Verbruggen (1655-1724); of St. Andre, Antwerp, with the chief episode of the Calling of Sts. Peter and Andrew, by Jan Frans van Geel (1756-1830) and Jan van Hool (1769-1837); of the cathedral of Malines, with St. Norbert's conversion beneath the Crucifixion on one side, and the Sin of Adam and Eve on the other, by Michael Vervoort the Elder (1667-1737)1; and three pulpits by Laurent Delvaux (1696 or 1698-1778), two in Ste. Gertrude, Nivelles, representing Elijah visited by the angel and Christ with the woman of Samaria, the third, his masterpiece, in the cathedral of Ghent, representing Time awakened by Truth or Religion and di rected towards Christ. Now and then the pulpits were slightly less pretentious, as in the cathedral at Antwerp and in Notre Dame at Bruges : the lower part consists of an allegorical figure or figures sup porting the box, on which reliefs are carved, but the canopy and the rest are still decked with baroque detail. At the apex of the Antwerp pulpit, an angel swoops down, head foremost and blowing a trumpet, with one of the typically rococo tours deforce in movement. The wooden confessionals, scarcely less sensational, were the re cipients of much baroque decoration and statuary. Characteristic specimens may be seen in Notre Dame d'Hanswyck at Malines by Boeckstuyns, in St. Servais at Grimberghen by Verbruggen, and, ac cording to the most elaborate and pictorial fashion of the baroque, in the church of Ninove, by Verhaegen and one of his pupils. 1 According to others, by Jan Frans Boeckstuyns (1650-1734). Fig. 136. VERBRUGGEN. PULPIT. CATHEDRAL, BRUSSELS (Photo. Paul Becker) Fig. 137. HENDRIK DE KEYZER. TOMB OF WILLIAM THE SILENT. NIEUWE KERK, DELFT (Courtesy of Dr. Jan Kalf) THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 47 On the tombs of the eighteenth century, as often in France, a bust or a medallion was usually substituted for the complete effigy of the deceased, and the contemporary French allegorical tombs were oc casionally imitated. The symbolic pyramid was also sometimes brought into service in the background, as on the mausoleum of the Comte de Precipiano in the cathedral of Malines, where the figure of Fortitude holds the medallion. Jacques Berger of Brussels (1693-1756), trained at Rome and under Nicolas Coustou at Paris, has left, in the Place du Grand Sablon of his native town, as his most celebrated achievement, the fountain ordered by the Jacobite, Lord Thomas Bruce, and represent ing Minerva holding a medallion of the Austrian royalties and ac companied by putti. Like so many contemporary Frenchmen, though he here still remained rococo, Berger so chastened the vagaries of the style that the neoclassicists had only to consummate the process of cold refinement. 2. HOLLAND The material prosperity and national pride of the Dutch in the seventeenth century constituted the basis of their great painting; much estimable sculpture was also produced glorifying Dutch achievement or consisting in monuments to the great admirals and statesmen. The Protestantism of Holland entailed a proscription of religious art, which was the principal field of the baroque. Sculpture was there fore largely confined to the adornment of secular edifices and tombs, and the decorative figures of these were executed rather in a dry classic style developed from the precedents of the late Italian Renaissance. The baroque manifested itself in little else than the pictorial acces sories and, occasionally, the pathetic spirit of the mausoleum. The Dutch were much more concerned with painting than with sculpture, and some of the best carving in Holland was done by Belgians. The spirit of contemporary genre painting dared to intrude even by the side of the classic figures, and a homely but not very penetrating or power ful realism, perhaps even before it showed itself in painting, often ap peared in the reliefs on buildings and in the sepulchral effigies. The Dutch in their sculpture, indeed, rested content with a certain dead level of dull excellence which might be expected from the matter-of- fact tone of their life and which, it must be acknowledged, was toler ated in the majority of their paintings. The tombs were the most notable assemblies of sculpture, especially those of the great admirals, which were usually adorned with a relief of the battle in which each was killed and with emblems of maritime activity. Sometimes they were merely erected against the wall as in most other countries, 48 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO and they might be only epitaphs consisting of heraldic designs or of busts with decorative backgrounds. The most magnificent examples, however, were of a type derived from the Belgian tombs with canopies but treated with greater pomp: the effigy of the deceased was set in the midst of a kind of stately temple, more or less richly embellished with statues and reliefs. The most important native Dutchman was Hendrik de Keyzer (1565-1621). To his Italianism he united a certain degree of Dutch realism. His great work is the mausoleum of William the Silent of Orange in the Nieuwe Kerk, Delft (Fig. 137). The deceased is twice represented, in marble prostrate on the sarcophagus, in bronze sitting erect at the head of the bier. At the foot is a flying bronze figure of Fame. Above rises a sumptuous canopy or temple, in the four corners of which are the bronze personifications of the prince's ideals, Liberty, Justice, Courage, and Religion. Except for the re cumbent effigy, which is unusually fine both in drapery and in char acterization, Hendrik de Keyzer reveals himself here only as a good exponent of the modest virtues that we have allowed to Dutch sculpture. His statue of Erasmus, in the Groote Markt, Rotterdam, exhibits the dry realism that was typical of Holland at this period. His bust of the wine-merchant Coster (?) in the Ryks Museum, Am sterdam, is likewise presentable but not wonderful. The decoration of public buildings with reliefs from every-day life is illustrated by the three panels from the House of Charity, Amsterdam, now in the Mu seum, probably to be ascribed rather to Hendrik's son, Willem. By another son, Pieter, is the simpler tomb of the Admiral Piet Hein, under a Doric canopy, in the Oude Kerk, Delft. The other significant sculptural personality in the seventeenth century was a Belgian who remained in Holland, Rombout Ver- hulst (1624-1698). After an apprenticeship with local masters in his native town, Malines, it is perhaps necessary to assume a period of study in Rome in order to explain the Italian elements in his early style. Although he had been in Amsterdam as early as 1646, he was not definitely established there, as an assistant of Artus Quellin in the Town Hall, until about 1650. In addition to some hypothetical carv ings by Verhulst in this building, there can be ascribed to him with certainty three reliefs that he has signed, the allegories of Silence and of Fidelity over the doors leading to the secretary's office and the Venus in one of the Galleries. They follow the standard of style set by the sculptor in charge, Artus Quellin, but they display a warmer and gentler sense of physical beauty and more delicate modelling of the flesh. Verhulst was now ready to assume the position of an inde- THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 49 pendent artist, and in general, like Hendrik de Keyzer, he stood for a more naturalistic strain in the art of the Low Countries than the classical Quellin. This quality was immediately apparent in the col loquial subjects that he did for the public buildings of Leyden, for instance, the relief of the testing of packed merchandise in the facade of the City Weigh House and the relief of the purchase of butter over the door to the Butter House. The rest of Verhulst's production consisted of many sepulchral mon uments and of several portrait busts. In both of these fields he evinced an endowment of technical skill, a sensitiveness to style, and an ability to impart life, that were unusual in Holland. The sepulchral monu ments, of the characteristic Dutch type, were either structures against a decorated wall or epitaphs with portraits in medallions and with in scriptions. In both cases he lavished upon them an even more than ordinary opulence of ornamentation, especially long lines of heraldic escutcheons and of grouped putti, in the modelling of whose forms he vied with the best sculptors of the century. Of the larger tombs, the following may be singled out for special mention: that of Admiral Maarten Tromp in the Oude Kerk, Delft, the embellishments and naval relief of which were done by Willem de Keyzer and in which there was also some slight collaboration of the architect, Jacob van Campen (finished 1658); his two masterpieces, the similar monuments of Willem van Lyere and his wife and of Karel van Inn-ende-Knyp- huisen and his baroness, the former (1663) in the church at Katwijk- Binnen, the latter (1 664-1 669) in the church at Midwolde south of Groningen, to which was subsequently added a standing effigy of the baron's cousin and the lady's second husband by the sculptor Eggers; the monument of Adrianus Clant in the church of Stedum likewise in the province of Groningen (1672), where, as sometimes was Ver hulst's custom, the body is projected feet-foremost frpm the wall; and most pretentious but not best of all, the mausoleum of the Admiral de Ruyter in the Nieuwe Kerk, Amsterdam (1681), where the additional figures of Fame, Prudence, and Constancy make a more imposing background and where, as especially in the last works of Verhulst, the participation of assistants may be discerned. Of the epitaphs, that of the Thibaut family in the church of Aagtekerke, Zeeland, is as good an example as any. His bust of Jacob van Reygersberg in the Lebaudy Collection, Paris, shows that he was as powerful a psychol ogist in this phase of his art as in the mortuary effigies. Another sepulchral sculptor, who found employment in Germany under the Great Elector and his son, was Bartholomeus Eggers (active in the second half of the century). He was himself a German 5o THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO by extraction but was probably born in Amsterdam. He embodies the tendency to adopt French classicism, which maVked the later Dutch sculpture of this period. His masterpiece in Holland is the mausoleum of the Admiral Obdam in the Groote Kerk at The Hague. The standing effigy, accompanied by Fame and by putti with armor, escutcheon, death's head, and hour-glass, is surmounted by the ordi nary temple, the base of which is carved at the front with the naval battle of Lowestoft and the corners of which are accented by the per sonifications of the deceased's virtues. Of Eggers's work in Germany, the most interesting example is the decoration of the Alabaster Hall in the Royal Castle at Berlin (now the White Hall) with a series of twelve princes of Brandenburg and four emperors and with six reliefs symbolic of the Great Elector's beneficent activities. The style, which is classic to the point of frequently adopting antique costume, is not of a very high order and indulges in an unpleasant amount of rhetorical agitation. The national decadence of Holland in the eighteenth century was re sponsible for the lack of any important sculpture during this period. 3. ENGLAND THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries sculpture in Eng land recuperated somewhat from the decline into which it had fallen in the Renaissance, but the credit for the recovery was due almost wholly to foreign practitioners or to Englishmen who ha!d been trained in Belgium and Holland. English sculpture of this period was little more than a provincial subdivision of the school of the Low Coun tries, undergoing the same changes and influences as in the Dutch and Flemish centers. The prevalent style of the seventeenth century was similar to the Dutch adaptation of the dry, classic manner of the late Renaissance, enlivened sporadically, especially in the second half of the century, by elements of the baroque. The tombs corresponded in general to those of Holland. A concrete proof of Netherlandish influence is the anonymous monument of Sir Francis Vere (d. 1608) in Westminster Abbey, belonging to the sepulchral type that masters from the Low Countries popularized in Germany, and strikingly like the mausoleum of Engelbert of Nassau at Breda. The effigy of the deceased lies upon a low base and is surmounted by a slab upholding his armor and sup ported at the corners by four kneeling warriors. A typical exponent of the customary style was Nicholas Stone (1586-1647), the first distinguished English sculptor since the fifteenth THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 51 century. He was trained at Amsterdam by Pieter de Keyzer, whose daughter he married, and was active under James I and Charles I, obtaining from the latter the position of Master Mason and Archi tect. Inigo Jones employed him to carry out his architectural and sculptural designs. It is possible that Stone himself not only executed but actually designed the famous south porch of St. Mary the Virgin's at Oxford with its twisted baroque columns and figures of the Virgin and angels. His production, however, was chiefly sepulchral, and may be illustrated by characteristic examples of the types of tombs that he employed. The type with recumbent figures upon a high base is well exemplified by the monument of Sir George Villiers and his second wife, the Countiess of Buckingham, in Westminster Abbey, closely parallel to the Lalaing monument at Hoogstraeten, Belgium. A canopy may be added, as for the mausoleum of Sir William Spencer and his lady in Great Brington Church, Althorp. The ordinary architectural structure against the wall is best seen in the tomb of Thomas Sutton, Charterhouse Chapel, London. Above the recumbent effigy of the deceased is the inscription, upheld by his executors, Rich ard Sutton and John Law, and surmounted by an hour-glass framed by the figures of Time and a putto blowing bubbles; above the niche of the Renaissance structure are a relief of Sutton lecturing and the escutcheon; the whole is crowned by the personification of Charity, and other allegorical figures and putti are disposed along the sides. The effigy or effigies may kneel in the architectural niche, as in the Haring- ton monument in Exton Church. The memorial is often confined to a mural tablet or epitaph, with the bust of the deceased, as for John Law in the Charterhouse, or with merely an inscription. Examples that do not fall within the usual types are: the monument of Sir George Holies, who stands upon an architectural base which is embellished with an inscription, a relief of the deceased directing a battle, and statues of sleeping Bellona and Pallas; the monument of his nephew, the young Francis Holies, seated on a round pedestal (both of these in West minster and both resorting to Roman armor for costume); and the curious memorial of John Donne in St. Paul's, represented, according to his own desire, as garbed in a winding-sheet and standing upon an urn. As might be expected from his training, Stone was a rather stiff and lifeless portraitist. Of foreigners who found commissions in England, passing mention should be given to the French pupil of Giovanni Bologna, Hubert Le Sueur, who did the baroque bronze equestrian statue of Charles I at Charing Cross, to Pieter and Willem de Keyzer, who themselves finally emigrated to the island, and to the Belgian, Artus Quellin the 52 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO Younger, who made the tomb of Thomas Thynn in Westminster, con sisting of a dramatically posed recumbent effigy, a putto pointing to the inscription, and, beneath, a relief of the deceased's murder. More significant was the Dane, Caius Gabriel Cibber (1630-1700), who studied in Italy and possibly in Holland and then came to Eng land, beginning his career as an assistant of Nicholas Stone's sons. The masculine personifications of Melancholy and Madness, done for the entrance to Bethlehem Hospital, London, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, constitute his most celebrated achievement. If one forgets the unpleasantness of the subjects, he may admire Cibber's technical skill. They recall the captives that the pupils of Giovanni Bologna used to ensconce upon the bases of their equestrian statues. Their postures were perhaps suggested by the allegorical figures on the Medici tombs, but they are less perturbed than one would expect from a sculptor who had probably come into contact with the baroque of Bernini. The name of Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721) is so much better known that the wood-carving of the seventeenth century in almost every old manor of England is palmed off on the visitor as his work. Born at Rotterdam in Holland, in all probability of a British father, if not indeed of a British mother, he seems to haVe settled in his own country as a young man, and he soon won great renown as a decorative sculptor in wood. The general return of the seventeenth century to naturalism was instanced in him by the liveliness, faithfulness to actu ality, and beauty with which he carved ornamentation of flowers, foliage, and accompanying birds. The human figure appears only very occasionally amidst these embellishments, and then usually in the guise of putti, which, though not comparable to the best European examples of the epoch, yet possess distinct charm. In the monuments upon which Gibbons labored, much of the execution is probably to be ascribed to the large number of assistants whom he employed. Capi tal specimens of his style are the choir-stalls of St. Paul's cathedral and the decorative wreaths on the reredos in St. James, Piccadilly. In the latter church he has left a work of quite a different sort, a marble font which resembles the Belgian pulpits of the eighteenth cen tury in its highly baroque and pictorial treatment. The pedestal be comes a piece of sod, the supporting column the Tree of Life by the side of which stand the tempted Adam and Eve. Above, the foliage spreads forth as a base for the bowl itself, on which are carved in re lief St. John Baptist and St. Philip and the Eunuch. He has evidently taken great delight in the vegetation; but the Adam and Eve, like the bronze statue of James II, now in St. James's Park, London, show that THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 53 he was no mean figure-sculptor. The Stuart monarch is transfigured into a Roman emperor, posed with great dignity and ease. The Adam and Eve are more theatrical and indicative of the more decidedly baroque fashion for which Gibbons stood in England of the later seventeenth century. His monument to Mrs. Mary Beaufoy in West minster Abbey is more interesting for its putti than for the kneeling effigy, which, though tolerably characterized, is vitiated by factitious drapery too evidently reminiscent of the technique of wood. As Nicholas Stone labored for Inigo Jones, so Francis Bird (1667-173 i ) decorated the architecture of Sir Christopher Wren. Though a native-born Englishman, he was trained, like Stone, abroad, studying at Brussels and under Le Gros at Rome. At home he was influenced by both Cibber and Gibbons. His chief work on St. Paul's cathedral, the Conversion of St. Paul that occupies the great west pedi ment, is thoroughly baroque in movement, in dramatic postures, and in pictorial setting of buildings, clouds, and rays. His statue of Queen Anne, in front of St. Paul's, had suffered such injuries that in 1885 it was replaced by a copy, but the stiff robes of ceremony must always have been detrimental enough to its artistic value to have justified the abuse that the old critics heaped upon it. At times, Bird was .noteven a tolerable sculptor. On the tomb of Sir Cloudesley Shovell in the Abbey, the combination of a wig with Roman draperies and with semi- nudity in the recumbent effigy is a piece of bad taste, and the putti at the top are poorly modelled and lifeless. The monument is derived from the type established by Bregno at Rome in the Quattrocento, but it harbors such baroque details as a carved curtain and a relief of the deceased's wreck on the Scilly Islands. On another sepulchre in the same church, however, Bird outdid himself and created his master piece, bestowing a noble ease upon the reclining form of the school master, Dr. Richard Busby, adequately characterizing the head, and finding the gown of the deceased's office close enough to the antique in its loosely flowing lines to excuse it's retention. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY During the eighteenth century, even more commissions were as signed to foreigners; but because these foreigners came principally from Belgium and France rather than from Holland, the baroque of Italy and the rococo of France tended to supplant in England the enervated manner of the late Dutch Renaissance. A certain degree of artistic dictatorship was exercised, in the first half of the century, by the architect and landscape-gardener, William Kent, who sometimes supplied designs to the sculptors. In the second half of the century, the movement toward neoclassicism was scarcely less pronounced than in France. 54 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO Of masters from the Low Countries, Laurent Delvaux, who has al ready been discussed under Belgium, executed a few commissions in England but soon returned to Brussels. Peter Scheemakers (1691-f. 1770) and John Michael Rysbrack (1 693-1 770), both from Antwerp, emigrated to the island in their youth and identified themselves with the sculpture of their adopted country. Their style was infused with more freshness and vitality, and their technique was more skilful than in the work of the English seventeenth century. Both labored chiefly on sepulchral monuments of the contemporary Belgian and French types, some of them planned by Kent. Scheemakers him self may have conceived the theatrical tomb of the Duke of Buck inghamshire in Westminster; he certainly did with his own hand the widow sorrowing at the feet of her half-reclining, Romanized spouse. On a projecting console at the center of the mausoleum, the figure of Time fleeing with the medallions of the four ducal children and ac companied by mourning putti was executed by Delvaux. In the ceno taph of Shakspere at Westminster, Scheemakers carried out a simple and uninteresting composition of Kent's, representing the poet lean ing upon his books, which are placed upon a pedestal adorned with masks of Queen Elizabeth, Henry V, and Richard III. The Drydeii, one of several busts by Scheemakers in the Abbey, demonstrates the distinction often attained in English sculptured portraiture of the eighteenth century. Rysbrack was perhaps a greater technician than Scheemakers. On Kent's designs he constructed in Westminster the two adjacent and similar monuments of Sir Isaac Newton and Earl Stanhope. In each case the effigy (that of Stanhope highly Romanized) reclines upon a sarcophagus set upon a base; the customary putti are introduced;- and at the top, after the disjointed fashion of the rococo, is an allegorical female, Astronomy for Newton, Minerva for Stanhope. Rysbrack's own monuments of Nicholas Rowe and his daughter arid of John Gay in the Poets' Corner are somewhat simpler, consisting chiefly of a por trait bust or medallion relieved against the conventional pyramid as a background. Even more unpretentious aire the memorials to Ben Jonson and Milton — merely architectural settings for the rather fine bust or medallion. Both of these Belgians, as well as the English sculptors of the epoch, were eclipsed by the Frenchman Louis Francois Roubillac (1695-1762), who worked wholly in England and was very popular as a builder of mausoleums. He displayed to the admiring eyes of the British the superior technique and ease of the French rococo. His works have more elan than the lifeless style that the English inherited from Fig. 138. ROUBILLAC. TOMB OF LADY NIGHTINGALE. WESTMINSTER ABBEY (Courtesy of W. A. Mansell and Co.) "'''-"inrr'i. Fig. 139. BACON. TOMB OF ELDER PITT. WESTMINSTER ABBEY THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 55 the Dutch. From some dozen examples of tombs, several belong to the elaborate French dramatic type. On the earliest (1743), dedicated to John, Duke of Argyll, in Westminster Abbey, History is represented as supporting the deceased upon the sarcophagus and as writing the inscription on the pyramid of the background. Beneath, at either side of a relief, are set the animated figures of Eloquence and Valor, sug gested probably by the similarly placed allegories on Bernini's sepul chres. About the same time he constructed the monument of Bishop Hough in the cathedral of Worcester. The majestically draped effigy, in one of the finely rendered pious ecstasies that Roubillac affected, sits upon a sarcophagus, from which History lifts a covering to reveal a relief of an event in his life. On the base at the right a weeping putto supports a medallion of his wife. Roubillac's masterpiece is the mau soleum of Lady Nightingale in the Abbey (Fig. 138). The husband seeks to shield his swooning wife from the onslaught of Death, who, issuing from a door below, hurls at her his dart. The lower section was probably inspired by Bernini's tomb of Alexander VII. The ubiqui tous employment of rusticated stone creates an appropriate solemn and mysterious impression. Of his less assuming monuments, typical is that of Sir Peter Warren in the Statesmen's Corner. At the left Hercules places the bust of the deceased upon a pedestal, while at the right a seated personification of Navigation holds in her hand a laurel crown. The little tomb of Handel in a niche of the south transept of the Abbey consists of a statue of the musician writing the Messiah against a baroque background in relief, representing an organ and an angel playing a harp. Among other works in England, Roubillac has perpetuated his memory by several busts which vie with the best French specimens of the time and possess much more dash, style, and sense of personal beauty than any English sculptor was able to attain. The Handel and Hogarth of the National Portrait Gallery are good examples. The only prominent native sculptors were active in the second half of the century, and all, to a greater or less extent, were forerunners of neoclassicism. Joseph Wilton (1722-1803) went through the usual course of training, in Belgium under Delvaux, in France under Pigalle, ending with eight years of study at Rome. But his sometimes incorrect and always uninteresting style was unworthy of so elaborate a preparation. Of many tombs and several busts in Westminster, the monument for Stephen Hales (about 1767) still clings to somewhat sinuous and rococo draperies in the two allegorical figures accompany ing the medallion; that of General Wolfe, of American fame (1772), on which an angel rewards the dying hero, has the cluttered detail and 56 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO " fussiness " of the rococo; that of Admiral Holmes (1766) conceives the naval officer as an out and out Roman, set off against a cannon and the British banner. Wilton has a further significance for Americans in that he executed the first three sculptural monuments erected in this country: to the elder Pitt at Charleston and in Wall St., New York, and to George III on Bowling Green in the latter city. The Roman ized equestrian George III and the Pitt at New York perished in virtual completeness during the Revolution. The Pitt at Charleston, slightly mutilated, has been set up once more; the antique draperies treated with rococo elaboration witness to the conflicting tendencies in Wilton's style. The most distinguished English sepulchral sculptor of the epoch was John Bacon, senior (1740-1799), who seems to have acquired his education wholly within the limits of his own country. The monu ment to the elder Pitt, Lord Chatham, in Westminster, is the best instance of the pretentious kind of composition that Bacon affected (Fig. 139). Pitt gesticulates oratorically from a niche in the usual pyramid. Just beneath, on the sarcophagus, sit Prudence and Forti tude, who are conceived as aiding the statesman in his spread of British imperialism, symbolized, at a lower level, by Britannia between the personifications of Earth and Sea. Bacon was not unwilling, however, to execute simpler commissions. The similar tombs of Thomas Gray and William Mason in the Poets' Corner consist merely of a Muse with the medallion. The memorial to Brigadier-General Hope, also in the Abbey, is reduced to a feminine personification mourning over a sarcophagus. All of Bacon's works that have been mentioned are more or less rococo, but his celebrated statue of Dr. Johnson in St. Paul's resuscitates the classical manner of ancient Rome. His contemporary, Thomas Banks (1735-1805), studied under Kent, and eventually, with a scholarship of the Royal Academy, in Rome. For a time, about 1780, he even found favor in Russia at the court of Catherine. More than any other English sculptor of the period he devoted himself to imaginative themes of mythological and classical import. He has left some tolerable but not inspired busts, such as that of Isaac Watts in Westminster or that of Warren Hast ings in the National Portrait Gallery. The most flourishing business in busts was plied by Joseph Nollekens (1737-1823), who was born in England of a Belgian father and has won a renown, perhaps greater than his deserts, through the somewhat unfavorable biography composed by his dis gruntled pupil, J. T. Smith. He himself acquired his proficiency under Scheemakers and in Rome. Like so many artists and men of THE LOW COUNTRIES AND ENGLAND 57 letters, Nollekens valued most his least interesting productions — his imitations of th& antique. In the joint monument of Captains Bayne, Blair, and Lord Robert Manners, in Westminster Abbey, he combined antiquarianism with the rather rococo style of Bacon's elaborately allegorical tombs. His fame, however, rests upon his many excellent but unsparing characterizations in portrait busts, such as those of Charles James Fox and the younger Pitt in the National Portrait Gallery. No account of the eighteenth-century sculpture of England would be complete without some mention of the feminine amateur, Mrs. Annie Seymour Damer (1748-1828), who, in the midst of do mestic tragedy, of aristocratic social distractions, and of acquaintance with many of the European notables of her day, yet found time to pro duce pieces of statuary, the quite secondary value of which i's enhanced by the personality of their creator. She learned her craft from Bacon and especially the Italian Giuseppe Ceracchi, who was then in Eng land and has left us a really beautiful portrait statue of his pupil, now in the British Museum. It has sometimes been supposed that her masters put the best touches on the works Ascribed to her. In style she was already virtually a neoclassicist: witness two of her most re spectable achievements, the masks of Thame and Isis forming the keystones of the central arch on the bridge at Henley. The statue of George III in the Register Office, Edinburgh, betrays how she could fail through an affectation that is usually inseparable from a person who takes art as an elegant pastime. Some of her busts, however, such as the Sir Joseph Banks in the British Museum, prevent us from dismissing her with a mere shrug of the shoulders. CHAPTER XIX THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES i. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY The utter devastation wrought by the Thirty Years' War reduced German art and especially sculpture in the seventeenth century to their lowest ebb. Even before the beginning of the war in 1618, the indigenous artistic tide had run very scantly, and all the significant sculpture was executed by Belgian and Dutch masters of the late Re naissance. A good deal of carving was produced in the seventeenth century, particularly in the Catholic sections of the country and after the war, but it was largely the work of mere craftsmen without gifts of original invention. The sculptors, whether craftsmen or real artists, were usually foreigners, a few Italian, but most of them from the Low Countries, and what German sculptors there were simply followed their precedents. The style of the late Renaissance lingered on longer than elsewhere, but even the German Renaissance was characterized by a certain baroque opulence and capriciousness. German art has always been essentially baroque in spirit, whether it expressed itself in Gothic forms or in forms borrowed from antiquity. Early in the seventeenth century, however, signs of the baroque as it appealed in the rest of Europe began to show themselves, and by the second half of the century the new style took more definite shape, especially in orna ment. The Great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, by the commanding position that he acquired for Prussia, made it the center of northern German art. Esthetic production at Berlin was largely devoted to the glorification of the reigning family. The choice of sculptors from the Low Countries was only natural in the light of the Elector's marriage to Louise Henriette of Orange. We have already seen the Dutchman, Eggers, finding employment at Berlin, and Artus Quellin the Younger also worked at the capital. The Fleming, Fran cois Dusart (d. 1661), who after sojourns in Italy and England had settled in The Hague, has left us the following portraits of the Elector and his kin : a famous youthful statue of the Elector, ordered by his wife and now placed in the niche of a door in the Royal Castle at 58 GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES 59 Berlin; two marble medallions of the Elector and Louise, now in the Heinrichshalle of the same palace; four statues of the Princes of Orange, acquired by the Hohenzollern arid now in the Town Palace at Potsdam; and eight injured busts of the Elector and the family of Orange in the Park of Sanssouci at Potsdam. Dusart's portraiture is of the usual Dutch stamp, good but not brilliant. The Prince Palatine John William also was a patron of art. From the Belgian Gabriel Grupello he ordered the equestrian statue of himself in front of the Rathaus at Dtisseldorf. Of the pieces of interior ecclesiastical furniture, the general char acter remained the same as during the Renaissance, but the different details became more and more baroque. Victor A. Carus, in a dis sertation,1 has discussed at length the gradual intrusion of baroque elements at the beginning of the century into the altar, pulpit, font, and sepulchral monuments of the Stadt-Kirche at Lauenstein in Saxony. He has pointed out as indicative of the new tendencies : the weighing down of the monuments, even in their upper sections, with heavy figures; the destruction of compositional unity by disassociation of some figures, such as the Moses and Aaron of the altar and the outer Apostles on the epitaph of the Bunau family; and the baroque pos tures, as in the Moses utilized as a support for the pulpit. The leader in this movement towards the baroque he believes to have been Lorenz Hornigk, who certainly was the author of the epitaph, and assisted the other sculptors of the works at Lauenstein on the similar altar in the Stadt-Kirche at Pirna; and he also holds the theory that a few years after the Lauenstein altar was completed in the man ner of the Renaissance, Hornigk remodelled it with the baroque addi tions. The same prognostications of coming changes may be seen in the better known altar in the church of St. Ulrich and St. Afra, Augs burg, which was executed about the same time by Johann Degler, who belonged to a group of Bavarian sculptors in wood. In the later high altar of the church in the Bavarian village of Unterhausen near Weilheim, he returned to a greater simplicity. He was always lighter and more charming in temperament than the more essentially baroque Bartlme Steinle, a member of the same coterie, who did the more dramatic, powerful, and imposing altar of the Abbey at Polling. These are only a few of many altars built at this time in Catholic Germany. Another similar and important wooden example was made by Jorg ZtiRN in the first part of the century for the minster at Ueberlingen. Typical exponents of the transition from the Renais sance to the baroque in Franconia were Michael Kern, his rela- 1 Das Altarwerk zu Lauenstein und die Anfange des Barock in Sachsen, Stuttgart, 1912. 60 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO tives, and pupils, who enjoyed extensive patronage for the decoration of churches and for sepulchres. The commonest mortuary type for this period was the elaborate epitaph of the Renaissance, often heaped up with reliefs, statuettes, kneeling effigy or effigies, and ornament, into the semblance of an altar. A few tombs, however, were more monumental, with larger figures. On the sepulchre of the architect Nosseni in the Sophien-Kirche, Dres den, by Sebastian Walther, a vigorously characterized effigy on one side and his three wives on the other kneel before a baroque Ecce Homo. The Westphalian Gerhard Groninger (c. 1582-1652?), though he executed epitaphs of the usual type with smaller figures, occasionally employed larger forms that in their skilful anatomy, realistic heads, and baroque passion embody a transition from the Flemish and Italianate style in which he had begun. His master piece of this class is the monument of Heidenreich von Lethmate in the cathedral of Miinster. Victor Roth has carefully investigated the mortuary sculpture of Transylvania, illustrative of the provincial work that was produced in remote districts artistically tributary to Germany. The most prominent sculptural personality here was Elias Nicolai, who lived at Hermannstadt in the middle of the century. He and other masters of Transylvania carved very similar sepulchral slabs, often with lavish decoration, the effigies of which, in their honest but heavy realism, recall, except in their frequent incor rectness, the superior sepulchral figures of provincial France in the seventeenth century. He did one monument, the tomb of Georg Apaffi, now in the National Museum of Budapest, of the more pre tentious medieval type with high base, originally surmounted by a wooden baldacchino. The countryman's lack of imagination is evident in the four stocky Virtues in the niches of the corners, and his pleas ing German homeliness in the relief, at one end, of Apaffi's three dead little children, two of them conceived as mourning over the third. Nicolai was not the author of what is perhaps the best example of the many simple slabs, erected by an unknown sculptor to the memory of the Bishop Christian Haass in the sacristy of the evangelical church at Birthalm. In the eighteenth century, the sculpture of Transylvania, which had been more or less dependent upon Germany, fell into decadence. The lavish decoration of public buildings and private houses with statues and reliefs persisted from the Renaissance. On the south facade of the Rathaus at Bremen, with the exception of the Gothic statues of the Emperor and the Electors, the panels and the separate figures, from the first part of the century, belong to the manner of the Renais- GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES 61 sance, with an addiction in the latter to the animation of the baroque. The bronze group of St. Michael overcoming Satan and flanked by youthful angels over the door of the Arsenal at Augsburg, of which Johann Reichel may have been no more than the caster, though it was also made early in the century, is much more baroque in its passion and pictorial elements. Even the much later plastic embellish ment of the Lustschloss in the Grosser Garten of Dresden has advanced less far in the devious ways of the new style. 2. THE LATER SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES INTRODUCTION The baroque, stunted by the Thirty Years' War, did not begin, in Germany, to manifest itself in its full and florid bloom until towards the end of the seventeenth century. From that time on through the eighteenth century, since the baroque seed had always lain in German ground, the new style was enthusiastically cultivated and even exag gerated. Many distinguished native masters joined with the con stantly present foreigners in the development from the baroque to the rococo and neoclassicism. A number of important artistic centers were evolved, among them Vienna and Berlin. In religious sculpture the dominant influence was Italian; in secular and sepulchral sculp ture it was French, and in addition to the vogue of the rococo, there was even some imitation of the classicism of Louis XIV. Many French sculptors were called to Germany or did work for Germany, especially the Adam family. Frederick the Great, though so strong an asserter of German power, was a fanatic admirer of French culture, and did much towards naturalizing French rococo and French litera ture in his realm. The Low Countries also still contributed their quota in the fertilization of the German soil. A striking proof of admiration for France was the foundation of academies. THE FOREIGN COLONY Of the French artists who produced for or in Germany, several have been mentioned in the discussion of French sculpture. One prominent master from the Low Countries, Jan Pieter Anton Tassaert, was a Frenchman in all but race. Born in Antwerp in 1727 or 1729, he studied in Paris, particularly under Michel-Ange Slodtz. In 1774 he came to the court of the Hohenzollern and worked in the decorative manner of the French rococo. His two best known statues, the por traits of the generals Von Seidlitz and Von Keith, now in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, though they have the interest of being clad, not in antique, but in the military costume of the day, belong therefore to a phase of art not particularly congenial to him. 62 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO Another Belgian, Pieter Anton Verschaffelt of Ghent (1710— 1793), who was greater than the usual scant notice of him would imply, was the result rather of an Italian training. The fact that his works are typical of the sorts of sculpture produced in Ger many at this time may justify what otherwise might seem the inordi nate space here devoted to him. As a pupil of Bouchardon at Paris, he acquired classicism and an enthusiasm for ancient art, arid this beginning he supplemented by a long sojourn in Rome. He thus de veloped into a moderate exponent of the baroque, but he was ever more and more inclined to calm the agitation of this style by super imposing upon it the tranquillity of the antique. His production, in deed, is a mirror of all the entangled tendencies of the period. In his decoration of palaces and gardens, he even adopted a classically re strained form of the French rococo, and he exhibited also, to a certain degree, the return to nature that marked the second half of the cen tury. In 1752, after a short visit to England, he settled, under the protection of the Elector Charles Theodore, at Mannheim, and there remained, until his death, the recipient of high honors and the director of the Academy. It is at Mannheim and at other places in Germany that Verschaffelt has left us his principal works, both as architect and sculptor. Of his activity in Italy, characteristic examples, quite in the man ner of Bernini's followers, are four stucco putti with symbols of the Passion in S. Croce in Gerusalemme, Rome, a St. John Evangelist for the facade of the same church, a St. Paul on the facade of the cathedral at Bologna, and a vigorously individualized bust of his patron, Bene dict XIV, in the Capitoline Collection. His first commission at Mann heim itself was the embellishment of the facade of the Jesuit Church with allegorical figures, and of the interior with a high altar, with the sculptured detail about the paintings of six lateral altars, and with two stoups for holy water. Bernini would have approved and even praised the works inside the church. The statues on the exterior are more classical, but the finest of them, Fame, is set amidst pictorial acces sories and a magnificent sweep of drapery. For a gable on the Library of the Ducal Palace, he carved a relief glorifying the Elector's achieve ments in the ordinary allegorico-mythological fashion. The statue of Charles Theodore in the Rittersaal of the Palace is a translation of the style employed for the royal effigies of Louis XIV and Louis XV into terms of greater naturalism and less pomposity. Of the decorations for the interior of the Bretzenheim Palace at Mannheim, which he himself built later in life when his chief interest was architecture, the four lovely reliefs of putti symbolizing the Seasons are interesting as GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES 63 a direct reminiscence of Bouchardon. The statues of Mars and Venus for the same palace denote the advance towards neoclassicism. Outside of Mannheim, Verschaffelt adorned the exterior of the Elector's palace at Benrath with sculptures taken from the rococo repertoire of hunting and shepherding, treated with the usual mytho logical symbolism. His most extensive secular work was the embel lishment of the French gardens of Charles Theodore's palace at Schwetzingen with vases, statues, and fountains. Some of these, such as the busts of Alexander and Antinous and, on a fountain, Rhea, representing earth as one of the elements, belong to the archaeological tendency. Others, such as the captured stags for the same fountain, embody the reviving love of nature. The four feminine personifica tions of the Seasons for the Bath House at Schwetzingen reveal this naturalism, in modelling of body and features, triumphantly breaking through the chrysalis of antiquarianism. Meanwhile he had found some opportunity to labor for his native country. The most significant product of this activity is the tomb of the Bishop Maximilien Antoine van der Noot, a typical Belgian treat ment of the baroque mausoleum with the customary sculptured fabrics. It was set up in the same Triest chapel of the cathedral of Ghent that in the seventeenth century had received the monument of the Bishop Philippe van der Noot, mentioned in the chapter on the baroque of the Low Countries. Under an arch capped by escutcheon and two angels with mitre and pastoral staff, the prelate kneels upon the sarcophagus before an apparition of the Virgin and Child, who are supported on clouds upheld by another angel. The Virgin and Child, like another representation of the subject by Verschaffelt in the church of St. Sebastian at Mannheim, are derived directly from Michael Angelo's group at Bruges. The master once again paid his tribute to the great Italian in a relief of the same theme on the high altar of the Court Church at Oggersheim. Of the Italians in German territory, Lorenzo Matielli of Vi- cenza (1688 or 1701-1748) was perhaps the most prominent. Active both in Vienna and Dresden, he was, like Verschaffelt, a somewhat classical exponent of the baroque. In the former city, the four groups of the Labors of Hercules beside the entrances to the Reichskanzlei- Palast from the Franzens-Platz and the Schlaussergasse and the mascu line figures supporting the vaulting in the vestibule of the Belvedere belong to that colossal phase of the baroque exemplified in France by Puget. The praying effigy of the titular saint above the pediment of the church of St. Charles Borromeo is baroque in gesticulation and accessories; the two figures beside the steps are already less passion- 64 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO ate, especially in the drapery. At Dresden, classicism obtained a greater hold upon Matielli. The long series of saints around the para pets of the Court Church are comparatively restrained in drapery and posture. The great fountain in the garden of the Friedrichstadt Hos pital in the same city, designed by Longuelune, is modelled upon the pictorial precedent set by Bernini, but the Neptune and feminine figures by Matielli are more strongly influenced by the antique,. Much plastic decoration in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland was done in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by the several members of an Italian family named Carlone, coming from Scaria near Como. THE NATIVE MASTERS The dependence of German sculpture upon Belgian and Dutch art is well illustrated by the production of Johann Mauritz Gr6- ninger (d. 1707), active at Minister in Westphalia, a town that lies close to the border of the Low Countries. He was a later member of the family to which Gerhard Groninger had belonged. His tombs of the Bishops Christoph Bernhard von Galen and Friedrich Christian von Plettenberg in the cathedral recall Belgian examples in the ma terials of black marble and alabaster, in the kneeling and reclining effigies, and in the rather prosaic and heavy adaptation of the baroque. The similarity of the latter effigy to Girardon's Richelieu, like other aspects of Groninger's work, suggests an admiration also for contem porary French sculpture. In the highly emotional Last Judgment of the west transept, he took some of his ideas from Rubens. The reliefs for the choir-screen, some of which are historical, are also thoroughly baroque in their perturbation. His son, Johann Wilhelm Gro ninger (born 1675), certainly visited France and therefore inclined to more and more rococo forms. His masterpiece is the epitaph of the Bishop Plettenberg's brother, Ferdinand, in the cathedral, Miinster, an unmitigated pictorial and passionate treatment of the Agony in the Garden in the manner of Algardi, though the principal figures are de tached in the round. In the first generation of native masters, the name of Andreas Schluter (1664-17 1 4) is most familiar. Educated in Italy and among the large number of Flemings and Dutchmen then enjoying favor in northern Germany, he became the architect and sculptor of the Hohenzollern at Berlin. His style is baroque, but his Teutonism asserted itself in greater realism and in the Herculean strength of his figures. He possessed also a true sense of monumentality that was usually denied to baroque artists. Now and again, he shows a depend ence for ideas and even for style upon the classicists of France, es-. * :' '""'• '¦ iy?" Fig. 140. SCHLUTER. MONUMENT OF THE GREAT ELECTOR. BERLIN (Photo. Photographische Gesellschaft, Berlin) 0PSa« w"u<1-1w SH0 W Q« s s" &¦. ba,d w 0 < GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES 65 pecially Girardon. His early work, the standing Frederick I of Prussia in front of the palace at Konigsberg, is already baroque in movement. One of the landmarks of Berlin is his bronze equestrian statue of the Great Elector on the Long Bridge (Fig. 140). It stands on a base, at the four corners of which are contorted bronze slaves, designed by Schliiter but executed by his pupils, and in the sides of which are set two bronze reliefs, perhaps ideated by Schliiter but actually designed by the painter Wentzel. The rider and horse seem to have been sug gested by Girardon's equestrian monument of Louis XIV, which was then being made but had not yet been unveiled. The Great Elector is decked out in the ancient costume of French classicism. Hermann Voss finds a relationship also to Francesco Mocchi's equestrian statues at Piacenza. The motif of the slaves Schliiter found already popular both in Italy and France. He may have caught the ideas for their postures from figures of Michael Angelo and Bernini. Whatever were his borrowings, he transmuted them and made them his own. The Elector and his steed he has infused with a tremendous and es sentially German energy. The horse, one of the most splendid beasts in all sculpture, substitutes muscularity for the usual equine stbcki- ness of the baroque. The personalities and positions of the four im passioned slaves are brilliantly varied. Their violent distress only serves to accentuate the proud monumentality of their conqueror above. The realistic side to Schliiter's personality is uppermost in.the colos sal masks of twenty-one expiring warriors adorning the arches of the court in the Arsenal. The unsparing truth to nature is as unexpected at this period as it is ghastly. In looking at the contorted features, the mind of the spectator reverts instinctively to the Dying Gauls of the ancient school of Pergamon. The virtues of the series are the wonderful inventive range in age, mood, and kind of agony, the technical skill with which Schliiter has realized his none too pleasant purpose, and the heroic vigor that gives the heads the required monu mentality. On the three arches of the doors at the back of the build ing are three reliefs in the same spirit, two Medusas, and, in the center, a medallion of interwoven feminine monsters. Schliiter at least de signed the best parts of the extensive adornment of the front and sides of the Arsenal, perpetuating here, not the horrors of war, but its glories. He was the director of much decorative work at Berlin, and some parts he executed himself. The most famous examples are the stucco embellishments of certain rooms in the Royal Palace, upon which he was employed as architect. The culmination of his achieve ment as decorator may be seen in the Rittersaal, especially in the 66 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO allegories of the four divisions of the world over the doors. Similar is the embellishment of the Festsaal in the Villa of the Royal York Masonic Lodge on the Dorotheenstrasse. In all this interior decora tion by Schliiter, the line of demarcation between the baroque and rococo is almost indistinguishable. The most celebrated example of his religious work is the pulpit of 1703 in the Marien-Kirche, an instance of the baroque magnificence which was bestowed upon these objects of ecclesiastical furniture by the Germans and especially the Saxons as early -as the end of the seven teenth century and which was only less than that in which the Flem ings revelled. The cover is surmounted by a flight of putti amidst the customary clouds and rays. The lower part is derived from Bernini's structure for St. Peter's Chair. It floats absurdly in mid-air, and from its base issue two scrolls caught at either side by an angel. In the cathedral at Berlin may be seen the two similar bronze tombs that Schliiter was called upon to execute for the newly entitled King and Queen who had been his patrons, although the casting, as usual, was done by Johann Jacobi. They are influenced by the first dra matic mausoleums of France, and the general sepulchral type is a free adaptation of Girardon's monument for Richelieu. Both of Schluter's sarcophagi are opulently adorned with royal insignia, inscriptions, and reliefs setting forth the deceased's virtues and achievements. At the head of each sarcophagus are two feminine allegorical figures sup porting a portrait in a medallion. On the tomb of Frederick I they represent Prussia and Brandenburg. At the foot of each sarcophagus sits another allegorical figure: Death, treated even with the homely realism of spectacles, writes the name of the Queen Sophie Charlotte in a book; Verganglichkeit ("Transitoriness") mourns for Frederick, accompanied by a little genius blowing bubbles ! An older contemporary of Schliiter and the first important native manipulator of the baroque was the Bavarian Balthasar Per- moser (1 650-1732), who, after a long sojourn in Italy and in the midst of much travelling, was active principally at Dresden. He em bodied the baroque in its most pronounced form, whether his works ' are viewed from the standpoint of pictorial accessories or of violent agi tation. His chief productions decorate the palace of the Zwinger. Typical are the Hermae of the Pavilion at the entrance, the Hercules supporting the globe on the top of this edifice, and the four ancient deities as the Seasons on the Torturm. The Vulcan as Winter shows Permoser's predilection for the theme of an old man and his skill in rendering it. The Ceres as Summer is among the loveliest examples of the transition from the baroque to the rococo. One of the most ex- GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES 67 treme manifestations of the baroque is his statue of Prince Eugene of Savoy in the Belvedere, Vienna. Not satisfied with a simple portrait, Permoser has bestowed upon him the attributes of Hercules and en tangled him in an intricate mesh of symbolical figures — the customary putti, Fame distorted so as to appear behind and below him, a fem inine personification in front of him holding the sunburst of Truth, and under his foot a crushed masculine nude said to represent the artist's rebellion against the commission laid upon him. Permoser's best known religious work is the pulpit of the Court Church, Dresden, adorned with the soaring Evangelists and flights of putti holding the instruments of the Passion. The Crucifixion in the old Catholic Cemetery that he did for his own tomb is a characteristic emotional treatment of the theme. Like so many sculptors of the epoch, he did not feel it beneath him to busy himself with the minor arts, especially with ivories. Here he easily passed into the rococo, and his models were copied by the porcelain manufactory at Fiirstenberg. The col lection in the Green Vault of the Royal Palace, Dresden, contains his masterpieces in ivory, such as the group of Omphale, Hercules, and Cupid and the figures of the four Seasons. The Crucifixion in the Ratsbibliothek, Leipzig, consists of a baroque mixture of ivory, metal, and wood, and represents the Redeemer as triumphant over the world, the flesh, and sin, the embodiments and symbols of which are scattered about in a wild rococo confusion. In southern Germany Johann Peter Alexander Wagner (1730— 1809) occupied as important a position at the episcopal court of Wiirzburg as Schliiter at Berlin or Permoser at Dresden. His lot, how ever, was cast in the days when the rococo had taken the place of the baroque, and he even began to walk timidly over the road to neo classicism. Born at Theres near Wiirzburg of a family that had long devoted itself to sculpture, he studied at Vienna, probably under a pupil of the great master, Donner, who had himself led the reaction from the baroque to antique composure. After a visit to France, in 1756 he made Wiirzburg his permanent home. Of his religious works here, the most significant are the Stations of the Cross on the Niko- lausberg, which he and his pupils executed to complete the series begun by Lucas van der Auvera with the Entombment and the Lamen tation over Christ's body. Auvera belonged to a family of rococo sculptors active at Wiirzburg, just before Wagner's rise; but Wagner, working upon the Stations, gradually became more tranquil in ges ture and drapery, although, as in the Christ before Pilate, he inevi tably retained a certain degree of the theatrical. It is rather by his secular productions that Wagner is remembered. Much of the 68 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO sculptural decoration in the richly adorned Episcopal Palace we owe to his talent. The statues and vases on the Staircase demonstrate how later he very often aligned himself pretty definitely on the side of the neoclassicists; but he always preserved enough of the rococo spirit to imitate rather the Praxitelean ideal of the antique, and his imita tion remained freer than that of such men as Canova or Thorvaldsen. He also did a good deal of statuary for the gardens of the Palace, especially putti (Fig. 141), 1 which constitute his chief claim to renown and which are modelled in the naturalistic fashion set by Duquesnoy at Rome. At times the type is curiously like the German conception of children during the Victorian era. They are engaged in playful pastimes; particularly charming are the groups of putti in the lower arbor, whose activities symbolize the four Seasons. Another locus classicus for the study of Wagner is the garden of the castle at Veits- hochheim near Wiirzburg. His most pretentious piece of decoration here, already tending towards neoclassicism, is the Cascade or Grotto, with three river-gods under the central arch, Diana and two nymphs at the left, and three fauns at the right. Another statue in the garden, Ceres with the infant Plutus, is more in the centrifugal manner of the rococo. The figure of Apollo extracting a thorn from his foot shows how Wagner carried to the extreme the general rococo tendency to lend to youthful masculine forms the femininity that was the domi nant note of the epoch. Other significant sculptors active in southern Germany were: the stuccoist, Egid Quirin Asam (1692-1750), who with his brother, the frescoist, Cosmas Damian Asam, adorned the Bavarian churches in a baroque style that was already partly rococo; Joseph Anton Feichtmayr ( 1 696-1 770), who belonged to a very large artistic family from Wessobrunn in upper Bavaria and who has left as his masterpiece the rococo wood-carving of the stalls in the abbey of St. Gall, Switzerland; and Joseph Christian (1706-1777), the great est Swabian rococo sculptor, who also is chiefly remembered for his wood-carvings, the highly pictorial reliefs, according to the taste of the period, on the stalls of the abbeys of Zwiefalten and Ottobeuren. AUSTRIA The only other Teutonic name that can vie with Schliiter's in the eighteenth century is that of the Austrian Geo rg Raphael Don ne r, who was born at Essling in 1693 and died at Vienna in 1741. He had a baroque foundation and probably visited Italy; but living in the next generation after Schliiter, he soon learned more of the 1 The originals that are in good preservation have been removed to the National Museum, Munich, and copies substituted at Wiirzburg. GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES 69 antique tranquillity than Verschaffelt, Matielli, or even Wagner, and may, indeed, be considered a prophet of neoclassicism. His figures often recall the works of those contemporary French sculp tors who were more restrained and archaeological, such as Bou chardon. He was endowed with supreme technical skill and with a respect for ideal and noble beauty of person unusual at the period. In the church of St. Martin, Pressburg, he labored extensively under the patronage of the Hungarian primate, the Archbishop Emerich Esterhazy. The high altar has been demolished, but the central group of the mounted St. Martin and the beggar (in lead) is now in the choir, and the two adoring angels are in the National Museum at Budapest. All these are only superior and spirited examples of the baroque; St. Martin is curiously clad in the national costume of Hungary. The decoration of the prelate's sepulchral chapel of St. Eleemosinarius in the same church has not been disturbed. The kneeling portrait of Esterhazy belongs to the pietistic Italian manner of the seventeenth century, but the leaden reliefs from the Passion on the altar return almost to the coldly classic treatment of Giovanni Bologna. Since the baroque continued to dominate religious sculpture even when it had lost its potency in secular art, a late work of Donner, the Pieta, over the high altar of the cathedral at Gurk, is still Jesuitical in sentiment, but the composition is compact and even formal. The statue of Charles VI in the chateau of the Belvedere, Vienna, though classically garbed, is accompanied by a fluttering feminine personification, and the baroque emphasis upon the diagonal in composition is plainly to be discerned. His masterpiece is the Fountain of the New Market, Vienna, (Fig. 142). Providence sits high uplifted at the center, surrounded at a lower level by four putti with fish, from which the water issues. At the corners of the basin are personifications of the four Austrian tribu taries of the Danube — the Enns, Ybbs, Traun, and March. Bronze copies have now been substituted for the original lead figures, which have been removed to the Stadtisches Depot. The achievement rep resents the most beautiful expression of that happy moment when incipient neoclassicism was not yet beclouded by too much archaeology but was still illumined by the brilliancy and originality of the baroque. The subject of Perseus and Andromeda that Donner used for another fountain in the court of the Old Rathaus imposed upon him somewhat more picturesqueness and less restraint. The relief of the Judgment of Paris in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienn^ is inspired by the same delightful mood that created the Fountain of the New Market. Here again Donner seems like a more naturalistic Giovanni Bologna. 70 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO A somewhat older member of the Viennese group, the great archi tect, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656-1723) collaborated with others on two of the principal monuments of the city. He remained more faithful than Donner to the baroque, which he had studied at Rome. He was the architect of the Trinity Column erected by Leopold I in the Graben to commemorate the cessation of the plague (Fig. 143) . He used the design of the Italian Burnacini and left the actual execution to others. "Column" is really a misnomer, for the monument is a kind of baroque pyramid. The base is adorned with reliefs, and in front of it, on a foundation of rock, an allegorical figure vanquishes the personification of the Pest. At a higher level kneels the Emperor. The main section, resting on the base, is a tower ing bank of clouds, on which are ensconced many angels and putti and at the top of which is the Trinity. Such Trinity Columns as this, usually thank-offerings for deliverance from the plague, henceforth became very popular, especially at Vienna. In their way, they are as extreme manifestations of the baroque feeling as the pulpits of Belgium. Another typical specimen was erected by the sculptor Matthias Braun in the Schloss-Platz of Teplitz in Bohemia. Fischer von Erlach designed also the Fountain in the Hoher Markt,. Vienna. Underneath a Berninesque baldacchino the Marriage of the Virgin is enacted, and on the base, at the corners, are four standing angels. He here appears in a simple and more monumental phase of his art. One of the most extravagant exponents of all the unrestraint of the baroque was the Styrian Josef Thaddaus Stamm el, whose reper toire was almost wholly religious and executed in wood and who was active from 1726 to 1765, the year of his death, for the abbey of Admont and its dependent institutions. Because of this license and because of his medium and polychromy, he often recalls the contem porary Churrigueresque sculptors of Spain. Remaining always some what of a provincial, he set no bounds of taste to baroque velleities. His figures are in a fluster; their gesticulations are convulsed; the broken lines occasioned by the medium of wood increase the agitation of the draperies. For the church of the village of St. Martin near Gratz he created what is probably the most outrageous altar in exist ence, placing directly above the tabernacle a great mounted and ad vancing St. Martin and at the sides two other life-size equestrian groups, the miraculous shoeing of a horse by St. Eloy and the fright fully disordered Conversion of St. Paul. The many reliefs of which he made a specialty were highly pictorial, cluttered with accessories, and crammed with episodic genre that is frequently marked by a broad peasant's humor, somewhat incongruous with the sacred theme. The OTIF^F Fig. 142. DONNER. FOUNTAIN. NEW MARKET, VIENNA (From Dehio and Von Bezold, "Die Denkmaler der deutschen Bildhauerkunst" ) Fig. 143. FISCHER VON ERLACH AND ASSISTANTS. TRINITY COLUMN. THE GRABEN, VIENNA (From Dehio and Von Bezold, "Die Denkmaler der deutschen Bildhauerkunst" ) GERMANY AND RELATED COUNTRIES 71 backgrounds are likely to look like the settings of a stage — too often the stage of a toy theatre. His most celebrated relief is the Nativity in the church at Admont. Stammel's virtues are a technique that was usually adequate to the hard problems that he set himself, a Spanish ability to impart naturalism and strong individuality to his saints, and an enviable genius for invention that expressed itself particularly in transmutation of the old iconography. His masterpieces are perhaps the various carvings in the Library at Admont, especially the groups symbolizing the Four Last Things. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the French influence was very generally taking the place of the Italian at Vienna. One of the principal importers of the more antiquarian rococo of Louis XVI was the German Christian Friedrich Wilhelm Beyer (1725- 1806), who, after study at Paris and in Italy and after working for the Palace at Stuttgart and for the porcelain manufactory at Ludwigsburg, settled at Vienna in 1767 or 1768 and left as chief witness to his pleas ing talent the sculptural decoration of the park at Schonbrunn. The most eminent Viennese exponent of the startling naturalism of the rococo in portraiture was the German, Franz Xaver Messer- schmtdt (1732-1783). Good examples of his unconditioned char acterization are the busts of Van Swieten in the Public Hospital, Vienna, and of a so-called Capuchin in the Museum, Pressburg. CHAPTER XX THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO. SPAIN i. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. INTRODUCTION The aftermath of the industrial and commercial prosperity and of the imperialistic pride and patriotism of the days of Ferdinand and Isa bella and of Charles V was so vigorous that, when the hedonistic Philip IV (1621-1668) decided to devote himself to the pleasures of court life and to esthetic patronage rather than to government, there occurred the Golden Age of Spanish art and literature. The situa tion was only another illustration of the phenomenon, well exemplified by the history of Venetian painting, according to which the effects of national prosperity are felt in art at their highest for a century after the period of greatest political and economic good fortune. The im portance of Seville as a trading center between Europe and America continued, somewhat diminished, in the seventeenth century, and though largely lost in the eighteenth, was great enough to make the city the southern focus of Spanish art in both centuries. The innate esthetic tendencies of the race now found their most brilliant expres sion and were least obscured beneath foreign accretions. The pro digious amount of sculpture produced was significant, but in quality also it was only less distinguished than the more famous painting of Velazquez, Ribera, Zurbaran, and Murillo. The enthusiastic Catholicism of the country, which was the great stronghold of the Counter Reformation, bestowed a more than usual fervor upon the characteristic Jesuitical piety of contemporary art. The production of Spain during this period was almost exclusively religious. There was not even much interest in the construction of the stately sepulchral monuments that offered to the sculptors of other countries such magnificent opportunities. Another trait, natu ralism, typical of the whole history of Spanish art, now appeared in its most decided manifestation. The return to nature was general in the baroque period, but both this and Catholic sentinient took a more pronounced form in Spain than in the rest of Europe. In certain other respects Spanish sculpture differed from the usual standard of the baroque. Until the development of the extravagant Churrigueresque style in the eighteenth century, it indulged less in pictorial effects. 7^ SPAIN 73 It showed little affection for the great pictorial compositions of archi tecture and statuary to which Bernini was addicted, and preferred single figures. The gravity of the Spanish temperament avoided the Italian riots of movement, although the separate statues of saints were usually represented in some form of not too violent activity. Above all, Spanish art of the seventeenth century owed less to the Renaissance than did the contemporary output of other peoples. It retained certain things that it had learned from the antique and from Italianism, such as classically beautiful dispositions of the drapery; but in general it shook off all imitation, reasserted its originality, and became more truly national even than in the Middle Ages. Spanish sculptors did not continue to study in Italy like the masters of other countries, and they were therefore much less under the spell of Bernini and his entourage. A concrete example of this nationalism was the almost universal retention of the old Spanish medium of wood, when other countries were preferring more formal plastic materials. The polychromy was often executed, not by the carvers themselves, but by painters. The coloring itself was more naturalistic, in con trast to such medieval conventions as the use of gilt even in places where, in actual life, it would not ordinarily occur. The whites, how ever, were very often underpainted with gold, in order that they might give a rich and lustrous impression. 2. THE SCHOOL OF VALLADOLID The two centers of sculptural production in the seventeenth century were Valladolid and Seville. The master who led the way in the repudiation of Italianism and the Renaissance and in the resuscitation of the indigenous tradition was Gregorio Hernandez (1566 ?- 1636), born in Galicia but active principally at Valladolid — a man whom further investigation may well prove to have been a more signifi cant innovator and greater force in the history of Spanish art than has hitherto been supposed. Although he apparently was not trained in Italy, he absorbed enough from the environment of the Renaissance that had been imported into Spain to bestow certain classical reminis cences, especially a classical serenity, upon the naturalism to the re vival of which he devoted himself. He was also the champion of the reaction against the vivid polychromy that had reached its climax in Juan de Juni. His color scheme is more sober, quiet, and realistic, and he himself demands in an extant contract with his painter a severe restriction in the employment of gilt. His achievement may be illustrated by the Baptism of Christ and the Pieta, in the Museum of Valladolid. In the former group, the figure of the Saviour still 74 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO retains the studied elegance of the Renaissance in posture and dra pery, but the St. John, despite his obviously graceful gestures, has much of the rugged naturalism and religious intensity so dear to the Spanish heart. The same dualism is apparent in the Pieta: the nude has clas sic beauty, but the Virgin is infused with the emotional piety of Spain. The most distinguished successor and perhaps pupil of Hernandez in Castile was the Portuguese Manuel Pereyra (d. 1667). The almost speaking naturalism of his saintly effigies he ennobled with a deeply felt but never frantic religious sentiment. The heads are par ticularly fine, vigorous in characterization and yet revealing a sense of physical beauty which was not always possessed by Spanish artists and which approximates Pereyra to his southern contemporary, Pedro de Mena. Here and there, however, for the sake of variation, he in dulged in rather obvious and mannered arrangements of parts of the drapery. Typical specimens of his work at Madrid are the St. Bmno of the Academy, the St. Anthony at the entrance to S. Antonio de los Alemanes, and the ten canonized farmers of S. Isidro el Real. His masterpiece is usually reckoned to be the St. Bruno in the Carthusian church of Miraflores near Burgos. > 3. THE SCHOOL OF THE SOUTH The greatest sculptor of Seville in this epoch was Juan Martinez Montanes (c. 1 570-1 649). The touch of classicism that belonged to almost all the Spanish baroque masters he obtained perhaps by study ing in the Duke of Alcala's collection of antiques and surely by ex amining the productions that Torrigiano had left in the region. To realize the relationship, one has only to compare Torrigiano's St. Jerome with the figure of the same saint by Montanes in his early retable for the monastic church of Santiponce near Seville: Until 1622, the polychromy of his statues was executed by the father-in- law of Velazquez, Pacheco. That Montanes was a naturalist goes without saying. Good instances are the St. Bruno of the cathedral at Cadiz and especially the St. Ignatius Loyola in the chapel of the Uni versity at Seville, the latter perhaps modelled from a death-mask. But he often so idealized his sacred personages, who were suggested by familiar Andalusian types, that he gives the same curious impresr sion of a combined idealism and naturalism that is the distinctive mark of Murillo's maturity. Like this younger contemporary of his at Seville, he best embodied his transfigured naturalism in the sub ject of the Immaculately Conceived Virgin. He was among the first of his countrymen to attempt this iconographic theme, for which such a phenomenal Spanish popularity lay in store, and he helped to es- Fig. 144. MONTANES. VIRGIN OF IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. CATHEDRAL, SEVILLE (Photo. Laurent) Fig. 145. PEDRO DE MENA. ST. FRANCIS. CATHEDRAL, TOLEDO (Photo. Laurent) SPAIN 75 tablish the main outlines of its treatment. Of several repetitions, per haps the best, is the example in the church of the Sagrario, annexed to the cathedral at Seville (Fig. 144). Montanes sublimated his natural ism also by bestowing monumentality upon his figures, especially, like Benedetto da Maiano, through the device of great sweeps of en veloping drapery. A comparative restraint in religious expression made for the same end. Even over the celebrated Crucifix of the cathedral there rests that calm sobriety which ensured to Montanes greater success in single figures than in animated compositions. Alonso Cano (1601-1667), a pupil of Montanes in sculpture, is possibly more familiar than his master to students of art because he was also a painter. Born at Granada, he was trained at Seville, and after a life.of storm, violence, sin, and bitterness, in 1652 he was given the sine cure of a prebendary in the cathedral of Granada, and spent his last years in his native town. Though more passionate in his pious senti ment than Montanes, in several respects he was somewhat out of ac cord with the spirit of contemporary Spanish sculpture. He aimed at a.jnore idealized beauty than his rivals; he shrank from the brutally realistic types that so many of his compatriots admired; and he chose gentler forms and treated their details with a technical delicacy and nicety that, as in his paintings, distantly recall Florentine art of the Quattrocento. His draperies, particularly, with their many small planes and accentuated angles have an almost labored effect. Char acteristic examples of his style are the Crucifix in the church of Sta. Isabel, Madrid, the Magdalene in the Cartuj a,. Granada, and the Immaculate Conception in the Sacristy of the cathedral of the same city. The most interesting, if not the greatest, Spanish sculptor of the century was Alonso Cano's pupil, Pedro, de Mena of Granada (1628-1688), who has lately become better known to criticism through the excellent monograph of Ricardo de Orueta.. The first phase of his career under the domination of Cano may be illustrated by the. Im maculate Conception in the Convent of the Guardian Angel, Granada. The completion of the choir-stalls in the cathedral of Malaga with forty figures (1 658-1 662) marks off, according to Orueta, a second period, in which Pedro de Mena had to pass through the phase of a painstaking naturalism that concerned itself more with the external appearance of his personages than with their underlying spirit. The Sts. Isidore and Anthony of Padua are triumphs of such realistic in dividualization. The Holy Child in the arms of St. Anthony is one of the loveliest of Mena's putti, which are less idealized . than Cano's and are surely the best specimens that the Spanish seventeenth een- 76 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO tury produced. The St. Sebastian shows that, when the master directed his naturalistic efforts towards anatomy, the idealistic in heritance from Cano somewhat tempered them, and made his nudes also the best Spanish examples of the epoch. The moderated natural ism of the tondo of the Virgin and Child in Sto. Domingo, Malaga, one of the most winning pieces of all Spanish sculpture, demonstrates the partial persistence of Cano's influence, and, as in his master's work, recajls Florentine art of the fifteenth century. It even seems to be derived from Cano's painted version of the theme in the cathedral of Seville. Pedro de Mena's maturity was attained in his third period with his visit to Madrid in 1662 and 1663. He was possibly stimulated by the works that Gregorio Hernandez had left, and he learned to repre sent not only the outer semblance of his characters but also their inner spiritual natures, especially their intense religious devotion. Indeed it is not too much to say that he was the best sculptural exponent in Spain of the Catholic Reaction. In contrast to the literal- ness of his second period, he now cultivated expressiveness, from which, however, as usual in Spain of this period, the turbulence of the baroque was absent. He achieved even a simplification of the rather finicky drapery that he had inherited from Cano. The celebrated St. Francis in the cathedral of Toledo (Fig. 145) and the even finer St. Pedro de Alcantara, reproduced by Orueta from a private collection at Madrid, prove that Mena embodied his pious ardor best in the forms of ascetics, and that in the representation of monks and friars he is perhaps with out a rival in the world's history. The latter part of his life he spent at Malaga, applying his unimpaired talent to a more inclusive range of subjects. The Magdalene in the Convent of the Visitation, Madrid, has the very slightest tinge of a curiously modern theatricality which intrudes also into the St. Francis and accounts sufficiently for Mena's present popularity. A certain almost intangible modern feel ing, indeed, hovers about many of his productions and gives them a freshness and originality not always achieved by his contemporaries. 4. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY In the eighteenth century Seville continued to be a sculptural center, but the place of Valladolid was taken by Madrid. The sculp ture of Spain in this period may be divided into four groups. There were, first, those who betrayed an unmistakable decadence from the high standards of the preceding century. Very generally they now adopted the baroque of Italy in its most wanton forms and carried it to an even more extravagant expression. This style appeared princi- SPAIN 77 pally in architectural decoration and was called Churrigueresque from its most distinguished exponent, Jose Churriguera. It revelled in con glomerations of architectural, sculptural, and pictorial elements of different materials with monstrous forms in the most violent distor tions. The spirit of the old Plateresque was revived and exaggerated. Never has ornamentation been so overladen, so ostentatious, and so ugly in detail. A notorious example is Narciso Tome's decoration of the screen behind the high altar of the cathedral of Toledo, called the Trasparente because of the opening that admits light from the am bulatory. The disagreeable effect of the style, when applied to the exterior of a building, may be seen on the house of the Marques de Dos Aguas at Valencia. Of those who were more active in the sculp ture than in the architecture of this imhappy movement, the most prominent was Pedro Duque Cornejo of Seville (i 677-1 757), well represented by his carving of the choir-stalls in the cathedral of Cordova. Religious sculpture had become largely industrialized, and the epoch was crowded with lesser personalities, who were mere arti sans to supply the pietistic trade, and who were even indifferent to correctness in the representation of the human form. The taste was as bad in separate statues of saints as in baroque adornment. Naturalism now broke all bonds, endowing the figures with real hair and nails, glass eyes, and apparatus for moving the several parts of the body. The delight in horror and putrefaction is witnessed by the popularity of such sculptured subjects as decapitated heads of martyrs on plat ters, represented with a repulsive literalness that is well illustrated by Alonso Villabrille's head of St. Paul in the Museum at Valladolid. A second group was constituted by the few sculptors who managed to maintain to a certain degree the good old traditions of the seven teenth century. Chief among these was Francisco Salzillo or Zarcillo (1707-1781), the most illustrious member of an artistic family of Naples who had emigrated to Murcia. The workshop that he organized with his brothers and sister is principally remembered for its pasos or sets of figures representing episodes from the Passion to be carried in the processions of Holy Week. Such essentially Span ish subjects, which had exercised the skill of great artists at least as early as Gregorio Hernandez, were treated with a pronounced natural ism that sought to give the illusion of actual scenes like those of the sacred dramas or autos; but Salzillo was never guilty of the realistic exaggerations committed by the masters considered in the last para graph. He sometimes conformed, however, to the now established and frequent practice of avoiding the labor of modelling anything but the 78 THE BAROQUE AND ROCOCO head and extremities by concealing the rest with a real garment. His most notable pasos are in the Ermita de Jesiis at Murcia: the partially nude angel of the Agony in the Garden (Fig. 146) has an ideal beauty that may have been connected with the dawn of neoclassicism. Among the sculptors at Madrid, the most faithful disciple of the old naturalism was perhaps the prolific Luis Salvador Carmona (1709-1767). He may be studied at his best in the New Cathedral of Salamanca: the analogy between his Pieta and that of Gregorio Hernandez demonstrates his relation to the past, but the painted blood, here and on the Flagellated Christ, proves that even he could not utterly escape the bad taste of his epoch. A third group was formed by the French sculptors imported by Philip V, the first of the French Bourbon dynasty, to adorn the gar^ dens of the palace of La Granja which he began in 1719 at San Ilde- fonso near Segovia in direct imitation of Versailles. Their activity was confined to this royal enterprise, to the estates of the few nobles who emulated it, and to a little work at Madrid, but they had some influence on the artistic reform instituted by the newly founded Spanish Academy in the second half of the century. The grounds at La Granja and particularly the fountains abound in French mytho logical figures by these foreigners, who were ordinarily pupils of Coy sevox or of the Coustous and simply reproduced, with less skill, the classical style of their teachers. The principal names were Rene Carlier, who only commenced the plastic decoration, Rene Fre- min, and Jean Thierry. Hubert Dumandre and Pierre Pitue deserve mention chiefly for their beautiful sculptured marble urns. Robert Michel (1720-1785), perhaps because he was a southern Frenchman and had a provincial education outside the at mosphere of Paris, fused with the classic manner something of Span ish naturalism. In distinction from the mythological artists at La Granja, he was active principally at Madrid as a sculptor of religious subjects. Typical are the Hope (?) and Charity on the facade of S. Justo y Pastor. Both Michel and Carmona belonged also to the fourth group, the members of the Academy of San Fernando founded in 1752 and those inspired by the reform that the Academy was created to champion, Ferdinand VI's purpose was to rescue Spanish art from the degrada tion into which it had sunk through Churrigueresque aberrations, through the invasion of the field of art by mediocrities, and through the substitution of French fashions for the indigenous tradition. The effort was only partially successful. It banished extravagances, to be sure, but it produced no great masters to direct and give strength Fig. 146. SALZILLO. AGONY IN THE GARDEN. ERMITA DE JESUS, MURCIA (Photo. Laurent) Fig. 147. CANOVA. CUPID AND PSYCHE. LOUVRE, PARIS (Photo. Giraudon) SPAIN 79 to its energies. The result was a style the chief element of which was Frehch classicism, much affected, however, by the closer study of the antique that was general in Europe during the second half of the cen tury. There was often also a curious admixture of Spanish naturalism and of the pictorial and agitated effects from the baroque. In some works, antiquarianism was uppermost, in others one of the other constituents of the style. Among the first members of the Academy, Felipe de Castro (171 1-1775) enjoyed a distinction at least equal to that of Carmona and Michel. His most interesting achievements, in the building possessed by the Academy at Madrid, are four busts in the contemporary French manner and a relief representing the inauguration of the august body. Certain assemblages of sculpture prominent in the landscape of Madrid were executed by these early Academicians : the fountain of Neptune at one end of the promenade called the Salon del Prado, to which the author, Juan Pascual de Mena, has been able to lend more life and vigor than his train ing in the school of La Granja would lead one to expect; the foun tain of Cybele at the other end, for which Michel did the lions and Francisco Gutierrez the figure of the goddess; and the foun tain of Apollo and the Seasons in the middle of the same walk, the Gallicized statues of which are by M a n u e L A l v a r e z . In the Acad emy, furthermore, are preserved a large number of reliefs, trial-pieces submitted by those who sought the honors bestowed by the associa tion and the majority of whose names have now been forgotten. The sort of thing approved by the Academy is revealed in the themes, which are drawn from sacred, mythological, classical, or Spanish his tory. The baroque attitude was still potent enough to make the sculptors choose the most violently dramatic moment of their tales; the panels often recall Algardi's pictorial style at Rome; and the naturalism in patriotic subjects was likely to be confined to an anachronistic costume incongruously compounded of elements from the sixteenth or seventeenth century and from Roman antiquity, no matter what period of Spanish history was embodied in the episode. PART V NEOCLASSICISM CHAPTER XXI NEOCLASSICISM i. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEOCLASSIC STYLE The desire to imitate the antique more closely than in the typically baroque and rococo styles had been growing, especially in France, ever since Herculaneum in 1737 and Pompeii in 1748 began to yield their buried treasures to an admiring continent. The movement may be viewed also as a spontaneous reaction against the extravagances of the baroque and the rococo. At no time in the world's history has art de pended more completely and fatally on the writings of theorists in esthetics, and the tendencies were brought to a head in no small degree by the literary and personal propaganda of the German savant Winckelmann and the German painter Anton Raphael Mengs. The resulting neoclassicism dominated all of Europe during the last years of the eighteenth and the first quarter of the nineteenth century. .The cardinal principle was the study of the ancient masterpieces rather than of nature. The artistic superiority of the ancients was so manifest that one could do no better than repeat as nearly as pos sible their achievements. Almost any sculptor of the period would probably have proclaimed a formal allegiance to nature, but only in so far as her multifarious aspects might be verified in Greek or Roman statues; and the practical consequence was that he was satisfied to learn no more of actuality than what he found in these prototypes. The imitation was much more absolute even than in the Cinquecento. Often the old statues were merely copied with slight changes. Since at first the productions of the best ancient periods were not known, the works of the pupils of Praxiteles and of the Alexandrian epoch were taken as the supreme models, with the result that charm and grace, softness, and sometimes even sensuality became the great desiderata. From another standpoint, these qualities may be con sidered as reminiscences of the rococo lingering on amidst the new fashions. Although the sculptures of the Parthenon and the Aeginetan temple were revealed to Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century, they really had very little influence. Thorvaldsen and other later neoclassicists flattered themselves that they had attained a purer 83 84 NEOCLASSICISM and more essentially Greek manner than had Canova and the earlier generation, dignifying it with the name of Hellenism; but as a matter of fact the whole output of neoclassicism was very much the same. The small number of favored antiques that were imitated again and again by all artists increased still further the general impression of monotony. No one could aspire to preeminence who had not studied at Rome; many sculptors from Germany, England, France, and the other European countries actually settled there for life, gathering themselves about Canova and Thorvaldsen. National characteristics in art were largely obliterated, and Rome was for the time being the world's esthetic capital. The inevitable effect was a resuscitation of ancient idealization and generalization, one point farther removed from nature, for the artist did not base these characteristics, like the Greek masters, upon an in vestigation of actuality, but merely copied them from the old models. Like all imitators, he exaggerated the traits of his prototypes, omitting the modelling, for instance, as far as possible in his effort after the idealized and generalized beauty of antiquity, and emphasizing the con tours. "The torsos are flat, the arms and the legs are reduced to the state of cylinders, the surface of which is swollen by no muscular protrusion." Yet even neoclassicism had its virtues, and one of them was that partial recovery of the glyptic sense in distinction from ba roque pictorialism by which at least some sculptors of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were to benefit. By the strictest theorists, portraits were tabooed; but patronage demanded them, and their executers salved their consciences by generalizing the features and approximating them to those of some Greek or Roman figure. Classic impassivity of countenance was everywhere cultivated. Hellenic repose was set as the standard of the body. The best works were deemed to be those in which there was perfect tranquillity or at least only slight movement. The electric currents that had distorted the forms of the baroque and the rococo were turned off; the winds that had blown the draperies into a flutter were hushed. Complexity of every kind was avoided. If a dramatic subject was chosen, it must be treated with great moderation, and especially the dramatic alle gorical figures that were still allowed to decorate a few tombs sank into listlessness. Occasionally, on the other hand, in a last homage to the baroque or in a frantic effort to break the cold spell of the neoclassic style, the sculptors dared to indulge in extravagant expression and gesticulation, all the more obvious and painful because unfitted to the forms that they had borrowed from the past. Compositions had to be very simple. The crowded arrangements of the baroque gave way NEOCLASSICISM 85 to groups of a few figures. In reliefs, pictorial perspective was ban ished, and the most esteemed kind of composition was a procession. Contemporary garments were anathema; the best sort of costume, as Francois Benoit has put it, was no costume at all because it was the simplest and because the nude bore the stamp of ancient sanction. Not only the treatment but the approved themes themselves were restricted. They must be lofty and noble, remote from the sphere of ordinary experience. The Christian subjects were deemed less capable of the highest artistic expression than those of classical mythology and history, and when they were attempted, they often anticipated the worst Victorian falsity of feeling. Allegories, as abstractions dis associated from reality, continued to enjoy the popularity which they had acquired in the baroque and which was now confirmed by the fact that they had been used in Hellenistic art. A curious but char acteristic form of allegory was that which represented some individual under the guise of the classical god whose traditional qualities he em bodied. These and other themes were cloaked in a rhetorical senti mentality that owed its vogue largely to such men as Rousseau. 2. ITALY The first great exponent of the style in sculpture was an Italian, Antonio Canova. Born in 1757 at the little town of Possagno in the province of Treviso and trained at home and in Venice by insig nificant local masters, he did not really find himself, nor did the world find him, until he settled at Rome in 1779. Winckelmann^ahd Mengs", the formerof whom had been dead some time and the latter of whom died the year that Canova arrived, had made Rome a center of neo classicism. The Collections of antiquities and the activities of the French Academy in that city had so confirmed the archaizing tenden cies that Canova at once surrendered to them. Almost immediately he rose to be the acknowledged leader of the movement and gained a precocious and phenomenal popularity and a world-wide reputation. A fervent patriot, he was more or less opposed to the Napoleonic domination; yet he finally was prevailed upon to work for the French Emperor and his family, actually visiting Paris but always deaf to Bonaparte's attempts to entice him to emigrate to France. Unable to persuade Napoleon to relinquish the antiquities that he had pur loined from Italy, it was Canova who had the satisfaction, after the Corsican's fall, of restoring these beloved objects to their original resting places. His patriotism was accompanied by one of the pleas- antest characters that can be met with in the annals of art. He was generous almost to a fault, always ready to assist with financial aid 86 NEOCLASSICISM or untiring instruction the young sculptors who were then flocking to Rome; and he was fair even in his judgment of his rivals. One in stance must suffice: when the Spanish sculptor, Jose Alvarez, was imprisoned at Rome for opposition to Joseph Bonaparte, he helped to save his family from destitution. He died at Venice, where he had begun his career, in 1822. Canova tinged the neoclassic manner with certain other character^ istics, but he also exemplified its typical features. Almost all his works were more or less directly based upon antiques. In 1801 he completed a Perseus, now in the Cabinet reserved for his creations in the Museo Pio-Clementino of the Vatican, to take the place of the Apollo Belvedere, which had been pirated away to Paris; and he here reproduced almost exactly the outlines but not the life and nobility of this ancient statue, which, to the eighteenth century, was the sum of all loveliness and inspired many another figure of the period. A simi lar achievement was the Venus Italica of the Pitti Palace at Florence to replace the Medicean Venus which had also been carted off to France. Sometimes the relation, though indubitable, is not so tangi ble: for instance, the deservedly famous group of Cupid bending over the recumbent Psyche, in the Louvre (Fig. 147), seems to have been suggested by a painting of a faun and nymph from Herculaneum. Even the portraits were conformed to classic figures — the Laetitia Bonaparte, Napoleon's mother, in the collection of the Duke of Devon shire at Chatsworth, to the so-called Agrippina of the Capitoline Museum, and the Elisa Bonaparte, Napoleon's sister, in the Imperial Hofburg, Vienna, to a Polyhymnia from Herculaneum. Less specifi cally, the colossal Napoleon at Apsley House, London, is conceived like the nude statue of a Roman emperor, the Marie Louise in the Pina- coteca at Parma like a Roman Concordia, and the celebrated Pauline Bonaparte of the Villa Borghese at Rome like a Venus Victrix. His personal gift to his birthplace, Possagno, of the church of the Trinity, however great its dependence upon a heathen temple, the Pantheon, shows him to have been an enthusiastic Christian, but his antiquarian ism almost excluded religious themes from his repertoire. Among the few instances, still in a mildly baroque spirit, are the kneeling Magda lene of the Villa Carlotta at Cadenabbia and his last work, cast in bronze after his death, the Pieta in the church at Possagno. Better perhaps than any other exponent of neoclassicism Canova embodied its Praxitelean standards of softness, grace, and charm rather than vigor and true nobility. One of the reasons was that the former qualities were attuned to his own personality, and there is, indeed, a more subjective note in Canova's sculpture than in the, NEOCLASSICISM 87 average output of the neoclassic movement. A thorough Italian, he could never quite repress his individuality, and he possessed a sense of personal beauty which even the tyranny of neoclassicism could not utterly dull and which again was the inalienable heritage of his race. In a word, his works have more warmth than those of his rivals. The elegance and sweetness of many of his productions are lingering echoes of the rococo. In three statues of feminine dancers, the. original models for which are in the Canova Museum at Possagno, the pitch of the rococo has been only slightly lowered, and the early group of Venus and Adonis in the same place might almost be a Clodion. Other good examples of his characteristic manner are the Cupid and Psyche men tioned above, the Hebe in the National Gallery, Berlin, and the three Graces in the Hermitage, Petrograd, derived from the classical group in the Library of the Sienese cathedral. The Hercules and Lichas in the National Gallery of Modern Art at Rome reveals how at times he attempted to reproduce the colossal and forceful aspects of the antique with considerable success. The similar Theseus and the Centaur of the Hofmuseum, Vienna, is less effectively composed. In these groups, in the Cupid and Psyche, and in some other instances, the baroque sense was still potent enough to make him choose the pass ing moment for representation. Partly because of his early training, Canova could not be quite so oblivious to nature as the strictest neoclassic theorists required. For the realistic beggar on the tomb of the Archduchess Maria Christina in the Augustinian Church, Vienna, he might have found a Hellenistic prototype, but the crippled feet are rendered with a faithfulness that seems to be his own. Several of his portraits, such as the representa tions of Napoleon, or the seated statue of the Romanized Washington in the Museum at Possagno, are highly idealistic. The busts were sometimes made larger than actuality, with the intention perhaps of discouraging the spectator from expecting a realistic treatment of the sitter. Other portraits, however, are better likenesses, such as the Laetitia Bonaparte and the Marie Louise, the statue of Pius VI in St. Peter's, and the bust of Pius VII in the Capitoline Museum. The contemporary tendencies to simplification, tranquillity, alle gory, and sentiment are best illustrated in his series of sepulchral mon uments. His two early tombs of Clement XIV and Clement XIII, the former in the church of the SS. Apostoli, the latter in St. Peter's, Rome, belong still to the Roman baroque type, with the effigy above and two allegorical figures beside the sarcophagus; but everywhere the desire for greater simplicity is evident. The architectural ele ments are less elaborate and more severely classical. On the mauso- 88 NEOCLASSICISM leum of Clement XIV, Temperance and Gentleness still mourn for the dead pontiff, but quietly without the- dramatic agitation of Bernini's allegorical personifications. The Pope himself still stretches forth his hand energetically in blessing, but his draperies are less disturbed. On the second monument, the kneeling effigy is a no less highly individ ualized portrait than many of its baroque prototypes; but the curi ously conceived Faith on the left once more faces the spectator as baldly as on the tombs of the Cinquecento, and the winged ephebe, an ancient genius of death, on the other side, likewise has lost the dramatic posture and is infused with the specious sentiment of the epoch. Among a number of other sepulchral monuments, he executed several slabs in which a single feminine personification grieves for the deceased. A larger adaptation of this idea in the round is the tomb of the tragic poet Alfieri in S. Croce, Florence: Italy herself leans sor rowing over the sarcophagus. His most pretentious mausoleum, completed for the Archduchess Maria Christina at Vienna in 1805, is suggested by the French type of the eighteenth century. The effigy, as so often at the end of the century, is reduced to a mere medal lion set high against the usual pyramid and upheld by the flying figure of Beatitude, to whom an angel with a palm constitutes a pendant. The dramatic French conceptions have been subdued into a solemn procession that enters from the left a sepulchral door hollowed out from the lower central section of the pyramid. Virtue heads the pro cession, accompanied by two maidens and bearing the mortuary urn and festoons; behind them Charity leads a little girl and a beggar. At the lower right, another languid genius of death, resting upon a lion, gazes sentimentally at the door and the marching forms. Bodies and draperies alike have the softly flowing lines in which Canova ex celled and show his Italian sense of beauty reasserting itself even amidst the limitations of neoclassicism. As far as the style was capable of excellence and as far as the dramatized tomb was justifiable, Canova here achieved a masterpiece. 3. DENMARK Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770-1844) bestowed upon his native country, Denmark, for the first time an international artistic impor tance, but it was an importance that was historical rather than truly- esthetic. Let a critic start with the best will in the world, with the sincere desire to understand every master who has at any period ab sorbed public attention, and to discern and appreciate in him what ever qualities, however overgrown with faults, are of enduring value; and even such a critic will be baffled when he comes to Thorvaldsen NEOCLASSICISM 89 and will find it difficult to comprehend the reasons for his popularity or to discover in him anything to admire. Neoclassicism was likely to stifle any innate talent, however great, and a neoclassic artist interests only for his technical skill or when he manages partially to break through the bonds of the style and to give expression to his own personality. Thorvaldsen does not seem to the present writer to have possessed more than a tolerable technique; he neither had much personality to express, nor did he color the neoclassic manner with esthetic traits of his own. His chief originality was that he was less original than any of the other great neoclassicists and was therefore better able to reproduce, unmodified, the Graeco-Roman prototypes. He was little more than a respectable copier of the antique. If even his imitations had ever reembodied the antique in its real spirit or integrity and had not been more or less confined within the restrictive theories of the peculiar neoclassic style, he might be compared with the ancient Roman copiers of Hellenic statues. Born at Copenhagen, the son of a carpenter and wood-carver, he worked with his father and studied in the Academy of Art. Both at home and later at Rome he was much influenced by the neoclassic painter of Schleswig, Carstens, who, however, was more of a rebel against neoclassic tyranny than his follower. In 1797 Thorvaldsen began his almost lifelong sojourn at Rome, first supported by a scholarship from the Danish Academy and later by his own earnings. Gradually he acquired an extraordinary vogue and forced Canova to share with him the neoclassic dictatorship. One of his chief patrons and supporters at Rome was the crown prince Ludwig of Bavaria. In 1 8 19 he went back to Denmark for a visit, but the next year he made a kind of triumphal return to Rome by way of Dresden, Berlin, Warsaw, Cracow, and Vienna. He did not definitely repatriate until 1838, six years before his death at Copenhagen. His virtually absolute and constant dependence upon the antique it hardly seems necessary to demonstrate. Two or three examples will serve the purpose. Like the Perseus of Canova, the Jason, which he began soon after his arrival in Rome, is merely a transcript of the Apollo Belvedere, affected somewhat by two drawings of Carstens. The well-known Eros torso of the Vatican is the source of the Adonis of the Glyptothek, Munich, which was much admired by Canova probably because here Thorvaldsen achieved more of that Praxitelean grace which the Italian master himself cultivated. In the frieze of the procession of Alexander's triumphal entry into Babylon for the apartment which Napoleon was expected to occupy in the Quirinal Palace, Rome (still existing in the plaster model in its original posi- 90 NEOCLASSICISM tion in the Appartamento dei Principi of the Quirinal and in finished marble, with some modifications, in the Villa Carlotta in the district called the Tremezzina on Lake Como), the horsemen are suggested by the Parthenon frieze and the Asiatics by the barbarians on Tra jan's column. Ludwig of Bavaria chose Thorvaldsen as the restorer of the Aeginetan sculptures discovered in 1811, and once or twice the master imitated even this archaic Greek style, notably in his statue of Hope, which is derived from two small feminine figures above the Aeginetan pediments and the principal marble replica of which deco rates the mausoleum of the Humboldt family in the park of their castle at Tegel near Berlin. Thorvaldsen prided himself on differing from Canova and the earlier neoclassicists by turning more to real Greek prototypes, but his boasted Hellenism manifested itself chiefly only in a greater profusion of Greek subjects, especially from Greek mythology and literature, and in an affectation of greater archaeological correctness and detail. He himself had very little general education or culture, beyond his technical training, and in the earlier part of his career he largely gave concrete form to the ideas of others, taking advantage especially of the literary erudition of Carstens. When left to himself and when not reproducing antique conceptions, he was simple and unimaginative almost to the point of stupidity in creating ideas for his compositions. Even such an admirer as Adolf Rosenberg admits the prosaic con ception of the work that he executed for his reception into the Acad emy of St. Luke at Rome, the relief inscribed "A genio lumen," the plaster model of which is now in the Thorvaldsen Museum at Copen hagen1: the feminine figure of Art sits writing while a youthful genius pours oil into a lamp upon a stele. Nor does he compensate for the ab sence of imagination by any emotional qualities. He treated only a very few subjects that required passionate expression, and in but one or two of these, as in the early Achilles and Briseis in the De Ropp Collection at Mitau in Courland, has he given the figures emotional attitudes in any sense adequate to the theme. Expression through the countenance he consistently avoided. It is all very well to say that he purposed this simplicity and this suppression of passion as incongruous with the tranquillity of the antique and to exalt these characteristics as fulfilling what the Germans describe as the ideal of Hellenic stille Einfalt; but had he not been very phlegmatic in temperament, he would surely have chafed beneath neoclassic restrictions and at times and to a certain extent he would have shaken off these fetters. His 1 This Museum contains a large number of his productions, with first sketches, casts, or rep licas of the others. NEOCLASSICISM 9i emotional and imaginative deficiencies and his neoclassic frigidity are most appalling in religious themes, notably in the series of Christ and the Twelve Apostles and other sacred sculptures for the Vor-Frue- Kirke at Copenhagen, where, as often, he relied largely upon the as sistance of pupils. His obtuseness to strong feeling is well instanced by his lack of political interests or convictions, as compared to Ca- nova's ardent patriotism. The ordinary observer will seek in vain, with one or two possible exceptions, for the particularly northern traits that Danish writers endeavor to discern in their national hero. His unreflecting devotion to the antique combined with his political in difference to make of him truly an artist "without a country," except in so far as he dreamed himself a citizen of the classic past. A general comparison with Canova is not flattering to Thorvaldsen. One misses in his sculpture the impress of personality that Canova managed to retain. Like Canova he was more at home in the gently elegant than in the heroic, and for this reason perhaps he preferred relief to statues in the round. But even in his best works in this man ner, such as the renowned allegorical tondos of Morning (Fig. 148) and Night in the Palazzo Tosio at Brescia, he did not approach so close to Praxitelean grace as his Italian rival. One has only to set the photograph of another of his pleasantest works, the Cupid and Psyche, the model of which is in the Thorvaldsen Museum, side by side with a photograph of Canova's treatment of the same theme to realize the latter's superiority. It has been pointed out that he is less sensual in the handling of the nude, but this quality may be conceived as only another phase of his lack of feeling and personality. Certainly he is technically less fine. Apparently he worked with great haste. He usually followed the modern practice of making only the plaster models, leaving his assistants to hew the marble and merely adding a few finishing touches. The principal esthetic quality with which he was concerned was probably composition, and here he was almost always good. It was a foregone conclusion that his respect for nature would be reduced to the minimum. For instance, the famous wounded Lion cut from the rock at Lucerne from Thorvaldsen's model, to commemo rate the loyalty of the Swiss guard to the French royal family in the Revolution, is studied from no living beasts but from ancient repre sentations. Either he or his patrons were wise enough to see to it that he did not attempt many portraits; those that he did he was likely to translate completely into ancient terms, until little suggestion of the individual was left. The Count Potocki in the cathedral of Cracow is a highly idealized classical warrior. The equestrian statue 92 NEOCLASSICISM of the Polish patriot, Prince Poniatowski, now remaining to us only in the model in the Thorvaldsen Museum, is a more exact reproduc tion of the Marcus Aurelius than any of the many equestrian figures that were influenced by this Roman prototype. His best portrait is perhaps the seated effigy of Pius VII on the tomb in St. Peter's. The monument is of the more tranquil type employed by Canova for his papal sepulchres, the effigy being accompanied by the allegorical figures of Time, History, Strength, and Wisdom, which are no longer brought together in dramatic unity about the portrait statue. The nearest that Thorvaldsen ever got to naturalism was in three of his four tondos of the Seasons, the rather charming Spring remaining antique in conception. Summer, Autumn, and Winter are each rep resented by a man and wife, at these respective ages, engaged in the activities of the three seasons; and although expression is repressed, Danish and German critics are perhaps right in discerning here the note of Teutonic life in the stress upon family affection, in some of the sparsely used domestic accessories, such as a cat and a dog, and slightly in the types, especially the old man in Winter. In the latter part of his life, Thorvaldsen was forced to sacrifice his principles somewhat and do homage to the Romantic movement; but with his lack of any historic sense or knowledge, he was here out of his element, and even in the best of his statues in the costume of the period in question, such as the equestrian Bavarian Elector, Maximilian I, in the Wittelsbacher-Platz, Munich, or the standing young Conradin in S. Maria del Carmine, Naples, he was able to at tain no incisiveness or force. Here as everywhere in Thorvaldsen's output, the student is discouraged from the first by the faults that were partly of the time but also partly to be ascribed to the master himself — dullness, coldness, and impersonality. 4. FRANCE More definitely perhaps than in any other country neoclassicism had been unfolding in France for the last fifty years, and it was now peculiarly fostered by the Revolutionary ideals of ancient republics and by Napoleon's visions of a Roman empire. The determinative architectural spirits of the day, Percier and Fontaine, gave a Neo- Pompeian tone even to the interior decoration of the "style of the Empire" which they had created. Since the French, with their won derful respect for raison, have always been prone to reduce the dif ferent phases of their artistic development to logical systems and to conform each phase to a theoretical standard, the relationship between the literary estheticians and the actual artists was now drawn closer NEOCLASSICISM 93 than in other parts of Europe. To the international authority of Mengs and Winckelmann was added that of several French writers, especially Quatremere de Quincy. The cause of the archaizing artists was much helped by the visits of Canova to Paris and by the establish ment of a collection of antiquities in the newly constituted Museum of the Louvre. Even more than in the baroque and rococo periods, the established convention was a period of study at Rome. It had been the fate of French art for over a century to be dominated by single individualities such as Le Brun and Boucher, and though times had now changed, the dictatorship still continued during this period in the person of the painter, Louis David, who exercised his confirmed neoclassic influence in sculpture as well as in his own sphere. The old Academy was abolished in 1793, but in its place there was definitely substituted in 1803 the section of the National Institute of Arts, Letters, and Sciences called the Fourth Class. This new organization practised an even greater tyranny than the old Academy; but although David enjoyedva preponderant role in its operations and although it usually bore its witness to the archaeological theories, it yet managed to harbor a modest amount of insurrection against the established esthetic code. Francois Benoit has pointed out that certain other factors also militated against a neoclassic absolutism and afforded encouragement to those few rebels who championed and exemplified in greater and less degrees a more naturalistic style. The Salon or exhibition of sculptures and paintings, for the most part biennial as under the old regime, forced the neoclassicists into a competition with their oppo nents from which they did not always emerge the acknowledged victors. Some of the themes the treatment of which was demanded by patrons required a greater naturalism than was approved by the strictest antiquarians. To this category belong the portraits, which enjoyed special favor in the Revolution, and the episodes from medieval and contemporary history that were much admired during the Consulate and the Empire. Despite the archaeological effects of his Caesarism, Napoleon, who sought to emulate Louis XIV in patronage of art and letters, seems to have thrown what personal artistic influence he had into the scale against an excessive neoclassicism. Josephine also assumed the role of a feminine Maecenas. The French examples were never so absolutely dependent upon the Graeco-Roman past as the works of Canova and Thorvaldsen, and they never passed into the stage of Hellenism. An unmistakable " Frenchiness " was superim posed upon the ancient borrowings. They preserved still a redolence of the French classic art under Louis XIV and Louis XV, and they 94 NEOCLASSICISM were only like somewhat pedantic and rarefied products of this tra dition. The more rigorous approximation to ancient prototypes, how ever, diminished rather than developed personal genius, and France now was blessed with no such great sculptors as in the monarchical era. None of them have any universal importance, and not even those who are least dull repay long consideration. Benoit makes a con venient distinction, not to be pressed too far, between those who cultivated "severe beauty" and those who sought Praxitelean grace. Of the former group the three prominent members were Moitte, Cartellier, and Lemot, all of them, as was to be expected, more success ful in the decoration of architecture and in other monumental under takings. From the few extant works by Jean Guillaume Moitte (1747-1810), one of the most typical is the adornment of an attic in the west facade of the court of the Louvre with the personi fication of History accompanied by the figures and busts of great historians and consecrating the name of Napoleon. Despite his neo classic frigidity, he achieved a certain nobility; and like the other sculptors who were then employed on the edifice, he fittingly retained something of that French nicety, and he simulated something of that sinuous charm of drapery, which Goujon and his confreres had lent to their forms on adjacent sections of the palace. Pierre Cartel lier (1757-1831) labored in much the same spirit in his rather im pressive and monumental relief, based upon an ancient coin or gem, of the Triumphal Quadriga over the central door of the Colonnade in the east facade of the Louvre. His rather vacant statue of Val- hubert at Avranches half hides the Napoleonic uniform in a toga-like mantle; but the revolutionary orator, Vergniaud, at Versailles reveals how even archaeological enthusiasm and costume suggested by the antique had difficulty in getting the better of any true artist's instinct for portraiture. Francois Frederic Lemot (1773-1827) very largely devoted his profession to restoring the memories of the old monarchy. In the central pediment of the Colonnade of the Louvre, he represented the glorification of Louis XIV surrounded by a rather lovely assemblage of feminine allegories. His equestrian statues of the same king in the Place Bellecour, Lyons, and of Henry IV on the Pont Neuf, Paris, are far from discreditable. Contemporary taste forced him to clothe the former in Roman costume, but for the latter he had the temerity to violate neoclassic principles and use the armor of the Renaissance. With the same group may be classed Jean Pierre Cortot (1787-1843), although he was somewhat younger. The Apotheosis of Napoleon on the Arc de l'Etoile which, after many changes in the Fig. 148. THORVALDSEN. MORNING. REPLICA IN VILLA ALBANI, ROME > u