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13 C O 1ST O M Y

(%r4|J aramage an^Sw^l

ARCHITECTURE,

ADAPTED TO SMALL SOCIETIES AND RURAL DISTRICTS.

BY CHAS. P. DWYER,
Architect and Civil Engineer; Author of " The Economic Cottage Builder," " Practical
Masonry," etc., etc.

*¦»¦•>

BUFFALO:
PHINNEY & CO., PUBLISHERS.
1856.

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1856,
Bt CHAS. P. DWYER,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northern District of New York.

CHAS. B. FBLTON,
STEREOTYPER, . . . BUFFALO.

DEDICATION.

TO THOSE INESTIMABLE FRIENDS
OF CIVILIZATION,
THE TEACHERS OF THE PULPIT AND THE DESK,
THIS WORK IS ADMIRINGLY
INSCRIBED, BY ITS AUTHOR.

CONTENTS.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE :
Preliminary Thoughts,  _. 9
Site,  _  14
Foundation and Basement,  ... 15
"Walls,  17
Floor and Roof,_  19
Choir, or Organ Gallery, _  20
Fitness of JStyle,  22

Unity of Effect,.  r  S3
Interior Coloring,  25
Choice of Style,     £6
Grecian Style,   __ 28
Romanesque Style,  _. 82
Primitive Gothic Style,   . _ -S9
Pointed Style,  s __. 41

PARSONAGES :
' General Specification,    45 I
Construction in "Wood,  47 |

Construction in Stone,  ,  _«, £4
Construction in Brick,  _  __ 66

SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE :
Construction, in wood, No. 1,   59
Construction No. 2,    61
Construction No. 3,  __  62
Construction No. 4,   63

Construction No. 5,  __ 64
Construction No. 6,   65
Construction No. 7, „_  67
Construction No. 8,   68

GENERAL REVIEW:  ;  73
LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS :  -  w
WATER :
Hard and Soft,  79
ESTIMATING:  *i

ADDENDA: Desk and Seat,...
Wall Furniture, .

89 1
92

Interior Coloring,.,

*"*M

VI

CONTENTS.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

CHURCHES :
Grecian Style,   _.  28 1 Primitive Style,.
Romanesque Style,  32 | Pointed Style, ..

41

PARSONAGES :
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, :

47

SCHOOLS :
Design No. 1,  59
Design No. 2,  _  _, 61
Design No. 3,  62
Design No. 4,  63

Design No. 5,  C4
Design No. 6,  _._   65
Design No. 7,   67
DesignNo. 8,  _« 63

PREFACE.

There are no two institutions of civilization more inti
mately connected with each other, in all the interests
which tend to sustain each, than those of the Church and
the School.
The Church is the great teacher of Eternal Truth ; while
the School is the temporal monitor and guide which leads
the growing intellect to reverence at the shrine of that
Almighty Being whose breath has fanned it into existence,
and whose final fiat awaits its judgment-day.
The author of the present treatise has chosen this theme
as a fitting successor to that of "Cottage Building;" for,
what is a home without those aids of human and divine
instruction which teach us to appreciate God's works upon
earth, and to aspire to our legitimate position in immortality.
Church and School Architecture belongs not exclu
sively to the wealth of cities. Its calm and simple dignity
gains nothing by the puerile ornament of lavish extrava-

8 PREFACE.
gance. The vast universe which we inhabit is of such un
imaginable grandeur and wonderful appropriateness, that it
were the merest vanity to dream of piling up an edifice with
human hands worthy of any other end than to stand as a
Babylonic testimony of man's infinitesimal smallness, and
the pitiable weakness of his vaunted power, when placed in
contrast with the works of that Architect whose design is
faultless, and whose execution is -perfection itself.
It is the neighborhood of sylvan-clad Nature that we seek
as the fitting site for the simple .structures we now introduce
to our readers in the following pages ; and our liveliest am
bition is, that through the unpretending medium of this
little book, each rural district may obtain a hint to help in
the erection of those landmarks so dear to the heart which
first received its pure impressions within their modest
walls — the Church and the School.
C. P. DWYER.
Buffalo, March, 1856.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

PRELIMINARY THOUGHTS.
In taking up the subject of Church construction, there
are some points worthy of particular attention ; namely, the
absolute necessity for hearing distinctly in every part of the
building; the advantage of a judicious introduction of light;
the securing of warmth in winter and coolness in summer;
and lastly, the facility of ingress and egress, and perfect
accommodation of the auditory.
In order to insure the Valuable privilege of catching,
without effort, every word that falls from the minister, or
every tone of harmony wafted from the tuneful choir, it
must be borne in mind that the formation of the interior
has the. chief bearing on this requisite. A room the walls
of which are circular, or even elliptical, will give an echo ;
for the reason that sound is governed by precisely the same
laws as light; and, therefore, reflection in the one is the same
production as in the other.
Now, let any inquiring person apply his moistened finger
to the perimeter of an ordinary drinking-glass, and by push
ing it around he will produce one continued volume of
sound, which will last just precisely as long as the finger
keeps moving around the circle.
It is thus with the walls we speak of, particularly if

10 church architecture.
smoothly plastered : the speaker is discomposed by the roll
ing echo of his own voice, sent back upon him, as if in
mockery, while his hearers seek in vain to distinguish be
tween the substance and its shadow — for so may we consider
the voice and its echo.
A Church that has cloisters, or deep recesses, is subject
to this unpleasant echo; but, as in this treatise we have
nothing to say to the more pretending edifices, it is not
necessary to more than allude to the fact as part proof of
the theory of reflection of sound. The conclusion to be
drawn, then, is, that an unbroken circular wall should be
avoided, and that transepts, or wings, are more or less inim
ical to the clear and unimpeded transmission of sound. The
square, or the oblong, are unquestionably the most desirable
forms ; and these must be assisted by a reasonable hight of
ceiling — otherwise the voice will often lack the power neces
sary to reach the opposite end from that whence it starts ;
for, sound will ascend before it seeks its level. As in the
instance of a cannon fired at a distance from an observer,
his eye detects the flash instantly, at its birth; while 'his
ear fails to catch the accompanying sound until it has gone
upivard, and passing over the exhalations of the intervening
space, descends to its level and his ear.
It should be noted by the reader that every breath exhaled
by an audience tends to oppose the direct transmission of
sound. Let any one go into a church or a lecture-room when
it is empty, and try his voice; let him go into either of
those places when filled with an audience, and make the
same trial, and he will not fail to come to the conclusion
that we have here laid down.

church architecture. 11
There is a proportion necessary to be observed in building
with a view to the due conveyance of sound. But, as the
strict' standard can not at all times be adhered to, owing to
other necessities which must be taken into consideration,
it must nevertheless be kept in sight as much as possible.
Galleries on the sides of a church, if deep, tend to ob
struct both the sight and hearing of those under them on the
floor below, unless the pulpit or reading-desk be placed low
enough to meet the necessities of the case.
The best proportion for practical purposes is to have the
Church double its breadth in length, and two-thirds of its breadth
in hight.
The elevation of the galleries should be such that a line
of sight drawn from the eye of an observer standing in the
remotest spot should clear the point where the minister's
head is supposed to be in the pulpit.
This rule is likewise applicable to the locating of the
pulpit. And, indeed, it may be as well to observe that a
little lower is much better than a higher position for the
speaker and his hearers also, if it were for no other reason
than that the latter can at less inconvenience keep
their eye upon him, (that is, those whose pews are in his
immediate locality.)
Where Galleries are used, it would be very well to let the
surface of the ceiling decline from front to rear — thus the
voice of the minister would inevitably be borne into the
remotest part, and the light from the lower section of the
windows be refracted by the white surface, and become
more available to the body of the church than it is under

12 church architecture.
the present arrangement of level ceilings, or those inclined
parallel to the gradation of the gallery itself.
The judicious introduction of light is the consideration
which should occupy a kindred place with that just noticed.
There may be such a thing as over-lighting a church; or in
plainer terms, admitting too great a glare. This is a very
serious defect, and one which in Church Architecture is un
pardonable; for such an important matter is the just
arrangement of light that it may be said to contain within
itself the very element of which piety is composed ; namely,
solemnity of feeling, which is productive of sobriety of
thought, and intuitively leads the soul to commune with its
Creator. Profuse light, on the other hand, bears on its gaudy
wings the glare and glitter of the outer world, and abstracts
the mind, however purely intentioned.
The heathens had a juster idea of this .power of light
than we in our day of boasted civilization possess. They
excluded it altogether from their fanes, and substituted for
it the somber light of an oil lamp. There is not a single
example on record of a Grecian temple having windows ; or,
indeed, any aperture save the door.
It is not to be understood that we would counsel the
adoption of this heathen darkness ; but we would decidedly
uphold the doctrine of sobriety of light in churches, let it
be produced either by having less windows, narrow aper
tures, or, if the windows must needs be there, to have the
glass stained with rose, or any other color which may blend
the feelings with the religious object sought for in that holy
place. Heating and Ventilation come next under our observa-

church architecture. 13
tion. Both are objects of great interest in the construction
of churches ; and a want of either would be certain to render
uncomfortable any building in other respects admirable.
Stoves in churches are accompanied by inconvenience;
for, those who are placed in the immediate neighborhood
are apt to suffer from heat, while those at a distance are
-uncomfortably cold.
Again, the use of stoves has one serious drawback above
all others; namely, that the feet are cold, while the heads
of the congregation are warm, if not hot; thus reversing the
order required for a healthful arrangement of heat.
Heat should invariably be introduced through the floor, or
at least on a line with it.
Lastly, as to the complete comfort of a congregation : the
plan of pews or slips should be especially attended to, and
the one main object' held in view — that of affording ample
room to every sitter.
Pews should on no account be crowded ; better to enlarge
the Church than to incommode the congregation.
With these preliminary observations, we now enter upon
the particulars of our subject.

14 church architecture.

THE SITE.
The Church should stand as nearly in the center of its
own district or parish as possible ; and this great desidera
tum can be far easier attained in the country than in towns.
But, in no case should it be placed next to a noisy thorough
fare. A distance of one hundred yards is not too much, if
the foreground be tastefully laid out, and judiciously planted.
The site should be somewhat elevated, so that the House
of God may be seen from a distance — the sacred Ark of the
Covenant presiding over the troubled waters of a restless
world; — and that the soothing sound of its inviting bell may
reach, unimpeded, the ears of its most distant children,
calling the faithful flock to the Sabbath fold.

church architecture. 15

THE FOUNDATION AND BASEMENT.
The plan of the Church being agreed upon, and not to
be deviated from, the first step toward its execution is the
marking out of the foundations, which should always be at
least one foot wider and longer than the plan lines ; that is,
six inches all around.
In case a proper instrument is not at hand to square the
outlines, it is only necessary to take an ordinary line or pack
thread, and with two stakes set it down parallel with the
street or road; then take another similar line, of the in
tended length of the building, and join it at a right-angle
with the first line at either corner, and where the corner of
the building is to be ; next, measure off on the front line,
(beginning at the corner,) four feet ; then on the side line,
(beginning as before,) three feet; lastly, take to join these
two points, five feet, and thus will a perfectly true angle of
ninety degrees be found, which being repeated at the other
corners, will square the foundations to a nicety.
It now becomes necessary to mark those outlines of
foundations on the ground, and to remove the surface of the
whole included area to a depth of four feet, by first plowing,
and then drawing off the earth to the outside.
The sewer, or rain-water drain should then be cut out, to
run from the highest part of the ground to the lowest. It

16 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
may be of a V form, made of boards and covered with plank,
of any suitable dimensions, from six to ten inches wide, and
from three to six inches deep.
This drain will always secure the walls against damp
arising from snow or rain.
The foundation trenches should now be sunk at least a
foot a,nd a half below the line of basement floor, care being
taken to make the foundation under the tower (if there is to
be one,) half again as wide as that for the church.
The basement should be built up at least three feet above
ground, so as to leave room in it for a furnace and fuel.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 17

THE WALLS.
Of the material of which the walls shall be constructed,
everything depends on the locality. But, whether it be of
wood, stone or brick, it is very essential that it should be of
durable construction, and the first cost prove to be the only
cost for years.
Even though timber be cheap, it is not most desirable to
use such material, if that which is more durable and less
liable to be consumed by fire can be at all procured.
There are few localities in which stone can not be pro
cured, or brick be made, and therefore it becomes a matter
of moment to build of such.
Yet where none of those materials can be had, concrete is
far more desirable than timber, and should, as a matter of
necessity, be used.
But, whatever be the material of which the walls may be
built, it is very desirable that they be of sufficient thickness
to insure the most perfect stability.
A passage of three or four inches should be left in the
thickness of the wall, to insure its dryness ; in which case the
necessity for lathing is done away with, except where frame
work is used. In brick or stone-work this air-passage must
have bonds at every ten or twelve inches in hight, and at
every thirty-two inches in length.
2

18 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
The walls for a Tower should be built independent of the
main building, so that should a settlement take place in the
former, the latter might not suffer. In such construction, it
is to be understood that the wall of the Tower is to be built
as close up to that of the main building as though they were
actually one.

CHCRCH ARCHITECTURE. 19

THE FLOOR AND THE ROOF.
The beams running through for flooring joists' to bear
upon should always be supported by brick or stone piers,
solidly built. On the sides or cheeks of those beams, even
pieces of scantling should be nailed, to support a sheeting
of plank, which may also be sustained along its surface, by
being nailed to the bottom of joists; and when these joists
are all laid, a composition of five partsx sand and one part
lime, sufficiently saturated with water, may be turned ia
until it is two or three inches thick. The flooring-boards
may then be laid, as usual ; and a compact, air-tight, perma
nent floor is thus formed, far superior to that in ordinary use.
The Roof of a Church is an object worthy of mature
consideration; the chief points in which are, the acquire
ment of strength without any unnecessary use of material,
and the mutual dependence of each and every part in the
formation of a frame, which, at the same time that it possesses
sufficient power in itself to resist pressure, it gives no undue
pressure to the walls themselves on which it has its bearing.
And herein consists the requirement for a perfect roof.
Science, in its theory and practice, has established some
very good constructions of roofing, and it is doubtful
whether much more can be added to the knowledge already
acquired on this subject.

20 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

THE CHOIR, OR ORGAN GALLERY.
In the country, as in the city, a strong desire exists to have
Divine Worship accompained by music. A gallery exclu
sively for that purpose is therefore always necessaiy.
The location and arrangement of this gallery must com
mand special attention; for, much depends on both. A
well-constructed organ gallery is not alone desirable to the
congregation, who are anxious to hear; but it is of very
great advantage to the choir, who wish to be heard with the
least possible effort to themselves.
For all purposes of hearing, the acoustic shell is well cal
culated. This is a construction of sound-board adapted by
its plan of surface to catch the rays of sound emanating from
the voice or voices of persons placed on a certain focal-line,
and reflecting back the sounds upon the hearers, for whom
they were intended. For pulpits or choirs they are alike
excellent ; an,d whether used in small or large churches are
never out of place.
The simplest rule to adopt in the striking out of the
necessary curvature is, to take the seats as a base-line, and,
taking the furthermost part of the church, or room, as a
center or axis, describe a segment of any convenient hight.
For a pulpit, this segment should not protrude beyond the
head of the speaker, nor be broader than the pulpit itself.
The curvature for the choir is found in a similar manner, and

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 21
it need not protrude beyond one-half the depth of the
gallery. This acoustic shell, whether used for Pulpit or Choir,
should be hollow-backed. That is, the shell should be
conveniently free from the wall at its back, and have no
filling or boxing. Thus, an echo or reverberation of sound
is avoided, which would inevitably accompany such boxing,

22 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

FITNESS OF STYLE.
The peculiar feature of any locality should govern the
style of its architecture. Thus, for instance, if the neigh
borhood be thickly wooded, what style more consonant can
be found than that called " Rustic Gothic ? " In it are to be
seen all the little details which give unity of expression,
and which in themselves resemble those sylvan temples
which Nature's unerring hand has reared and specially
dedicated to the Deity, to whom the feathered choristers,
which inhabit its branching aisles, send up their songs of
morning salutation and of evening praise.
And again, in the neighborhood of a stone quarry, where
the country around is intersected or bounded by bold, rocky
scenery, what style is more fitting for the temple of the
Deity who presides than that bold, massive, simple Saxon
which belongs to such a place.
The city, more polished in art, may claim as its own the
rigidly classic Grecian, the more ornate Roman, or the gor
geously fantastic Gothic.
In fact, every locality has its peculiar style, and should
have its claim allowed.
But, whatever be the style, let it be pure and unadulter
ated; for, in that very purity lies the secret of true beauty,
founded on legitimate connection alone, and accountable
only to its parent thought for the seeming discrepancies in
its features.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 23

UNITY OF EFFECT.
In the preceding chapter we have spoken of the fitness
of style. We now proceed to the naturally succeeding sub
ject — the unity of effect.
The first point to which we would call attention is the
necessity for an agreement between the exterior and interior
of the building in its style. There can not be anything
more truly absurd, or more painful to a mind capable of any
discernment, than a deviation in this matter. And here
Nature gives us a most impressive lesson, in the fact that
where she has given a handsome figure or face to man, any
attempt to improve on it is hurtful to her first design ; and
where she has formed an ugly face, the addition of a few
pleasing features would but tend to make it monstrous, by
presenting a striking and positively painful contrast.
Unity of design is the one pervading beauty of this fault
less system in which we live, and its influence upon our
senses generates . that wonder and delight > which give to
man the greatest pleasure he is capable of enjoying; for,
from the contemplation of perfection, the soul instinctively
turns to the adoration of Him who is its Author.
In Church Architecture, how necessary it is that this
unity of design should be preserved, and that the style of the
inside should perfectly correspond with that of the outside.
Let every ornament be in perfect keeping with the general

24 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
style. Let the pulpit, or reading-desk, be rigidly pure in
this respect ; so that they may not appear for one instant
out of place.
Let the walls and ceiling, if ornamented at all, be pre
servative of the one presiding idea- — the union of each and
all under one head — the unquestionable presence of unity
of design.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 25

INTERIOR COLORING.
WsfiTE, though the received emblem of purity, is, never
theless, an injudicious color for the inside-wall face of
churches. It is too glaring to the eye, besides being but
too apt to display dirt; and therefore requiring constant
renewal. A slight admixture of coloring material, such as ochre,
rose, umber, or terra-sienna, will give a pleasing tint, better
suited to the place of solemn worship than gaudy white.
No accurate proportions need here be given ; for, experi
ment can easily find the shade that pleases most.

26 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE,

THE CHOICE OF STYLE.
This is a question of moment to the community about io
build ; and one which should not be lightly treated. In it
are involved the taste, permanency, comfort and economy
of the church about to be erected.
Taste must, too often, be subservient to economy; but
permanency never should be compromised to either. Taste
and Economy may, nevertheless, go together, and perma
nency not lose one fraction of its rights. Here then is the
desideratum : the very combination which men of sense and
judgment will patiently look for with a worthy determina
tion to find.
Straight lines, not admitting a single curve, in the design,
may surely be considered as the most economical projection
that can be formed.
To this the severe rules of architectural proportion may
be strictly applied, and the result be a union of simple, yet
harmonious parts in striking accordance with true taste.
Deviating from this extreme plainness or simplicity of
style, our next step is cautiously taken, and we approach the
curve, still preserving the integrity of taste by insuring a
representation of unity throughout ; and where the windows
form into arches above, the belfry or other distinctive finish
shall likewise present a similar curvature at top.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 27
Again : advancing by degrees on our pathway, we steal, as
it were, into the more ornate styles, and find that the simple
semi-circular curve over windows, doors, and belfries, may
borrow an additional grace by having their outline formed
of distinct curves springing from four centers, and yet re
taining their primitive unity of effect.
Pleased with success so far secured, we venture onward,
and boldly point our pinnacles toward that Heaven the
Christian seeks.
Our windows now partake of the form that governs the
spire, the pinnacle, and the very roof itself. Two arcs of
circles meeting at the top now crown the openings, and all
is still true to the first principle, the ruling feature of the
rest, unity of style, unity of idea, unity of effect — all is
unity — and Taste has its unalloyed gratification.
It remains with the scientific mechanic tp secure Perma
nency and Economy.

28 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

GRECIAN STYLE.
The design we 'take first into consideration is the quiet-
looking yet impressive Grecian elevation here presented.
Not a line,' save vertical or horizontal, is to be found in its
unpretending outline and simple details.
It is strictly in accordance with the law of proportion ;
and the scrutinizing eye will therefore seek in vain for an
impediment to rest upon. Great strength may be applied
to its construction, or lightness of material be determined
on : it will, in the one case as in the other, still bear the
impressive appearance of stability derived from the very
squareness of its nature,
Viewed in an economic light, it is, without comparison,
the style to adopt. It does not require any extra skill on
the part of the mechanic, and its appearance will be admir
able in any locality, but most so in the quiet little village,
whose neighboring woods still stand in witness of Nature's
late dominion there. Specifications.
This design may be erected in wood, brick, or stone.
If in wood, and that material be cheap, it might be
advisable to lay the walls plank-on-flat, as follows :
Having completed the foundation, and carried the base
wall up some two feet above ground, decide where the

CHURCH A^

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sca^e qf feet

'H H RTTFT

FLAX A

church architecture. 29
entrance-door is to be ; and commence on its left side to lay
the superstructure, plank after plank, all around the build
ing, until you arrive at the right side of the entrance-door,
from whence you set out.
Let' those planks, in this and all succeeding courses, be
ten inches wide, three inches thick, and be well Seasoned
and sound hemlock lumber.
Proceed on, course over course, taking care always to
break joint by putting down half-planks at the commence
ment of alternate courses.
At every fourth course, stout oak pins should bind all
together, say, five feet apart from each other.
When the level is attained at which the windows are to
be located, let their respective places be accurately deter
mined, and the frames be set up and secured. The planking
will then be continued, as before: observing to have the
ends which will form the window-jambs fairly matched, so
as to form an even surface. ^
Throughout the progress of the laying, the plumb-rule
should constantly test the work.
When the walls are finished, the next step is the laying
of the ceiling-joists, which should be but sixteen inches
apart from center to center: each joist to be three inches
by ten or twelve inches, and go entirely across the build
ing — every fourth one having a king-post, eight inches
wide and three inches thick, firmly spiked to it. All those
king-posts to range very truly at the center of the building.
If thought necessary, struts might also be introduced
between the king-posts and each wall.

30 church architecture.
The pole or ridge is now to be hafted down on these
king-posts; and the rafters, six by three, are to be spiked
home to this ridge, and also spiked at their feet to the wall.
The roof may now be carefully boarded with matched
hemlock, two inches thick.
This roof might then be covered with sheets of brown
paper dipped in boiling tar; and when completely covered,
tar should be 'poured on over the whole surface, and lime in
powder, or chalk, be sifted freely upon its surface. Sand
may next be thickly distributed, until the appearance of the
tar is not to be recognized. A grout of lime, sand, and hot
water, may be thrown over the whole, and the roof is
complete. The interior finish must be in perfect keeping with the
plainness of the exterior.
Adhering to the supposition that lumber is cheap in the
locality, we will find sheeting or wainscoting desirable for
the walls and ceiling. But in the use of such covering we
can not too strongly urge the necessity for, using narrow
breadths, and tonguing and grooving.
This Church may have an organ-gallery over the entrance
into aisle. It should be composed of a bressumer or beam
running from wall to wall, twelve or fifteen feet advanced
into the church, and about eight feet above the floor-line.
This beam may be supported at two points by plain,
square columns.
A parallel beam to this should run at the back of gallery
and the flooring-joists should be notched into both, and be
twelve feet apart from center to center : floored above and
ceiled beneath with nice, clean, sound pine.

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CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 31
The front of this gallery should be square paneled, with
out any ornament.
The slips, or pews,, should be stoutly framed, the backs
to have a gentle inclination, being open below the seat : the
seat to be closed in front. Thus a convenient place for hats,
etc., is provided for each pew.

32 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

ROMANESQUE STYLE.
The design here given is one of those which easily adapt
themselves to the wants of a small congregation. The semi
circular heads to the windows give the leading feature, and
add but slightly to the cost of the square window heads of
the design which preceded it.
The glass of the side windows should be stained a light
red or buff; and the effect thus produced would be pleasing
in the extreme.
The ceiling should form a segment of a circle, to be per
fectly in keeping with the exterior. The paneling of pews
should likewise sustain the style by having circular heads.
And, in fine, everywhere that the character of design can be
denoted, it would be not alone proper but highly necessary
to mark it unmistakably. Specifications.
The design under consideration may be executed in wood,
brick, or stone. We will suppose it to be required in brick.
The Foundation having been regularly staked out, and
the trenches dug to a depth of five feet, with a breadth of
two feet six inches, the concrete may be thrown in and
rammed, going regularly around the trenches until all be
filled to the surface of the ground.

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In making the concrete for this purpose, it would be well
to put in a good proportion of water-lime, as it will then not
alone be harder, but it will set the quicker — -both being
objects worthy of attainment.
And here we would observe, that the' exclusion .of com
mon lime from concrete which is to be placed below ground
is a very great mistake, as well on the score of perfection
as of economy.
Water-lime in settling loses one-fifth of its bulk ; so that
where it and sand are alone used, the consequence must be
a fracture in the composition.
Now, as common lime is well known to swell in slaking,
does it not appear reasonable that the two limes possessing
those opposite qualities might be so proportioned as to ac
commodate each other, and make a perfect bond for the
silex or gravel?
To give such proportion here as might answer any or
every locality would not be possible; because both water-
lime and common lime are of very different degrees of
strength ,in various places. The only way to become
assured on this most important question is to try, experi
ments on a small scale — say ten or twelve different propor
tions of about a peck each, and a just conclusion must be
arrived at.
The Concrete should be made in a box, ten feet square
and two feet high ; and when well turned once or twice, it
should be shoveled in the trenches without delay, as, if
good, it will set rapidly. Let it be spread in thin layers so
that the moisture can have an opportunity of being absorbed
readily.

34 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
The Foundations having been thus carried up to their
full hight, the next two feet and a half may be built of
rubble masonry set in cement. This course should be two
feet thick, projecting six inches on the inside to admit of the
flooring joists resting on it.
The wall-plates may now be laid perfectly level, and tbe
joists set on them. These flooring joists are to be twelve
inches by three, and laid one foot apart from center to
center. The superstructure is now to be begun in courses of hard*
well-burned brick, eighteen inches wide, in Flemish joint,
working the front last. But care must be taken to insure
a good bond at the junction of front and side walls, by
building up the quoins as the work progresses.
And here let us advocate the economy and wisdom of
leaving a space of two or three inches between the front
and back layers of brick — in other words, building a hollow
wall. The arguments in its favor are many ; but the chief
is the saving of firring and lathing — the plastering being
put on to the wall. And as no damp can by any possibility
strike through, there is no objection to such a course.
Should the holloiv-wall system be adopted, it will be highly
necessary to have bonds occur as often as possible.
The front must be carefully erected, in conformity with
the elevation, the shadows on which mark the required pro
jections and depressions, as they are cast to an angle of 45°.
The Roof should be a simple truss ; the angles at each
wall to be ribbed, so as to form with the ceiling-joists a
.graceful curve.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 35
The timbers of each truss should be,
Tie Beam,  »   12 by 8
King-Post,  8 by 4
Principal Rafter,  6 by 4
Struts,  5 by 4
These timbers should be judiciously ironed and perma
nently secured, forming well-framed trusses. Each to be
ten feet apart from its neighboring truss.
Purlins, or horizontal timbers 4 by 5, are to be laid mid
way from ridge to eaves. One may be sufficient on each
side, provided the roof covering is not of very heavy mate
rial — such as slate, tile, iron.
The roof may now be sheeted over with inch boarding,
accurately matched, and the covering, whatever it may be,
laid. Well-burned, glazed tiles would make a very suitable roof
ing material for a design like this, if potter's earth was to
be found in sufficient quantities in the neighborhood to war
rant its use.
The tiles should be moulded in a corrugated form, bo as
to effectually cover joints, and they should likewise have a
thick coat of glaze on their outside, produced by salt or
other material; be well burned, and equal to a certain re
sistance of the frost and the heat.
Slate is an excellent covering for churches, and it is Dow
coming into very general. use in this country, particularly
on buildings erected under the direct control of the gotern-

.36 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
ment departments: it having been ascertained that this
climate is not, as was supposed, invidious to that article.
Iron corrugated plates come next in succession of desirable
roofing materials ; but they should be galvanized, to avoid
the ruinous effects of oxydation.
Tin has an advantage over iron in its lightness, and con-
sequently not requiring so heavy a frame of roof. But tin
is perishable by oxydation.
Zinc answers the same purpose as tin, being objectionable,
however, from the fact that it will become liable to minute
pores, which can not be very easily guarded against ; and,
moreover, there is not yet known any effective composition
of solder to use with it, where joints require closing.
Shingles are the lightest, as well as the cheapest (at least
for a limited time) material yet found. But they are very
dangerous, as being so combustible. This latter objection
might be remedied by dipping each shingle into a solution
of potash and salt, previous to using.
The receipt given in the preceding specification for a
composition roof, is well adapted to all buildings; and,
although costing somewhat more than shingles, is yet more
economical, from the fact of its extreme durability.
This subject of covering for roofs of churches is well
worthy of serious consideration, as it is, after all, the one
which truly defends all others from the effects of time and
climate. The ridge of the roof should be protected by a course of
saddle-tiles to cover the meeting line of the opposite and
uppermost courses. These should be well bedded in cement,
and made perfectly secure, as the crowning of the roof.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. . 37
Ventilators. In each gable there should be an ope or
aperture through which the air may find access to the
timbers of the roof, and the exhalation from the ventilators
in the ceiling be permitted to escape.
The ceiling should have a sufficient number of ventilators
to keep the atmosphere of the church pure, even when a
congregation fills the building to its utmost capacity. In
the same manner the admission of pure air should be attended
to. The registered pipes or conductors for this purpose
should open in the church at about four feet from the floor-
line, and the sill of each window would be a very proper
place to insert them. By this arrangement, the extremities
of the person will not be made cold, while the admission of
pure air drives off the breath exhaled.
Heating. As we have in a previous part of this work
spoken of the necessity for having a church heated from
beneath the flooring, we will now only specify the most
proper mode of executing the necessary work.
The Htpocaust. This generator of heat, which is no
other than a basement furnace under a Greek title, is perhaps
the best of all agents for transmitting heat to a Church. It
is formed much on the plan of a baker's oven, with the addi
tion of a metal chamber for hot-air in the center of it.
From this latter the heated air is carried to the building
in- pipes diversely directed so as to send a supply above
to every part.
As hot air expands wonderfully, it will be necessary to
have the cold air pipe which shall supply this chamber
proportionately small.

38 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
Where the hot-air pipes are to enter the floor of the
Church, a square flag pierced in the middle is to be set,
with a register to regulate the supply of heat required.
A hot-air pipe should be conducted to the pulpit, hav
ing a register for the comfort of the officiating clergyman.
Provision should be made in the building of the end or
gable wall to carry up a flue 8 by 16 inches, to convey
away the smoke from the hypocaust.

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CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 39

PRIMITIVE GOTHIC STYLE.
The accompanying illustration is in some respects most
desirable for a congregation whose means are small., A
very great advantage will be found in the facility of egress
through the doorways.
On the whole this design commends itself to favor by its
simplicity of effect, and absence of any thing, which might
entail expenditure.
The roof is what is ternred hammer beam, and, well con
structed, must produce a pleasing feeling in the observer.
The walls may be executed in. any material; but probably
rubble masonry would be the most suitable.
Specification.
The foundations are to be laid as before stated for the pre
ceding designs, or to be built of rubble masonry. In the
latter case it would be well to make a grout of coarse sand,
water-lime, and common lime, and pour it on over each
course of dry masonry. The grout must be moderately
thick. The comer-stone and basement are to be laid in
cement, to about twenty inches above ground.
A bare course of hammered stone, 8 inches deep on the
face, is now to be set around the building, projecting two

40 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
and a half inches beyond the face of the basement, and
slightly chamfered on its upper edge.
The superstructure may.be eighteen inches thick.
The sills and caps of windows and doors to be hammer-
dressed the same as the base-course.
The windows on sides are to have Gothic heads, similar
to those of the upper section of front elevation.
The roof is to be composed of sections ten feet apart
from each other. These sections are formed of one-inch
plank spiked together in layers when cut into shape. All
these are to be nine inches thick, and of the other dimen
sions shown on the section.
The first pattern being cut out, there is no trouble in
multiplying the forms until tha necessary thicknesses are
obtained. The rafters are to be eighteen inches apart from
center to center.
The boarding of this roof is to be planed on the under
side, matched, grooved, and tongued.
When the joinery work is completed, the principals, raf
ters, and roof-boarding, are all to be painted two coats, and
finished with oak color.
The window and sash frames, the pulpit and pews, and
in fine, all the joinery in the church, to be painted the same
color. The pulpit, pews, and doors, are to be grained.

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POINTED STYLE.
We have given several illustrations of this truly eccle
siastic style of Architecture ; and must leave to the taste or
peculiar requirements of our readers to select from them
as their judgment may dictate.
Any one of them would look well in a smart village ; and,
none of them would cost extravagantly for the erection,
unless indeed cut stone might be chosen as the material.
Brick-work well cemented, and having the hoods, molding,
and various details of ornamentation executed in cast iron,
would present a very desirable appearance ; at the same time
being economical, from the fact that our foundries now keep
such castings on hand, there being a constant requisition
for them.
The specification already given will answer for each of the
designs, as any intelligent builder (and to such alone should
the contract be given,) will easily form an opinion as to the
necessary work to be done in erecting it.

As these designs are made to an accurate scale of parts,
there can be very little trouble encountered in finding the
" quantities" of material or workmanship in their execution.
In order, however, to assist the judgment of the mechanic
in making his estimate, we have given the calculations at

42 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
the end of this book. To those quantities there laid down,
the builder need only put the price of his local market.
The labor he can best judge of himself, as some mechanics
will do half again as much work in a stated time as others:
add to which the difficulty of deciding on an average of
wages for the length- and breadth of this country.

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PARSONAGES.

It is the very natural desire of a religious community to
whom their good Minister is endeared by his heavenly labors,
that he at least should be well cared for, and that the elegant
appearance of the church should not rebuke the neglect of
the home of its pastor.
Next, then, in consideration to the Church should come the
Parsonage ; and it would seem reasonable that the style of
architecture should be the same in these kindred designs.
They should be, if possible, near to each other, and a certain
unity exist between them, so that the stranger shall have no
difficulty in noting the one any more than the other ; but, in
speaking of the Church, be also able to tell where
"The village Preacher's modest mansionlrose."
The Parsonage should stand on or near to the church lot ;
and no church can convey a perfect idea to the mind of its
completeness where the dwelling of the clergyman is not
near it; or, as is too often the case in our country villages,
is altogether remote from it. There is an unaccountable
dreariness in the sight, akin to the feeling produced by the
appearance of a tenantless palace, or a noble fortification
without a sentinel within hail — a ward without a warder.

44 parsonages.
No : such should not be the case. The man of prayer
should be close to the house of prayer. His eye should be
on his master's mansion ; and the same flowers that bedecked
his own parterre should lend their fragrance and their
beauty to the surrounding of the holy temple of his care
and love.

PARSONAGES. 45

GENERAL SPECIFICATION.
The dimensions of the plans herewith given are alike in
all respects ; and therefore one specification will be sufficient
for all. Thus, the foundations, if of concrete, will be alike
in proportions. If of stone, the same directions answer ;
and so on through all the various parts of the construction.
Cellar Basements.
For the same reasons which we have already given in the
Economic Cottage Builder, we now strongly oppose the use
of basements for dwelling purposes. It is true that they are
very useful, and certainly secure a very great economy of
space. But, in case they are required, the following cautions
must be strictly observed : the floor over the cellar must be
made close and thoroughly impervious to the escape of any
air from below. No trap or opening should be allowed
within doors. The bottom of the cellar should be overlaid
with cement of such quality as to be perfectly resistant of
wet, and at the same time durable. Ventilating flues should
be provided for the use of such basement cellars, that they
may be kept as pure as possible. But, on no account should
vegetable matter be stored in them : such a practice proving
invariably prejudicial to health.
Basement walls, from the foundation up, should be well

46 PARSONAGES.
laid in cement, as much if not all of the damp in upper
walls of houses is attributable entirely to this fact : that the
wet penetrating the basement wall is by capillary attrac
tion drawn upward, and finds its way at once into the plas
ter, if the walls be not studded, and if they are studded, the
studs themselves will in due course of time decay and ruin
the plaster.
In laying the flooring joists, it would be well to board
the under side, and fill in with saw-dust of cedar, before
laying down the flooring boards.
The flooring boarding should be sound, free from knots,
shakes, and other defects ; and the whole floor be laid in nar
row breadths, (not exceeding seven inches,) tongued and
grooved. Thus will a perfect floor be formed through which the
scouring-water can not find its way ; and one in every other
respect superior to those floors which are laid with a view
to their being hidden by covering of carpet, or oil-cloth.
And here we would observe that, as Parsonages are
intended to be durable structures, they are necessarily to be
built of as sound materials, and in as workmanlike a manner
as the church itself.
In fact, this appendage of the church should be con
structed of the same material. Thus, if the Church be of
stone, brick, or wood, of such let the Parsonage also be
built. In the following pages, we will treat of the construction
in each material.

PARSONAGES. 47

CONSTRUCTED IN WOOD.
We will now take any of the accompanying designs for
Parsonages, and treat of it as supposed to built be solely
of wood.
The foundations are to be formed, digging holes two feet
square, and one foot and a half deep, at equal distances
from each other ; say five feet apart, all around the main
wall's plan, as marked out upon the ground previously, and
truly squared.
In the center of each of these holes, drive down cedar
posts sharpened at their lower end, and charred over a fire.
These may be driven five feet deep, from the surface line of
the ground. Each post to be not less than eight inches in
diameter. All the cedar posts being driven down to their allotted
depth, the level of the whole is to be next ascertained by
means of a true spirit or water level, and the tops of the
posts squared in accordance with the line thus obtained.
The main sill of the house may now be placed on the
foundation posts, boring it directly over the center of each,
and driving down a stoiit, well-seasoned oak pin, eighteen
inches long, and two inches square.
This sill may be 10 by 12, or even 8 by 10, but it is desi
rable to choose the former dimensions, as the strength of the

48 PARSONAGES.
building is governed, in a very great measure, by the capa
bility of this first and principal member of the construction.
The framed sill being now securely pinned down and
leveled, the next operation is to fill up the square holes
with concrete, tightly packed, and all is complete, as far as
the foundation is concerned.
In case a cellar is required under the house, it will be
necessary to have it in the rear, raising the floor immedi
ately over it some two or three feet; leaving four feet below
the level of the ground, or perhaps four feet six inches, so
as to obtain a cellar of over six feet high. Where this
cellar is located, the cedar posts of foundation should be
double boarded with two inch hemlock, from post to post,
and the space between filled in with tan-bark, sand, or any
fitting material which can be conveniently procured.
The door of such cellar should, for reasons already given,
be on the outside of the main building, as, for instance, in
the woodshed.
There should be a window provided for it, and as much
means of ventilation secured as possible.
But here, as in the work on "Cottage Building," we
would most strongly urge the far more healthful plan of
building out-of-door cellars — distinct structures, neighbor
ing to, and, perhaps, attached by a covered passage to the
Parsonage. Such may be constructed of hemlock plank,
surrounded by a solid embankment of earth ; or, it may be
built altogether of sun-dried brick, composed of mois
tened earth, with straw, or hay, worked into it, and cast
in a mold formed like a box, without top or bottom. Each

PARSONAGES. 49
of these bricks to be 18 in. by 12 in. by 6 in., and left in
the air to harden, for two or three weeks.
Or, the cellar may be built of the same material as that
just mentioned, piled up into one solid wall, without mold
ing into bricks, and be afterward faced, by cutting, or
raking down and going over it, inside and out, with a
smooth board, or a plasterer's float.
The flooring joists of Parsonages, for the first, or princi
pal floor, should be 10 in. by 2£ in., and placed at twelve
inches from center to center. They should be sound, per
fectly free from sap, shakes, or defects prejudicial to their
strength or durability.
The joists in wooden buildings should always be long
enough to admit of the boarding outside being nailed to
their ends; for which purpose, those ends should be
carefully squared.
The flooring-boarding should be loosely laid, bottom side
up, until the plastering of ceilings and walls is finished, set
ting down and nailing only the boards next to walls. This
precaution will save a great deal of future trouble. But
the -plastering must be perfectly hard before the final ham
mering down of the flooring-boards shall take place. And
here it would be in place to remark, that screws instead of
nails would be a great improvement in floor laying ; insert
ing a screw at, say, every third or fourth joist, and instead
of keeping one straight line, let the screw-heads form diag
onal lines, . along the floor. Thus, hammering will be
avoided, and the floor be fully strong enough, at a trifling
extra cost over that of nails.
4

50 PARSONAGES.
Here, it may also be observed, that the skirting, or wash
board, should be nailed on before the flooring boards are
laid, so that the latter may be tongued into it ; thus avoid
ing the too constantly appearing bad consequences of shrink
age of the skirting, where it rests upon the floor ; and the
admission of cold air, insects, etc., through the gap.
The flooring boards should not be less than an inch and a
quarter thick, when finished. They should invariably be
tongued and grooved, free from knots, shakes, sap, or splits.
The boards for walls should be planed on the outside.
They should be 1£ inch thick, well seasoned, sound pine
lumber, similar to the flooring just spoken of; well matched,
tongued and grooved.
The grooves are to receive a coat of white-lead before the
tongues enter them. When joined and nailed home, the
joints are to receive a coat of white-lead, and the battens
or slips to be set over them, while this coat is moist. The
joints will thus be perfectly free from the chance intrusion
of damp or air.
These battens, slips, or slats, should be one inch and a
half thick, the same as the boarding, and may, in fact, be
such boards sawed up into breadths of two and a half
inches. Now we have arrived at a question which must be deci
ded by the reader. Which does he choose : independent
studs for the inside plastering, or letting the battening of
the joists inside act as studs for the same purpose? The
former is, of course, the more expensive; but it is the
strongest by far, and the most reliable for a house of more
than one story.

PARSONAGES. 61
By adopting it, there will be a necessity for a frame; the
upright timbers of which must be similar in width to the
ribs and caps.
The door and window jambs must, likewise, be wide
enough to clear the studs for lathing, which are to be nailed
on to those ribs and caps.
The quoins, or corner posts, must be square-grooved on
their inside angle, so as to take the lathings.
The cheaper method is, simply to counter cover the joints
of siding or boarding with studs, which shall take the lath
ing — the corners having a double stud, square grooved, as
in the former case. The windows and doors should like
wise have double studs, in order to strengthen the construc
tion, as well as to give the appearance of solidity.
Such windows and doors should have broad facings — say
4 inches broad — on the outside. On these, fancy ornamen
tal buttons, turned for that purpose, may be spiked. Such
facing need not protrude beyond the wall more than the
' thickness of the neighboring battens.
The angles of the battens should be beveled off; and, in
some cases, the facings may be so treated with good effect.
The caps and sills of windows and doors should have
grooves for the passage of rain-water on their under surface,
to prevent the access of wet to the building, by causing
a drip.
In the putting on of the roof, it would be well to haft the
rafters down on the ends of the boards, or planks, thus :
where the rafter meets the wall, cut or notch a sufficient
piece out of the rafter, of the same width as the thickness*
of the plank — that is, 1 J inches.

52 PARSONAGES.
These rafters should be five inches by three, or two and a
half. They should be notched into each other at the top,
and be securely spiked. One foot six inches from center to
center should be their position.
When the rafters are duly laid, they should be very care
fully boarded with hemlock boards, half or three-quarter
inch thick, matched, and free from holes or fractures.
The roofing cover may be of shingle, tin, or tarred paper.
The latter will be found a very good description of cover
for a light roof, such as this mode of building actually de
mands. It is more permanent than either tin or shingles,
without being as costly.
We have already described the method of making and
putting on the composition, and would here strongly
recommend its use, more particularly in case the Church to
which this Parsonage belongs is covered with the same.
The chimney in a wooden house must be of brick, with a
stone foundation, if fireplaces are called for.
In case stoves alone are used, it will only be necessary to
erect a shaft which may be sustained by the flooring-joists,
or in some cases, by upright pieces of seasoned oak. In the
latter case, the space thus included might be inclosed, and
made to answer for lockers or cupboards.
It would be very desirable to have two-coat work and
hard-finish for the plastering of both walls and ceilings, as
the unavoidable jars which this class of dwellings is liable
to, can not be too well guarded against.
The glass used in windows should be the best double-
cylinder, free from all blemishes. Weak, imperfect glass, is
anything but an article of economy.

PARSONAGES. 53
The window-sashes into which it is set should be well
made, close jointed, and of the most unexceptionable
seasoned stuff.
The doors should be all four-paneled, inch and a half
thick, set upon strong butt hinges, and have handsome ball
furniture for the principal rooms, and iron thumb-latches
and bolts for all other apartments.
The walls, if to be painted, should first be allowed to dry,
and then receive a coat of oil priming, on which, when dry,
the color coat is to be evenly laid, and the whole surface
gone over with a blender.
In case fresco is thought sufficient, it is only necessary to
dissolve glue or size in the required quantity of water, and
when it is moderately adhesive, pour in the chosen color in
dry powder, taking care not to use white-lead for white, but
whiting.

54 PARSONAGES.

CONSTRUCTION IN STONE.
The Church being built in stone, it would be very desira
ble to construct the Parsonage in the like material. In such
case, the outer dimensions shown on plan must be enlarged
sufficiently to admit of the increased width of walls.
The foundations must be sunk to a sufficient depth to
insure stability for the superstructure, and to guard against
the possibility of settlement hereafter.
These foundations, together with the basement walls on
them, should be laid in cement, and be well bonded.
If a basement cellar be required, the floor of it should
not be below the surface, or main level of ground, more
than two feet six inches.
The floor of this basement cellar should be formed of
composition, at least four inches thick, made of water-lime,
sand and gravel, in proportions of one of water-lime, two
of sand, and three of gravel, evenly laid on and left to
harden. The walls of the cellar may likewise be plastered inside
with water-lime.
The superstructure should be built of sound rubble
masonry, well bonded and cemented together with stiff
mortar, made of common-lime and sand well slaked, soured,

PARSONAGES. 55
and worked up together in such quantities only as may be
required for immediate use.
Wall-timbers should be inserted where wanted to take
the firring for lath and plastering.
The openings for windows and doors should have brick
trimmer-arches turned over them ; and the flues and shafts
of chimneys should be formed of brick also.
A substantial wall-plate, 6 by 4, should be laid upon the
walls, and be securely framed at angles. The principal
rafters may be notched on to this wall-plate, and spiked
down. In all other respects, the work on a stone structure is
similar to that on a wooden one.
It would be highly necessary to fir out the wall for
plastering, as lime-stone walls are very apt to be damp.

56 PARSONAGES.

CONSTRUCTION IN BRICK.
This excellent material is always desirable where it can be
procured at a moderate expense. It has an advantage over
rubble masonry in the facility with which square moldings
and other simple ornaments, as well as pilasters, may be
introduced without any extra charge on the general estimate.
Brick, when sound, is the most acceptable of materials for
dwellings. To be good it is required to be well burned, and
free from, lime ; for, should the latter exist in the brick, the
consequence will assuredly be the bursting of it when the
lime becomes slaked with rain-water.
It is a very excellent practice, when soundness in brick
needs assurance, to steep as many in water as may be re
quired for work from hour to hour. The consequence will
then be that the lime, if it be there, will declare its presence
in the action of the water upon it.
We will not dilate on the well understood practice of
brick-work, but leave it to those whose practiced hands
can do it more justice with the trowel, than we can here
with the pen.

SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.

In our large cities the construction of public schools is
receiving much attention ; and, indeed, it is most desirable
that it should, for these are the nurseries of man, where the
mind is not alone taught to grow, and to expand, but the
physical requirements to sustain that growth of mind, and
develop it to its utmost, have there, or should have, their
training. What a curse to a human being is a powerful
mind, dependent on a fragile constitution. How melancholy
is the sight of a brilliant genius wearing out its poor atten
uated human column with its very power ; a lamp whose
burning brightness too quickly consumes the oil of its exis
tence. And how true it is that in many, too many cases,
this very incapability is produced at school, and firmly rooted
in the constitution. Want of pure air is the certain agent of
destruction to our youth ; and of all places its terrible effects
are more potent and more certain in the school-room than in
any other, because of the mass of exhalation from so many
lungs, some already diseased and pouring forth their noxious
vapors to be inhaled by the victims around.

58 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Yes, our public schools should be thoroughly ventilated.
The church is occupied but for a few hours each week ; not
so the school — five or six hours a day, the week, the month,
the year round, it is the breathing place of numbers. Then,
how necessary to prevent its being the pest-house of grow
ing humanity — the curse instead of blessing to many a
fondly anticipating parent's heart.
Keep the school house free from damp — warm in winter,
cool in summer; but, above all, let it be thoroughly
ventilated.

11

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SCALE OF FEET
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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. • 59

CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD.
The design here given, (No. 1,) is intended for those lim
ited localities where comparatively few pupils may be
expected to assemble for many years. The structure is
therefore supposed to be very economic, at the same time
that it presents every facility for the purpose it is intended
to answer.
This school-room is arranged with distinct sitting places
for the males and females ; and with separate entrances also.
The cost of construction would be reasonable, whether
the material were of stone, brick, or w6od.
It could, in a thickly timbered locality, be constructed of
hewn logs, and yet, with very little extra cost, be made to
look well.
The foundation should be permanently built, and the walls
be well keyed together. The spaces between flooring-joists
should be filled in with concrete ; the flooring being not
less than an inch and a half thick, sound, and well nailed
down. The windows may either slide back upon each other, or
be on pivots placed at the center. This latter is the simpler
plan, and is not objectionable in frosty weather, as the
former is.

60 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
The chimney flue is to be built on the ceiling joists, and
rise in the center of the school. It must be of brick.
The ceiling joists are to be 8 by 2, and 18 inches from
center to center. Where the flue is to rise they are to be
bridged firmly, and a flag-stone is to be set on them, at
least five inches wider on each side than the chimney flue.
This is a precaution against accidents by fire.
The roof will be square hipped, the collars answering for
the ceiling-joists. Around chimney-flue at apex of roof,
there must be a frame to receive the rafters; and this frame
must be well secured by perpendicular pieces to the ceiling
joists, so as to help to hold up the latter. Straps of iron
should be used at the angles, above and below.

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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 61

CONSTRUCTION NO. 2.
AVERAGE ESTIMATE, $600.
Here is a neat and tasteful style of village school for
males and females, which can be built > of any material.
The convenience of wardrobes is here presented, and the
general aiTangement of plan will be found desirable, the
two schools being wholly distinct, though under one roof.
The ornamentation is cheap, yet effective ; the facia-boards
over gables of porches being of inch and a half hemlock ;
the buttons to be of turned oak, spiked on. The doors
may likewise have these buttons ornamented, as shown on
elevation.

62 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.

CONSTRUCTION NO. 3.
AVERAGE ESTIMATE, $320.
This design is unique in shape, but in the execution of it
the preceding directions will be found to answer. The
internal arrangement may differ from that here given ; and,
instead of placing the Master's desk, a, at the center, the
stove may occupy that place, and a platform for the Master
be erected at b.
It is also suggested, that in case the lecture-board is
required, one of the rear winddws be built a blank for that
purpose. The scholars' seats may, of course, be placed as deemed
most desirable.

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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 63

CONSTRUCTION NO. 4.
AVERAGE ESTIMATE, $700.
The design is proposed for a large district, say a village,
where a second story may be required for lecture-room, or
divided for recitation-rooms. But the proposition we inten
ded was to hate the master (if a married man) live above
the school. It is very obvious that many advantages would
arise from this arrangement, as rent being saved to the
teachers, it would induce competent married couples to
undertake the conducting of male and female departments ;
and being constantly on the premises, more vigilance and
care would, of course, be exercised. This building is esti
mated as constructed of frame ; but any material may be
used.

3f
64 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.

CONSTRUCTION NO. 5.
AVERAGE ESTIMATE, $900.
This is a domestic Gothic design, which will present a
very harmonious effect, in a rural location.
As in a former construction, we intended tins for the ac
commodation of the teacher's family in the second story,
and would here again urge the necessity for such an arrange
ment, thus saving those incumbents from the too-frequent
annoyance of boarding around, or hiring indifferent lodgings
at eveiy inconvenience. The structure under consideration
is one which only requires a due regard to taste to make it
all that is desirable.
The estimate above quoted is founded on the supposition
that the work be executed in frame, sided, and thrice
coated in goo J oil color.

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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 65

CONSTRUCTION NO. 6.
AVERAGE ESTIMATE, $3,260.
The Seminary here presented is adapted to the wants of
towns of eight or ten thousand inhabitants. Its center is
occupied by a hall with entrances to the schools of males
and females, for the use of the teachers. In this hall is a
staircase which leads to the recitation apartments, or lec
ture-room above.
The schools are each arranged on a semi-circular plan;
the passages to the seats radiating to the center. There
may be, of course, as many of these passages as desirable.
Some teachers being anxious to have but two, scholars at
one desk, while some again think one enough. It will per
haps be the desire of the trustees, however, to seat as many
as possible ; and for that reason we have given the greatest
number of seats, with dotted lines, to show where extra
passages might be introduced, without greatly diminishing
the general accommodation.
It might be here observed, that where pupils have a due
amount of business, and the master occupies so commanding
a position as in this plan, it is not probable that there can
be much idling in the school, no matter how close the sit
tings may be.
The center buildings and wings, in this plan, are proposed

66 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
to be of brick, covered with cement of a light-brown tintj
and for such the estimate has been made. The construction
may however be brick, faced with cut stone, which would,
under favorable circumstances, add a little over one-third
to the cost already stated.
It is proposed to have sky-lights in the schools — and they
would indeed be very desirable, both for lighting purposes
and ventilation ; the windows being open in summer, and
the doors also, a complete ventilation would be the con
sequence. The roofing of this construction is obvious ; the center
being an ordinary gabled roof, and the wings having their
rafters spiked to the wall-plates and converging to the cen
ter shown on plan. The tops of the rafters to be framed
into the sky-light sill.

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PARSONAGES. 67

CONSTRUCTION NO. 7.
A COLLEGIATE SEMINARY. AVERAGE ESTIMATE, $7,600.
The too-common practice in erecting this class of superior
schools is to combine all required apartments under one
oblong or square roof, supported by lofty, and of course dull
looking walls. There is no excuse for a continuance of this
tediously repeated plan. As village lots are cheap enough
to afford sufficient frontage to produce a handsome effect*
there is no economy in spoiling what might and should be
a prominent feature in the locality.
The thorough lighting, and ventilation, in a building of
this form, must command attention ; and the distinctness of
class-rooms have a due weight with trustees. Moreover, the
outside appearance would, whatever may be the material
used, strike the eye with its light and classic elevation.
The above estimate is calculated for a brick structure,
cemented.

68 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.

CONSTRUCTION NO. 8.
A CITY PUBLIC SCHOOL. AVERAGE ESTIMATE, $9,300.
The desire growing up among our city school districts to
have buildings of more pretension than those heretofore
erected, gives us an opportunity to offer the accompanying
design. The basement is calculated to be erected of brick, faced
with polished red marble, on the front only. The super
structure to be also of brick, cemented and colored two or
three shades lighter than the marble.
The window-caps, sills, and other ornaments, to be of cast-
iron. The clock tower to be well framed on inside, brick fronted,
and roofed with galvanized iron, richly ornamented with
cast-iron designs.
The interior will be arranged, of course, as the taste or
requirements of those concerned may demand, three outside
doors giving ample access and means of egress.

.

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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 69

REMARKS ON SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
Although we have refrained from saying anything on the
subjects of Heating and Ventilating, in giving the preceding
distinct review of each design, we would nevertheless wish
to impress our readers with the absolute necessity for the
presence of both those great agents of health, in the build
ings just spoken of.
Heat can always be most efficiently generated below
ground, in an apparatus constructed or introduced for such
purpose. As we have already touched on this subject, when treat
ing of Church Architecture, it is here unnecessary to repeat
the hints there given. We will, however, urge the advan
tage of distributing the supply of heated air as equally as
possible, over the school, by distinct tin conductors for that
purpose. There are many of our country districts, in which the
primitive trustees will seriously object to any innovation oa
the good old-fashioned box, or upright stove. To such we
we would say : If you set any value on sound lungs for the
children under your care, do not continue the use of these
pernicious stoves, but apply your thoughts to basement
furnaces. If in cities, where fuel is very dear, they are
esteemed as far preferable even in private dwellings, how

70 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
much more desirable should they not be in villages and rural
localities, where fuel is no consideration.
Ventilation is easily supplied, if the required attention be
observed at the time when the building is in its commence
ment. For this purpose, it is only necessary to leave a par
allel space of about 10 inches by 4, in the front and rear
walls, at about 3 feet above floor line, with grated openings
on the outside, and regulating register within.
Ventilators should also be placed in the ceiling, one at
each corner of the room, ten inches in diameter, with a short,
bent funnel of tin above, to prevent dust falling from the
joists. These ceiling ventilators may be made very orna
mental, by being covered with a tin plate, cut or perforated
in suitable devices.
Thus a supply of heat and pure air, as well as the escape
of foul air, are all provided for in an efficient, and at the
same time, economical manner.
The walls of school-houses, if of brick, should be built
hollow, as directed in a former chapter of this work, and the
plastering should then be put on the wall without lathing.
But if wood is the material of the walls, the lathing may be,
without firring, on the wall, and the plaster be laid on full
thick. The object of this precaution is, to prevent the ill-usage
which the wall covering is certain to receive, if the lathing
be at all weak, or the mischievous genius of some who are
to be found in all schools, can by any possibility pick a
hole in it.
Indeed, it would not be an unnecessary precaution to

SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 71
wainscot the walls from the floor-line up to the hight of
four feet.
The lower part of the front of seats should be boarded,
and the back from the seats up, be likewise boarded. On
this back, the desk for the next seat behind should rest.
This back should be two feet six inches in hight from the
floor-line, and have a slight fall or inclination of, say, two
and a half inches.
The seat should not be less than ten inches; the desk not
less than fifteen inches broad; both five-eighths thick, and
stoutly supported by stationary trestles not over four feet
apart. A shelf may be formed under each desk, to enable the
scholars to put away their property in safety.
The wood-work of all kinds, in a school-room, should be
painted drab or oak, and the passages or alley's have their
flooring painted also.
The object to be gained is, the making a lasting impres
sion of neatness and regularity, which are as necessary to
be inducted into the youthful mind as any intellectual store.
Such an acquirement can not fail of making the growing
generation more particular about those matters, the neglect
of which, in after life, renders them uncomfortable.
We have avoided, in the majority of the preceding pages
on schools, saying any thing about roofing, or rather the
requisite covering for roofs.
This question must be determined by the peculiar require
ments or fancy of those whose judgment must be consulted.
But, we would just hint that the roof which is most per-

72 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.
mahent, and least liable to destruction by fire, is the one
which should find a preference always.
The manufacturing of such a roof is a subject already
treated of elsewhere ; but it may be necessary to state here,
that plaster of lime and sand put on boarding to the thick
ness of one inch, and then a coat of tar, sand, and chalk,
one inch thick, put on over that, and well beaten with spa
tulas or flat' boards, would be sure to make a roof that
would prove durable and impervious to the weather, as well
as being fire proof.

GENERAL REVIEW.

, It will be easy for any mechanic who is used to large
works to take up and cany through any of the foregoing
designs of Churches, Parsonages, and Schools — the ab
stracts of estimates just given being for the use of such of
our readers as are desirous of obtaining for their rural local
ity a tasteful structure, and wishing to be enabled to form
an idea as to the probable cost.
It is to be hoped that the information given in the present
work will prove advantageous to all such, as well as pleas
ing to men of taste generally, who study the beauty and
fitness of architecture for its own sake.
The more highly finished designs in the pointed style de
manding the employment of the well-experienced builder,
educated in his profession, we see no object for entering into
the detail of their execution in a general work like the
present. But should those designs ever give a sufficient
hint to the reader to lead to the consummation of our de
sire to see any of them erected, the end at which we aimed
will have been happily accomplished.
To the mechanic whose task it may be to carry out any
part of the ideas put forth in these pages, we will venture
to give a kindly charge : not doubting, at the same time,
that his love of perfect workmanship is fully as great as
ours, but for the sake of that art which we, in common with

74 GENERAL REVIEW.
all who study it, love and cherish with a jealous care. Do
not suffer the dictation of ignorant authority or parsimonious
zeal to exercise the slightest influence on your better judg
ment. Rather relinquish the work entirely than have that
work pointed at in derision,' when better taste, and a clearer
perception of the rules of art, guide a future generation to
judge more minutely than the present too defective educa
tion in architectural knowledge will permit.
The simplest ornament has its peculiar place under the
parent style to which it belongs, and that ornament must
be so rigidly portrayed as to leave no doubt as to its origin
and its object. In the minutest parts be correct, and the
combined whole can not fail of rewarding you.
In taking' leave of our attractive subjeet, we would state
that if the patronage of our present book be sufficient to
incite to the task, we will gladly reenter on the work, and
add another feature to its present too imperfect outlines.

LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

, Every building, no matter what its size, should have at
least one lightning-rod attached to its highest point. Public
edifices should never be without them — too many fatal ac
cidents having occurred from the want of this most necessary
protection. Churches should be furnished with powerful conductors,
secured to their spire, or most prominent pinnacles or gable.
Parsonages should have them attached to their chimney
shafts as well as on the barn.
Schools should be guarded by them, likewise.
The space protected by a lightning conductor, or, rather,
Jie area within which it will attract the electric fluid, is sup
posed to be twenty-five feet all around it. Lest, however,
this might prove, in some unfortunate instance, a badly
founded theory, it would be well to reduce this allowance as
much as possible, as precaution is doubtful, if not taken in
its fullest availability.
The rod should be three-eighths of an inch in diameter, of
copper, in lengths screwed firmly into each other, and the
surfaces presenting not the slightest impediment to the

76 lightning conductors.
course of the fluid. The top is to have a piece screwed on,
having a point upright, and three points bent at an angle of
forty-five degrees toward the earth. Those points to be
three or four inches long each, and to be tipped with platina
or gold.
In constructing the top-piece containing the points, as
just spoken of, it will be necessary to have it a full inch
square, splitting the required four points to be bent down,
and leaving the center for a fifth point, standing. Where it
is to be screwed on to the main rod, it should be reduced by
cutting or filling, until flush with it.
Where copper can not be conveniently had, the next best
material for a rod is iron, which can be wrought into one
length by welding, and proceed as above directed for copper.
Care must be taken not to paint a lightning-rod. Such a
coat will inevitably deprive it of its"Titility. The hold-fasts
for conductors should be of wood, having a glass thimble or
ring for the rod to pass freely through. Thus, there will be
no agent to draw the fluid from the metal to the building ;
and being left unimpeded it will readily make its way to the
ground. The lower end of the rod is to be sunk in a preparation
of sand and powdered charcoal three feet deep. Its extrem
ity is to be split into three or four parts and bent various
ways. This is to scatter the already exhausted fluid when
it reaches the termination.
If water is at hand it is a good receiver for the end of the
rod. Any country blacksmith, with a little ordinary tact, can
construct one of these iron conductors, to suit the required
purpose.

LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 77
In conclusion, we would advise that the support given to
the lightning conductor be equal to the violent jar created
by a stroke of the electric fluid ; which caution, if not at
tended to, might make the conductor instrumental of calam
ity, rather than of protection.

WATER SUPPLY.

Nothing is more wanted on school premises than good,
wholesome water for drinking, and few things more desir
able than soft water for washing purposes.
In the country a deep well should be sunk as near to the
school-house as possible.
In the city, if there be water-works, the pipe-water
should be introduced. If no such supply can be had, a
good serviceable pump, or two, (one for the boys', and one
for the girls' departments should be supplied.
A cistern, for soft water received from the roof, should be
sunk in each yard ;and such cisterns should contain not less
than two hundred gallons of water. A long trough should
be set up in a wash-room adjoining the wood-shed, supplied
by a small pump from the cistern below ; and this trough
should have a valve and stopper, intended for the escape of
waste water. These cisterns might be made available for
hose supply in the event of a fire.
Children could not have a greater luxury in the heat of
summer than cool, soft water to wash faces and hands in.

80 WATER SUPPLY.
Certainly nothing could more promote the health of schools
than a due attention to this subject on the part of those who
have the guardianship of such institutions.
For drinking purposes, clean, serviceable vessels should
always be at hand for the use of the children, and there
should be several such vessels.
The vessels should not, on any account, be lined with
brick, as such lining is sure to give a strong flavor to the
water after a few years. Limestone or sandstone will con
stitute the very best lining for wells.
Wood, as a lining, is no less objectionable than brick, for
the same reason.

ESTIMATING.

The wide difference between the various parts of this ex
tended Union in the price of materials and cost of labor,
must render an approximation to actual value of either, in
any required locality, utterly impossible. True, we may
compute according to the highest market, and again ac
cording to the lowest, and then strike an average ; but this
at best gives but a very unsatisfactory result. We have
therefore come to the conclusion of giving for each of the
Church designs embraced in this work, a general bill of
quantities. The reader will have only to affix the current
price to each item, and calculate accordingly.
Key.
In the first column will be found the number of times any
quantity is to be multiplied.
In the second, the description of work or material.
In the third, the quantity, found either in feet and inches,
or in cubic yards, etc.
In the fourth column, which we leave blank, will be the
market rates of each item, which the reader will fill up.

82 ESTIMATING.
In the fifth, which we also leave blank, the estimate will
be figured out.
The reader will readily come at a correct knowledge of
the value of the required work, by making use of the help
here given to him, and adding any items he may think
desirable.

•estimating.

83

COMPUTATION OF QUANTITIES.
Material and Labor required in executing the design
for a Church 35 by 60 feet, and 22 feet high to eaves:
A.

2 1
eo

40 40
66

ESTIMATED IK WOOD-WORK — PLAMK ON FLAT.

Side walls 60 ft. high each, com
posed of lj in. stuff, 8 in. wide,
containing, board measure, ....
Front and end walls, 35 by 22 feet,
Gables, 35 by 10 ft. by 8 in. thick,
each, 
Walls of tower 13 ft. 6 in. by 26 ft.
made hollow, of 2 in. hemlock,
plank-on-end inside and out, . . .
Do. 10 by 26 ft. do 
In belfry 
Joists under floor, 12 by 2 by 34 ft.
long 
Flooring boarding, 5'8 by 34 by l£,
Pairs of rafters, 24 by 6 by 3, . . .
Ceiling joists, 34 by 8 by 3, ....
King posts, 6 by 3, 10 ft. long each,
Pairs of struts, 4 by 3, 7 ft. long
each, . 
Boarding ob side of roof, 62 by 25
in. stuff, 
lj in. stuff in seats of slips, ....
Do. in backs and fronts 
In reading-desk with seat, etc 
Paneling of slips, reading-desk, etc.,
§ in. thick, containing 130 yards
square 
In 16 windows 15 by 3 ft. each, and
in 5 doors, 
Total of lumber, inch measure, . . .

21,120 12,320 5,600

2,8082.0803,200 4,080
2,9582,880 9084
3,100 354560 180

656 483

65,613

AMOUNT. r

2,316 cubic ft. of concrete for foundation will take 145 bushels ot
water-lime and 1,592 bushels of sharp sand and coarse eravel mixed

84 estimating.

ESTIMATE
For Material and Labor required in the erection of the
design B, 70 by 30 by 20 ft. to eaves — estimated in brick
work: B.
142,000 of brick in the entire building, at  per thou
sand,  $ 
3,300 cubic feet of masonry in foundations, containing
200 perches, 
4,060 feet, board measure, of flooring joists, 
3,750 square feet of flooring boarding 1 J inch thick, 
7,230 feet, board measure, in rafters, . . „ . . . , 
This roof is to have a double set of rafters, one set to form diag
onal braces with the other. The whole quantity of lumber required
is here given.
633 feet of king posts, struts, and braces,  $ 
2,100 feet of boarding on roof, 

estimating.

85

ESTIMATE
For Material and Labor required in the erection, of a
Church 68 by 30 by 20 ft., in stone :
C.
2,240 cubic feet of foundations, containing 1,680 bushels
of concrete, or 135 perches or rods of masonry,
at  per  ,  $ 
443 perches, of rubble masonry in superstructure, 
200 perches of rubble masonry in octagon and buttresses, 

140 feet lineal cut stone in hood-moldings, over ten win
dows — the girth of those hoods would be 18 in.;
therefore, the superficial square ft. would be 210,
151 feet lineal of cut stone in barge course, belt courses
of tower, belts of octagons, etc., .

20 squares of flooring 
28 squares of roofing, J pitch, plafn truss,
425 yards of plastering on walls, ceiling, etc,
3,850 laths required ; or 38 \ bundles, . .

ADDENDA.

SCHOOL FURNITURE.
There has been a very wide field for improvement in the
accommodation and economy of school furniture, and nothing
has been so much neglected. While our cabinet-makers
are wearing out their intellect in striving for preeminence
in the make of an original rocking-chair or footstool for in
dolent adults to indulge themselves, the small requisites
which the growing youth demand for comfort in their daily
toil of study are overlooked altogether. Hence the school
room is naturally looked upon by the pupil as a place of
rough usage, where it is his unhappy duty to attend to his
imperative task. Such should not be the case ; the school
room should in all particulars present an inviting, rather
than a repulsive appearance to our youth. Let Minerva
look more like a kindly mother, and her tiny temple be
more of a home to her favored children. In this way, edu
cation will acquire more seductive power over the young
mind than as under the present too long existing system.
What does the recollection of the school-room recall in the
minds of the grown generation, as it did likewise in those
of their forefathers, but a forbidding scene of whitewashed
walls, endless rows of desks, and the stiff, supervising aspect
of the teacher's tribunal. Nothing to break the dull monot-

88 ADDENDA.
ony of wall, save, (in some instances,) a map of " The
World," or a black lecture-board.
With the hope of improving this objectionable state of
things, and of making the intellectual nursery a place that
may be sought for its comfort's sake, and remembered for
its appearance as well as for its gifts of knowledge given,
we will now proceed to enumerate and detail the things
most wanted to make it what, no doubt, every parent and
pupil would wish it.

ADDENDA.

89

THE DESK AND SEAT.
In country schools it has been customary, for the sake of
saving space, to have but a few desks, to be used by those
learning to write : the remainder of the room to be occupied
by seats. This is a bad plan, if it were for no other reason
than that it inclines the pupils to a stooping position : as
few children could hold up a book for hours, not having a
desk whereon to rest it, without placing it on their lap, and
of necessity bending over it. No; let the very youngest
child have a desk high enough to insure freedom from spinal
affections, which the stupid mode just alluded to is but too
certain to promote.
These desks should be of elevations to suit the growth of
the pupil, and each should have a gentle inclination also.
A groove should be furnished to each pupil's desk, to
receive and hold his ink-bottle — the ink-bottles to be all
collected and put away when tuition in writing is over for
the day, to be distributed again when next wanted. A
drawer or shelf should be placed under each desk. A sta
tionary shelf would perhaps be' best, to prevent the occa
sional inconvenience, to a neighboring pupil, of using the
drawer. The slate should have a pair of fixed grooves for its berth.
Each pupil should have 20 inches of desk-room, and the

90 ADDENDA.
breadth of the desk should in no case be less than twelve
inches. Along the bottom rail or stand of the desk, there should
be a horizontal foot-board, four inches wide, raised three
inches from the floor, on which the pupils may rest their
feet. The back of each desk will, as observed on a former page,
act as the back of the seat in front of it; and these backs
will have a gentle inclination, so as to carry out the health
ful doctrine of expansion of the chest. And here it may be
remarked, that the closer in upon the sitter the desk is
placed, the more certain is the prevention of the pernicious
habit of stooping.
The Seat.
In forming the seat, the principal objects to be sought are,
the accommodation of the hight, the necessary width, and
the due inclination of the foot-board spoken of above.
The required hight must be found by having three stand
ards : one for the youngest, one for the eldest, and one me
dium. 'T is true, the raising or lowering of the foot-board
may be made to meet this requisition ; but it would be more
advisable to have pupils located in accordance with relative
age and size.
The necessary width should not exceed ten inches, nor be
less than eight.
The due inclination of the foot-board may be thirty de
grees, or a degree or two more, so that the flat of the foot
may rest easily when sitting up or when writing.
And here we would offer a suggestion, which, if carried

addenda, 91
out, might be of infinite service to the rising generation,
especially the female portion. It is, to have slats screwed
on to this foot-board, to form positions in which to place
and retain the feet, so as to overcome that repulsive habit
which too many children acquire of turning in the toes when
sitting, standing, or walking.

92 ADDENDA.

¦ THE WALL FURNITURE.
Every available space between windows should be fur
nished with some large map or illustration. The orders and
styles of Architecture should be displayed, and occasionally
lectured on, so as to give pupils some insight into an art
which has exhausted the taste and invention of mankind,
which gives pleasure to all, and yet whose rules of construc
tion are seldom known to any save the one whose peculiar
business it is to make himself acquainted with them. In
the same way might Geology, that wonderful science, which
acquaints us with the properties of the very planet we in
habit, be brought constantly under the inquisitive eye of
the curious learner. In fact, every branch of human infor
mation, mechanical and physical, might be thus exposed to
inspection, and mayhap a latent spark of embryo genius
thus find its way to kindle up and illumine the world with
heaven-gifted knowledge that might never seek out, in the
bound pages of a book, the subject it was born to enlarge
upon. Let everything in and about the school-room wear an in
viting aspect; and even the lecture-board, that black and
repulsive-looking object of terror to the young, be a brill
iant blue or red. There is no excuse for making it black.
Chalk will show as well on the colors named in the limited
range of a lecture-room.

ADDENDA.

93

In the larger schools or collegiate seminaries, it would
be an ennobling feature to introduce life-size busts of the
great men of America — the patriots, the philosophers, and
the statesmen, that their presiding genius may incite the
young to emulate their greatness, and so become themselves
the proud monuments of national glory. Let these busts
be placed in an elevated line, regulated as circumstances
may require ; but the niche above the teacher's seat should
be the place for the bust of him whose virtues were unri
valed, and whose position in the hearts of his countrymen
should thus be upheld in the united affections of the young.

94 ADDENDA.

INTERIOR COLORING.
Although white is a very neat and lively color for the
walls of a sehool-room, yet it must be recollected that as
, there is no scarcity of windows, there is no actual necessity
for having the lightest of colors. And as it is the most hurt
ful of all to the eyes, it must, on this latter account alone,
prove highly objectionable.
A cream-color, a delicate rose, or a light straw-color
would have a very pleasing effect, particularly when set off
with the illustrations spoken of in the preceding chapter.
It would be less like "school" and more like the home of
mental enjoyment. It would be more sought after as a
pleasant gathering place for aspirants for knowledge. The
bright, gay color of the walls would reflect its warmth upon
the youthful mind as a summer sky enlivens even the
dullest heart.
There is more, far more philosophy in this simple thing
of color for a school-room wall than any know, save those
who try its gentle, telling influence.
The busts we spoke of in the preceding chapter may not
be within the means of some localities to obtain. In such
case, the large-sized, lithograph portraits may be substituted
with good effect; making sure to have all of the same size,

ADDENDA. 95
as uniformity is, of all others, the most desirable lesson to be
inculcated by every available channel.
The desks and seats should be of some neat color, and
the frames supporting them should likewise be suitably
painted. The alleys dividing the desks should, if not matted, be
painted. But, if possible, they should be matted, for the
purpose of carrying out, as far as possible, the idea of home
comfort in the school-room.

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