far_ the founding 'ej. La- Coikg^mi^ifJ^e&fiy^

• iLiiiBiaaisy •

Deposited by
Henry R Wagner
1907

TRAVELS IN PERI],

DURING THE YEARS 1838—1842,

ON THJfe.CQAST, IN THE SIERRA, ACROSS THE CORDILLERAS
^AND/fttE ANDES, INTO THE PRIMEVAL .FORESTS. .

BY DR.. J. J. VON TSCHUDX
4*1 ...J\
¦ ^wrtslateo train tje <Snmtm
BY TftOllASINA ROSS.

LONDON: . "
DAVID BOC,UE, 86, FLEET STREET.
MDCCCXLVII.

LONDON :
BRADBURY AND EVANS, I'RINTEBS., WHITEFRIARS.

PREFACE.

The Work from which the present Volume is trans
lated consists of extracts from the Author's Journal,
accompanied by his recollections and observations. The
absence of chronological arrangement will be sufficiently
accounted for, when it is explained that the zoological
investigations for which the journey was undertaken
frequently required the Author to make repeated visits
to one particular place or district, or to remain for a
considerable time within the narrow circuit of a few
miles ; and sometimes to travel rapidly over vast tracts
of country. Disclaiming any intention of making one
of those travelling romances, with which the tourist
literature of the day is overstocked, the Author has con
fined himself to a plain description of facts and things
as they came within the sphere of his own observation.
But though Dr. Tschudi lays claim to no merit beyond
truthfulness of his narrative, yet the reader will no

IV PREFACE.
doubt readily concede to him the merit of extensive
information, and happy descriptive talent. His pictures
of Nature, especially those relating to the animal world,
are frequently imbued with much of the charm of
thought and style which characterises the writings of
Buffon. Lima, the oldest and most interesting of the cities
founded by the Spaniards on the western coast of South
America, has been frequently described ; but no previous
writer has painted so animated a picture of the city
and its inhabitants, as that contained in the following
volume. After quitting the capital of Peru, Dr. Tschudi
went over ground previously untrodden by any European
traveller. He visited the Western Sierra, the mighty
chain of the Cordilleras, the boundless level heights, the
deep mountain valleys on the eastern declivity of the
Andes, and the vast primeval forests. Whilst recount
ing his wanderings in these distant regions, he describes
not only the country and the people, but every object
of novelty and interest in the animal, vegetable, and
mineral creations.
Those lovers of Natural History who are familiar
with the German language, and who may wish to
make themselves extensively acquainted with the animal
world, in those parts of Peru visited by Dr. Tschudi,

PREFACE. V
will find abundant information on the subject in his
work, with plates, entitled " Untersuchungen iiber die
Fauna Peruana." The present Publication, though con
taining a vast deal to interest the naturalist, is addressed
to the general reader, and will, it is presumed, gratify
curiosity respecting the highly interesting and little-
known regions to which it relates. It may fairly be
said that no previous writer has given so comprehensive
a picture of Peru ; combining, with animated sketches
of fife and manners, a fund of valuable information on
Natural History and Commerce.
T. R.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Embarkation at Havre — The Voyage — Arrival at the Island of
Chiloe — Landing — The Gyr-Falcon — Punta Arena — The Island
of Chiloe described — Climate and Cultivation — Cattle — The
Bay — San Carlos — The Governor's House — Poverty and
Wretchedness of the Inhabitants of the Town — Strange me
thod of Ploughing — Coasting Vessels — Smuggling — Zoology —
Departure from Chiloe . .  1
CHAPTER II.
Valparaiso and the adjacent country — The Bay — Aspect of the Town
Lighthouses — Forts — Custom House — Exchange — Hotels and
Taverns — War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation — First
Expedition — Preparations for the Second Expedition — Em
barkation of the Troops— Close of the Port — July Festival in
honour of the French Revolution — The Mwle, or Mole — Police
— Serenos, or Watchmen — Moveable Prisons — Clubs — Trade of
Valparaiso — Santiago — Zoology  21
CHAPTER III.
Juan Fernandez — Robinson Crusoe — Passage to Callao — San Lorenzo
— Rise and Fall of the coast — Mr. Darwin's opinions on this sub
ject — Callao — The Fortress — Siege by the Spaniards — General
Rodil — Siege by the Chilians — The Golocolo — Pirates — Zoology
— Road to Lima  37

VU1 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV. PAGE
Lima— Situation and extent of the City— Streets, Houses, Churches,
and Convents — San Pedro — The -Jesuits — Nunneries — Beata-
rios— Hospitals — San Andres — The Foundling House — The
Pantheon— The Palace— The Plaza Mayor— Pizarro— The Ca-
bildo — Fountains — Palace of the Inquisition — The University
— National Library — Museum of Natural History and Antiqui
ties—Academy of Design— The Mint — The Theatre — Circus
for Cock-fighting— The Bridge— The City Wall— Santa Cata-
lina — Barracks  59
CHAPTER V.
Population of Lima — Its diminution — Different races of the Inhabit
ants — Their characteristics — Amusements — Education — The
Women of Lima — Their Costume — The Saya y Manto — Fe
male domestic life — Love of dress — Beatas — Indians — Slaves —
Bosales — Free Creoles — Negroes — Negresses — Black Creoles- —
Their varieties — Mestizos — Mulatoes — Palanganas — Zambos —
Chinos — Foreigners in Lima — Corruption of the Spanish lan
guage  89
CHAPTER VI.
Primary Schools — Colleges — The University — Monks — Saints —
Santo Toribio and Santa Rosa — Religious Processions — Raising
the Host — The Noche Buena — The Carnival — Paseos, or Public
Promenades — Ice — Riding and Driving — Horses— -Their Equip
ments and Training — Mules — Lottery in Lima — Cookery —
Breakfasts, Dinners, &c. — Coffee-houses and Restaurants —
— Markets — The Plaxo Firme del Acho — Bull Fights . .125
CHAPTER VII.
Geographical Situation of Lima — Height above Sea level — Tempera
ture ¦ — Diseases — Statistical Tables of Births and Deaths-
Earthquakes — The Valley of Lima — The River Rimac — Aque
ducts, Trenches, &c. — Irrigation — Plantations — Cotton — Sugar

CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
— Various kinds of Grain — Maize — Potatoes, and other tuber
ous roots — Pulse — Cabbage — Plants used for Seasoning — Clover
— The Olive and other Oil Trees — Fruits — Figs and Grapes
— The Chirimoya — The Palta — The Banana and other Fruits . 157
CHAPTER VIII.
Robbers on the Coast of Peru — The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo
— The Corps of Montoneros — Watering Places near Lima —
Surco, Ate and Lurin — Pacchacamac — Ruins of the Temple of
the Sun — Difficulties of Travelling on the Coast of Peru — Sea
Passage to Huacho — Indian Canoes — Ichthyological Collections
— An old Spaniard's recollections of Alexander Von Humboldt — .
The Padre Requena — Huacho — Plundering of Burial Places —
Huaura — Malaria — The Sugar Plantation at Luhmayo — Quipico
— Ancient Peruvian Ruins — The Salinas, or Salt Pits — Grita-
lobos — Chancay — The Piques — Mode of extracting them —
Valley of the Passamayo — Extraordinary Atmospheric Mirrors
— Piedras Gordas — Palo Seco  194
CHAPTER IX.
The Coast southward of Lima — Chilca — Curious Cigar Cases made
there — Yauyos — Pisco — Journey to Yea — A night on the Sand
Plains — Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823 — Vine Plantations
at Yea — Brandy and Wine — Don Domingo Elias — Vessels for
transporting Brandy, (Botijas and odres) — Cruel mode of skin
ning Goats — Negro Carnival — Peculiar species of Guinea Pig —
— The Salamanqueja — Cotton Plantations — Quebrada of Huai-
tara — Sangallan — Guano — Retrospect of the Peruvian Coast —
Rivers— Medanos — Winds — Change of Seasons — The Garuas —
The Lomas — Mammalia/ — Birds — Amphibia .... 228
CHAPTER X.
Roads leading to the Sierra — Chaclacayo and Santa Les — Barome
trical observations — San Pedro Mama — The Rio Seco — Extra
ordinary Geological Phenomenon — Similar one described by Mr.
Darwin— Surco — Diseases Peculiar to the Villages of Peru —
The Verugas — Indian mode of treating the disorder — The Bird-

CONTENTS.

PAGE

catching Spider — Horse-Shoeing — Indian Tambos — San Juan
de Matucanas — The Thorn-apple and the Tonga — The Tambo
de Viso — Bridges — San Mateo — Passports — Acchahuari — Ma
lady called the Veta — Its effects on horses — Singular tact and
caution of Mules — Antarangra and Mountain Passes — Curious
partition of Water — Piedra Parada — Yauli — Indian Smelting
Furnaces — Mineral Springs — Portuguese Mine-owners — Saco—
Oroyo — Hanging Bridges — Huaros — Roads leading from Oroya 255

CHAPTER XI.
The Cordillera and the Andes — Signification of the terms — Altitude
of the Mountains and Passes — Lakes — Metals — Aspect of the
Cordillera — Shattered Rocks — Maladies caused by the dimi
nished Atmospheric Pressure — The Veta and the Surumpe —
Mountain Storms — The Condor — Its habits — Indian mode of
Catching the Bird — The Puna or Despoblado — Climate — Cur
rents of Warm Air — Vegetation — Tuberous Plant called the
Maca— Animals of the Puna — The Llama, the Alpaco, the
Huanacu and the Vicuna — The Chacu and the Bolas — House
hold Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians — The Viscacha and the
Chinchilla — Puna Birds and Amphibia — Cattle and Pasture —
Indian Farms — Shepherds' Huts — Ancient Peruvian Roads and
Buildings — Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna . 290
CHAPTER XII.
Cerro de Pasco— First discovery of the Mines — Careless Mode of
working them— Mine Owners and Mine Labourers — Amalga
mating and Refining— Produce of the Mines — Life in Cerro de
Pasco— Different Classes of the Population — Gaming and
Drunkenness— Extravagance and Improvidence of the Indian
Mine Labourers — The Cerro de San Fernando — Other Import
ant Mining" Districts in Peru— The Salcedo Mine Castrovireyna
—Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru— Rich Mines
secretly known to the Indians— Roads leading from Cerro de
Pasco — The Laguna of Chinchaycocha — Battle of Junin —
Indian Robbers — A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds . . 327

CONTENTS. XI

CHAPTER XIII. PAGE
The Sierra — Its Climate and Productions — Inhabitants — Trade —
Eggs Circulated as Money — Mestizos in the Sierra — Their Idle
ness and Love of Gaming and Betting — Agriculture — The Qui-
nua Plant, a substitute for Potatoes — Growth of Vegetables and
Fruits in the Sierra — Rural Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing
and Reaping — Skill of the Indians in various Handicrafts —
Excess of Brandy-Drinking — Chicha — Disgusting mode of
making it — Festivals of Saints — Dances and Bull Fights —
Celebration of Christmas-Day, New-Year's-Day, Palm-Sunday,
and Good-Friday— Contributions levied on the Indians — Tardy
and Irregular Transmission of Letters — Trade in Mules — Ge
neral Style of Building in the Towns and Villages of the Sierra
— Ceja de la Montana  361

CHAPTER XIV.
Road to the Primeval Forests — Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
Bridges — Vegetation — Hollow Passes — Zoology — The Montana
Plantations — Inhabitants — Trade in Peruvian Bark — Wander
ing Indians — Wild Indians or Indios Bravos — Languages, Man
ners and Customs of the Indios Bravos — Dress — Warlike
Weapons and Hunting Arms — Dwellings — Religion — Physical
formation of the Wild Indian Tribes — Animals of the Aboriginal
Forests — Mammalia— -. Hunting the Ounce — Birds — Amphibia
— Poisonous Serpents — Huaco — Insects — Plants . . . 387
CHAPTER XV.
Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc — Villages — Hacienda of Maraynioc —
The Coca Plant — Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it — Masti
cation of Coca — Evil consequences of its excessive Use — Its
Nutritious Qualities — Indian Superstitions connected with the
Coca Plant — Suggestions for its Introduction in the European
Navies — Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo — The Chun-
chos — Missions to Cerra de la Sol — Juan Santos Atahuallpa —
The Franciscan Monks — Depopulation of Vitoc . . . 442

Xll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVI. PAGE
Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians
— The Repartimento and the Mita — Indian Insurrections —
Tupac Amaru — His Capture and Execution — War of Independ
ence — Character of the Peruvian Indians — Music — Dress —
Superstitions — Longevity — Diminished Population of Peru —
Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants — Specimen of
Quichua Poetry — The Yaravies — The Quipu — Water Conduits
— Ancient Buildings— Fortresses — Idols — Domestic Utensils —
Ancient Peruvian Graves— Mode of Burying the Dead —
Mummies  470

ERRATA.
In page 64, line 7 from top, for 504 pounds, read 112£ pounds.
In page 273, line 14 from top, for Lameroor, read Lamermoor.

TRAVELS IN PERU.

CHAPTER I.
Embarkation at Havre— The Voyage — Arrival at the Island of Chiloe — Landing
— The Gyr-Falcon — Punta Arena — The Island of Chiloe described —
Climate and Cultivation — Cattle — The Bay — San Carlos — The Governor's
House — Poverty and Wretchedness of the Inhabitants of the Town — Strange
method of Ploughing — Coasting Vessels — smuggling— Zoology — Departure
from Chiloe.
On the 27th of February, 1838, I sailed from Havre-
de-Grace on board the " Bdmond," This vessel, though
a French merchantman, was freighted with a cargo of
Swiss manufactured goods, suited to any commercial
transactions which might be entered into in the course
of a circumnavigatory voyage. It was a boisterous
morning. A fall of snow and heavy clouds soon inter
cepted our view of the coast of France, and not one
cheering sunbeam shone out to betoken for us a favour
able voyage. We passed down the British Channel,
where the multitude of vessels, and the flags of all
nations, presented an enlivening picture, and we finally
cleared it on the 5th of March. Favoured by a brisk
north wind, we soon reached Madeira and came in sight
I B

2 TRAVELS IN PERU.
of Teneriffe, the peak being just perceptible on the skirt
of the horizon. Easterly breezes soon brought us to the
island of Fogo, which, having passed on the 35th day of
our voyage, we received the usual marine baptism, and
participated in all the ceremonies observed on crossing
the equator. We soon reached the tropic of Capricorn,
and endeavoured to gain the channel between the Falk
land Islands and Patagonia; but unfavourable winds
obliged us to direct our course eastwards, from the Island
of Soledad to the Staten Islands. On the 3rd of March
we made the longitude of Cape Horn, but were not
able to double it until we got into the 60th degree of
south latitude. In those dangerous waters, where it is
admitted by the boldest English sailors that the waves
rage more furiously than in any other part of the world,
we encountered great risk and difficulty. For twenty-two
days we were driven about on the fearfully-agitated sea,
southward of Tierra del Fuego, and were only saved
from being buried in the deep, by the excellent build
and soundness of our ship.
We suffered much, and were long' delayed by this
storm ; but when it subsided, a smart breeze sprang up
from the southward, and we held our course along the
Pacific to the coast, of Chile. After a voyage of 99 days
me cast anchor on Sunday the 5th of June, in the Bay
of San Carlos. Like the day of our departure from
Europe, that of our arrival off Chiloe was gloomy and
overcast. Heavy clouds obscured the long-looked-for
island, and its picturesque shore could only be seen,
when, at intervals, the wind dispersed the dark atmo-

BAY OP SAN CARLOS. 3
spheric veil. We had no sooner cast anchor than several
boats came alongside rowed by Indians, who offered us
potatoes, cabbage, fish, and water, in exchange for
tobacco. Only those who have been long at sea can
form an idea of the gratification which fresh provisions,
especially vegetables, afford to the weary voyager. In
a couple of hours, the harbour-master came on board to
examine the ship, the cargo, &c, and to give us permis
sion to go ashore. The long-boat being got out and
well manned, we stepped into it, and were conveyed to
the harbour. The Bay of San Carlos being shallow,
large ships, or vessels heavily laden, are obliged to go
three English mies or more from the landing-place,
before they canlianchor. Our boat was gaily decorated
and newly painted ; but this was mere outside show, for
it was in a very unsound condition. During our passage
through the tropics the sun had melted the pitch
between the planks of the boat, which lay oil the deck,
keel uppermost. In this crazy boat, we had scarcely
got a quarter of a league from the ship, when the water
rushed in so forcibly through all the cracks and fissures,
that it was soon more than ancle-deep. Unluckily the
sailors had forgotten to put on board a bucket or any
thing for baling out the water, so that we were obliged
to use our hats and boots for that purpose. Fourteen
persons were crowded together in this leaky boat, and
the water continued rising, until at length we be'gan to
be seriously apprehensive for our safety, when, fortu
nately, Our situation was observed by the people on
shore. They promptly prepared to send out a boat to
b2

4 TRAVELS IN PERU.
our assistance, but just as it was got afloat, we succeeded
in reaching the pier, happy once more to set our feet on
terra firma.
Our first business was to seek shelter and refresh
ment. There is no tavern in San Carlos, but there is a
sort of substitute for one, kept by an old Corsican,
named Filippi, where captains of ships usually take up
their quarters. Filippi, who recognised an old acquaint
ance in one of our party, received us very kindly, and
showed us to apartments which certainly had no claim
to the merits of either cleanliness or convenience. They
were long, dark, quadrangular rooms, without windows,
and were destitute of any article of furniture, except a
bed in a kind of recess. -m
As soon as I got on shore, I saw a multitude of small
birds of prey. They keep in flocks, like our sparrows,
hopping about everywhere, and perching on the hedges
and house-tops. J anxiously wished for an opportunity
to make myself better acquainted with one of them.:
Presuming that shooting in the town might be displeas
ing to the inhabitants, who would naturally clajm to
themselves a sort of exclusive sporting right, I took my
gun down to the sea-shore, and there shot one of the
birds. It belonged to the Gyr-Falcon family (Polybo-
rinice)' and was one of the species peculiar to South
America {Polyborus chimango, Vieil.) The whole of
the upper part of the body is brown, but single feathers
here and there have a whitish-brown edge. On the tail
are several indistinct oblique stripes. The under-part
of the body is whitish-brown, and is also marked with

THE GYR-FALCON. 5
transverse stripes feebly defined. The bird I shot
measured from the point of the beak to the end of the
tail 1 foot 6-| inches. Though these Gyr-Falcons five,
socially together, yet they are very greedy and conten
tious about their prey. They snap up, as food, all the
offal thrown out of doors ; and thus they render them^
selves serviceable to the inhabitants, who consequently do
not destroy them. In some of the valleys of Peru, I
met with these birds again, but very rarely, and always
single and solitary. I continued my excursions on the
sea-shore, but with little satisfaction, for the pouring rain
had driven animals of every .kind to their lurking-holes.
After a few days, I went on board the "Edmond," for the
purpose of visiting Punta Arena, a town on the side of
the bay, whither our boat used to be sent for fresh water.
The ground surrounding the spring whence the ships
obtain supplies of water, is sandy, and it becomes exceeds
ingly marshy further inland. After wandering about
for a few hours, I found myself quite lost in a morass, out
of which I had to work my way with no little difficulty.
The whole produce of my hard day's sport consisted of
an awlbeak, a small dark-brown bird (Opeihiorhyncus
patagonicus), and some land-snails. On our return, as we
were nearing the ship, we killed a seal (Otaria chilensis,
Mull.), which was rising after a dive, close to the boat.
On the 22nd of June, all our ship's company were on
board by order of the captain. We weighed anchor,
and cruized about for some time. At length, about
five in the afternoon, we returned, and the ship was
anchored again precisely on the spot she had left a few

6 TRAVELS IN PERU.
hours before. It was set down in the log-book that
the wind was not sufficiently favourable to allow the
ship to pass out safely through the narrow entrance to
the bay. But all on board were well aware that this
was merely a pretence on the part of the captain, who,
for some reason or other, wished to stop longer at San
Carlos. I was very much pleased at this opportunity of pro
longing niy stay at the Island of Chiloe, hoping that
better weather would enable me to make an excursion
into the interior. But the sky still continued overcast,
and the rain poured incessantly. One day, however, I
undertook a journey to Castro, in company with the
French Charge d' Affaires to Peru, one of my fellow-
passengers on the voyage. A merchant accommodated
us with two horses, saddled in the Chilian manner ; but
he warned us to be on our guard, as horses were often
restive when just returned from their summer pasturage.
We set off very promisingly. The commencement of
our ride was pleasant enough, though the road was steep
and very difficult. It sometimes lay over smooth slip
pery stones, then through deep marshes, or over scat
tered logs of wood, which bore evidence of attempts to
render the ground passable, by this rude kind of paving.
After we had ridden for several hours in the forest, the
rain checked our further progress, and we turned, to
retrace our way back. Our horses seemed well pleased
with the prospect of returning home. For a time they
proceeded with wonderful steadiness ; but on coming
to a part of the road, where the ground was compara-

THE ISLAND OP CHILOE. 7
tively level and firm, they quickened their pace, arid at
length dashed forward through the wood, uncontrolled
by the bridle. The long narrow saddle, with its woollen
covering, the crescent-shaped wooden stirrups, and the
heavy spurs, with their clumsy rowels, baffled all our
skill in horsemanship, and it was with no little difficulty
we kept our seats. We thought it best to give the
animals the rein, and they galloped through the um
brageous thickets, until at last, panting and breathless,
they stuck in a morass. Here we recovered our control
over them, and pursued the remainder of our journey
without further accident, though we were drenched to
the skin on our return to the town.
On subsequent days, I took my rambles on foot, and
found myself richly rewarded thereby. The long even
ings we spent in the company of our host and the har
bour-master, from both of whom I obtained some useful
information respecting the island.
Chiloe is one of the largest islands of the Archipelago
which extends along the west coast of South America,
from 42° south lat. to the Straits of Magellan. It
is about 23 German miles long, and 10 broad. A mag
nificent, but almost inaccessible forest covers the unbro
ken line of hills stretching along Chiloe, and gives to
the island a charming aspect of undulating luxuriance.
Seldom, however, can the eye command a distinct view
of those verdant hills ; for overhanging clouds sur
charged with rain, almost constantly veil the spreading
tops of the trees. At most parts of the shore the
declivity is rapid. There are many inlets, which, though

8 TRAVELS IN PERU.
small, afford secure anchorage ; but there are no har
bours of any magnitude. While Castro was the capital
of the island, Chacao was the principal port ; but San
Carlos having become the residence of the governor, this
latter place is considered the chief harbour ; and with
reason, for its secure, tranquil bay unites all the advan
tages the navigator can desire on the stormy coast of
South Chile. At Chacao, on the contrary, reefs and
strong currents render the entrance dangerous and the
anthorage insecure.
Chiloe is but little cultivated, and scantily populated.
If the statement of my informant, the harbour-master,
be correct, Chiloe and the adjacent small islands contain
only from 48,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, part of whom live
in ranchos, (huts^) and part in a few villages. Next to
San Carlos, and the half-deserted Castro, to which the
title of " City " is given, the chief places are Chacao,
Vilipilli, Cucao, Velinoe. It is only in the neigh
bourhood of these towns or villages that the forest trees
have been felled, and their removal has uncovered a
fertile soil, which would reward by a hundred-fold the
labour of the husbandman.
The climate of the island is moist and cool, and upon
the whole very unpleasant. During the winter months,
the sun is seldom seen ; and it is a proverbial saying in
Chiloe, that it rains six days of the week, and is cloudy
on the seventh. In summer there are occasionally fine
days, though seldom two in succession. The thick
forests are therefore never dry, and beneath the trees
the vegetation of the marshy soil is peculiarly luxuriant.

CLIMATE AND CULTIVATION. 9
The constant moisture is one of the greatest obstacles
to agriculture. To clear the ground for cultivation, it
would be necessary to burn the forests, and as the trees
are always damp, that could not be done without great
difficulty. To some kinds of culture, the soil is not
favourable. The cereals, for example, seldom thrive in
Chiloe ; the seed rots after the ear is formed. Maize
grows best ; though it shoots too much into leaf, and
bears only small grain. The damp soil, on the other
hand, is favourable to potatoes, of which vast quantities
are planted. There is a degenerate kind of potato, very
abundant in Chiloe. ( On biseetion it exhibits a greater
or lesser number of concentric rings, alternately white
and violet ; sometimes all of the latter colour. It is
well known that southern Chile is the native land of the
potato. In Chiloe and also in the neighbouring islands,
potatoes grow wild ; but, both in size and flavour, they
are far inferior to the cultivated kind. Like the maize,
they shoot up in large leaves and stalks. The climate
is also very favourable to the different kinds of the cab
bage plant ; but peas and beans do not thrive there.
In the forests there are often clear spots on which the
grass grows to a great height, and supplies excellent
pasturage for numerous herds of cattle. The inhabitants
of Chiloe breed for their own use, horses, oxen, sheep, and
swine. The horses are small, and not han dsomely formed,
but very spirited and strong. Some, are scarcely twelve
hands high. The cows are small and lank, and the
same may be said of the swine and sheep. It is
remarkable that all the rams have more than two horns;

10 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the greater number have three, and many are furnished
with four, or five. I afterwards observed the same in
Peru. The domestic animals on this island, notwith
standing the abundance of food, are small, and sickly-
looking. I believe the cause to be want of care, for they
remain all the year round exposed to every sort of wea
ther and discomfort.
The population of Chiloe consists of Whites, Indians,
and people of mixed blood. The Indians are now few
in number, and those few are chiefly in the southern
part of the island, and the adjacent islets. They are of
the Araucana race, and appear to be a sept between
that race and the people of Tierra del Fuego, on the
one side, and the Pampas Indians on the other. People
of mixed races form by far the greater portion of the
population. They are met with in every variety of
amalgamation. Taken in general, they are the reverse
of handsome. They are short and thick-set, and have
long, straight coarse hair. Their faces are round and
full, their eyes small, and the expression of their coun
tenances is unintelligent. The whites are either Chi-
lenos or Spaniards : the latter are almost the only
Europeans who have become settlers here.
The principal town, San Carlos, called by the natives
" Ancud," lies on the northern coast of a very fine bay.
Without a good chart, the entrance to this bay is diffi
cult. Numerous small islands form a labyrinth, out of
which vessels, if not commanded by very experienced
pilots, cannot easily be extricated. Besides, near the
land, the sky is usually obscured by clouds which pre-

ISLANDS IN THE BAY OF SAN CARLOS. 11
vent any observation for the latitude, as the suris alti
tude cannot be taken even at noon ; and when the sun
gets lower, the hills, which would serve as guiding
points, cease to be distinctly seen.
Several whalers, which for some days vainly endea
voured to work through this passage, were afterwards
obliged to direct their course northward, and to cast
anchor in Valivia. One of the largest islands at the
entrance of the bay is San Sebastian, where there are
numerous herds of cattle. Cochino is a small island,
distant only a few miles from San Carlos. It is hilly,
and thickly crowned with brush-wood. It has only one
landing-place, and that is rather insecure for boats. The
water of the bay is remarkably clear and good ; only
round the little island of Cochino, and along the harbour,
it is covered with an immense quantity of sea-moss,
which often renders the landing difficult. It frequently
happens that commanders of ships, wishing to go on
board to make sail during the night, get out of the right
course, and instead of going to the ship, steer to
Cochino and get into the moss, where their boats stick
fast, till returning daylight enables them to work their
way out.
The poor inhabitants boil this sea-moss and eat it. It
is very salt and shmy, and is difficult of digestion. Among
the people of Chiloe, this sea-moss occupies an important
place in surgery. When a leg or an arm is broken, after
bringing the bone into its proper position, a broad layer
of the moss is bound round the fractured Hmb. In
drying, the slime causes it to adhere to the skin, and

12 TRAVELS IN PERU.
thus it forms a fast bandage, which cannot be ruffled or"
shifted. After the lapse of a few weeks, when the bones
have become firmly united, the bandage is loosened by
being bathed with tepid water, and it is then easily
removed. The Indians of Chiloe were acquainted, long
before the French surgeons, with the use of the paste
bandage. The town of San Carlos is dirty ; the streets un-
paved, narrow, and crooked. The houses, with few
exceptions, are wretched wooden huts, for the most part
without windows ; but there is a board divided in the
middle horizontally, the upper part of which being open,
it serves for a window, and when both parts are open, it
forms a door. The flooring usually consists merely of
hard-trodden clay, covered with straw matting. The
furniture, like the apartments, is rude and inconvenient.
These remarks of course apply to the habitations of the
very poor class of people. The richer families five in
more comfortable style. Of the" public buildings, the
custom-house and the governor's residence are the most
considerable, but both make a very indifferent appear
ance. In front of the governor's house, which occupies
a tolerably large space of ground, in the upper part of
the town, a sentinel is constantly stationed. This sen
tinel parades to and fro, without shoes or stockings, and
not unfrequently without a coat, his arms being covered
only by his shirt-sleeves. As to a cap, that seems to be
considered as unnecessary a part of a well-conditioned
uniform, as shoes and stockings. After" sunset every
person who passes the governor's house is challenged.

MODE OF PREPARING MATE. 13
" Who goes there 1 " is the first question ; the second
is Que gente f (what country 1) The sailors" amuse
themselves by returning jocular answers to these chal
lenges ; and the sentinel, irritated by their jeers, some
times runs after them through part of the town, and
when weary of the chase returns to his post.
Poverty and uncleanliness vie with each other in San
Carlos. The lower class of the inhabitants are exceed
ingly filthy, particularly the women, whose usual dress
is a dirty woollen gown, and a greasy-looking mantilla.
In their damp gloomy habitations, they squat down on
the floor, close' to the brasero (chafing pan), which also
serves them as a stove for cooking. . They bruise maize
between two stones, and make it into' a thick kind, of
soup or porridge. When employed in paring .potatoes
or apples, or in cutting cabbages, they throw the skins
and waste leaves on the ground, so that they are fre
quently surrounded by a mass of half-decayed vegetable
matter. Their favourite beverage is mate (the Paraguay
tea), of which they partake at all hours of the day. The
mode of preparing and drinking the mate is as follows ;
A portion of the herb is put into a sort of cup made
from a gourd, and boiling water is poured over it. The
mistress of the house then takes a reed or pipe, to one
end of which a strainer is affixed,* and putting it into
the decoction, she sucks up a mouthful of the liquid.
She then hands the apparatus to the person next to her,
who partakes of it in the same manner, and so it . goes
* Bombilla is the name given to this pipe, and the cup or gourd in which the
decoetion of the mate is prepared, is called the macerina.

14 TRAVELS IN PERU.
round. The mistress of the house and all her guests
suck the. aromatic fluid through the same pipe or bombilla.
The poverty of the people is extreme. Specie is
seldom current, and is exclusively in the hands of a few
traders, who supply the Indians with European articles,
in payment of their labour, or in exchange for the pro
duce of the island, which is sent to Chile and Peru.
With much surprise I learned that there is no saw-mill
in Chiloe, where the vast abundance of trees would furnish
a supply of excellent deals, for which ready and good-
payment would be obtained in Peru.
The inhabitants direct their industry chiefly to agricul
ture and navigation. But rude and imperfect are their
implements for field labour, as well as their nautical
vessels. To a stranger nothing can appear more extra
ordinary than their mode of ploughing. As to a regular
plough, I do not believe such a thing is known in Chiloe.
If a field is to be tilled, it is done by two Indians, who
are furnished with long poles, pointed at one end. The
one thrusts his pole, pretty deeply, and in an oblique
direction, into the earth, so that it forms an angle with
the surface of the ground. . The other Indian sticks his
pole in at a little distance, and also obliquely, and he
forces it beneath that, of his fellow-labourer, so that the
first pole lies as it were above the second. The first1
Indian then presses on his pole, and makes it Work on
the other, as a lever: on its fhlcrtun, and the earth is
thrown up -by the point of the pole. Thus they gra
dually advance, until the whole field is furrowed by
this laborious process.

CHILOE COASTING BOATS. 15
The Chiloe boats are merely hulks. They obey the
helm reluctantly, but they bear away before the wind.
Several individuals usually join together, and convey in
these boats the produce of their respective localities,
in the southern villages, to San Carlos. Women as
well as men take their turn in rowing the boats* and
after being out all day, they run into some creek, where
they pass the night. When a favourable breeze springs
up, they hoist a sail, made of ponchos. The poncho is
an important article of male clothing in this country.
It consists of a piece of woollen cloth, measuring from
5 to 7 feet long, and from 3 to 4 feet broad. In the
middle there is a slit, from 12 to 14 inches long ;
through this slit the wearer passes his head. The pon
cho thus rests on the shoulders, and hangs down in front
and behind as low as the knees. At the sides, it reaches
to the elbow, or middle of the forearm, and thus covers
the whole of the body. The carters and waggoners in
Swabia, wear, in rainy weather, a covering somewhat
resembling the poncho, which they make out of their
woollen horse-coverings. When a Chiloe boat is on its
passage on the coast, and a sail happens to be wanted,
the men give up their ponchos and the women their
mantillas. The slits in the ponchos are stitched up, and
both ponchos and mantillas being sewed together, are
fixed to a pole or bar of wood,, which is hoisted to a
proper position, on the mast. This patchwork sail can
only be serviceable when the wind is fresh. At night
fall, when the boat runs into one of the creeks for shel
ter, the sail is lowered, and the sewing being unpicked,

16 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the ponchos and mantillas are returned to their respective
owners, who wrap themselves in them, and go to sleep.
There is but little trade in San Carlos, for Chile itself
possesses in superfluity all the productions of Chiloe, and
the inhabitants of the island are so poor, and their
wants so limited, that they require but few foreign
articles. The port is therefore seldom visited by any
trading vessel from Europe. Some of the Chiloe boats
keep up a regular traffic along the coast. They carry
wood, brooms, hams, and potatoes to Valparaiso, Arica,
Callao, &c, and they bring back in return, linen,
woollen and cotton cloths, ironware, tobacco, and
spirits. North American and French whalers have for several
years past been frequent visitors to San Carlos, as they
can there provide themselves, at a cheap rate, with pro
visions for the long fishing season. All' the captains
bring goods, which they smuggle on shore, where they
sell or exchange them at a high profit. A custom-house
officer is, indeed, sent on board every vessel, to examine
whatever is to be unshipped;, but a few dollars* will
silence him, and make him favour the contraband opera
tions, which are carried on without much reserve. A
French captain brought to Chiloe a quantity of water
proof cloaks and hats, made of a sort of black waxed
cloth, and sold them to a dealer in San Carlos. To
evade the duty, he sent his men on shore, each wearing
one of these hats and cloaks, which they deposited in
the dealer's store, and then returned on board the ship,
dressed in their sailors' garb. This was repeated so

ZOOLOGY. 1.7
often, that at length it was intimated to the captain, that,
if his men had a fancy to come on shore with such hats
arid cloaks, they would be permitted to do so, but it
must be on condition of their returning on board dressed
in the same costume.
The people of Ancud (San Carlos) formerly so simple
and artless, have gradually become corrupt and degene
rate, since their frequent intercourse with the whale-
fishers. Among the female portion of the population,
depravity of morals and unbecoming boldness of man
ners have in a great degree superseded the natural sim
plicity which formerly prevailed, i All the. vices of the
lowest class of sailors, of which the crews of the South
Sea Whalers are composed, have quickly taken root in
San Carlosy and the inseparable consequences of those
vices will soon be fatal to the moral and physical wel
fare of the inhabitants.
In the interior of the island of Chiloe'; there are few
quadrupeds. The largest, the domestic animals excepted,
is a fox, {Canis fulvipes, Wat.) which was first discovered
by the naturalists who accompanied Capt. King's expe
dition. This is the only beast of prey. The coast
abounds in seals of the sea-dog species, (Otaria chilensis,
Mull., Otaria Ursina, Per., Otaria jubata, Desm.) — in
sea otters, {Otaria chilensis, Ben.) — and in the water
mouse, {Myopotamus Coypus, J. Geoff.) Among the
birds, there are some very fine species of ducks, jwell
worthy of notice, which are also found on the continent
of South America. There is the little Cheucau, (Pter-
¦ optochus rubecula, Kettl.) to which the Chilotes attach

TRAVELS IN PERU.

various superstitious ideas, and pretend to foretell good
or ill luck from its song. The modulations which this
bird is capable of uttering are numerous, and the natives
assign a particular meaning to each. One day, when I
wished to have some shooting, I took an Indian lad
with me. Having levelled my gun at one of these birds,
which was sitting in a low bush, and uttering its shrill
huit-huit, my young companion firmly grasped my arm,
earnestly entreating me not to shoot the bird, as it had
sung its unlucky note. But my desire to possess a spe
cimen was too great to be thus baffled, so I fired my gun
and brought it down. I was engaged in examining the
elegant little bird, when a mule, probably alarmed by the
shot, came running at full speed towards the spot where
we were, and we deemed it prudent to get behind a
hedge as speedily as possible. The infuriated mule
made an attack on my gun, which was resting against
the hedge. It was thrown down, bitten, and trampled
on by the mule. The Indian boy turned to me, with a
serious countenance, and said :-^"It is well if we escape
further danger ! — I told you the bird had piped bad
luck!" The day fixed for our departure from Chiloe now
approached. The wind, which had heretofore been
unfavourable for leaving the port, promised to change,
and we began to ship provisions. Whilst I was wait
ing for the boat which was to take me on board, I
had an opportunity of observing the dexterity with
which the Indians slaughter their cattle. This business
is performed on the Mole, where, in the space of a quar-

SHOCK OF AN EARTHQUAKE. 19
ter of an hour, and by two men only, an ox is killed,
and the carcase cut up into the proper pieces. When it
is necessary to ship five oxen, the animals are brought
to the shore, where their feet are bound together, and
then they are rolled over planks into the lancha (boat).
On nearing the ship, the Indians tie a rope . round the
animal's horns, and then the sailors hoist him up with a
strong tackle. It is a curious sight to behold a strongly-
bound struggling ox, hanging by the tackle, and swing
ing between wind and water. My little Chilotean pony,
which I intended to take to Peru, was dealt with more
gently: he was got on board with a girth,' purposely
made for hoisting horses on board ship.
At length we sailed out of the Bay, with a fresh
easterly wind. Three coasting boats, one of which was
heavily laden with brooms, left the roads at the same
time, and their crews said they hoped to reach Valpa
raiso before us. But they had too great confidence in
their round-bottomed keels, for they did not anchor in
their place of destination till five or six days after our
arrival. The wind soon got up, blowing W.N.W., but rather
flat. In course of the night, during the second
watch, we were roused from our sleep by a heavy shock,
followed by a peculiarly tremulous motion of the whole
ship. We concluded we had struck in passing over
some hidden rock. The lead was thrown, but no ground
was found ; the pumps were set a-going, but we were
free of water. The captain attributed the shock to an
earthquake, and on our arrival in Chile, his conjecture
C 2

20 TRAVELS IN PERU.
was confirmed. In Valdivia, in the latitude of which
place we were at the time, a severe shock of an earth
quake had been experienced.
After a pretty favourable passage of seven days, we
anchored on the 30th of June, in the harbour of
Valparaiso.

21

CHAPTER II.
Valparaiso and the adjacent country — The Bay — Aspect of the Town — Lights
houses — Forts — Custom House — Exchange — Hotels and Taverns — War
with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation — First Expedition^— Preparations
for the Second Expedition— Embarkation of the Troops — Close of the Port
— July Festival in honour of the French Revolution — The Muele, or Mole
— Police — Serenos, or Watchmen — Moveable Prisons — Clubs — Trade of
Valparaiso — Santiago — Zoology.
The impression produced by the approach to Valparaiso
on persons who see land for the first time after a sea
voyage of several months' duration, must be very differ
ent from that felt by those who anchor in the port, after
a passage of a few days from the luxuriantly verdant
shores of the islands lying to the south. Certainly, none
of our ship's company would have been disposed to give
the name of " Vale of Paradise" to the sterile, mono
tonous coast which lay outstretched before us ; and yet,
to the early navigators, its first aspect, after a long and
dreary voyage, over the desert ocean, might naturally
enough have suggested the idea of an earthly paradise.
Along the sea coast there extends a range of round-
topped hills, 15 or 16 hundred feet high, covered with a
grey-brownish coating, reheved only here and there by
patches of dead green, and furrowed by clefts, within which
the bright red of tile-roofed houses is discernible. Half-
withered cactus trees, the only plants which take root in

22 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the ungenial soil, impart no life to the dreary landscape.
The hills continue rising in undulating outlines, and
extend into the interior of the country, where they unite
with the great chain of the Andes.
The bay of Valparaiso is open on the north and west;
on the south it is protected by a little promontory called
the Punta de Coromilla. In this direction the shore is
steep and rocky, and the waves1 break against it with
great fury. From the Punta de Coromilla the bay
extends from east to north-west in the form of a gently
curved crescent, having a sloping, sandy beach, which
rises very gradually towards the hills. On the north
side of the bay there are several small inlets, almost
inaccessible, and edged with steep rocks. The bay is
sometimes unsafe, for it is completely unsheltered on the
north, and the heavy gales which blow from that point fre
quently end in storms. At those times the bay is furiously
agitated, the waves sometimes rising as high as in the
open sea, and the ships are obliged to cast their sheet-
anchors. Many vessels have at various times been driven
from their anchorage, cast ashore, and dashed to pieces
on a rock called Little Cape Horn ; for, when a violent
gale blows from the north, it is impossible to get out to
sea. Sailors are accustomed to say that in a violent
storm they would rather be tossed about on the wide
ocean than be at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso. But
against the south wind, though sometimes no less bois
terous than the northern gales, the harbour affords
secure refuge, being perfectly sheltered by the Punta de
Coromilla.

FIRST ASPECT OP VALPARAISO. 23
The town of Valparaiso looks as if built on terraces at
the foot of the range of hills above mentioned. North
ward it stretches out on the level sea shore, in a long
double row of houses called the Almendral : towards the
south it rises in the direction of the hills. Two clefts or
chasms (quebradas) divide this part of the town into three
separate parts, consisting of low shabby houses. These
three districtshavebeen named bythe sailors afterthe Eng
lish sea terms Fore-top, Main-top, and Mizzen-top. The
numerous quebradas, which all intersect the ground in a
parallel direction, are surrounded by poor-looking houses.
The wretched, narrow streets running along these que
bradas are, in winter, and especially at night, exceedingly
dangerous, Valparaiso being very badly lighted. It
sometimes happens that people fall over the edges of the
chasms and are killed, accidents which not unfrequently
occur to the drunken sailors who infest these quarters of
the town.
Viewed from the sea, Valparaiso has rather a pleasing
aspect, and some neat detached houses built on little
levels, artificially made on the dechvities of the hills, have
a very picturesque appearance. The scenery in the
immediate background is gloomy ; but, in the distance,
the summit of the volcano Aconcagua, which is 23,000
feet above the level of the sea, and which, on fine even
ings, is gilded by the rays of the setting sun, imparts a
peculiar charm to the landscape.
The bay is protected by three small forts. The
southernmost, situated between the lighthouse and the
town, has five guns. The second, which is somewhat

24 TRAVELS IN PERU.
larger, called el Castillo de San Antonio, is in the
southern .inlet of the bay. Though the most strongly
fortified of the three, yet it is in reality a mere play
thing. In the northern part of the town, on a little
hillock, stands the third fort, called' el Castillo del Rosario,
which is furnished with six pieces of cannon. The
churches of Valparaiso are exceedingly plain and simple,
undistinguished either for architecture or internal
decoration. The custom-house is especially worthy of mention. It
is a beautiful and spacious building, and from its situa
tion on the Muele (Mole), is an object which attracts the
attention of all who arrive at Valparaiso. In the neigh
bourhood of the custom-house is the exchange. It is a
plain building, and contains a large and elegant reading-
room, in which may always be found the principal
European newspapers. In this reading-room there
is also an excellent telescope by DoUond, which is a
source of amusement, by affording a view of the comical
scenes sometimes enacted on board the ships in the port.
The taverns and hotels are very indifferent. The best
are kept by Frenchmen, though even those are incom
modious and expensive. The apartments, which scarcely
contain necessary articles of furniture, are dirty, and
often infested with rats. In these houses, however, the
table is tolerably well provided ; for there is no want of
good meat and vegetables in the market. The second-
rate taverns are far beneath the very worst in the towns
of Europe. On our arrival in Valparaiso, a vast deal of activity

WAR BETWEEN CHILE AND PERU. 25
and bustle prevailed in the harbour. Chile had declared
war against the Peru-Bolivian confederation, and was
fitting out a new expedition for the invasion of Peru.
At its head were the banished Peruvian president Don
Agustin Gamarra and the Chilian general Bulnes. The
growing power of Santa Cruz, who set himself up as
protector of a confederation between Bolivia and Peru,
had given alarm to the Chilian government. It was
apprehended, and not without reason, that the inde
pendence of Chile might be threatened by so dangerous
a neighbour. Santa Cruz had given umbrage to Chile
by several decrees, especially one, by which merchant
vessels coming direct from Europe into a Bolivian or
Peruvian port, and there disposing of their cargoes, were
subject to very low duties, whilst heavy imposts were
levied on ships landing any part of their cargoes in a
Chilian port. This law greatly increased the trade of
Peru ; but it was prejudicial to Chile. This and other
grounds of offence, joined to the representations of the
fugitive Ex-president Gamarra and his adherents, deter
mined the Chilian government to declare war. An
expedition under the command of General Blanco was
sent . to Peru ; but Santa Cruz was prepared to receive
the invaders, and in the valley of Arequipa he surrounded
the Chilian forces so completely that they were obliged
to surrender without striking a blow. Santa Cruz mag
nanimously allowed General Blanco to make a very
favourable capitulation. The soldiers were sent home
to their country ; but the horses were detained and
sold by the conquerors to the conquered.

26 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The generosity of Don Andres Santa Cruz did not
meet its due return on the part of the Chihan govern
ment. The treaty of peace concluded by Blanco was
not ratified in Santiago, the minister declaring that the
general was not authorised to negotiate it. Hostilities
were kept up between the two states, and at length a
second and more important expedition was fitted out.
It sailed whilst we were lying in the harbour.
No sooner had we cast anchor than several officers of
the Chilian army came on board to inquire whether we
had any swords to dispose of, assuring us that they,
together with the majority of their comrades, were yet
unprovided with arms, and knew not where to .procure
them. The captain informed them that there were no
swords in our cargo ; but that he had a few sabres, &c.,
which he was very willing to sell. They were imme
diately produced, and some were purchased ; among
the number was a heavy broad-sword, about five feet
in length, which had once belonged to a cuirassier in
Napoleon's guard. The Chilian officer who bargained
for it was a delicate-looking stripling, who, with both
hands, could scarcely raise the heavy weapon. He,
nevertheless, flattered himself that it would enable him
to achieve great deeds in battle and -deal death among
the Peruvians. Ten months afterwards I met this hero
on a march among the mountains of Peru. He had,
girded on, a light little sword, like a tooth pick or a
bodkin compared with the formidable weapon he had
discarded, and which a sturdy negro was carrying behind
him. I could not refrain from asking the officer whether

CHILIAN SQUADRON SENT TO PERU. 27
the trusty broad-sword had not done good service in
the battle of Yungay ; but he candidly acknowledged
that he had not attempted to use it, as he found it much
too unwieldy.
The Chilian squadron sent to Peru consisted of twenty-
seven transport ships and eight ships of war. Almost
all were in a wretched condition, having but few guns,
and manned by very insufficient crews. The largest
vessels were the three corvettes Confederacion, Santa
Cruz, and Valparaiso. Only one ship, the schooner
brig Colocolo, was distinguished for solidity and swift
sailing. The fleet was commanded by an admiral of
little judgment and experience.
Among the crew there were but few Chilenos : most of
the men were Chilotes and French, English and American
deserters. The officers commanding the ships were almost
all Englishmen. The transport ships were heavily laden,
some carrying troops, and others provisions. These
provisions consisted of sesino (dried beef), chaktnas
(whole sheep dried), maize, potatoes, dried fruits and
barley, together with hay for the horses. The embark
ation of the horses was most clumsily managed : many
were strangled in being hoisted up the ship's sides, others
slipped through their girths and were severely hurt by
falling, and a considerable number of the poor animals
died before the ships left the port. Every morning we
saw dozens of dead horses thrown overboard. The
continued lurching of the vessels in which the cavalry
was embarked, bore evidence of the inconvenient situa
tion of the horses between decks.

28 TRAVELS IN PERU.
At the beginning of. July the whole squadron sailed
for the harbour of Coquimbo, where the troops were
decimated by the small-pox.
There prevailed in Chile a feeling very adverse to this
campaign ; so much so that most of the troops were
embarked by force. I was standing on the muele when
the Santiago battahon was shipped. The soldiers,
who were in wretched uniforms, most of them wearing
ponchos, and unarmed, were bound together two-and-
two by ropes, and absolutely driven into the boats.
This war proved most unfortunate to Peru, a result
which, however, cannot certainly be ascribed either to
the courage of the enemy's troops or the judgment of their
commanders. We shall presently see the circumstances
which combined to secure triumph to the Chilenos.
I and my fellow-voyagers were also sufferers by the
war, our captain having imprudently announced his
intention of selling the Edmond to the protector Santa
Cruz, as she might easily have been transformed into an
excellent corvette. She was a quick sailer, tight-built,
carrying ten guns of moderate cahbre, and she might
easily have mounted ten more. „
The captain's intention having reached the knowledge
of the Chilian government, the natural consequence was,
that the port was closed, a measure deemed the more
necessary inasmuch as an American captain was sus
pected of entertaining the design of selling his ship to
the Peruvians. It was not until the fleet had had time
to reach Peru, and the first blow was supposed to be
struck, that the embargo was raised, and we obtained

PARIS REVOLUTION OF 1830.' 29
leave to depart. We lay in the port of Valparaiso five-
and-forty days. To me the most annoying circumstance
attending this delay was, that I could not absent myself
from the port longer than twenty-four hours at a time,
as the ship was constantly in readiness to get under
weigh, as soon as we should receive permission to sail,
which was hourly expected. My excursions were, there
fore, confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the
town ; and even there my walks and rides were much
impeded by constant stormy and rainy weather.
On the 29th of July, preparations were made on
board our ship for celebrating the Paris revolution of
1830. At eight o'clock in the morning we fired three
guns, and the Edmond was soon decorated from her
deck to her mast-heads with flags and streamers. At
the fore-mast gaily floated the Swiss flag, probably the
first time it had ever been seen in the Pacific. When
the guns on board the French ship-of-war had ceased
firing, we began our salute ; but, as we had only ten
guns, it was necessary to load a second time. Our sea
men, being unused to this kind of duty, did not observe
due precaution, and the consequence was that one of
them had his hand so dreadfully shattered that imme
diate amputation was indispensable. The day's rejoicing
was thus suddenly brought to a melancholy close.
The mole in front of the custom-house is exceedingly
dangerous ; so much so, that, during the prevalence of
stormy north winds, it is impossible to pass along it.
From the shore a sort of wooden jetty stretches into
the sea, at the distance of about sixty paces. This

30 TRAVELS IN PERU.
jetty has been sometimes partially, and at other times
completely, destroyed by the waves. The harbour
master's boats and those belonging to the ships-of-war
land on the right side ; the left side is allotted to the
boats of the merchant ships. On the shore there are
always a number of boats ready to convey persons who
wish to go on board the different ships. Each boat is
generally rowed by two Indians. Whenever any person
approaches the shore he is beset by the boatmen, who
throng round him, and alternately, in Enghsh and
Spanish, importune him with the questions, — " Want
a boat V " Vamos a bordo 1 "
Day and night, parties of custom-house officers go
round the port for the purpose of preventing smuggling.
In this, however, they only partially succeed ; for they
detect only petty smugglers, whilst those who carry on
contraband trade on a large scale elude their vigilance.
The captains of French vessels are notorious for this
kind of traffic, and they frequently succeed in landing
vast quantities of goods surreptitiously.
The police of Valparaiso is probably as good as it is in
any part of South America. Serenos (watchmen) peram
bulate the streets on foot and on horseback, and continu
ally give signals one to another by blowing small whistles.
For personal safety there is little risk, probably not
more than in the most populous cities of Europe. It is
true that nocturnal murders sometimes take place ; but
the police speedily succeed in capturing the criminals,
who, after a summary trial are shot.
In Valparaiso, as in most of the towns on the western

MOVEABLE PRISONS. 31
coast of South America, the serenos go about all night,
calling the hours and announcing the state of the
weather. At ten o'clock they commence, with their — ¦
" Viva Chile .'" — " Ave Maria purissima ! " — " Las diez
han dado y sereno!" (past ten o'clock and a fine night !)
or nublado (cloudy,)— or lloviendo (raining.) Thus, they
continue calling every half-hour till four o'clock in the
mormng. Should an earthquake take place, it is
announced by the sereno when he goes his round in the
following half-hour. However, the phenomenon Usually
announces itself in so positive a way, that the inhabi
tants may easily dispense with the information of the
serenos. Among the most remarkable objects in Valparaiso
may be numbered the moveable prison. It consists of a
number of large covered waggons, not unlike those used
for the conveyance of wild beasts. In the inside of each
waggon planks are fixed up like the board bedsteads in
a guard-house, affording resting-places for eight or ten
prisoners. A guard is stationed at the door, which is at
the back of the waggon ; and in the front a sort of
kitchen is constructed. These waggons are drawn by the
prisoners themselves, who are for the most part destined
to work in the streets and roads, and, accordingly, they
take their prison with them when they are ordered to
any considerable distance from the town. To a country
in which there may be Said to be no winter, this sort
of nomad prison is exceedingly well-suited, and the
prisoners may be conveyed from place to place at very
little expense.

32 TRAVELS IN PERU.
I went into some of these, moveable prisons, and I
must confess that I never beheld such an assemblage of
ill-looking faces as were collected within them. In the
countenances of some of the prisoners unbridled passion
and degrading sensuality were so plainly and so odiously
pourtrayed, that One shuddered to reflect that such
features could be an index of the human mind. Most
of them were Creole Indians; but there were a few
Europeans among them. To me it was melancholy
to behold the European, who might be supposed to
possess some little share of education, mounting the
prison steps chained to his fellow-criminal, the uncivilized
Chileno. In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a hetero
geneous mixture of different countries, nations, lan
guages, and manners, amidst which the national
character of the country is entirely lost. The trade in
European goods is very extensive, but almost exclu
sively in the hands of a few great North American
and English houses, who supply the whole country
with the articles they import. At times, such is the
overstock of importations, that goods are sold at lower
prices in Valparaiso than in Europe. The warehouses
are so filled with some sorts of merchandise, that with
out any fresh supphes there would be" sufficient for some
years to come.
Among the clerks in the mercantile houses I met
with a great number of Germans, who all maintain an
intimate association with each other. They have formed
themselves into a union, and they have a very com-

BUILDINGS IN VALPARAISO. 33
mooUous place in which they hold their meetings.
Following their example, the Enghsh ' have united
together and estabhshed several clubs. The French
have not gained any considerable footing in this part of
South America, in which there are scarcely two French-
mercantile houses of any consequence. On the other
hand, there is abundance of French hairdressers, tailors,
shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and Chevaliers
d'industrie. Neither is there any want of Modistes
Parisiennes et Bordelaises.
Valparaiso is yearly increasing in extent and in the
numbers of its inhabitants ; but the town makes httle
improvement in beauty. That quarter which is built
along the Quebradas is certainly susceptible of no
improvement owing to the unfavourable locality, and it is
only the newly-built houses on the heights that impart to
the town anything like a pleasing aspect. In laying out
buildings in a place like Valparaiso, the aid of art should
make amends for the defects of nature. My visits to
Valparaiso did not produce a very favourable impression
on me. The exclusively mercantile occupations of the
inhabitants, together with the poverty of the adjacent
country, leave httle to interest the attention of a mere
transient visitor. The case may be different with per
sons who, having longer time than I had to stay in the
town, may enjoy opportunities of entering into society,
and occasionally visiting the pleasant valley of Quillota
and the interesting capital Santiago.
The latter is thirty leagues distant from the port;
but a very active communication is kept up between
D

34 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the two places, and better roads would, no doubt,
increase the intercourse. A few years ago the roads
were very unsafe ; but now the journey may be
performed without danger if the Birlocheros (coach-
drivers) are in the least degree careful.
The zoology of the neighbourhood of Valparaiso is
not very interesting, though more so along the sea-shore
than in parts further inland. Among the Mammalia
are sometimes seen the fox {Canis Azarce, Wild.) and
the pole-cat. In the immediate vicinity of the town a
very large mouSe is seen in the burrows of the ground ;
it is of the eight-toothed species {Octodon Cummingii,
Benn.), and has a brush-formed tail. As the fields round
Valparaiso are not cultivated these animals do no harm,
otherwise they would be the plague of agriculture, and
probably are so in the interior parts of the country.
Now and then a sea-dog may be observed in the bay ;
but the whale is seldom seen, and whenever one appears
he is immediately killed, as there is always a whaler at
anchor and not far off.
In the market, five condors are frequently sold.
These birds are caught in traps. A very fine one may
be purchased for a dollar and a half. I saw eight of
these gigantic birds secured in a yard in a very singular
manner. A long narrow strap of leather was passed
through the nostrils of the bird and firmly knotted at
one end, whilst the other end was fastened to a wooden
or iron peg fixed in the ground. By this means the
motion of the bird was not impeded : it could walk
within the range of a tolerably wide circle ; but on

CONDORS, AND OTHER BIRDS. 35
attempting to fly it fell to the ground head foremost.
It is no trifling matter to provide food for eight condors ;
for they are among the most ravenous of birds of prey.
The owner of those I saw assured me that, by way of
experiment, he had given a condor, in the course of one
day, eighteen pounds of meat, (consisting of the entrails
of oxen) ; that the bird devoured the whole, and ate his
allowance on the following day with as good an appetite
as usual. I measured a very large male condor, and
the width from the tip of one wing to the tip of the
other was fourteen Enghsh feet and two inches — an
enormous expanse ,«f wing, not equalled by any other
bird except the white albatross {Diomedea ewulans, Linn.)
The snipes {Scolopam frenata, III.) found on the httle
plain between the bay and the light-house are in colour
precisely like those of Europe, from which, however,
they differ in having two more feathers in their tails.
Small green parrots, httle bigger than finches, are tamed
and brought to Valparaiso from the interior of the
country. These parrots are very docile, and are easily
taught to speak ; but they cannot endure cold, and
require to be tended with very great care. In the bay
itself there are numerous cormorants, and occasionally
penguins and large flights of the cut-water or shear-bill
{Rhynchops nigra, Linn.) The latter is distinguished
by a sharp-pointed biU closing laterally, the under man
dible being about double the length of the upper one.
Buj; the most beautiful bird in the bay of Valparaiso is
the majestic swan {Cygnus nigricollis, Mol.) whose body
D 2

36 TRAVELS IN PERU.
is of dazzling white, whilst the head and neck are
black. . On the 13th of August we at length obtained leave
to sail. Early on the morning of the 14th we weighed
anchor ; and, as we sailed out of the Bay of Valparaiso,
the summit of Aconcagua soon disappeared in the blue
horizon.

CHAPTER III.
Juan ' Fernandez — Robinson Crusoe — Passage to Callao — San Lorenzo— Rise
and fall of the coast — Mr. Darwin's opinions on this subject — Callao — The
Fortress — Siege by the Spaniards — General Rodil — Siege by the Chilians
— The Colocolo — Pirates^— Zoology— Road to Lima.
With a favourable east wind we reached, in thirty-six
hours, the island of Juan Fernandez, which hes in the
latitude of Valparaiso. Ships from Europe, bound to
Peru, which do not go into Chile, usually touch at Juan
Fernandez to test their chronometers. It consists in
fact of three islands, forming a small compact group.
Two of them, in accordance with the Spanish names,
may be called the Inward Island and the Outward
Island, for the most easterly is called Mas a Tierra
(more . to the main land), that to the west is called
Mas a Fuera (more towards the offing). That to the
south, which is almost a naked rock, is the Isla de Lobos,
which we may call Sea-dog Island. The two first are
covered with grass and trees. Mas a Tierra is much
longer, and better suited for cultivation than Mas a Fuera.
In form the two islands have a striking resemblance to
Flores and Cordua, islands of the group of the Azores.
Until within these twenty years, Mas a Tierra was the
place of exportation for convicts from Chile ; but as it
was found that the facility of escape is great, none are

38 TRAVELS IN PERU.
now sent there. In 1812 a number of prisoners of war
were confined there, but the rats, which had increased
in an extraordinary degree, consumed all the provisions
sent from Chile. Several fruitless attempts have been
made to populate the island, but that object is now given
up, and it is only occasionally visited by sea-dog hunters.
Ulloa speaks of the great number of sea-calves or dogs
with which the island was frequented, and distinguishes
kinds which belong to the short-eared species. Their
skins are excellent, and they sell at a good price in
England. Wild goats are numerous, and their propa
gation would be excessive were it not for the multitude
of dogs, also wild, by which they are destroyed.
There is yet another kind of interest attached to
Juan Fernandez. It was on Mas a Tierra that, in 1 704,
the celebrated English navigator, Dampier, landed his
cockswain, Alexander Selkirk, with whom he had quar
relled, and left him there with a small quantity of pro
visions, and a few tools. Selkirk had lived four years
and four months on this uninhabited island, when he was
found there by the buckaneers Woods and Rogers, and
brought back to Europe. From the notes which he made
during his solitary residence the celebrated Daniel Defoe
composed his incomparable work, Robinson Crusoe.
The weather continued favourable, and in about a
week we doubled the west point of San Lorenzo Island,
where some Chilian cruizers were watching the coast.
We soon entered the fine bay of Callao, and cast anchor
in the harbour of the Ciudad de los Reyes. While
rounding the island, an American corvette spoke us.

LANDING AT CALLAO. 39
She had left Valparaiso on the same day with us, and
sailed also through the strait between San Lorenzo and
the main land; yet, during the whole passage, we never
saw each other.
JSo signals were exchanged between us and the shore,
and no port-captain came on board. We were exceed
ingly anxious to know the issue of the Chilian expedi
tion. Hostile ships of war lay off the port, but the
Peruvian flag waved on the fort. At last a French
naval cadet came on board, and informed us that the
Chilians had landed successfully, and had taken Lima
by storm two days previously. They were, at that
moment, besieging the fortress. We immediately went
on shore.
The town presented a melancholy aspect. The houses
and streets were deserted. In all Callao we scarcely
met a dozen persons, and the most of those we saw
were negroes. Some of the inhabitants came gradually
back, but in the course of a month scarcely a hundred
had returned, and for safety they slept during the night
on board merchant ships in the 'bay. At the village
of Bella Vista, a quarter of a mile from Callao, the
Chilians had erected their batteries for bombarding the
fortress. As it was difficult to obtain provisions, the
commanders of the foreign ships of war sent every
morning a small detachment of sailors with a steward
to Bella Vista, to purchase meat and vegetables. The
merchant-ships joined in the practice, so that early
every morning a long procession of boats with flags
flying proceeded to the Chilian camp. But a stop was

40 TRAVELS IN PERU.
soon put to this, as an English butcher in Callao found
means to go with the boats for the purpose of pur
chasing large quantities of meat, which- he afterwards
sold at an immense profit, to the fortress. Though the
besieged did not suffer from want, they were far from
having superfluity. .
Having sufficient time to make myself acquainted
with the country in the immediate vicinity Of Callao, I
took advantage of every opportunity for excursions;
going from place to place by water, which was more safe
than journeying by land.
The;bay of Callao is. one of the largest and calmest
on the west coast of South America. On the south
west, it is bounded by the sterile island of San Lorenzo .;
on the north, it flows into the creeks, which are termi
nated by the Punta Gorda, the Punta Pernal, the Punta
de dos Playas, and the f Punta de Dona Pancha. - The
beach is flat, for the most part . shingly, and about the
mouth of the Rimac, somewhat marshy. Between the
mouth of the Rimac and that of the Rio de Chillon,
which is a little southward of the Punta Gorda, there is
a tract of rich marshy soil. A small boot-shaped
tongue of land stretches from the fortress westward to
San Lorenzo. On this spot are the ruins of. old Callao.
San Lorenzo is a small long-shaped island, about 15
English miles in circumference. 'It is intersected
throughout its whole length by a ridge of sharp crested
hills, of which the highest point is about 1387 feet
above the level of the sea. On the north-eastern side,
the declivity is less steep than on the south-west, where

GEOLOGICAL CHANGES 6f THE PERUVIAN COAST. 41
it descends almost perpendicularly into the sea. Seals
and sea-otters inhabit the steep rocks of the' southern
dechvity, and swarms of sea-birds nestle on the desolate
shore. San Lorenzo is separated on the southern side
by a narrow strait, from a siriall rocky island called El
Fronton, which is also the abode of numerous seals.
The coasts of Callao and San Lorenzo have undergone
very remarkable changes within a few centuries. Mr.
Darwin, the English geologist, is of opinion that this
part of Peru has risen eighty-five feet since it has had
human inhabitants. On the north-eastern dechvity of
San Lorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly
marked terraces, there are numbers of shells of those
same species of conchylise which are at the present time
found living on the coast. On an accurate examination
of these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply
corroded. " They have," he says, " a much older and
more decayed appearance than those at the height of
500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These shells are
associated with much common salt, a httle sulphate of
lime, (both probably-left by the evaporation of the spray,
as the land slowly rose) together with sulphate of soda,
and muriate of hme. The rest are fragments of the
underlying sand-stone, and are covered by a few inches
thick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace
could be traced scaling off in flakes, and falling into an
impalpable powder ; and on an upper terrace, at the
height of 1 70 feet, and likewise at some considerably
higher points,; I found a layer of saline powder, of
exactly similar appearance, and lying in the same rela-

42 TRAVELS IN PERU.
tive position. I have no doubt that the upper layer
originally existed on a bed of shells, like that on the
eighty-five feet ledge, but it does not now contain even
a trace of organic structure."* Mr. Darwin adds, that
on the terrace, which is eighty-five feet above the sea,
he found embedded amidst the shells and much sea-
drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited rush,
and the head of a stalk of Indian corn.
San Lorenzo does not appear to have been inhabited
in very early ages. The fragments* of human industry
which have been found mixed in the. shells have proba
bly been brought thither by fishermen who visit the
island, and often pass the night on it.
Darwin further remarks : — " It has been stated that
the land subsided during this memorable shock, (in
1746) : I could not discover any proof of this ; yet it
seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast
must certainly have undergone some change since the
foundation of the old town," &c. — " On the island of
San Lorenzo there are very satisfactory proofs of eleva
tion, within a recent period ; this, of course, is not
opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground
having subsequently taken place."
But satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast
is not to be obtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration ;
nor must that evidence rest solely on geological facts,
though doubtless they furnish much important data.
History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and the recol
lections of old persons must be attended to. According
* Natural History and Geology of the countries visited by the Beagle.

EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKES ON THE COAST. 43
to these authorities, a change more or less considerable
has taken place in the level of the coast, after every
great earthquake. If we refer to' the account given by
Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbour of Callao,
drawn by him in 1 742, with the most correct modern
charts, we do not find much difference in the represen
tations of the distance between the main-land and San
Lorenzo. Four years afterwards the great earthquake
occurred, which destroyed the city of Callao, and
plunged it into the sea. Subsequently there was a
rising of the coast, which could not be inconsiderable,
for according to the statements of old inhabitants of
Callao, the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo was so
inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the
island. At present the distance is nearly two Enghsh
miles. I have no doubt of the general correctness of
those statements, for a careful investigation of facts leads
to the same conclusion ; so that within the last sixty or
seventy years the sinking must have been considerable.
It must be observed, however, that the ruins on the
small tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the
remains of the city of Callao, swallowed up by the sea
in 1746, but of the Callao which was destroyed by the
great earthquake of 1630.
Another proof of the sinking exists in the extensive
shallow between the coast of the main-land and San
Lorenzo, called the Camotal. In early times this
shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, in particular
Camotes, (sweet potatoes) whence the name of this por
tion of the strait is derived. The inundation took place

44 TRAVELS IN PERU.
in the time of the Spaniards, but before 1746, either in
the great earthquake of 1687, or in that of 1630.
Northward of the Bay of Callao, near the plantation
of Boca Negra, there is a shallow, where, according to
records, there existed a sugar plaritation, about fifty
years ago. Turning to the south of Callao, in the
direction of Lurin, we find, at the distance of about two
English miles from the coast, two islands or rocks, of
which one is called Pachacamac, and the other Santa
Domingo. At the time of the Spanish invasion these
rocks were connected with the mainland, and formed a
promontory. On one of them stood a temple or castle.
At what period they were detached from the coast I
have not been able to ascertain authentically ; but there
appears reason to suppose that the separation took place
during the violent earthquake of 1 5 8 6 . Attentive inves
tigations to the north of Callao — at Chancay, Huacho,
Baranca, &c, would probably bring to light further
evidence on this subject,
Betweeri the facts stated by Mr. Darwin and those
here adduced, there is considerable discrepancy. On
the one hand they denote a rising, and on the other
a sinking. But it may be asked, might not both these
phenomena have occurred at different times 1 * Mr.
Darwin's opiniori respecting the still-continued rising of
the coast does not appear to me to rest on satisfactory
evidence. ' The relics of human industry which he found
* Mr. Darwin, in the work just quoted, says in reference to this subject,
" Since our voyage, Dr. Tschudi has come to the conclusion, by the comparison
of old and modern maps, that- the earth both north and south of Lima has cer
tainly subsided." — T.

SAN LORENZO AND THE CAMOTAL. 45
embedded among shells, at the height of eighty-five feet
above the sea, only prove that the elevation has taken
place after the land was inhabited by the human race,
but do not mark the period at which that elevation
occurred. Pieces of cotton thread and plaited rush are
no proofs of a very refined degree of civihsation, such as
the Spaniards brought with them to Peru, arid cannot
therefore be .taken as evidence that the elevation took
place at any period subsequent to the conquest. Garcilaso
de la Vega traces the dynasty of the Incas down to the
year 1021, a period when the inhabitants of the coast
of Peru were tolerably well advanced in civihsation,
Fernando Montesinos furnishes facts connected with
the history of Peru, of several thousand years' earlier
date ; and, judging from the number of dynasties, the
nature of the laws, &c, it may be inferred that civihsa
tion existed at a period of even more remote antiquity.
It cannot therefore be determined with any accuracy at
what time the deposit at San Lorenzo, now eighty-five
feet high, was level with the sea, or whether the rise sudi-
denly followed one of those frightful catastrophes which
have so often visited the western coast of South America.
Then, again, the different degrees of decay presented by
the beds of shells seem to indicate that -the rising has
been gradual ; and it may have been going on for thou
sands of years. Had the coast risen eighty-five feet
since the Spanish conquest — that is to say, within the
space of three hundred and sixty-two years — the Camo-
tal would long since have again risen above the surface
of the sea ; for it is very improbable that it sank to a depth

46 TRAVELS IN PERU.
exceeding ninety or ninety-five feet. It is evident that
risings and sinkings have occurred at various times, and
that causes contingent on earthquakes have produced
the variations in the rising and falling of the coast.
It is probable that the accurate sounding of the depth
of water in the Camotal, at stated intervals, would
furnish the best means of ascertaining the rising and
sinking of the coast. A variety of circumstances combine
to favour the practicability of calculation by this method.
For example, no river flows into that part of the bay in
which the Camotal is situated. The Rimac, whose
mouth he's further to the north, is not sufficiently large
to carry any considerable deposit into the bed of the bay :
moreover, there is but little tide, and the bay is always
calm, being sheltered on the south by the island of San
Lorenzo, and north breezes are rare and never violent.
I may here mention a singular phenomenon which has
in latter times often occurred at Callao, and which, in
1841,1 had myself the opportunity of observing. About
two in the morning the sea flowed baek from the shore
with greater force than in the strongest ebb ; the ships
farthest out were left dry, which is never the case in
an ebb tide. The alarm of the inhabitants was great
when the sea rushed instantly back with increased
force* Nothing could withstand its fury. Meanwhile
there was no commotion of the earth, nor any marked
change of temperature.
In the earthquake of 1746 Callao was completely
i overwhelmed by the sea. Several travellers have related
that on calm days with a clear sky the old town may

TOWN AND FORTRESS OF "CALLAO. 47
be seen beneath the waves. I have also heard the same
story from inhabitants of Callao. It is doubtless a mere
fable. Under the most favourable circumstances I have
often examined the spot-r— the Mar brava, as it is called
— without being able to discover a trace of the ruins of
old Callao.
The existing town of Callao is small, and by no
means pleasant. Li winter it is damp and dirty, and
in summer so dusty that in passing through the streets
one is almost choked. Most of the houses are very
slightly built, and they are usually only one story high.
The walls are constructed of reeds, plastered over with
loam or red clay. All the roofs are flat, being made
of straw mats laid on a frames-work of reeds, which is
also plastered with loam on the under side. The
windows are in the roof, and consist of wooden trap
doors, which look very much like bird-cages. They
have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars.
On the inside there is a window-rShutteri -and a string
hangs down into the apartment, by means of which
the shutter can be opened or closed.
The most interesting object seen in Callao is the
splendid fortress. Though built on a flat surface close
to the sea, it has a magnificent appearance. It consists
of two castles, the largest of which the Spaniards named
Real Filippe, but since the Revolution it is called
Castillo de la Independencia. It has two roimd towers,
wide, but not very high. The court yards are spacious.
The walls are thick, rather low, and surrounded by a
ditch, which can be filled with water from the sea. To

48 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the south of this castle there is a smaller one, called
El Castillo del Sol. Before the War of Independence
they mounted both together four hundred pieces of
cannon, many of which were of very large calibre. At
present they have only sixty pieces of cannon and
seventy-one carronadas.
On the fortress of Callao the Spanish flag waved long
after independence was declared in all the countries of
Spanish South America. The Spanish general, Rodil,
threw himself into the castle, and with wonderful reso
lution held out against a siege of a year and a half;
During the last three months the Spaniards suffered all
the privations and miseries which a besieged army must
endure within the tropics.
Lord Cochrane blockaded the fortress by sea, and
General Bartolome Salom drew up his army on the land
side. More than 4000 Spaniards fled to the castle
with all their valuable property, and took refuge under
Rodirs protection. The greater part of the fugitives
belonged to the principal families of the country. When
provisions began to fail, the commandant found it
necessary to expel 400 woiaen, arid one morning they
issued forth in a "long -line of procession. The besiegers
supposed that the enemy was making a sortie, and
directed the fire of their artillery against the helpless
beings, who, uttering loud shrieks, attempted to save
themselves by flight. As soon as the mistake was
discovered the firing stopped,, and the women were
conveyed to Lima. Insurrections were several times
attempted by the garrison of Callao ; but the presence

SIEGE OF CALLAO. 49
of mind and cool resolution of Rodil in every instance
enabled him to suppress these mutinies. The guilty
were punished with so much severity that the soldiers
soon gave up all further attempts. Horses, asses, dogs
and cats, became at length the food of the besieged.
Rodil at this time carried on a traffic which does no
honour to his. character. He had a quantity of provi
sions stored, which he now sold at immense prices. For
a fowl he got from three to four gold ounces. He
demanded proportional prices for bread, &c. A conta
gious fever broke out, and, of more than 4000 persons who
had taken refuge in the fortress, only about 200 survived
the siege. Hunger and disease at last obhged Rodil
to yield. On the 19th of February, 1826, he obtained
an honourable capitulation, and embarked with his
acquired wealth for Spain, where he was invested with
the rank of commander-in-chief of the infantry guards.
Since the independence of Peru this fortress has often
been the seat of partial revolutions. Its death-doom has
been pronounced by different governments, and it will be
a fortunate event for the country when it ceases to exist
as a place of warlike defence. It has lately been found
useful for other purposes, and a great portion of its vast
space has been converted into custom-house warehouses.
The siege of Callao by the Chilians, of which we were
eye-witnesses, was by no means such a serious affair as
that undertaken by the patriots. The squadron was
weak, and the land army inconsiderable. Callao was
only cannonaded during the night by some Chilian gun
boats commanded by Englishmen. The artillery of the

50 TRAVELS IN PERU.
castle was inefficient, but the Chilian bombs did con
siderable damage. One Sunday afternoon the little
Chihan brig, " Colocolo," sailed in close under the walls
of the fortress, and threw in some shot. The fire was
immediately returned by all the guns that could be
directed to the sea-side ; but in vain did the Peruvians
expend their shot. Every ball went over the " Colocolo,"
and fell among the neutral ships. The commander of
the French squadron -then sent a boat to the fortress,
with a declaration that he would attack it in good earnest
if the fire was not discontinued. The message had due
effect. A few days after the affair with the "Colocolo," the
Peruvians had an opportunity of avenging, the provoca
tions they had received. The Chihan admiral sent an
officer, with seven sailors, to our ship to purchase shoes.
The garrison having observed the Chilian boat, sent out
a shallop with twenty-five men, which came close along
side of us. In spite of our opposition the Chihan officer
leaped into his boat, and stood off. He was, however,
too late ; for, just as he was leaving the ship's side, the
hostile shallop passed under our bowsprit, and fired a
volley into the Chilian boat. Five sailors fell into the
sea, either killed or wounded. Of three men picked up,
one was the officer, who had received two wounds from
musket balls. We saved one of the wounded sailors by
throwing him a rope, by which we pulled him up,
covering him with the French flag.
The Peruvians had no longer a fleet strong enough to
keep at sea ; but soon after their government pur-

ANIMALS IN THE BAY OF CALLAO. 51
chased the " Edmond," and some other merchantmen,
and fitted them up as privateers. The command was
given to M. Blanchet, who had been first pilot of the
" Edmond " during our voyage from Europe. After he
had taken the " Arequipena," an old Chihan ship of war,
and burnt several transports, he attacked three Chilian
corvettes in the harbour of Casma. They had already
struck their flags,, when Blanchet was shot while board
ing one of them. His loss damped the courage of the
Corsairs, and the contest was soon given up. The shock
of Blanchet's death had such an effect on the crew of the
" Edmond," that they all went down between decks in
great grief, except the cook, who fired a gun he had
charged to the brim, and killed some men who were on
a bowsprit of one of the hostile vessels; He then sprang
to the helm, and steered the ship safely into one of the
inlets of the bay.
The lover of natural history finds in the bay of Callao,
numerous opportunities for gratifying his curiosity. The
mammalia are not very numerous. Sea otters and sea
dogs are found there, as on all parts of the South Ame
rican coast. Two species, (the Otaria aurita, Humb.,
and the O. Ullo.se, Tsch.,) inhabit the southern dechvity
of the Fronton. I went to hunt seals on the rock with
the officers of a French ship of war. When we landed,
which was difficult on account of the breakers, we fired
at the animals and killed a number of them. A sailor
waded through the breakers and bound the dead seals
with a rope, by which he drew them on board. As we
shot a great number of birds, the Chilian admiral, on
E 2

52 TRAVELS IN PERU.
hearing the firing, thought that one of his ships must
be engaged with the Peruvian Corsairs ; and, therefore,
sent out the " San Lorenzo" brig of war to see what
was going on.
The bay abounds in fine water-fowl. Amongst the
most remarkable is Humboldt's penguin {Spheniscus
Humboldti, Mey.). A few are smaller than the common
grey penguin, and one is somewhat different in colour
on the back and breast. The Peruvians call it Pascaro
nino (the child bird). It is easily tamed, becomes very
social, and follows its master like a dog. It is amusing
to see it waddhng along with its plump body and short
legs, and keeping itself in equilibrium by moving its
floating wings. I had one completely tame, which I
bought from an Indian. It was named Pepe, and it
answered readily to the name. When I was at my
meals he regularly placed himself beside my chair, and
at night he slept under my bed. When he wished to
bathe he went into the kitchen and beat with his bill on
an earthen pan until somebody threw water over him, or
brought him a vessel full of water for a bath.
I brought away a few of the marine birds which
appeared the most remarkable. Among them was the
banded cormorant {Carbo Gaimardi, Less.). On the
back it is grey, marbled by white spots ; the belly is fine
ash-grey, and on each side of the throat there runs a
broad white stripe or band. The bill is yellow and the
feet are red. The iris is peculiar ; I never saw its like
in any other bird. It changes throughout the whole
circle in regular square spots, white and sea-green.

LAND BIRDS. 53
Thousands of the spotted gannet {Sula variegata, Tsch.)
inhabit the rocks of the island of San Lorenzo. This
bird is the greatest producer of guano. The inca tern
{Sterna luca, Less.) is without doubt the finest of the
whole tern family. The colour of the head is brown-grey ;
getting darker towards the tail, and brighter on the
lower body. From the root of the bill on either side there
shoot out some white feathers shghtly curving, so that
they give the appearance of white mustachios. Among
the land birds are some very fine cohbri {Trochilus
Amdzilia, and Tr. Cora, Less.). The horse-protector
{Crotophaga sulcata, Swains.) is a singular animal. It
is about the size of a starling, with a short, compressed
and curved bill, having several deep furrows along its
sides. The tail is long and fan-shaped. The whole
body is of a deep blue colour, with a slight metalhc bright
ness. The bird is very social with cattle of all kinds,
and more particularly with horses. It is fond of perch
ing on the back of a horse or an ass and searching for
insects, which it finds there in abundance. These
animals are very sensible of the service thus rendered to
them, and by the manner in which they move about
when the bird is perched on their heads or necks, show
how much they are gratified by its presence.
Foreigners, when they visit the coast of Peru for the
first time, are much surprised at the immense number of
birds of the vulture species which they meet with about
the roads and on the roofs of the houses. In Callao
and in all other ports, the Turkey vulture {Cathartes
aura, Illig.) is frequently seen. It is called by the

54 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Spaniards Gallinazo d caMza colorada (red-headed vul
ture). Further in the interior of the country it is
frequently seen, though there it is less common than the
black galhnazo {Cathartes fcetens, IUig.). The colour of
the former is dark brownish-black ; the unplumed head
and throat are red ; the throat is full of wrinkles and
warts. The latter is very hke it in size and colour, only
the head and neck are greyish-black. These birds are
the size of a turkey-cock ; but they are lanker and more
angular in form. The black-headed gallinazo is inactive,
heavy, and seldom flies far. When seeking food he hops
about on the ground in short regular springs. When he
wishes to move faster forward he helps himself with his
wings, but without flying. Its cry is seldom heard, and
never long continued. At noon, sometimes from sixty
to eighty of these birds perch themselves on the tops of
the houses or on the adjoining walls, and with the
heads under the wing they all go to roost. They are
extremely voracious, and devour every sort of animal
substance they can find, however filthy it may be.
They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about
among men and cattle in the most populous places. The
Turkey vulture is far more lively, and its movements are
more light. It flies faster, and continues longer on the
wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is, however,
more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited
islands. The female lays three or four whitish eggs,
which are hatched in February and March. The com
mon galhnazo usually builds its nest on the tops of
houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays

AMPHIBIA AND FISHES. 55
three or four eggs, which are whitish brown and
speckled, and are hatched in the same months as the
eggs of the Turkey vulture.
Among the amphibia in Callao, the iguana and land
agama are numerous. Snakes abound in the low bushes
at the mouth of the Rimac, and some kinds, which are
venomous, live on the arid sand-banks. All the sea
tortoises have been driven out of the bay, and now
inhabit the detached creeks of the uninhabited parts of
the coast.
The kinds of fish are numerous. — Sharks, rays, bal-
lancers, corvinas, bonitos, &c, are caught in abundance.
Most of the corvinas and bonitos are carried to market.
The flesh of the latter is firm, dry, and less savoury than
the corvina. The Pewe-rey (king-fish) is superior in
flavour to the Pewe-sapo (toad-fish), which is a httle
larger, and has a thick fleshy head. These fish are taken
on rocks and under water where they are struck by a
kind of harpoon hooks and drawn out.
When, on board the " Edmond," I first saw the towers
of Lima gilded by the beams of the setting sun, and the
chains of hills behind, rising by gradations until in the
farthest background they blended with the cloud-capped
Cordilleras, I felt an inexpressible desire to advance
towards those regions, that I might breathe the air of
the Andes, and there behold nature under her wildest
aspect. But these wishes were vain, and I was com
pelled to turn again to the desolate ocean ; for it was
understood that our further voyage must be towards
the north, and from there that we should proceed

56 TRAVELS IN PERU.
to the coast of Asia. I did not then foresee that
my longing might be fulfilled, and that so much of enjoy
ment, together with so much toil and danger, awaited me
in the mountainous regions of Peru.
Notwithstanding the insecurity of the road to Lima
I resolved to proceed thither. Carriages and horses
were not to be procured in Callao, for the latter were all
either seized for the service of the government or con
cealed. I could therefore travel only on foot. Don Manuel
de la Guarda, the commander of the fortress, observed
whilst giving me a passport, that he would advise
me to use speed, and to get as soon as possible, out of
the range of the guns, for he expected every moment
to be obliged to order the firing to commence. I did
not neglect to follow his advice. However, I had not got
more than a hundred paces from the castle, when the
artillery began to play, and balls fell around on every
side. I quickened my pace, and soon got near some
fences, where men were firing with muskets. There I
was seized by some Chihan cuirassiers, who sent me
forward from post to post, until at last in one of the
posts I met with an officer with whom I had been
acquainted in Chile. When I was dining one day on
board the corvette Confederacion in the bay of Val
paraiso, the young officer whom I have just alluded to
sat next me. The conversation happening to turn on
phrenology, he insisted on my examining his head, and
pronouncing a phrenological diagnosis on it. Though I
assured him that I attached no value on this alleged
science, he continued to urge me to make the examina-

A PHRENOLOGICAL PREDICTION. 57
tion. After feeling his head I observed to him, with
great gravity : " Here is the organ of mathematics
pretty well developed, and it is probable that you may
distinguish yourself in that branch of knowledge." The
fact was, I had observed from his uniform that he
belonged to the artillery, and since I was obliged to
say something, I thought it would be best to make my
remarks refer to his profession. Don Antonio had not
forgotten it, for as soon as he saw me at the outpost
he ran up to me quite overjoyed, and told me that I
had judged rightly of his talent, for. the guns which he
commanded always sent their balls direct into the
fortress, and did more execution than any. other.
By following my advice and cultivating his mathematical
organ, he assured me, he was enabled to direct a gun
better than any other officer, and his aim could always
be rehed on. He immediately procured me a pass,
by which I was conducted all the remainder of my
journey. The distance from Callao to Lima is two Spanish
leagues. The road is covered with deep sand, and on
either side are uncultivated fields and low brushwood.
After leaving Callao I came to Bella Vista, then to the
ruins of an old Indian village, and farther on inland
reached some plantations. Halfway between Callao and
Lima is the convent of la Virgen del Carmen, and also
a chapel. The convent is now abandoned, but in front
of the chapel there constantly stands a monk, who begs
for alms. Close to the convent there is a Tambo,* in
* Tambo is an Indian word, signifying an Irm. Tambero means Irmheeper.

58 TRAVELS IN PERU.
which brandy, lemonade, and bananas are sold. This
place, which is called La Legna, is a Spanish league from
both towns. The hired horses are so used to put up at
this place, that it is only with great trouble they can be
got to pass it.
Though much wearied by my jour hey on foot, I tried
in vain to obtain some refreshment here. Unluckily
the Tambero, a Zambo, had decamped, as his house had
often been plundered.
In the most oppressive heat I wandered over the
shadeless plain, arid at last reached the fine road called
the Alameda del Callao, which extends from the Callao
Gate of Lima to nearly half a league beyond the city.
Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, an Irishman by birth, first
a small shopkeeper in Lhria, then a soldier in Chile, and
finally viceroy of Peru, with the title of Marques de
Osorno, built the fine Callao Gate and laid out the
Alameda. On the 6th of January, 1800, it was solemnly
opened. The whole undertaking cost 340,964 doUars.
Resting-places are made in the Alameda at regular
distances ; and there are on each side charming gardens,
with luxuriant fruit-trfees. Happy in having reached
the end of my wearisome journey, I quickly passed
through the Callao Gate, and entered the City of the
Kings.

59

CHAPTER IV.
Lima — Situation and extent of the City — Streets, Houses, Churches and Con
vents — San Pedro— The Jesuits — Nunneries — Beatarios — Hospitals — San
Andres — The Foundling House — The Pantheon — The Palace — The Plaza
Mayor — Pizarro — The Cabildo — Fountains — Palace of the Inquisition —
The University — National Library — Museum of Natural History and
Antiquities — Academy of Design^The Mint — The Theatre — Circus for
Cock-fighting — The Bridge^-The City Wall — Santa Catalina — Barracks.
Lima is built on both banks of- the river Rimac, which
divides the town into two unequal parts.* The larger
part, (the town, properly so called,) is situated on the
southern bank of the river ; the smaller part, consisting
of the suburb San Lazaro, or the fifth section, is on the
northern bank. The greatest extent of Lima is from
east to west ; from the Gate of Maravillas to the Mon-
• serrate. Between those two points the distance is 4471
varas,f or two-thirds of a Legua, or Spanish league ; and
the greatest breadth of the city, that is to say, from the
Bridge, (the suburb of San Lazaro not included,) to the
Gate of Guadalupe, is 2515 varas, or two-fifths of a
Legua. The utmost circumference of Lima is about
» The city of Lima was founded by Don Francisco Pizarro on the 6th of
January, 1534. As it was the day of the Epiphany, Lima received the title of
Cmdad de los Reyes, (City of the Kings). Historical records vary respecting
the day and the year of the foundation of Lima ; but I have reason to believe
that the date I have mentioned above is perfectly correct.
t The Vara Castelloma is equal to 33 inches English measure.

60 TRAVELS IN PERU.
ten English miles.^ The plain on which the city is built*
takes rather a decided slope from east to west.
The streets of Lima intersect each other in right
hnes, and consequently groups of houses form quad
rangles : these are called manzanas. Each side of one
of these manzanas measures on the average from 140 to
145 varas ; arid it may therefore be computed that,
collectively, they occupy a superficies of from 148,000
to 160,000. There are in all 211 manzanas, of which
those situated on the Periphery are the smallest and
most irregularly constructed. Lima is divided into five
sections, which are again subdivided into ten districts
and forty-six Barrios. It contains about 3380 houses,
56 churches and convents, (the latter occupying at least
one-fourth of the superficies of the city), 34 squares or
open areas in front of the churches, and 419 streets.
On the average the streets are about 34 feet wide and
386 feet long. Most of them are very badly paved,
but they have lateral footpaths. According to the
original plan for building Lima, it was intended that all
the streets should run in one direction, viz., from south
east to north-west, so that the walls of the houses might
afford shade both morning and afternoon. Between the
Plaza Mayor and Santa Clara this plan has been pretty
uniformly carried out ; but in other parts it has been
less rigidly observed. At noon there can be no shade,
as the city is situated on the 12° of south latitude.
The impression produced at first sight of Lima is by
no means favourable, for the Periphery, the quarter
which a stranger first enters, contains none but old,

STYLE OF HOUSE-BUILDING IN LIMA. 61
dilapidated, and dirty houses ; but on approaching the
vicinity of the principal square, the place improves so
greatly that the miserable appearance it presents at
first sight is easily forgotten.
Most of the houses in Lima are only one story high',
and some have only the ground-floor. The larger class
of houses correspond one with another in the style of
building. In front they have two doors : one is called
the Azaguan, and is the principal entrance to the house;
and next to it is the door of the Cochera (coach-house) .
Either above the cochera door, or on one side of the house
door, there is frequently a httle chamber, having a win
dow closed by a wooden railing. At this httle railed
window the ladies are accustomed to sit and watch the
passers-by — nor are they very much displeased when
some of the latter occasionally make free to reguardar la
reja (to look at the railing). The Azaguan opens into
a spacious court-yard, called the Patio, on either side of
which there are httle rooms. Directly facing the Aza
guan, is the dwelling-house, round which there usually
runs a balcony. Two large folding-doors lead "into the
Hall {Sola), in which the furniture consists of a sofa, a
hammock, and a row of chairs : the floor is covered with
straw matting. From the sala a glazed door opens into a
smaller apartment, called the Cuadro, which is elegantly,
often splendidly furnished, and the floor is carpetted.
This is the room into which visitors are shown. Adjoin
ing the cuadro are the sleeping-rooms, the dining-room,
the nursery, &c. These apartments communicate with a
second court-yard, called the Traspatio, the walls of

62 TRAVELS IN PERU,
which are often adorned with fresco paintings. This
Traspatio,. a portion of which is usually laid out as a
httle garden,, communicates with the kitchen, and the
stable {corral.) A small avenue, called the callejon,
forms a communication from the first to the second
Patio, and is used as a passage for the horses. When
there is no callejon, as is often the casej in the poorer
class of houses^ the horses are led through the sala and
the cuadro. In the upper story, the arrangement of
the rooms differs from that of the ground-floor. Above
the azaguan is the cuadro, opening into a balcony,
which is attached to most of the houses in Lima. The
sala in the upper story forms, an ante-room to the
cuadro ; and the rest of the apartments are built
above the ranges of ground-floor rooms on either side of
the patio. Above the sala and cuadro of the ground-
floor, there are no upper rooms. The roofs of those
two apartments form a kind, of large terrace called the
Azotea, which is paved with freestone and surrounded
by a. railing;. This azotea serves as a play-ground for
the children of the family ; it is ornamented with flower
pots, and covered with an awning to shade it from the
sun. The upper story has a flat roof, composed of
bamboos and mats, overspread with mortar or light
tiles. In the. houses of Lima as in those of Callao, the
windows of some of the rooms are made in the roofs.
The other, windows, of which. there are but few, are on
each side of the house door ; they are tastefully, orna
mented and often' have-richly gilt lattices.
The style of house-building here described must of

CHURCHES AND CONVENTS IN LIMA. 63
course be taken merely as a general example ; that
there are numerous deviations from it may naturally be
supposed. In the large: houses the walls are of brick,
faced with ornamental tiles {adobes). In the: smaller
houses, the walls consist of double rows, of bamboos,
covered with plaster, and afterwards painted white; or
yellow. The fronts of the houses, are usually quite
plain,, but here and there may be seen a house with a
finely ornamented facade- The house of Torre Tagle;
near San Pedro, and some others, are remarkable for
the beauty of their ornaments, which attract the notice
of all strangers visiting Lima- -
Owing to. the heat of the climate* the doors and
windows are almost always kept open, so that the
houses have not the privacy and comfort of European
dwellings. Of the numerous: churches and convents in Lima,
some are deserving of particular mention. The cathe
dral occupies the whole eastern side of the Plaza, Mayor.
The foundation stone of this edifice was laid on the
18th of January, 1534, by Don Francisco Pizarro, who
named it the Church of Nuestra. Senora.d&.la. As.tmci.an.
Ninety years elapsed before the building was completed,
and on the 19th of October, 1625, it was consecrated by
the Archbishop, Don Gonzalo de Ocampo. Such was
the pomp observed at this ceremony, that, though mass
commenced at six in the morning, it was five o?clock in
the afternoon before the host was raised
The interior of the cathedral is. exceedingly beautiful.
The grandaltar is ornamented with seven Ionic columns

64 TRAVELS IN PERU.
of silver, twelve feet high, and one and a half thick, and
is surmounted by a massive silver gilt crown. The
tabernacle is seven feet and a half high, and composed
of exquisitely wrought gold, set with a profusion of
diamonds and emeralds. On each side of the altar
there are massive silver candelabra, each weighing four
and a half arobas (504 pounds). On high festival
days, the gorgeous splendour of the cathedral of
Lima probably exceeds that of the principal churches
in Rome. The robes and ornaments worn by the
priests correspond with the magnificence of the altar ;
they are embroidered in gold and* set with precious
stones. The cathedral service is performed by the
canons (Canonigos).
Among the churches of Lima, San Lazaro is dis
tinguished for its tasteful exterior and the chaste
simplicity of its internal decoration. The bodies of
persons unknown, found dead in the streets, are con
veyed to the door of the church of San Lazaro, and
there exposed for the space of twenty-four hours.
The convent of San Francisco, the largest of the
monastic establishments in Lima, is an immense build
ing, situated in the vicinity of the Plaza Mayor. In
this convent mass is read daily every half-hour, from
five in the morning till noon. A small chapel within
the convent is called the Capilla de los Milagros, and
a superstitious tradition records that during the great
earthquake of 1630, the image of the Madonna, which
surmounts the chapel door, turned towards the grand
altar, and with folded hands invoked the divine grace

CONVENTS OF LIMA. 65
in favour of the city. By this intercession it is believed
that Lima was saved from total destruction. The monk
who conducted me over the convent, and who related
to me this miracle, observed with much simplicity that
it was singular the Madonna did not repeat her gracious
intercession in the year 1746.
The carved work which adorns the ceihngs in the
corridors is admirably executed, though not very beau
tiful in design. The cells of the monks are very simple,
but perfectly comfortable for habitation. The spacious
and well-arranged gardens within the area of the con
vent form a pleasing contrast to the gloomy appearance
of the external walls.
To the Franciscan monks also belongs the convent of
Los Descalzos, situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. A
broad avenue planted with six rows of trees leads to
Los Descalzos. It is a neat but not large edifice, and
stands at the foot of a sterile hill. The extensive
garden which surrounds it, and which is in a very neg
lected condition, contains three palm-trees, the only ones
to be seen in the near vicinity of Lima. The situation
of the convent is not healthy, and in consequence the
monks frequently suffer from intermittent fever. These
monks go barefooted, and hve entirely on alms. Every
morning two lay brethren ride on asses to the city, where
they visit the market-place, and obtain from the different
saleswomen charitable donations of fish* vegetables, or
meat. Another convent is the Recoleta de San Diego. During
Lent, and especially in Passion Week, many men retire
F

66 TRAVELS IN PERU.
to this place to prepare themselves by mortification and
prayer for confession and participation in the Holy
Sacrament. The convent of Santo Domingo is very rich. It enjoys
a yearly revenue of from seventy to seventy-five thou
sand dollars, for the most part accruing from the ground-
rents of houses in the city. The steeple of Santo
Domingo is the loftiest in all Lima. It is 188 feet high,
and is visible at the distance of three leagues. It is
built of wood, and inclines so considerably in its upper
part, that there is little probabihty of its surviving
another earthquake hke that of 1746. The interior of
the church is splendid. The grand altar almost vies
with that of the cathedral.
San Pedro must, doubtless, at a former period, have
been the principal convent in Lima. It belonged to the
Jesuits, and was their Colegio mawimo. This establish
ment possessed enormous revenues, for all the finest
plantations and best houses in Lima were the property
of the order. In 1 773, the king of Spain, instigated by
the celebrated Bull of the 21st of June of that year,
(Dominus ac redemptor noster) dispatched an order to
the viceroys of the provinces of South America, directing
them to arrest the Jesuits all in one night, to ship them
off to Spain, and to confiscate their wealth. Of course
the utmost secrecy was observed, and it is a well-authen
ticated fact, that in Peru, with the exception of the
viceroy, and those of his agents whose assistance was
indispensable, no one knew anything of the affair. But
the same ship which conveyed the king's commands to

INTENDED ARREST OP THE JESUITS. 67
the viceroy, had on board the necessary instructions to
the vicar-general in Lima, from the superior of the
Jesuits in Madrid, who was fully acquainted with the
king's design. The preparatory arrangements were
made under the seal of perfect secrecy, and at t§n o'clock
at night the viceroy assembled his council, and com
municated to them the royal commands. It was deter
mined that no one should be permitted to leave the
council-chamber until the blow was struck. At mid
night some confidential officers, with the requisite assist
ance, were despatched to arrest the Jesuits, an accurate
hst of whose names lay on the table before the viceroy.
The patrols knocked at the gate of San Pedro, which
was immediately opened. The commanding officer
desired to see the vicar-general, and the porter ushered
him into the great hall of the convent, where aU the
members of the order were assembled, evidently expect
ing his visit. The holy brethren were prepared for
immediate departure, each being provided with a bag or
trunk containing such articles as were requisite on a sea
voyage. Similar preparations had been made in all the
other convents belonging to the Jesuits. The surprise
and disappointment of the viceroy on receiving this
information may be easier conceived than described.
Without delay he ordered the whole brotherhood to be
conducted under a strong escort to Callao, where they
embarked. In the course of a few days inventories were
made of the effects in the convents. At San Pedro it
was expected that vast treasures in specie would be
found ; but how great was the dismay, when, instead of
f2

68 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the millions which it was well known the order possessed,
only a few thousand dollars could be collected. All the
keys, even that of the treasury, were politely laid out
in the chamber of the superior. This was a cruel
mockery ! The Jesuits could not have taken a more
ample revenge on the treachery that had been practised
on them.
It was suspected that the treasures were concealed
partly in the convent of San Pedro, and partly in the
plantations. According to the evidence of an old negro,
at that time in the service of the convent, he, together
with some of his comrades, were employed during
several nights in carrying heavy bags of money into the
vaults of the convent. Their eyes were bandaged, and
they were conducted by two of the brethren, who helped
them to raise and set down the bags. The negro, more
over, declared his conviction that there was a subter
raneous spring near the spot where the treasure was
deposited. The searches hitherto made have been very
superficial, and it seems not impossible that by dint of
more active exertions this concealed wealth may yet be
brought to light.
At present San Pedro is occupied by about a dozen
lay priests. They perform the spiritual service of the
Oratorio de San Felipe Neri. They live on the revenues
derived from the rents of the few plantations which have
not been confiscated or sold. The chapel is prettily
fitted up in the interior, and the midnight mass at
Christmas is performed there with great solemnity. The
external walls of both the chapel and the convent are

NUNNERIES AND BEATERIOS. 69
painted a reddish-brown colour, which has a very sombre
and ugly effect.
The convents of Nuestra Senora de la Merced and
San Agustin, are situated at the back of San Pedro.
The former is spacious, but not largely endowed; the
latter is a poor-looking edifice, but it possesses rich
revenues. To San Agustin is attached the once eminent
but now very inferior college of San Ildefonso.
Besides the monastic establishments above named,
Lima contains several smaller convents for friars, and
sixteen nunneries. Of the latter the largest is the
Monasterio de la Concepcion. It ' is very rich, and has
an annual revenue of upwards of 100,000 dollars ; in
other respects it is remarkable for nothing except the
not very pious habits of its inmates. Santa Clara and
the Encarnacion, are also large establishments, and well
endowed. The nuns who observe the most rigorous
conventual rules are the Capuchinas de Jesus Maria,
the Nazarenas and the Trinitarias descalzas. For
extremely pious women, who wish to lead a cloistered
life without taking the veil, there are three establish
ments called Beaterios, which may be entered and
quitted at pleasure : * these are the Beaterio de Patro-
cinio, the Beaterio de Santa Rosa de Viterbo, and the
Beaterio de Copacabana. This last was originally esta
blished exclusively for Indian females. The Refugio de
San Jose is a place for the reception of married women
who wish to withdraw from the ill treatment of bad
* The females who retire to these establishments are called Beatas (Bigots).
The term Beaterio signifies a house for Bigots. — T.

70 TRAVELS IN PERU.
husbands. On the other hand husbands who are of
opinion that their wives may be improved by a httle tem
porary seclusion, and quiet meditation, can, with the
permission of the archbishop, send them for a while to
the Refugio. The Recojidas is another institution of
the same kind, but destined for females of the poorer
class. Lima possesses a great many hospitals, but all are
lamentably defective in internal arrangement, and above
all in judicious medical attendance. The largest of the
hospitals, San Andres, was founded in the year 1552 by
the Licentiate Francisco de Molina. Three years after
wards, the Viceroy Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza,
first Marquis de Canete, placed it under the direction of
the Government. Down to the year 1826 this hos
pital was exclusively destined for the reception of sick
Spaniards. San Andres contains five large and four
smaller 'wards, with 387 beds. v One part of the estab
lishment is set apart for incurable patients. The annual
outlay of the hospital amounts to between 45,000
and 50,000 dollars. In the hospital of San Andres
insane patients are received, and their number is always
considerable. On the 30th of November (St. Andrew's
Day) this hospital is opened for the admittance of the
public, and one of the favourite amusements of the inha
bitants of Lima is to go to San Andres to see the lunatics.
It is melancholy to observe these unfortunate beings,
thus made the objects of public exhibition, and irritated
by the idle throng who go to stare at them. The col
lection of alms from the numerous visitors is, doubtless,

HOSPITALS. 71
the motive for keeping up this custom, which, neverthe
less, is exceedingly reprehensible.
The hospital Santa Ana was founded in the year 1549,
by Don Fray Jeromino de Loyza, first Archbishop of
Lima, and was destined for Indians of both sexes. The
benevolent, founder, with the most earnest self-devotion,
attended the patients, and with true Christian charity
performed the humblest duties of a sick-nurse. He died
in 1575 in the hospital, to which he bequeathed a yearly
revenue of 16,000 dollars. The building contains five
large wards, and 336 beds. Since the declaration of
independence no Indian has been received into it. This
hospital, alternately with those of San Andres and San
Bartolome, was used as a military lazaretto ; but since
1841 it has been allotted exclusively to female patients
of all classes ; for it was found necessary to abandon
the former female hospital of La Caridad, on account of
its damp situation.
San Bartolome was an hospital founded in the year
1661, for Negro patients ; but it has lately been closed.
It contains eleven wards and 217 beds.
Under the name of Santo Toribio an hospital for incur
able patients was estabhshed. in the year 1669, by Don
Domingo Cueto. In 1702 it was consigned to the
superintendence of ah order. of monks, called the Padres
Belemitas, and in 1822 it was incorporated with the
hospital of San Lazaro. The latter establishment was
founded by Anton Sanchez, in the year 1563, and was
exclusively destined for leprous patients. Persons

72 TRAVELS IN PERU.
afflicted with cutaneous diseases, and especially mala
dies of a contagious nature, are sent thither.
In the convent of San Pedro there is a small hospital
for poor priests. Attached to it is a dispensary, from
whence the poor were supplied gratuitously with medi
cines, at the time when the convent was in the
possession of the Jesuits.
Lima also possesses a Foundling Hospital. Luis
Ojeda, who humbly took to himself the title of Luis el
pecador (Luis the Sinner), bequeathed ah his fortune to
the foundation of this establishment, which received
the name of " Colegio de Santa Cruz de los niiios
expositos." *
The refuge for female penitents was founded in the
year 1670 by the viceroy, Count de Lemos. The funds
were derived from a legacy ^ bequeathed for that object
by Don Francisco Arcain in 1572. The establishment
has but few inmates.
In former times it was the custom in Lima to bury
the dead in graves dug within the churches ; but the
heat of the climate, and the difficulty of making the
graves sufficiently deep, rendering this practice exceed
ingly objectionable, the viceroy, Don Jose Fernando
Abascal, determined on making a burial place beyond
the boundaries of the city. A piece of ground was
allotted for the purpose, and it was consecrated on the
1st of January, 1808. It is called the. Cementerio
* According to some accounts this establishment was instituted in 1654, by
Mateo Pastor de Velasco, a native of Portollano in Spain.

GREAT CEMETERY OP LIMA. 73
general or Panteon, and is situated eastward of the city
on the high road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It
consists of two gardens, very prettily planted, and
inclosed by high walls. Along the walls, on the inner
side, there are niches, about a thousand in number,
ranged in sixteen different classes, and they may be
purchased by those who wish to possess them. Many
of them belong to famihes and convents. The graves
are watched and kept in order by criminals who are
condemned to this duty as a punishment. It is calcu
lated that it will be five years before this cemetery is
filled. When room is wanting, the niches which have
been first occupied will be cleared, and the bones depo
sited in a bone-house, of simple but appropriate con
struction. At the entrance of the Panteon there is a
neat httle chapel, where the funeral obsequies are per
formed. Burials are permitted to take place only in the
morning ; and when a funeral retinue arrives too late,
the body remains uninterred until the following morn
ing. The rich are buried in coffins, the poor merely in
winding sheets, which are made after the pattern of the
habits worn by the bare-footed friars of the order of
San Francisco.
The grand square of Lima, the Plaza Mayor, though
not in the centre of the city, is nevertheless the central
point of its hfe. and business. It is 426 feet distant from
the Rimac, ' and presents a regular quadrangle, each
side of which is 510 feet long. From each of the four
corners two handsome straight streets run at right angles.
There is no pavement, but the ground is covered with

74 TRAVELS IN PERU.
fine sand. The cathedral and the archbishop's palace
occupy the eastern side of the square. The latter
adjoins the sanctuary, and has rather a fine facade.
The windows of the principal apartments open into a
balcony, commanding a view of the Plaza/
On the north side of the square stands the govern
ment palace, formerly the residence of the all-powerful
viceroys. Its exterior aspect is mean. It is a square
building, and the front next the Plaza is disfigured by a
long range of shabby httle shops (called La rivera), in
which drugs are sold.* These shops are surmounted
by a balcony. A large double door opens from the
Plaza into the great court-yard of the palace. Along
the western side of the building there are also a number
of httle shops occupied by saddlers and dealers in old
iron. The street, running in this direction, is called the
Old Iron Street (Calle del Fierro Viego). The principal
entrance to the palace is on this side. On the south the
building has no entrance, and it presents the gloomy
aspect of a jail. On the east a door opens into a small
yard or court, within which are the office and prison
of the pohce. A few long flag-staffs, fixed on the roof
of the palace, do not add to the beauty of the edifice.
The interior of the building corresponds with its out
ward appearance, being at once tasteless and mean.
The largest apartment formerly bore the name of the
Sala de los Vireyes. It is now used as a ball room when
* In these shops any one may purchase for a trifle one of the most deadly
poisons (Strichnos Ignatia, L.) It is made up into what are called Pepilas
de Cdbalonga. It is used in Lima for poisoning dogs.

THE GOVERNMENT PALACE. 75
entertainments are given by the government. Under
the Spanish domination this room was hung round with
portraits of the viceroys, the size of life.* The series of
vice-regal portraits from Pizarro to Pezuela, forty-four
in number, completely filled the apartment at the time
when the patriot army in Lima revolted, and conse
quently the last viceroy, Don Jose de la Serna, who
owed his elevation to the military revolution, could not
have a place assigned for his portrait among those of
his predecessors.! The other apartments of the palace
are small and inelegant. Some of the rooms are used
as government offices.
The present palace was, as far as I have been able to
ascertain, built about the beginning of the seventeenth
century. In the great earthquake of 1687 it was
almost totally destroyed, but it was subsequently
restored. The palace which Don Francisco Pizarro
built for his own residence, stood, not on the site of
* This highly valuable and interesting collection of portraits is now removed
from the palace to the museum. It it curious to mark the progressive changes of
costume and to observe the various physiognomies, especially if we reflect on the
history of the men whose traits denote such striking differences of character.
Almost all these portraits are distinguished by an air of tranquil gravity which
in some is combined with true kingly dignity, and in others with an expression
of fierceness. The handsomest head of the whole series is decidedly that of
Francisco Pizarro. His features bear the stamp of manly energy, and his
whole countenance is characterised by courage and candour. The nose has the
prominent Arabic form, and the forehead is high and expanded. The thick
beard, covering the mouth and chin, gives a gloomy and resolute character to
the face. In this series of portraite there is one representing a priest with the
vice-regal insignia.
f By a singular coincidence, the title of Conde de los Andes (Count of the
Andes ) was conferred on La Serna by King Ferdinand at Madrid on the 9th of
December, 1824, being the very day on which he gained the battle of Ayacucho,
the results of which gave the Spanish dominion in South America its death-blow.

76 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the existing edifice, but on the southern side of the
Plaza, on the spot where now a narrow dirty alley,
called the Callejon de petateros, forms a communication
between the Plaza and the Silversmith's-street {Calle
de Plater os). It was in that old palace that Juan
de Herada, the friend and partisan of Don Diego de
Almagra, carried into effect his plot against Pizarro.
On the 26th of June 1546, the viceroy was seated at
table with a party of his friends, when the insurgents
surrounded the palace, shouting "Death to the tyrants!"
Pizarro, though warned of his danger, had scarcely
time to seize his sword. One of his principal officers,
Don Francisco de Chavez, was killed at the door of the
apartment, and several of the viceroy's friends and
servants escaped by the windows. Among others who
attempted to save themselves in this way was Pizarro's
counsellor, Juan de Velasquez. Only on the previous
evening this man had been heard to declare that no one
would be found bold enough to join in an insurrection
as long as he held in his hand his staff of authority.
This declaration was in a certain measure verified, for
Velasquez, whilst descending from the window, held
his staff between his teeth, that he might be the better
able to support himself with his hands. Martin Pizarro,
together with two noblemen and two pages, were the
only persons who remained faithful to the viceroy.
The latter, with the bravery of a hon, made a long
stand against his assailants. "Courage, brother ! Down
with the traitors !" exclaimed Martin Pizarro, who, the
next moment, lay dead at the viceroy's feet. At length

DEATH OF PIZARRO. 77
Pizarro, exhausted by his efforts to defend himself,
could no longer wield his hitherto victorious sword :
he was overpowered, and one of his assailants having
stabbed him in the throat, he fell, mortally wounded.
With his last faltering accents he implored the aid of
a confessor ; and after losing the power of utterance he
traced with his finger, on the ground, the sign of the
cross, kissed it repeatedly, and breathed his last. Such
was the sad end of one of the greatest heroes of his
age ; * a man guilty of many crimes, but also unjustly
accused of many of which he was innocent. His
acts were consistent with the spirit of his age, and
were influenced by the frightful circumstances in which
he was placed. In short, there can be httle doubt that
Pizarro was " better than his fame."
The west side of the Plaza Mayor is occupied by the
Cabildo, or senate-house (formerly called the Casa
Consistorial), together with the city jail and a row of
houses of no very handsome appearance. The south
side is filled by a range of private dwelling-houses, with
balconies looking to the Plaza. The houses, both on
the west and south sides of the square, are built above a
colonnade, in which there are numerous shops.
In the middle of the Plaza is a magnificent bronze
fountain with three basins. From the middle basin
rises a pillar, surmounted by a figure of Fame spouting
the water from her trumpet. In the other two basins
the water is ejected from the mouths of four lions.
* The above particulars are collected from the Historia del descubrimiento y
conquista de la Provincia del Peru, by Agustin de Zarate.

78 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The pillar and figures for this triple fountain were cast
in the year 1650 by the able artist Antonio Rivas, by
order of the then reigning viceroy, Count de Salvatierra.
Besides this principal fountain, there are several smaller
ones, from which the public are permitted to supply
themselves with water.
The second large public square in Lima is the Pla-
zuela de la Inquisicion, which, since the war of indepen
dence, has received the name of the Square of Indepen
dence, {Plazuela de la Independencia). It is of trapezi-
form, widening in the eastern part, and is certainly no
ornament to the town, for it is always in a very dirty
condition. Being the pubhc market-place, it presents a
very busy aspect during the fore part of the day. Two
buildings on this Plazuela attract attention, viz. — the
Palace of the Inquisition, and the University. There
are now but few remaining traces of the internal
arrangements of the fearful tribunal ; for, on the sup
pression of the Inquisition by the Cortes, the enraged
populace forced their way into the building, where they
gutted the rooms, and destroyed the furniture. Lima
was the seat of spiritual jurisdiction for the whole
western coast of South America ; and the rigour of its
despotism was not far short of that of the Inquisition
of Madrid. Every year vast numbers of persons con
victed or suspected of crimes were brought from all the
intervening points between Chiloe and Columbia to the
Tribunal of the Inquisition, and most of them were
doomed to the most dreadful punishments. Autos da fe
were frequently held in Lima, and cases of other kinds

UNIVERSITY OF LIMA. 79
of martyrdom were exceedingly numerous. The lists,
which have been only partially preserved, present
melancholy results. One part of the palace of the
Inquisition is now converted into a store-house for pro
visions, and the other part is used as a prison.
The university of Lima was once the most important
seat of education in South America. It owes its origin
to a decree of the emperor Charles V., issued at the
sohcitation of the dominican monk Maestro Fray Tomas
de San Martin. The decree was dated the 12th of
May, 1551, but it did not reach Lima until two years
after that time. A papal bull of Pius V. confirmed the
imperial decree, and conferred on the institution the
same privileges as those enjoyed by the Spanish univer
sity of Salamanca. The Lima university was originally
estabhshed in the convent of Santo Domingo, but after
the lapse of three years it was removed to the building
now occupied by San Marcel, and in 1576 it was
installed in the site it now occupies. It received the
name of Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Marcos.
In the year 1572 the first lay rector was elected in the
person of Gaspar Menendez, a doctor of medicine.
The building is situated on the east side of the Plaza
de la Independencia, next to the hospital of la Caridad.
The facade is not handsome, but is remarkable for a
style not belonging to the age in which it was erected.
The building is entered by a lofty door, opening into a
spacious quadrangular court, along the four sides of
which there are pillared corridors. On the walls of
these corridors the different branches of science are

80 TRAVELS IN PERU.
allegorically represented in fresco paintings, and beneath
these paintings are inscribed quotations from ancient
classic authors. The lecture rooms open into the corri
dors which run round the court. Facing the entrance
door, in the left angle of the court, are great double
doors opening into the Aula, which is spacious, and has
rather an imposing aspect. In the middle of the wall,
on the right-hand side, stands the rector's chair in a sort
of niche, surmounted by a canopy. On either side of
this chair are ranged the seats of the professors, and the
members of faculties. Opposite to the rector's seat, on
the left-hand side of the Aula, is an elevated chair occu
pied by the president, when academic prizes are distri
buted. Below it is an arm-chair for the candidate. On
each side of the president's seat are several rows of
benches, for the members of the university and visitors.
Over the entrance door there is a gallery to which the
public are admitted, and which, on the occasions when
prizes are distributed, is usually occupied by ladies. On
the walls of the Aula are hung portraits of celebrated
learned men.
The National Library, situated near the convent of San
Pedro, was founded by a decree, dated the 28th of August,
1821. The books belonging to the university of San
Marcos formed the nucleus of the National Library. To
them were added the hbraries of several of the monas
teries, some sequestrated works, and the collections of a
few private individuals. Of these latter, the most con
siderable was the collection of General San Martin, and
a library of 7772 volumes bequeathed, together with a

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY. 81
legacy of a thousand dollars, by Don Miguel de la
Fuente y Pacheco. In November, 1841, the National
Library of Peru contained 26,344 printed volumes, 432
manuscripts, and a small collection of maps and copper
plate engravings. It is particularly rich in old works
on religious and historical subjects. The books relating
to the Conquest, and to the early period of the Spanish
dominion, form in themselves a complete historical series.
Of modern works there are but few. The pecuniary
support of the estabhshment is very inconsiderable. The
government exacts from it the import duty, three per
cent, on European books, making an average annual
sum of 400 dollars. In addition to this the salaries of
the hbrarians amount annually to 2794 dollars. The
hbrary is open, to the public every day (Friday and
Sunday excepted) from eight in the morning till one in
the afternoon, and from four in the afternoon till six in
the evening.
In the left wing of the same building is the museum,
containing a collection of objects of natural history,
antiquities, and other curiosities. This collection was
first formed in the year 1826, in some of the spare
rooms in the palace of the Inquisition, and was after
wards removed from one place to another, until at length
the government allotted to the purpose the two fine
apartments in the building above mentioned. As yet
the estabhshment is quite in its infancy. It contains
nothing of scientific value, and but for the series of his-4
torical portraits already described, it would differ but
little from the collections of curiosities frequently formed
G

82 TRAVELS IN PERU.
by amateurs, in which all sorts of heterogeneous objects
are jumbled together. The museum of Lima bids fair
to remain for some time to come on the. footing on
which it was when I saw it, for the estabhshment has
no funds, save a monthly allowance of thirty-two dollars,
and Out of that scanty pittance the expense of fitting
up the rooms, the glass cases, &c, has yet to be defrayed.
The museum is open to the pubhc four days in the week.
Two other apartments in this same building are set
aside for the Academy of Design {Academia de Debujo).
On three evenings every week pupils are admitted to
this academy to receive gratuitous instruction in drawing.
The number of the pupils amounts to between 80 and
100 ; but there is convenient room for 200. The col
lection of models and drawing copies for the use of the
students is but indifferent.
The mint is situated in the vicinity of the Plazuela de
la Independencia. It was founded in Lima in the year,
1565; in 1572 transferred to Potosi, and in 1683
removed back to Lima. For the space of seventy years
this estabhshment.. was in the hands of private indi
viduals ; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government
took the management of it, and erected the, building in
which it is still located. It is a large and handsome
structure, but very defective in its internal arrangement.
Until the year 1817 the machinery for casting was
worked by mules, ninetyrtwo of those animals being
employed daily. Subsequently, under the direction of
an Englishman, water-power .was introduced, by which
expense was diminished and time saved. A few years

THE MINT OF LIMA. 83
ago a French merchant made an arrangement with the
government for the use of a complex machine, which he
proposed to bring from Europe. The machine arrived,
but by an unlucky fatahty it proved perfectly useless.
For the space of four years repeated attempts were made
to work it, but in vain ; it fulfilled none of the required
conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects but
httle credit on the person by whom it was contrived.
It has cost no less than 250,000 dollars, and has never
been of the least use.
In the mint of Lima there are annually cast from two
to two and a half millions of dollars, which yield a
profit of from 140,000 to 180,000 dollars, out of which
are paid the salaries of the persons employed. Under
the Spanish government these salaries amounted annu
ally to 48,906 dollars ; now they make, together with
other customary :outlays, the sum of 85,105 dollars.
The value of a mark of silver in the mint is 8 dollars
4 reales ; that of a mark of gold is 144 dollars 4 reales;
The standard worth of the gold is 21 carats; that of the
silver 20 grains.
Next to the arena for bull-fights, situated in the
Plaza firme del AchOj the theatre is the principal
place of public amusement in Lima. ¦¦ The first theatre,
erected in the year 1602, was situated near the con
vent of San Agustin, in the street which still bears
the name of " Cotnedia vieja." It was destroyed in the
earthquake of 1630, and rebuilt on the same site. In
1662 it was pulled dOwnto make room for a new street,.
and afterwards the present building was erected; Its
g2

84 TRAVELS IN PERU.
external appearance is very ugly and the interior is
not much better. Before the orchestra there are some
commodious inclosed seats or stalls. The boxes, which
are completely separated one from another by partitions,
are narrow but deep : the smaller ones are capable of
containing eight persons, and the larger ones twelve.
In the centre of the first tier of boxes, and fronting
the stage, is the government box, which occupies the
space of two of the others. It contains seats for the
prefect, the sub-prefect, and the members of the Cabildo.
The president's box is likewise on the first tier, and on
the left of the stage. Adjoining it there is a small
cabinet, closed on the side next the pit by a wooden
raihng. Into this cabinet the president retires between
the acts of the performance. The stage is small, and
the scenery very indifferent.
The performances are for the most part wretched,
both as regards the merit of the pieces and the talent of
the actors. Nothing can be in worse taste than the httle
farces called saynetes, which, according to Spanish cus
tom, always close the performances, whether the prin
cipal piece be a tragedy or a comedy. Common-place
intrigues form the subjects of these saynetes, and their
dialogue consists of vulgar jokes. They are altogether
calculated to banish any gratifying impression which
might by possibihty be produced by the principal piece.
For some years past a company of Italians, settled
in Lima, have given operatic performances on a small
scale. One of them, Signora Pantanelh, is an excellent
singer, and would be heard with pleasure even in Europe.

ITALIAN OPERA IN LIMA. 85
Some other members of the company have middling
talents, but the rest are decidedly bad. The operas
performed are Giuhetta y Romeo, Parisina, Lucia di
Lammermuir, Marino Fahero, La Sonnambula, and II
Barbiere di Sevigha : these, together with a mutilated
Norma, and a much curtailed Semiramide, form almost
the whole repertory. Want of stage room is an obstacle
to the representation of operas demanding grand scenery
and machinery. The costumes are for the most part
exceedingly elegant, though seldom historically correct.
The orchestra is defective, and ought to be much im
proved, to give satisfaction to a public passionately fond
of music.But if the inhabitants of Lima are great lovers of
music, dancing has no less powerful attractions for
them. Though the time is gone by when the dress of
any opera-dancer may be expected to reach below the
knee, yet the drapery of a Limanese Terpsichore appears
to have attained even an ultra degree of curtailment.
The representation of ballets, properly so called, is not
attempted; but the Bolero, the Fandango, the Cachucha,
and Don Mateo, are favourite and often repeated per
formances. During the long intervals between the acts, smoking
is permitted in the pit and in the outer court of the
theatre. There is also a plentiful supply of very bad and
very dear refreshments.
An intolerable annoyance experienced in visiting the
theatre at Lima is caused by the swarms of fleas which
infest every part of the house, but most especially the

86 TRAVELS IN PERU.
boxes. Unfortunately, this nuisance is irremediable, and
the visitor" must be blessed with a large ariiount of
endurance who can patiently sit out a whole evening's
entertainments. Not far from the theatre is situated the circus for
cock-fighting {Coliseo de gallos), where fights (pskas)
take place daily. The Cohseo is a. large amphitheatre,
with an arena in the middle. The game-cocks trained
for this sport have the spur removed from the right foot,
and in its stead is substituted a small sharp steel blade,
curved and shaped hke a scythe. One or other of the
animals is" frequently killed at the first spring ; and
when that is not the case, they continue fighting until
they die of wounds and exhaustion. It is a cruelsport,
and a worthy pendant to bull-fighting. The first Cohseo
was erected in 1 762, by Don Juan Garrial. The present
building, in the Plazuela de Santa Catahna, is a very
handsome structure, and Lima may fairly boast of pos
sessing the finest circus for cock-fighting in all the world.
In -the same square with the Coliseo de gallos is the
tennis-court, a spacious area, surrounded by high walls.
It is not now so much resorted to as formerly^ for the
Creoles are not so fond of tennis as the Spaniards.
A beautiful stone bridge unites the town with the
suburb of San Lazaro. This bridge was built in the
years 1638-1640, when the Marquis de Monies Claros
was viceroy of Peru. The plan: was designed by Fray
Geronimo Villegas, an Augustine monk. It is 530 feet
long, and has six arches rising thirty-seven feet above
the surface of the water. The foundation of the piers is

THE BRIDGE, AND THE CITY WALL. 87
composed of square blocks of stone, the piers themselves
are of brick, and the parapet of cemented stone- work.
The erection of this bridge cost 400,000 dollars. A
sufficient proof of its strength and solidity is the fact that
it survived the earthquakes of 1687 and 1746, which
shattered all other parts of Lima. In the earthquake: of
1746 the first arch, on which stood an equestrian statue
of Philip V., was destroyed, but it is now restored. It
has on one side two towers, with a dial in the middle.
The city of Lima, with the exception of a portion; of
the north side, and the suburb of Sari Lazaro, is sur
rounded by a wall built of brick. This wall was con
structed in the year 1585, when the Duque de la Plata
was viceroy. It is the work of a Fleming, named
Pedro Ramon. This wall is between eighteen and twenty
feet high. Its breadth at the base is from ten to twelve
feet, and at the top nine feet. It does not therefore
afford sufficient space for mounting large guns. Along
the whole extent of the wall there are thirty-four
bastions. In tii§ year 1807, this wall, which had fallen
into a very ruinous condition, was repaired by .order of
the viceroy Abascal, and put into a condition to be
mounted with artillery. On eaflh side commodious path
ways were made, and along the inner side powder
magazines were constructed. At present these fortifica
tions are in a state of complete dilapidation. The paths
which are obstructed by rubbish, are almost impassable,
and the powder magazines are destroyed. The city wall
of Lima has nine gates {Portadas). Of these six only
are now open, viz., the Portadas of MaraviUas, Barbones

88 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Cocharcas, Guadelupe, Juan Simon, and Callao ; the
three others, the Portadas of Martinete, Monserrat, and
Santa Catahna, are walled up. At every one of the
open gates there are stationed custom-house guards,
whose chief, duty consists in preventing the smuggled
introduction of unstamped silver {plata de pina). In the
direction of the suburb of San Lazaro, the city cannot be
closed, as the wall does not extend to that part. Between
San Lazaro, and the high road to Cerro de Pasco, is
the Portada de Guias ; this, however, is not properly a
gate, but a small custom-house. In this direction it is
easy to gain entrance to the city from the river, and
consequently it is here that most of the contraband
silver, brought from the mountains, is smuggled.
Among the fortifications of Lima may be included the
pretty httle castle of Santa Catahna, situated at the
eastern end of the city, between the Portada de Cochar
cas and the Portada de Guadelupe, at the distance of
about two hundred yards from the city wall. It is
surrounded by rather high walls, and is flanked by two
bastions. The interior of this citadel is very well ,.
arranged, and is kept much cleaner than such places
usually are in Peru. It contains stores of arms and
barracks for the artillery. The largest barracks in
Lima are those of the infantry, Quartel de Lnfanteria, in
the Colegio. They are remarkable for want of cleanli
ness, and like most of the pubhc buildings in this inter
esting city, going fast to decay.

CHAPTER V.
Population of Lima — Its diminution — Different races of the Inhabitants — Their
characteristics — Amusements — Education — The Women of Lima, — Their
Costume — The Soya y Ma/nto — Female domestic life — Love of dress —
Beatas — Indians — Slaves — Bosales — Free Creoles — Negroes — Negresses —
Black Creoles — Their varieties — Mestizos — Mulatoes — Palanganas — Zam-
bos — Chinos — Foreigners in Lima — Corruption of the Spanish language.
Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now
take a glance at the inhabitants of the capital of Peru :
first, surveying the native in his fatherland, and next,
the foreign settler in his adopted country.
The population of Lima has at various periods under
gone -remarkable fluctuations. In the year 1764 the
number of the inhabitants was stated to be 54,000 ; in
1810, 87,000 ; in 1826, 70,000 ; in 1836, 54,600 ; and
in 1842, 53,000. Of most of these estimates I enter
tain some degree of distrust, as they are merely founded
on general calculations, and are not the results of
careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that the
population of Lima has very considerably decreased
since the declaration of independence. This is suffi
ciently proved by the fact that several parts of the city
are now totally uninhabited : the houses falhng to decay,
and the gardens lying waste.
The cause of this diminished population is easily

90 TRAVELS IN PERU.
explained by the physical and political condition of the
country. ' Earthquakes have, at various times, buried
thousands of people beneath the ruins of their own
dwellings ; the war of independence was attended
by vast sacrifices of life; banishment and voluntary
emigration have removed from Lima the families of
some of the principal citizens ; and epidemic disease,
the natural consequence of defective police regulations, -
has swept away countless multitudes of the inhabit
ants. The number of new settlers is very inconsi
derable ; and for several past years the number of
deaths has nearly doubled that of the births. There
appears no reason to doubt that this decrease of popu
lation will continue ; because, as will presently be seen,
the causes to which it is assignable cannot be checked,
inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the
character of the nation. Most of these causes operate
not only in the capital, but over the whole country ;
indeed, in the latter their influence is in some instances
much greater ; for example, in the interior of Peru the
loss of hfe attendant on the war was relatively much
greater than in Lima., This favoured country, which
extends from the 3rd to the 22nd degree of south lati
tude, and which contained at the time of its conquest
by the Spaniards an immense population, though its
amount is not known with numerical exactitude, now
counts only 1,400,000 inhabitants.
In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate
of Santa Cruz, in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of
Lima is represented as follows : —

POPULATION OP LIMA. 91
Mole. Female. Total.
1. White Creoles (being the descendants of foreigners,
but chiefly of Spaniards)  9,423 10,170 19,593
2. Indians  2,561 2,731 5,292
3. People of Colour (mixed races) . . . . 11,771 12,355 24,126
4. Slaves  2?186__3i60£_-~J,792
5. Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic) . . . . 475 350 825
In all . . . . 26,416. 29,212 54,628
From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5
excepted) there is a preponderance of females; and
that on the whole population of 54,628 individuals
there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in every
sixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood.
Possibly in no other place in the world is there so
much variety of complexion and physiognomy as in
Lima. From the delicately fair Creole daughter of
European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people
of every gradation of colour are seen living in intimate
relation one with another. The two extreine classes —
the whites and blacks — are as distinct, in character
as in colour, and of either, of those it is no difficult task
to give an accurate portraiture. But it is different with
the mixed races. To defirie their characteristics cor
rectly would be impossible, for their minds partake of
the mixture of their blood. As a general rule, it may
fairly be said that they unite in themselves all the faults;
without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. As
men they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as
members of society they are the worst class of citizens.
Here, as well as in the following delineations of the
different races, I wish my observations to be understood
only in a general sense. I have met with some honour-

92 TRAVELS IN PERU.
able exceptions ; though, unfortunately, they were mere
solitary luminaries, whose transient light has been
speedily obscured by the surrounding darkness.
The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions,
are the descendants of Spaniards, constitute somewhat
less than a third part of the population of Lima. They
are slender in figure and- of middhng height. Their
features are strongly marked, their complexions fair and
pale, and their hair is of the darkest black. The men are
feeble and look prematurely old. Their countenances,
though not devoid of dignity, have a sort of sensual
expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any
kind of active exertion. If they ride. the distance of
ten miles, they think they have performed a feat of
heroism worthy to be recorded in the state archives. If
the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in
physical organization, they are no less beneath them in.
qualities of mind. They shrink from anything that
demands intellectual exertion. In short, they are sworn
enemies to business of every kind, and those who are
obhged to work for their own support, make choice of
some occupation which, like that of a shopman, affords
them ample time to smoke cigars and to gossip with
their neighbours. The richer classes give themselves up
wholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their
acquaintances, or they lounge in shops or at the corners
of streets, and in that manner they often amuse them
selves for half a day. Those who are owners of
plantations occasionally ride through them to receive
reports from their mayordomos. Their afternoons are

WHITE CREOLES. 93
usually spent in the Coliseo de gallos, in the coffee
houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creoles are
as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and
sums equal to those staked at the gaming-tables of
Mexico and the Havannah are daily lost and won in
Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet
they are very pubhcly played, and it is only now and
then that the pohce enforce the regulations of the law
by the seizure of a bank.
Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the
most determined gamblers do not show themselves very
much excited either by losses or winnings. The dis1-
covery of false dice, however, creates bitter feehngs
of animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassi
nation. Of this I knew several instances when I was in
the interior of the country.
The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima
is exceedingly defective. He is not wanting in talent ;
but an imperfect system of education affords him no
opportunity for the development of his faculties, and
innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement by
Study. He seldom rises above the level of every-day
life, and is ignorant of everything beyond the boundary
of the city, or, at all events, of the province in which he
was born. I have often been amazed at the monstrous
ignorance of so-called, educated Peruvians, respecting
the situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the
productions of their native country.
On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that
Lima has been the birthplace of several white Creoles,

94 TRAVELS IN PERU.
whose talents and learning have honorably distinguished
them from the rest of their countrymen. For example,
Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the " Interpretaciones
de los Leyes de Indias."* Don Miguel Nunez de Rojas,
the learned Judge of Confiscations in the Spanish war
of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde de San Donas,
who in the reign of Philip IV. was Spanish Ambassador
at the Court of France. Among those eminent in litera
ture may be named Don Pedro de la Reyna Maldonado,
and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera, of whom
Cervantes in his " Galatea" says—
Su divina ingenio ha producido
En Arequipa eterna Primavera.f
Several monks distinguished for learning have been
white Creoles, and an eminent individual of that race
was Don Hipohto Unanue, the author of the " Guide to
Peru," and " Observations on the Climate of Lima, and
its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;" J a
Treatise on the Cocoa-tree, &c. In more recent times,
Don Mariano ^Eduardo de RivOro has zealously devoted
himself to the study of natural history and antiquities.
But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his
good qualities. He is an enemy to strong drinks.
When he takes wine it is usually of some sweet kind,
and of that he partakes very sparingly; A white
Creole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a
rare sight. Not so in the interior of the country?
* Interpretations of the Indian Laws'.
+ His divine genius has produced eternal spring in Arequipa.
X " Guia del Peru." " Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima y sus influencias
en los seres organizados en especial el hombre."

THE LADIES OF LIMA. 95
where the whites are remarkable for intemperate
drinking.
. Far superior to the men, both physically arid intel
lectually, are the women of Lima. Nature haS lavishly
endowed them with many of her choicest gifts. In
figure they are usuaUy slender and rather tall, and
they are especially rerharkable for small, elegantly
formed feet. Their fair faces, from which the glowing
breath of the tropics banishes every trace of bloom, are
animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features
are pleasing — the nose being well formed, though ; in
general not small— the mduth invariably adorned with
two rows of brilliant white teeth,* and their long black
hair, arranged in plaits, .falls gracefully over the bosom
and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating grace of
manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree
of gentleness and amiabihty, and it will be readily
admitted that the Limena is a noble specimen of female
loveliness. At homer especially in the summer season, the ladies
of Lima dress lightly- and even negligently. For visit
ing, or going to the theatres, they adopt the French
fashions. When walking in the streets', attending
church, joining rehgious processions, &c, they appear
in a very singular costume, peculiar to Lima, and con
sisting of two garments called the Say a and the Manto.
Of the saya there are two kinds. The one called the
* The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a day with the root
called Bate de diemtes (literally root for the teeth) of which they keep a piece
constantly in their pocket.

96 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Saya ajustada, was formerly in general use, but is now
seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of
thick stiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small
fluted folds, drawn very close together at the waist
and widening towards the ankles, beneath which the
saya does not descend. . It is tight to the form, the
outhne of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness
to the limbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When
wearing the Saya ajustada, the ladies find it no very
easy task to kneel down at church, and at the termi
nation of every genuflexion, they are obliged to twist
and twirl about for a considerable time before they can
again stand on their feet.*
The other description of saya is called the Saya
culeca, or the Saya desplegada. It is plaited close at
the waist, and from thence downwards it stands out
like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya is made by
first being plaited both at top and bottom hke the
Saya ajustada; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are
undone to form the Saya desplegada. The saya is
always made of some dark-coloured silk, black, green,
blue, or cinnamon colour.
* It is related that, during the war of independence, when Lima was alter
nately hi possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, a party of the latter in
Order to ascertain the spirit of the Limenos, disguised themselves as Patriots
and marched to the vicinity of the town. On their approach becoming known,
a great number of persons proceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them.
Among those who went forth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number
of women dressed in the narrow sayas above described. When the disguised
Spaniards had advanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they
began to attack them. The men saved themselves by flight ; but the women,
whose sayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost all
killed.

THE SAYA Y MANTO. 97.
The Manto is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a
band at the back of the waist, where it joins the saya.
From thence it is brought over the shoulders and head,
and drawn over the face so closely that only a small
triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through,
is left uncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the
shoulders conceals the whole of the under garment,
except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-gloved
hands, confines the folds of the manto, whilst the other
holds a richly embroidered pocket-handkerchief.
At first sight this costume has a very singular effect,
and it is long before the eye of a foreigner becomes
reconciled to it. The narrow saya is by no means
graceful ; the wide saya, on the other hand, is very
becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure
and elegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima
and saw the ladies closely muffled up in their mantos,
and carrying embroidered cambric handkerchiefs and
nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nuns
enjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any
other part of the world. After vespers, that is to say
half-past seven in the evening, the pohce regulations
prohibit any woman from appearing in the streets
dressed in the saya.
As this garment may be worn over a dress of the
ordinary kind, it is found to be very convenient, inas
much as it saves the trouble of a careful toilette.
During short visits the ladies do not take off the saya ;
but when making long visits they usually lay it aside.
The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful
H

98 TRAVELS IN PERU.
auxiliaries in the numerous intrigues in which the
Limerias frequently engage. A Tapada* indulges in
a vast deal of freedom when in the streets, and scruples
not to make satirical observations on anybody or any
thing that strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil,
or manto, is sacred, and should a man attempt to remove
it by force, he would run the risk of being severely
handled by the populace.
In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a
conspicuous part. A lady has been known to arrange
an assignation with a gentleman in the street, whilst her
husband, standing at the distance of a few yards and
conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has
httle suspected that the Tapada whose graceful figure he
admired, was his own faithful better-half. It frequently
happens that Dona Mariquita obhges Dona Merceditas,
or Dona Panchita with the loan of her saya, for the
purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealous
husband ; — the lady being well convinced that her kind
friends will render her the hke service in similar circum
stances. Sometimes a lady may be seen in an old
tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorest female might
be expected to wear ; but the costly shawl, the worked
pocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes,
betray the rank of the Tapada, and plainly denote that
she has salhed forth on an adventure. It is difficult,

* A Tapada is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds of her veil or manto.
The term is derived from the verb tapair, to cover or conceal. Taparse a medio
ojo, is said of a lady when she draws her manto over her face so as to leave only
one eye or rather the half of an eye uncovered. — T.

THE SAYA Y MANTO. 99
nay almost impossible, to recognise a lady thus muffled
up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may be supposed,
a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and
walk may be easily disguised.
It will readily be supposed that these concealments
sometimes occasion mortifying mistakes. On behold
ing a tall slender figure whose symmetrical contour is
discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and a
bright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the
manto, one may be induced to imagine that the charms
of a Hebe are concealed beneath the disfiguring garb.
But how great is the disappointment when an accidental
movement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an
ugly mulatta grinning from ear to ear.
Most foreigners who marry Limenas stipulate that
from the time of betrothal, their wives shall no longer
wear the sayay manto. The condition is agreed to ;
but how far it is faithfully observed the husbands best
know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confi
dence of their wishes being imphcitly obeyed; but
female ingenuity readily devises opportunities for
deception. The women of Lima never willingly re
nounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably asso
ciated with customs to which they are, heart and soul,
devoted. If we follow the Lime?) a (the white Creole, be it
understood,) into the retirement of domestic life, we
find that she is an affectionate mother, but not a very
clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a
great many more domestics than are necessary : some
H 2

100 TRAVELS IN PERU.
are servants, but most of them slaves. The estabhsh
ment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid, one or
two house-maids, a needle- woman, several men-servants,
and a httle negro or Indian, whose chief business is to
carry a carpet behind his mistress when she goes to
church. These servants all do as they please, and the
lady of the house concerns herself very httle about the
indolence which her want of vigilance encourages. She
rises at a late hour, and having dressed herself and
decorated her hair with sprigs of jasmine and orange
blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal being
ended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry
hours of mid-day she reposes, either by swinging in a
hammock or rechning on a sofa, and meanwhile smokes
a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and
the evening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or
on the bridge. Some few ladies employ themselves in
needle-work, in which they are often most accomplished
adepts ; they especially excel in embroidery and fancy
work ; but they never pursue these employments before
company. The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music.
Most of them play the piano-forte or the guitar, and
also sing ; but for want of good instruction neither their
playing nor their singing is above mediocrity. Smoking
is pretty general among females, at least those of ma
ture age ; but they indulge in this practice only in
their own apartments. Of late years the custom of
smoking has been on the dechne in Lima, in proportion
as it has been increasing on the continent of the old

PASSION FOR DRESS AND PERFUMES. 101
world. Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the con
vents, yet the nuns practise it to a great extent. They
use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff, which has the
effect of closing the breathing passage through the
nostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice.
With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress
appear to have reached their chmax. To this passion
for personal adornment they sacrifice everything. For
merly, when none but real pearls and diamonds were
worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her
husband by the purchase of those costly articles ; now,
however, thanks to French mock jewellery, they are
enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornaments at
trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness
for perfumes. They are continually besprinkling them
selves with eau de Cologne, esprit de Lavande, agua rica,
or mistura. The latter is a fragrant yellow-coloured water,
prepared from gillyflower, jasmine and flor de mistela
{Talinum umbellatum). They perfume their apartments
daily with Sahumerios (pastiles). When the lady of
the house wishes to show particular attention to her
visitors, she offers them perfumed water, dropping it
into the bosoms of the ladies, and on the pocket-hand
kerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use
of perfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Limerias
should be constantly complaining of headache, vertigo,
and other nervous ailments, or, to use their own phrase,
{los nervios).
Above all things the Limerias pride themselves in
the excessive smallness of their feet. Whether walking,

102 TRAVELS IN PERU.
standing, sitting, swinging in the hammock, or rechning on
the sofa, the grand object invariably is to display to advan
tage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, her intelligence,
her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentary
to a Limena than to admire the elegance of her feet.
All possible care is taken to preserve the small form of
the foot, and the Lima ladies avoid everything that may
tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes are usuaUy
made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid,
and are so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn
on and off without difficulty. It is usual to have two
new pairs every week, and the expense of a lady's shoes
not unfrequently amounts to two hundred dollars per
annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by the
Limerias : they call it una pataza inglesa (an English
paw). I once heard some Lima ladies extolling in high
terms the beauty of a fair European ; but all their
praises ended with the words : — " Pero que pie, valgame
Dios ! parece una lancha." (But what a foot, good
Heaven ! It is like a great boat.) Yet the feet of the
lady alluded to would not, in Europe, have been thought
by any means large.
Gourmanderie is one of the evil habits of the female
inhabitants of Lima. Between meals they are continu
ally eating sweetmeats and a variety of things. At one
moment they order tamal* next omitas,f then pan de
chancay (a sweet sort of bread) and biscuits, then masa-

* A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels of pork. It is
rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up.
¦f* Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins.

FEMALE NAMES. 103
morita morada* or frijoles coladas,f &c; and yet dinner
is partaken of with as hearty an appetite as though none of
these interludes had been introduced. Can it be matter
of surprise that the good ladies are constantly complain
ing of indigestion and mal de estomago f
In the interior of the houses cleanhness does not
extend beyond those apartments which are open to
visitors, namely the sala and the cuadro. The other
rooms of the house frequently bear more resemblance to
a stable than a human habitation, and' their condition
reflects httle credit on the domestic habits of the female
inmates. But even this is typical of the national charac
ter, — great outward show and httle inward worth.
At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the
names of many of the women of Lima. A child receives
the name of the saint or of the festival whose celebra
tion falls on the day of its birth. Those who happen to
come into the world on the days on which the Romish
Church celebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin
receive the most extraordinary names. For example, a
child born on the anniversary day of the manifestation.
to St. Francis, on the Snow Mountain, is named Niiives
(snow). Pilar (fountain-basin), is another strange name,
conferred in honour of the manifestation of the Virgin at
the Fountains in Saragossa. Then there are Concep-
cions, Natividads, and Asuncions, without number.
A girl born on Candlemas-day is named Candelaria,
and one born on the first day of the year receives the
* A syrup made from the pulp of fruit. + Preserved peas with syrup.

104 TRAVELS IN PERU.
name of Jesus. The singular effect of these names is
heightened by the Spanish custom of using diminutives,
formed by adding to the name the particle ito or ita,
the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine.
It may be readily imagined that a foreigner is not
a little startled on hearing a young lady called Dona
Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes a form
totally different from the full name ; as, for example,
Panchita for Francisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for
Concepcion. A married woman does not take the
family name of her husband, but retains her own, adding
to it her husband's name preceded by the particle de, as,
for example, Dona Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar.
On attaining a certain age, the Limefias totally alter
their habits of life. When their beauty fades, and they
cease to be the objects of compliment and flattery ; or
when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, in too many
instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake them
selves to piety, and become Beatas* The Limeria who
thus renounces the vanities of the world attends church
two or three times every day, confesses at least once every
week, retires during Lent to a house of penitence ; fasts,
prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, to whom
she sends presents of sweetmeats ; — and should the holy
man, as is usually the case, prefer riding to walking,
she shows her piety by giving him the use of her
Calesa to convey him from place to place.
The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extra-
* Literally Bigots.

INDIANS IN LIMA. 105
ordinary natural talent, though unfortunately it is rarely
cultivated. They possess shrewd and penetrating intelli
gence, clear judgment, and in general very just views
on the ordinary affairs of hfe. Like the" women of the
southern provinces of Spain they are remarkable for
quickness and smartness of repartee, and in a wordy
contest a Limena is sure to come off triumphant. They
have a great deal of decision of character, and a degree
of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the
female sex. In these respects they are infinitely superior
to the timid, spiritless men. In the various political re
volutions of the country the women have often taken an
active, and, in some instances, a more decided part than
the men.
The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the
population, being about 5000 in number. Among
them are as many emigrants as natives. Most of the
former are from the mountainous districts, and but few
are from places on the coast. Their character is, of
course, much modified by continual intercourse with the
whites ; but I will endeavour to describe them as they
show themselves in their original purity, marking the
distinctions observable between the Jndio Costeno
(the Coast Indian), and the Indio Serrano (the Moun
tain Indian). The Indians in Lima are active and
industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and by
the integrity of their deahngs they stand on a footing of
good credit with the great commercial houses. Those
who are employed as servants are less remarkable for
industry and honesty. They are reserved and suspi-

106 TRAVELS IN PERU.
cious ; qualities especially observable when they have
but recently emigrated into Lima. They combine per
sonal vanity with an inconceivable degree of dirtiness.
Their intellectual faculties are far beneath those of the
white Creoles, of whom they stand in a degree of fear,
which is not easily eradicated.
At a former period there existed in Lima a college
exclusively for noble-born Indians ; and the eldest sons
of the famihes descended from the Incas, when they
wished to study, were received at the expense of the
State into the College of San Carlos ; but since the
declaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed
by the Indians have been annulled.
The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the popu
lation. Their number amounts to upwards of 10,000,
of which 4800 are slaves. Though an article in the
Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru no
person is born a slave," yet the National Congress has
on various occasions thought fit to deviate from this
principle. In Huaura it was decreed that children born
in-slavery shall be free on attaining the age of twenty-five,
and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the period to
fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes
from Africa, for an article in the Charter just men
tioned sets forth that "every person who may be
brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru, is
free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of
that repubhc." Accordingly if a Peruvian take his
slave with him on a journey to Chile, and brings him
back again, the slave may,, on his return, claim his

SLAVE POPULATION. 107
freedom. The only exception to this rule refers tp run
away negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be
reclaimed on their return. The value of slaves is not
so high in Peru as in the southern states of North
America. In Lima, the average price of a young,
strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of a
negress, especially a Negra de Chavra (capable of field
work), is 100 dollars higher. The value of those destined
for domestic service depends on character and qualifica
tions. A negress who is a good cook or needlewoman,
is of course worth more than a negro who is to be em
ployed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the planta
tions their value depends wholly on health and strength.
The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the
Creoles, is exceedingly mild, and generally much on the
same footing as the treatment of servants in Europe.
It is seldom that a master inflicts severe corporeal
chastisement on a slave. If the latter requires punish
ment, he is sent into the Panaderia (the bakehouse)
to knead the dough and bake the bread, which work
they perform under the supervision of a Mayordomo,
who is usuaUy a hard task-master. Owing to the heat
of the climate, working in the Panaderia is more feared
by the slaves than any other kind of punishment.
In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves
are more favourable to them than the similar laws of
any other slave country. The slaves bring their com
plaints before a particular judge, whose business it is to
protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is free
whenever he can pay the sum which his master de.mands

108 TRAVELS IN PERU.
for him, — which sum in disputed cases is fixed by legal
decision. The slave also possesses the right of selling
himself to another master, and the latter may pay the
purchase-money to the former owner, who, however
unwillingly, is obhged to conclude the bargain. The
negroes have ample opportunities for saving money.
They are permitted, during five or six hours of the day,
to work for themselves ; so that in the course of a few
years they may with ease save the sum requisite for
purchasing their independence. But in general they
spend their earnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care
but little about obtaining their freedom. As slaves
they are provided with lodging, food, and clothing,
and they are nursed in sickness ; but as soon as they
become free, they must supply all these wants for them
selves ; an undertaking which their natural indolence
renders them httle inclined to. On the whole, domestic
negroes may be said to be willing slaves ; it is possibly
different with those employed in the plantations, who are
hable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew
an old negro, who had hoarded up 6000 dollars, and
yet did not purchase his own freedom, though he had
paid for the liberation of his children and his two sisters.
He often observed to me, that he should not be half so
well off if he were free.
The negroes brought from Africa, who are called
Bosales, are far better than the Creole negroes. In
physical strength they are inferior to the latter, and
are less lively; yet they are patient, and much more
faithful and attached to their masters than the Creole

A YOUNG NEGRO PRINCESS. 109
negroes born in Peru. The Bosales all have a cer
tain degree of pride, but especially those who are
of princely blood. A gentleman of old Spain bought
a young negro princess, who not without the greatest
difficulty could be brought to perform the duties of ser
vitude. When she was directed to go to market, she
set her basket down on the ground, and signified that
she had been accustomed to be served, and not to serve.
Some chastisement was resorted to, with the view of
compelling her to do the duty allotted to her ; but in
vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable.
Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her
eyes fixed on the ground, and muttering between her
teeth, in her broken Spanish, the words " Yo clavita! yo
clavita ! " * Then suddenly springing up, she would
strike her head against the wall until she became
almost senseless. As she showed a fondness for the
children of the family, she was reheved from household
work, and became the nursery-maid. In that way she
discharged the duties which devolved on her with the
most touching affection and fidelity ; but she never
would do anything, however trivial, which she considered
to be menial service, and her master and mistress were
reasonable enough not to require it.
When the number of the African negroes in Lima
was more considerable than it now is, the various races
kept together, and formed themselves into unions, called
Cofradias. They used to meet together at regular
* Meaning To escloyoita/ (I, » slave !) Esclavita being the diminutive of
Esclava.

110 TRAVELS IN PERU.
periods. At these meetings the negroes of princely
descent were treated with marks of respect which they
could scarcely have received in their native home.
Speeches were delivered, and rehgious ceremonies per
formed ; whilst music, singing, and dancing revived
recollections of past happiness, and of the far-distant
native land. These Cofradias were also conducive to
philanthropic ends ; for when a slave had a hard
master, the sum requisite for purchasing his freedom
was raised by a general subscription in the union to
which he belonged. Since the independence of Peru,
and the consequent prohibition of the importation of
negroes, the Cofradias have dechned, and have lost
much of their original character. Creoles and free
negroes have now become members of them. The
places in which these meetings are held are situated
in the suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the rooms
are painted with grotesque figures of negro kings,
elephants, camels, palm trees, &c.
In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru,
the free negroes are a plague to society. Too indolent
to support themselves by laborious industry, they readily
fall into any dishonest means of getting money. Almost
all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of
Peru are free negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part
of their very nature ; and moreover, all their tastes
and inchnations are coarse and sensual. Many warm
defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by
ascribing them to the want of education, the recollec
tion of slavery, the spirit of revenge, &c. But I here

NEGRO TURPITUDE. Ill
speak of free-born negroes, who are adinitted into the
houses of wealthy families, who from their early child
hood have received as good an education as falls to the
share of many of the white Creoles — who are treated
with kindness and hberally remunerated, and yet they
do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are
shut out from these advantages. If the negro has
learned to read and write, and thereby made some
httle advance in education, he is transformed into a
conceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers
on the highway, finds in city hfe a sphere for the
indulgence of his evil propensities. What is the cause
of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes ? To
answer this important question is not easy, if we admit
the principle that the negro is as capable of cultivation
as the Caucasian ; and in support of it the names of
some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited. Those
who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who
are at the same time intimately acquainted with the
social relations of the countries in which free negroes
are numerous, may solve the problem. My opinion is,
that the negroes, in respect to capability for mental
improvement, are far behind the Europeans, and that,
considered in the aggregate, they will not, even with
the advantages of careful education, attain a very high
degree of cultivation ; because the structure of the
negro skull, on which depends the development of the
brain, approximates closely to the animal form. The
imitative faculty of the monkey is highly developed in
the negro, who readily seizes anything merely mecha-

112 TRAVELS IN PERU.
nical, whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond
his reach. Sensuality is the impulse which controls the
thoughts, the acts, the whole existence of the negroes.
To them freedom can be only nominal ; for if they con
duct themselves well it is because they are compelled, not
because they are inchned to do so. Herein he at once
the cause of, and the apology for, their bad character.
The negro women differ but httle from the men, in
their general characteristics. They are, however, more
active and industrious and better tempered. As
domestic servants they are superior to the mixed races.
They are much employed as nurses, and in those situa
tions they discharge their duties well. Their personal
vanity is boundless, and every real they can save is
spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusing to see
them, on festival days, parading about the streets,
dressed in white mushn gowns trimmed with lace, and
short sleeves displaying their black arms. Very short
petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle, serve to
exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and
light blue satin shoes. From their ears are suspended
long gold drops, and their uncovered necks are not
unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. A negress,
who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaint
ance, possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama
pearls, worth several thousand doUars. The pure white
of the pearls was wonderfully heightened by the contrast
of the jet-black skin of the wearer ; and for this reason
they were . more ornamental to the negress than they
would have been to the fairest lady in Europe.

PEOPLE OF MIXED RACES. 113
Having noticed the principal races, we will now con
sider the variegated mass of people of mixed blood,
who in Lima form a considerable portion of the popu
lation. Stevenson* gives a long hst of these mixed
races, and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to
say, how many eighths or sixteenths of black, brown, or
white colour belong to each. But these data respecting
tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely on external
appearance, they are liable to endless modifications.
Stevenson falls into the mistake of giving to the child
ren of a negro father and a white mother, the name of
Zambos ; whilst to the offspring of a white father and a
black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a
similar error, he terms the children of a white man and
a Cuarterona, Quinteros ; and to those of a Cuarteron
and a white woman, he gives the designation Cuar-
terones. It is, however, an estabhshed rule, that the
children bear the designation, denoting the same degree
of mixed blood, whatever may respectively be the
colours of the parents. Accordingly, the child of a
negro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a
Mulatto ; just the same as though the relations of race
on the part of the parents were transposed. When a
man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than
himself, and his children thereby become further re
moved from the white tint, it is said to be un paso atras
(a step backwards).
In Europe it is very common to attach to the term
» Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, by W. B. Stevenson.
I

114

TRAVELS IN PERU.

Creole, the idea of a particular complexion. This is a
mistake. The designation Creole properly belongs to
all the natives of America born of parents who have
emigrated from the Old World, be those parents. Euro
peans or Africans. There are, therefore, white as well
as black Creoles *.
The subjoined hst shows the parentage of the dif
ferent varieties of half-casts, and also the proper desig
nations of the latter :-—

PARENTS.
White Father and Negro Mother
White Father and Indian Mother
Indian Father and Negro Mother
White Father and Mulatta Mother
White Father and Mestiza Mother

White Father and China Mother
White Father and Cuarterona Mother .
White Father and Qnintera Mother .
Negro Father and Mulatta Mother
Negro Father and Mestiza Mother .
Negro Father and China Mother .
Negro Father and Zamba Mother . . .
Negro Father and Cuarterona or Quintera
Mother 
Indian Father and Mulatta Mother
Indian Father and Mestiza Mother . . .
Indian Father and China Mother .
Indian Father and Zamba Mother . . .
Indian Father and China-Chola Mother
Indian Father and Cuarterona or Quintera
Mother 
Mnlatto Father and Zamba Mother
Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother . .
Mulatto Father and China Mother

CHILDREN.
Mulatto. Mestizo.Chino.Cuarteron.
Creole (only distinguished from
the White, by a pale-brownish
complexion.)
Chino-BIanco.Quintero. White.
Zambo-Negro.Mulatto-Oscuro.
Zambo-Chino. Zambo-Negro (perfectly black.)
Mulatto (rather dark.)
Chino-Oscuro. Mestizo-Claro (frequently very
beautiful.)
Chino-Cholo. Zambo-Claro. Indian (with rather short frizzy
hair.)
Mestizo (rather brown.)
Zambo (a miserable race.)
Chino (of rather clear com
plexion.)
Chino (rather dark.)

* The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word criollo, which is
derived from trior to create or to foster. The Spaniards apply the term criollo

WHITE CREOLE WOMEN. 115
Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are
many others^ not distinguished by particular names, as
they do not in colour materially differ from those above
specified. The best criterion for determining the varie
ties is the hair of the women : this is far less deceiving
than the complexion, for the colour of the skin is some
times decidedly at variance with that characteristic of the
race. Some of the Mulatta females have complexions
brilliantly fair, and features which, for regularity, may
vie with those of the most beautiful women of Europe ;
but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent in the
short woolly hair.
The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar
quickness in detecting a person of half-cast at the very
first glance ; and to the less practised observer they
communicate theii- discoveries in this way, with an air
of triumph ; for they have the very pardonable weak
ness of priding themselves in the purity of their Euro
pean descent. Despite the republican constitution, there
prevails throughout Peru a strong pride of cast, which
shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels; for
example, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker
one about his descent. By all the varieties, the white
skin is envied, and ho one thinks, of disputing its supe
riority of rank. The Indian looks with abhorrence on
the Negro ; the latter with scorn on the Indio. The
Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks
that the httle tinge of black in his skin does not justify
not merely to the human race, but also to animals propagated in the colonies,
but of pure European blood: thus they have ereole horses, bullocks, poultry, &c.
I 2

116 TRAVELS IN PERU.
his being ranked lower than the Mestizo, who after all
is only an Indio bruto* The Zambo laughs at them
all, and says " if he himself is not worth much, yet he is
better than his parents." In short, each race finds, a
reason for thinking itself better than another.
In the commencement of the present chapter I made
the observation that the people of mixed blood unite in
themselves all the faults without any of the virtues of
their progenitors. To this general remark, however, the
Mestizos form an honourable exception. They inherit
many of the good qualities both of the Whites and
the Indians. They are mild and affectionate. Their.
feehngs are very exciteable, and they readily per
form an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse,
of the moment — but they are irresolute and timid. .
They attach themselves affectionately to the Whites ;
but they are not partial to the Indians, whom they
regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima
their number is less considerable than in the interior
of the country, where whole villages are inhabited
solely by Mestizos. In those places they style them
selves Whites, and hold themselves very much aloof
from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better
compliment than to inquire whether they are Spaniards,
a question which they always answer in the affirmative,
though their features are plainly impressed . with the
Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos is
usually a clear brown ; but in some individuals it has
* A brutish Indian ; a favourite expression of the Limenos when speaking of
the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment.

PALANGANAS. 117
a very dark tinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very
strong. The women frequently wear their hair in two
long plaits descending nearly to the knees. The men
are strongly made, have marked features and but very
httle beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen
and traders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in
Lima are Mestizos.
The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In
person they are less strongly made ; but in intellect
they are superior to any of the half-casts. They pos
sess a very great aptitude for mechanical employments,
great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitative
talent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly deve
loped. They are exceedingly impressionable, and all
their feelings are readily exalted into passions. In
different to all but sensual enjoyments, they indulge in
the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and are
regardless of the ¦ future. There is a certain class of
Mulattos, who, in a psychological point of view, are very
remarkable. They are distinguished by the nick-name
Of Palanganas* They are gifted with wonderful
memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat,
word for word, speeches or sermons which they have
heard only once. With this extraordinary power of
memory, they combine a fertile fancy, and a boundless
share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anything to
be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and

* The word Palamgana signifies a Wash-hand-basin ; but more especially the
kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term is used to designate an
empty babbler.

118 TRAVELS IN PERU.
they repeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures
all that they hear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in
Congress, or an address dehvered at any pubhc solemnity.
The Mulattos now study theology ; for, since the esta
bhshment of independence the Indian law, which pro
hibited any person of mixed blood from entering the
ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed. Many have
devoted themselves to medicine ; and most of the
physicians in Lima are Mulattos ; but they are remark
able only for their ignorance, as they receive neither
theoretical nor clinical instruction. Nevertheless, they
enjoy the full confidence of the pubhc, who rank
the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner.
The business of a barber is one that is much ¦ followed
by the Mulattos of Lima. In that occupation they are
quite in their element, for they -possess all the qualifica
tions for which the members of that fraternity are
distinguished in all parts of the world.
Among the Mulatta females many are remarkably
beautiful— though they are always wanting in that oval
form of the 'face which is the first condition of classic
beauty. Their countenances are generally round and
broad, their features strongly marked,, and their expres
sion impassioned. Their beauty soon fades ; and as
they advance in life the negro character of their features
becomes distinctly; defined. Their hair, which does
not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black and
frizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses,
frequently making more than a hundred. Their com
plexions vary from white to dark-brown ; but most of

ZAMBOS AND CHINOS. 119
them are dark brunettes, with large black eyes and
pearl-white teeth.
Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses,
but it is combined with a certain degree of taste, in
which the latter are wanting. The Mulatta women are
passionately fond of music, singing and dancing. They
play the guitar and have pleasing voices, but their
singing is quite uninstructed.
The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts.
With them every vice seems to have attained its utmost
degree of development ; and it may confidently be said
that not one in a thousand is a useful member of
society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of
the criminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos.
They commit the most hideous crimes with the utmost
indifference, and their lawless propensities are conti
nually bringing them into collision with the constituted
authorities. In moral nature they are below the
Negroes; for they are totally wanting in any good
quahties possessed by the latter. Their figures are
athletic, and their colour black, : sometimes slightly
tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flat
than those of, the Negroes, but their lips are quite as
prominent. Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and
their hair very httle longer than that of the Negroes, but
curling in larger locks. The men have very httle beard.
The Chinos are but httle superior to the Zambos.
Indeed, in physical formation they are inferior to them,
for they are small and attenuated. Their countenances
are hideously ugly. They have the Negro nose and

120 TRAVELS IN PERU.
mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes.
Their hair is black, rough, but less frizzy than that of
the Mulattos. They are deceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel.
They never forget an offence, but brood over it till an
opportunity, however distant, presents itself for wreaking
their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies.
Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, espe
cially the Cuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but
little to be said. Both physically and morally they
approximate closely to the whites, among whom they
almost rank themselves.
The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed
throughout the whole of Peru, are the families of the
Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated to South
America before the war of independence. Since the
close of that struggle there has been but little emigra
tion, as the circumstances of the country are not now
very favourable to new settlers. The old Spanish
families are for the most part landed proprietors or
merchants. They are people of very temperate habits, '
but they are passionately fond of gaming, and in this
respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritance
to the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which
distinguished the Spaniards before the independence
are now broken, if not entirely subdued. The inter
course between them and the natives, though still
somewhat constrained, is every year becoming: more
and more friendly, as the privileges enjoyed by the
Spaniards, which were a continued cause of hostile
feeling, are now removed.

FOREIGNERS IN . LIMA. 121
Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class .of
foreigners are the Italians. These are chiefly Genoese,
and the majority are run-away sailors and adventurers.
They usuaUy begin by setting up a Pulperia (a brandy
shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic
until, in the course of a few years, they amass money
enough to return to their native country. Some of them
make good fortunes and possess extensive warehouses.
The French in Lima occupy the same positions as
their countrymen in Valparaiso, viz., they are tailors
and hair-dressers, dealers in jewellery and millinery.
The English and North Americans, who are much
better liked by the natives than the French, are chiefly
merchants. They are the heads of the principal: com
mercial houses, as Gibbs, Crawley, & Co., Alsop, & Co.,
Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Gruning, & Co.,
&c. The enterprising spirit of the English and : North
Americans has led many of them into extensive mining
speculations, which in some instances have proved very
unfortunate. The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They
are distinguished by their aptitude for business, and
many of them fill high situations in the great Enghsh
commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by
the natives. The general gravity of their manners has
given rise, among the Limenos, to the saying, " Serio
como un Aleman" — Serious as a German.
Settlers from the other American repubhcs have of
late years considerably increased in Lima. After the
Chilian expedition, many Chilenos estabhshed them-

122 TRAVELS IN PERU.
selves in Peru, and numbers of Argentines, escaping
from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have
taken refuge in Lima.
Foreigners being in general more industrious and
more steady than the Creoles, the Limerios readily form
connections with them. The ladies generally prefer
marrying a Gringo* 'to a Paisanito.f
I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima,
with some remarks on the Spanish language as spoken
in the capital of Peru. The old Spaniards, who brought
their various dialects into the New World, retain them
there unchanged. The Gahcian transposes the letters
g and_/; the Catalonian adds an * to the final syllables
of words, and gives a peculiarly harsh sound to the
letter _; ; the Andalusian rolls the r over bis tongue, and
imparts a melodious expression even to harsh-sounding
words ; the Biseayan mingles a variety of provincialisms
withihis own pecuhar dialect. The Madrileno (native of
Madrid) prides himself here, as well as in Europe, in
being far superior to the rest of his countrymen in
elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, have
gradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their
progenitors, and have adopted new ones, varying one
from another in the different South American provinces.
The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives of Peru,
differs widely from the correct and pure model of pro-
* Ormgo is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probably derived from
Oriego (Greet). The Germans say of anything incomprehensible "That
sounds like Spanish," — and in like manner the Spaniards say of anything they
do not understand " That is Greek."
+ Paiswnito is the diminutive of Paisano (Compatriot.)

CORRUPTION OP THE SPANISH LANGUAGE. 123
nunciation. The inhabitants of the coast have too soft
an accent, and they frequently confound, one with
another, letters which have a mutual resemblance in
sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in the
mountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and
very imgisimriiatically. As the Swiss force out their
guttural tones from the lowest depth of their throat, and
with the strongest possible aspiration ; so do the Peru
vians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants of the sand
flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludi
crously soft sound to the harsher consonants ; and the
same peculiarity is observable in the people who inhabit
the coast of Peru.
Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles
speak the best Spanish.; but still their language is far
from pure. The ladies in particular have the habit of
substituting one letter for another in certain words ; for
example, instead of pulso (pulse) they say pur so, and
instead of salsa (sauce) they say sarsa. In other
words they substitute d for r, saying amod for amor,
cavalledo for cavalier o. The 11 is frequently sounded by
the Peruvians likey, a blunder which foreigners are also
very apt to commit ; for example, in the word polio
(chicken), which they pronounce as if it were spelled
poyo, and gallina (hen) they pronounce as if spelled
gayina. Not only do they confound single letters, but
they frequently change whole syllables ; as for instance,
in the word pared (wall), which they transform into
pader. The name of the well-known ex-President
Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of the natives of Lima, pro-

124 TRAVELS IN PERU.
nounced as if written Obregoso. There is no word in
the Spanish language beginning with an s followed by a
consonant, and the Limerios, when they attempt to pro
nounce foreign words or proper names commencing in
the manner just described, never fail to prefix to them
the letter e. I know not whether in the schools and col
leges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter e is
adopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal
among the students of all the . colleges in : Lima. For
studium they say estudium; for spurius, espurius; for
sceleratus, esceleratus, &c.
To the Limefios the correct pronunciation of these
words is extremely difficult, and many have assured me
that they find it impossible to omit the e before the s.
Still more arbitrary is their conversion of h into k in
the words mihi, nihil, Sec, which they pronounce miki,
nihil. The coloured Creoles, who are generally uneducated,
speak the Spanish language much more corruptly than
the whites. The Negroes have a very bad accent.
Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation
of the Spanish language, which many of them render
unintelligible by transposing • letters and lopping off
syllables.

CHAPTER VI.
Primary Schools — Colleges — The University — Monks — Saints — Santo Toribio
and Santa Rosa — Religious Processions — Raising the Host — The Noche
Buena — The Carneval — Paseos, or Public Promenades^— Ice — Riding and
Driving — Horses — Their Equipments and Training — Mules — Lottery in
Lima — Cookery — Breakfasts, Dinners, &c. — Coffee-houses and Restaurants
— Markets — The Piano Pirme del Acho — Bull Fights,
Schools for primary instruction are numerous in Lima,
and upon the whole they are tolerably well con
ducted. There are thirty-six of these primary schools,
pubhc and private ; twenty for boys, and sixteen for
girls ; and altogether about 2000 pupils * receive in
these establishments the first elements of juvenile
instruction. The principal public institutions of this
class are the Normal School of Santo Tomas (in which
the Lancastrian system is adopted), and the Central
School of San Lazaro. Each contains from 320 to 350
pupils. Of the private schools, some are very well con
ducted by Europeans. The College of Nuestra Seiiora
de Guadalupe was founded a few years ago by two
Spanish merchants. In this estabhshment the sons of
the wealthier class of people may receive a better educa
tion than they can obtain in the pubhc schools. There
* A very small number in a population of 55,000.

126 TRAVELS IN PERU.
are three Latin schools, and the number of pupils attend
ing them amounts to about two hundred.
The College of Santo Toribio is exclusively appro
priated to students of theology, who are likewise received
into the College of San Carlos, though the latter is
chiefly destined for the study of jurisprudence. San
Carlos was founded in the year 1770 by the Viceroy
Amat, who incorporated with it the previously existing
Colleges of San Martin and San Fehpe. In the year
1822 the Colegio de Esquilache was hkewise united to
San Carlos, which now contains about a hundred
students. The building is large and commodious, con
taining spacious halls, a fine refectory, and a well-stored
hbrary. There are five professors of law and two of
theology. French, Enghsh, geography, natural philo
sophy, mathematics, drawing, and music are hkewise
taught in this college. The annual revenue of the
estabhshment, exclusively of the fees paid by the
students, amount to 19,000 dollars. During the war of
emancipation, this estabhshment for a time bore the
name of Colegio de San Martin, in honour of General
San Martin, the liberator of Chile ; but its original title
was soon restored.
The Colegio de San Fernando was founded in 1810
by the Marques de la Concordia, for students of medi
cine. In the year 1826 this Institution received the
name of Colegio de la Medecina de la Independencia, a
title which it justly merits, for certainly medicine is
taught there with a singular independence of all rules
and systems. The Professors, who themselves have

LEARNED AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS. 127
never received any regular instruction, communicate
their scanty share of knowledge in a very imperfect
manner to the students. The number of the students
is between twelve and fifteen, and there are two Pro
fessors. The clinical lectures are delivered in the
Hospital of San Andres, to which an anatomical amphi
theatre was attached in 1792. The heat of the climate
renders it necessary that burials should take place
within twenty-four hours after death,, a circumstance
which naturally operates as an impediment to the fun
damental study of anatomy. It cannot therefore, be
matter of surprise that the native surgeons should have
but a superficial knowledge of that important branch of
science. In the University of San Marcos no lectures are
dehvered, and the twenty-five Professors' chairs are
merely nominal. Honours and degrees are however con
ferred in San Marcos, and the same rules and ceremo
nies are observed as in the Spanish Universities. In. the
departments of medicine and jurisprudence there are
three degrees ; those of Bachelor, Licentiate, and Doctor.
In former times the dignity of Doctor was conferred
with great pomp and solemnity, and the pubhc were
admitted in large numbers to witness the ceremony.
The acquisition of the degree of Doctor was then
attended by an expense of about two thousand dollars,
chiefly expended in presents. The new Doctor was
required to send to every member of the University,
from the Bachelors to the Rector, a new dollar, a goblet
full of ice, and a dish of pastry.

128 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Lima is overrun with monks, lay and conventual.
The monastic regulations are not very strict, for the
monks are permitted to leave the convents at all hours,
according to their own pleasure. They avail themselves
of this hberty to the utmost extent. Friars of various
orders are seen in the streets in numbers. Most of
them are fat Dominicans, who sit in the Portales playing
at draughts, or lounge in shops staring at the Tapadas as
they pass by. Many of these ecclesiastics are remark
able for their disregard of personal cleanhness ; indeed
it would be difficult to meet with a more slovenly, igno
rant, and common-place class of men. They frequent
all places of public entertainment, the coffee-houses, the
chichereas, the bull-fights, and the theatres : these two
last-mentioned places of amusement they visit in dis
guise. The Franciscans and the Mercenarias are httle
better than the Dominicans ; but the Descalzados (bare
footed friars), lead a somewhat more strict and regular
life. To the monks of the Buena Muerte belongs the
duty of administering the last consolation to the dying.
Whenever they hear of any person who is dangerously
ill, they hasten to the house without waiting till they
are sent for, and they never leave the invahd until he
either recovers or dies. Day and night they sit by the
sick-bed, and scarcely allow themselves time for neces
sary rest and refreshment. I have known many of these
monks who, from long experience and observation, but
without any medical knowledge, had acquired wonderful
shrewdness in determining the degree of danger in cases
of illness, and who could foretel with almost unfaihng

SANTO TORIBIO. 129
certainty the moment of dissolution. As soon as the
patient has breathed his last, the monk utters a short
prayer, then giving the corpse a knock on the nose, he
silently takes his departure. I have frequently wit
nessed this singular custom, but I never could discover
its origin or motive. The habit worn by the monks of
Buena Muerte is black with a large red cross on the
breast, and hats with high conical crowns.
Many pious natives, or inhabitants of Lima, have been
admitted among the number of the saints. Of these
the most distinguished was the Spaniard Toribio, who,
at the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled the
archiepiscopal chair in Lima. His kindness and charity
have become proverbial, and his many acts of benevo
lence are still ahve in the recoUection of the people.
Of many anecdotes that are related of him, I may here
quote one. Late one night, the patrol who was on
duty in the vicinity of the archbishop's palace, met a
man in the street carrying a heavy load on his back,
The challenge, " Who goes there % " was answered by
the name "Toribio." The watch, uttering an oath,
impatiently called out " Que Toribio % " (What Toribio 1)
"Elde la esquina!" (He who dwells at the corner!)
was the simple reply. The soldier angrily stepped up
to his interlocutor, and, to his astonishment, recognised
the archbishop, who was carrying a sick person to the
hospital. The saint to whom the Limenos render the highest
honour, is Santa Rosa, the saint of the city. She was
a native of Lima, and is the only Peruvian female
K

130 TRAVELS IN PERU.
who has attained the honour of being ranked among
the saints. On the 30th of August, the festival of
Santa Rosa is celebrated with great pomp in the
cathedral, and her image, richly bedecked with gold
and jewels, is carried in solemn procession from Santo
Domingo to the Sagrario.
Rehgious processions are among the most favourite
amusements of the inhabitants of Lima. They are always
very numerously attended ; and it may fairly be said
that no merry-making would afford the Limenos so much
diversion' as they derive from these pious solemnities.
Vast numbers of ladies join the processions as Tapadas,
indulging in all sorts of coquettish airs, and with
thoughts evidently bent on any subject but religion.
The gentlemen station themselves in groups at the
corners of the streets, to admire the graceful figures of
the Tapadas, whose faces are concealed ; and when the
procession has passed one corner they rush to another,
to see it defile a second time ; and in this manner
continue moving from place to place, as if they could
never see enough of the interesting spectacle. The
most brilliant processions are those which take place on
the festivals of Corpus Christi, San Francisco, and Santo
Domingo. A very solemn procession takes place on the
28th of October, the anniversary of the great earth
quake of 1746.
Every morning, at a quarter to nine, the great bell of
the cathedral announces the raising of the host, during
the performance of high mass. Immediately every
sound is hushed in the streets and squares. Coachmen

RAISING THE HOST. 131
stop the carriages, riders check their horses, and foot-
passengers stand motionless. Everyone suspends his
occupation or his conversation, and kneehng down, with
head uncovered, mutters a prayer. But scarcely has
the third solemn stroke of the bell ceased to vibrate,
when the noise and movement are resumed ; the brief
but solemn stillness of the few preceding moments being
thus rendered the more impressive by contrast. The
same incident is renewed in the evening, between six
and seven o'clock, when the bell sounds for the Angelus
(Oraciones). The cathedral bell gives the signal, by
three slow measured sounds, which are immediately
repeated from the belfreys of all the churches in Lima.
Life and action are then, as if by -an invisible hand,
suddenly suspended ; nothing moves but the lips of
the pious, whispering their prayers. The Oracion being
ended, everyone makes the sign of the cross, and says
to the person nearest him, Buefias noches (Good night).
It is regarded as an act of courtesy to allow another
to take precedence in saying " Good night," and if
several persons are together, it is expected that the
eldest or the most distinguished of the group should
be the first to utter the greeting. It is considered
pohte to request the person next one to say Buenas
noches ; he with equal civility dechnes ; and the alter
nate repetition of " diga Vm," (you say it), "No, Serior,
diga Vm." (No, Sir, you say it,) threatens sometimes to
be endless.
The effect produced by the three strokes of the
cathedral bell is truly astonishing. The half-uttered
K 2

132 TRAVELS IN PERU.
oath dies on the hps of the uncouth negro ;" the arm of
the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his ass, drops,
as if paralyzed ; the chattering mulatto seems as if
suddenly struck dumb ; the smart repartee of the
lively Tapada is , cut short in its dehvery ; the shop
keeper lays down his measure ; the artizan drops his
tool ; and the monk suspends his move on the draught
board : ah, with one accord, join in the inaudible prayer.
Here and there the sight of a foreigner walking along
indifferently, and without raising his hat, makes a
painful impression on the minds of the people.
ChristmaS-night {Noche buena) is a great festival in
Lima. The streets and squares, especially the Plaza
Mayor, are crowded with people, amusing themselves
in •all sorts of ways. Hundreds of persons take their
seats on the benches of the Plaza ; there they regale
themselves with sherbet, ices, and pastry, and look at
the dancing of the negroes, &c. On this occasion the
midnight mass is performed with extraordinary solem
nity. On Christmas-day some of the families of Lima
get up what are called Nacimientos, consisting of sym
bolical representations of the birth of the Saviour. On
some of these shows considerable expense and ingenuity-
are bestowed.
In Carnival time Lima is so unpleasant a place of
residence that many families retire to the country
during that season of misrule. One of the favourite
sports consists in sprinkling people with water ; and
from all the balconies various kinds of hquids are
thrown on the passerS-by. Groups of Negroes post

CARNIVAL TIME IN LIMA. 133
themselves at the corners of the streets, where they
seize people, and detain them prisoners, until they
ransom themselves by the payment of a certain sum of
money. Those who do not pay the money are rolled in
the street gutters, and treated in the most merciless
way ; whilst those who purchase grace escape with
having a few handfuls of dirty water thrown in their faces.
Even in private houses, relations and intimate acquaint
ances are guilty of the most unwarrantable annoy
ances. Parties of young men enter the houses of families
with whom they are acquainted, and begin sprinkling
the ladies with scented water. That being exhausted,
spring water, or even dirty water, is resorted to, so that
what began in sport ends in reckless rudeness. The
ladies, with their clothes dripping wet, are chased from
rooiri to room, and thereby become heated. The conse
quence is, in many instances, severe and dangerous
illness. Inflammation of the lungs, ague, rheumatism,
&c, are the usual results of these carnival sports, to
which many fall victims. A year never passes in
which several murders are not committed, in revenge
for offences perpetrated during the saturnalia of the
carnival. A very favourite trick adopted in carnival time, for
frightening people as they pass along the streets, is tije
following : — a sack, filled with fragments of broken glass
and porcelain, is fastened to the balcony by a strong rope,
of such a length that, when suspended from the window,
the sack is about seven feet above the street. The appa
ratus being all ready, a mischievous negress and her amita

134 TRAVELS IN PERU.
(young mistress) watch the passers-by until they select
one for their victim. The sack is then thrown over
the front of the balcony, and a deafening crash ensues,
though the rope prevents its contents from hurting
any one. It is well known that in almost every street
in Lima there is at least one balcony ready prepared for
the performance of this trick ; yet the suddenness of
the crash always proves a shock, even to the strongest
nerves. People start and run to one side of the street,
and are sometimes so terrified that they drop down ;
then loud laughter and jeering remarks are heard in the
balcony. Every year this trick is prohibited by the
pohce, but the prohibition is treated with contempt.
One of the most popular recreations of the Limenos,
especially of the people of colour, is the Paseo de Aman-
caes, which takes place on St. John's Day. The
Amancaes is a gently sloping plain, about half a mile
north-west of Lima, and it is bounded by a semicircular
range of hills, which rise from twelve to fifteen thousand
feet above the level of the sea. During the hot months
of the year this plain is a parched and barren waste ;
but when the misty and rainy season sets in, the Aman
caes is covered with numerous flowers, among which a
beautiful yellow hly is conspicuous. About the end of
June this hly is in full bloom. On St. John's Day
booths and stalls are fitted up for the sale of various
kinds of refreshments, and throngs of people of all classes
and colours are seen riding or walking in the direction
of the Amancaes. There they amuse themselves with
dancing, playing, eating, drinking, and gathering flowers ;

PUBLIC PROMENADES. 135
and in the evening they return to Lima. It is amusing
to see the Mulattas and Zambas with bouquets of
yeUow lihes stuck in their heads and bosoms. These
women crowd into heavily-laden vehicles, beside which
their black cavaliers ride on horseback — all laughing,
jesting, and giving vent to unrestrained mirth. From
the 24th of June to the end of October, pleasure parties
repair, on Sundays and festival days, either to the Aman
caes or to the Lomas. The latter is a range of hills a
httle further from Lima.
There is no want of promenades in the vicinity of
the city. Leading from the Callao gate is the fine long
avenue of trees I have already mentioned. In the
suburb of San Lazaro there is a fine broad promenade
planted with trees, called the Alameda vieja, at the end
of which is situated the Convent of the Descalzos.
Along the bank of the Rimac there is a new promenade,
"planted with four rows of trees, called the Alameda
nueva. Behind it the Paseo militar, with two rows of
trees, extending as far as Piedra lisa, on the road to the
pleasant village of Lurigancho. On the right of these
promenades is the river, on the left the pyramidal hill,
of the Cerro de San Cristoval. At the extremity of
the Alameda nueva are the pubhc baths of the Puquio.*
These baths are within a long low-roofed building,
covered on the top with straw mats.
On summer evenings the bridge and the Plaza Mayor
are visited by throngs of promenaders, who there enjoy
* Pitquio in the Quichua language signifies springs.

136 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the refreshing breeze, which, after sunset, is wafted
from the Cordilleras, along the surface of the Rimac.
After the hour of the Oraciones, (evening prayers), the
bridge is crowded with gentlemen, who walk up and
down whilst the ladies sit in the rotundas built above
each of the piers. Long rows of promenaders are seen
moving to and fro, either going to the Alamedas^ or
returning from thence to the Plaza, to obtain refresh
ments. Before the Portal de. los Escribanos, on
the Plaza Mayor, tables are laid out with lemonade,
almond milk and ices. The promenaders sit down
on benches, which are placed round these tables, and
partake of refreshments, none of which, however, are
so delicious as the cool breeze after the sultry heat of
the day.
To the inhabitants of Lima ice is one of the neces
saries of life : it is considered so indispensable, that a
scarcity of it, during several days, would be sufficient to
excite popular ferment. In ah revolutions, therefore,
the leaders carefully avoid calling into requisition the
service of the mules employed in the transport of
ice. It is obtained in the Cordilleras, at the dist
ance of about twenty-eight leagues from Lima. The
Indians who ascend the glaciers break the ice into
blocks of about six arobas in weight, which are lowered
by ropes down the dechvity of the mountain. The
women and children then cover the blocks of ice with
Ichu grass, {Joara ichu, R. P.), after which they are
drawn by another party of Indians to a depot, about
two leagues distant, where they are packed on the

TRANSPORT OF LIMA. 137
backs of mules./ Each mule carries two blocks. Thirty
mules form what is called aRecua, which daily proceeds
from the ice depot to Lima. At intervals of two or
three miles there are stations where relays of mules are
in readiness. The operations of unloading and reload
ing are performed with the utmost possible speed, and
the mules are driven at a brisk trot, wherever the roads
will admit of it. In the spa'ce of eighteen or twenty
hours, the ice reaches Lima, and as may be expected,
considerably reduced in weight by melting. The
average loss on two blocks of ice is about one hundred
pounds.* The daily consumption of ice in Lima is
between fifty and fifty-five cwt. .About two-thirds of
that quantity is used for preparing ices, most of which
are made of milk or pine-apple juice. Ice is hawked
about the streets of Lima for' sale, and all day long
Indians, carrying pails on their heads, perambulate the
streets, crying helado.
The ladies of Lima, when they make visits, seldom go
on foot. They generally ride in the caleza, a very ugly
kind of vehicle, being nothing more than a square box
raised on two high wheels, and drawn by a mule, on
whose back a negro in hvery is mounted. Many of the
older calezas, instead of being painted on the outside,
are covered with variegated paper. The calezin is a
prettier kind of carriage, and is drawn by two horses or
mules. Taste in the article of carriages is, however,

* These fine blocks of ice clearly refute the assertion made by some travellers,
that the first real glaciers are found in 19° S. lat. The extensive fields of ice
from which the blocks in question are brought are situated in 11° 14' S. lat.

138 TRAVELS IN PERU.
improving in Lima, and several very elegant ones have
been recently introduced.
Within the last few years a regular line of omnibuses
has been estabhshed between Callao and Lima. From
each of those cities an omnibus starts daily, at eight
in the morning and at four in the afternoon, and
the journey occupies an hour and a half. To Mira-
flores, ChoriUos, Lurin, and other places on the coast,
the conveyance is by a balanzin, a sort of caleza, drawn
by three horses harnessed abreast. This balanzin is one
of the most awkward vehicles ever invented, and the
slightest shock it sustains is felt with double force by the
persons riding in it. At greater distances from the
capital the want of proper roads renders the employ
ment of vehicles a matter of difficulty. Even along the
coast to the south of Lima, a journey of about forty
leagues cannot be accomplished without vast difficulty
and expense. On such a journey it is usual for a train
of sixty or eighty horses to accompany the carriage ;
and it is found necessary to change the horses every
half-hour, owing to the difficulty of drawing the carriage
through the fine quicksand, which is often more than a
foot deep. A Peruvian planter, who was accustomed to
take his wife every year on a visit to his plantation situ
ated about thirty-two leagues from Lima, assured me
that the journey to and fro always cost him 1400
dollars. During the brilliant period of the Spanish domination,
incredible sums were frequently expended on carriages
and mules. Not unfrequently the tires of the caleza

PERUVIAN HORSE TRAPPINGS. 139
wheels and the shoes of the mules were of silver instead
of iron.In Peru, riding is a universal custom, and almost
every person keeps one or more horses. The ladies of
Lima are distinguished as graceful horsewomen. Their
equestrian costume consists of a white riding-habit,
trowsers richly trimmed with lace, a fine white poncho,
and a broad-brimmed straw hat. Some of the females
of the coloured races make use of men's saddles, and
display great skill in the management of the most
unruly horses.
The horse-trappings used in Peru are often very costly.
On the coast and in the interior, I have sometimes seen
head-gear, bridle, and crupper composed of finely-
wrought silver rings, linked one into another. The
saddle is frequently ornamented with rich gold embroi
dery, and the holster inlaid with gold. The stirrups
are usually the richest portion of the trappings. They
are made of carved wood, and are of pyramidal shape ;
about a foot high and a foot broad at the base. In
front and at the sides they are close, and are open only
at the back in the part where the foot rests. The edges
are rimmed with silver, and the top of the stirrup is
surmounted by a bell of the same metal, with a ring
through which the straps are passed. A priest with
whom I was acquainted in the Sierra, got a saddle and
a pair of stirrups made for me. The silver ornaments
on the stirrups alone weighed forty pounds. The deco
rations of the saddle were of corresponding richness.
The value of the silver on both saddle and stirrups was

140 TRAVELS IN PERU.
about 1500 dollars. The spurs used in Peru are of
colossal magnitude. Old custom ordains that they must
contain three marks (a pound and a half) of silver. The
stirrup-bow is broad and richly wrought ; the ornaments
being either of the pattern called hueso de tollo, * or of
that styled hoja de laurel con semilla. f The rowel is
one and a half or two inches in diameter, and the
points are about twenty-five or thirty inches long.
In the bridle the bit and the snaffle are in one piece,
and the reins are brought together by being passed
through a ring, to which the long riding whip is also
fastened. The head-band and reins are commonly com
posed of narrow shps of untanned calf or sheep-skin,
plaited together, and ornamented with silver buckles.
The saddle is short and narrow, and exceedingly awk
ward to riders unaccustomed to it. The front bolster is
four or five inches high, and inchnes backward ; the
hind one is lower, and is curved forward in the form of
a half-moon ; the intervening space just affording suffi
cient room for the thighs of the rider, who in a saddle
of this construction is so firmly fixed that he cannot
possibly fall. These saddles have, however, one great
disadvantage, viz., that if the horse starts off at a gallop,
and the rider has not time to throw himself back in his
seat, he is forced against the front saddle-bolster with
such violence that some fatal injury is usuaUy the con
sequence. Under the saddle is laid a horse-cloth, called

A sort of arabesque resembling the backbone of a fish called the Tollo.
f Laurel leaves and seed.

HORSES. 141
the pellon, about a yard long and a yard and a half wide.
The common sort of pellones are composed of two rough
sheep-skins sewed together. In the finer kind the raw
wool is combed out, and divided into numberless httle
twists, of about the length of one's finger ; so that the
pellon resembles the skin of some long-haired animal.
The finest Peruvian pellones are made of a mixture of
sheep's wool and goat's hair. Between the saddle and
the pellon are fastened the saddle-bags {alforjas), which
on long journies are filled with provisions and other
necessaries. These bags are made either of leather or
strong woollen cloth ; finally, the trappings of a Peruvian
horse are not complete without the halter {haquima),
which is ornamented in the same manner as the bridle.
The halter-strap {cabresto) is wound round the front
bolster of the saddle, and by it the horse may be fastened
whenever the rider ahghts, without the use of the reins
for that purpose. At first a foreigner, is apt to regard
the equipments of a Peruvian horse as superfluous and
burthensome ; but he is soon convinced of their utility,
and, when the eye becomes familiar to them, they have
a pleasing effect.
The pure-bred Peruvian horse is more elegantly
formed than his Andalusian progenitor. He is of mid
dling size, seldom exceeding fourteen hands high. He
has a strong expanded chest, slender legs, thin posterns,
a short muscular neck, a rather large head, smaU pointed
ears, and a fiery eye. He is spirited, docile, and enduring.
It is only in a few plantations that the purity of the race
is preserved, and the animals fostered with due care.

142 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The common horse is higher, leaner, less broad on the
chest, and with the crupper thinner and more depressed.
He is, however, not less fiery and capable of endurance
than the horse of pure breed. The most inferior horses
are ill-looking, small, and rough-skinned.
On the coast of Peru the horses are for the most part
natural amblers, and, if they do not amble naturally,
they are taught to do so. There are several varieties of
amble pecuhar to the Peruvian horse ; the most approved
is that called the paso llano. It is very rapid, but not
attended by any jolting motion to the rider. A well-
trained horse may safely be ridden by a young child at
ike paso llano; the motion being so gentle and regular,
that the rider may carry a cup of water in his hand
without spilhng a drop, at the same time going at the
rate of two leagues an hour. Another variety of ambling
is called the paso portante. It consists in the fore and
hind foot of one side being raised simultaneously, and
thrust forward. In this movement, the greater or less
speed depends on the degree in which the hind foot is
advanced in comparison with the fore one. It is a rapid,
rocking sort of motion, and for long continuance is much
more wearying to the rider than the common trot, as
the body cannot be held upright, but must be kept in
a constant stooping position. The speed of a good
ambler in the paso portante is so great, that he will out
strip another horse at full gallop. The giraffe, as well as
the Peruvian horse, has this peculiar movement naturally.
The paso compaftero is merely i, nominal modification of
the paso portante. Many horses have no paso llano, but

HORSES. 143
in its stead a short trot. These have naturaUy the paso
portante, but they are httle esteemed for travelling,
though they are good working animals. They are caUed
cavallos aguelillos. Trotting horses cannot be taught the
paso llano, though they easfly acquire the paso portante.
These are caUed cavallos trabados.
In Peru a horse is valued less for beauty of form than
for the perfection of his amble. The finest trotters are
sold at very low prices, and are used exclusively as
carriage horses. If a horse when spurred has the habit
of flapping his taU, it is considered a very serious fault,
and greatly depreciates the value of the animal. This
vice is caUed mosquear (UteraUy brushing off the mos
quitoes), and the Peruvians cure it by an incision in the
muscle of the tail, by which means the horse is disabled
from making the movement.
The Peruvians take very httle care of their horses.
The remark, that the more the horse is tended, the
worse he is, would seem to be a generaUy admitted
truth in Peru. The stable {coral) is either totaUy roof
less, or very indifferently sheltered. In the mountainous
parts of the country, and during the rainy season, horses
are frequently, for the space of six months, up to their
knees in mud, and yet they never seem to be the worse
for it. The fodder consists of lucern {alfalfa), or mai-
siUo, which is usuaUy thrown down on the ground,
though sometimes placed in a stone trough, and the
drink of the animals consists of impure water collected
from the ditches at the road sides. Occasionally the
horses are fed with maize, which they are very fond of.

144 TRAVELS IN PERU.
As no oats are grown in Peru, barley is given together
with maize, especiaUy in the interior of the country „-
Mares and geldings have sometimes the hair between
the ears cut off quite closely, and the mane arranged in
short curls, which gives them a resemblance to the
horses in ancient sculpture. Mares are but httle
valued, so httle indeed, that no respectable person wiU
ride one.
The horse-breakers {chalanes) are generaUy free men
of colour. They possess great bodily vigour, and under
stand their business thoroughly ; but they use the
horses very cruelly, and thereby render them shy. For
the first three years foals are suffered to roam about
with perfect freedom ; after that time they are saddled,
an operation not performed without great difficulty,
and sometimes found to be impracticable, until the
animal is thrown on the ground and his hmbs tied. The
young horse under the management of the chalan is
trained in all sorts of equestrian feats, especiaUy the art
of pirouetting {voltear). This consists in turning either
whoUy or half round on his hind legs with great rapi
dity and when at fuU gaUop. Another important
object of the chalan is to teach the horse to stop short
suddenly, and to stand perfectly motionless {sentarse) at
the signal of his rider ; and to go backward {cejar) for
a considerable space in a straight line. When aU this
is accomplished, the horse is regarded as completely
broken {quebrantado).
As an instance of the certainty with which a Peru
vian horse wiU make a pirouette {voltata) at the signal

MULES. 145
of his rider, I may mention the following fact, which
.occurred under my own observation. A friend of mine,
in Lima, rode at fuU gaUop up to the city waU, (which
is scarcely nine. feet broad), leaped upon it, and then
made his horse perform a complete voltata, so that the
fore-feet of the animal described the segment of a circle
beyond the edge of the waU. The feat he performed
several times in succession, and he assured me he could
do the same with.aU his horses.
Peruvian taste requires that the neck of the horse
should present a finely-curved outhne, and that the
mouth should be drawn inward, so as to approach the
breast. The horses caUed Cavallos de Brazo are much
esteeined. At every step they describe a large circle
with their fore-feet, in such a manner that the horser
shoe strikes the lower part of the stirrup, This motion
is exceedingly beautiful when combined with what is
termed the " Spanish pace," in which the rioble form of
the animal and his proud bearing are advantageously
displayed. The mule is a very important animal in Peru. The
badness of the roads would render commercial commu
nication impracticable, were it not for mules. The
Peruvian mules are fine strong animals. The best are
reared in Piura, and sent to Lima for sale. The amblers
are selected for the saddle, the trotters for harness, and
the rest are used as beasts of burthen. The price of a
mule of middhng quahty is one hundred dollars ; a
better one double or treble that price ; and the very
best may even cost ten times as much. The endurance
L

146 TRAVELS IN PERU,
of these animals under fatigue and indifferent nurture
is extraordinary, and without them the vast sand plains
of Peru would present insuperable obstacles to inter
course between one place and another. In the power
of continuous ambhng they exceed the horses, and are
often equal to them in speed.
In Lima there is a pubhc lottery, which the Govern
ment farms to a private individual, for a considerable
sum. The tickets are drawn weekly. The price of a
ticket is one real. The largest prize is 1000 doUars ;
the smaller prizes 500, 250, or 100 dollars. A lottery
on a larger scale is drawn every three months. The
highest prize in this lottery is 4000 doUars, and the
price of the ticket is four reals. To every ticket is
affixed a motto, usuaUy consisting of an invocation to a
saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing of
the lottery this motto is read aloud when the number
of the ticket is announced. Few of the inhabitants of
Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weekly
lottery. The negroes are particularly fond of trying
their luck in this way, and in many instances fortune
has been singularly kind to them.
" Eating and drinking keep soul and body together."
So says the German proverb ; and it may not be unin
teresting to take a glance at the Limenos during their
performance of these two important operations. The
hour of breakfast is generally nine in the morning. The
meal consists of boUed mutton {Sancochado), soup
{Caldo), with yuccas, a very pleasant-tasted root, and
Chupe. This last-mentioned dish consists, in its simplest

A LIMA BREAKFAST. 147
form, merely of potatoes boiled in very salt water, with
cheese and Spanish pepper. When the chupe is made
in better style, eggs, crabs, and fried fish are added to
the ingredients already named ; and it is then a very
savoury dish. Chocolate and milk are afterwards
served. A negress brings the Chocolatera into the
breakfast-room, and pours out a cup full for each
person. The natives prefer the froth to the actual
beverage ; and many of th& negresses are such adepts
in the art of pouring out, that they wiU make the cup so
overflow with foam, that it contains scarcely a spoonful of
liquid Chocolate is the favourite beverage of the Peru
vians. In the southern parts of the country it is
customary to offer it to visitors at aU hours of the day.
The visitor is no sooner seated than he is presented
with a cup of coffee, which is often so thick that the
spoon wiU stand upright in it. It would be a breach of
politeness to dechne this refreshment, and whether
agreeable or not it must be swaUowed !
The best cocoa is obtained from the Montaiias of
Urubamba, and from the Bolivian Yungas. The long
land transport, however, renders it very dear, and
therefore the nuts brought from Guayaquil are those ,
commonly used in Lima.
Dinner, which takes place about two or three in the
afternoon, commences with a very insipid kind of soup.
This is foUowed by the Puchero, which is the principal
dish. Puchero, made in its best style, contains beef,
pork, bacon, ham, sausage, poultry, cabbage, yuccas,
camotes (a sort of sweet potato), potatoes, rice, peas,
L 2

148 ^RAVELS IN PERU.
choclitas (grains of maize), quince and banana. When
served up, the different kinds of meat are placed in one
dish, and the vegetable ingredients in another. I was
at first astonished at the poorness of the soups in Lima,
considering the quantity of meat used in preparing
them ; but I soon discovered that the soup served up to
table was httle more than water, and that the strong
gravy of the meat was either thrown away or given
to the negroes. There prevails an almost universal
behef that the liquor in which the meat is first stewed
is injurious to health. Only a very few famUies are
sufficiently free from this prejudice to aUow the strong
gravj' to be used in the preparation of caldo, &c. The
Puchero is an excellent and nutritious dish, and would
in itself suffice for a dinner, to which, however, in
Lima, it is merely the introduction. Roast meat, fish,
vegetables, preserves and salad are afterwards served.
Another dish not less indispensable to a Lima dinner
than puchero, is picante. Under this denomination
are included a variety of preparations in which a vast
quantity of cayenne pepper is introduced. The most
favourite picantes are the calapulcrd, the lagua, the
zango, the charquican, the adobas, the picante de
ullucos, &c. The calapulcra is, composed of meat and
potatoes dried and finely pounded ; the lagua is made
of maize flour and pork ; the zango, of the same ingre->
dients, but differently prepared ; the adobas consists of
pork alone; and the picante de ullucos is made of a
root resembhng the potato, cut into smaU square bits.
These dishes, though much too highly seasoned, for

VARIOUS DISHES SERVED AT DINNER. 149
European palates, are considered great dainties by
the Limeiios. AU the picantes have a very red colour,
owing to the quantity of cayenne used in preparing
them ; the achote grains, which are also used, produce
a beautiful vermilion tint. Another dish, common
on the dinner-table in Lima, is caUed " ensalada
de frutas. It is a most heterogeneous compound,
consisting of aU sorts of fruits stewed rix water. To
none but a Limanian stomach . could such a mixture
be agreeable. The dessert consists of fruits and sweets
{dulces). The Limefio must always drink a glass of
water after dinner, otherwise he imagines the repast can
do him no good ; but to warrant the drinking of the
water, or, as the phrase is, para tomar agua, it is neces
sary first to partake of dulces. The one without the
other would be quite contrary to rule. The dulces
consist of httle cakes made of honey or of the pulp of
the sugar-cane ; or they are preserved fruits, viz., pine
apple, quince, citron, and sometimes preserved beans or
cocoa-nut. There is also a favourite kind of dulce made
from maize, called masdmora.
The Peruvians have some very singular prejudices on
the subject of eating and drinking. Every article of food
is, according to their notions, either heating {caliente),
or cooling (frio) ; and they believe that certain things
are in opposition one to another, or, as the Limenos
phrase it, se oponen. The presence in the stomach of
two of these opposing articles of food, for example,
chocolate and rice, is beheved to be highly dangerous,
and sometimes fatal. It is amusing ta observe the

150 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Limerios when at dinner, seriously reflecting, before they
taste a particular dish, whether it is in opposition to
something they have already eaten. If they eat rice at
dinner, they refrain from drinking water, because the
two things se oponen. To such an extreme is this notion
carried, that they wiU not taste rice on days when they
have to wash, and laundresses never eat it. Frequently
have I been asked by invalids whether it would be safe
for them to take a foot-bath on going to bed, as they
had eaten rice at dinner !
The white Creoles, as weU as all the superior class of
people in Lima, are exceedingly temperate in drinking.
Water and a kind of sweet wine are their favourite beve
rage ; but the lower classes and the people of colour are
by no means so abstemious. They make free use of fer
mented drinks, especially brandy, chicha, and guarapo.
The brandy of Peru is very pure, and is prepared exclur
sively from the grape. On the warm sea coast, the use
of this hquor is not very injurious ; there, its evil effects
are counteracted by profuse perspiration. But one half
the quantity that may be drunk with impunity on the
coast, wiU be very pernicious in the cool mountainous
regions. An old and very just maxim of the Jesuits is,
"En pais caliente, aguardiente; enpaisfrio, aguafria" (in
the warm country, brandy ; in the cold country, water).
Guarapo is a fermented hquor, made of sugar-cane
pulp and water. It is a very favourite beverage of the
negroes. There are several kinds of guarapo. The
best sorts are tolerably agreeable. Chicha is a sort of
beer prepared from maize. The seeds of the maize are

CHICHA. 151
watered and left until they begin to sprout, after which
they are dried in the sun. When sufficiently dry they
are crushed, boiled in water, and then allowed to stand
tiU fermentation takes place. The hquid is of a dark
yeUow colour, and has a slightly bitter and sharp taste.
Chicha is likewise made from rice, peas, barley, yuccas,
pine-apples, and even bread. The kind most gene
rally used is that made from maize. Even before the
Spanish conquest of Peru, this maize beer was the
common beverage of the Indians. In Lima there are
some very dirty and iU-arranged restaur ations, styled
picanterias. These places are divided by partitions into
several small compartments, each of which contains a
table and two benches. The restaurateur, usually a
zambo or a mulatto, prides himself in the superiority of
his picantes and his chicha. The most motley assem
blages frequent these places in the evening. The Congo
negro, the grave Spaniard, the white Creole, the Chino,
together with monks and soldiers, may be seen, all
grouped together, and devouring with evident rehsh
refreshments, served out in a way not remarkable for
cleanliness. Brandy and guarapo are likewise sold in
shops which are to be met with at the corner of almost
every street. The coffee-houses are very inferior; most
of them are very dirty, and the attendance is wretched.
Every street in Lima contains one or more cigar
shops, in which mestizos and mulattos are busily em
ployed in making cigars. Smoking is a universal custom,
and is practised everywhere except in the churches. The
cigars used in Lima are short, and the tobacco is roUed

152 TRAVELS- IN PERU.
in paper, or in dried maize leaves. The tobacco is
brought from the northern province, Jaen de Bracamoras,
in very hard rolls caUed masos, about a yard long and
two inches thick. Another kind of cigars is made of
Peruvian or Columbian tobacco. They are scarcely infe
rior to the Havannah cigars, and would be quite equal
to theni, if they were kept long enough and weU dried ;
but in Lima they are smoked within a few hours after
being made. When any one wants to light his cigar in
the street, he accosts the first smoker he happens to
meet, whatever be bis colour, rank, or condition; and
asks him for a hght. The slave smokes in the presence
of his. master, and when his cigar dies out, he uncere
moniously asks leave to relight it at his master's. It
has been calculated that the daily cost of the cigars
smoked in Lima and the immediate vicinity amounts to
2,300 doUars.
Formerly the market was held on the Plaza Mayor,
and was always abundantly supphed with vegetables,
fruit, and flowers. Now it is held in the Plazuela de la
Inquisition, and it is very inferior to what it used to
be. Along the sides of the Plaza are stalls kept by
women, who sell sausages and fish. The central part of
the market is appropriated to the sale of vegetables, of
which there is always an exceUent supply. Facing the
Palace of the Inquisition are the butchers' shops. The
meat is good, though not very plentifuUy displayed.
The most abundant kinds of meat are mutton and beef.
The slaughtering of young animals being strictly pro
hibited by law, veal, lamb, and sucking pigs are never

THE MARKET OF LIMA. 153
seen in the market. The daily consumption of butcher's
meat in Lima is about twenty-eight or thirty heads
of horned cattle, and between one hundred and sixty
and two hundred sheep. Pork, neither fresh nor cured,
is seen in the market ; though great numbers of swine
are slaughtered. The fleshy parts of the animal are cut
into smaU square pieces, and boned ; the fat or lard is
used in cookery, and the pieces of pork, which are spread
over with lard, are caUed chicharones, and are held in
high esteem by Limanian epicures. There is an abundant
show of poultry in the market, especially fowls and
turkeys, which are brought from Huacho. Game is
never sold, and but very httle is obtained in the neigh
bourhood of Lima. The flower market, which is held
on the Plaza Mayor, is but sparingly supphed with the
gifts of Flora. The ladies of Lima recal pleasing recol
lections of the former glory of their flower market, and
speak with regret of its present degenerate condition.
The much-vaunted pucheros de fores are stiU occasion-
aUy displayed for sale. They are composed of a union of
fragrant fruits and flowers. Several small fruits are laid
on a banana leaf, and above them are placed odoriferous
flowers, tastefully arranged according to their colours:
the whole is surmounted with a strawberry, and is pro
fusely sprinkled with agua rica, or lavender water.
These pucheros are very pleasing to the eye, on account
of the tasteful arrangement of the flowers ; but their
powerful fragrance affects the nerves. They vary in
price, according to the rarity of the fruits and flowers of
which they are composed. Some cost as much as six

154 TRAVELS IN PERU.
or eight dollars. A puchero de fores is one of the
most acceptable presents that can be offered to a Lima
lady. A mingled feehng of disgust and surprise takes pos
session of the European who witnesses the joy which
pervades all classes of the inhabitants of Lima on the
announcement of a buU-fight. For several days the
event is the exclusive topic of conversation, and, strange
to say, the female portion of the population takes greater
interest in it than the men. BiUs notifying the ap
proaching entertainment are stuck up at the corners of
the streets ; and every one is anxious to obtain a lista
de los toros. When the season of the toros * commences,
a buU-fight takes place every Monday, and then the
whole city of Lima is thrown into a state of indescri
bable excitement. The ladies prepare their finest dresses
for the occasion, and they consider it the greatest pos
sible misfortune if anything occurs to prevent them
going to the buU-fight : indeed, a Monday passed at
home in the season of the toros would be regarded as a
lost day in the life of a Limeria. Those who cannot go
to the corrida, resort to the bridge, or to the Alameda,
where they sit and amuse themselves by looking at the
throngs of people passing and repassing.
In the time of the Viceroys, buU-fights frequently took
place on the Plaza Mayor. Now there is a place
expressly built for these entertainments, caUed the
Plaza firme del Acho. It is a spacious amphitheatre
* Toros (Bulls) is used by way of contraction for Corrida de Toros (Bull
Course).

BULL FIGHTS. 155
without a roof, and is erected at the end of the new
avenue of the Alameda. The preparations for the sport
commence at an early hour in the morning. Along the
Alameda are placed rows of tables covered with refresh
ments, consisting of lemonade, brandy, chicha, picantes,
fish, dulces, &c. About twelve o'clock, those who have
engaged places in the amphitheatre begin to move
towards the Plaza del Acho.
Most European ladies would turn with horror, even
from a description of these cruel sports, which the
ladies of Lima gaze on with dehght. They are bar
barous diversions, and though they form a part of
national customs, they are nevertheless a national dis
grace. At the same time it would be unjust to make
this love of bull-fighting a ground for unqualified censure
on the Limenos, or a reason for accusing them of an
utter want of humanity. Being accustomed to these
diversions from early chUdhood, they regard them with
perfect indifference ; and custom, no doubt, bhnds them
to the cruelties they witness in the bull-ring. The. same
extenuation may be urged in behalf of the women :
and though to most of the Limerias a buU-fight affords
the highest possible gratification, yet there are some
who form honourable exceptions to this remark, and
who, with true feminine feehng, shrink with horror from
such scenes.
Peru is the only one of the South American states in
which bull-fights are included in the category of pubhc
amusements. As Peru was the last to answer the cry
of independence, and to shake off the yoke of Spanish

156 TRAVELS IN PERU.
domination, so she adheres with most tenacity to the
customs of the mother country ; for she has not the
energy requisite for developing a nationahty of her own.
Even here is apparent that want of independence of
character for which the Peruvians are remarkable. The
faults of the Spaniards in them become vices, because, in
imitating without reflecting, they push everything to
an extreme. Thus, if buU-fights are cruel in Spain,
they are barbarous in Lima. The government, too, finds
it expedient to court popularity by favouring public
entertainments, among which buU-fights take the lead.
By aUowing the - people to indulge unrestrainedly in all
their favourite amusements, the government gains a two
fold object, viz., that of securing the support, if not the
love of the people, and of averting pubhc attention ,
from political affairs. These, it must be confessed,, are
important" objects in a country which, like Peru, is con
tinually disturbed by revolutions caused by the out
breaks of a turbulent populace, or an undisciplined
army. •

CHAPTER VII.
Geographical Situation of Lima. — Height above Sea level — Temperature — Dis
eases^ — Statistical Tables of Births and Deaths — Earthquakes — The Yalley
of Lima^The River Rimac — Aqueducts, Trenches, &c. — Irrigation — Plan
tations — Cotton — Sugar — Various kinds of Grain — Maize — Potatoes, and
other tuberous roots — Pulse — Cabbage — Plants used for Seasoning — Clover
— The Olive and other Oil Trees — Fruits — Figs and Grapes — The Chirimoya
— The Palta — The Banana and other Fruits.
Lima, according to the careful observations made by
Herr Scholtz, is situated in 12° 3' 24" south latitude,
and 77° 8' 30" west longitude from Greenwich. It
may, however, be mentioned that the longitude from
Greenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts
and Manuals of Geography it is often marked 76° 50'.
Humboldt makes it 77° 5' 5" ; and Malaspina 77° 6'
45". According to UUoa it is 70° 37' west of Cadiz.
The latitude is very generaUy fixed at 12° 2' 3" south.
The height above the level of the sea is also differently
estimated. Rivero, in the Memorial de Ciencias Natur-
ales, I., 2, page 112, states it to be 154 metres, or 462
French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184-f
Castihan varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches
Enghsh). He gives the foUowing account of heights,
according to the barometer, between CaUao and Lima,
in varas, viz., CaUao, 00 ; Baquijano, 24f ; La Legua,'
50f ; Mirones, 94^,; Portada del Callao, 150; Plaza de
Lima, 184-f.

158 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The first estimate given -by Rivero is the most
correct. Gay makes the height of Lima, at the corner
of the church of Espiritu Santo, 172-2 Castihan varas ;
but most of his heights are incorrectly stated.
The conical hiU in the north-east of Lima, caUed
Cerro de San CristOval, is, according to trigonometrical
measurements, made in 1737, by Don Jorge Juon, and
de la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the Plaza
Mayor, or 134 toises above the sea ; but one of the
most exact measurements is Pentland's, who found the
height to be 1275 Enghsh feet.
The average temperature during the hottest period
of the year, from December to March, is 25° C. The
medium temperature during the cold season, from
April to November, 1 7'5° C. Highest rise of the hygro
meter, 21 '5°
. The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only
twelve degrees from the Equator is to be ascribed to the
situation of the, town, and the prevaihng atmospheric
currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distance, only
twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned
with eternal snow ; and on the west the sea is distant
only two leagues. The prevaihng wind blows from the
south-south-west. West winds are not very common,
though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence
for those regions, and breaking on the surrounding moun
tains, they form atmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse
alarm through the whole population. In June, 1841, 1
had the opportunity of observing one of these dreadful
whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees by

TEMPERATURE OF LIMA. 159
the roots. The atmospheric currents from the north,
which pass over the hot sand-flats, are not of constant
occurrence, but they are oppressively sultry. There must
be other causes for the low temperature of Lima, for in
the villages, only a few miles from the city, and exposed
to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher.
Miraflores is a smaU place, about one Spanish league
and a half from Lima, but it is much hotter. Among
the records of the thermometer are the foUowing : —
December 20 to 27, maximum 3T8° C. ; minimum,
25-9° C.
December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26'0° C. ; at
2 P.M., 32-7° C. ; at 10 at night, 27-3° C.
January 1, at 2 P.M., 33"1° C, maximum of the day.
„ January 18, at 2 p.m., maximum 34"2° C.
A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the
same days, gives an average of 5*7° C. of heat in favour
of Miraflores.The river Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of
the Cordilleras, and after a course of no great length,
intersects the city, doubtless contributes to cool the
atmosphere. The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy.
During six months, from April to October, a heavy,
damp, but not cold mist overhangs the city. The summer
is always hot, but not oppressive. The transition from
one season to another is gradual, and almost imper
ceptible. In October and November the misty canopy
begins to rise ; it becomes thinner, and yields to the
penetrating rays of the sun. In April the horizon

160 TRAVELS IN PERU:
begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cool
and overcast, but the middle of the day is clear, In a
few weeks after, the brightness of noon also disappears.
The great humidity gives rise to many diseases, particu
larly fevers, and the alternations from heat to damp
cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this
disease are very numerous. It is endemic, and becomes,
at apparently regular but distant periods, epidemic.
The intermittent fevers or agues, called tercianos, are
throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, both
during their course and in their consequences. It may
be regarded as certain that two-thirds of the people of
Lima are suffering at aU times from tercianos, or from
the consequences of the disease. It usuaUy attacks
foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, bui
some years afterwards. . In general the tribute of accli-
matation is not so soon paid by emigrants in Lima as in
other tropical regions.
In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attend
ants, and the neglect of the pohce, the statistical tables
of deaths are very imperfectly drawn up, and therefore
cannot be entirely depended upon. I may, however,
here subjoin one of them, which wiU afford the reader
some idea of the mortality of Lima.
The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from
2,500 to 2,800.
In the ten months, from the 1st of January to
the 30th of October, 1841, the number of marriages
was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites, and
88 by people of colour.

AMOUNT of births and deaths.

161

DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841':—

Diseases.

Men. Women. Children.

Total..

Dysentery 
Fevers, chiefly intermittent
Typhus . . ... . ^ .
Pulmonary Consumption .
Inflammation of the Lungs ....
Dropsy,, for the -most part a consequence of"|
1 intermittent fevers . . . . .J
Hooping-cough 
Small Pox 
Sudden death .....
Shot .......
Various Diseases . ¦ .

171 57 14
8778 33 3
23 3
271

740

105 88 7
110 75 32

.13
228

658

59 71 24 11
26

36 1 1
610

846

335
216 45
.208 179 7236 4
37 3
1,109

2,244

The number of births were : — -

Boys.

Girls.

Total.

Not in marriage . . ...

410
432

412428

822 860

842

840

1,682

The number . of births not in marriage (860) iS
remarkable, and no less so is the number of dead child
ren exposed, which, during the above interval, was
495. These are most decided proofs of the immorahty
and degraded state of manners prevaihng in Lima, par
ticularly among the coloured part of the population.
Though there is no certain evidence of the . fact, yet
there is reason to conjecture that a considerable number
of those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the
children born, out of marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of
those exposed dead, full four-fifths are Mulattos.
The important annual surplus of deaths over births is
a matter of serious consideration for Lima. The above

M

162 TRAVELS IN PERU.
tables show, in the course of ten months, a surplus of
562 deaths. By a comparison of the hsts of births and
deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average
there are annually 550 more deaths than births. It
would lead me too far to endeavour to investigate aU
the grounds of this disparity, but I may observe that
one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, though
punishable crime of producing abortion.
Along the whole 'coast of Peru the atmosphere is
almost uniformly in a state of repose. It is not illumi
nated by the lightning's flash, or disturbed by the roar
of the thunder : no deluges of rain, no fierce hurricanes
destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes
pf the husbandman. Even fire appears here to have
lost its annihUating power, and the work of human
hands seems to be sacred from its attack.* But the
mildness of the elements above ground is frightfully
counterbalanced by their subterranean fury.
Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several
times the city has been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an
average forty-five shocks may be counted on in the year.
Most of them occur in the latter part of October, in
November, December, January, May, and June. Expe
rience gives reason to expect the visitation of two
desolating earthquakes in a century. The period

* A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The houses are of brick,
and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little food for a fire. The only
fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13th January, 1835, when the
interior of the Papilla del Milagro of San Francisco was destroyed. The repairs
cost 50,000 dollars. On the 27th November, 1838, it was again solemnly
consecrated.

EARTHQUAKES. 163
between the two is from forty to sixty years. The
most considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima
since Europeans have visited the west coast of South
America,, happened in the years 1586, 1630, 1687,
1713, 1746, 1806. 1 There is reason to fear that in the
course of a few years this city may be the prey of
another such visitation.
The shghter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a
noise ; at other times, they are merely perceptible by
the motion of the earth. The subterraneous noises are
manifold. For the most part they resemble the rattling
of a heavy loaded waggon, driven rapidly over arches.
They usuaUy accompany the shock, seldom precede it,
and only in a few cases do they foUow it ; sounding
hke distant thunder. On one occasion the noise appeared
to me like a groan from the depth of the earth, accom
panied by sounds like the crepitation of wood in parti
tions when an old house is consumed by fire.
Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the
'most frequent, and they cause the least damage to the
shghtly-bmlt habitations. Vertical shocks are most
severe ; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out of
their foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt
was on the 4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the
evening, when I was in the old forests of the- Chanchamoy o
territory. Before my hut there was an immense stem
of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the
stump of the root. I was leaning against it and reading,
when suddenly, by a violent movement, the stem rose
about a foot and a half, and I was thrown backwards
M 2

164 TRAVELS IN PERU.
over it. By the same shock the neighbouring river,
Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course
thereby changed for a considerable length of way.
I have had no experience of the rotatory movements
of earthquakes. According to the statements of aU who
have observed them, they are . very destructive, though
uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind of con
cussion, which accords with that term in the strictest
sense of the word. This movement had nothing in
common with what may be caUed an osciUation, a shock,
or a twirl : it was a passing sensation, similar to that
which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly
by the. shoulder, and shakes him ; or hke the vibration
felt on board a ship when the anchor is cast, at the
moment it strikes the ground. I believe it is caused by
short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. The irre
gularity of the vibrations are attended by much danger,
for very slight earthquakes of that kind tear away
joists from their joinings, and throw down roofs, leav
ing the waUs standing, which, in aU other kinds of
commotion, usuaUy suffer first, and most severely.
Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly vari
ations of the magnetic needle and the atmospheric
pressure is undisturbed on earthquake days within the
tropics. In seventeen observations, which I inade
during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre baro
meter, I found, in fifteen instaricesj the position of the
mercury quite unaltered. On one occasion, shortly
before a commotion, I observed it 2.4 lines lower than
it had been two hours before. Another time, I

PROGNOSTICS OF EARTHQUAKES. 165
observed, also on the approach of the shock arid during
the twelve foUowing hours, a remarkable rising and
sinking in the column. During these observations the
atmosphere was entirely tranquil.
Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not. infal
lible prognostics of an earthquake. I have known
individuals in Lima, natives of the coast, who were
seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from their
observation of the atmosphere. In many' places great
meteors have been seen before the commotion. Before
the. dreadful earthquake of 1746, there were seen fiery
vapours {ewhalaciohes encendidas) rising Out of the earth.
On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena were
particularly remarked.
Many persons have an obscure perception — a fore
boding, which is to them always indicative of an
approaching earthquake. They experience a feeling of
anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as
if an immense weight were laid on it. A momentary
shudder pervades' the whole frame, Or there is a sudden
trembling of the limbs. I, myself, have several times
experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcely be a
more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity
by those who have already had the misfortune to have
been exposed to the dangers of an earthquake.
I wiU here only briefly mention the celebrated earth
quake of 1 746, as aU its details are fuUy described in many
pubhcations. The reader need scarcely be reminded
that it happened on the 28th of October, the day of
St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between

166 TRAVELS IN PERU.
ten and eleven o'clock, the earth having begun to trem
ble, a loud howling was heard, and, in a few moments,
Lima became a heap of ruins/ The first shock \ was so
great, that the town was almost completely destroyed
by it. Of more than 3000 houses, only twenty-one
remained. Still more horrible was the destruction in
the harbour of CaUao. The movement of the earth had
scarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful
roaring, rushed over the shore, and submerged the
whole town with its inhabitants. Five thousand per
sons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The
Spanish corvette, San Fermin, which lay at anchor in
the port, was thrown over the waUs of the fortress. A
cross still marks the place where the stern of the vessel
feU. Three merchant ships, heavily laden, suffered the
same fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nine
teen in number, were sunk. The number of hves
sacrificed by this earthquake has not been, with perfect
accuracy, recorded.^ Humboldt, in his Cosmos, men
tions that during this earthquake a noise like subterra
neous thunder was heard at TruxiUo, eighty-five leagues
north of CaUao. It was first observed a quarter of an
hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, but there
was then no trembhng of the earth. According to the

* The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passage in Schiller's
William Tell : "— " 's ist heut Simons und Jud'a
Da ras 't der See und win sein Opfer haben."
" 'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude,
And the lake rages for its sacrifice."

ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA. 167
old chronicle writers, the earthquake of 1630 was more
disastrous. The serious commotions which take place on the
Peruvian coast appear to acquire progressively greater
extension, but only in the southern and northern direc
tions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though
felt fifty leagues towards the north and as far towards
the south, may nevertheless be imperceptible in the
easterly direction (towards the mountains) at the dis
tance of ten or twelve leagues. This pecuharity is
made manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations,
but also by the undulations of the sound, which usually
proceeds still further in a direction towards the south or
the north.
Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt
beyond the limits of a few square miles.
The atmospheric phenomena during and after earth
quakes are very different. In general the atmosphere
is tranquil, but occasionaUy a stormy agitation is the
harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedly overtaken
by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay
and Lima. The whole surface of the plain presented a
kind of curhng movement, and on every side small
columns of sand rose and whirled round and round.
The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread out
their legs as for support and to secure themselves
against apprehended danger. The arieros (mule-drivers)
leaped from their saddles, threw themselves on their
knees beside the animals, and prayed to heaven for
mercy.

168 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The effect of earthquakes on the fertihty of the soil
is sometimes remarkable. Numerous observations tend
to show that after, violent commotions luxuriant lands
often become barren wastes, and for .several years
produce no thriving vegetation. , Several Quebradas in
the province of TruxiUo, formerly remarkable for their
fertihty in grain, were left faUow for twenty years after
the earthquake of 1630, as the soil would produce
nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima,
and Yea. All kinds of grain appear to be very suscepr
tible to the changes produced by earthquakes. Cases
are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fields of
maize in full bloom have withered ; and in the course of
a day or two the crops have perished.
The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast
of Lima are involved in an obscurity too deep to be
unveiled. That they are connected with volcanic phe
nomena seems probable. Lima is more than ninety
leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that of
Arequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital
are uniformly independent of any state of activity in
that volcano, and it is certain that the town of
Arequipa, which lies at the foot of the mountain, expe
riences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six
serious earthquakes, the dates of which I have men
tioned, only that of 1687 stands in connection with a
decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruption of the
volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the
mountainous districts than on the coast, yet Huancavel-
lica, Tarma, Pasco, Caramarca, have been visited by

EARTHQUAKE IN QUIQUIJANA. 169
heavy shocks ; and within, a recent period the village
Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipicarichi, Department
of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a
letter from an eye-witness I received the foUowing
account of it...
"In November, 1840, the earth began to move
faintly back and forward, and a duU, distant, subter
raneous noise continued without interruption. The
first powerful shock occurred on the 23rd of December.
During the whole month of January,. 1841, heavy
thunder prevafled, but without any motion Of the earth.
On February 11th we again had a smart shock, and from
that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange
enough, were always most violent on Mondays and
Thursdays. The subterraneous noise resounded inces
santly ; but it was heard only in the village ; for at the
distance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The
heaviest. shocks were felt in a circuit within the radius
of three leagues. From May 21st to June 2nd, aU was
tranquil ; after the last-mentioned date the vibrations
recommenced, and frequently became heavy commo
tions. They continued until the middle of July, 1841.
From that time we have not been disturbed, and we
have now returned to the ruins of our village."
The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues
distant from Quiquijana, manifested, during the whole
of this time, no unusual phenomena, a circumstance
which speaks forcibly against the idea of any local
connection between the earthquake and the volcano.
On most men earthquakes make a powerful and

170 TRAVELS IN PERU.
extraordinary impression. The sudden surprise, often
in sleep, the imminent danger, the impossibility of
escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding of the
earth under the feet,— -altogether make a formidable
demand on the weakness of human nature.
Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes — " What is
most wonderful for us to comprehend is the undeception
which takes place with respect to the kind of innate
behef which men entertain of the repose and immova
bility of the terrestrial strata." And further on he
says — "The earthquake appears to men as something
omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of a
crater, from a stream of lava running towards our
dwellings, it appears possible to escape, but in an earth
quake, whichever way flight is directed the fugitive
believes himself on the brink of destruction!" No
familiarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feehng.
The inhabitant of Lima who, from childhood, has
frequently witnessed these convulsions of nature, is
roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from
his apartment with the cry of " Misericordia!" The
foreigner from the north of Europe, who knows nothing
of earthquakes but by description, waits with impatience
to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hear
with his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he
has hitherto considered fabulous. With levity he treats
the apprehension of a coming convulsion, and laughs at
the. fears of the natives. But as soon as his wish is
gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily
prompted to seek safety in flight.

THE VALLEY OF LIMA. 1 71
In Lima, the painful impression produced by an
earthquake is heightened by the universahty of the
exercise of the devotions {plegarias) on such a cala
mity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is
given from the cathedral, and the long-measured ten
minute toUings of aU the church bells summon the inha
bitants to prayers.
Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of
Peru, we perceive that Lima lies in one of those oases
which break the continuity of the extensive sand-flats.
These vaUeys present themselves wherever a river, after a
short course from the CordiUeras, falls into the sea ; they
are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines.
The vaUey of Lima hes in the widest extension of the
Quebrada of Mutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has
its main direction from E.N.E. to W.S.W., widens at
Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama, where
the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then
runs down to the coast, extending more and more in
width, and is intersected by the Rimac* This river
rises in two branches, the largest of which has its source
in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra,
on a height 15,600 feet above the level of the sea.
The second and shorter branch takes its source from a

* Rimac is the present participle of rimay, to speak, to prattle. The river
and the valley were known by this name among all the ancient Indians. The
oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in the neighbourhood of the present
city of Lima, conferred the name. It is said that before the time of the Incas
persons suspected of magic were banished to the valley of the Rimac, on which
account it obtained the name of Rimac-malca, that is, the Witches-valley.
This account, which is given by some early travellers, requires farther his
torical and philological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted.

172 TRAVELS IN PERU.
small lake in the heights of Carampoma, flows through
the vaUey of San Geronimo, and near San Pedro unites
with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of
the south-eastern confluence are those which rise in
the heights of Carhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso,
flow into the main stream. During winter the Rimac
is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy season sets
in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particu
larly between Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devas
tations. In the lower part, where the bed becomes
broad and the banks are not much built on, no consider
able damage occurs.
Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac,
some for giving moisture to fields, and others for fiUing
the street trenches of Lima. The water for supplying
the fountains of the Capital does not, however, come
from the river, but from two springs situated 1^ league
from Lima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement,
called Santa Rosa, in the vaUey of Surco. They are
inclosed within a building called the PueUo, or Atarrea,
whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneous
trench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santo Tomas), from
which it is distributed by pipes to 112 pubhc and private
fountains. During the insurrection of the Indians in
1781, which was instigated by the unfortunate Cacique
Don Jose Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworn de
terminations of the participators in that very extensive
conspiracy was to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by
artifice or force. Among the numerous plans for accom
plishing that object, I will mention two which have

CONSPIRACIES OF THE INDIANS. 173
reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to.
poison the whole of the inhabitants. For this purpose
a rich Cacique of the vale of Huarochirin went to an
apothecary near the bridge, and asked for two hundred
weight of corrosive sublimate, saying, that he would pay
v?eU for it. The apothecary had not entire confidence in
the Indian; but he did not think it right to forego the
opportunity of making a very profitable sale ; so, instead
of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alum
for the Cacique, and received the price he demanded.
Next morning aU the water in Lima was unfit for use.
On examination it was found that the inclosure of the
Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated
with alum. The offender remained undiscOved.
The second plan was formed with more circumspection;
The conspirators resolved on a certain day to send into
the city a number Of Indians, who were to conceal them
selves on the roofs of the shops {Pulperias), in which
quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment
the cathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed
Indians were to set fire to the wood. Another division
of Indians was immediately to dam up the river at the
convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streets
under water. During the unavoidable confusion, which
must have taken place, the main body of the Indians was
to enter the town and massacre aU the whites. This
weU-combined plan was by mere accident discovered,
when it was of course frustrated.
The fertihty of the soil , round Lima is very great
when irrigation is practicable. Where this cannot be

174 TRAVELS IN PERU.
accomphshed, the earth withholds even the most scanty
vegetation. The riego, or irrigation, is thus effected. On
certain days the water conduits are closed, and the fields
are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply
of water, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened tiU
the foUowing day. When, however, the supply of water
is abundant, the riego takes place early every morning.
As the same identical plants are cultivated along
almost the whole coast, I wiU here notice them, to save
the necessity of returning to them hereafter.
Cotton is cultivated only in a few plantations in the
immediate vicinity of Lima ; but it abounds more in the
northern districts, particularly in the Department de la
Libertad, in the coast province Piura, in Lambayeque,
and in TruxiUo. In the southern province Yea a con
siderable quantity is also reared for exportation. The
brown cotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the
Incas. Most of the bodies found in the ancient graves
on the coast are enveloped in this kind of cotton.
The Sugar Cane is cultivated with success in aU
plantations where there is sufficient moisture of soil;
and of aU the agricultural produce of the country, it
yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates he on the
sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical
hmit of the sugar cane growth is on the western dech
vity of the Cordilleras, about 4500 feet above the
level of the sea, at which height I saw fields covered
with it. The largest plantations, however, do not rise
above 1200 feet above the level of the sea ; whfle those
of the same extent on the eastern dechvity are at the

PREPARATION OF SUGAR. 175
height of 6000 feet. Within the last forty years, the
introduction of the Otaheitian cane has greatly improved
the Peruvian plantations in quahty, and has, more espe
ciaUy, increased the quantity of their produce ; for the
Otaheitian canes are found to yield proportionaUy one-
third more than the West India canes, which were pre
viously cultivated.
The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in
a very rude and laborious manner. In most of the
plantations the cane is passed through wooden presses
with brass roUers. These machines are caUed trapiches
or ingenios. They are kept in motion by oxen or
mules. In some large estates water power is employed,
and in San Pedro de Lurin a steam-engine has been
put up, which certainly does the work quickly ; but
it often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of
the sugar-cane juice is used for making the hquor caUed
guarapo, or distiUed for making rum ; for since the inde
pendence, the law which strictly prohibited the distillation
of spirituous hquors in plantations has been repealed.
The remainder is boUed down into a syrup, or further
simmered until it thickens into cakes, caUed chancacas,
or brown sugar. After a careful purification it is made
into the white cakes caUed alfajores, or prepared as
white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity of colour it
is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, it
exceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugar-
loaf is two arobas ; only for convenience of transport
into the mountainous districts their weight is some
times diminished. The consumption of sugar in the

176 TRAVELS IN PERU.
country is great, and its export is considerable, but it
goes only to Chile.
Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally
and most successfuUy cultivated in Peru. It grows on
the sandy shore, in the fertile mountain valleys, and on
the margins of the forest, where the warmth is great.
There are several varieties of maize, which are distin
guished one from another by the size of the head and
by the form and appearance of the grain. The most
common kinds on the coast are — 1st, the Mais Morocho,
which has small bright yellow, or reddish brown grains ;
2nd, the Mais Amarillo, of which the grain is large,
heart-shaped, solid and opaque ; 3rd, Mais Amarillo
de Chancay, similar to the Mais Amarillo, but with a
semi-transparent square-shaped grain, and an elongated
head. The Morocho and AmariUo maize are chiefly
planted in the eastern declivity of. the Andes. They
run up in stalks eight or nine feet high, and have
enormously large heads. In one of them I counted,
seventy-five grains in a single row.
Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost
the only sustenance of the Indians of the mountains;
and is the principal food of the slaves on the coast.
Like the potato in Europe, it is cooked in a variety
of ways. Two of the most simple preparations of
maize are those caUed choclas and mote. Choclas are the
unripe maize heads merely soaked in warm water; they
form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food.
Mote consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laidin hot
ashes, after which the husks are easily stripped off.

GROWTH OF MAIZE IN PERU. 177
As. to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or
when it was introduced there, much has already
been written, and I shaU refrain from entering into
the investigation of the question here. I may, how
ever, mention that I have found very well preserved
ears of maize in tombs, which, judging from their
construction, belong to a period anterior to the dynasty
of the Incas ; and these were fragments of two kinds of
maize which do not now grow in Peru. If I beheved
in the transmigration and settlement of Asiatic races
on the west coast of America, I should consider it
highly probable that maize, cotton, arid the banana had
been brought from Asia to the great west coast. But
the supposed epoch of this aUeged immigration must
carry us back to the earhest ages ; for, that the Incas
were, (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvian
history pretend,) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague
hypothesis, unsupported by anything approximating to
historical proof.
Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on
the Peruvian coast have been very inconsiderable. In
the mountainous parts it is somewhat more abundant,
but stiU far from sufficient to supply the wants of the
country. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize
required in Peru. Of the other kinds of grain barley
only is raised ; but it does not thrive on the coast, and
is cultivated successfuUy at the height of from 7000 to
13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion
of some travellers, that barley was known to the Peru
vians before the arrival of the Spaniards, is groundless.
N

178 TRAVELS IN PERU.
It is true that barley is sometimes found in pots in
Indian graves. Those graves, however, as I have had
repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, with
out exception, to modern times, chiefly to the seven
teenth century.
Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it
appears, the climate and the soil are unfavourable to
them. In those parts they are small and watery. On
the higher ridges which intersect the coast at short
distances from the sea, the potato grows wild. I am
inchned to beheve that the root is indigenous in these
parts, as well as in Chiloe and Chile, and that the
ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the
south, but that they removed it from their own high
lands in order to cultivate it on a more favourable soil.*
The best potato grows about twenty-two leagues from
Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feet
above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the
Quebrada of Canta. This potato is smaU and round,
with a thin white skin, and when bisected the colour is
a clear bright yeUow. It is caUed the Papa amarilla,
and there is much demand for it in the markets, where
it fetches a good price. The other potatoes come
chiefly from the Quebrada of Huarochirin, and they are
very weU flavoured.
The Camotes {Convolvulus batatas, L.), not improperly
called sweet potatoes, grow to a considerable size.

* The Quichua language has no word for potato, but in the Chinchaysuyo
language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru, the potato is called
A cm.

THE YUCCA AND OTHER TUBEROUS ROOTS. 179
There are two kinds of camotes, the yeUow and the
violet ; the latter are called Camotes moradas. These
two kinds are much liked for their exceUent flavour.
Beyond the height of 3500 feet above the level of the
sea they cease to grow.
The Aracacha {Conium moschatum, H. B. Kth.)
grows on the coast, but it is more abundant on the
projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the eastern
declivity of the Andes. . It is a very agreeable and
nutritive kind of tuberous vegetable, in flavour not
unlike celery. It is cooked by being either simply
boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. "In many
districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year.
The Yucca {Jatropha manihot) is one of the finest
vegetables of Peru. The stalk of the plant is between
five and six feet high, and about the thickness of a
finger. The roots are from one to two feet long, some
what of the turnip form. InternaUy they are pure
white ; but the external skin is tough, somewhat elastic,
and of a reddish-brown colour. The roots are the
edible parts of the plant. They are very agreeable in
taste, and easy of digestion: When raw they are hard
and tough, and their taste somewhat resembles chest
nuts. When boiled in water the root separates into
fibres, and is rather waxy, but when laid in hot ashes it
becomes mealy.
In .some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very
fine flour from the yucca, and it is used for making fine
kinds of bread, and especially a kind of biscuits called
biscochuelos. The yucca roots are not good after they
N 2

180 TRAVELS IN PERU.
have been more than three days out of the earth, and
even during that time they must be placed in water,
otherwise green or black stripes appear on them,
which in the cooking assume a pale red colour. Their
taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become
rotten. To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly
under the thick part, into span-long pieces, which are
stuck obhquely into the earth. In five or six months
the roots are fit for use, but they are usuaUy aUowed to
remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks are
sometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They
then put forth new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen
or eighteen months they become slightly woody. The
Indians in the Montana de Vitoc sent as a present to
their officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty
pounds, but yet was very tender. On the western
dechvity of the CordiUera, the boundary elevation for
the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet above the
level of the sea.
Among the pulse there are diferent kinds of peas
{garbanzos) on the coast ; beans {frijoles), on the
contrary, occupy the hiUy grounds. AU vegetables of
the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will
grow in Peru. The chmate, both of the coast and the
hills, suits them perfectly ; but the hot, damp tempera
ture of the eastern dechvity of the Andes is adverse to
them. Numerous varieties of the genus Cucurbita are
cultivated in the chacras, or Indian viUages, on the coast.
They are chiefly consumed by the coloured population.

THE CAPSICUM. 181.
I did not find them very agreeable to the taste. They
are aU sweetish and fibrous.
Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or
spicery, I must mention the love-apple {T ornate), which
thrives well in aU the warm districts of Peru ; and the
Spanish pepper {Aji), which is found only on the coast
and in the nrild woody regions. There are many
species of the pepper {Capsicum annuum, baccatum, fru-
tescens, &c), which are sometimes eaten green, and some
times dried and pounded. In Peru the consumption of
aji is greater than that of salt ; for with two-thirds of the
dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the
latter is used. It is worthy of remark that salt dimi
nishes, in a very striking degree, the pungency of the
aji ; and it is still more remarkable that the use of
the latter, which in a manner may be caUed a super
fluity, has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If
two pods of aji, steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a
sinapism on the skin, in the space of a quarter of an
hour the part becomes red, and the pain intolerable ;
within an hour the scarf-skin wiU be removed. Yet I
have frequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods
without experiencing the least injurious effect. How
ever, before I accustomed myself to this luxury, it used
to affect me with shght symptoms of gastritis. On the
eastern dechvity of the CordiUeras I found no capsicum
at a greater height than 4800 feet above the level of
the sea.
Lucern {Medicago sativa), called by the natives alfa:
or alfalfa, is reared in great abundance throughout

182 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the whole of Peru, as fodder for cattle. It does not
bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold ; yet its
elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level
of the sea. On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly
during the misty season ; but during the months of
February and March it is almost entirely dried up.
The maisillo {Paspalum purpureum, R.) then supphes its
place as fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts
it is also most abundant during the humid season ; but,
as soon as the first frost sets in, it decays, takes a rusty-
brown colour, and remains in a bad state until the
beginning of the rainy season. On an average, the
alfalfa may be cut four times in the year ; but in high-
lying districts only three times ; and in humid sofls on
the coast, particularly in the neighbourhood of rivers,
five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-
fields are broken up by the plough, and then sown
with maize or barley. In the sixth year clover is again
raised. The ohve-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern
provinces of the coast. In flavour, its fruit approxi
mates to the Spanish ohve. That the oil is not so fine is
probably owing to the bad presses which are used, and the
rude manner in which the operation is performed. The
olives {Aceytunas) are preserved in a pecuhar manner.
They are aUowed to ripen on the tree, when they are
gathered, slightly pressed, dried, and put up in small
earthen vessels. By this process they become shriveUed
and quite black. When served up at table pieces of
tomato and aji are laid on them : the latter is an excel-

THE OLIVE AND OTHER OIL PLANTS. 183
lent accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve
them in salt water, by which means they remain plump
and green.
The castor-oil plant {Ricinus communis) grows wild,
but it is also cultivated in many plantations. The con
siderable quantity of oil which is pressed out of the
seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street lamps,
and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the
machines employed in the works. The purified Ricinus
oil required for medicine is imported from England or
Italy. The PirionciUo tree {Castiglionifi lobata, R.) is culti
vated only about Surco, Huacho, and.Lambayeque, in
some of the Indian chacras ; but.it gri)ws wild in con
siderable abundance. Its bean-hke fruit, when roasted,
has an agreeable flavour. When eaten raw, the ethe-
rial oil generated between the kerneland the epidermis
is a strong aperient, and its effect' can only be counter
acted by drinking cold water. When an incision is
made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out ; but
after some time it becomes black and horny like. It is
a very powerful caustic, and retains its extraordinary
property for years.
The fruits of the temperate chmates of Europe thrive
but indifferently in the warm regions of the coast of
Peru. Apples and pears are for the most part uneat
able. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well.
Vast quantities of apricots (caUed duraznos) grow in
the mountain vaUeys. Of fifteen kinds which came
under my observation, those called blanquillos and abri-

184 TRAVELS IN PERU.
dores are distinguished for fine flavour. Cherries, plums,
and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I beheve the
climate of the Sierra is very favourable to their growth.
Generally speaking, the interior of the country is weU
suited to aU the fruits and grain of central Europe ; and
doubtless many of our forest trees would flourish on those
Peruvian hills which now present no traces of vegetation.
But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriously
set on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many
Europeans, who have sent seeds and young plants to
Peru, have failed of success, owing to the indifference of
the natives to the advancement of those objects.
AU the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in
the warm regions of Peru. Oranges, pomegranates,
lemons, limes, &c, grow in incredible abundance. Though
the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round,
yet there are particular times in which their produce is
in the greatest perfection and abundance. On the coast,
for example, at the commencement of winter, and in
the woody districts in the months of February and
March, melons and Sandyas {water melons), are particu
larly fine.
The figs are of two kinds : the one called Higos, and
the other Brevas. In the former the pulp is red, in the
latter it is white. They are usually large, very soft,' and
may be ranked among the most dehcious fruits of
the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the
neighbourhood of the plantations and the Chacras : and
the traveller may pluck the fruit, and carry away a
supply for his journey ; for, beyond a certain distance

THE CHIRIMOTA. 185
from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not easy
of transport in its fresh, state ; and when dried, it is not
liked. Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the
coast : they are chiefly brought to the Lima market
from the neighbouring Quebradas. The mulberry-tree
flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation ; but its
fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food
for the birds. In the southern province of Yea, the cul
tivation of the vine has been attended by most successful
results. In the neighbourhod of Lima grapes are seen
only in a few Huertas {orchards) ; but for size, sweet
ness, and aromatic flavour, there are no such grapes in
any other part of the world.
Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru
as in the more northerly district of Guayaquil. But
there are some Peruvian fruits, the dehcious flavour of
which cannot be exceUed. One of these is the Chiri-
moya {Anona tripetala). Hanke, in one of his letters,
calls it " a master-work of Nature." It would certainly
be difficult to name any fruit possessing a more exqui
site flavour.
In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often
only the size of an orange. Those who have tasted it
only in Lima, can form but a very imperfect idea of its
exceUence. In Huanuco, its indigenous son, it grows in
the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of
sixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish
form, sometimes pyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad
base uniting with the stem. Externally it is green,
covered with small knobs and scales, and often has black

186 TRAVELS IN PERU.
markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit
is very ripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick
and tough. InternaUy, the fruit is snow-white and
juicy, and provided with a number of smaU seeds
well covered with a dehcate substance. The Chirimoyas
of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast
by having only from four to six seeds ; whereas on the
coast they are found with from twenty-five to thirty.
The question as to what the taste of this fruit may be
compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it is
incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya
emit a fine fragrance, which, when the tree is covered
with blossom, is so strong as to be almost overpowering.
The tree which bears this finest of aU fruits is from
fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, and
is of a pale-green colour.
The Palta {Persea gratissima, Gart.) is a fruit of the
pear form, and dark-brown in colour. The rind is tough
and elastic, but not very thick. The edible substance
which is soft and green, incloses, a kernel resembhng a
chestnut in form and colour. This fruit is very astringent
and bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which
is at first yeUow, but soon turns black. The taste is
pecuhar, and at first not agreeable to a foreigner ; but
it is generally much hked when the palate becomes
accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like
butter on the tongue, and hence it is called in some of
the French colonies beurre vegUale. It is sometimes
eaten without any accompaniment, and sometimes with
a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make

PLATANOS. 187
very good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very
high, with a small dome-like top. On the eastern decli
vity of the Andes, I have seen some of these trees more
than sixty feet high.
The Platanos {Bananas) thrive weU in most of the
Peruvian plantations. They require great heat and
humidity. They grow in the greatest perfection on
the banks of smaU rivulets. On the coast the tree does
not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody
regions, where it is not unusual to see a tree with three
hundred heads of fruit lying one over another, like tiles
on a roof. In the country adjacent to Lima, and also on
other parts of the coast, , three favourite species are
cultivated. The Platano de la Isla, or of Otaheite, was
introduced from that archipelago in 1769. The fruits
are from three to four inches long, generally prismatic,
as they grow thickly on the stem, and he one over
another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red,
and rather mealy. The Limefios prefer this to any
other species of the platano, and they consider it the
most wholesome. The fruits of the Platano Guineo are
not longer, but much thicker than those of the Platano
de la Jsla, but they are so full that they burst when
quite ripe. They are straight and cylindrical in form,
as they grow on the stem at some distance one from
the other. They are of a bright yellow colour, but
near the stem spotted with black. The edible part is
whiter and softer than that of the Platano de la Isla, to
which it is greatly superior in flavour and aroma. The
natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and:

188 TRAVELS IN PERU.
they maintain that drinking brandy after eating Plata
nos Guineos causes immediate death. This is, as my
own often-repeated experiments have shown, one of the
deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which the Peru
vians obstinately chng. On one of my excursions I
had a controversy on this subject with some persons
who accompanied me. To prove how unfounded their
notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing
down one poison by the other, I immediately swaUowed
a mouthful of brandy. My Peruvian friends were
filled with dismay. Addressing me alternately in terms
of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should
never return to Lima alive. After spending a very
agreeable day, we all arrived quite weU, in the evening,
at Lima. At parting, one of my' companions seriously
observed that we should never see each other again.
Early next morning they anxiously caUed to inquire
how I was, and finding me. in exceUent health and
spirits, they said :¦ — " Ah ! you see, an herege de gringo
(a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a different nature
from us." A- piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in
brandy retains its colour unchanged ; but the rib-hke
fibres which connect the rind with the pulp then
become black, and imbibe a bitter taste.
The fruit of the third kind of platano, the Platano
largo, is from six to eight inches long, rather narrow,
and curved crescent-wise. The rind is of a light straw
colour, and when the fruit is very ripe it has large
black spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder
and drier than that of the two species already described;

MODE OF CULTIVATING THE PLATANO. 189
and its flavour is quite as agreeable. Its fruit is less
abundant than that of the Platano Guineo, and it
requires longer time to become fuUy ripe. A fourth
kind, which grows in the forest regions, I have never
seen on the coast. It is the Platano Altahuillaca. It
bears at most from twenty to twenty-five heads of fruit.
The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an
eU long. The colour of the husk is hght-yeUow, the
inclosed substance is white, tough, and hard. In the
raw state it is flavourless, but when roasted in hot ashes,
or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish.
When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is,
those which form the base of the conical-formed
reflex cluster, begin to turn yeUow, or, as the natives
say, pintar, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an
airy shady situation, usuaUy in an apartment of the
Rancho, or hut, where it may quickly ripen. The
largest fruits are cut off as soon as they are yellow and
soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the
top, for they ripen so unequaUy that those at the base
show symptoms of decay while those at the top are still
hard and green. As soon as the cabeza or cluster
of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediately lopped
off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh
sprouts. Each branch bears only one cabeza, and eight
or ten months are the period usuaUy required for its
complete development.
The platanos belong indisputably to the most useful
class of fruit trees, especiaUy in regions where they can
be ^cultivated extensively, for then they may very

190 TRAVELS IN PERU.
adequately supply the place of bread. In northern
Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for
food in a variety of ways.
Pine-apples {Ananas) are not much cultivated on the
coast of Peru. The market of Lima was formerly
entirely supplied with this fruit from the Montana de
Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut
before they were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses.
The journey is of sixteen or twenty days' duration,
and the road lies across two of the Cordilleras. After
being several days in the cold snowy region of the
Puna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent
state ; but since the communication by steam naviga
tion with Guayaquil, pine-apples are brought from the
latter place in large quantities. They are large, succu
lent, and very sweet.
The GranadiUa {Passiflora quadrangularis) is about
the size of an apple, but rather oblong. The skin is
reddish-yeUow, hard, and rather thick. The edible part
is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous dark-
coloured seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste
resembles the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The
GranadiUa is a shrub or bush, and it twines round the
trunks of trees, or climbs up the waUs of the Ranchos.
It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent
vaUeys. The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus.
The husk, which is covered with sharp prickles, is
green, yellow, or red in colour, and is easily separated
from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked the

FRUIT TREES OF THE COAST OF PERU. 191
tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles,
which, however, is not always completely accomplished.
It is therefore necessary to be cautious in handling the
husks, for the smaU prickles cause inflammation when
they get into the fingers.
The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size,
{Prosopis dulcis, Humb.,) with a rather low and
broad top. It consists in a pod from twenty to twenty-
four inches long, inclosing black seeds, which are
embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky
part is as white as snow, and is the only eatable part of
the fruit. It tastes sweet, and, to my palate at least,
it is very unpleasant ; however, the Limerios on the
coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of
the pacay.
The Lucuma is produced only in the southern pro
vinces of the coast of Peru, and is chiefly imported
from the north of Chile. The fruit is round. The grey-
brown husk incloses a fibrous, dry, yeUow-coloured
fruit with its kernel.
The Guayava {Psidium pomiferum) grows on a low
shrub, chiefly in the vaUeys of the coast, and on
the eastern dechvity of the Andes. It is of the form
and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yeUow,
and thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of
httle egg-shaped granulations. Its flavour is pleasant,
but not remarkably fine. In Lima it is not a favourite,
for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and, when the
fruit is ripe, larvae are found in it.
The Pepino (a cucwbitacea) is grown in great abund-

192 TRAVELS IN PERU.
ance in the fields. The plant is only a foot and a half
high, and it creeps on the ground. The fruit is from
four to five inches long, cyhndrical, and at both ends
somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yeUowish green
colour, with long rose-coloured stripes. The pulp or
edible part is solid, juicy, and weU-flavoured. The
kernel hes in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow. By
the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably,
believed to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit
is too cold in the stomach, and that a glass of brandy is
necessary to counteract its injurious properties. This
much is certain, that the pepinos are very indigestible,
and that eating them frequently, or at improper times,
brings on fits of iUness.
The Mani, or Earth Almond {Arachis hypogeea), is
produced in the northern provinces. The plant is
from a foot and a half to two feet long, and very leafy.
The kernels have a grey, shriveUed husk : they are
white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed,
they are eaten with sugar.
The Capulies {Prunus capulin, Ser.) grows in the open
fields. In towns it is planted in gardens or in pots.
The fruit is a httle bigger than a cherry. It is of a deep
yellow colour, and has an acid taste. The capuhes are
not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant
odour, they are used in 'making Pucheros de fores, or
with other odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled
with q^ ,.a rica, and laid in drawers to perfume linen.
The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms. The
same uses are made of the Palillos {Campomanesia

PALM TREES. 193
lineatifolia, R.), which grow on trees from twenty to
thirty feet high. The bright yellow fruit is as large as
a moderately-sized apple. The paliUo emits an exceed
ingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used
in making the perfumed water caUed mistura. When
rubbed between the fingers, the leaves smeU like those
of the myrtle ; but they have an acid and astringent
taste. The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees,
either wild or cultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown
only in a few of the northern provinces, and the Date
Palm chiefly about Yea. With a very little care, these
trees would thrive excellently in aU the oases of the
coast of Peru.

CHAPTER VIII.
Robbers on the coast of Peru — The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo — The Corps
of Montoneros — Watering Places near Lima — Surco, Ate and Lurin —
Pacchacamac — Ruins of the Temple of the Sun — Difficulties of Travelling
on the Coast of Peru — Sea Passage to Huacho — Indian Canoes — Ichthyo-
logical Collections — An old Spaniard's recollections of Alexander Von Hum
boldt — The Padre Requena — Huacho — Plundering of Burial Places —
Huaura — Malaria — The Sugar Plantation at Luhmayo — Quipico — An
cient Peruvian Ruins — The Salinas, or Salt Pits — Gritalobos — Chancay —
The Piques-^Mode of extracting them — Valley of the Pasamayo — Extra
ordinary Atmospheric Mirrors — Piedras Gordas — Palo Seco.
All the inhabited parts of the coast of Peru, especi
ally the districts adjacent to Lima and TruxiUo, are
infested by robbers, and travelhng is thereby rendered
extremely unsafe. These banditti are chiefly runaway
slaves, (simarrones, as they are caUed,) free negroes,
zambos, or mulattos. OccasionaUy they are joined
by Indians, and these latter are always conspicuous for
the cruelties they perpetrate. Now and then a white
man enters upon this lawless course ; and, in the year
1839, a native of North America, who had been a purser
in a ship of war, was shot in Lima for highway robbery.
These robbers are always weU mounted, and their fleet-
footed steeds usually enable them to elude pursuit. It
is no unfrequent occurrence for slaves belonging to the
plantations to mount their masters' finest horses, and
after sunset, when their work is over, or on Sundays,

ROBBERS. 195
when they have nothing to do, to sally forth on maraud
ing expeditions.
Most of the highway robbers who infest the coast of
Peru belong to an extensive and systematicaUy-organ-
ised band, headed by formidable leaders, who maintain
spies in the towns and villages, from whom they receive
regular reports. They sometimes prowl about in parties
of thirty or forty, in the vicinity of the capital, and
plunder every traveUer they encounter ; but they are
most frequently in smaUer detachments. If they meet
with resistance they give no quarter ; therefore, it is
most prudent to submit to be plundered quietly, even
when the parties attacked are stronger than the assail
ants, for the latter usuaUy have confederates at no
great distance, and can summon reinforcements in case
of need. Any person who kiUs a robber in self-defence
must ever afterwards be in fear for his own hfe : even
in Lima the dagger of the assassin wiU reach him, and
possibly at the moment when he thinks hiinself most
safe. Foreigners are more frequently waylaid than natives.
Indeed, the rich and influential class of Peruvians are
seldom subjected to these attacks, — a circumstance
which may serve to explain why more stringent pohce
regulations are not adopted
The most unsafe roads are those leading to CaUao,
Chorillos, and Cavalleros. This last place is on the
way to Cerro de Pasco, whither transports of money
are frequently sent. A few weeks before my departure
from Lima a band of thirty robbers, after a short
02

196 TRAVELS IN PERU.
skirmish with a feeble escort, made themselves masters
of a remittance of 100,000 dollars, destined for the
mine-workers of Pasco. The silver bars from Pasco
are sent to Lima without any military guard, for they
are suffered to pass unmolested, as the robbers find
them heavy and cumbrous, and they cannot easily
dispose of them. These depredations are committed
close to the gates of Lima, and after having plundered
a number of travellers, the robbers wiU very cooUy ride
into the city.
The country people from the Sierra, who travel with
their asses to Lima, and who carry with them money
to make purchases in the capital, are the constant prey
of robbers, who, if they do not get money, maltreat or
murder their victims in the most merciless way.* In
July, 1842, 1 was proceeding from the mountains back to
Lima, and, passing near the Puente de Surco, a bridge
about a league and a half from Lima, my horse suddenly
shied at something lying across the road. On ahghting
I found that it was the dead body of an Indian, who had
been murdered, doubtless, by robbers. The skuU was
fractured in a shocking manner by stones. The body
was still warm.
The zambo robbers are notorious for committing the
most heartless cruelties. In June, 1842, one of them
attacked the Indian who was conveying the mail to

* The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding their money. They
sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes in which their eggs are
packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of their asses' saddles. They often submit
to be killed rather than avow where their money is concealed.

ROBBERS. 197
Huacho. " ShaU I," said the robber, " kill you or put.
out your eyes?" "If I must choose,"; rephed the.
Indian, " pray kiU me at once." The barbarian imme
diately drew forth his dagger and stuck it into the eyes
of the unfortunate victim, and then left him lying on
the sand. In this state the poor Indian was found by
a traveUer, who conveyed him to a neighbouring village.
The foUowing anecdote was related to me by an Indian,
in whose dwelling I passed a riight, at Chancay : —
About, half a league from the village he met a negro,
who advanced towards him, with musket cocked, and
commanded him to halt. My host drew out a large
riding pistol, and said, " You may be thankful that this
is not loaded Or you would be a dead man." The negro
laughing scornfully, rode up and seized the Indian,
when the latter suddenly fired the pistol, and shot him
dead. When these Peruvian banditti are attacked by the
military or the police they defend themselves with
desperate courage. If they can effect their escape they
fly for concealment into the woods and thickets, which,
if not too extensive, are surrounded and set on fire, so
that the fugitives have no alternative but to surrender,
or to perish in the flames.
Within the few last years, two negroes, named Esco
bar and Leon, were daring leaders of banditti. Leon,
who was originaUy a slave, commenced his career of
crime by the murder of his master. He eluded the
pursuit of justice, became a highway robber, and for
many years was the terror of the whole province of

198 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Lima. The pohce vainly endeavoured to secure him.
Leon knew the country so weU, that he constantly
evaded his pursuers. When the price of 2000 doUars
was set upon his head, he boldly entered Lima every
evening, and slept in the city. At length placards
were posted about, calling on Leon's comrades to kiU
him, and offering to any one who might deliver him
up dead into the hands of the pohce the reward of
1000 doUars and a pardon. This measure had the
desired result, and Leon was strangled, whilst asleep,
by a zambo, who was his godfather. The body was,
during three days, exposed to pubhc view in front of the
cathedral. Another celebrated bandit was the zambo, Jose Rayo.
He took an active part in several of the pohtical revo
lutions ; and having, during those commotions, been
serviceable to the president, he was raised to the rank
of a lieutenant-colonel, and made chief of the country
police, called the Partida montada del campo. This
post he still fills, and he is admirably well adapted to it,
as experience has rendered him thoroughly acquainted
with banditti hfe, and he knows every hiding-place in the
country round Lima. Nevertheless he could not catch
the negro Leon, or possibly he would not seize him, for
Leon was his godfather, a relationship which is held
sacred throughout all classes in Peru. When Rayo
speaks of the president and ministers he always styles
them sits mejores amigos (his best friends). I fell in
with him once, when travelhng on the road to Chacla
cayo, and rode in company with him as far as the

AN EXECUTION IN LIMA. 199
Hacienda de Santa Clara. I found him exceedingly
complaisant and courteous in his manners ; but his true
zambo nature was not whoUy concealed beneath the
smooth surface.
Robbers, when captured and brought to Lima, undergo
a very summary trial, and are then sentenced to be
shot. The culprits have the privilege of choosing their
place of execution, and they generaUy fix on the
market-place. They are aUowed the assistance of a
priest for twelve hours prior to their death, and they
are conducted from the chapel to the place of execution,
carrying a bench, on which they sit to undergo the punish
ment. Four soldiers fire at the distance of three paces
from the culprit ; two aiming at his head, and two at his
breast. On one of these occasions a singular instance
of presence of mind and dexterity occurred a few years
ago in Lima. A very daring zambo, convicted of high
way robbery, was sentenced to death. He made choice
of the Plaza de la Inquisition as the scene of his
execution. It was market time, and the square was
crowded with people. The culprit darted around him
a rapid and penetrating glance, and then composedly
seated himself on the bench. The soldiers according to
custom leveUed their muskets, and fired ; but how
great was the surprise, when the cloud of smoke dis
persed, and it was discovered that the zambo had
vanished. He had closely watched the movements of
the soldiers, and when they puUed the triggers of their
muskets, he stooped down, and the baUs passed over his
head. Then suddenly knocking down one of the guards

200 TRAVELS "IN PERU.
who stood beside him, he rushed into the midst of the.
crowd, where some of his friends helped him to effect
his escape.
In time of war a corps is raised, consisting chiefly of
highway robbers and persons who, by. various offences
against the laws, have forfeited their' freedom or their
lives. This corps is caUed the Montoneros, and they are
very important auxiliaries when the coast is the theatre
of the war. The Montoneros, not being trained in mili
tary manoeuvres, are not employed as regular cavalry,
but only as outposts, scouts, despatch-bearers, &c. They
are good skirmishers, and they harass the enemy by
their unexpected movements ; sometimes attacking in
front, and sometimes in the rear. They have no regular
uniform, and their usual clothing consists of dirty, white
trousers and jacket, a poncho, arid a broad-brimmed ¦*>
straw hat. Many of them are not even provided with
shoes, and their spurs are fastened on their bare heels.
Their arms consist of a short carbine and a sword.
When the corps is strong, and is required for active ser
vice, it is placed under the command of a General of .the
Army. In 1838, General MiUer, now British Consul at
the Sandwich Islands, commanded a corps Of 1000
Montoneros, who were in the service of Santa Cruz.
They are held in the strictest disciphne by their com
manders, who punish theft with death. There is,
however, one sort of robbery which they are suffered
to commit with impunity, viz., horse-stealing. The
horses obtained in this way are used for mounting the
cavalry ;- and detachments of Montoneros are sent to

THE MONTONEROS. 201
the plantations to collect horses. They. are Ukewise
taken from traveUers, and from the stables in the capital ;
but sometimes, after the close. of the campaign, the
animals are returned to their owners. ')' When the war
is ended the Montoneros are disbanded, and most of
.them return to their occupation as highway robbers.
In aU campaigns the Montoneros are sent forward, by
one or two days' march in advance of ihe main army,
either in smaU or large detachments. When they enter
a viUage they experience no difficulty in obtaining quar*
ters and provisions, for the inhabitants are not disposed
to refuse anything that such visitors may demand.,, A
troop of Montoneros is a picturesque, but, at the same
time, a very fearful sight. Their black, yellow, and
olive-coloured, faces, seared by scars, and expressive of
every evil passion and savage feeling ; their motley and
tattered garments ; their weary and ill-saddled horses ;
their short firelocks and long swords ; — present alto
gether a most wild and disorderly aspect. The traveUer,
who suddenly encounters such a band, may consider
himself exceedingly lucky if he escape with only the
loss of his horse.
A universal panic pervades the city of Lima whenever
a detachment of Montoneros enters within the gates.
On every side are he^d cries of "Cierrapuertas!" (close
tiie doors ! ) " Los Montoneros ! " Every person passing
along the streets runs into the first house he comes to,
and closes the door after him. In a few moments the
streets are cleared, and no sound is heard but the
galloping of the Montoneros' horses..

202 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Within the distance of a few leagues from Lima there
are several pretty villages, to which the wealthier class
of the inhabitants of the capital resort in the summer
season, for sea-bathing. The nearest, situated about
three quarters of a league from Lima, is Magdalena, where
the Viceroy of Peru formerly had a beautiful summer
residence. Miraflores, about midway between Lima
and ChoriUos, is a smaU viUage containing a plaza and
some neatly-built houses. Though the heat is greater
here than in the capital, yet the air is purer, and Mira
flores may be regarded as the healthiest spot in the
neighbourhood, of Lima. The sultry atmosphere is
refreshed by the sea breezes. Surrounded by verdant
though not luxuriant vegetation, and sufficiently distant
from the marshes, Miraflores appears to combine within
itself aU that can be wished for in a summer residence.
For asthmatic patients the air is particularly favourable.
An old Spaniard of my acquaintance, who was engaged
during the . day in business in Lima, used to go every
night to sleep at Miraflores : he assured me that if he
slept a night in the capital he suffered a severe attack
of asthma.ChoriUos is a poor, ill-looking viUage. The streets are
dirty and crooked, and the houses are mere ranchos. It
is built close to the sea, on a steep sandy beach ; but,
though anything but a pleasant place, ChoriUos is
the favourite resort of the wealthy Limayan families.
Not a tree is visible in the neighbourhood of the viUage,
and the unshaded rays of the sun are reflected with
twofold power from the hot sand. A broad, steep road

WATERING PLACES NEAR LIMA. 203
leads down to the bathing-place on the sea-beach, which
is rough and shingly. A row of smaU huts, covered
with matting, serve as dressing-rooms. Both ladies and
gentlemen use bathing dresses, which are very neatly
made of a kind of blue cloth. The ladies are accom
panied by guides {ba"aderos). These are Indians, who
dweU in the viUage. In winter they employ themselves
in fishing, and in summer they live by what they get
from the visitors who resort to ChoriUos. They are
a good-looking, hardy race of people.
The time for bathing is early in the morning. The
interval between breakfast and dinner is devoted to
swinging in the hammock, either in the sala or in the
corridor. The afternoon and evening are spent on the
promenade, and the later hours of the night at the gaming
table. The routine of the day's occupations and amuse
ments are much the same as in most of the watering-
places of Europe, excepting that, in the latter, the ham
mock is superseded by the chair in the reading-room and
coffee-house, or the bench on the promenade. The sultry
nights in ChoriUos are rendered doubly unpleasant by
the swarms of vermin which infest the houses. Fleas,
bugs, mosquitoes, and sancudos combine to banish rest
from the couch of even the soundest sleeper.
Surco is situated about half a league from ChoriUos,
and further into the interior of the country. It is a
poor but pleasant viUage, surrounded by tropical trees
and luxuriant vegetation. The chmate is not so hot as
that of Lima or ChoriUos. Surco is a very pretty spot,
though seldom resorted to by the inhabitants of the

204; TRAVELS IN PERU.
capital ; because it boasts neither baths nor gaming
tables. Two leagues eastward of Lima, in the direction of the
mountains, is the village El Ate. It lies in a fertile
valley, and enjoys a pure and equal temperature.
It is much resorted to by invahds suffering from pul
monary disorders, which, if not cured, are at least
relieved by the pure air.
Lurin is situated five, leagues south from the capital,
and a quarter of a league from the Rio de Lurin, which
intersects the Quebrada of Huarochirin. Fine gardens,
and well-cultivated lands, impart beauty to the sur
rounding scenery. At Michaelmas Lurin is visited by
many of the inhabitants of the capital, St. Michael being
the patron saint of the place. The viUage stands about
a thousand paces from the margin of the sea-shore,
which is two miles distant from the rocky islands of
Tarallones, Santo Domingo, and Pacchacamac. Prior
to the Spanish conquest, the vaUey of Lurin was one of
the most populous parts of the coast of Peru. The
whole of the broad vaUey was then called Pacchacamac,
because near the sea-shore and northward of the river,
there was a temple sacred to the " Creator of the Earth." *
Pacchacamac was the greatest deity of the Yuncas,
who did not worship the sun until after their subjugation
by the Incas. The temple of Pacchacamac was then
dedicated to the sun by the Incas, who destroyed the

* The word Pacchacamac signifies He who created the world out of nothing.
It is compounded of Paccha, the earth, and camac, the participle present of
caman, to produce something from nothing.

TEMPLE OF PACCHACAMAC. 205
idols which the Yuncas had worshipped and appointed
to the service of the temple a certain number of virgins
of royal descent. In the year 1534, Pizarro invaded the
village of Lurin : his troops destroyed the temple, and
the Virgins of the Sun were dishonoured and murdered.
The ruins of the temple of Pacchacamac are among
the most interesting objects on the coast of Peru.
!They are situated on a hiU about 558 feet high. The
summit of the hiU is overlaid with a sohd mass of brick
work about thirty feet in height. On this artificial
ridge stood the temple, inclosed by high walls, rising in
the form of an amphitheatre. It is now a mass of ruins ;
aU that remains of it being some niches, the., walls of
which present faint traces of red and yeUow painting:
At the foot, and on the sides of the hill, are scattered
ruins which were formerly the waUs of habitations. The
whole was encircled by a wall eight feet in breadth, and
it was probably of considerable height, for some of the
parts now standing are twelve feet high, though the
average height does not exceed three or four feet. The
mania of digging for treasures every year makes en
croachments on these vestiges of a bygone age, whose
monuments are well deserving of more careful pre
servation. Travelhng on the coast of Peru is difficult and tedious.
The roads lead through plains of sand, where often not
a trace of vegetation is to be seen, or a drop of water
to be found for twenty or thirty miles. It is found
desirable to take aU possible advantage of the night, in
order to escape the scorching rays of a tropical sun ;

206 TRAVELS IN PERU.
but when there is no moonlight, and above aU, when
clouds of mist obscure the directing stars, the traveUer
runs the risk of getting out of his course, and at day
break, discovering his error, he may have to retrace
his weary way. This extra fatigue may possibly dis
able his horse, so that the animal cannot proceed
further. In such an emergency a traveUer finds his
hfe in jeopardy ; for should he attempt to go forward
on foot he may, in aU probabihty, faU a sacrifice to
fatigue and thirst. Numbers of beasts of burden sink
every year under the difficulties of such a journey ; and
their bones serve to mark the direction of the road.
Long journeys over these sand plains should be under
taken only with good and weU-tried horses. For the
most part the horses cannot stand hunger and thirst
forty-eight hours without becoming so exhausted that
the rider has the greatest difficulty in making them drag
on ; and if he is inconsiderate enough to force the
animal to take a quicker pace, the horse lies down and
dies. The mule, which more easily supports the diffi
culties of a severe journey on the sparest food, is, in
Peru, the camel of the desert. Without mules a long
journey on most parts of the coast would be imprac
ticable. The horse obeys the spur until he falls dead
under the rider. Not so the mule : when too weary to
journey onward he stands stock stiU, and neither whip
nor spur will riiove him until he has rested. After that
he will willingly proceed on his way. By this means
the traveUer has a criterion by which he can judge of
the powers of his animal.

SEA PASSAGE TO HUACHO. 207
Excursions along the coast have been greatly facili
tated by the introduction of steam navigation, and
traveUers now eagerly avaU themselves of that rapid
and secure mode of conveyance. Even in sailing vessels
voyages from south to north can be conveniently per
formed in consequence of the regularity of the trade-
wind. During my residence in Lima, in the commencement
of the year 1841, I visited the port of Huacho, situated
to the north, A packet bound to Panama had permis
sion to touch at Huacho, without casting anchor, as she
had to convey pohtical prisoners under sentence of
transportation to Panama. I was one of five passengers
who landed at Huacho, and among the number was the
pastor of the town, that very original individual, "the
Cura Requena." The passage, which is usuaUy made
in fourteen hours, lasted two days and a half. Off the
port we feU in with a Peruvian sloop of war, which, on
our sailing from CaUao, had been sent to watch us, and
to stop the prisoners in case they attempted to escape.
Our captain lay to, and we stepped into a boat. Our
movements were observed from the shore, where, for
some days, a report had prevaUed that Santa Cruz
was coming with Corsairs, to make a descent. The
inhabitants believed that our ship must belong to that
expedition. They were the more confirmed in their
notion, inasmuch as the appearance of a sloop of
war, which had saUed about for some hours in the
bay, could not otherwise be explained. Accord
ingly the alarm beU was rung. The custom-house

208 TRAVELS IN PERU.
officers and the coast guards, headed by the port
captain, and foUowed by a crowd of people, came
down to the shore, some armed with muskets and
pistols, others with swords and cudgels, to repel the
intended attack.
At the entrance to the port of Huacho the breakers
are so dangerous that an ordinary-sized boat cannot
put in. Landing is therefore effected in the smaU
canoes of the Indians. When we approached the shore
we made signals, and caUed loudly for canoes, but in
vain. The dismayed Huachanos showed no inchnation
to assist their supposed enemies. Our captain, who
was with us in the boat, said, that as a fresh wind from
the shore- was springing up he could wait no longer, and
that he must take us with him to Panama. This very
unpleasant piece of information prompted us to put into
execution a plan which was suggested by despair. The
tall lank pastor, wrapped in the black ecclesiastical robe,
called the talar, was placed at the prow, where he stood
up, making signs of peace and friendship to the natives.
This had the desired effect. The port captain had
a good glass, with which he quickly recognised the
marked features of the Cura, and several Indian boats
were instantly despatched to convey us on shore. These
Indian canoes consist of long narrow stumps of trees,
hoUowed longitudinally. On either side is haUed a
pah de balzas, viz., a beam of a very porous kind of wood.
One Indian sits forward, another more backward, each
having a short wooden shovel-shaped oar, with which
they strike the water right and left, and thus scull the

ICHTHYOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. 209
boat onward. The passengers must crouch or kneel
down in the middle, and dare not stir, for the least irre
gularity in the motion would upset the boat. We
landed safely, and amused ourselves by referring to the
mistake of the brave guardians of the coast. Horses
were provided for us, and we rode to the town, which is
situated at about half a league up the gently-rising coast.
My principal occupation, during a six weeks' resi
dence on this part of the coast, which is very rich in
fishes, was to augment my ichthyological collection, and
to make myself weU acquainted with the environs of
Huacho. Every morning, at five o'clock, I rode down
to the shore, and waited on the strand to see the boats
returning with what had been caught, during the night,
by the fishers, who readily descried me at a distance,
and held up, in their boat, such strange inhabitants of
the deep as had come into their possession. I succeeded
in making out, from several hundred individual speci
mens, one hundred and twenty distinct species of sea
and river fish. But an unlucky fate hovered over
this fine collection. The fishes were aU put into a
cask with brandy, which, by neglect of the commissary
of the port, was left on the Mole at Callao, for several
months, in the burning heat of the sun : in consequence its
contents were utterly destroyed. A second coUection
was prepared, and immediately shipped for Europe, and
in the packing the greatest care was observed. Never
theless it arrived, after a voyage of fifteen months, in a
state quite useless. Thus the fruits of much labour and
a considerable expense were entirely lost.
p

210 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Huacho is a large village, which, since the war of
Independence, has received the title of " city." It has
more than 5000 inhabitants, of whom four-fifths are
Indians and the rest mestizos. Very few whites have
settled here. Among them I met an old lame Spaniard,
"Don Simon," who, at the beginning of the present
century, accompanied the celebrated Alexander von
Humboldt to the beds of salt situated a few miles to the
south. In relating, with enthusiastic pleasure, bis recol
lections of the youthful and indefatigable traveUer, he
told me that, some years ago, he had read through the
book which Humboldt wrote on America, and he added,
with great simpritity, "pero, Senor, ahi he perdido los
estribos!'* The natives employ themselves in fishing, agriculture,
and the breeding of poultry. Most of the poultry
brought to market in Lima comes from Huacho. Every
Friday large caravan-like processions of Indian women
repair to the capital with fowls, ducks, and turkeys.
Fifteen or twenty are tied together by the feet, and
make a sort of bunch ; and two of such bunches are
hung at the pommel of the saddle, so that one hangs
down on either side of the horse. The cholat sits in
the middle. Under this burthen the poor animal has
to travel two days and a half. Only when the caravan
halts does he enjoy the relief of being unsaddled and
* Literally — " But there, sir, I lost the stirrups." Meaning that he did not
understand it. The Spanish phrase Perder los estrihos, signifies to get confused
or embarrassed.
t Chola is the common designation for an Indian female. The masculine is
Cholo.

THE PADRE REQUENA. 211
fed. Some of the Indians of Huacho work in the salt-
pits. The women plait coarse straw hats, and a kind of
mats caUed petates, which they carry to Lima for sale.
The Huachanos cannot be ranked among the best
classes of the Indians. They are mahcious, revengeful,
and knavish. Their character has evidently deteriorated
amidst the numerous revolutions which preceded the
establishment of the Repubhc, and the frequent passage
of troops through the town. The Padre Requena
sketched to me a terrible picture of his Indios brutos ;
but truly, under the guidance of such a shepherd, it were
unreasonable to expect the flock to be very good. This
venerable Cura was a fair type of the Peruvian priest
hood. He was passionately fond of hunting, and for the
enjoyment of that recreation he kept a number of excel
lent horses, and several packs of hounds, particularly
galgos (greyhounds), for some of which he paid 150 or
200 doUars. In the most shameless way he violated
the ecclesiastical vow of celibacy, and he was usually
surrounded by several of his own children, who caUed
him uncle, addressing him by the appeUation of Mo, the
term usuaUy employed in Peru to express that sort of
relationship. The Padre used to boast. of his aUeged
friendship with Lord Cochrane, in which he affected
to pride himself very greatly. He died in a few weeks
after his return to Huacho. He refused so long to
make his confession, that the Indians, uttering furious
menaces, assembled in crowds about his house. Some
even compeUed a priest to go into him, to represent the
awful consequences of his obstinacy. On the approach
p 2

212 TRAVELS IN PERU.
of death, he declared that the thought which most occu
pied him was his separation from his hounds, and when
his hands were becoming cold he called to his negro
to fetch a pair of buckskin hunting gloves, and desired
to have them drawn on.
In Peru the clergy have no fixed stipend. Their
emoluments are derived from the fees and perquisites
which their ecclesiastical functions bring in. For bap
tisms, marriages, and masses fixed sums are estabhshed ;
but it is not so with burials, for which the priest
receives a present proportional to the circumstances of
the deceased. The interment of a poor person {entierro
baxo) costs at least from eight to ten doUars, which sum
is extorted from the survivors with the most unrelenting
rigour. For the burial of a rich person {entierro alto)
the sum of two hundred dollars is frequently paid. If
a wealthy man should express in his wiU his desire for
an entierro baxo, the priest sets this clause aside, and
proceeds with the costly ceremonies, the payment for
which is insured by the pious feehngs of the fanrily.
Hence some of the richer comunerias, of which Huacho
is one, yield to the priest annuaUy from 12,000 to
14,000 doUars. When a priest dies, the clergy of the
neighbouring viUages meet and bury him with great
pomp, free of any payment except a good banquet.
A rich Indian of Huacho made a bargain with his
countrymen that, on their paying him weekly a medio
(the sixteenth part of a doUar), he would defray the
expense of their funerals. By this agreement he reahsed
a considerable sum of money. The Cholos made it a

THE CHURCHYARD OF HUACHO. 213
condition that they should be buried in coffins, which is
not common with the lower classes in Peru. The Indian
comphed with this condition. When a Cholo died, a coffin
was sent to his residence. If too short, the corpse was
bent and forced into it. The interment then took place
according to the ritual of the Church. On the foUow
ing night the Indian who had contracted for the burials
repaired with a confidential servant to the churchyard,
dug up the coffin, threw the body back into the grave,
and carried off the coffin, with the mortaja (the funeral
garment), which served for the next customer. The
contractor made each coffin last as long as the boards
would hold together. This system, at aU events, secured
the Cholos against the danger of being buried ahve.
The churchyard of Huacho presents a revolting spec
tacle. A low waU surrounds a space of sandy ground,
which is strewed with skulls, bones, fragments of burial
clothes, and mutilated human bodies. The coffin plun
derer, on replacing the corpse in the grave, merely
throws some loose sand over it, and the consequence
is that the remains of the dead frequently become the
prey of dogs, foxes, and other carrion feeders. When
the family of a deceased person can contribute nothing
to defray the funeral expenses, the body is conveyed
privately during the night to the churchyard. In the
morning it is found half consumed.
The environs of Huacho abound in fine fruit gardens,
and productive Indian farms. The chmate is healthful,
though very hot. The vicinity of the sea and the con
venience of good bathing would render it an agreeable

214 TRAVELS IN PERU.
place of residence, were it not infested with vermin.
Fleas propagate in the sand in almost incredible mul
titudes, especiaUy in the neighbourhood of the Indian
huts, and any person entering them is in a moment
covered with hundreds of those tormentors. Bugs, too,
swarm in the hme waUs ; . though that description of
vermin is less numerous in Huacho than in some of the
more northern towns.
In a fine valley, about two short leagues from Huacho,
the httle town of Huaura is situated on the bank of
a river of the same name. This Rio de Huaura is
formed by the union of two rivers. The larger of the
two rises in the Cordillera de Paria, and flows through
the wild ravine of Chuichin : the smaUer river, caUed
the Rio Chico de Sayan, rises from a lake of consider
able size in the Altos de Hauquimarca. Both unite
below the village of Sayan. In the vicinity of Huaura
the river forms several marshes, in which malaria is
generated. In very few places have I seen the stratum
of malaria so distinctly separated from the atmosphere
as here. It lies at an average about two, or two and
a half feet above the marsh, and is carried over it by
strong atmospheric currents. It is distinguished by a
pecuhar kind of opalization, and on certain changes of
hght it exhibits a yeUowish tint This is particularly
perceptible in the morning, on coming down from the
high grounds. The marshy plain then appears over
hung with a thick colour-changing sheet of malaria.
Malignant intermittent fever and diseases of the skin
are frequent in Huaura. The town is thinly peopled ;

SUGAR PLANTATIONS AND MILLS. 215
the number of inhabitants being not more than
2000. A great sugar plantation, called El Ingenio, is situated
at about a quarter of a league from Huaura. It for
merly belonged to the Jesuits, but is now the property of
a rich Lima fanrily. The trapiche, or sugar-mill, is worked
by a water-wheel, the first ever estabhshed in Peru, a
circumstance of which the owner proudly boasts.
The vaUey which opens here is magnificent, and to
ride through it easterly eleven leagues towards Sayan is
one of the finest excursions which can be made in Peru.
Over this beautiful district are scattered many rich plan
tations. The one next in importance to El Ingenio is
Acaray, which, though not very large, is most carefully
cultivated : another, caUed Huillcahuaura, has a splendid
bunding erected on it. In the middle of the vaUey
is the extensive sugar plantation of Luhmayo. Near
this place I saw, in a negro's hut, an ounce of immense
size, which had been killed a few weeks previously.
More than fifty Negroes and Indians had been engaged
in subduing this ferocious animal, which was not kiUed
untfl after a conflict of two days, in the course of
which several negroes were dangerously wounded.
This gigantic specimen measured, from the snout to the
tip of the tail, eight feet three inches ; the tail itself
measuring two feet eight inches.
At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the
number of pipes, and other methods of supplying water,
the cylinders are always worked by oxen, and are kept
in motion day and night. I took a view of the works

216 TRAVELS IN PERU.
during the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld
will never be effaced from my memory. In the middle
of the spacious building appropriated to the operations
blazed a large fire, fed by the refuse of sugar canes.
Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others muttering
to each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat
one perfectly silent, wrapped in his own reflections, and
apparently brooding over some gloomy plan. The oxen
paced slowly round the pole, which directed the movement
of the cyhnders ; the animals alternately disappearing
in the obscure background, and returning to the point
where the glare of the fire, falling full upon them, hghted
them up as if by the sudden effect of magic. Behind
them stalked a tall black figure, driving them on with a
rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busily
employed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the
cyhnders ; and after they were pressed, collecting together
the sapless reeds, and piling them up in regular heaps.
Next morning, the person who officiated as medical
superintendant of the plantation, showed me all the
arrangements of the estabhshment. He gave me an
account of his cures and operations, and told me that he
often found it necessary to amputate, because the slaves
purposely injure their fingers and arms in the Phalan-
geles (machines) in order to disable themselves. The
worthy iEsculapius had never in his hfe read a regular
medical work. He had originally been an overseer of
slaves, and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed
me that some time before I saw him, ninety negroes,
his patients, had died of small-pox in the space of nine

A PERUVIAN SPORTSMAN AND HIS HOUNDS. 21 7
months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost
45,000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well-fitted
up, but over-crowded with sick. Most of them died
from intermitting fever, and from dropsy and rheumatism
which foUowed it. Not a few of the male negroes suffer
from a pecuhar kind of cutaneous disease, which shows
itself by large pustules on the arms and Tbreast. After sup
puration they dry and faU off, but leave indelible spots,
which, on a black skin, are of a whitish colour ; on a
brown skin, olive-green, and on a white skin, black. I
never saw the disease in any other part of the country
except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed
blood are more subject to it than the whites.
The two plantations on the east side of the valley are
Chambara and Quipico. The latter is celebrated for the
fine sugar it produces, and is also weU known on account
of the original character of its late proprietor, CastiUa.
When I. rode into the court, I was in a moment sur
rounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every
side others came springing forward. This was but a
remnant of CastiUa's coUection. He was passionately
devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to 300
greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A beU was
rung at certain hours to coUect the hght-footed tribe to
their meals. A gaUows was erected in the court where
the intractable underwent capital punishment as a warn
ing to the rest. One day when CastiUa went out to
hunt, he was joined in the chase by an Indian, who
brought with him a common mongrel. This animal out
stripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quickly

218 TRAVELS IN PERU.
overtook the deer. CastiUa immediately bought the dog,
for which he gave the immense price of 350 doUars. A
few days after he rode out to hunt with his best grey
hounds, together with the newly-purchased dog. The
pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase,
but the mongrel remained quietly beside the horses.
On returning to the plantation, he was hung up on the
gallows as a warning example.
To the north of Huacho, the Pampa del medio mundo,
a sand plain, seven leagues long, stretches out to the
vfllage of Supe. At short successive distances farther
to the north are the villages of Baranca, Pativilca, (or
rather Pati HuiUca), and la Fortaleza. Then there
intervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to
Huarmay. Between that viUage and the Port of
Casma there is a similar long plain of sand. Thus do
wastes, and fruitful vaUeys, alternate along the whole
coast until near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Repubhc
of the Ecuador.
The whole district is rich in memorable monuments
of the time of the Incas. The most important are the
remains of the palace of King Chimu Cancha, not far
from the harbour of Huanchaco, and the ruins of Para-
manca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Dnanue* is of opinion
that the latter edifice was built to commemorate the
peace between King Chimu Cancha and his conqueror,
Capac Yupanqui ; and that of two other buildings, one
(the larger) situated towards the east, marks the
* Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824.

ANCIENT PERUVIAN RUINS. 219
dominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other,
(the smaUer), towards the west, indicates the territory
of the conquered Chimu. This supposition is, in my
opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of the plainly-
recognizable character of those ruins, the construc
tion of which shows them to have been fortifications,
their situation bears evidence against the inference
of Drianue. Supposing the larger bunding to have
indicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to
have been situated to the south, and the smaUer building
would have been to the north. The only passable road
along the coast led between these two fortified hiUs ;
and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom of
Chimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from
experience, that the subdued populations, usuaUy after a
longer or a shorter time, again revolted, and endeavoured
to shake off their yoke, and therefore they were on their
guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui
must have greatly mistrusted an enemy so formid
able as Chimu Cancha, who had only yielded after the
most obstinate resistance, and it is no slight proof of
this that Paramanea* was buflt as a fortress to hold
the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however,
built as a monument of victory, for such monuments
were always erected in Cozco, the capital, and never on
the field of battle. Etymology affords no solution of this
* According to some ancient authors Paramanea was built by King Chimu
as a frontier fortresaagainstthe neighbouring nations. There is some foundation
for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had, long before he was attacked
by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war most fiercely with Cuyz Mancu King of
Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King of Runahuanac, (the present Lunahuana.)

220 TRAVELS IN PERU.
question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanea. I
regard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la
Vega calls the vaUey Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect
Paramanea signifies a pot for rain. It is therefore
possible that the name may indicate an aUusion to heavy
torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on this parti
cular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin
like vaUey after a great earthquake.
Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive
Salinas, or salt pits, which supply Peru and ChUe with
excellent salt. They spread from the sea coast to
the distance of half a league eastward, and present a
most extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the
traveUer might fancy he beholds a field of glaciers, on
which the sun's rays produce wonderful effects of varie
gated colour.
This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of
the sea water, which trickles through the porous stones
of the coast, and fills every intervening hoUow. The
whole space is parcelled into divisions, caUed fields,
from which, according to a definite regulation, square
masses, weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In
a few days the holes are again fiUed up with sea water,
which, in the space of twelve to sixteen, or sometimes
twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated by the
sun, leaves a precipitate completely fining up the square
holes. The government has farmed the Salinas to a
private individual in Huacho, who keeps on the spot an
* Para (rain) Ma/nca (pot).

THE SALINAS OF HUACHO. 221
overseer with the necessary number of labourers. This
establishment is. an inexhaustible source of wealth, and
it can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In
the bay on which the sahnas border there is very con
venient and secure anchoring ground, where coasters
are constantly lying, ready to receive the salt, and
convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of the
labourers employed in the sahnas suffer from diseases of
the skin and rheumatism. Water and provisions have
to be brought from Huacho. The Indians, when they
come from the mountains to convey salt, never take
their Uamas to the sahnas. They go straight to
Huacho, where the animals are loaded at the great
depots. Each Uama carries the weight of one hundred
pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens,
laid on the bare back of the animal — beneath it is
placed a layer of thick woollen cloth, caUed ajerga.
The road southward from the Sahnas runs, for the
distance of nine leagues, through deep sand, chiefly
along the sea-coast, and is bounded on the east by the
Lomas de Lachay. Here flocks of strand-snipes and fla
mingoes fly constantly before the traveUer, as if to direct
his course. In the pescadores (fishermen's huts), five
leagues from the Sahnas, brackish water and broiled
fish may be obtained, and sometimes even clover, which
is brought hither, from the distance of several miles, to
feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road
crosses steep sand-hills, which rise from three to four
hundred feet high, and fall with a dechvity of more than
sixty degrees towards the sea. The road leads along

222 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the side of these hiUs, and, where the ground is not
firm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of
the horse the ground yields beneath his hoof, and roUs
down the declivity ; but by due care the rider can easfly
recover a soHd footing. There is on one of these hiUs
a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents
in colour and form a deceptious similarity to an enor
mous-sized seal. Almost perpendicularly under it is a
smaU bay, inhabited by a multitude of seals. The dull
crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore,
mingling with the howhng of these animals, make a
gloomy impression on the traveUer who is passing along
the height above them, and create a sort of shuddering
sensation. The natives call this place and its sounds
.the Grita Lobos (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hiUy
ground the road descends into the fruitful vaUey of the
Pasamayo, which contains two vfllages and eighteen
plantations. Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the resi
dence of a Sub-prefect. It is a league and a half from
the river, and a short league from the sea, where there
is an inconsiderable and not very safe port, which can
only be entered by smaU vessels. The number of inha
bitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos.
Excellent fruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and
poultry, and weU-flavoured fish, are found here in abun
dance. The houses are all of the very poorest struc
ture, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the
neighbouring farms, some of which are large, as Torre-
bianco, Pasamayo, &c, maize is extensively cultivated

THE PIQUES. 223
for exportation and for food to the swine, which are very
numerous. In no other vaUey of Peru are there so many
earth-fleas, or piques, as they are called, particularly about
the plantations. The pique is a smaU white insect,
which hves in sand, but fastens as a parasite on man
and beast, more particularly on swine. It attacks man
by penetrating the skin, for the most part under the toe
nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumour
is afterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the
brood is developed, and penetrates further into the flesh.
Then foUow violent inflammations and imposthumes,
which sometimes assume so serious a character that the
amputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the
pique is penetrating there is no sensation of its presence;
it is first felt on the development of the egg, and then it
is stiU easy to remove the bag which contains it, and
the mother with it. The Negresses accomplish this
with great dexterity. They make an aperture in the
skin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw
the bag out. Should it burst, they take out the egg with
the needle ; but this is a very delicate operation. I
have always been able to do it more speedily and more
securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly of the
size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it
tx> destroy any eggs or larva? which may remain. These
insects do not always confine themselves to the feet ;
they sometimes attack the body and the face, and it is in
general extremely difficult for the patient to discover how
or where he became acquainted with such troublesome
companions. I once had six tumours, caused by broods

224 TRAVELS IN PERU.
of piques, on my right foot, and I could not trace the
annoyance to any other cause than having stopped for
a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in
the corral, or yard, of a plantation. -
The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira,
Andahuasi, and the viUage of Sayan, extends in a north
easterly direction through a dreary vaUey of sand,
between rows of sterile hiUocks of the most singular forms.
I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this weari
some road, under the most oppressive heat of the sun.
The mules were quite overcome, and when we reached the
Cuesta de los ahorcados (the hiU of the hanged) they
would not move another step. We had to descend and
give them a long rest. We stretched ourselves under
the beUies of the animals, the only shade we could get in
this treeless waste. At last, after a very difficult journey,
during which we lost ourselves in a marsh in the neigh
bourhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight at
Andahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from
Chancay, near the Hacienda of ChancayUo, are situated
the Colcas, most remarkable subterraneous structures, of
the time of the Incas. According to tradition, they
were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of Capac
Yupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision maga
zines for the numerous army, more than 120,000 strong.
At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank,
there are some sahnas, which, however, are far more
inconsiderable than those of Huacho.
The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished
to pass over the whole road, twenty-eight leagues, in

PASSAGE OF THE PASAMAYO. 225
one uninterrupted ride ; accordingly I left Huacho at
two o'clock, p.m., in order that I might cross the great
sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the
road accompanied me. We passed through Chancay at
midnight. Some muleteers, lying before a hut, called to
us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelled very
much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one
o'clock we reached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence
of the heavy rains from the mountains, had overflowed its
banks. Several traveUers had stretched themselves on the
ground to wait for the morning hght, and in the hope that
the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores *
were to be had. My negro guide looked at the water
with dismay, and declared that he had never before wit
nessed so furious a swell. However, we had no time to
lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river.
Trusting to my weU tried horse, which had already
carried me safely through many difficult coasting jour
neys, I cautiously rode into the river, which became
deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of the
stream was felt by my horse ; and he presently lost his
footing, though he stiU continued to struggle vigorously
against the force of the current. At this juncture, some
passing clouds obscured the moon, and I lost sight of a
group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank,
I fixed my eye upon as a guiding beacon. Quite power
less, my horse and I were carried away by the stream,
and driven against a rock in the middle of the river.
¦* Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being well acquainted with
the fords. They are also called Vadeadores. Q

226 TRAVELS IN PERU.
I now heard the anxious outcries of my negro and the
travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my
head. With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the
horse then turning completely round, once more gained
his sohd footing. I then gave him the spur, and the
courageous animal dashing again into the midst of the
current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward
with my negro in search of a better fording place, and
after several fruitless attempts, we at length found one,
and we crossed the river safely. The other travellers
did not venture to foUow our example, but caUed out
begging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro
back on my horse to bring them over ; and the noble
animal went backward and forward no less than seven
times without making one false step. After aU this
exertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima,
where we arrived at noon on the foUowing day.
From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of
two leagues tolerably level, and for the most part
amidst plantations. Then succeed steep sandy hills, for
the distance of about four leagues. The roads are very
wearisome both to horse and rider, especiaUy in the
declivities towards the plains, where the horse is fre
quently over his knees in sand. In those parts there are
also some extraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which
we beheld ourselves in reflection, riding over our own
heads, and our figures magnified to gigantic proportions.
Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretched
huts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers
obtain refreshment. From thence the road runs

THE PALO SECO AND THE PIEDRAS GORDAS. 227
through a stony tract, partiaUy strewn with large
masses of rock, caUed the Piedras gordas, and leading
to the marshes which surround the Copacahuana
plantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chil-
lon, which, like the Pasamayo, may generally be easily
forded, but which sweUs furiously during heavy faUs of
rain. At a short distance behind the river, the road,
caUed the Camino de Valles, joins that leading to Cerro
de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place
called Palo seco, which, like Piedras gordas, is a
celebrated haunt of robbers. The traveller has reason
to congratulate himself if he passes these two places
without an attack.

Q2

CHAPTER IX.
The Coast southward of Lima — Chilca — Curious Cigar Cases made there —
Yauyos — Pisco — Journey to Yea— A night on the Sand Plains — Fatal
Catastrophe in the year 1823 — Vine Plantations at Yea — Brandy and Wine
— Don Domingo Elias — Vessels for transporting Brandy, (Botijas and odres)
— Cruel mode of skinning Goats — Negro Carnival — Peculiar species of
Guinea Pig — The Salamanqueja — Cotton Plantations— Quebrada of Huai-
tara — Sangallan — Guano — Retrospect of the Peruvian Coast — Rivers —
Medanos — Winds — Change of Seasons — The Garuas — The Lomas — Mam
malia^ — Birds — Amphibia.
The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect,
chmate, and character, to those parts north of the city
which have just been described. Fruitful vaUeys,
viUages, and plantations, commodious sea-ports, and vast
sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat,
sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chiUy
and unhealthy mists ; whilst here and there the
scattered monuments of the wealth and greatness of
bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast
to present poverty and misery.
Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we
arrive at Chilca, a wretched viUage situated on a soil
which affords nothing to supply the wants of human
existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery
that man should have fixed his abode on a spot where
Nature has granted nothing for his nourishment, not
even a drop of pure water ; whilst at the distance of a
few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously, those

CHILCA AND ITS INHABITANTS. 229
products which the most laborious toil must fail to
extort from the ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of
wealth from commercial speculation or mining industry
has peopled many inhospitable shores, and has raised
populous towns on barren deserts ; but at Chilca there
are no such stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they
may possibly have existed in former ages, for the
numerous ruins scattered around the village tend to
confirm the opinion that the population was very
extensive under the government of the Incas. The
force of custom and of local attachment which frequently
chains man to the spot where his progenitors have lived
happily, is aU that can bind the natives of Chilca to
their miserable dwelling-place. In few villages, as in
Chilca, have the Indians for more than 300 years so
carefully avoided mixing with people of other races.
They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and
cigar-cases. The latter they make in a singularly
beautiful style with white and coloured straw, which
they plait into various figures and patterns — sometimes
into names, and even fines of poetry. Some of these
cigar-cases seU for upwards of a hundred dollars.
Fishing is a less profitable occupation to the people of
Chilca, or, as they are caUed in the country, the Chil-
queiios ; for, owing to the great distance, only certain
kinds of fish can be sent to the Lima market. Near
the viUage there is a bed of very strong red-coloured
salt, which is exported to the mountains, but which sells
at a lower price than the salt of Huacho.
Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same

230 TRAVELS IN PERU.
name, lies the viUage called Canete, which is the
residence of a Sub-prefect. The very interesting pro
vince of Yauyos extends from this viUage in an easterly
direction towards the CordiUeras. The inhabitants
of this province are distinguishable by their faces and
figures, and also by their manners and language, from
the Indians of the coast and the mountains. In stature
they are small. They have expanded foreheads, ani
mated eyes, prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths.
Their hmbs are slender, and their skin is of a swarthy-
brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, contains many
radical words of the Quichua language. After this
nation was subjugated by the Incas their language was
so intermixed with others, that it is now very difficult
to trace out its origin. It appears to be totaUy different
from the Chinchaysuyo language.
Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several
viUages, lie between Canete and Pisco. Among the
villages Lunahuana and Chincha (upper and lower) are
celebrated for their great fertihty. Two rivers, at the
distance of five leagues from each other, flow in a
parallel direction between Chincha and Pisco, and to
their waters the valleys are indebted for their rich
vegetation. On account of their width these rivers can
only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and
many travellers annually perish in their incautious
attempts to ford them. The little town of Pisco is on
the left bank of the south river, and half a league from
it there is a secure harbour with good anchoring ground.
This town has acquired some importance by the expor-

Pisco. 231
tation of brandy ; and it has recently become more
active and populous owing to the near vicinity of the
Guano islands. The custom-house and the port captain's
office are on the shore, where there is also a large build
ing erected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy depot.
The httle town of Pisco has suffered much from the
plundering attacks of European pirates, from earth
quakes, and more recently from the War of Independ
ence. Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within
the few last years much has been done in the way of
improving and ornamenting it. A broad trench has been
dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, and
thereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of
the place. Pisco is merely the key to the large interior
town of Yea, which is fourteen leagues distant. I
visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed me in
eighteen hours from CaUao to Pisco, where I hired horses
and a guide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently
traveUed to Yea.
At three o'clock, p.m., we left Pisco. At first the
road passed over very hard ground, then through deep
sand, which continued till we got to Yea. Notwith
standing the heat, which in the month of February is
insupportable, I was wrapped up in my wooUen poncho.
Experience had taught me that in the hotter districts
the change of temperature which takes place at night,
and causes fever, is least injurious when the traveUer is
protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who,
with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, never
theless suffered greatly from the heat, could not com-

232 TRAVELS IN PERU.
prehend why I had chosen such a dress. When I informed
him that eleven days before I had, in the same clothing,
passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst of snow,
he shook his head in token of increduhty. Whilst the
bell rang for evening prayers we rode into the Huilla
Curin Plantation, which is surrounded by a charming
grove of palm trees. We stopped for a few moments to
gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fog
spread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross
on the south, which had hitherto served to keep us in
the right direction. We, however, advanced about a
league farther. The Catalonian then often ahghted to
smeU the sand, in order to ascertain whether we were
taking the proper course. This is a very good practical
method ; for in deserts through which caravans fre
quently pass, the dung of the beasts of burthen mixed
with the sand afford a sure indication of the track.
When we had got about three quarters of a league
farther on, we came close against a rock, which my
guide— in whose acquaintance with the locahty I had
the most unbounded confidence — declared was quite
unknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we
had got out of the right course. I hghted a cigar, and on
examining, by its feeble light, my pocket compass, I dis
covered that instead of keeping to the south-east we had
diverged to the west. As there was now no hope that
the fog would clear away before day-break, we roUed our
selves in the warm sand, to await the coming morning.
I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous
travellers had lost their way, and had perished of thirst.

CATASTROPHE IN THE SAND PLAINS. 233
In the year 1823 a ship stranded on this coast, with
three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, under
the command of Colonel LavaUe. The soldiers suc
ceeded in getting ashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards
they were lost in this sandy desert. When intelligence
of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalry regiment was
despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply
them with provisions and water ; but when they were
found it was discoYered that one hundred and sixteen
men had died from fatigue and thirst, and a few days
after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is gene
rally supposed that a healthy man can hve four or five
days unsupplied with food and drink. In the temperate
climate of Europe, and with bodily rest, this, perhaps, may
be the case ; but in the burning wastes of Peru to be
deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at
the same time to wander about in deep sand, would be
followed by certain death. Severe thirst is the most hor
rible of torments, especiaUy when the body is surrounded
by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At sea it
can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand.
When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again
mounted our horses, and rode by my compass in the
direction of E.S.E. After riding a few leagues, we
turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main
road, and we arrived that forenoon in Yea.
On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass
the night in Hunk, Curin, where the horses were
supplied with forage, consisting of the shoots and leaves
of the Mastick-tree {schinus molle.)

234 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Yea is a moderately large and very agreeably situ
ated town. Like most of the larger towns on the coast
• it is peopled with inhabitants of all colours, particularly
Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect and
many rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is
cultivated in the Haciendas of the environs ; and this
branch of husbandry contributes greatly to enrich the
province. It is astonishing to see with what facihty
the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The
young shoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot
deep, then tied up and left to themselves. They quickly
take root and shoot forth leaves. Whilst the surround
ing country bears the appearance of a desert, the vine
yards of Yea are clothed in delightful verdure. The
grapes are of superior quality, very succulent and sweet.
The greater part are used for making brandy, which is
extremely good and very well flavoured. AU Peru and
a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from
the Vale of Yea. The common brandy is caUed Aguar
diente de Pisco, because it is shipped at that port. A
kind of brandy of superior quahty, and much dearer,
made from Muscatel grapes, is caUed Aguardiente
de Italia. It is distinguished by a very exquisite
flavour. Very little wine is made at Yea. In some
plantations they make a thick dark-brown kind, which
is very sweet, and much hked by the Peruvians, though
not very agreeable to a European palate. Only one
planter, Don Domingo Ehas*, the richest and most
* Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner and cultivator, but

YCA BRANDY. 235
speculative cultivator on the whole coast, makes wine
in the European manner. It is very like the wine of
Madeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and
contains a more considerable quantity of alcohol. Spe
cimens which have been sent to Europe have obtained
the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. The flavour
is considerably improved by a long sea voyage.
The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into
large vessels made of clay, called botijas. In form they
are like a pear, the broad end being downwards. At
the top there is a small aperture, which is hermetically
closed with gypsum. The large botija when fiUed weighs
six or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To
the pack-saddle, or aparejo, two baskets are fastened, in
which the botijas are placed with the small ends down
wards. These botijas were formerly also used for con
veying the brandy across the mountains ; but, in
consequence of the dangerous shppery roads, over
which the mules often feU, many were broken. Still
greater damage was sustained at the springs and wells
on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long jour
neys through the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving
water, in fuU flight to the springs. As it happens that
there is often room for only five or six mules, and from
seventy to eighty were often pressing forward, a great
also as a statesman. During the revolutions of 1843 and }Si4, he was called
upon to place himself at the head of the government. He discharged the duties
of that high office with singular judgment and moderation. He and his lady are
distinguished for their courteous and liberal hospitality ; and many foreign visi
tors, hke myself, look back with pleasure on the happiness they derived from
the friendship of Don Domingo Elias.

236 TRAVELS IN PERU.
number of the botijas were unavoidably dashed to pieces
in spite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The
annual loss of brandy was immense, and to counteract this
evil, bags of goatskin were introduced. These skins are
now generally used for the conveyance of brandy across
the mountains. The method of skinning the goats is the
most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro
hangs the riving animal up by the horns, and makes a
circular incision round his neck, which, however, goes no
further than to the flesh. He then draws the skin from
the body of the writhing animal, which utters the most
frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed,
and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The
negroes assert that the skin is most easily removed in
this manner, and that the odres* become thereby more
durable. It is to be hoped that humanely-disposed
planters wiU soon put an end to this barbarous and
unreasonable practice.
I happened to be in Yea at the time of the celebra
tion of the negro carnival, which I will here briefly
describe. In some of the principal streets of the -town
large arches are erected, and gaily decorated with
ribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas
dance, and endeavour to stop the negroes whilst riding
at fuU gallop under the arches. The negroes start from
the distance of about one hundred paces, and gaUop
straight to the boundary, where the women endeavour
to seize the bridle, and to throw the rider from his
saddle. The task of the men is to ride past the women
* An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine.

•NEGRO FESTIVAL. 237
without being stopped ; and when they fail in so doing,
they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain.
It is hard to say which is most surprising ; — the speed
of the horses, the dexterity of the riders, or the courage
of the negresses, who fearlessly throw themselves in the
way of the galloping horses. During the race the
negroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons,
which, when thrown by the vigorous arm of a zamba,
inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw a negro gallop
to and fro for the space of an hour, at fuU speed, and
every time he passed under the arch he dexterously
evaded the outstretched hands of the women ; thus
giving proof of uncommon bodily strength. WhUe dash
ing at full speed through the arch of the bridge, and
leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two
negresses, one with each of his arms, and pulled them
into the saddle beside him.
The climate of Yea is hot, and not altogether healthy,
for the torrents of rain which faU from the hills swell
the river so as to make it overflow its lower bank, where
marshes are formed, in which malaria is developed.
Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy.
AU the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inha
bited by a kind of Guinea Pig {Cavia Cuttleri, King).
These animals are exceedingly numerous. After sunrise
and towards evening, they leave their lurking places,
and play about in the grass. Upon the whole they are
not shy, and they aUow people to approach them
pretty closely. The natives call this httle animal
the Cui del Monies, and they believe it to be the

238 TRAVELS IN PERU.
progenitor of the tame Guinea-pig. This notion is, how
ever, quite erroneous.
Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found
a smaU animal of the hzard kind, of which the natives
are very much afraid. They call it the Salamanqueja.
It lives in the fissures of walls, and sometimes is seen
creeping along the hme plaster of houses. Its bite is
believed to be mortal. From the descriptions given of
this animal, I was curious to see it, and I commissioned
some persons to procure me one. At last an Indian
brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found
that I had already got several of them in my coUections.
I now obtained more of them, and the natives beheld me
with astonishment carrying them ahve in my hand. Of
the Salamanqueja there are two species, the Diplodac-
tylus lepidopygus, Tsch., and the Discodactylus phaco-
phorus, Tsch. They are nearly related to each other,
being only distinguished by one species having an orifice
in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue from a
gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little
animal never bites ; but it is possible that "the fluid by
touching a fresh wound, or scratch, may cause very
serious consequences.
To the south of Yea there are some large cotton
plantations ; the most considerable of which belong to
Don Domingo Elias; The cotton for exportation is
shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experienced
captains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be
the safest and best along the whole of the western coast
of South America.

GUANO. 239
The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the
east of Yea, is the principal channel of communication
between this part of the coast and the rich mountain
provinces of Jauja and Huancavehca, and from the latter
places to Ayacucho and Cosco.
Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of
smaU islands, of which the largest, SangaUan, is six
Enghsh miles distant from Pisco. These islands have
of late years become celebrated on account of the great
quantity of guano that has been exported from them.
Guano, (or according to the more correct orthography,
Huanu,) * is found on these islands in enormous layers
of from thirty-five to forty feet thick. The upper strata
are of a greyish-brown colour, which lower down becomes
darker. In the lower strata the colour is a rusty-red,
as if tinged by oxide of iron. The Guano becomes pro
gressively more and more sohd from the surface down
ward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the gra
dual deposit of the strata, and the evaporation of the
fluid particles. Guano is found on aU the islands, and on
most of the uninhabited promontories of the West coast
of South America, especiaUy in those parts within the

* The original word is Huanu, which is a term in the Quichua dialect meaning
" animal dung ; " for example, Huonacuhuanu, (excrement of the Huanacu.) As
the word is now generally used it is an abbreviation of Pishu Huorm — Bi/rd-
dvmg. The Spaniards have converted the final syllable rm into no, as they do
in all the words adopted from the Quichua which have the hke termination.
The European orthography Guano, which is also followed in Spanish America, is
quite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter 0, as it is in
several other consonants. The B, in the commencement of the word, is strongly
aspirated, whence the error in the orthography of the Spaniards, who have sadly
corrupted the language of the Autochthones of Peru.

240 TRAVELS IN PERU.
tropics. I have often been assured that beds of Guano
several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland
at some distance from the sea ; but I never met with
any, and I have some doubt of the correctness of the
statement. If, however, these inland strata really exist,
I am inclined to beheve that they can only be found on
hilly ground ; and in that case they afford strong evi
dence of a considerable elevation of the coast.
Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds
of marine birds, as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &c. ; but
the species which I can name with more precision are
the foUowing : — Larus modestus, Tsch. ; Rhinchops nigra,
Lin.; Plotus Anhinga, Lin.; Pelecanus ihayus, Mol. ;
Phalacrocorax Gaimardii, and albigula, Tsch. {Pelecanus
Gaimardii, Less., Carbo albigula, Brandt), and chiefly
the Sula variegata, Tsch.
The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along
the coast appear like clouds. When their vast numbers,
their extraordinary voracity, and the facihty with which
they procure their food, are considered, one cannot be
surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which
have resulted from uninterrupted accumulations during
many thousands of years. I kept for some days a living
Sula variegata, which I fed abundantly with fish. The
average weight of the excrement daily was from 3^ to five
ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in a state of
freedom the weight must be much greater, for these
birds are constantly plunging into the sea, in order to
devour the fishes which they find in extraordinary
masses around all the islands. When an. island is inha-

GUANO. . . 241
bited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds of the
guano should be lost while flying, still a very consider
able stratum would be accumulated in the course of
a year. The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands,
or on rocks near the shore ; but they never settle on
the flat beach, or any place distant from it inland. On
this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds of guano
in the interior, which may have been removed from the
shore by important elevations of the coast, are to be
found only on hiUs.
During the first year of the deposit the strata are white,
and the guano is then caUed Guano Blanco. In the
opinion of the Peruvian cultivators, this is the most
efficacious kind. It is found in the Punta de Hormillos,
on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &c.
As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one
of the beds, the island on which it is formed, is aban
doned by the birds. It has also been remarked, that
since the increase of trade and navigation, they have
withdrawn from the islands in the neighbourhood of the
ports. . Much has recently been written on the employment
and utility of guano ; but the manner in which it is
apphed as manure in Peru, seems to be but little known.
The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize
and potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to
shoot, a httle hollow is dug round each root, and is
fiUed up with guano, which is afterwards covered with
a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or fifteen
R

242 TRAVELS IN PERU.
hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in
that state for some hours. Of the Guano Blanco a less
quantity suffices, and the field must be more speedfly and
abundantly watered, otherwise the roots would be de
stroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly rapid.
In a few days the growth of a plant is doubled. If the
manure be repeated a second time, but in smaUer quan
tity, a rich harvest is certain. At least, the produce
will be threefold that which would have been obtained
from the unmanured soil.
The haciendas of the vaUey of Chancay have, during
the last fifty years, consumed annuaUy from 33,000 to
36,000 bushels of guano brought from the islands of
Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel of coloured
guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the
white from two to three doUars. The price has recently
undergone many fluctuations, in consequence of the great
exports to Europe.
The employment of this kind of manure is very
ancient in Peru ; and there is authentic evidence of its
having been used in the time of the Incas. The white
guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite to
Chincha ; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit
has been progressively removed from those islands with
out any apparent decrease of the accumulation. The
uniformity of climate on a coast where there is not
much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian
guano a more arid manure than the African, as fewer of
the saline particles of the former being in solution, they
are consequently less subject to evaporation.

THE MEDAN0S. 243
From 3° 35' to 21° 48' south latitude, a plain of
sand, 540 leagues long, and varying from 3 to 20
leagues in breadth, stretches along the coast of the
Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of smaU
hillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras,
graduaUy diminish in height, and either become blended
with the plain, or form abrupt promontories, which pro
ject into the sea. Between the river Loa, which marks
the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the
Tumbez, on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers,
great and small, pass through the line of coast. Pro
ceeding from the avalanches of the Andes or the small
alpine lakes, they force their way through narrow
mountain-vaUeys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then,
after brief courses, flow into the great ocean.
A fine light yeUow drift sand covers hiU and dale. It
is only where rivers intersect the plain that oases of luxu
riant vegetation are formed. The peril of traversing
these plains is greatly increased by the movabirity of the
sand and the Medanos. The strong winds raise immense
clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of
from eighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about
in aU directions, as if moved by magic. Sometimes they
suddenly overshadow the traveller, who only escapes
from them by rapid riding.
The medanos are hiUock-like elevations of sand, some
having a firm, others a loose base. The former, which are
always crescent-shaped, are from ten to twenty feet
high, and have an acute crest. The inner side is per
pendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle
R 2

244 TRAVELS IN PERU.
with a steep inclination downward. When driven by
violent winds, the medanos pass rapidly over the plains.
The smaller and hghter ones move quickly forwards
before the larger ones ; but the latter soon overtake
and crush them, whilst they are themselves shivered by
the collision. These medanos assume all sorts of extra
ordinary figures, and sometimes move along the plain in
rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby what
might otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn
from the view of the traveUer. A plain often appears to
be covered with a row of medanos, and some days after
wards it is again restored to its level and uniform aspect.
Persons who have the greatest experience of the coast
are apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these
sand-hills. The medanos with immovable bases are formed on
the blocks of rock which are scattered about the plain.
The sand is driven against them by the wind, and as
soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the other
side until that is likewise covered ; thus graduaUy arises
a conical-formed hill. Entire hiUock-chains with acute
crests are formed in a similar manner. The small hillock-
chain, by which the coast is intersected obliquely from
east to west, is a boundary which arrests the progress of
the wandering medanos ; otherwise fruitful oases would
soon be converted into barren sand-flats. A correct
observation of these hillock-chains affords a most- certain
scale for ascertaining the direction of the > prevaihng
wind. On their southern declivities are found vast
masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales.

SUMMER ON THE PERUVIAN COAST. 245
The northern dechvity, though not steeper than the
southern, is only sparingly covered with sand. If a
hiUock-ehain somewhat distant from the sea extends in
a hne paraUel with the Andes, namely from SS.E. to
NN.W., the western declivity is almost- entirely free of
sand, as it is driven to the plain below by the south-east
wind, which constantly alternates with the wind from
the south.
The movements and new formations in the deserts
(hke restorations from death to life,) are only in full
activity during the hot season ; for then the parched
sand yields to the shghtest pressure of the atmosphere.
In the cold season its weight increases by the absorption
of humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more
easily resist the wind. In the meantime the hiUocks
also acquire more firmness or compression by the
increased weight which presses on them from above.
In November, summer commences. The rays of the
sun are refracted on the light-grey sandy carpet, and
are reflected back with scorching power. Every living
thing which does not quickly escape from their influence
is devoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root
in the burning soil, and no animal finds food on the
arid lifeless surface. No bird, no insect moves in the
burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiest regions,
the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen
floating, with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast.
Only where the ocean and the desert blend with each
other is there life and movement. Flocks of carrion
crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals

246 TRAVELS IN PERU.
scattered along the shore. Otters and seals impart hfe
to the inaccessible rocks ; hosts of coast birds eagerly
pounce on the fish and moUusca cast on shore ; varie
gated lizards sport on the sand hillocks ; and busy
crabs and sea spiders work their way by furrows
through the humid coast.
The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then
overspreads the sea and the shore. In the foUowing
months the thickness of the mist increases, and it is
only in October that it begins to disperse. In the
beginning and at the end of the period called winter
this mist commonly rises between nine and ten o'clock
in the morning, and disappears about three, p.m. It is
heaviest in August and September ; and it then hes for
weeks immovable on the earth. It does not resolve
into what may be properly caUed rain, but it becomes a
fine minute precipitate which the natives caU garua,
(thick fog or drizzhng rain). Many traveUers have
alleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast
which have been without rain for centuries. ^ The asser
tion is to a certain degree correct, for there are many
districts in which there never is rain except after an
earthquake, and not always even then, j
Though the garua sometimes faUs in large drops, still
there is this distinction between it and rain, that it
descends not from clouds at a great height, but is
formed in the lower atmospheric regions, by the union
of small bubbles of mist. The average perpendicular
height over which this fog passes does not exceed one
thousand two hundred feet ; its medium boundary is

THE GARUAS. 247
from seven to eight hundred feet. That it is known
only within a few miles of the sea is a highly-curious
phenomenon ; beyond those few miles it is superseded
by heavy rains ; and the boundary line between the
rain and the mist may be defined with mathematical
precision. I know two plantations, the one six leagues
from Lima, the other in the neighbourhood of Huacho :
one-half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the
other half by rain, and the boundary hne is marked by
a waU. When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks {Lomas)
bordering the sand-flats on the coast undergoes a com
plete change. As if by a stroke of magic, blooming
vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few days pre
viously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and
cattle are driven into these parts for grazing, and
during several months the animals find abundance of
rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they
do not appear to suffer' from the want of it, for they
are always in good healthy condition on leaving the
Lomas. In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are
scanty, the fertility of the soil depends wholly on the
mountain rains, for in summer most of the rivers are
dried up. When there is a deficiency of rain the cattle
on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago a hacien-
dado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42,000
sheep ; the usual flood, without which the necessary
fodder could not be raised, did not come on at the
proper time. ' At Piura there is such a total absence of

248 TRAVELS IN PERU.
dew, that a sheet of paper left for a whole night in the
open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smaUest
trace of humidity. In central and south Peru the
moisture scarcely penetrates half an inch into the earth.
In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the
adjacent wastes. Along the whole of the coast there is
no rain, and no vegetation throughout a large circuit.
The rain commences first in the north at Tumbez, and
there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it
begins first in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which
abound in vegetation. These very extraordinary pheno
mena remain as yet unexplained ; they, however, merit
the closest investigation of meteorologists.
I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the
Fauna of the higher vertebral animals. In the region
of the coast I have found twenty-six species of mam
malia, only eight of which belong exclusively to the
coast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in
the mountains or in the forests. The relation of this
number to the whole of the mammalia of Peru is 1:4, 3.
Distributed by single orders, they are in the foUowing
proportions : ¦ — Bats, four species, of which only one
( Vespertilio innoxius, Gerv.) belongs to this region alone.
Beasts of prey, ten kinds ; among them one of the mephitic
class, known to the natives by the name of zorillo, or
anash ; an otter {Lutra chilensis, Ben.) ; a fox {Canis
azarce, Pr. Max.), which abounds in the cotton planta
tions in the neighbourhood of Lima and throughout aU
the Lomas, where he preys on the lambs ; several of the
feline race, among which are the two great American

VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. 249
species — the puma and the ounce, which are seldom seen
on the coast, but are considerably larger than those
in the mountains. The American lion is timid, and
shuns man. When caught young he is easily tamed.
The Indians of the northern provinces sometimes bring
these hons to Lima, and get money for showing them.
They lead them by a string, or put them in large
sacks, and carry them about on their backs, until a
show-loving crowd assembles around them. The ounces
are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plan
tations, and attack children and horses. They very
cunningly avoid the numerous snares laid for them
by the Indians. An encounter with this animal is
serious and dangerous. A hunt seldom ends with
out some of the pursuers being kiUed or wounded by
the animal.
I have already spoken of the seals. There are three
kinds of didelphic or marsupial animals on the coast.
The natives caU them ¦ mucamuca. They live in bushes
and shrubberies, and they often find their way into the
store-rooms of the plantations.
Of the great section of the Rodentia, I know of only
seven species in Peru ; but I have no doubt that this
number might be doubled by a careful search in the
vaUeys on the coast. The common house-mouse is very
numerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom.
It came to Peru only a few years ago ; but there is
reason to apprehend that it wiU soon be very numer
ous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh
ships. In Callao I saw specimens of some that hads

250 TRAVELS IN PERU.
been killed. I did not see the common black rat in
Peru. The Armadillo {Dasypus tatuay, Desm., L.), is seldom
seen. It is found in some of the Yucca and Camote
plantations. The negroes eat it, and its flesh is said to
be good.
Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the
coast : it is a kind of Roe {Cervus nemorivagus, F. Cuv.,
the venado of the natives). The venados chiefly
inhabit the brushwood along the coast ; but after sunset
they visit the plantations, where they commit consider
able damage. They are smaller than our European
roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmen at Lima
go out to hunt them. The natives do not take
much interest in the chase. This animal is also met
with in the coldest regions of the Cordilleras ; but it
does not come down to the old forests, where the Red
Deer {Cervus rufus, F. Cuv.,) supplies its absence.
In the woods which surround some of the plantations
in the valleys of Lima, wild boars {Chanchos Simarones)
are occasionally found. They are of immense size. At
the plantation caUed the Hacienda de Caraponga, one
was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary t
burthen for a mule.
The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of
Peru (the marine and river fowl being excepted), is very
inconsiderable. The scarcity of woods and high trees
may probably account for this. Besides the carrion
vulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore
to prey on the stranded whales. Falcons seldom appear,

BIRDS. 251
except the smaU Sparrow Hawk {Falco sparverius, L.),
which is very numerous in Peru. One of the most
common birds is the httle Earth Owl {Noctua urucurea,
Less.), which is met with in nearly all the old ruins
scattered along the coast. The Pearl Owl {Strix per-
lata, L.), is bred in several plantations, as it is found
useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common ;
they do not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at
some distance from towns. The Peruvians give them
the euphonious name, Palomitas de Santa Rosa (Santa
Rosa's httle pigeons). Among the singing-birds the
Crowned Fly King {Myoarchus coronatus, Cab.), is the
most distinguished. The head, breast, and belly of
this bird are deep red, the wings and back very dark
brown. He always plants himself on the highest point
of a tree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in
the air singing, and drops down again straight to his
former perch. The Limenos have given this elegant
bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat
here. On some parts of the coast it is called Saca-tu-real
(draw out your real), because his song sounds hke these
words. Some fine Tanagers {Tanagra frugilega, Tsch.;
Tanagra analis, Tsch.), visit the fruit-gardens round
Lima. I saw two birds, of the starring species, the red-
bellied Picho {Sturnella militaris, Vieil.), and the glossy-
black Chivillo {Cassicus palliatus, Tsch.), which are kept
in cages on account of their very melodious song. Three
kinds of parrots, which abound in the vaUeys on the
coast, commit great depredations in the maize fields.
The largest {Conurus tumultuosus,Tsch.), is green, with

252 TRAVELS IN PERU.
a red forehead, and some red feathers scattered over
the body. A 'second sort builds its nest chiefly on the
sides of rocks {Conurus rupicola,T!sch..), and only occa
sionally visits the plantations. The third is the smallest,
but at the same time the most beautiful of the whole
{Cornurus sitophaga, Tsch.). A fine green overspreads
all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders the
feathers of the wings ; and a bright citron-yellow is dif
fused over the forehead, neck, breast, and beUy. It
is only seven inches long. Pigeons, large and small,
swarm in such multitudes over the corn-fields, and in
the environs, that they may almost be caUed the
great plague of the country. One of the finest is the
little Turtuli {Chaemepelia gracilis, Tsch.), on the wing
of which there is a row of very beautiful shining violet
spots. The Cuculi, one of the largest pigeons, is a great
favourite. It is kept much in cages. Its song, which
is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept up from the
earhest hours of the morning until midday, and it begins
again nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of
a threefold repetition of cu-cu-li. After a pause, it
resumes the song again. There are, however, some of
those birds which repeat the cuculi oftener than thrice,
and their price increases according to the number of
their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed
five or six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of
these birds which repeated its cuculi fourteen times.
The owner would not sell it under fourteen gold
ounces. The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportion-

AMPHIBIA. 253
ally much better represented than the two foregoing
classes. The gigantic tortoises {Chelonia imbricata and
Ch. midas, Schweig.), visit in great numbers the few
httle frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise {Testudo
Schweigeri) is often found on some islands, and in the.
marshy mouths of several rivers,
Two kinds of Crocodiles {Champsa sclerops and Ch.
fissipes, Wagl.), inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow
to the length of fourteen or fifteen feet.
Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright
green Iguanas are found on the south coast ; for instance,
in the Caletas near MeriUones, &c. ; but there are great
numbers of the land Agama, of which I found several
new species, viz., Steirolepis tigris, thoracica, quadrivit-
tata, xanthostigma, Tsch. ; Liolaemus elegans, Tsch. ;
Ctenoblepharys adspersa, Tsch., &e. &c. I have already
mentioned the Gecko, called the Salamanqueja.
Serpents upon the wriole are rather seldom seen.
They belong to different kinds, some poisonous, some
innoxious (for example, Zacholus, Psammophis, Oxyr-
rhopus, Siphlophis, Ophis, Elaps, &c. &c). A very
poisonous viper {Eschidna ocellata, Tsch.), inhabits the
sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously
mortal. The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and
of the bladder frog, only two kinds are known {Cystig-
nathus roseus and nodosus, Dum. Bibr.). I have found
three amphibia of the toad class. The Thorn toad {Bufo
spinulosus, Wiegam.), which has its body thickly covered
with a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted

254 TRAVELS IN PERU.
toad {Bufo thaul), and a very curious and ugly kind
with a round sweUed out body, a loose skin, and a
large bladder under the chin {Anaxyrus melancholicus,
Tsch.). At night the cry of this animal is a discordant
melancholy howl.

CHAPTER X.
Roads leading to the Sierra — Chaclacayo and Santa Ines — Barometrical observa
tions — San Pedro Mama — The Rio Seco — Extraordinary Geological Phe
nomenon — Similar one described by Mr. Darwin — Surco — Diseases pecu
har to the Villages of Peru — -The Verugas — Indian mode of treating the
disorder — The Bird-catching Spider — Horse-Shoeing — Indian Tambos —
San Juan de Matucanas — The Thorn-apple and the Tonga — The Tambo
de Viso — Bridges — San Mateo — Passports — Acchahuari — Malady called
the Veta — Its effects on horses — Singular tact and caution of Mules — An-
tarangra and Mountain Passes— Curious partition of Water— Piedra Parada
— Yauli — Indian Smelting Furnaces — Mineral Springs — Portuguese Mine
owners — Saco — Oroya — Hanging Bridges — Huaros — Roads leading from
Oroya.
From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the
mountains. One runs northward through the valley of
Canta, in the direction of the rich silver mines of Cerro
de Pasco ; the other, taking a more southerly direction,
passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the vilT
lages of Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo ; and still further
south, leads to Huancavehca, Ayacucho, and Cuzco.
All the roads running from the coast to the Sierra,
present a similarity of character. Taking an obhque
direction from the margin of the coast, they run Into
one or other of the fan-shaped CordiUera vaUeys, all of
which are intersected by rivers. FoUowing the course of
these rivers, the roads become steeper and steeper, and
the vaUeys soon contract into mere ravines, terminating at
the foot of the CordiUera. The traveller then threads

256 TRAVELS IN PERU.
his way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of
rock, until he reaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual
descent leads to the level heights, and thence into the
deep mountain valleys.
Former traveUers having already described the route
by way of Canta, I wiU here trace the course through
the Quebrada of Matucanas. In so doing, I am ena
bled to present to trie reader the results of some baro
metrical observations which are the more interesting,
inasmuch as the Cordillera here advances more nearly
to the coast than at any other point.
The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Por
tada de MaraviUas) opens upon a broad road, which
runs directly eastward. At the distance of about a
league and a half from the city, the road passes over a
stone bridge caUed the Puente de Surco, a place famed
for robbers. At this point the surrounding country
presents a wild and dreary aspect. Ranges of grey and
barren hills encompass the vaUey ; the ground is for the
most part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate
remains of plantations and the ruins of habitations bear
evidence of the life and activity that once animated this
desert region, now abandoned by all save the fierce
bandit and his victim, the sohtary traveller.
Along the margins of the river, patches of moor
ground here and there serve as pasture. Clover and
maize are produced only in those parts where the soil
is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood
and reeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply
firewood to the city of Lima, and are a source of profit

BAROMETRICAL CALCULATIONS. 257
Jo some of the plantation-owners in the valley. At
rariachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takes
a turn to north-east, and continues in that direction,
with but httle deviation, as far as the base of the
CordiUera. Two leagues beyond Pariachi we reach
Chaclacayo, a viUage containing about thirty miserable
reed huts. The plantation of Santa Ines, a little
further on, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of
the sea.* Mr. Maclean, an English merchant in Lima,
who has sent many interesting Peruvian plants to the
hothouses of England, and who has made some very
attentive barometrical observations during a journey
in the interior of trie country, calculates the altitude of
Chaclacayo, at 2265 feet above the sea.f Rivero
makes it 2010 feet above that level.J The difference
between these calculations is remarkable ; and in more
considerable altitudes the discrepancy is still more con
siderable, being sometimes as much as from eight to
nine hundred feet. I am inchned to believe that it
is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation than to
the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero.
Maclean's observations, with some trifling exceptions,
correspond with mine. He used one of Fortin's baro
meters, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior to my
departure from Europe, had, during several wfeks,
* All these calculations are by English feet.
f Jardine and Selby's Annals of Natural History.
J Nivelacion barometrica desde el Callao hasta Pasco, por el camino de
Obrajillo, y desde el mismo lugar hasta la capital por via de Tarma, hecha y
calculada por Mariano Eduardo Rivero y Usturitz in Memorial de Ciencias
naturales, &c. S

258 TRAVELS IN PERU.
been regulated at the observatory in Paris. Unluckily,
this excellent instrument was injured by a fall from my
horse, and I found it impossible to get it repaired.
Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay,
during a journey in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with
one of Bunteris barometers, deviate very considerably
from all those above mentioned. Between the calcula
tions of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference
of from six hundred to one thousand feet.
On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of CavaUero
corresponds, in its distance from the capital, with the
village of Chaclacayo, on the road I am here describing.
At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. The
sugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater
quantity. In some of the coast districts I have seen
the sugar cane cultivated at the height of 4500 feet
above the sea ; and I have seen it grow spontaneously,
and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet.
From Santa Ines the road continues gradually ascend
ing to the little viUage of San Pedro Mama, where the
two rivers, San Mateo and Santa Olaya, unite and form
the Rimac. The walls of mountain which inclose the
valley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford
nesthng places for small richly-plumed parrots, {Conu-
rus rupicola, Tsch.) I was much surprised to see these
birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrot always
dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places
only when on its passage. I. know no other species of
this family, save the one I have just mentioned, which
permanently nestles on mountains.

THE REO SECO. 259
Three leagues beyond San Pedro hes the viUage of
Cocachacra. It is a smaU and poor place, but is pictu
resquely situated, and enjoys a fine climate. Its name,
signifying coca-field, or plantation, denotes that coca
must formerly have been cultivated here. At present
that plant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it
requires a damp and very warm climate. Cocachacra
is 5386 feet above the level of the sea. Maclean fixes
the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, and
Cocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to
be correct with respect to the latter village, it cannot
also apply to San Pedro Mama and Santa Olaya, wliich
he much lower. At the two last-mentioned places I
made no barometrical observations.
On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated,
at twelve leagues from Lima. On the other road
Cocachacra is the same distance from the capital ; but
Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga.
Between Cavallero and Llanga there is an interesting
geological phenomenon, which I will here describe,
At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road
takes a turn. At first it runs direct north, or north-
north-west ; suddenly it turns to north-north-east, and
advances along the bank of the river Chillon as far
as CavaUero. From thence, with slight deviations, it
continues in the same course to Llanga, but at a con
siderable distance from the river, as the latter takes a
wide sweep northward. From Cavallero the road runs
for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through
a barren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the
s 2-

260 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Rio Seco. The last half-league of the way is very steep,
and leads to the ridge of a chain of hillocks running
diagonaUy across the valley. The ground is strewed
with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock,
like the bed of the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of
the hne of hiUocks, the traveller beholds on the other
side a hoUow basin, like the dry bed of a lake : a
furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is
the continuation of the bed of river which is inter
sected by the chain of hills. Descending into the valley,
and again following the course of the Rio Seco to the
distance of about three leagues, we reach the village of
Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the
Rio de Chillon.
Here, therefore, we have evidence of the foUowing
remarkable facts ; viz. : — that at some former period the
river of Chillon flowed north-westward from Alcocoto to
Cavallero, in the bed that is now dry ; and that a chain of
hills has been upheaved diagonaUy across the vaUey and
the river. By this chain of hills the water, being dammed
up, formed a lake ; then it was again driven back,
until the stream broke into a new course at Alcocoto,
by which means the lake emptied itself, and, having no
new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Rio de
Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide
turn, first westward, next south-westward, and lastly,
direct south, until, at a sharp angle, it unites with the
old bed of the river. The point of junction is a quarter
of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is, how^-
ever, not a solitary example of the course of a river

GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 261
being interrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A
similar instance is mentioned by Mr. Darwiri, who,
however, did not see it himself, but who describes it as
follows, from the observation of his countryman, Mr. Gill,
the engineer : —
" Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant
from Lima, he (Mr. GiU) found a plain covered with
ruins and marks of ancient cultivation, but now quite
barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable
river, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been
Conducted. There was nothing in the appearance of the
water-course to indicate that the river had not flowed
there a few years previously ; in some parts, beds of
sand and gravel were spread out ; in others, the solid
rock had been worn into a broad channel, which in one
spot was about forty yards in breadth, and eight
feet deep. It is self-evident that a person following up
the course of a stream wiU always ascend at a greater
or less inchnation. Mr. GiU, therefore, was much
astonished, when walking up the bed of this ancient
river, to find himself suddenly going down hiU. He
imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about
forty or fifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequi
vocal evidence that a ridge had been uplifted right
across the old bed of a stream. From the moment the
river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily
have been thrown back, and a new channel formed.
From that period, also, the neighbouring plain must have
lost its fertilising stream, and become a desert." *
* Darwin's Journal, p. 359.

262 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The inference here deduced is, that the rising took
place at a period when the district was inhabited and
cultivated by men. Of the period of the uplifting
between CavaUero and Alcocoto I could discern no
proofs. But the impression produced by the dry river
bed involuntarily suggests the idea that, at no very
distant period, it must have been the lodgment of
a stream ; for it is in all respects similar to trie tem
porary dry river beds so frequently met with on the
coast of Peru.
I made repeated visits to trie Rio Seco, and I always
contemplated with wonder the curious deviation of the
river's course. But I must candidly confess that during
my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attribute that
deviation to so partial an uplifting ; for I was ignorant
of the existence of any similar phenomenon which
would have supported such an opinion. Now, however,
the example referred to by the eminent English geo
logist, and which has its existence on the same coast
of Peru, sets all my doubts at rest, and I am quite
convinced of the correctness of Mr. Darwin's view of
the subject.
Having made this digression, I must now carry the
reader back to Cocachacra. Pursuing the road to the
distance of three leagues further, we arrive at San
Geronimo de Surco. The vaUey in this part becomes
more contracted ; but on the whole its character is
unchanged, with the exception that the mountains gra
dually become higher and steeper, and the soil less
fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls of

THE VERUGAS. 263
rock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang
deep chasms, in passing which the greatest precaution is
requisite. In several of the vaUeys on the road from the coast
to the Sierra, and above aU in the valley of Surco, there
are certain springs, the water of which the Indians never
drink. When a stranger unguardedly approaches one
of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst,
he is saluted by warning cries of Es agua de Veruga !
(It is veruga water !) Even horses and mules are not
suffered to refresri themselves at these springs, where
the water is supposed to have the effect of producing a
disorder caUed the Verugas. As the existence of this
disease is not known in any otrier country, there appears
ground for believing that it has its origin in certain
local circumstances. The verugas first manifests itself
by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverish
symptoms. In the course of a few days an eruption of
red-coloured pimples, or boils, appears. These pimples
sometimes increase in magmtude, till, in some parts of
trie body, they become nearly as large as an egg, and
blood flows from them to such an excess, that the strength
of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequently
follows. From trie smaU verugas the flow of blood is
greatest. I knew an instance of a half-caste Indian
who from a small veruga below the ankle lost two
pounds of blood.
I was not able to trace this disease to any other
cause than that which the Indians assign to it. At all
events, it is certain that travellers who abstain from

264 TRAVELS IN PERU.
drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape the
verugas ; whilst those who only once taste such water,
are attacked by the disorder. It is the same with mules
and horses. One of my mules which drank veruga water
was attacked by a large tumour on the leg. The disease
is notoriously prevalent in the viUage of Santa Olaya.
The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians
is quite empirical. They administer to the patient the
infusion of a plant which they call Huajra-Huajra ;
that is, Horn-Horn.* I never witnessed any convincing
proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merely
sudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently
given, and it has the effect of assisting the action of the
skin. When the eruption of the verugas is tardy, a
few spoonfuls of wine are found to be of great service.
Sudorific and purifying medicines, together with cutting
out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a
time in a state of suppuration, has heretofore been found
the best mode of treatment. An accurate chemical
analysis of the water which the Indians declare to be
agua de veruga, would be very desirable.f
In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are
less common than in that of Matucanas, another disease,
caUed the Uta, is of very frequent occurrence. The uta is
a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in its consequences
than the verugas. Probably in no country in the world

• The Spaniards term this plant Una de gato (Cat's-claw), the stalk being fur
nished with hooked thorns resembling claws.
¦f* For further information relative to this disease, see my communication to
Wunderlich and Roser's " A rchiv fiir Physiologische Heilkunde."

BIRD-CATCHING SPIDER. 265
do so many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every
valley has its own peculiar disease, which frequently
does not extend beyond the boundary of a few square
miles, and is quite unknown in neighbouring districts.
The origin of triese disorders is, doubtless, to be traced
to certain mineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown.
It is remarkable riow unequaUy these baneful visitations
affect the different races of trie inhabitants. The Indians
and the lighter classes of half-castes are most frequently
attacked by the verugas ; the whites are less hable to
the disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker
shades of mixed blood seldom suffer from it. The
Indians and the Chinos are particularly liable to the
uta. The caracha, of which I have already spoken,*
visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes ; the
hghter-complexioned races being mucri less liable to it.
At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider {my gale), of
extraordinary large size. The back part of the body
alone measured two inches. Being at some distance I
supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired
at it. To my mortification I discovered my mistake
when too late, for the specimen was completely destroyed
by the shot, and was useless for my collection. The
Indians assured me that on the margin of the stream
which flowed near the plantation many larger indi
viduals were to be found ; but I never saw another
of such remarkable size as the one I inadvertently
destroyed. San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level
* See page 217.

266 TRAVELS IN PERU.
of the sea. It is a long viUage, and is situated in
one of the most fertile parts of the valley. The
houses are detached one from another, and each is
surrounded by a little chacra. This place may be
regarded as the boundary-line between the coast and
the Sierra. Trie chmate is agreeable — rather hot
than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive here with
little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadiUas,
pomegranates, camotes, &c, grow here in luxuriant
abundance. Yuccas I did not see : their elevation
boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surco is infested
with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos,
{Culex molestus, Koll.), and stinging flies (species of
Simoleum), which banish sleep from the resting-place of
the weary traveller.
In this viUage there is an old Spaniard who keeps a
tambo, and at the same time exercises the calling of a
farrier. One of my horse's shoes being loose, I got him
to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails he
made me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he
demanded twelve dollars. He doubtless bore in mind
the old Spanish proverb : " Por un clavo se pierde una
herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo
un cavallero"* and he felt assured that I must have
the damage repaired at any price. Shortly after my
arrival in the Sierra I got myself initiated in the art of
horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about with me a
supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found
was generally adopted by traveUers in these parts. It
* By a nail is lost a shoe, by a shoe a horse, and by a horse a rider.

INDIAN TAMB0S. 267
is only in the larger Indian villages that farriers are
to be met with, that is to say in places fifty or sixty
leagues distant from each other.
. From Surco the road runs to the distance of two
leagues tolerably level, and very close to the river,
which, from Cocachacra, bears the name of Rio de San
Mateo. The next viUage is San Juan de Matucanas, at
a little distance from which there is a tambo situated, at
the height of 8105 feet above the sea.* These tambos
of the Sierra are wretched places, but the traveller may
find in them shelter, and possibly some miserable kind
of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better.
In the capital a tambo affords the traveller the accom
modation of a room, containing a table, a chair, and a
bedstead ; for it is always understood that he brings his
mattress and bedding along with him. In the interior
of the country the accommodation is limited to an
empty space on the floor, just large enough to spread a
mattress upon. Whenever the state of the weather
permitted I always preferred sleeping in the open air.
Eren on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of the
door is preferable to the interior of the hut, where
Indians, negroes, dogs and pigs are all huddled together.
In these tambos there is seldom any scarcity of brandy
or chicha ; but the hungry traveller sometimes cannot
get even a potato Or a bit of maize. Frequently, when
the Indians reaUy have provisions triey will not produce
* According to Maclean, the elevation of Matucanas is 8026 feet abbve the
level of the sea. I presume that this calculation refers to the village itself, which
is situated about the eighth of a league from the tambo, and lies much lower.

268 TRAVELS IN PERU.
them, because they are fearful of not being paid. This
suspicion is pardonable enough ; for when troops march
through the villages the inhabitants are often cheated by
the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain. Generally,
in this part of the country the people are civil, and will
readily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the
Indians of the higher mountains eastward of the Cordil
lera. To the traveller's demand for something to eat,
their uniform reply is, " Manam canchu " (we have
nothing) ; and it is often found necessary to resort
to force in order to convert this monotonous answer
into the more agreeable "Ari conchu" (here is some
thing). Matucanas, which is rather a large village, hes on the
left bank of the Rimac. The houses are of brick, and
roofed with straw. The soil round this village is fertile,
though not favourable to the growth of those plants
which demand a very warm temperature. The agricul
tural produce is therefore hmited to maize, wheat,
lucerne (which is very abundant), and potatoes ; the
latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. The
cactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit {tunas)
forms also an article of trade. ,
Beyond Matucanas the vaUey contracts into a nar
row ravine no broader than the bed of the river,
and it gradually assumes a wilder character. The
way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders
the left bank of the river. The vegetation is less
monotonous and scanty than in the valleys of the
coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filled with

POTENT NARCOTIC BEVERAGE. 269
verdure. The stunted wiUow {Salix Humboldtii, Wild.)
grows along the banks of the river, and on the less
steep dechvities is seen the red thorn-apple {Datura
sanguinea, R. Pav.). To the latter the natives give the
names Huacacachu, Yerba de Huaca, or Bovachevo; and
they prepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic
drink, caUed tonga. The Indians believe that by drink
ing the tonga they are brought into communication with
the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an opportu
nity of observing an Indian under the influence of this
drink.' Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he
feU into a heavy stupor: he sat with his eyes vacantly
fixed on the ground, his mouth convulsively closed, and
his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a quarter
of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his
half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by
frightful convulsions. These violent symptoms having
subsided, a profound sleep of several hours succeeded.
In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was
relating to a circle of attentive hsteners the particulars
of his vision, during which he aUeged he had held com
munication with the spirits, of his forefathers. He
appeared very weak and exhausted.
In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pre
tended to transport themselves into the presence of their
deities, drank the juice of the thorn-apple, in order to
work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Though the
establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians
from their idolatry, yet it has not banished their old
superstitions. They still believe that they can hold

270 TRAVELS IN PERU.
communication with the spirits of their ancestors, and
that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasures
concealed in the huacas, or graves ; hence the Indian
name of the thorn-apple — huacacachu, or grave-plant.
A few miles beyond Matucanas there is a lateral
vaUey, larger and more pleasant than the principal
valley. It is caUed the Quebrada de Viso, and is
watered by a little stream. At the point where this
Quebrada forms a junction with the principal valley
is situated the Tambo de Viso. It is 9100 feet above
the level of the sea.* At this tambo the traveller
may find a tolerable night's lodging for himself, and
fodder for his horse. Here the river is crossed by a
bridge, and the road then proceeds along the left bank
of the river, after having been on the right bank all the
way from Lima. The bridges across these mountain
streams are always constructed at points where the
river is most contracted by the narrow confines of the
ravine. They consist merely of a few poles made of
the trunk of the Maguay-tree {Agave Americana), and
connected together by transverse ropes ; the ropes
being overlaid with twisted branches and pieces of
hoops. These bridges are not more than three feet
broad, and they have no balustrades. When the space
between the banks of the river is too long for the
Maguay stems, strong ropes made of twisted ox-hides
are substituted. In crossing these bridges accidents
frequently happen, owing to the hoofs of the horses and
* According to Maclean's calculation, the Tambo de Viso is 9072 feet above
the sea.

DANGEROUS MOUNTAIN PATHWAYS. 271
mules getting entangled in the plaited branches along
the pathway. A httle way beyond San Mateo I nar
rowly escaped being precipitated, with my mule, into
the rocky chasm forming the bed of the river.
The road between Viso and San Mateo, a distance of
about three leagues, is exceedingly difficult and dangerous.
The ravine becomes narrowed to a mere cleft, between
waUs of mountain rising on either side to the height of
more than a thousand feet ; sometimes perpendicularly,
and at other times inclining inwards, so as to form gigan
tic arches. The path runs along the base of these moun
tains, washed by the foaming waves of the stream ; or
it winds up the side of the precipice, over huge fragments
of rock, which, being loosened by the rain, afford no
secure footing for the heavily-laden mules. Frequently
these loosened blocks give way, and roll down into the
vaUey. The journey from Viso to San Mateo is asso
ciated in my mind with the recollection of a most
mortifying accident. A mass of rock, such as I have
just described, gave way, and, rolling down the preci
pice, hurled one of my mules into the foaming abyss.
My most valuable instruments, a portion of my coUec-
tions, my papers, and — to me an irreparable loss — a
diary carefully and conscientiously kept for the space
of fourteen months, were in a moment buried in the
river. Two days afterwards the current washed the
dead mule ashore at Matucanas, but its load was
irrecoverably lost.
Every year many beasts of burthen, and even travel
lers, perish on this road. In the Tambo de Viso I met

272 TRAVELS IN PERU.
an officer who, with two of his sons, was coming from
the Sierra. He had placed the youngest before him,
and the other, a boy of ten years of age, was seated on
the mule's crupper. When they were within about half
a league from Viso, a huge mass of rock, rolling down
from the mountain, struck the elder boy, and hurled
him into the river. The afflicted father was anxiously
seeking to recover the body of his lost child.
San Mateo is on trie right bank of the river, and is
the largest village in this valley. It corresponds in
situation with CuUuay in the Quebrada of Canta ; as
Matucanas corresponds with the village of Obrajillo.
San Mateo is 10,947 feet above the level of the sea.*
The soil produces abundance of potatoes, Ocas {Oxalis
tuber osa) and Ullucas {Tropcsolum tuberosum). Maize
ripens here perfectly, but the heads are small. The
lucerne is also smaU, but very abundant ; it is very
much exposed to injury from the frost, and is only good
for use during the five rainy months of the year. Five
hundred feet higher, that is to say, about 11,500 feet
above the sea, is the boundary elevation for the growth
of lucerne.The spirit of hospitality, so generaUy prevalent among
the Sierra Indians, does not seem to animate the Cholos of
San Mateo. Their manners are rude and reserved, and
they are very distrustful of strangers. As soon as a
traveller enters the village, the Alcalde and the Reji-
* Maclean states the elevation to be 10,984 feet above the sea. Rivero
makes it 9570, and Gay 10,408 feet. Gay's is the only measurement which in
any manner corresponds with mine and Maclean's. In general Gay's calcula
tions are between 600 and 800 feet higher than ours.

AN OPERA BILL FOR A PASSPORT. 273
dores make their appearance, and demand his passport.
If he cannot produce it, he may possibly be put upon a
donkey, and conducted to the nearest Prefect, or may
moreover run the risk of being ill-treated. But, fortu
nately, it is easy to escape from such annoyances. Any
scrap of printed or written paper will answer for a pass
port, as it rarely happens that either the Alcalde or the
Rejidores can read. On one occasion when my pass
port was demanded, I discovered I had lost it. Fortu
nately, I had in my pocket a bit of waste paper, which
I had used instead of wadding in loading my gun. I
ventured at all hazards to hand it to the Indian Rejidor,
who having unfolded it, stared very gravely at the
words Lucia di Lameroor, which he saw printed in
large characters. It was the bill of the opera I had
attended a few evenings before my departure from
Lima. After examining the bill very attentively, and
then scanning me very narrowly, the Rejidor returned
the paper, with the observation that the passport was
quite correct.
From San Mateo the road runs for half-a-league
through a gloomy ravine ; and then suddenly takes a
steep ascent up the side of the mountain, over fragments
of stones, lying one above another like flights of steps.
The stream dashes from rock to rock, covering the
narrow path with foam, and washing away the blocks
of stone which, in some of the most dangerous parts,
serve as barriers along the edge of the precipice. On this
road long trains of mules are frequently met coming
from the Sierra. The traveller, at their approach, seeks
T

274 TRAVELS IN PERU.
some little recess into which he may creep, and there
stand closely jammed against the mountain until the
train passes by. This is attended by great loss of time,
owing to the slow and cautious pace at which the mules
proceed. On such a rencounter in a narrow mountain
path, I was once obhged to wait for several hours, whilst
two hundred mules passed by ; and at the spot where I
and my horse stood, the laden animals had scarcely
space sufficient to set down their feet at the very edge
of the pathway. In some places it is perfectly impossi
ble either to go on one side or to turn back ; and when
horses or mules meet at these difficult points, one of the
animals is obliged to plunge into the stream, before the
other can have room to pass. The numerous curvatures
of the road, and the projecting masses of mountain,
render it impossible to see advancing objects in sufficient
time to avoid collision.
After having passed this difficult tract, which is caUed
by the natives Cacray, we reach the summit of the
acclivity down which the mountain stream descends.
Here the vaUey presents quite trie Sierra character. It
is no longer confined within steep and rugged mountain
walls, but runs in undulating contours along the bases of
the hills, and gently ascends eastward towards the prin
cipal chain of the Cordillera. The road is sometimes
on the right and sometimes on the left bank of trie river.
Two leagues beyond San Mateo lies Chicla, a miserable
Indian village, which, according to Maclean's calcu
lation, is 12,712 feet above sea level. In some of the
more sheltered parts barley is planted ; but it does not

AN INDIAN TAMBO DESCRIBED. 275
ripen, and is merely used as fodder {Alcazer). Chicla
is the last place in this vaUey where the sofl is in any
degree capable of cultivation. Half a league further on,
there are a few scattered Indian huts, caUed the viUage
of Achahuari. One of these huts is a tambo, which can
never be forgotten by any unfortunate traveller who
may have taken up his abode in it. Necessity several
times compeUed me to seek a night's lodging in this
horrible tambo ; but I never could remain in it tiU
morning ; and even amidst snow or rain I have been
glad to get out, and take up my resting-place on the
outside of the door. The hostess is a dirty old Indian
woman, assisted by her daughter ; and the hut is filthy
beyond description. For supper, the old woman cooks
a vile mess called Chupe, consisting of potatoes and
water, mixed with Spanish pepper ; but it is So dirtily
prepared, that nothing but the most deadly hunger
would induce any one to taste it. The beds consist of
sheep-skins spread on the dairip .floor ; and one bed
chamber serves for the hostess, her daughter, her grand
children, and the traveUers ; an immense woollen counter
pane or blanket being spread over the whole party. But
woe to the unwary traveUer who trusts himself in this
dormitory ! He soon finds himself surrounded by ene
mies from whose attacks it is impossible to escape ; for
the hut is infested with vermin. Even should he with
draw into a corner, and make a pillow of his saddle, the
annoyance pursues him. Add to aU this a stifling
smoke, and aU sorts of mephitic exhalations, and troops
of guinea-pigs who run about during the whole night,
T 2

276 TRAVELS IN PERU.
and gambol over the faces and bodies of the sleepers,---
and it may readily be conceived how anxiously the tra
veller looks for the dawn of morning, when he may
escape from the horrors of this miserable tambo.
Acchahuari is 13,056 feet above the sea level. The
chmate is very ungenial. During the winter months,
rain and snow fall without intermission; and even
during the summer, heavy drifts of snow are not unfre-
quent. From April to July, the medium temperature
during the night is 4° R.
After passing Cacray the diminished atmospheric
pressure begins to produce an effect on coast horses
wiich have not been accustomed to travel in trie Sierra.
They are attacked with a malady called the veta, which
shows itself by difficulty of breathing and trembhng.
The animals are frequently so overpowered that they
are unable either to move or stand, and if they are not
immediately unsaddled and allowed to rest they perish.
The arrieros consider bleeding a cure for this malady.
They sometimes sht the horse's nostrils, a remedy which
is probably efficacious, as it enables the animal to inhale
the air freely. Chopped garlic: put into the nostrils is
supposed to.be a preventive of the veta. Mules are less
liable to the malady, probably because they ascend the
acclivities more slowly than horses. The disease does
not attack the native horses of the Sierra, for which
reason they are better than the coast horses for mountain
travelhng. Mules, however, are preferable to either.
It is wonderful with what tact and penetration the mule
chooses his footing. When he doubts the firmness of the

SINGULAR SAGACITY OF MULES. 277
ground he passes his muzzle over it, or turns up the
loose parts with his hoof before he ventures to step
forward. When he finds himself getting into soft and
marshy ground he stands stock still, and refuses to
obey either stirrup or whip. If by accident he sinks
into a morass, he makes a halt, and waits very content
edly until he receives assistance. But in spite of all
this . sagacity the traveller wiU not do weU to resign
himself whoUy to the guidance of his mule. In ordi
nary cases these animals aUow themselves to be guided,
and sometimes they appear to think it more safe to
trust to trie bridle than to themselves. One of my
mules frequently gave me curious proofs of this sort of
calculation. When, in very difficult parts of the road, I
dismounted, in order to walk and lead him by trie bridle,
I found it impossible to get the animal to move either
by force or persuasion. He spread out his legs, fixed
his hoofs firmly into the ground, and obstinately
resisted all my endeavours to make him move. But
as soon as I remounted he willingly obeyed every
movement of trie bridle. With this mule I could ride
through marsries, wriicri I could never do witri any
other. He appeared to reflect that, as I only dismounted
when the road was unsafe, his rife was in no less danger
than mine.
About a league beyond Acchahuari the valley is
bounded by the principal chain of the Cordillera. The
ascent may be gained by two different roads. One, the
steeper of the two, runs southward, across trie Piedra
Parada ; the other, on which the ascent is somewhat

278 TRAVELS IN PERU.
easier, takes an easterly direction, over Antarangra.
We will first trace the latter course, which is the most-
frequented. At the extremity of the vaUey, and twenty-
eight leagues from the capital, is situated the last vUlage
Casriapalca, 13,236 feet above the sea. Its inhabitants
are chiefly employed in mining. Formerly, vast quan
tities of silver were obtained here. But most of the
mines are now either under water or exhausted, and the
viUage, with its mine works, has dwindled into insignifi
cance. Beyond Cashapalca there is a tract of marshy
ground, which being passed, a narrow winding road of
about two leagues leads up the acchvity. The soil is
clayey, and thinly bestrewed with alpine grass, inter
mingled with syngenecous and cruciferous plants. Two
plants which are caUed by the natives malayerba and gar-
ban zillos, and are a deadly poison to mules and horses,
grow in great abundance here. The numerous skeletons
of beasts of burthen seen along the road bear evidence
of the fatal effects of those plants. Higher up the
ascent the vegetation becomes more and more scanty,
until at length it entirely disappears, and nothing is
visible but the barren rOck of the Sierra highlands.
The last division of acclivity is caUed by the natives
the Antarangra (copper rock). On it there is a smaU
heap of stones, which I shall describe by and by, and a
cross made of the stems of the Baccharis. From this
point the traveUer catches a distant ghmpse of the
heaven-towering summit of the CordiUera.
I speedily mounted the ascent, and reached the goal
of my journey. Here I found myself disappointed in

VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OP THE CORDILLERA. 279
trie expectation I had formed of commanding an unin
terrupted view over boundless space and distance. The
prospect is greatly circumscribed by numerous rocky
elevations, which spring up in every direction. The
mountain passes running across the ridge of the Cor
diUera are bounded on all sides by rocks, sometimes
not very high, but at other times rising to the eleva
tion of 1000 feet. The Pass of Antarangra (also caUed
Portachuelo del Tingo, or Pachachaca,) is 15,600 feet
above the sea.* Nevertheless it is, during a great
part of the year, free from snow. Scarcely a quarter
of a league further northward are the eternal glaciers,
and they are several hundred feet lower than the
Pass. That the Pass itsetf is not permanently covered
with snow is a circumstance which may probably
be accounted for by the direction of the atmospheric
currents. The east winds penetrate into trie deep
recesses of trie vaUeys, which are sheltered against the
cold south wind by trie adjacent mountain ridge. Trie
passes have a gloomy character, and the rugged
grandeur of the surrounding country presents an aspect
of chaotic wildness and disorder. The ground is covered,
with huge masses of rock ; and the ungenial fruitless
soil is shunned alike by plants and animals. The thin
tendrils of a hchen, here and there twining on a damp
mass of stone, are trie only traces of rife. Yet the
remains of human industry and activity are everywhere
observable. On aU sides are seen the deep cavities
* Maclean makes it 15,543 feet; Gay, 15,924 feet; and Rivero, only 14,608
feet above the level of the sea.

280 TRAVELS IN PERU.
which formed the entrances to the now exhausted
mines. These cavities are sometimes situated at ele
vated points of the almost inaccessible waUs of rock,
and are occasionally found in the level part of the
valley, and close on the roadway. Instances have
occurred of travellers being kiUed by falling into these
holes, when they have been covered by thick falls of
snow. It is curious to observe, on the Pass of Antarangra,
the partition of the waters flowing into the two great
oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific. Scarcely thirty
paces distant from each other there are two small lagu-
nas. That situated most to the west is one of the
sources of the Rio de San Mateo, which, under the name
of the Rimac, falls into the Pacific. The other laguna,
that to trie eastward, sends its waters through a succes
sion of small mountain lakes into the Rio de Pachachaca,
a small tributary to the mighty Amazon river. It is
amusing to take a cup of water from the one laguna
and pour it into the other. I could not resist indulging
this whim ; and in so doing I thought I might possibly
have sent into the Pacific some drops of the water
destined for the Atlantic. But the whim, puerile as it
may be, .nevertheless suggests serious reflections on the
mighty power of nature, which has thrown up these
stupendous mountains from the bosom of the earth ;
and also on the testaceous animals found on these
heights, memorials of the time when the ocean flowed
over their lofty summits.
From the ridge the road runs eastward along a

LAKES OF THE CORDILLERA. 281
branch of the principal mountain chain. This branch
forms the southern boundary of a gently-sloping valley.
The declivity is terrace-formed, and on each terrace
there is a smaU clear lake. This series of lakes is called
Huascacocha (the chain of lakes). In their waters, as
in most of the mountain rivers, there is found in great
numbers a smaU species of shad-fish (Pygidium dispar,
Tsch.). They are caught during the night in^nets, or
by hnes, to which the bait is fastened by small cactus-
thorns. The third in the series of the lagunas is caUed
Moro'cocha (the coloured lake). On its banks some
buildings have been constructed, for the smelting of
copper ore. Trie mines which yield this metal are on
the southern dechvity, close to the road leading down
from the CordiUera. Formerly triese mines were worked
for silver, but were not found very productive of triat
metal. Now they are again actively worked, and
copper is obtained from them. The working of the
Peruvian. copper mines has hitherto been much neglected,
though copper ore is exceedingly abundant.
The road from Morococria to Pachachaca is very
uniform. The latter vUlage, which is situated 12,240
feet above the level of the sea, was formerly a place of
much greater importance than it now is. In its neigh
bourhood there are a number of spacious buildings,
constructed at the time of the unfortunate Enghsh
mining speculation. Most of them are only half finished.
At the entrance of the village there is a large hacienda.
In some of the apartments the flooring is of wood ; a

282 TRAVELS IN PERU.
thing seldom seen in these parts, where the wood for
such purposes must be brought from the eastern dech
vity of the Andes : the difficulty and expense attending
this transport are so considerable, that a wooden floor is
a great rarity in the habitations of the Cordillera. A
mine belonging to the hacienda is situated five leagues
north-west of Pachachaca, and yields ricri sUver ore; but
a great part of it is at present under water, and its
drainage would be a very difficult undertaking.
Returning to the point where the two roads across
the Cordillera separate at Cashapalca, we wiU now trace
the route by way of Piedra Parada. This way is shorter
than that by Antarangra, but the ascents are much
steeper. The first objects met with by the traveUer on
this road are some Indian huts, caUed yauliyacu, and
the ruined hacienda of San Rafael. These being passed,
the ascent continues over broken masses of rock. About
15,200 feet above the sea there is a huge block of
mountain, called the Piedra Parada, close against which
a chapel was formerly erected ; the mountain forming
the back wall of the structure. Now there. is merely an
iron cross, fixed on the upper part of the block of moun
tain. On this spot the Archbishop used formerly to
celebrate mass, when he was on his rounds through the
diocese. The chapel was destroyed by lightning, and
has not been rebuilt. The pass of the Piedra Parada is
16,008 feet above the sea, and is always covered with
snow. Travellers frequently lose their way in this pass,
an accident which befel me in March, 1842, when I
was proceeding alone by that route. Being overtaken

MINES OP YAULI. 283
by a violent faU of snow, I could scarcely see a few
paces before me. After wandering about for several
hours, my horse became weary, and I began to despair
of extricating myself from the dreary plains of snow.
Late in the evening I reached a httle vaUey, where, shel
tered by some rocks, I passed the night. On the following
morning I renewed my journey, and after considerable
exertion I arrived at an Indian hut, where I obtained
such directions as enabled me to recover the right course.
The eastern dechvity of the Pass of Piedra Parada is
steeper trian that of Huascacocha. After a difficult
ride of about two leagues, we reach first the valley,
and then the viUage of Yauli. The viUage hes at the
height of 13,100 feet above the sea, and consists of
about one hundred and fifty miserable huts, affording
habitations for between twelve and fourteen thousand
Indians, most of whom are employed in mining.
The CordiUera, in the neighbourhood of Yauli, is
exceedingly rich in lead ore, containing sflver. Within
the circuit of a few miles, above eight hundred shafts
have been made, but they have not been found suffici
ently productive to encourage extensive mining works.
The difficulties which impede mine-working in these
parts are caused chiefly by the dearness of labour and
the scarcity of fuel. There being a total want of wood,
the only fuel that can be obtained consists of the dried
dung of sheep, Uamas, and huanacus. This fuel is called
taquia. It produces a very brisk and intense flame,
and most of the mine-owners prefer it to coal. The
process of smelting, as practised by the Indians, though

284 TRAVELS IN PERU.
extremely rude and imperfect, is nevertheless adapted
to local circumstances. All European attempts to im
prove the system of smelting in these districts have
either totaUy failed, or in their results have proved less
effective than the simple Indian method. Complicated
furnaces made after European models are exceedingly
expensive, whilst the natives can construct theirs at the
cost of fifty or sixty doUars each. These Indian
furnaces can, moreover, be easily erected in the vicinity
of the mines, and when the metal is not very abundant
the furnaces may be abandoned without any great sacri
fice. . For the price of one European furnace the Indians
may build more than a dozen, in each of which, notwith
standing the paucity of fuel, a considerably greater
quantity of metal may be smelted than in one of Euro
pean construction.
About half a league beyond Yauh there are upwards
of twenty mineral springs, all situated within a circuit
of a quarter of a mile. Several of them contain sahne
properties, One is caUed the Hervidero (the whirl
pool). It is in the form of a funnel, and at its upper
part is between ten and twelve feet diameter. Its sur
face is covered with foam. The temperature of the
water is only 7° C. higher than the atmosphere. Some
of these springs are tepid and sulphuric ; and trie tem
perature of one of them is as high as 89° C. Near
some of the springs quadrangular basins riave been
constructed for baths, which are said to be very effica
cious in cutaneous and rheumatic complaints. The
climate of Yauli is exceedingly rigorous. In summer

PORTUGUESE MINE OWNERS IN PERU. 285
the medium temperature of the night is 8°C., but the
days are nrild. In winter, on the other hand, the night
is + 1° C, and the day scarcely + 3° O, as the sky is
continuaUy overhung with thick clouds, which disperse
themselves in continual falls of snow. I passed several
weeks in Yauli and in the wild country around it, and
during that time I made many valuable additions to
my natural history coUection.
The distance between Yauh and Pachachaca is two
leagues. The road descends gently along the right
bank of the Rio de Yauli, which forms the principal
source of the Rio de Oroya. In this direction as well
as in other parts adjacent to Yauli, there are numerous
remains of mining works, formerly the property of
Portuguese. These works were destroyed at the time
of the persecution of the Portuguese in Peru, when the
consul, Juan Bautista, was hanged by the Inquisition, in
Lima. Over those events there hangs a veil of mystery,
which wiU probably never be removed. The Portu
guese were the most powerful and inteUigent mine-
owners in Peru, and their prosperity excited the envy
of the Spanisri viceroy. A number of Portuguese
emigrants, who came from Brazil, to settle in the Peru
vian province of.Maynas, furnished the viceroy with a
ground of complaint, real or pretended. He set forth
that the Portuguese of the eastern parts of South Ame
rica intended to make themselves masters of Peru, and
conjointly with the Inquisition he. commenced coercive
measures against them. Trieir consul was accused of
rieresy, condemned and hanged, and the emigrants were

286 TRAVELS IN PERU.
pursued and put to death. Some of them escaped into
the forests, where they were massacred by the Indians,
and only a very few succeeded in getting back to Brazil.
Many of the wealthy Portuguese mine-owners, seeing
the danger that threatened them, sank their vast trea
sures in lakes, or buried them in retired places in the
plains. These treasures consisted chiefly of smelted
ore and silver coin, and only a very small portion was
afterwards discovered. Thus were these active and
intelligent mine-owners sacrificed, either to a chimerical
and unfounded suspicion, or to a feeling of avarice,
which, after all, failed in attaining its object. The
consequences were disastrous to the country. Peruvian
mining has never recovered the prosperity which it
enjoyed under the management of the Portuguese.
Between Yauli and Pachachaca the way is difficult,
and without an accurate knowledge of the route, the
traveUer is likely to lose his way, and may even incur
the danger of sinking in the marshes which spread along
the bank of the river. From Pachachaca a broad and
gently sloping valley conducts to La Oroya, a distance
of about three leagues. In the range of mountains
forming the southern boundary of this vaUey, the river
winds its way through deep ravines. About half a
league from Pachachaca there is a ford where the road
divides ; one division passing oyer the steep mountains
of Yanaclara to Jauja, and the other running into the
wild valleys of Huayhuay. Midway between Pachachaca
and La Oroya there is a small miserable Indian village
called Saco, which is seldom visited by travellers; as it

HANGING BRIDGES. 287
is difficult to procure in it the commonest necessaries of
food. In this place there is a natural bridge across the
river, which has worked out a bed for itself beneath
the rocks. At several points along the course of this
river I observed similar bridges of rock, but this one
only is passable for horses.
La Oroya hes on the left bank of the river of that
name, and communicates with the right bank by means
of a large hanging-bridge (Puente'de Soga). These
bridges are composed of four ropes (sogas), made of
twisted cow-hide, and about the thickness of a maris arm.
The four ropes are connected together by triinner ones
of the same material, fastened over them transversely.
The whole is covered with branches, straw, and roots of
the Agave tree. On either side, a rope rather more
than two feet above the bridge serves as a balustrade.
The sogas are fastened on each bank of the river by
pries, or rivetted into the rock. During long continuous
rains these bridges become loose and require to be
tightened ; but they are always lower in the middle
than at the. ends, and when passengers are crossing
them triey swing like hammocks. It requires some
practice, and a very steady head to go over the soga
bridges unaccompanied by a Puentero.* However
strongly made, they are not durable; for the changeable-
ness of the weather quickly rots the ropes, which are
made of untanned leather. They frequently require
repairing, and travellers have sometimes no alternative
* The Puenteros (Bridge Guides) are Indians who assist travellers in crossing
these dangerous bridges.

288 TRAVELS IN PERU.
but to wait for several days until a bridge is passable,
or to make a circuit. of 20 or 30 leagues. The Puente
de Soga of Oroya is fifty yards long, and one and a
half broad. It is one of the largest in Peru ; but the
bridge across the Apurimac, in the province of Aya-
cucho, is nearly twice as long, and it is carried over a
much deeper gulph.
Another curious kind of bridge is that called the
Huaro. It consists of a thick rope extending over a
river or across a rocky chasm. To this rope are affixed a
roller, and a strong piece of wood formed like a yoke, and
by means of two smaller ropes, this yoke is drawn along
the thick rope which forms the bridge. The passenger
who has to cross the Huaro is tied to the yoke and
grasps it firmly with both hands. His feet, which are
crossed one over the other, rest on the thick rope, and
the head is held as erectly as possible. All these pre
liminaries being completed, an Indian, stationed on the
opposite side of the river or chasm, draws the passenger
across the Huaro. This is altogether the most disa
greeable and dangerous mode of conveyance that can
possibly be conceived. If the rope breaks, an accident
of no unfrequent occurrence, the hapless traveUer lias
no chance of escaping with rife, for being fastened, he
can make no effort to save himself. Horses and mules
are driven by the Indians into the river, and are made to
swim across it, in doing which they frequently perish, espe
cially when being exhausted by a long journey, they have
not strength to contend against the force of the current.
The village of Oroya, about a quarter of a mile from

ROADS TO THE MOUNTAIN DISTRICTS. 289
the bridge, is built on a dechvity, and according to
Maclean's calculation is 12,010 feet above the level of
the sea. It contains fifty-one miserable huts, which are
the habitations of about two hundred Indians. From
Oroya several roads branch off into trie different moun
tain districts. The most frequented is that over the
level height of Cachi-Cachi to Jauja. Along this road
there are extensive tracts of ground covered with cal
careous petrifactions. Another road leading to Tarma
passes by the ancient Inca fortress Huichay. A third,
and much frequented road is that by way of Huaypacha,
and from trience to Junin and Cerro de Pasco.

CHAPTER XL
The Cordillera and the Andes— Signification of the terms — Altitude of the
Mountains and Passes^-Lakes — Metals— Aspect of the Cordillera— Shat-
teredRocks — Maladies caused by the diminished Atmospheric Pressure— The
Veta and the Surumpe — Mountain Storms — The Condor — Its habits —
Indian mode of Catching the Bird— The Puna or Despoblado — Climate —
Currents of Warm Air — Vegetation — Tuberous Plant called the Maca—
Animals of the Puna — The Llama, the Alpaco, the Huanacu and the
Vicuna — The Chacu and the Bolas— Household Utensils of the Ancient
Peruvians — The Viscacha «nd the Chinchilla — Puna Birds and Amphibia
— Cattle and Pasture — Indian Farms — Shepherds' Huts — Ancient Peru
vian Roads and Buildings — Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna.
Two great mountain chains, running paraUel with each
other, intersect Peru in the direction from S.S.W. to
N.N.E. The chain nearest the coast of the Pacific,
is at the average distance of from sixty to seventy
English miles from the sea. The other chain takes a
parallel direction, but describes throughout its whole
course a slight curve eastward. These two ranges of
mountain are caUed the Cordilleras, or the Andes :
both terms being used indiscriminately. Even the
Creoles of Peru confound these two terms, sometimes
calling the western chain by one name, and sometimes
by the other. Nevertheless, a strict distinction ought
to be observed : — the western chain should properly be
called the CordiUera, and the eastern chain the Andes.
The latter name is derived from the Quichua word
Antasuyu ; Anta signifying metal generally, but espe
cially copper, and Suyu a district ; the meaning of

THE TERMS ANDES AND CORDILLERA. 291
Antasuyu, therefore, is the metal district. In common
parlance, the word Suyu was dropped, and the termina
tion a in Anta was converted into is. Hence the word
Antis, which is employed by all old writers, and geo
graphers ; and even now, is in common use among the
Indian population of Southern Peru. The Spaniards,
according to their practice of corrupting the words of
the Quichua language, have transformed Antis into Andes ±
and they apply the name without distinction to the
western and the eastern chain of mountains.*
The old inhabitants of Peru dwelt chiefly along the
base of the eastern mountain chain, where they drew
from the mines the metal which afforded material for
their tasteful and ingenious workmanship : those moun
tains consequently retained the name of Antis or Andes.
In the time of the Incas, both chains were called
Ritisuyu (Snow-Districts). The Spaniards, on the inva
sion of the country, advancing from the sea-coast, first
arrived at the western mountains, and to them they
gave the name of Cordillera, the term commonly
employed in the Spanish language, to designate any
mountain chain. Most of trie earlier travellers and
topographists named the western chain the Cordillera
de los Andes, and regarded it as the principal chain, of
which they considered the eastern mountains to be
merely a branch. To the eastern range of mountains
they gave the name of Cordillera Oriental. I wiU
* Some derive the word Andes from the people called Antis, who dwelt at the
foot of these chains of mountains. A province in the department of Cuzco,
which was probably the chief settlement of that nation, still bears the name of
Antas.
u 2

292 TRAVELS IN PERU.
here strictly observe the correct denominations, calhng
the western chain the Cordillera, or the coast moun
tains ; and the eastern chain the Andes, or the inner
Cordillera. These two great mountain chains stand in respect to
height in an inverse relation one to the other ; that is
to say, the greater the elevation of the CordiUera, the
more considerable is the depression of the Andes. In
South Peru the ridge of the Cordillera is considerably
lower than that portion of the Andes which stretches
through Bolivia. The medium height of the Cordillera
in South Peru is 15,000 feet above the sea; but here
and there particular points rise to a much more con
siderable elevation. The medium height of the Andes
is 17,000 feet above the sea. In central Peru the Cor
diUera is higher than the Andes. There the altitude of
the latter along the body of the chain is 13,000 feet
above the sea : on the ridge there are a few points some
hundred feet higher. Between Pasco and Loxas the
average height of the Cordillera is between 11,000 and
12,000 feet above the sea ; and the average elevation
of the Andes at the corresponding point is about 2000
feet lower.
The passes do not run through vaUeys, but always
over the ridges of the mountains. The highest mountain
passes are the Rinconada (16,452 feet above the sea) ;
the Piedra Parada (16,008 feet) ; the Tingo (15,600
feet) ; the Huatillas (14,850 feet) ; the Portachuelo de
la Viuda (14,544 feet) ; the Altos de Toledo (15,530
feet) ; and the Altos de los Huesos (14,300 feet). In

METALLIC PRODUCE OF THE MOUNTAINS. 293
both chains there are innumerable smaU lakes ; these are
met with in aU the mountain passes, and most of them
are the sources of smaU rivers.
Both the mountain chains, as weU as their lateral
branches, are rich in metaUic produce ; but in the prin
cipal mountains gold is rare. Some rich mines on the
coast, and in the province of Arequipa, are now nearly
exhausted. Wash gold is plentiful in the rivers of North
Peru, but it is not carefuUy collected. Silver, which
constitutes the principal wealth of Peru, is found in
greatest abundance in the principal chains, viz., in
Northern and Central Peru, in the Cordillera ; and in
Southern Peru in the Andes. It presents itself in all
forms and combinations, from the pure metal to the
lead-ore mixed with silver. Even in the highest eleva
tions, in parts scarcely trodden by human foot-steps,
rich veins of silver are discovered. It is scarcely pos
sible to pass half a day in these regions without encoun
tering new streaks. Quicksilver is likewise found, but
in such small quantities, that the gain does not pay the
labour of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any
magnitude is at Huancavehca. Both mountain chains are
very rich in copper-ore ; but it is extracted only from
the CordiUera, for the distance of the Andes from the
coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and
iron mines, thougri amazingly prolific, are not worked ;
the price of trie metal being too low to pay the labour.
The Cordillera presents an aspect totally different
from that of the Andes. It is more wild and rugged,
its ridge is broader, and its summits less pyramidical.

294 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The summits of the Andes terminate in slender sharp
points like needles. The CordiUera descends in terraces
to the level heights, whilst the slope of the Andes is
uniform and unbroken. The summits of the calcareous
riills which stretch eastward from the great chain of the
Cordillera are broken and rugged. Large cubical blocks
of stone become detached from them, and roU down
into the valleys. In the Quebrada of Huari near Yana-
clara, which is 13,000 feet above the sea, I coUected
among other fragments of rock some of a species which is
found at Neufchatel in Switzerland. This disintegration,
which is the effect of protracted rain and cold, imparts to
the mountain ridges the most singular and.beautiful forms ;
their fantastic outlines appearing hke the work of human
hands. Imagination may easily picture them to be
monuments of the time of the Incas ; for viewed from
a distance, they look like groups of giants or colossal
animals. In former times the Indians viewed these
masses of rock with devout reverence, for they beheved
them to be the early inhabitants of the earth whom
Pacchacamac in his anger transformed to stone. I may
here notice some very curious forms of rock which have
long been a subject of controversy among Peruvian tra
vellers. On the road leading from Ayacucho to Huan
cavehca, on the level height of Paucara, about a league
beyond the village of Parcos, there is a considerable
number of sand-stone pyramids from eight to twenty-
two feet high. They are of a reddish-white colour ;
but in many places the inclemency of the weather has
overspread them with a blackish crust. They are

CURIOUS PYRAMIDAL ROCKS. 295
detached one from another. UUoa, in his N'oticias
Americanas, after fuUy describing these pyramids, de
clares himself doubtful whether they are the work of
man or of nature. He inclines to regard them as human
creations and suggests that they may possibly have
been the tombs of distinguished curacas and caciques ;
but he admits that he is not acquainted with any similar
monuments in Peru. As each pyramid consists of only
one block of stone, and aU are very regularly shaped,
UUoa is not indisposed to beheve that trie Indians pos
sessed trie secret art of melting stone. These blocks
are, however, of sand-stone, and their fractures are the
result of the inclemency of the weather. They are all
pyramidal-shaped, and tolerably equal in size. In several
of them the points are as sharp and regular as though
they had been wrought by the chisel of the sculptor.
These curious pyramids cover the plateau along a
distance of more than two miles : sometimes standing
closely together, and sometimes at considerable distances
apart. The whole hne of chalk and slate mountains
extending from Ayacucho to Huancavehca is shattered,
and presents similar, though less regular detritus.
I have, in my last chapter, observed that the Cordil
lera is the point of partition between the waters of the
Pacific and trie Atlantic Oceans. AU the waters of the
eastern dechvity of the Cordillera — all those which have
their source on the level heights and on the western
declivity of the Andes, — flow from thence in the direction
of the east, and work their way through the eastern
mountain ehain. Throughout the whole extent of South

296 TRAVELS IN PERU.
America there is not a single instance of the Cordillera
being intersected by a river ; a fact the more remark
able because in Southern Peru and Bolivia, the coast
chain is lower than the Andes. This interesting phe
nomenon, though it has deeply engaged the attention of
geologists, has not yet been satisfactorUy explained. I
concur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes
that it would be too rash to assign to the eastern chain
of Bolivia and Central Chile, a later origin than the
western chain, (that nearest the Pacific), but that the
circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain
having forced their way through a higher chain seems,
without this supposition, to be enigmatical. Mr. Darwin
is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignable to a
periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain
line (the Andes) ; for a chain of islets would at first
appear, and as these were lifted up, the tides would be
always wearing deeper and broader channels between
them. In' the heights of the CordiUera the effect of the
diminished atmospheric pressure on the human frame
shows itself in intolerable symptoms of weariness and an
extreme difficulty of breathing. The natives caU this
malady the Puna or the Soroche; and the Spanish
Creoles give it the names of Mareo or Veta. Ignorant
of its real causes they ascribe it to the exhalations of
metals, especiaUy antimony, which is extensively used
in the mining operations. The first symptoms of the
veta are usually felt at the elevation of 12,600 feet above
the sea. These symptoms are vertigo, dimness of sight

THE VETA. 297
and hearing, pains in the head and nausea. Blood flows
from the eyes, nose, and lips. Fainting fits, spitting of
blood, and other dangerous symptoms, usually attend
severe attacks of veta. - The sensations which accom
pany this malady somewhat resemble those of sea-sick
ness, and hence its Spanish name mareo. But sea
sickness is unaccompanied by the distressing difficulty
of breathing experienced in the veta. This disorder
sometimes proves fatal, and I once witnessed a case in
which death was the result. Inhabitants of the coast
and Europeans, who for the first time visit the lofty
regions of the Cordillera, are usually attacked with this
disorder. Persons in good health and of a spare habit
speedily recover from it, but on plethoric and stout
individuals its effects are frequently very severe. After
an abode of some time in trie mountainous regions, the
constitution becomes inured to the rarefied atmo
sphere. I suffered only two attacks of the veta ; but
they were- very severe. The first was on one of the
level heights ; and the second on the mountain of
Antaichahua. The first time I ascended the Cordillera
I did not experience the shghtest illness, and I con
gratulated myself on having escaped the veta ; but a
year afterwards I had an attack of it, though only of a
few hours' duration. The veta is felt with great seve
rity in some districts of the Cordillera, whilst in others,
where the altitude is greater, the disorder is -scarcely
perceptible. Thus it would seem that the malady is
not caused by diminished atmospheric pressure, but is
dependent on some unknown climatic circumstances.

298 TRAVELS IN PERU.
The districts in which the veta prevails with greatest
intensity are, for the most part, rich in the production
of metals, a circumstance which has given rise to the
idea that it is caused by metaUic exhalations.
I have already described the effect of the Puna cli
mate on beasts of burthen. Its influence on some of the
domestic animals is no less severe than on the human
race. To cats, it is very fatal, and at the elevation of
13,000 feet above the sea those animals cannot rive.
Numerous trials have been made to rear them in the
villages of the upper mountains, but without effect ; for
after a few days' abode in these regions, the animals die
in frightful convulsions ; but when in this state they do
not attempt to bite. I had two good opportunities of
observing the disease at Yauh. Cats attacked in this
way are called, by the natives, azorochados, and anti
mony is alleged to be the cause of the distemper. Dogs
are also hable to it, but it visits them less severely titan
cats, and with care they may be recovered.
Another scourge of the traveUer in the CordiUera, is
the disease caUed the Surumpe. It is a violent inflam
mation of the eyes, caused by the sudden reflection of
the bright rays of the sun on the snow. By the rare
fied air and the cutting wind, the eyes, being kept in a
constant state of irritation, are thereby rendered very
susceptible to the effects of the glaring light. In these
regions the sky is often for a time completely over
shadowed by snow clouds, and the greenish yeUow of
the plain is soon covered by a sheet of snow : then sud
denly the sun's rays burst through the breaking clouds,

THE SURUMPE. 299
and the eyes, unprepared for the dazzhng glare, are
almost bhnded. A sharp burning pain is immediately felt,
and it speedily increases to an intolerable degree. The
eyes become violently inflamed, and trie hds swell and
bleed. The pain of the surumpe is the most intense
that can be imagined, and frequently brings on deli
rium. The sensation resembles that which it may be
imagined would be felt if cayenne pepper or gunpowder
were rubbed into the eyes. Chronic inflammation,
swelhng of the eyehds, dimness of sight, and even total
blindness are the frequent consequences of the surumpe.
In the CordiUera, Indians are often seen sitting by the
road-side shrieking in agony, and unable to proceed on
their way. They are more hable to the disease than
the Creoles, who, when travelling in the mountains,
protect theif eyes by green spectacles and veils.
Heavy falls of snow in the Cordillera are usuaUy
accompanied by thunder and hghtning. During five
months of the year, from November to March, storms
are of daily occurrence. They begin, with singular
regularity, about three o'clock in the afternoon, and
continue until five or half-past five in the evening.
After that time storms of thunder and lightning never
occur ; but the faUs of snow sometimes continue till
midnight. As evening approaches, cold mists are
drifted from the mountain-tops down upon the plains ;
but they are dispersed by the rays of the morning sun,
which in a few hours melt the snow. The furious
tempests in these regions exceed any idea that can
be formed of them, and can only be conceived by those

300 TRAVELS IN PERU.
who have witnessed them. Some of these mountain
districts have acquired an ominous character for storms;
Antaichahua is one of the places to which this sort of
fearful celebrity belongs. For hours together flash
follows flash, painting blood-red cataracts on the naked
precipices. The forked lightning darts its zig-zag
flashes on the mountain-tops, or, running along the
ground, imprints deep furrows in its course ; whilst the
atmosphere quivers amidst uninterrupted peals of thun
der, repeated a thousandfold by the mountain echoes.
The traveller, overtaken by these terrific storms, dis
mounts from his trembling horse, and takes refuge
beneath the shelter of some overhanging rock.
In these sterile^ heights Nature withholds her fos
tering influence alike from vegetable and animal rife.
The scantiest vegetation can scarcely draw nutriment
from the ungenial soil, and animals shun the dreary and
shelterless wilds. The condor alone finds itself in its
native element amidst these mountain deserts. On the
inaccessible summits of the Cordillera that bird builds
its nest, and hatches its young in the months of April
and May. Few animals have attained so universal a
celebrity as the condor. That bird was known in
Europe, at a period when his native land was numbered
among those fabulous regions which are regarded as the
scenes of imaginary wonders. The most extravagant
accounts of the condor were written and read, and
general credence was granted to every story which
travellers brought from the fairy land of gold and silver.
It was only at the commencement of the present cen-

THE CONDOR. 301
tury that Humboldt overthrew trie extravagant notions
that previously prevailed respecting the size, strength,
and habits of that extraordinary bird.
The full-grown condor measures, from the point of the
beak to the end of the tail, from four feet ten inches to
five feet ; and from the tip of one wing to the other,
from twelve to thirteen feet. This bird feeds chiefly on
carrion : it is only when impeUed by hunger that he
seizes riving animals, and even then only the small and
defenceless, such as the young of sheep, vicunas, and
Uamas. He cannot raise great weights with his feet,
which, however, he uses to aid the power of his beak.
The principal strength of trie condor lies in his neck and
in his feet ; yet he cannot, when flying, carry a weight
exceeding eight or ten pounds. All accounts of sheep
and calves being carried off by condors are mere exagge
rations. This bird passes a great part of trie day in
sleep, and riovers in quest of prey chiefly in the morning
and evening. Whilst soaring at a height beyond the
reacri of human eyes, the sharp-sighted condor discerns
his prey on the level heights beneath him, and darts
down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. When a
bait is laid, it is curious to observe the numbers of
condors which assemble in a quarter of an hour, in a
spot near which not one had been previously visible.
These birds possess the senses of sight and smell in a
singularly powerful degree.
Some old traveUers, UUoa among others, have affirmed
•that the plumage of the condor is invulnerable to a
musket-baU. This absurdity is scarcely worthy of con-

302 TRAVELS IN PERU.
tradiction ; but it is nevertheless true that the bird has a
singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed by
firearms, unless when shot in some vital part. Its plumage,
particularly on the wings, is very strong and thick. The
natives, therefore, seldom attempt to shoot the condor :
they usually catch him by traps or by the laso, or kill
him by stones flung from slings, or by the. Bolas. A
curious method of capturing the condor alive is practised
in the province of Abancay. A fresh cow-hide, with some
fragments of flesh adhering to it, is spread out on one
of the level heights, and an Indian provided with ropes
creeps beneath it, whilst some others station them
selves in ambush near the spot, ready to assist him.
Presently a condor, attracted by the smell of the flesh,
darts down upon the cow-hide, and then the Indian,
who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by the legs,
and binds them fast in the skin, as if in a bag. The
captured condor flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual
attempts to fly ; but he is speedily secured, and carried
in triumph to the nearest village.
The Indians quote numerous instances of young
children having been attacked by condors. That those
birds are sometimes extremely fierce is very certain.
The following occurrence came within my own knowledge,
whilst I was in Lima. I had a condor, which, when he
first came into my possession, was very young. To
prevent his escape, as soon as he was able to fly, he was
fastened by the leg to a chain, to which was attached a
piece of iron of about six pounds weight. He had a
large court to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron

PUNA OR DESPOBLADO. 303
about after him aU day. When he was a year and a half
old he flew away, with trie chain and iron attached to
his leg, and perched on the spire of the church of Santo
Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion
hawks. On alighting in the street, a Negro attempted
to catch him for the purpose of bringing him home ;
upon whicri lie seized the poor creature by the ear, and
tore it completely off. He then attacked a child in the
street (a Negro boy of three years old), threw him on
the ground, and knocked him on the head so severely
with his beak, that the child died in consequence of the
injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive to
Europe ; but, after being at sea two months on our
homeward voyage, he died on board the ship in the
latitude of Monte Video.
Between the CordiUera and the Andes, at the height
of 12,000 feet above the sea, there are vast tracts of
uninhabited table-lands. These are caUed in the Qui
chua language the Puna ; and the Spaniards give them
the name of the Despoblado (the uninhabited). These
table-lands form the upper mountain regions of the
South American Highlands. They spread over the
wriole extent of Peru, from north-west to south-east, a
distance of 350 Spanish, miles, continuing through
Bolivia, and gradually running eastward into the Argen
tine Repubhc. With reference to geography and natural
history, these table-lands present a curious contrast to
the Llanos (plains) of South America, situated on the
other side of the Andes to the north-east. Those
boundless deserts, full of organic life, are, like the

304 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Puna, among the most interesting characteristics of the
New World.
The climate of these regions is not less rigorous
than that of the high mountain ridges. Cold winds,
from the west and south-west, blow nearly all the year
round from the ice-topped Cordillera ; and for the space
of four months these winds are daily accompanied by
thunder, hghtning, and snow-storms. The average
state of the thermometer during the cold season (which
is caUed summer, because it then seldom snows), is,
during the night, — 5° R. ; and at midday, + 9° 7' R.
In winter the mercury seldom faUs during the night
below freezing point, and it continues between +1° and
0° R. ; but at noon it ascends only to 7° R. It is,
however, quite impossible to determine with precision
the medium temperature of these regions. For the
space of a few hours the heat will frequently vary
between 18° and 20° R. The transition is the more
sensibly felt on the fall of the temperature, as it is usuaUy
accompanied by sharp-biting winds, so keen, that they
cut th- skin on the face and hands. A remarkable
effect of the Puna wind is its power of speedily drying
animal bodies, and thereby preventing putridity. A dead
mule is, in the course of a few days, converted into a
mummy ; not even the entrails presenting the least trace
of decomposition,
It frequently happens that, after being long exposed
to these cold winds, the traveUer enters warm atmospheric
currents. These warm streams are sometimes only two
or three paces, and at other times, several hundred feet

STREAMS OP WARM AIR. 305
broad. They run in a parallel direction with each
other, and one may pass through five or six of them in
the course of a few hours. On the level heights between
Chacapalpa- and Huancavehca, I remarked that they
were especiaUy frequent during trie months of August
and September. According to my repeated observa
tions, I found that these warm streams chiefly foUow
trie direction of trie CordiUera ; namely, from S.S.W. to
N.N.E. I once traveUed the distance of several leagues
through a succession of these currents of warm air, none
of which exceeded seven-and-twenty paces in breadth.
Their temperature was 11° R. higher than that of the
adjacent atmosphere. It would appear they are not
merely temporary, for the mule-drivers can often foretel
with tolerable accuracy where they will be encountered.
The causes of these phenomena well merit the investiga
tion of meteorologists.
The aspect of the Puna is singularly monotonous and
dreary. The expansive levels are scantily covered with
grasses of a yeUowish-brown hue, and are never
enhvened by fresh-looking verdure. Here and here, at
distant intervals, may be seen a few stunted Queriua
trees {Polylepis racemosa, R. P.), or large patches of
ground covered with the Ratanhia shrub * {Krameria

* From the most remote times the Ratanhia has been employed by the Indians
as a medicine. It is one of their favourite remedies against spitting of blood
and dysentery. Most of the Ratanhia exported to Europe is obtained in the
southern Provinces of Peru, particularly in Arica and Islay. The extract which
is prepared in Peru, and which was formerly sent in large quantities to Europe,
is now scarcely an object of traffic. For several years past no Ratanhia has been
shipped from Callao, and but very little from Truxillo.

306 TRAVELS IN PERU.
triandria, R. P.). Both are used by the Indians as fuel,
and for roofing their huts.
Trie cold climate and sterile sod of the Puna are for-
riiidable impediments to agriculture. Only one plant is
cultivated in these regions with any degree of success.
It is the maca, a tuberous root grown hke the potato,
and like it used as an article of food. In many of the
Puna districts the maca constitutes the principal susten
ance of the inhabitants. It has an agreeable, and some
what sweetish flavour) an(^ when boiled in milk it tastes
like the chesnut.: As far as I am aware this plant has
not been mentioned by any traveller, nor has its botani
cal character yet been precisely determined. Possibly
it is a species of Tropseolum, but of this I am uncertain.
The root is about the size of a large chesnut. Macas
maybe kept for more than a year, if, after being taken from
the earth, they are left a few days to dry in the sun,
and then exposed to the cold. By this means they
become shrivelled and very hard. From these dried
macas, the Indians prepare a sort of soup or rather
syrup, which diffuses a sweet sickly sort of odour, but
which, when eaten with roasted maize, is not altogether
unpalatable. The maca thrives best at the height of
between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the sea. In the
lower districts it is not planted, for the Indians declare it
to be flavourless when grown there. Besides the maca,
barley is reared in the Puna. I saw there fields of bar-r
ley 13,200 feet above the sea. It does not, however,
attain full maturity, seldom even shoots into ears, and
is cut whilst green as fodder for horses.

THE LLAMA. 307
But poor and scanty as is the vegetation of the
Puna, the animal kingdom is there richly and beautifully
represented. Triose regions are the native home of the
great Mammaha, which Peru possessed before horses
and black cattle were introduced by the Spaniards. I
aUude to trie Uama and Iris co-genera trie alpaco, the
huanacu, and the vicuna. On these interesting animals
I wiU subjoin a few observations.* The two first are
kept as domestic animals ; the Uama perfectly, and the
alpaco partiaUy tame.
The Uama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top
of the head, 4 feet 6 to 8 inches ; from the sole of the
hoof to trie shoulders, from 2 feet 11 inches to 3 feet.
The female is usuaUy smaUer and less strong than the
male, but her wool is finer and better. The colour is
very various ; generaUy brown, with shades of yellow
or black ; frequently speckled, but very rarely quite
white or black. The speckled brown llama is in some
districts caUed the moromoro.
Trie young llamas are left with the dam for about the
space of a year, after which time they are removed and
placed with flocks. When about four years old, the
males and females are separated; the former are trained
to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pas
tures of the level heights. Most of the flocks of Uamas
are reared in the southern Puna provinces, viz. : — Cuzco
and Ayacucho, and from thence they are sent to the

» More lengthened information respecting them may be found in the " Fauna
Peruana." I have there noted all their specific varieties, and have corrected the
erroneous accounts given of them by some previous travellers.
x2

308 TRAVELS IN PERU.
silver mines of North Peru. The price of a strong full-
grown llama is from three to four dollars ; but if pur
chased in flocks in the provinces above named, they may
be had for one and a half or two dollars each. Shortly
after the conquest the price of one of these animals was
between eighteen and twenty ducats ; but the increase
of horses, mules, and sheep, lowered their value. The
burthen carried by the Uama should not exceed one
hundred and twenty-five pounds, and the animal is
seldom laden with more than a hundred-weigrit. When
the llama finds his burthen too heavy he hes down, and
cannot be made to rise until some portion of the weight
is removed from his back. In the silver mines the Uamas
are of the most important utility, as they frequently carry
the metal from the mines in places where the declivities
are so steep that neither asses nor mules can keep their
footing. The Indians frequently proceed with large flocks of
llamas to the coast, to procure salt. Their daily jour
neys are short, never exceeding three or four leagues ;
for the animals will not feed during the night, and
therefore they are allowed to graze as they go, or to
halt for a few hours at feeding-time. When resting
they make a pecuhar humming noise, which, when pro
ceeding from a numerous flock at a distance, is like a
number of iEolian harps sounding in concert.
A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table
lands is a beautiful sight. They proceed at a slow and
measured pace, gazing eagerly around on every side.
When any strange object scares them, the flock sepa-

THE ALPACO. 309
rates, and disperses in various directions, and the
arrieros have no httle difficulty in reassembling them.
The Indians are very fond of theses animals. They
adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to their ears, and
hanging bells round their hecks ; and before loading,
they always fondle and caress them affectionately. If,
during a journey, one of the llamas is fatigued and lies
down, the arriero kneels beside the animal, and addresses
to it the most coaxing and endearing expressions. But
notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed on
them, many Uamas perish on every journey to the coast,
as they are not able to bear the warm chmate.
Some old traveUers have stated that the Indians employ
the Uama for riding and for draught ; but these accounts
are quite erroneous. It sometimes happens that when
crossing a river, an Indian lad, to avoid getting wet, may
mount on the back of one of the llamas ; but in such a
case, he immediately dismounts on reaching the opposite
bank. The flesh of the llama is spongy and not agreeable
in flavour. Its wool is used for making coarse cloths.
The alpaco, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It
measures from the lower part of the hoof to the top of
the head only three feet three inches, and to the shoul
ders two feet and a half. In form it resembles the
sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head.
The fleece of this animal is beautifuUy soft and very
long ; in some parts it is four or five inches in length.
Its colour is usually either white or black ; but in some
few instances it is speckled. The Indians make blankets
and ponchos of the alpaco wool. It is also frequently

310 TRAVELS IN PERU.
exported to Europe, and it sells at a good price in
England. The alpacos are kept in large flocks, and
throughout the whole of the year they graze on the
level heights. At shearing time only they are driven
to the huts. They are in consequence very shy; and they
run away at the approach of a stranger. The obstinacy
of the alpaco is remarkable. Wlien one of these ani
mals is separated from the flock, he throws himself on
the ground, and neither force nor persuasion wiU induce
him to rise ; — sometimes suffering trie severest punish
ment rather trian go the way the driver wishes. Few
animals seem to require so imperatively the companion
ship of its own species, and it is only when brought to
the Indian huts very young, that the alpacos can be
separated from their flocks.
The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It
measures five feet from the bottom of the hoof to the
top of the head, and three feet three inches to the
shoulders. In form it so nearly resembles the Uama, that
until a very recent period, zoologists were of opinion
that the Uama was an improved species of the huanacu,
and that the latter was the llama in its wild state. In
the " Fauna Peruana" I have explained the erroneous-
ness of this opinion, and described the specific differences
existing between the two animals. On the neck, back,
and thighs the huanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown
colour. The under part of the body, the middle hne of
the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of a dingy
white. The face is dark grey, and the hps of a clear
white. Of the huanacus there are not those varieties

THE HUANACU AND THE VICUNA. 311
which are found among the llamas and the alpacos. The
wool is shorter and coarser than that of the llama, and it
is of nearly uniform length, on all parts of the body.
The huanacus rive in smaU herds of five or seven,
seldom exceeding trie latter number. In some dis
tricts they are very shy, and retreat when any one
approaches. If taken very young they may be tamed ;
but they are always ready to fall back into their wild
state. It is with great difficulty they can be trained as
beasts of burthen. In the menageries of Europe, hua
nacus brought from Chile are frequently represented to
be Uamas.
The vicuna is a more beautiful animal than any of
triose just described. Its size is between that of the
llama and the alpaco. It measures from the sole of
trie foot to the top of the head four feet one inch, and
two and a half feet to trie shoulders. The neck is longer
and more slender than in either of the other relative
species ; and from them trie vicuna is also distinguished
by the superior fineness of its short, curly wool. The
crown of the riead, the upper part of the neck, the back,
and thighs are of a pecuhar reddish-yellow hue, called
by the people of the country color de vicuna. The
lower part of the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs,
are of a bright ochre colour, and the breast and lower
part of the body are white.
During the rainy season the vicuna inhabits the
ridges of the CordiUera, where some scanty vegetation
is to be found. It never ventures up to the naked
rocky summits, for its hoofs being accustomed only to

312 TRAVELS IN PERU.
turfy ground, are very soft and tender. It lives in
herds, consisting of from six to fifteen females, and one
male, who is the protector and leader of the herd.
Whilst the females are quietly grazing, the male stands
at the distance of some paces apart, and carefully keeps
guard over them. At the approach of danger lie gives
a signal, consisting of a sort of whisthng sound, and a
quick movement of the foot. Immediately the herd
draws closely together, each animal anxiously stretching
out its head in the direction of the threatening danger.
They then take to flight; first moving leisurely and
cautiously, and then quickening their pace to the utmost
degree of speed ; whflst the male vicuna who covers
the retreat frequently halts, to observe the movements
of the enemy. The females, with singular fidelity and
affection, reward the watchful care of their protector.
If he is wounded or killed, they gather round him in a
circle, uttering their shrill tones of lamentation, and
they will suffer themselves to be captured or kiUed,
rather than desert him by pursuing their fligrit. The
neigh of the vicuna, hke that of the other animals of
its class, resembles a short, sharp whistle. But when
the shrill sound vibrates through the pure Puna air, the
practised ear can readUy distinguish the cry of the
vicufia from that of the other animals of the same
family. The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in hunting the
vicunas. They catch them by what they term the chacu.
In this curious hunt, one man at least belonging to each
family in the Puna villages takes a part, and women

THE CHACU AND THE BOLAS. 313
accompany the train, to officiate as cooks to the hunters.
The whole company, frequently amounting to seventy
or eighty individuals, proceeds to the Altos (the most
secluded parts of the Puna), which are the haunts of
the vicufias. They take with them stakes, and a great
quantity of rope and cord. A spacious open plain is
selected, and the stakes are driven into the ground in a
circle, at intervals of from twelve to fifteen feet apart,
and are connected together by ropes fastened to them
at the height of two or two and a half feet from ' the
ground. The circular space within the stakes is about
half a league in circumference, and an opening of about
two hundred paces in width is left for entrance. On
the ropes by which the stakes are fastened together the
women hang pieces of coloured rags, which flutter about
in the wind. The chacu being fully prepared, the men,
some of whom are mounted on horseback, range about
within a circuit of several miles, driving before triem
aU trie herds of vicunas they meet with, and forcing
them into the chacu. When a sufficient number of
vicunas is collected, the entrance is closed. The timid
animals do not attempt to leap over the ropes, being
frightened by the fluttering rags suspended from them,
and, when thus secured, the Indians easily kill them
by the bolas. These bolas consist of three balls, com
posed either of lead or stone ; two of them heavy, and
the third rather hghter. They are fastened to long,
elastic strings, made of twisted sinews of the vicuna,
and the opposite ends of the strings are all tied together.
The Indian holds the lightest of the three balls in his

314 TRAVELS IN PERU.
hand, and swings the two others in a wide circle above his
head ; then, taking his aim at trie distance of about fifteen
or twenty paces, he lets go trie hand-ball, upon which
aU the three baUs whirl in a circle, and twine round
the object aimed at. The aim is usuaUy taken at the
hind legs of the animals, and the cords twisting round
triem, they become firmly bound. It requires great
skill and long practice to throw the bolas dexterously,
especially when on horseback : a novice in the art incurs
the risk of dangerously hurting either himself or his
horse, by not giving the baUs the proper swing, or by
letting go the hand-baU too soon.
The vicufias, after being secured by the bolas, are
killed, and the flesh is distributed in equal portions
among the hunters. The skins belong to the Church.
The price of a vicuna skin is four reals. When aU the
animals are kiUed, the stakes, ropes, &c. are packed up
carefully, and conveyed to another spot, some miles dis
tant, wriere the chacu is again fixed up. The hunting
is continued in this manner for the space of a week.
The number of animals killed during that interval varies
according to circumstances, being sometimes fifty or
sixty, and at other times several hundred. During five
days I took part in a chacu hunt in the Altos of Huay-
huay, and in that space of time 122 vicufias were caught.
With the money obtained by the sale of the skins a new
altar was erected in trie church of the district. The
flesh of the vicufia is more tender and better flavoured
than that of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are made
of the wool. When taken young, the vicufias are easily

ANCIENT DOMESTIC UTENSILS. 315
tamed, and become very docile ; but when old, they are
intractable and mahcious. At Tarma I possessed a
large and very fine vicufia. It used to foUow me hke
a dog whenever I went out, whether on foot or on
horseback. The frequent hunting seems not to have the effect of
diminishing the numbers of these animals. If in trie
vicinity of the villages where chacus are frequently
established, they are less numerous than in other parts,
it is because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters, they
seek refuge in the Altos, where they are found in vast
numbers. Several modern traveUers have lamented
the diminution of the vicunas, but without reason. In
former times those animals were hunted more actively
than at present.
Under the dynasty of the Incas, when every useful
plant and animal was an object of veneration, the Peru
vians rendered almost divine worship to the llama and
his relatives, which exclusively furnisried them with
wool for clothing, and with flesri for food. The temples
were adorned with large figures of these animals made
of gold and sUver, and their forms were represented
in domestic utensils made of stone or clay. In the
valuable coUection of Baron Clemens von Hiigel at
Vienna, there are four of these vessels, composed of
porphyry, basalt, and granite, representing the four
species, viz., the Uama, the alpaco, the huanacu, and the
vicuna. These antiquities are exceedingly scarce, and
when I was in Peru I was unable to obtain any of them.
How the ancient Peruvians, without the aid of iron

316 TRAVELS IN PERU.
tools, were able to carve stone so beautifully, is in
conceivable. Besides the animals above mentioned, several others
peculiar to the Puna are deserving of remark. Among
these are the Tarush {Cervus antisiensis, Orb.) ;) the
timid roe, which inhabits the high forests skirting the
Andes ; the Viscacha {Lagidium peruanum, May, and
L. pallipes, Benn.), and the Chinchilla {Eriomys Chin
chilla, Licht.), whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so
much prized by the ladies of Europe. The viscachas
and chinchiUas resemble trie rabbit in form and colour,
but they have shorter ears and long rough tails. They
live on the steep rocky mountains, and in the mormng
and evening they creep out from their holes and cre
vices to nibble the alpine grasses. At night the Indians
set before their holes traps made of horse-hais, in which
thelanimals are easily caught) The most remarkable of
the beasts of prey in these high regions is the Atoc
{Canis Azarce, Pr. Max.). It is a species of fox, which
is found throughout the whole of South America. The
warmer Puna vaUeys are inhabited by the Cuguar
{Felis concolor, L.), or, as the Indians call it, the Poma.
When driven by hunger, this animal ventures into the
loftiest Puna regions, even to the boundary of the
eternal snow. Trie wild Hucumari {Ursus ornatus,
Fr. Cuv.) but seldom wanders into the cold Puna. The
hucumari is a large black bear, with a white muzzle
and light-coloured stripes on the breast.
Of the numerous Puna birds, the majority of which
may be classed as water-fowl, I will notice only a few of

ANIMALS OF THE PUNA. 317
the most characteristic. Next to the condor, the most
remarkable bird of prey is the Huarahuau, or the Aloi,
{Polyborus megalopterus, Cob.),* one of the gyr-falcon
species. This bird, which is a constant inhabitant of
the level heights, preys on the carcases of dead horses,
mules, &c, but never attempts to meddle with living
animals. It is very harmless, and has so httle timidity,
that it suffers itself to be approached near enough to be
knocked down with a stick. The Acacli, or Pito, {Co-
laptes rupicola, Orb.) flutters about the mountains ; it
is a woodpecker, brown-speckled, with a yeUow beUy.
This bird is seen in very great numbers, and it is dif
ficult to imagine how it procures food in the Puna,
where there are no insects. AU the other woodpecker
species exclusively confine themselves to woody regions.
The thickets of rushy grass are inhabited by the
Pishacas, or Yutu, a species of partridge {Tinamotis ,
Pentlandii, Vig.) which the Indians catch by dogs.
These dogs of the Puna Indians are a pecuhar race
{Canis Inges, Tsch.). They are distinguished by a
small head, a pointed muzzle, smaU erect ears, a tail
curhng upwards, and a thick shaggy skin. They are
in a half-wild state, and very surly and snappish.
They furiously attack strangers, and even after having
received a deadly wound they wfli crawl along the
ground, and make an effort to bite. To white people
they appear to have a particular antipathy ; and some
times it becomes rather a venturous undertaking for a
* Phalcoboewus monta/nus, Orb.

318 TRAVELS IN PERU.
European traveller to approach an Indian hut, for these
mountain dogs spring up to the sides of the horse, and
try to bite the rider's legs. They are snarhsh and
intractable even to their masters, who are often obliged
to enforce obedience by the help of a stick. Yet these
dogs are very useful animals for guarding flocks, and
they have a keen scent for the pishacas, which they
catch and kill with a single bite.
There is a very curious httle bird in the Puna,
about the size of a starling. Its plumage is exceedingly
pretty, being on the back brown, striped with black; on
the throat grey, with two dark stripes, and on the
breast white. This bird lias the remarkable peculiarity
of making a monotonous sound at the close of every
hour, during the night. The Indians call it the Inga-
huallpa, or Cock of the Inga, {Thinocorus Ingce, Tscri.),
and they associate many superstitious notions with its
regular hourly cry. The Puna morasses and lagunas are
animated by numerous feathered inhabitants. Among
them is the huachua {Chloephaga melanoptera, Eyt.),
a species of goose. The plumage of the body is daz-
zlingly white, the wings green, shading into brilliant
violet, and the feet and beak of a bright red. The Licli
{Charadrius resplendens, Tsch.) is a plover, whose plum
age in colour is like that of the huacriua, but with a
sort of metallic brightness. There are two species of
ibis which belong to the Puna, though, they are occa-
sionaUy seen in some of the lower vaUeys. One is
the Bandurria {Theristocus melanopis, Wagl), and the
other is the Yanahuico {Ibis Ordi, Bonap.). On the

CATTLE AND PASTURAGE. 319
lagunas swim large flocks of Quiullas {Larus serranus,
Tsch.), white mews, with black beads and red beaks,
and the gigantic water-hen {Fulica gigantea, Soul.).
The plumage of the latter is dark grey, and at the root
of the red beak there is a large yeUow botch,1 in the
form of a bean, whence the Indians give this bird the
name of Anash sinqui, or bean nose. Among the few
amphibia found in these regions one is particularly
remarkable. It is a smaU kind of toad {Leiuperus
viridis, Tsch.), and inhabits the boundaries of the per
petual snow.
The grasses of the Puna are used as fodder, and
in many of the sheltered valleys there are farms {Haci
endas de Ganado), where large herds of cattle are
reared. The owners of some of these farms possess
several thousand sheep, and from four to five hundred
cows. During the rainy season the cattle are driven
into the Altos. They graze in those high, regions,
often at the altitude of 15,000 feet above sea. When
the frost sets in they are brought down to the marshy
vaUeys, and they suffer much from insufficiency of pas
ture. From the wool of the sheep a coarse kind of
cloth, caUed Bayeta, is made in the Sierra. Some of
this wool is exported, and is much prized in Europe.
The old black cattle and sheep are slaughtered, and
their flesh, when dried, is the principal food of the
inhabitants of the Puna, particularly of the mining
population. The dried beef is caUed Char qui, and the
mutton is caUed Chalona. The bulls graze in the
remote Altos, and most of them are reserved for the

320 TRAVELS IN PERU.
bull fights in the Sierra villages. As they seldom see a
human being they become exceedingly wild ; so much
so that the herdsmen are often afraid to approach them.
In the daytime they roam about marshy places, and at
nightfaU they retire for shelter beneath some overhang
ing rock. These animals render travelhng in many
parts of the Puna extremely dangerous, for they often
attack people so suddenly as to afford no time for
defence. It is true they usually announce their ap
proach by a deep bellow ; but the open plain seldom
presents any opportunity for escape. On several occa
sions a weU-aimed shot alone saved me from the attack
of one of these ferocious buUs.
The walls of the haciendas are of rough unhewn
stone. They are divided into large square rooms,
always damp, cold, and uninhabitable. Beneath the
straw roofs triere usually hang long rows of the stuffed
skins of foxes ; for every Indian who kills an old fox
receives, by way of reward, a sheep, and for a young
one a lamb. The Cholos are therefore zealous fox-
hunters, and they may possibly succeed in altogether
extirpating that animal, which in some districts is so
numerous as to be a perfect scourge.
As the sheep, even in the dry season, find pasture
more easily than the horned cattle, they are left during
the whole year in the higher parts of the Puna, under
the care of Indian sheprierds. At night they are
driven into corales, large square roofless buUdings, and
are guarded by dogs. The shepherds make a practice
of every year burning the dry grass of the Puna, in

PUNA HUTS. 321
order to improve the growth of the fodder. A Puna
fire does not, however, present the imposing spectacle of
the prairie fires, as described by traveUers in North
America, possibly because the Puna straw is shorter,
and is always somewhat damp.
The dwelhngs of the shepherds are built in the same
rude style which characterises all the huts in the Puna,
and they impress the European traveUer with a very
unfavourable notion of the intelhgence of the people.
The architecture of these huts consists in laying down
some large stones, in a circle of about eight or ten feet
in diameter, by way of a foundation. These stones are
covered with earth or turf, and then with successive
layers of stones and earth, until the waU attains the
height of about four feet : at the point most sheltered
from the wind, an opening of a foot and a half or two
feet high serves as a door. On this low circular wall
rests the roof, which is formed in the following maimer.
Six or eight magay poles are fastened together, so as
to form a point at the top.* Over these poles thin laths
are laid horizontaUy, and fastened with straw-bands, and
the whole conical-formed frame-work is overlaid with a
covering of Puna straw. As a security against the
wind, two thick straw-bands are crossed over the point
of the roof, and at their ends, which hang down to the
ground, heavy stones are fastened. The whole fabric is
* The Magay is the stem of the American Agave. It has a sort of spungy
sap ; but it is covered externally with a strong tough bast. The Magay supplies
the inhabitants of Upper Peru with an excellent kind of light and strong build»
ing wood. Y

322 TRAVELS IN PERU.
then completed. The hut at its central point is about
eight feet high ; but at the sides, no more than three
and a half or four feet. The entrance is so low, that one
is obliged to creep in almost bent double ; and before
the aperture hangs a cow-hide, by way of a door.
Internally these huts present miserable pictures of
poverty and uncleanhness. Two stones serve as a stove,
containing a scanty fire fed by dry dung {bwhegas),
and turf {champo). An earthen pot for cooking soup,
another for roasting maize, two or three gourd-sheUs
for plates, and a porongo for containing water, make
up the catalogue of the goods and chattels in a Puna
hut. On dirty sheep-skins spread on the ground, sit
the Indian and his wife, listlessly munching their
coca ; whilst the naked children roU about paddling in
pools of water formed by continual drippings from the
roof. The other inhabitants of the hut are usually three
or four hungry dogs, some lambs, and swarms of guinea-
pigs. From aU this it will readily be imagined that a Puna
hut is no very agreeable or inviting retreat. Yet, when
worn out by the dangers and fatigues of a long day's
journey, and exposed to the fury of a mountain storm,
the weary traveller, heedless of suffocating clouds of
smoke and mephitic odours, gladly creeps into the rude
dwelling. Taking up his resting-place on the damp
floor, with his saddle-cloth for a pillow, he is thankful
to find himself once again in a human habitation, even
though its occupants be not many degrees elevated
above the brute creation.

THE GREAT INCA ROAD. 323
In the Puna there are many remains of the great
high road of the Incas, which led from Cuzco to Quito,
stretching through the whole extent of Peru. It was
the grandest work that America possessed before Euro
pean civihsation found its way to that quarter of the
world. Even those who are unacquainted with the wise
dominion of the ancient Peruvian sovereigns, their com
prehensive laws, and the high civihsation they diffused
over the whole country, must by triis gigantic work be
impressed witri the highest idea of the cultivation of the
age ; for weU-constructed roads may always be regarded
as proofs of a nation's advancement. There is not in
Peru at the present time any modern road in the most
remote degree comparable to the Incas' highway. The
best preserved fragments which came under my obser
vation were in the Altos, between Jauja and Tarma.
Judging from these portions, it would^ppeaFthat "the
road must have been from twenty-five to thirty feet
broad, and that it was paved with large flat stones. At
intervals of about twelve paces distant one from another
there is a row of smaller stones, laid horizontaUy and a
little elevated, so that the road ascended, as it were, by
a succession of terraces. It was edged on each side by
a low waU of smaU stones.
Other remains of ancient Peru, frequently met with
in these parts, are small buddings, formerly used as
stations for the messengers who promulgated the com
mands of the Incas through all parts of the country.
Some of these buildings are still in a tolerably good
state of preservation. They were always erected on
y2

324 TRAVELS IN PERU.
little hillocks, and at such distances apart, that from
each station the nearest one on either side was discern
ible. When a messenger was despatched from a station
a signal was hoisted, and a messenger from the next
successive station met him half-way, and received from
him the despatch, which was in this manner forwarded
from one station to another tiU it reached its destina
tion. A constant communication was thus kept up
between the capital and the most distant parts of the
country. A proof of the extraordinary rapidity with
which these communications were carried on is the fact,
recorded on unquestionable authority, that the royal
table in Cuzco was served with fresh fish, caught in the
sea near the Temple of the Sun in Lurin, a distance of
more than 200 leagues from Cuzco.
The messenger stations have by some traveUers been
confounded with the forts, of which remains are met
with along the great Inca road. The forts were build
ings destined for totaUy different purposes. Triey were
magazines for grain, and were built by the Incas
to secure to their armies in these barren regions
the requisite supphes of food. Vestiges of these forts
are frequently seen in the Altos of Southern and Central
Peru. They are broad round towers, usually built
against a rocky declivity, and with numerous long
apertures for the admission of air.
Even the broad level heights in which no trace of
human habitations is discoverable, have been excavated
by the mercenary Peruvian mestizos and Creoles in
search of hidden treasures. Their faith in the exist-

AN INCA'S RANSOM. 325
ence of concealed riches is founded on the following
tradition. Wrien the last reigning Inca, Atabihba or
Atahuallpa, was made prisoner by Don Francisco Pizarro,-
in Caxamarca, he proposed to ransom himself from the
Spanish commander. The price he offered for his
liberty was to fiU with gold the cell in which he was
confined, to the height of a certairi line on the wall,
which Pizarro inarked with his sword. The ceU, it may
be mentioned, was twenty-two feet long and seventeen
broad. A quantity of gold which the Inca ordered to'
be coUected in Caxamarca and its vicinity, when piled
up oh trie floor of trie cell, did not reach above halfway
to the given mark. The Inca then dispatched messen
gers to Cuzco to obtain from the royal treasury the
gold required to make up the deficiency ; and accord
ingly eleven thousand llamas were despatched from
Cuzco to Caxamarca, each laden with one hundred
pounds of gold. But ere the treasure reached its des
tination, Atariuallpa was hanged by the advice of Don
Diego de Almangra and the Dominican monk Vicente
de Valverde. Trie terror-stirring news flew like wild
fire through the land, and speedily reached the convoy
of Indians, who were driving their richly-laden Uamas
over the level heights into Central Peru. On the spot
where the intelligence of Atahuallpa's death was com
municated to them, the dismayed Indians concealed the
treasure, and then dispersed.
Whether the number of the Uamas was really so con
siderable as it is stated to have been, may fairly be
doubted ; but that a vast quantity of gold was on its

326 TRAVELS IN PERU.
way to Caxamarca, and was concealed, is a weU-authen-
ticated fact. That the Indians should never have made
any attempt to recover this treasure is quite consistent
with their criaracter. It is not improbable that even now
some particular individuals among them may know the
place of concealment; but a certain; feehng of awe
transmitted through several centuries from father to
son, has, in their minds, associated the hidden treasure
with the blood of their last king, and this feehng doubt
less prompts them to keep the secret inviolate.
From traditionary accounts, which bear the appear
ance of probability, it would appear that the gold was
/buried somewhere in trie Altos of Mito, near the vaUey
j of Jauja. Searches have frequently been made in that
vicinity, but no clue to the Iriding-place has yet been
discovered.

CHAPTER XII.
Cerro de Pasco — First 'discovery of the Mines. — Careless mode of working them
— Mine Owners and Mine Labourers — Amalgamating and Refining —
Produce of the Mines — Life in Cerro de Pasco — Different Classes of the
Population — Gaming and Drunkenness — Extravagance and Improvidence
of the Indian Mine Labourers — The Cerro de San Fernando — Other Im-
, portant Mining Districts in Peru — The Salcedo Mine — Castrovireyna —
Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru — Rich Mines secretly known
to the Indians — Roads leading from Cerro de Pasco — The Laguna of Chin-
chaycocha — Battle of Junin — Indian Robbers. — A Day and a Night in the
Puna Wilds.
Having traversed trie long and difficult route from
the capital of Peru, by way of the wild CordiUera to
the level heights of Bombon, and from thence having
ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountain
chain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the
distance a large and populous city. This is the cele
brated Cerro de Pasco, famed througriout trie world for
its rich sriver mines. It is situated in 10° 48' S. latitude
and 76° 23' W. longitude, and at the height of 13,673
feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped
hoUow, encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Be
tween these rocks difficult winding roads or paths lead
down to the city, which spreads out in irregular divi
sions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, or
swamps. The pleasing impression created by the first
view of Cerro de Pasco from the heights is very greatly
modified on entering the town. Crooked, narrow, and
dirty streets are bordered by rows of irregularly-built

328 TRAVELS IN PERU.
houses ; ;md miserable Indian huts abut close against
well-built dweUings, whose size and structure give a
certain European character to tfie city when viewed
from a distance. Without bestowing a glance on the
busy throng which circulates through the streets and
squares, the varied styles of the buddings sufficiently
indicate to the observer how many different classes of
people have united together to found, in the tropics, and
on the very confines of the perpetual snow, a city of
such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild
barrenness of the surrounding scenery, and the extreme
cold of the rigorous chmate — the remote and sohtary
position of the city — all denote that one common bond
of union must have drawn together the diversified
elements which compose the population of Cerro de
Pasco. And so it really is. In this inhospitable region,
where the surface of the. soil produces nothing, nature
has buried boundless stores of wealth in the bowels of
the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de "Pasco have
drawn people from aU parts of the world to one point,
and for one object.
History relates that about two hundred and fifteen
years ago an Indian shepherd, named Huari Capcha,
tended his flocks on a small pampa to south-east of the
lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great river Amazon.
One day, when the shepherd had wandered further than
usual from his hut, he sought a resting-place on a
declivity of the Cerro de Santiestevan, and when evening
drew in he kindled a fire to protect himself against the
cold ; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke on

THE DESCUBRIDORA MINE. 329
the foUowing morning, he was amazed to find the stone
beneath the ashes of his fire melted and turned to silver.
He joyfully communicated the discovery to his master,
Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned a hacienda in
the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired
to the spot, where he found indications of a very rich
vein of silver ore, which he immediately made active
preparations for working. In this mine, which is dis-
guished by the name of La Descubridora (the discoverer),
silver is stiU obtained. From the viUage of Pasco, about
two leagues distant, where already productive mines
were worked, several rich .mine-owners removed to
Llauricocha ; here they sought and discovered new veins,
and estabhshed new mining works. The vast abundance
of the ore drew new speculators to „the spot ; some to
work the mines, and others to supply the necessary
wants of the increasing population. In this manner
was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the
produce of metal is very considerable, counts 18,000
inhabitants. In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable
veins of sflver. One of them, the Veta de Colquirirca,
runs nearly in a straight hne from north to south, and
has already been traced to the length of 9,600 feet, and
the breadth of 412 ; the other vein is the Veta de
Pariarirca, which takes a direction from east-south-east
to west-north-west, and which intersects the Veta de
Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under the market
place of the city. Its known extent is 6,400 feet in
length, and 380 feet in breadth. From these large veins

330 TRAVELS IN PERU.
numberless smaUer ones branch off in various directions,
so that a net-work of silver may be supposed to spread
beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousand open
ings or mouths (bocaminas) are the entrances to these
mines. Most of these entrances are within the city
itself, in smaU houses ; and some are in the dwellings of
the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedingly sriaUow,
and not more than five hundred deserve trie name of
shafts. AU are worked in a very disorderly and care
less way ; the grand object of their owners being to
avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shafts are
never walled up, and the excavations proceed without
the adoption of any measures of security. The conse
quence is, that accidents caused by the fairing in of the
gaUeries are of frequent occurrence ; and every year the
lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. A
melancholy example of the effects of triis negligence is
presented by the now ruined mine of Matagente (rite-
raUy Kill People), in which three hundred labourers
were killed by the falhng in of a shaft. I descended
into several of the mines, among others into the Descu-
bridora, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt
that I had good reason to congratulate myself on return
ing to the surface of the earth in safety. Rotten blocks
of wood and loose stones serve for steps, and, where
these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in most instances
runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help
of rusty chains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of
rubbish are continually fairing from the damp walls.
The mine labourers, all of whom are Indians, are of

MINE LABOURERS. 331
two classes. One class consists of those who work in
the mines all the year round without intermission, and
who receive regular wages from the mine owners ; — the
other class consists of triose who make only temporary
visits to Cerro de Pasco, when they are attracted
thither by the boy as* This latter class of labourers
are caUed maquipuros. Most of them come from the
distant provinces, and triey return to their homes when
the boya is at an end. The mine labourers are also
subdivided into two classes, the one called barreteros,
whose employment consists in breaking the ore ; and
the other caUed hapires, or chaquiris, who bring up the
ore from the shaft. The work allotted to the hapires
is exceedingly laborious. Each load consists of from
fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, which is carried in
a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untanned
hide, caUed a capacho. The hapire performs his toil
some duty in a state of nudity, for, notwithstanding the
coldness of the climate, he becomes so heated by his
laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himself of
his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day
and night, the miners are divided into parties caUed
puntas, each party working for twelve successive hours.
At six o'clock morning and evening the puntas are
relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-
domo. When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal,
* A mine is said to be in boya when it yields an unusually abundant supply
of metal. Owing to the great number of mines in Cerro de Pasco, some of them
are always in this prolific state. There are times when the boyas bring such
an influx of miners to Cerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double
or triple its ordinary amount.

332 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the labourers are paid in money; the barreteros receiving
six reals per day, and the hapires only four. During
the boyas the labourers receive instead of their wages
in money, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to
appropriate to themselves surreptitiously pieces of ore ;
but to do this requires great cunning and dexterity* so
narrowly are they watched by the mayordomos. Never
theless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires
related to me how he had contrived to carry off a most
valuable piece of silver. He fastened it on his back,
and then wrapping himself in his poncho, he pretended
to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the
mine. Two of his confederates who helped him out,-
assisted him in conceahng the treasure. The polvorilla,
a dark powdery kind of ore, very full of silver, used to
be abstracted from the mines by the foUowing stratagem;
The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having
moistened the whole of their bodies with water, would
roU themselves in the polvorilla- which stuck to them.
On their return home they washed off the silver-dust
and sold it for several dollars. But this trick being
detected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving
trie mines, the labourers are now required to strip in
order to be searched.
The operation of separating the silver from the dross
is performed at some distance from Cerro de Pasco, in
haciendas, belonging to the great mine owners. The
process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and at
the same time, a very expensive manner. The amalga
mation of the quicksilver with the metal is effected by

AMALGAMATION AND REFINING. 333
the tramping of horses. The animals employed in this
way are a small iU-looking race, brought from Aya-
cucrio and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous
herds. The quicksflver speedily has a fatal effect on
their hoofs, and after a few years the animals become
unfit for work. The separation of the metals is managed
witri as httle judgment as the amalgamation, and the
waste of quicksilver is enormous. It is computed that
on each mark of silver, half a pound of quicksilver is
expended. The quicksilver, with the exception of some
httle brought from Idriaand Huancavehca, comes from
Spain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five
pounds weight of the metal. In Lima the price of. these
jars is from sixty to 100 doUars each, but they are
occasionaUy sold as high as 135 or 140 doUars. Con^
sidering trie vast losses wriich the Peruvian mine-owners
sustain by the waste of quicksilver and the defective
mode of refining, it may fairly be inferred, that their
profits are about one-third less trian they would be
under a better system of management.
In Cerro de Pasco there are places called boliches, in
which the silver is separated from the dross by the
same process as that practised in the haciendas, only
on a smaller scale. In the boliches the amalgamation
is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix
the quicksflver with the ore by stamping on it with
their feet for several hours in succession. This occupar
tion they usually perform barefooted and the conser
quence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused
by the action of mercury, are very frequent among

334 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the persons thus employed. The owners of the boli
ches, who are mostly Italians, are not mine proprie
tors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who
give them their huachacas* in exchange for brandy and
other articles. On the other hand, the owners of the
boliches obtain the money required for their specula
tions from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous
interest. Nevertheless, many amass considerable for
tunes in the course of a few years ; for they scruple not
to take the most unjust advantage of the Indians, whose
laborious toil is rewarded by httle gain.
The law requires that all trie silver drawn from the
mines of Cerro de Pasco shall be conveyed to a govern
ment sriielting-house, called the Callana, there to be
cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, to be
stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value
of silver in Cerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight
dollars per mark. The standard value in Lima is eight
dollars and a-half.
It is impossible to form anything like an accurate
estimate of the yearly produce of the mines of Cerro de
Pasco ; for a vast quantity of silver is never taken to the
Callana, but is smuggled to the coast, and from thence
shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than
85,000 marks of contraband sflver were conveyed to
the sea port of Huacho, and safely shipped on board a
schooner. The quantity of silver annually smelted and
stamped in the Callana is from two to three hundred

* Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributed among the Indians
at the time of the boy as, instead of their wages being paid in money.

MINING IN CERRO DE PASCO. 335
thousand marks — seldom exceeding the latter amount.
From 1784 to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was
8,051,409 marks ; in the year 1 784 it was 68,208 marks ;
and in 1785, 73,455 marks. During seventeen years it
was under 200,000 marks ; and only during three years
above 300,000. The produce of the mines is exceed
ingly fluctuating. The successive revolutions which
have agitated the country have tended very consider
ably to check raining operations. On the overthrow of
Santa Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and
intelhgent mine-owner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished ;
an event which had a very depressing influence on aU
the mining transactions of that part of South America.
Within the last few years, however, mining has received
a new impetus, and attention has been directed to the
adoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of
amalgamation. As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly
disagreeable ; nothing but the pursuit of wealth can
reconcile any one to a long abode in it. The climate,
like that of the higher Puna, is cold and stormy. The
better sort of houses are well built, and are provided
with good Enghsh fire-places and chimneys. But how
ever comfortably lodged, the new comer cannot easily
reconcile himself to the reflection that the earth is
hoUow beneath his feet. StiU less agreeable is it to be
awakened in trie night by the incessant hammering of the
Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occur
rence in those parts : it would require no very violent
shock to bury the whole city in the bosom of the earth.

336 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Silver being the only produce of the soil, the neces
saries of life are all exceedingly . dear in the Cerro, as
they have to be brought .from distant places. The
warehouses are, it is true, always plentifully supplied
even with the choicest luxuries ; but the extortion of
venders and the abundance of money render prices
most exorbitant. The market is so weU supplied with
provisions that it may vie witri that of Lima. The
products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests,
are aU to be procured in trie market of Cerro de Pasco ;
but the. price demanded for every article is invariably
more than double its worth. House rents are also
extravagantly high ; and the keep of horses is exceeds
ingly expensive.
The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley
assemblage of human beings, such as one would scarcely
expect to find in a city situated at 14,000 feet above trie
sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Old and
the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and
triere is scarcely any nation of Europe or America that
has not its representative in Cerro de Pasco. The
Swede and the Sicihan, the Canadian and the Argenti
nian, are aU united here at one point, and for one object.
The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in two divi
sions, viz., traders and miners — taking both terms in
their most comprehensive sense. The mercantile popu
lation consists chiefly of Europeans or white Creoles,
particularly those who are owners of large magazines.
The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here,
as in Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops

MINE OWNERS AND MINE-WORKING. 337
are kept by the Mestizos, and trie provision-dealers are
chiefly Indians, who bring their supphes from remote
places. The mining population may be divided into mine-
owners {mineros) and Indian labourers. The majority
of the mineros are descendants of the old Spanish
famihes, who, at an early period, became possessors of
the mines,, whence they derived enormous wealth, which
most of them dissipated in prodigal extravagance. At
the present time, only a very few of the mineros are
rich enough to defray, from their own resources, the
vast expense attending the operations of mining. They
consequently raise the required money by loans from
the capitahsts of Lima, who require interest of 100
or 120 per cent., and, moreover, insist on having bars
of silver at a price below standard value. To these
hard conditions, together with the custom that has been
forced upon the miners of paying their labourers in
metal, at times when it is very abundant, may be traced
the cause of the miserable system of mine-working prac
tised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthen-
some debts the minero makes his labourers dig as much
ore as possible from the mine, without any precautions
being taken to guard against accidents. The money
lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for
the recovery of trieir re-payment than the promise of
the minero, and a failure of the usual produce of a mine
exposes triem to the risk of losing the money they have
advanced. Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected
z

338 TRAVELS IN PERU.
that the character and habits of the minero should
qualify him to take a high rank in the social scale.
His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts him
to embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently
loses in one what he gains in another. After a mine has
been worked without gain for a series of years, an unex
pected boya probably occurs, and an immense quan
tity of silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring
on the proceeds of a boya is an event of rare occur
rence. A vain hope of increasing fortune prompts him
to risk the certain for the uncertain ; and the result
frequently is, that the once prosperous minero has
nothing to bequeath to his children but a mine heavily
burthened with debt. The persevering ardour of persons
engaged in mining is truly remarkable. Unchecked by
disappointment, they pursue the career in whicri they
have embarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable,
the love of money subdues the warnings of reason, and
hope conjures up, from year to year, visionary pictures
of riches yet to come.
Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once
entered on, an inordinate passion for cards and dice
contributes to ruin many of the mineros of Cerro de
Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums staked
at the gaming-table ; for the superabundance of silver
feeds that national vice of the Spaniards and their
descendants. From the earliest hours of morning cards
and dice are in requisition. Trie mine-owner leaves Iris
silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter,
to pass a few hours every day at the gaming-table;

THE HAPIRES. 339
and card-playing is the Only amusement in the best
houses of the town. The mayordomos, after being
engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, as
semble with their comrades in the evening, round the
gaming-table, from which they often do not rise until six
in the morning when the beU summons them to resume
their subterraneous occupation. They not unfrequently
gamble away their share of a boya before any indica
tion of one is discernible in the mine.
The working class of miners is composed of Indians,
who throng to Cerro de Pasco from all the provinces,
far and near, especiaUy when boyas are expected. At
times, when the mines are not very productive, the
number of Indian labourers amounts to between three
and four thousand ; but when there is a great supply of
metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers is more
than tripled. The Indians labour with a degree of
patient industry, which it would be vain to expect from
European workmen similarly circumstanced. This
observation apphes to the hapires in particular. Con
tent with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging,
the hapire goes through his hard day's work, partaking
of no refresriment but coca, and at trie end of the week,
(deduction being made for the food, &c, obtained on
credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself in
possession of a dollar. This sum he spends on his Sun
day hohday in chicha and brandy, of which he takes as
much as his money wiU pay for, or as he can get oh
credit. When excited by strong drinks, such as maize
beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very much
Z 2

340 TRAVELS IN PERU.
addicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrel
some. The labourers belonging to the different mines
go about the streets rioting and attacking each other,
and they frequently get involved in dangerous affrays.
No Sunday or Friday passes over witriout the occurrence
of battles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as
weapons; and the actors in these scenes of violence
inflict on each other severe and often fatal wounds.
Any effective police interference to queU these street
riots, is out of the question.
When an unusuaUy abundant produce of the mines
throws extra payment into the hands of the mine
labourers, they squander their money with the most
absurd extravagance, and they are exceUent customers to
the European dealers in dress and otrier articles of luxury.
Prompted by a ludicrous spirit of imitation, trie Indian,
in his fits of drunkenness, will purchase costly things
which he can have no possible use for, and which he
becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once
saw an Indian purchase a -cloak of fine cloth, for which
he paid ninety-two doUars. He then repaired to a
neighbouring pulperia,* where he drank till he became
intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, he feU
down, and roUed in the kennel. On rising and disco
vering that his cloak was besmeared with mud, he threw
it of, and left it in the street, for any one who might
choose to pick it up. Such acts of reckless prodigahty
are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro de
Pasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his
* A shop in which chicha, brandy, &c, are vended.

CERRO DE SAN FERNANDO. 341
shop to purchase a gold watch. He showed him one,
observing that the price was twelve gold ounces, (204
doUars), and that it would probably be too dear for him.
The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch ; then,
after having examined it for a few minutes, he dashed it
on the ground, observing that the thing was of no use to
him. When the Indian miner possesses money, he never
thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he nor any
of his family feel the least ambition to improve their
miserable way of hfe. With triem, drinking is the
highest of aU gratifications, and in the enjoyment of the
present moment, they lose sight of aU considerations for
the future. Even those Cholos who come from distant
parts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the
mines of Cerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor
as when they left them, and with manners and morals
vastly deteriorated.
Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point
of importance are nowise inferior to those of Potosi,
there are numerous very rich mining districts in Peru.
Among the most prolific may be ranked the provinces
of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc.
In this last-named province is situated the Cerro de
San Fernando, on which Alexander Von Humboldt has
conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins
were discovered there in the year 1771 ; and there are
now upwards of 140Q*W>ocaminas. On the insulated
mountain the veins of metal intersect each other in
every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being
easily worked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of

342 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Huantaxaya, situated on the coast in the neighbourhood
of Iquique, were also very rich, and the silver obtained
from them was either pure or containing a very slight
admixture of foreign substances. They yielded an
incredible quantity of metal, but they were speedily ..
exhausted ; and are now totaUy barren. The chains of
hills in trie southern districts of Peru contain a multi
tude of very rich mines, of which the most remarkable
are those of San Antonio de Esquilache, Tamayos,
Picotani,. Cancharani, and Chupicos ; but owing to bad
working and defective drainage, many of the veins are
in a very ruinous state, and the metal drawn from them
bears no proportion to the quantity triey contain. The
Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vast abundance
of its produce, and trie tragical end of its original
owner. Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in
Puno, was in love with a young Indian girl, whose
mother promised, on condition of his marrying her
daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine.
Salcedo fulfiUed the condition, obtained possession of
the mine, and worked it with, the greatest success. The
report of his wealth soon roused the envy of the Count
de Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possess
himself of the mine. By his generosity and benevo
lence Salcedo had become a great favourite with trie
Indian population, and trie viceroy took advantage of
this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on the
ground that he was exciting the Indians against the
Spanish government. Salcedo was arrested, tried, and

•THE SALCEDO MINE. 343
condemned to death. Whilst he was in prison, he
begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the docu
ments relating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy
of the king. He proposed, if the viceroy would grant his
request, that he would pay riim the daily tribute of a bar
of sUver, from the time when the ship left the port of
Callao with the documents, until the day of her return.
Wrien it is recoUected that at that period the voyage
from CaUao to Spain occupied from twelve to sixteen
months, some idea may be formed of the enormous
wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected
this proposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set
out for Puno to take possession of the mine.*
But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the
attainment of its object. As soon as Salcedo's death-
doom was pronounced, his mother-in-law, accompanied
by a number of relations and friends, repaired to the
mine, flooded it witri water, destroyed the works, and
closed up the entrance so effectuaUy that it was impos
sible to trace it out. They trien dispersed ; but some
of them, who were afterwards captured, could not be
induced, either by promises or tortures, to reveal the
position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day
remains undiscovered. All that is known about it is
that it was situated in the neighbourhood of Cerro de
Laycacota and Cananchari.
Another extraordinary example of the productiveness
of the Peruvian mines, is found at San Jose, in the
department of Huancavehca. The owner of the mines
* The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669.

344. TRAVELS IN PERU. *
of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whose friend
he was, to become godfather to his first child. The
viceroy consented, but at the time fixed for the christen
ing, some important affair of state prevented him from
quitting the capital, and lie sent the vice-queen to
officiate as his proxy. To render honour to his fllus-
trious guest, the owner of the San Jose mines laid down
a triple row of silver bars along the whole way (and it
was no very short distance), from his house to the
church. Over this sflver pavement the vice-queen
accompanied the infant to the churcri, where it was
baptised. On her return, her munificent host presented
to her the whole of the silver road, in token of his
gratitude for the honour she had conferred on him.
Since that time, the mines and the province in which
they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna.
In most of these mines the works have been discon
tinued. Owing to defective arrangements, one of the
richest of these mines feU in, and 122 workmen were
buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indians
refuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of
spirits and apparitions said to haunt the mines of
Castrovireyna. I was surprised to hear these tales, for
the imagination of the Indian miners is not very fertile
in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors.
Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth
which the mines of Peru have already yielded, and
still continue to yield, only a very smaU portion of the
silver veins have been worked. It is a well-known fact,
that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich

MINES SECRETLY KNOWN TO THE INDIANS. 345
mines, the situation of which they wiU never disclose to
the whites, nor to the detested mestizos. Heretofore
mining has been to them aU toil and httle profit, and it
has bound them in chains from which they will not
easily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the
knowledge of some of the richest silver mines has been
with inviolable secrecy transmitted from father to son.
AU endeavours to prevail on them to divulge these
secrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the viUage of
Huancayo, there rived, a -few years ago, two brothers,
Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte, two of the most
eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certain
intelligence that in the neighbouring mountains there
existed some veins of pure sflver, they sent a young
man, their agent, to endeavour to gain further informa
tion on the subject. The agent took up his abode in
the cottage of a sheprierd, to whom, however, he gave
not the shghtest intimation of the object of his mission.
After a little time, an attachment arose between the
young man and the shepherd's daughter, and the girl
promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very
rich mine. On a certain day, when she was going out
to tend her sheep, srie told riim to foUow her at a
distance, and to notice the spot where she would let fall
her manta ; by turning up trie eartri on that spot, she
assured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The
young man did as he was directed, and after digging
for a little time, lie discovered a mine of considerable -
depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged in
breaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's

346 TRAVELS IN PERU.
father, who expressed himself dehghted at the discovery,
and offered to assist him. After they had been at.
work for some hours, the old Indian handed to his
companion a cup of chicha, which the young man
thankfully accepted. But lie had no sooner tasted the
hquor than he felt ill, and he soon became convinced
that poison had been mixed with the beverage. He
snatched up the bag containing the metal he had
collected, mounted his horse, and with the utmost speed
gaUoped off to Huancayo. There, he related to Yriarte
aU that had occurred, described as accurately as he
could the situation of the mine, and died on the foUow
ing night. Active measures were immediately set on
foot, to trace out the mine, but without effect. The
Indian and all his family had disappeared, and the
mine was never discovered.
In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk.
He was an inveterate gamester, and was involved in
pecuniary embarrassments. Trie Indians in the neigh
bourhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to
him, and frequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese,
butter, &c. One day, after lie had been a loser at the
gaming-table, he complained bitterly of his misfortunes
to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After some
deliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could
render him some assistance ; and, accordingly, on the
following evening, he brought him a large bag full of
rich silver ore. This present was several times repeated ;
but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show
him the mine from wrience the treasure was drawn.

STRATAGEM OF A MONK. 347
The Indian consented, and on an appointed night he
came, accompanied by two of his comrades, to the dweU-
ing of the Franciscan. They bhndfolded him, and eacri
in turn carried him on his shoulders to a distance of
several leagues, into the mountain passes. At length
they set him down, and the bandage being removed from
riis eyes, lie discovered that he was in a smaU and some
what shallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses
of silver. He was allowed to take as much as he could
carry, and when laden with the rich prize, he was again
blindfolded, and conveyed heme in the same manner as
he had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians
were conducting him home, he hit on the following
stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, and here and
there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means
to be enabled to trace his way back on the following
day ; but in the course of a couple of hours his Indian
friend again knocked at his door, and presenting to him
a handful of beads, said, " Father, you dropped your
rosary on the way, and I have picked it up."
When I was in Jauja, in trie year 1841, an Indian
whom I had previously known, from his having accom
panied me on one of my journeys in trie Sierra, came to
me and asked me to lend riim a crow-bar. I did so, and
after a few days, when he returned it, I observed that
trie end was covered with silver. Some time afterwards
I learned that this Indian had been imprisoned by order
of the sub-prefect, because he had offered for sale some
very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where
he had obtained it, his answer was that he found it

348 TRAVELS IN PERU.
on the road ; a tale, the truth of which, was very
naturaUy doubted. The foUowing year, when I was
again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He
then informed me that he riad been for several months
confined in a dark dungeon and half-starved, because trie
sub-prefect wanted to compel riim to reveal the situation
of a mine which he knew of, but triat lie would not disclose
trie secret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had
made of having found trie ore. After a little further
conversation, he became more communicative trian I had
any reason to expect, though he was fully convinced I
Would not betray him. He confessed to me that he
actually knew of a large vein containing valuable silver,
of which he showed me a specimen. He further told
me that it was only when he was much, in want of money
that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was
not very deep ; and, moreover, that after closing it up,
he always carried the loose rubbish away to a distance
of some miles, and then covered the opening so care-
fuUy with turf and cactus, that it was impossible for
any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable
hut, about three leagues from Jauja, and his occupation
was making wooden stirrups, which employment scarcely
enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. He assured
me it was only when lie was caUed upon to pay contri
butions, which the government exacts witri merciless
rigour, that he had recourse to the mine. He then
extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold it in
Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him.
I could quote many well-authenticated instances of

FATE OF HUARI CAPCHA. 349
trie same kind; but the above examples sufficiently
prove the reluctance of the Indians to disclose the
secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifference
about obtaining wealtri for themselves. It is true that
the Indians are not, in aU parts of trie country, so reso
lutely reserved as they are in Huancayo and Jauja,
for aU the most important mines have been made
known to trie Spaniards by the natives. But the Peru
vian Indians are composed of many different races, and
thougri aU were united by trie Incas into one nation,
yet they still differ from each other in manners and
character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites
and their descendants lias not been kept up in an equal
degree among triem all. In proportion as some are
friendly and social with, the Creoles, others are reserved
and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard with
unfriendly feehngs those whites who seek to trace out
new mines ; for they cherisri a bitter recoUection of the
fate of Huari Capcha, the discoverer of the mines of
Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was thrown into a
dungeon by trie Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days
in captivity. I have not met with any proofs of the
authenticity of this story, but I frequently heard it
related by the Indians, who referred to it as their justi
fication for withholding from the whites any directions
for finding mines.
But to return to Cerro de Pasco. Triat city has, by
its wealth, become one of the most important in the
Peruvian Repubhc ; and under improved legislation^
and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered

350 TRAVELS IN PERU.
still more prosperous and fully deserving of its title of
" Treasury of Peru." Though from its situation Cerro
de Pasco is cut off from the principal lines of communi
cation with other parts of Peru, yet the city is itself the
central point of four roads, on which there is consider
able traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through
the Quebrada of Canta, by which aU the silver that is
not contraband is transported to the capital. The
silver, when melted into bars, is consigned to the care
of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving a receipt for
it ; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted
With loads of the value of several hundred thousand
dollars, which they convey to Lima unattended by any
guards or escort. There is, however, no danger of
their being plundered ; for the robbers do not take the
stamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other
hand, which is sent from Lima, is escorted by a military
guard as far as Llanga or Santa Rosa de Quibe. Trie
escort is not, however, very adequate to resist the high
way robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armed
negroes. On the east is the road running through the
Quebrada de Huarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the
Huallaga Forests. The road on the north of Cerro de
Pasco leads to the viUage of Huanuco el Viejo, one of
the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of inte
resting ruins of the time of trie Incas. From Huanuco
trie road leads to Huaraz, and from thence to the north
coast. The south road passes over the level heights
to Tarma, Jauja and the other southern provinces.
From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one

LAKE OF CHINCHAYCOCHA. 351
leading to Lima, the other to Tarma. The former
crosses trie Pampa of Bombon and trie Diezmo, and
continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter
leads by way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of
Carhuamayo* to Junin, passing near a very large lake,
situated at the heigrit of 13,000 feet above the sea.
This lake is the Laguna de Chinchaycocha,t which is
twelve leagues long, and at its utmost breadth measures
two leagues and a half. It is the largest of the South
American lakes, next to the Laguna de Titicaca, which
is eighty-four English miles long and forty-one broad.
As the lake of Criincriaycocha loses by various outlets
mucri more water than it receives from its tributary
sources, it is evident that it must be fed by subterraneous
springs. Its marshy banks are overgrown by totora
{Malacochcete Totora), and are inhabited by numerous
water fowl. Trie Indians entertain a superstitious behef
that this lake is haunted by huge fish-like animals, who
at certain hours of the night leave their watery abode
to prowl about trie adjacent pasture lands, where they
commit great havoc among the cattle. The south
western end of the lake is intersected by a marshy
piece of ground, interspersed with stones, caUed the
Calzada, which forms a communication between the
two banks of the lake. . At the distance of about half a
league from the lake is a vUlage, whicri, under the
Spanish domination, was called Reyes. Adjacent to it
is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the 24th of
* Ninacaca is 12,8.53 feet, and Carhuamayo 1 3,087 feet above the sea level.
f It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna de Junin.

352 TRAVELS IN PERU.
August, 1824, was trie scene of a battle between the
Spanish forces, commanded by General Canterac, and
the insurgents, headed by Don Simon Bohvar. The
result of this battle had an important influence on trie
destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that treachery
in trie Spanish army threw trie victory into the hands
of trie insurgents. A few days prior to the battle
Bolivar is said to have received, from trie Spanish camp,
a letter in cypher, which he transmitted for explanation
to his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de Pasco. The
answer received from the minister was, triat trie letter
recommended Bolivar to attack the enemy without a
moment's delay, for that on the part of the Spaniards
the victory was insured to him. The bearer of the
letter is stiU living, and .he does not deny that he was
in the secret of the whole plot. The insurgents were
victorious, and in comrriemoration of their, triumph they
gave to the viUage of Reyes, and to trie wriole province,
the name of Junin, caUing them after the plain on
which the battle was fought.
From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight
leagues across a difficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet
containing only a- few huts. From thence, it is con
tinued three leagues further, through several narrow
Quebradas, and finally terminates in trie beautiful vaUey
of Tarma.
Many of the Indians in the neighbourhood of Cerro
de Pasco, especially those who dweU in the Puna, in the
direction of Cacas, infest the roads for the purpose of
plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks,

MURDERED TRAVELLERS. 353
where they he in wait for travellers, whom they severely
wound, and sometimes even kiU, by stones hurled from
their shngs. When great boyas occur in trie mines of
the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that it is not pru
dent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The soli
tary traveUer who seeks a nigrit's lodging in one of the
Puna huts, exposes himself to great peril ; for the host
not unfrequently assassinates his sleeping guest. Nor
is there mucri greater security in villages, such as Junin
and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of
three traveUers were found in the house of the Alcalde
of Junin, trie principal authority in the viUage. Trie
traveUers had sought shelter for the night, and were
inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known to
have been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disap
pear, and there is every reason to beheve they have
been murdered by trie Indians. Many of these Indians
are mine labourers, who, for their incorrigible turpitude,
have been banished from the Cerro, and who rive by
pillage. I wiU close this chapter witri a brief description of
four-and-twenty hours which I passed during a journey
in trie wildest part of the Puna region. ¦
On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the
night in the riut of a Puna shepherd, I awoke next
morning at day-break. The sun was just beginning to
cast a right tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of the
Cordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the
hut, which served the purpose of a chimney, there pene
trated a feeble light, just sufficient to show the misery
A A

354 TRAVELS IN PERU.
and poverty that prevailed in the interior of the habita
tion. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a
few hours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted
by cold and fatigue, and raising the cow-hide, whicri
closed trie doorway of the hut, I crept out to make
preparations for the continuance of my journey.
I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle
bags a small supply of food. Whilst I was thus engaged,
one of those fierce httle dogs which are domiciled in
every Indian hut, slily watched my movements ; and
though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the
night, yet he was only prevented, by the repeated
threats of his master, from making an attack upon me.
My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for my
night's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars ;
and having asked him to direct me on my way, I rode
off whilst he was expressing his gratitude, and his kind
wishes in the words, " Dios lo pague ! "
The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow
which had fallen during the night covered the ground
as far as the eye could reach. On my way I met an
old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating
flock moved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the
snow, and seeming impatient tiU the genial sun should
dispel the mist and dissolve the white covering which
overspread their scanty pasture. A little further on I
met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and
his dog were busily engaged in catching partridges,
destined to be sold on the following Sunday, in the
nearest village.

A PUNA SUNRISE. 355
My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed
witri rocks and swamps, which often obliged me to make
wide detours. The swamps (or as the natives call them,
Atolladeros,) are dangerous enemies to travellers in the
Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimes sink
into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of
the country it is not easy to discern the swamps, and
the ground often sinks beneath, the rider where he least
expects it. At length the sun began to disperse the
mist, and the snow graduaUy melted beneath his burn
ing rays. Inspired with new vigour, I took a survey of
the wild sohtude around me. I was now on one of the
level heigrits, about 14,000 feet above the sea. On both
sides arose the high Cordillera summits crowned with
eternal ice ; detacried peaks here and there towering to
the skies. Behind me lay, deep and deeper, trie dark
vaUeys of the lower mountain regions, which, with the
scarcely discernible Indian viUages, receded in the dis
tance, tiU they blended with the line of the horizon.
Before me stretched the immeasurable extent of the level
heights, at intervals broken by ridges of hills. It seemed
as, triougri here in the snow plains of the CordiUera,
Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here life and
death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal
struggle between being and annihilation.
How httle life had the sun yet wakened around me !
The dull yellow Puna grass, scarcely the length of one's
finger, blended its tint with the greenish hue of the
glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course,
how joyfully I greeted as old acquaintance the purple
A A 2

356 TRAVELS IN PERU.
gentiana and the brown calceolaria ! With what plea
sure I counted the yellow blossoms of the echinocactus !
and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus pictured in
my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests.
These cacti were growing amidst rushes and mosses
and syngeneses, which the frost had changed to a rusty
brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefied
atmosphere ; no fly or winged insect of any kind was
discernible. A beetle or a toad creeping from their
holes, or a lizard warming himself in trie sun, are all
that reward the search of the naturahst.
As I journeyed onward, animate rife awakened in
rich variety around me. Birds, few in species, but
numerous in individuals, everywhere met my view.
Herds of vicunas approached me with curious gaze,
and then on a sudden fled with the swiftness of the
wind. In the distance I observed stately groupes of
huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and then
passing on. The Puna stag {tarush), slowly advanced
from his lair in the mountain recesses, and fixed on me
his large black wondering eyes ; whilst the nimble rock
rabbits {viscachas), playfully disported and nibbled the
scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices.
I had wandered for some hours admiring the varie
ties of rife in this peculiar alpine region, when I stumbled,
against a dead mule. The poor animal had probably
sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by his
driver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence
startled three voracious condors, which were feeding on
the dead carcass. These kings of the air proudly shook

AN ATTACK OF VETA. 357
their crowned heads, and darted at me furious glances
with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their
giant wings, and in narrowing circles hovered- threat-
ingly above my head, whilst the third croaking fiercely,
kept guard over the booty. I cocked my gun in rea
diness for defence, and cautiously rode past the menacing
group, without the least desire of further disturbing
their banquet. These condors were the only hostile
animals I encountered in this part of the Puna.
It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had
ridden on a continuous though gradual ascent since sun
rise. My panting mule slackened his pace, and seemed
unwiUing to mount a rather steep ascent which we had
now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and
began walking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the
influence of the rarefied atmosphere, and I experienced
an oppressive sensation which I had never known before.
I stood stfil for a few moments to recover myself, and
then tried to advance ; but an indescribable oppression
overcame me. My heart throbbed audibly ; my breath
ing was short and interrupted. A world's weight
seemed to lie upon my chest ; my lips swelled and
burst ; the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way,
and blood flowed from them. In a few moments my
senses began to leave me. I could neither see, hear, nor
feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes ;
and I felt myself involved in that struggle between life
and death which, a short time before, I fancied I could
discern on the face of nature. Had aU the riches of
earth, or the glories of heaven awaited me a hundred

358 TRAVELS IN PERU.
feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand
towards them.
In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the
ground, until I felt sufficiently recovered to remount
my mule. One of the Puna storms was now gathering,
thunder and hghtning accompanied a heavy fall of
snow, which, very soon, lay a foot deep on the ground.
In a short time I discovered that I had missed
my way. Had I then known the Puna as weU as I
afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the
flight of birds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track
of a herd of vicufias, whicri led me directly into a swamp.
My mule sank, and was unable to extricate himself.
I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiously
alighted, and witri incredible difficulty I succeeded in
digging out with a dagger the mud in which the animal's
legs were firmly fixed, and at length I got him back to
a solid footing. After wandering about in various
directions, I at length recovered the right path, wriich
was marked by numerous skeletons protruding above
the snow. These were the remains of beasts of burthen,
which had perished on their journeys ; a welcome,
though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller.
The clouds now suddenly separated, and the blazing
right of the tropical sun glared dazzlingly on trie wlrite
plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyes stricken
with surumpe.
. Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by
the apprehension of blindness, I with great difficulty
pursued my way. My mule could scarcely wade through

A NIGHTS LODGING IN A CAVE. 359
the sward, which was becoming more and more thick ;
and night was advancing. I had lost all feehng in
my feet, my benumbed fingers could scarcely hold the
bridle, and I well knew that the nearest point at which
I could obtain the shelter of a human habitation was
eight German mfles distant. I was beginning to give
myself up for lost when I observed a cave beneath an
overhanging rock. Motrier Nature, in whose service I
had undertaken my long and perilous wanderings at that
critical juncture, provided for me a retreat, though in
one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave,
which protected me securely against the wind and the
snow. Having unsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my
saddle clothes and poncho. I tied trie animal to a stone,
and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with the little
grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied
my hunger with some roasted maize and cheese.
Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to
sleep ; but no sooner had I fallen into a slumber, than I
was awoke by a violent smarting in my eyes, occasioned
by the surumpe. There was no longer any hope of
sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of
morning appeared, I made an effort to open my eyes,
which were closed with coagulated blood On looking
around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. A
human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I
went in search of my mule, for I was eager to hurry
from this dismal spot ; but my misery was not yet at
an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground ; in
his ravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous

360 TRAVELS IN PERU.
garbancillo. What could I do ! In despair I turned
back to the cave.
The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays
diffused warmth over this frozen region. Somewhat
roused by the reviving light and rife around me, I began
to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply,
thought I, he may be one of my own race ; a traveUer
who has perished of cold and hunger. No. He was a
half-caste Indian, and many deadly wounds on his head
showed that he had died of the slings of Indian robbers,
who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed
the body in the cave.
I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then col
lecting some fuel, I kindled a fire and roasted the little
animal, which afforded me a no very savoury breakfast.
I then waited patiently in the hope that some timely
help would deliver me from my dreary situation.
It was about noon. I rieard a monotonous sriort cry.
With joy I recognised the well-known sound. I chmbed
up the nearest rock, and looking down into a hoUow, I
perceived two Indians whom I had seen the day before,
driving their Uamas to the nearest mine works. I pre
vailed on them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me
have one of their llamas to carry my luggage, and
having strewed a few handfuls of earth on the corpse
of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of the
incidents above described was the Cave of Lefias, in the
Altos which lead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara.

CHAPTER XIII.
The Sierra/ — Its Climate and Productions — Inhabitants — Trade — Eggs Circu
lated as Money — Mestizos in the Sierra — Their Idleness and Love of
Gaming and Betting — Agriculture — The Quinua Plant, a substitute for
Potatoes — Growth of Vegetables and Fruits in the Sierra — Rural Festivals
at the Seasons of Sowing and Reaping — Skill of the Indians in various
Handicrafts — • Excess of Brandy-Drinking — Chicha — Disgusting mode of
making it — Festivals of Saints — Dances and Bull Fights — Celebration
of Christmas-Day, New-Year's-Day, Palm-Sunday, and Good-Friday —
Contributions levied on the Indians — Tardy and Irregular Transmission of
Letters — Trade in Mules — General Style of Building in the Towns and
Villages of the Sierra — Ceja de la Montana.
The Peruvian highlands, or level heights, described in
a previous chapter under the designation of the Puna,
are intersected by numerous vaUeys situated several
thousand feet lower than the level heights, from which
they totaUy differ in criaracter and aspect. These val
leys are called the Sierra. Trie inhabitants of Lima
usuaUy comprehend under the term Sierra, the whole
interior of Peru, and every Indian who is not an inha
bitant of the coast, or of the forest regions, is called by
triem a Serrano. But strictly speaking, the Sierra
includes only the valleys between the Cordillera and the
Andes, and I shaU here use the term in its more limited
and proper sense.
In the Sierra there are only two seasons throughout
the year. The winter or rainy season commences in
October ; but the rains are neither so heavy nor so

362 TRAVELS IN PERU.
continuous as in the forest districts. The faUs of rain
seldom last longer than two or three days in succession.
Storms of thunder and lightning are very frequent in
the Sierra; they are not accompanied by snow as in
the Puna, but often by hail. The thermometer never falls
below + 4° R., and during trie daytime it is on the
average at + 11° R. In April the summer season sets
in, bringing with it an uninterrupted succession of warm
bright days. The nigrits in summer are colder than in
winter. In a summer night the thermometer will some
times fall below freezing point, and the cold is often
very severe. About noon the heat is oppressive, though
the average heat of the day does not exceed 13, 9° R.
During the summer season trie horizon is frequently
obscured by heavy dark clouds, which seldom break
over the -valleys, but continue frowning over the hills.
The natives caU these portentous clouds Misti Manchari
(terror of the whites),* because the inhabitants of the
coast always regard them as indicative of stormy
weather. The climate of trie Sierra favours trie natural fruit-
fulness of trie soil, which richly repays the labour of the
husbandman ; but plants, pecuhar to the warm tropical
regions, do not thrive well here. Prior to the European
emigration to Peru, only maize, quinua {Chenopodium
Quinoa, L.), and a few tuberous roots were grown in
trie Sierra ; but since the Spanish conquest, the Euro
pean cereals, lucerne, and various kinds of vegetables
* The Indians apply the designation Misti, meaning Mestizo, to all persons
except Indians or Negroes, whether they be Europeans or White Creoles.

THE SIERRA AND THE SERRANOS. 363
are cultivated with perfect success. But the eye of the
traveUer seeks in vain for those stately forests which
clothe trie mountainous districts of Europe ; trie barren
acclivities afford nurture only for trie agave-tree, and
some very large species of cactus. Groups of wiUow-
trees {Salix Humboldtii), wriicri attain the heigrit of
about twenty or twenty-five feet, together with the
quinua-tree, form here and there httle thickets on the
banks of rivers.
These regions, so favoured by nature, have from the
earliest period been the chosen dwelling-places of the
Peruvians ; and therefore in the Sierra, which measured
by its superficies, is not of very great extent, the popu
lation has increased more than in any other part of
Peru. The vaUeys already contain numerous towns,
villages, and hamlets, which wOuld rise in importance,
if they riad greater facility of communication one with
another. But they are surrounded on aU sides by
mountains, wriicri can be crossed only by circuitous and
dangerous routes. The few accessible pathways are
alternately up rugged ascents, and down steep dech
vities ; or winding through narrow ravines, nearly choked
up by broken fragments of rock, they lead to the dreary
and barren level heights.
The Serranos, or inhabitants of the Sierra, especially
those who dweU in the smaller villages, are chiefly
Indians. In the towns and larger villages, the mestizos
are numerous. The whites are very thinly scattered
over the Sierra ; but many of the mestizos are very
anxious to be thought white Creoles. A rich serrano,

364 TRAVELS IN PERU.
who bears in his features the stamp of his Indian descent,
will frequently try to pass himself off to a foreigner for
an old Spaniard. Here, even more than on the coast,
the mestizo is ambitious to rank himself on a level with
the white, whilst he affects to regard the Indian as an
inferior being.
The few Spaniards who reside in the Sierra are men
who have served in the Spanish army, and who, at the
close of the war of independence, settled in that part
of Peru. Many of them keep shops in the towns and
viUages, and others, by advantageous marriages, have
become the possessors of haciendas, i Those who have
enriched themselves in this way are remarkable alike
for ignorance and pride, and give themselves the most
ludicrous airs of assumed dignity. The Creoles are the
principal dealers in articles of European commerce.
They journey to Lima twice or thrice a-year to make
their purchases, which consist in white and printed
calicoes, woollen cloths, hard-wares, leather, soap, wax,
and indigo. In the Sierra,1 indigo is a very considerable
article of traffic : the Indians use a great quantity of it
for dyeing their clothes ; blue being their favourite
colour. Wax is also in great demand ; for in the reh
gious ceremonies, whicri are almost of daily occurrence,
a vast quantity of tapers are consumed. Trie principal
articles of traffic produced by trie natives are wooUen
ponchos and blankets, unspun coloured wool,, saddle
cloths, stirrups and horse shoes. Trie last-named
articles are purchased chiefly by the Arrieros of trie
coast. It may seem strange that stores of horse shoes

BRANDY-DRINKING IN THE SIERRA. 365
should be kept ready made ; but so it is ; for though in
Europe we make the shoe to fit the hoof, yet in Peru it
is the practice to cut trie hoof to fit the shoe. On Yea
brandy more money is expended than on every other
article of trade combined. The quantity of that spirit
annually transported to the Sierra exceeds 'belief. To
see the Indians .on Sundays and festival days thronging
to trie sriops of the spirit dealers, with their jugs and
bottles, one might fairly presume that more brandy
is drunk in the Sierra in one day, trian in many of
trie towns of Europe in a year. In some parts — for
example, in trie province of Jauja — hens' eggs are circu
lated as smaU coin, forty-eight or fifty being counted for
a , doUar. In the market-place and in the shops the
Indians make most of their purchases with this brittle
sort of money : one will give two or three eggs for -
brandy, another for indigo, and a third for cigars.
These eggs are packed in boxes by trie shop-keepers,
and sent to Lima. From Jauja alone, several thousand
loads of eggs are annuaUy forwarded to the capital. j
Most of the mestizos possess little estates (chacras),
the produce of which, consisting of grain, vegetables
and clover, is disposed of in the towns of the Sierra, or
in the. mining districts of the Puna. As the profits
arising from the chacras usually suffice to provide their
owners with a comfortable subsistence, the mestizos
pass their lives in idleness and pleasure. They spend
the chief portion of the day in the true Spanish style,
gossiping in groups in the streets, and wrapped in
their mantles. When the state of the weather does

366 TRAVELS IN PERU.
not admit of this sort of out-door lounging the time is
passed in gaming or cock-fighting. This latter diver
sion is no less in favour in the Sierra than in Lima.
Such enormous bets are laid at these cock-fights, that
the losses frequently entail ruin on persons of tolerably
good fortune.
The agriculture of the Sierra is whoUy consigned to
trie Indians, wrio either cultivate their own lands, or for
very poor wages labour for the mestizos. In September
the ground is ploughed and prepared for sowing, wriicri
operation is performed in October, and trie reaping
takes place in April or May. By this means the seed
is left in the ground throughout all the rainy season.
In February violent frost frequently comes on during
the night, by whicri the seed is so much injured that
the harvest fails, and the scarcity occasions severe
suffering and even famine. When the cold clear nigrits
create apprehensions of damage to the seed, the people
form themselves into processions, and go through the
viUages and towns imploring trie mercy of Heaven. In
the dead of the night it is no unusual tiring to be
aroused by trie ringing of bells. The inhabitants trien
get up and hurry to church, where the solemn proces
sions are formed. Penitents clothed in sackcloth go
through the streets, scourging themselves ; and trie
Indians, in their native language, utter prayers and
offer up vows to Heaven. For the space of some riours
an incessant movement and agitation pervade trie streets,
and when day begins to dawn the people return to their
homes, trembling between hope and fear. The fate of

THE QUINUA PLANT. 367
the Indians, when their harvest fails them, is indeed
truly miserable, for, abstemious as they are, they can
scarcely procure wherewith to satisfy their hunger. In
the year 1840, which was a period of scarcity, I saw
the starving Indian children roaming about the fields,
and eating trie grass like cattle.
Maize is trie species of grain most extensively culti
vated in trie Sierra : it is of exceUent quality, though
smaUer than that grown on the coast. Wheat, though
it thrives weU, is cultivated only in a very limited quan
tity, and the bread made from it is exceedingly bad.
The other species of European grain, barley excepted,
are unknown to trie Serranos. To compensate for the
want of them, they havef trie quinua {Chenopodium
Quinoa, L.), which is at once a nutritious, wholesome,
and pleasant article of food. The leaves of this plant,
before it attains fuU maturity, are eaten like spinach ;
but it is the seeds which are most generally used
as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but
most frequently boiled in milk or in broth, and some
times cooked with cheese and Spanish pepper. The
dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel. Experi
ments in the cultivation of this plant have been tried in
some parts of Germany, and with considerable success.
It would appear, however, that its flavour is not much
liked ; a circumstance rather surprising to the traveUer
who has tasted it in Peru, where it is regarded in the
light of a dehcacy. It were to be wished that the
general cultivation of the quinua could be introduced
througriout Europe ; for during the prevalence of the

368 TRAVELS IN PERU.
potato disease this plant would be found of the greatest
utility. It is a well-known fact that potatoes and teaj
two articles now in such universal use, were not liked
on their first introduction into Europe. The quinua
plant, which yields a wholesome article of food, would
thrive perfectly in our hemisphere, and, though in its
hitherto hmited trial it has not found favour, there is no
reason to conclude triat it may not at a future time
become an object of general consumption.
Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfuUy culti
vated in trie Sierra ; viz., the potato, the uUuco, the oca,
and the mashua. Of potatoes there are several varie
ties, and all grow in perfection. Trie uUuco {Tropceolum
tuberosum) is smaller than the potato, and is very various
in its form, being either round, oblong, straight, or
curved. The skin is thin, and of a reddish-yeUow
colour, and the inside is green. When simply boiled in
water it is insipid, but is very savoury when cooked as
a picante. The oca {Oxalis tuber osa) is an oval-shaped
root ; the skin pale red, and the inside white. It is
watery, and has a sweetish taste; for which reason it is
much liked by the Peruvians. The mashua is the root
of a plant as yet unknown to botanists. It is cultivated
and cooked in the same manner as those already
described. In form, however, it differs from them all.
It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lower end termi
nates in a fibrous point. It is watery, and insipid to the
taste ; but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos.
As the mashua roots will not keep, they are not trans
ported from the places in which they are grown, and,

SIERRA FRUITS. 369
therefore, are not known in Lima. The Indians use
the mashua as a medicine : they ' consider it an effi
cacious remedy in cases of dropsy, indigestion, and
dysentery. The vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive luxuriantly
in the warm Sierra vaUeys ; yet, but few of them have
been transplanted thither, and those few are but little
esteemed. Some of the cabbage and salad species,
together with onions, garlic, and several kinds of pulse,
are all triat are cultivated. It is remarkable that in
these regions no indigenous fruit-trees are to be seen.
The only fruit really belonging to the Sierra is the Tuna.
In some of the sheltered ravines, or, as they are called,
Quebradas, oranges, lemons, and granadillas flourish at
the height of 10,000 feet above sea level. The fruits
which have been transplanted from Europe are for the
most part indifferent, as not the least care is bestowed
on trieir cultivation. Trie effect of triis neglect is par
ticularly obvious in apples, pears, and damson-plums.
Cherries and chesnuts are unknown in these parts; but
on the other hand, peacries and apricots {duraznos) grow
in amazing abundance, and many very fine species are
found, especially in the southern provinces. Excursions
to the duraznales (apricot gardens), in the months of
April and May, to eat the ripe fruit fresh plucked from
the trees, are among the most favourite recreations of
the Serranos. Some of the Sierra districts are cele
brated througriout Peru for their abundance of fruit.
This luxuriance is particularly remarkable in several of
the deep vaUeys, for instance, in Huantaj but, strictly
BB

370 TRAVELS IN PERU.
speaking, these deep valleys partake less of the character
of the Sierra than of the higher forest regions.
The periods of sowing and reaping are celebrated by
the Indians with merry-making, a custom which has
descended from the time of trie Incas, when those
periods corresponded with the two great divisions of the
year. Even a scanty harvest, an event of frequent
occurrence, occasions no interruption to these rustic
festivals. Bands of music, consisting of trumpets, fiddles,
and flutes, play whilst the corn is cut down, and
during their work the labourers freely regale themselves
with criicha, huge barrels of which are placed for their
unrestrained use. The consequence is, that they are
almost continually intoxicated ; and yet whilst in this
state it is no unusual thing to see them dancing with
heavy loads of sheaves on their heads. Their dinner is
cooked in the fields, in large pots and kettles, and to par
take of it they all sit down on the ground in rows, one
behind another. The wheat and barley when cut are
spread out in little heaps on the ground, and, instead of
thrashing, the grain is pressed out of the ears by the
tramping of horses, the animals being driven round and
round in a circle. As soon as this process is ended, the
agents of the Government and the priests make their
appearance to claim the tithes.
In the larger viUages and towns of the Sierra, the
Indians frequently employ themselves in handicrafts, in
some of which they attain a high degree of perfection,
for they are not wanting either in talent or in mecha
nical dexterity. As goldsmiths they are remarkably

INDIAN MANUFACTURES AND ART. 371
skilful, and in this branch of industry they produce
work which, for taste and exquisite finish, cannot be
excelled in the capitals of Europe. The various kinds
of vessels and figures of sflver wire {filigranas), made
by the cholos in Ayacucho, have always been favourite
articles of ornament in Spain. The Indians of Jauja
are very skilful in working iron, and the objects of their
workmanship are much esteemed throughout Peru. Of
leather also they make various things in very beautiful
style ; and saddle-cloths, bridles, &c. of their manu
facture are much more elegant and infinitely cheaper
than triose made in Lima. In Cuzco and the adjacent
provinces many of trie Indians evince considerable talent
in ofl-painting. Their productions in this way are, of
course, far from being master-pieces ; but when we look
on the paintings which decorate their churches, and
reflect that the artists have been shut out from the
advantages of education and study ; and moreover,
when we consider the coarse materials with which the
pictures riave been painted, it must be acknowledged
that they indicate a degree of talent, which, if duly cul
tivated, would soar far above mediocrity. In Tarma
and its neighbourhood the natives weave an exquisitely
fine description of woollen cloth. They make ponchos
of vicufia wool, which sell for 100 or 120 dollars each,
and which are equal to the finest European clotri. The
beauty of these Indian textures is truly wonderful, con
sidering the rude process of weaving practised by the
natives. They work various colours, figures, and inscrip
tions in the cloth, and do all this with a rapidity which
B b 2

372 TRAVELS IN PERU.
equals the operations of ordinary looms. The most
valuable textures they weave are those "produced from
the wool of the vicuna and the alpaco. They likewise
make very fine textures of cotton and silk. It is curious
that the Indians of each province have some particular
branch of industry to which they exclusively apply them
selves, to the neglect of aU others.
Trie Serranos are a very social people. In the towns
they keep up a continual round of evening parties, hi
which singing and dancing are favourite arriusemerits ;
but on these occasions they indulge in brandy-drinking to
a terrible excess." As soon as a party is assembled, bottles
and glasses are introduced, and each individual, ladies as
well as gentlemen, drinks to the health of the company.
For a party of thirty or more persons, not more than
three or four glasses are brought in, so that one glass is
passed repeatedly from hand to hand, and from inouth
to mouth. The quantity of brandy drunk at one of the
evening parties called in the Sierra Jaranas, is almost
incredible. According to my observation, I should say
that a bottle to each individual, ladies included, is a fair
average estimate, the bottles being of the size of those
used in Europe for claret. In the year 1839, whilst I
was residing for a time in one of the largest towns of
the Sierra, a ball was given in honour of the Chilian
General Bulnes : on that occasion the brandy flowed in
such quantities, that, when morning came, some members
of the company were found lying on the floor of the
baU-room in a state of intoxication. These facts natu
rally create an impression very unfavourable to the

.CHICHA MASCADA. 373
inhabitants of the Sierra ; but a due allowance must be
made for the want of education and the force of habit
on trie part of those who fall into these excesses. These
people possess so many excellent moral qualities, that it
would be unjust to condemn them solely on account of
these orgies. Trie Serrano is far from being addicted to
habitual drunkenness, notwithstanding his intemperate
use of strong drinks amidst trie excitement of company.
But if the vice of excessive drinking be occasionally
indulged in among the better class of people of the
Sierra, it is much more frequent among the Indian
inhabitants. Every one of their often-recurring fes
tivals is celebrated by a drinking bout, at which enor
mous quantities of brandy and chicha are consumed.
In some districts of the Sierra the chicria is prepared in
a pecuhar and very disgusting manner by the Indians.
Instead of crushing the jora (dried maizeTgrain) between
two stones, which is the usual method, the Indians
bruise it with their teeth. For this purpose a group
of men and women range themselves in a circle round a
heap of jora; each gathers up a handful, chews it, and
then ejects it from the mouth into a vessel allotted for
its reception. This mass, after being boiled in water,
and left to ferment, is the much-admired chicha mascada,
(that is to say, chewed chicha), the flavour of which is
said to surpass that of the same beverage made in any
other way. But they who riave been eye-witnesses of
the disgusting process, and who bear in mind various
other preparations of Indian cookery in which the
teeth perform a part, require some fortitude ere they

374 TRAVELS IN PERU.
yield to trie pressing invitation of the hospitable Serrano,
and taste the proffered nectar.
When it is wished to make the chicha particularly
strong and well flavoured, it is poured into an earthen
jar along, with several pounds of beef. This jar is made
perfectly air-tight, and buried several feet deep in the
ground, where it is left for the space of several years.
On the birth of a child it is customary to bury a botija
fuU of chicha, which, on the marriage of the same child, is
opened and drunk. This chicha has a very agreeable
flavour, but is so exceedingly potent, that a single glass
of it is sufficient to intoxicate a practised chicria-drinker,
or, as they say in the country, a chichero.
Every viUage in the Sierra has its own tutelary saint,
whose festival is celebrated with great solemnity. BuU-
fights and dances constitute the principal diversions on
these occasions. These dances are relics of trie Raymi
or monthly dances, by wriicri trie Incas used to mark
the divisions of time ; and they are among the most
interesting customs peculiar to these parts of Peru.
Trie dancers wear dresses similar to those worn by the
ancient Peruvians when they took part in the Raymi.
Trieir faces and arms are painted in various colours,
and triey wear feather caps and feather ponchos. They
have' bracelets and anklets, and triey are armed witri
clubs, wooden swords, and bows and arrows. Trieir
music, too, is also similar to that of their forefatriers.
Their instruments consist of a sort of pipe or flute made
of reed, and a drum composed simply of a hoop with a
skin stretched upon it. To the inharmonious sound of

AMUSEMENTS AND FESTIVALS. 375
these instruments, accompanying monotonous. Quichua
songs, the dances commence with those solemn move
ments with which the Incas used to worship the sun :
they then suddenly assume a more joyous character, and
at last change to the wild war-dance, in which the
mimic contest, stimulated by copious libations of chicria,
frequently ends in a real fight. In the larger towns,
where the Mestizo portion of the population pre
dominates, these dances are discouraged, and in course
of time they will probably be entirely discontinued,
though they are very scrupulously adhered to by the
Indians. On festival days, 'buU-figrits constitute the most
favourite popular diversion. In the Sierra this barba
rous sport is conducted with even more recklessness and
cruelty than in the Corridas of Lima. Every occasion
on whicri an entertainment of triis sort takes place is
attended with loss of life, and sometimes the sacrifice
both of men and horses is very considerable. During
my residence in Jauja, fourteen Indians and nineteen
horses were kflled or seriously wounded in a buU-fight ;
yet catastrophes of this kind appear to make no im
pression on trie- people.
Some of trie church festivals are celebrated by the
Indians of the Sierra, in a manner which imparts a
pecuhar colouring to trie rehgious solemnities. In trie
midnigrit mass on Criristmas Eve, they imitate in the
churches the sounds made by various animals. The
singing of birds, the crowing of cocks, the braying of
asses, trie bleating of sheep, &c, are simulated so

376 TRAVELS IN PERU.
perfectly, that a stranger is inchned to believe that the
animals have assembled in the temple to participate in
the solemnity. At the termination of the mass, troops
of women perambulate trie streets, during the remainder
of the night. Their long black hair flows loosely over
their bare shoulders; and in their hands they carry
poles with long fluttering strips of paper fixed to the
ends of them. They occasionally dance and sing pecu
liarly beautiful melodies, accompanied by a harp, a fiddle,
and a flute ; and they mark the measure of the music by
the movement of their poles.
The celebration of Christmas-day is marked by the
appearance of what are termed the Negritos. These
are Indians, witri their faces concealed by hideous
negro masks. Their dress consists of a loose red robe,
richly wrought with gold and silver thread, white pan
taloons, and their hats are adorned with waving hlack
feathers. In their hands they carry gourd bottles,
painted in various gay colours, and containing dried
seeds. Whilst they sing, the Negritos shake these
gourds, and mark the time by the rattling of the dried
seeds. Triey perform the dances of the Guinea negroes,
and imitate the attitudes and language of a race which
they hold in abhorrence and contempt. For the space
of three days and nights these negritos parade the
streets, entering the houses and demanding chicha and
brandy, with which the inhabitants are glad to supply
them, to avoid violence and insult.
On New Year's Day other groups of mummers,
called Corcobados, perambulate the streets. They are

THE C0RC0BAD0S. 377
enveloped in cloaks of coarse grey wooUen cloth, their
head-gear consists of an old vicufia hat, with a horse's
tafl dangling behind. Their features are disguised by
ludicrous masks with long beards ; and, bestriding long-
sticks or poles, they move about accompanied by bur-:
lesque music. Every remarkable incident that has "
occurred in trie families of the town during the course
of the year, is made trie subject of a song in the
Quichua language ; and these songs are sung' in the
streets by the Corcobados. Matrimonial quarrels are
favourite subjects, and are always painted with high
comic effect in these satirical songs. The Corcobados
go about for two days ; and triey usually wind up
their performances by drinking and fighting. . When
two groups of these Corcobados meet together, and
trie one party assails with ridicule anything which the
other is disposed to defend, a terrible affray usually
ensues, and the sticks which riave served as hobby
horses, are converted into weapons of attack.
In order to facilitate the conversion of .the idolatrous
Indians, the Spanish monks who accompanied Pizarro's
army, sought to render the Criristian religion as attrac
tive as possible in the eyes of the heathen aborigines
of Peru. With this view they conceived the idea of
dramatising certain scenes in the rife of Christ, and
having them represented in the churches. In the
larger towns these performances riave long since been
discontinued, but triey are still kept up in most of trie
viUages of the Sierra, indeed the efforts made by
enlightened ecclesiastics for their suppression, have

378 TRAVELS IN PERU.
been met with violent opposition on the part of the
Indians. On Palm Sunday, an image of the Saviour seated on
an ass is paraded about the principal streets of the
town or viUage. The Indians strew twigs of palm over
trie animal, and contend one witri another for the
honour of throwing their ponchos down on the ground,
in order that the ass may walk over them. The animal
employed in this ceremony is, when very young, singled
out for the purpose, and is never suffered to carry any
burthen save the holy image. He is fed by the people,
and at every door at wriicri he stops, the inmates of the
house pamper riim up witri trie best fodder they can
procure. The ass is looked upon as something almost
sacred, and is never named by any other appeUation
than the Burro de Nuestro SeHor (our Lord's ass). In
some villages I have seen these animals so fat that they
were scarcely able to walk.
Good Friday is solemnised in a manner the effect of
which, to the unprejudiced foreigner, is partly burlesque
and partly seriously impressive. From trie early dawn
of morning the church is thronged with Indians, who
spend the day in fasting and prayer. At two in the
afternoon a large image of the Saviour is brought from
trie sacristy and laid down in front of the altar. Imme
diately all the persons in the church rush forward with
pieces of cotton to touch the wounds. This gives rise
to a struggle, in which angry words and blows are
interchanged ; in short, there ensues a disgraceful scene
of uproar, which is only checked by the interposition of

SOLEMNIZATION OF GOOD FRIDAY. 379
one of the priests. Order being restored, the sacred
image is fixed on the cross by three very large silver
nails, and trie riead is encircled by a rich silver crown.
On each side are the crosses of the two thieves. Having
gaped at this spectacle to their hearts' content, the
cholos retire from the church. At eight in the evening
they reassemble to witness the solemn ceremony of
taking down trie Saviour from trie cross. Trie church
is then brilliantly righted up. At the foot of the cross
stand four white-robed priests, caUed los Santos Varones
(the holy men), wriose office it is to take down the
image. At a little distance from them, on a sort of
stage or platform, stands a figure representing the Virgin
Mary. This figure is dressed in black, with a white
cap on its riead. A priest, in a long discourse, explains
trie scene to trie assembled people, and at the close of
the address, turning to trie Santos Varones, he says,
" Ye holy men, ascend trie ladders of trie cross, and
bring down trie body of trie Redeemer !" Two of the
Santos Varones mount with hammers in trieir hands,
and the priest then says, " Ye, holy man, on the right
of the Saviour, strike the first blow on the nail of trie
riand, and take it out!" The command is obeyed,
and no sooner is the stroke of trie hammer heard
than deep groans and sounds of anguisri resound
through the churcri ; whilst the cry of " Misericordia !
misericordia !" repeated by a thousand imploring
voices, produces an indescribable sensation of awe and
melancholy. The nafl is handed to one of the priests
standing at the foot of the altar, who transfers it to

380 TRAVELS IN PERU.
another, and this one in his turn presents it to the
figure of the Virgin. To that figure the priest then
turns and addresses himself, saying : " Thou afflicted
mother, approach and receive the nail which pierced
trie right hand of thy rioly Son ! " The priest steps for
ward a few paces, and the figure, by some concealed
mechanism, advances to meet riim, receives the nafl
with both hands, lays it on a silver plate, dries its eyes,
and then returns to its place in trie middle of trie plat
form. The same ceremony is repeated when the two
other nails are taken out. Throughout the whole per
formance of triese solemnities, an uninterrupted groaning
arid howling is kept up by the Indians, who at every
stroke of the hammer raise their cries of Misericordia !
These sounds of anguish reach their chmax when the
priest consigns the body of the Saviour to the charge
of the Virgin. The image is laid in a coffin tastefully
adorned with flowers, which, together witri the figure
of the Virgin Mary, is paraded through the streets.
Whilst this nocturnal procession, lighted by thousands
of wax tapers, is making trie circuit of trie town, a party
of Indians busy themselves in erecting before the church
door twelve arches decorated with flowers. Between
every two of the arches they lay flowers on the ground,
arranging them in various figures and designs. These
flower-carpets are singularly ingenious and pretty. Each
One is the work of two cholos, neither of whom seems to
bestow any attention to what his comrade is doing ; and
yet, with a wonderful harmony of operation, they create
the most tasteful designs — arabesques, animals, and

PRIESTLY KNAVERY. 381
landscapes, which grow, as it were by magic, under their
hands. Whilst I was in Tarma, I was at once interested
and astonished to observe on one of these flower-carpets
the figure of the' Austrian double eagle. On inquiry I
learned from an Indian that it had been copied from
the quicksflver jars, exported from Idria to Peru. On
the return of the procession to the church, a hymn, with
harp accompaniment, is sung to the Virgin, as the figure
is carried under the arches of flowers. The bier of trie
Saviour is trien deposited in trie church, where it is
watched throughout the nigrit.
On trie foUowing morning, at four o'clock, trie cere-x
mony of hanging Judas takes place in front of the
church. A figure of Judas, the size of rife, is filled with
squibs and crackers, and is frequently made to bear a
resemblance to some obnoxious inhabitant of the place.
After the match is applied to the combustible figure,
the cholos dance around it, and exult in trie blowing up
of trieir enemy.
In trie Sierra, as weU as on the coast, the priests are
usually trie tyrants ratrier than the guardians of trieir
flocks ; and they would frequently be the objects of
hatred and vengeance but for the deep-rooted and
almost idolatrous reverence which the Indians cherish
for priestcraft. It is disgusting to see the Peruvian
priests, who usually treat the Indians like brutes,
behaving witri the most degrading servility wrien they
want to get money from them. The love of the Indians
for strong drinks is a vice which the priests turn to
their own advantage. For the sake of the fees they

382 TRAVELS IN PERU.
frequently order religious festivals, which are joyfully
hailed by the Indians, because they never fail to end in
drinking bouts.
Added to the ill treatment of trie priests, the Indians
are most unjustly oppressed by the civil authorities. In
the frequent movements of troops from one place to
another, they are exposed to great losses and vexations.
They are compeUed to perform the hardest duties with
out payment, and often the produce of their fields is laid
under contribution, or their riorses and mules are pressed
into the service of the mihtary. When inteUigence is
received of the march of a battalion, trie natives convey
their cattle to some remote place of concealment in the
mountains, for they seldom recover possession of them
if once they faU into the hands of the soldiery.
Every fortnigrit a mail is despatched with letters from
Lima to Tarma, Jauja, Huancavehca, Ayacucha, Cuzco,
and into Bolivia ; another proceeds to the northern pro
vinces ; a third to Arequipa and the southern provinces ;
and every week one is despatched to Cerro de Pasco.
In Lima, the letter-bag is consigned to the charge of an
Indian, who conveys it on the back of a mule to the
next station,* where it is received by another Indian ;
and in this manner, handed from cholo to cholo, the
letter-bag traverses the whole of its destined route, un
accompanied by an official courier. As soon as the
mail arrives at a station, a flag is displayed at the house
of the post-master, to intimate to those who expect let
ters that they may receive them ; for they are not sent
* The distance from one station to another varies from six to twelve miles.

TRANSMISSION OF LETTERS. 383
round to the persons to whom they are addressed, and
it is sometimes even a favour to get them three or four
days after their arrival. The Peruvian post is as tardy
as it is ill regulated. On one of my journeys, I started
from Lima two days after the departure of the mail.
On trie road I overtook and passed trie Indian who had
criarge of the letters, and, without hurrying myself, I
arrived in Tarma a day and a half before him. Ascend
ing the CordiUera, I once met an Indian very leisurely
driving Iris ass before him with the mail-bag fastened to
its back. Between the towns which do not he in the
regular hne of route, there is no post-office communica
tion ; for example, between Pasco and Caxamarca, or
between Pasco and Tarma, or Jauja; and when it is
wished to despatch letters from one to another of these
towns, private messengers must be employed. The con
sequence is, that business, whicri in Europe would be
conducted through the medium of correspondence, can
be arranged only by personal communication in Peru.
Travelling is difficult, but not very expensive, as every
one possesses riorses or mules.
Trie best mules employed in the Sierra are obtained
from the province of Tucuman in Buenos Ayres. For
merly the arrieros used annuaUy to bring droves of
several thousand mules through Bolivia and the Peru
vian Sierra, selhng as many as they could on the way,
and taking to Cerro de Pasco those that remained
unsold. During the Spanish domination, the mule trade
was in the hands of the Government, to whose agents it
afforded ample opportunity for the exercise of injustice

384 TRAVELS IN PERU.-
and extortion. It was one of the most oppressive of the
repartimientos* Every Indian was compelled to pur
chase a mule, and was not aUowed even the privilege
of choosing the animal. The mules were distributed by
the authorities, and were tied to the doors of the houses
for whose occupants they were destined. After the
distribution of the mules, a coUectof went round to
receive the payment. During the war in Buenos Ayres
the traffic in mules suffered very considerably. For the
space of twelve years not a mule had been brought from
that part of South America to Peru, when in 1840 trie
Tucumanians revisited the Sierra with their droves of
mules. They were joyfully welcomed by the Serranos,
who gave good prices for the animals, and since then
the traffic has begun to revive.
In tracing the characteristic features of the Sierra, I
have as far as possible confined myself to generalities,
and I wiU not now weary the reader by entering upon
a minute description of particular towns and villages.
All are built pretty nearly after one model. Trie large
quadrangular Plaza is inclosed on three of its sides with
buildings, among whicri triere is always the Government
house {cabildo), and the public jail; the fourth side is
occupied by a church. From this Plaza run in straight
lines eight streets, more or less broad, and triese streets
are crossed at right angles by others ; all presenting the
same uniformity as in Lima. The houses are roomy,
surrounded by court-yards, and consist of a ground-.
* Repartimientos (literally, distributions) were the compulsory sale of articles
by the provincial authorities.

BUILDINGS AND ROADS IN THE SIERRA. 385
floor and a story above, but very frequently of the
ground-floor only. The walls are of brick, and the
roofs are tiled. The churches are in very bad taste;
with the exception of a few in trie larger towns, which
have a good appearance externally, and are richly deco
rated within. Trie smaUer Indian viUages are poor and
dirty, and are built with little attention to regularity.
But even in triem the quadrangular Plaza is never
wanting, and at least four straight streets issue from it.
The Sierra is by far trie most populous part of Peru.
Trie banks of trie rivers flowing through the fertile
vaUeys are thickly clustered with viUages, which give a
peculiar charm to the landscape, doubly pleasing to
the eye of the traveUer wrio comes from the barren
parts of the country. The cultivated lands afford
evidence of progressive improvement, and it is easy to
imagine the flourishing condition to which this country
might arrive with increased population.
From the Sierra two separate roads lead to the east
ern dechvity of the Andes. One lies along the banks
of the mountain rivers, and the other passes over the
ridges of trie mountains. The first way is very difficult,
and' scarcely practicable, for in some parts the streams
flow through narrow ravines, bordered on each side by
perpendicular rocks, and occasionaUy their course is
hidden » amidst impenetrable forests. The other way,
across the mountains, leads again into the Puna region,
and from thence over the steep ridges of the Andes to
their barren summits. Descending from these summits,
we arrive on the sharp ridges of one of the many side
c c

.386 TRAVELS IN PERU.
branches of the Puna Cordillera, which run eastward.
The Peruvians call these sharp mountain ridges CuchiUas
(knives). After crossing the Andes, and descending a
few hundred feet lower, in the direction of trie east, trie
traveUer beholds a country totaUy different from that
wriicri he left on the western declivity of trie mountains.
On trie eastern side trie soil is ricrily covered witri vege
tation. From the cuchiUas trie road ascends to some
higher ridges, crowned with stunted trees and brush
wood, which gradually spreading upward, blend with
the high forests. These wooded ridges are called by
the natives Ceja de la MontaHa (the mist of the moun
tains). In these regions the chmate is generaUy more
mild than in the Sierra, for the mercury never faUs to
freezing point, and in the middle part of the day it
never rises so high as in the warm Sierra vaUeys.
Throughout the whole year the Ceja de la MontaHa is
overshadowed by thick mists, rising from the rivers in
the valleys. In the dry season these mists are absorbed
by the sun's rays, but in winter they float in triick clouds
over the hills, and discharge themselves in endless tor
rents of rain. The damp vapours have an injurious
effect on the health of the inhabitants of these districts,
which are, however, very thinly populated, as trie con
stant moisture unfits the soil for the cultivation of
anything except potatoes. The pure alpine aip of the
Puna is preferred by the Indians to the vapoury atmo
sphere of the Ceja.

CHAPTER XIV.
Road to the Primeval Forests — Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension Bridges — ¦
Vegetation — Hollow Passes — Zoology — The Montana^-Plantations — Inha
bitants — Trade in Peruvian Bark — Wandering Indians — Wild Indians or
Indios Bravos — Languages, Manners, and Customs of the Indios Bravos— ¦-
Dress — Warlike Weapons and Hunting Arms — Dwellings — Religion —
Physical formation of the Wild Indian Tribes — Animals of the Aboriginal
Forests — Mammalia— Hunting the Ounce — Birds — Amphibia — Poisonous
Serpents — Huaco — Insects — Plants.
Leaving Ceja de la Montafia, we wiU trace trie route to
trie aboriginal forests, which extend eastwardly from
the bases of the Andes. The whole plain is overspread
by a thick veil of mist, which does not disperse until
about noon, and then an undulating dark green canopy
clouds the vapoury atmosphere. A European, whose
heart throbs at the bare idea of one of those vast virgin
forests, gazes anxiously forward on trie boundless dist
ance, and finds the pace of his cautious mule too tardy
for his impatient hopes and wishes. He beholds in
perspective the goal of his long journey. Nature, in
aU her virginal freshness and grandeur, opens to his
astonished eyes, and he feels a sensation of delight he
never before experienced. Regardless of present toil
and danger, he sees only the pleasure to come. But he
is soon drawn back to cool reality, and is forcibly
reminded of trie trutri, that every enjoyment must be
c c 2

388 TRAVELS IN PERU.
earned by labour. The road is broken, narrow, and
steep ; over the woody sides of trie hills it is easily
passable ; but as soon as it begins to descend, it pre
sents all those difficulties which have been interestingly
described by the early travellers in Peru. Trie scanty
population of the surrounding districts, the native list-
lessness of trie Indians, and trieir indifference to the
conveniences of life, are obstacles to trie making of
roads whicri might be passable without difficulty and
danger. However, where nature from the state of the
country has compelled man to establish a communication,
it is executed in the most rude and unsatisfactory man
ner. A most decided proof of this is apparent in the
bridges caUed barbacoas, whicri are constructed where the
way is through a derumbo, or a smaU narrow mountain-
pass, or where there .. is an obstruction caused by a rock
whicri cannot be passed circuitously. Trie barbacoas
are constructed in trie foUowing manner. Stakes from
triree to three and a half feet long are driven into the
ground, or into the crevices of rocks. Over the ends of
these stakes are fastened strong branches of trees, the
interstices are fiUed up with mud, and trie wriole is
covered by a sort of matting composed of plaited
branches and reeds. If the ground admits of it, which
is seldom the case, a pile of stones is built up beneath
the barbacoa, extending to at least one-half its breadth.
When it is considered that there is, probably, on the one
side of this bridge, a rock inclining at a very acute angle,
or an almost perpendicular dechvity of a hill of loose
earth, and that on the other side there yawns a deep

BARBACOAS. 389
abyss against which there is not the least protection, the
traveUer may weU be pardoned if he shudders as he
passes over the creaking and shaking barbacoa. These
fragile bridges are often so much worn, that the feet of
trie mules slip through the layers of mud and reeds,
and whilst making efforts to disengage themselves, the
animals faU over the edge of the barbacoa, and are
hurled into the chasm below, dragging down the crazy
structure along with them. In consequence of these
accidents, the way is often for weeks, or even months,
impassable. In the construction of these rude bridges, I observed
that the Indians, in their simplicity, always faithfully
copy their great instructress, nature. The majority of
the plants growing in these regions belong, if I may use
trie expression, to an aerial vegetation. The small,
gnarled, low-branched trees, have often scarcely one-half
of their roots in the earth : the other half spreads over
the surface of the soil ; then winding round the roots
or branches of some neighbouring plant, fastens on it,
and intimately uniting witri it, forms a kind of sus-i
pension bridge, over which the intertwining of numerous
luxuriant climbing plants makes a strong, impenetrable
network. AU the trees and shrubs are covered with
innumerable parasites, which, in the higher regions, are
met with in their smaller forms, as lichens, mosses, &c. ;
but lower down, in the course of the various trans
formations they undergo, they appear in larger de
velopment. The whole vegetable kingdom here is stamped by a

390 TRAVELS IN PERU.
peculiar character. It presents immense fulness and luxu
riance : it" Spreads widely, with but little upward deve
lopment, rising on the average only a few feet above the
earth. ¦ Trees, shrubs, and tendrils, in endless complica
tion of colour, entwine together, sometimes fostering, '
sometimes crushing each other. Out of the remains of
the dead arises a new generation, with an increase of
vital impulse. It seems as though the ice-crowned Andes
looked down with envy on the luxuriant vegetation of
the forests, and sought to blight it by sending down cold
nightly winds. The low temperature of trie night coun
teracts that extreme development which the riumidity
of the soil and the great heat of the day promote. But
what the vegetation loses in upward growth, it gains in
superficial extension, and thereby it secures more pro
tection against the ever-alternating temperature.
The farther we descend trie eastern dechvity, the
more difficult becomes the way. During trie rainy sea
son deep fissures are worked out by trie flow of waters ;
trie ground is slippery and fuU of holes. The sides of
these hollow passes are often so close together that the
rider cannot keep his legs down on each, side of his
mule, and is obhged to raise up his feet and thrust them
forward. When beasts of burthen, coming in opposite
directions, meet in these places, the direst confusion
ensues, and frequently sanguinary conflicts arise among
the Indians. The weaker party are then obliged to
unload their mules, and the poor beasts are dragged
backward by their hind legs, until they reach a point at
which there is sufficient- space for the others to pass.

DANGEROUS MOUNTAIN PASSES. 391
When I was proceeding through one of these cavities
on Christmas-eve, 1840, I encountered a heavily laden
ass coming down a steep dechvity. Ere. I had time to
leap from my saddle, the ass came direct upon me with
such force that my horse was driven backwards by the
concussion, and I was thrown. Ten months afterwards,
another encounter of the same kind threatened me with
a similar disaster,, and to save myself I had no alterna
tive but to shoot trie ass. The Indian who was driving
the animal neglected the usual warning cry, given by
trie arrieros wrien triey enter those dangerous passes,
and he was regardless of my repeated calls desiring him.
to stop.
In some steep places, with the view of improving the
roads, the Indians lay down large stones in trie form of
steps ; but to ride over these rude flights. of steps is no
easy task, for the stones are smaU, and are placed at
the distance of a foot and a half or two feet apart. The
mule begins by placing his hind feet on the first stone,
trien springing forward lie readies the third stone with
his fore feet, at the same time placing Lis hind feet to
the second. By this manoeuvre the mule's body is kept
at full stretch, and the rider is obliged to lean forward
Over trie animal's neck to avoid being thrown head-fore
most by the violent jerks when the mule springs from
step to step. It is absolute torture to ride down a
descent of five, or six leagues, along a road such as I
have just described : wfllingly would the harassed rider
dismount and pursue his course on foot ; but were he to
attempt to do so, the mule would stand stock, still. I

392 TRAVELS IN PERU.
have already remarked the singular obstinacy with
which the mules refuse to proceed when their riders
dismount, and it sometimes gives rise to very comical
scenes. On my way to Vitoc, I was passing througri a
ravine iri whicri the uprooted trunk of a tree was rest
ing slantwise against a rock. Though there was not
room for me to ride under it, yet there was sufficient
space to aUow my mule to pass, and I accordingly dis
mounted ; but all my efforts to drive trie animal for
ward were fruitless. I had no alternative but to ride
close up to the tree, then spurring the mule, I quickly
slipped out of. trie saddle, and seizing the trunk of the
tree, I hung to it until the mule had passed on.
No less difficult and dangerous are the steep decli
vities over loamy soils, which are frequently, met with in
these districts. On them trie mule has no firm footing,
and is in danger of slipping down at every. step. But
the wonderful instinct of these animals enables triem to
overcome the difficulty. They approximate the hind
and fore feet in the manner of the Chamois goat, when
he is about to make a spring, and lowering the hinder
part of the body in a position, rialf sitting rialf standing,
triey slide down the smooth declivity. At first triis
sliding movement creates a very unpleasant feehng of
apprehension, which is not altogether removed by fre
quent repetitions. Accidents frequently occur, in wriicri
botri mule and rider are mortally injured.
. Trier e is more variety- of animals in these, regions
than in the mountainous parts ; but they have few
peculiarities of character. The swift-footed roe of the

ANIMALS -OF THE LOWER FORESTS. 393
CordiUera roams here and dwells in the thickets, avoid
ing the warm forest. The dark-brown coati {Nasua
montana, Tsch.) howls, and digs at the roots of trees in
search of food ; the shy opossum crawls fearfully under
the fohage ; the lazy armadillo creeps into his hole ; but
the ounce and the hon seldom stray hither to contest with
the black bear ( Ursus frugilegus, Tsch.) the possession
of his territory. The httle hairy tapir {Tapirus villosus,
Wagn.) ventures only at twilight out of his close am
bush to forage in the long grass.
Of the birds there is not much variety of species ; but
aU are remarkable for gay-coloured plumage. AmOng
the most characteristic of these districts are the red-
betlied tanagra, {Tanagra igniventris, Orb.), the fire-
coloured pyranga {Phcenisoma bivittata, Tsch.), two
species of the crow, one of which is of a fine blue colour,
{Cyanocorax viridicyanus, G. R. Gray), the otrier green
on trie back and bright yellow on the belly, {Cyanoc.
peruanus, Cab.). Trie Indians caU the latter Quien-
quien, as it utters_a sort of screaming sound resembling
these syUables. Individual birds belonging to the- Pene
lope family {P. rufiventris and adspersa, Tsch.) and the
green pepper-eater {Pteroglossus cceruleo-cinctus Tsch.,
Pt. atro-gularis, Sturm.) are found in the lower forests.
Proceeding stiU farther downward we at length reach
the MontaHa. The Peruvians apply this name to the
vast aboriginal forests which extend across the whole
country from, north to south along the eastern foot of
the Andes. Those whicri lie "higher, and in which the
spaces between trie lofty trees are overgrown with thick

394 TRAVELS IN PERU.
masses of bushes and twining plants, are caUed by the
natives simply Montaiias. Triose which are free from
these intermediate masses of vegetation they caU Mon
taiias reales (royal mountains). At first sight triey pro
duce trie impression of a virgin forest of oaks.
Trie distance from the Ceja to the district properly
caUed trie Montana is very various at different points.
In some parts it takes six or eigrit days' riard riding; in
other directions the traveller may, in trie mormng, leave
the snow-covered Puna huts, and at sunset, on the
uninhabited margin of trie primeval forest, lie may taste
pine-apples and bananas of his own gathering. Sucri a
day certainly deserves to form an epocri in his rife ; for
in the course of a few hours lie passes trirough the most
opposite climates of the earth, and the gradual progres
sion of the development of the vegetable world is spread
out in visible reahty before riim.
The Montafias of Peru are, in general, but thinly
peopled with Christian Indians. They are employed
either in cultivating trieir own fields, _ or in working as
day-labourers in the great plantations. The produc
tions of the riaciendas consist chiefly of sugar, coffee,
maize, coca, tobacco, oranges, bananas, and pine-apples,
which are sent to the Sierra. The cultivation of bark,
balsams, gums, honey and wax also occupies a great
number of Indians.
The plantation buildings stand on rising grounds.
The waUs are constructed of reeds, the interstices being
fiUed up with loam, and the roofs are of straw or palm
leaves. Around the buildings are the fields allotted to

CULTIVATION AND TRAFFIC. 395
cultivation, in which the soils favourable to the pro
duction of certain plants are selected. The coffee
usuaUy grows round trie house, and an adjacent building
contains the store-rooms. The fruit-trees grow along
the margins of the maize fields ; marshy ground is
selected for the sugar fields ; in the vicinity of brooks
and streams the useful banana flourishes ; the pine-trees
are ranged in rows on the hot dry dechvities, and the
coca is fomid to thrive best in warm hoUow deUs.
As the humidity of the atmosphere, added to trie
multitudes of insects, mice and rats, prevents any length.-:
ened preservation of provisions, the cultivators sell or
exchange them as speedily as possible ; hence arises a
very active intercourse in business between the Mon-
tafias and the Sierra. The mountain Indians bring
llamas, dried meat, potatoes, bark, and salt, to exchange
for fruit ; it is very seldom that any money circulates
in this traffic. Only trie owners of plantations seU trieir
productions for ready money, with which they purchase
in the upland towns, European goods, particularly printed
and plain cottons, coarse wooUen stuffs, knives, riatchets,
fishing-tackle, &c. ; with these goods they pay their
labourers, charging triem for every article five or even
six times its value. As there is throughout these forest
regions a great want of men, the plantation owners
endeavour to get the few Indians who settle voluntarily
on trieir property, fixed to it for ever. They sell them
indispensable necessaries at an extravagant price, on
condition of their paying for triem by field labour.
I riave seen an Indian give five days' labour, from six

396 TRAVELS IN PERU.
o'clock in the morning to sunset, for a red pocket-
handkerchief, whicri in Germany would not be worth
four groschen. The desire to possess showy articles, the
necessity of obtaining materials for his wretched cloth
ing, or implements to enable him, in his few free hours,
to cultivate his own field, and,- above aU, his passion for
coca and intoxicating drinks, all prompt the Indian to
incur debt upon debt to the plantation owner. The
sugar-cane is seldom used in the forest plantations for
making sugar. The juice is usuaUy converted "into
the cakes called chancacas, which have been already
mentioned, or it is made into guarapo, a strong hquor,
which the Indians spare no effort to procure. When
they begin to be intoxicated, they desire more and more
of the liquor, which is readily given, as it is the interest
of the owners to supply it. After some days of extreme
abstinence they return to trieir work, and then trie Mayor-
domo shows them how much trieir debt lias increased,
and the astonished Indian finds that he must labour
for several months to pay it ; thus these unfortunate
beings are fastened in the fetters of slavery. Their
treatment is, in general, most tyrannical. The Negro
slave is far more happy than the free Indians in trie
haciendas of this part of Peru. At sunrise aU the
labourers must assemble in the courtyard of the planta
tion where the Mayordomo prescribes to them trieir
day's work, and gives them the necessary implements.
They are compelled to work in the most oppressive
heat, and are only allowed to rest thrice for a -few
minutes, at times fixed, for chewing their coca and for

BURNING FOREST TREES. 397
dinner. For indolence or obstinacy they suffer cor
poral punishment, usuaUy by being put into a kind of
stocks, caUed the Cepo, in whicri trie culprit stands from
twelve to forty-eigrit hours, with his neck or legs fixed
between two blocks of wood.
The labour of bringing the forest lands into a pro
ductive state is one of trie severest tasks in the Mon-
tanas, and it can only be performed in the hottest season
of the year. As the soil is always moist and the vegeta
tion full of sap, the trees must be cut down about the
end of the rainy season, and after drying for some months
triey are burned ; but they are seldom brought into a
state of sucri aridity as to be destroyed by trie action of
the fire. Triis is a considerable obstruction to the pro
gress of raising plants ; for the seed must be sown
between the feUed trees, which are perhaps only half
charred and are stiU damp. In consequence of this, the
practice is, in the first year, to plant maize at trie places
wriere the burnt trees are laid ; the maize grows in
almost incredible abundance, and the result is a singu
larly rich harvest, after which, part of the burned wood
is removed. The same process is renewed after every
harvest, until all the burnt trees are cleared off and
a free field gained for the cultivation of the perennial
plants. s
Far more fortunate than the Indians who are neigh
bours of the plantations, are those wrio rive far back in
the interior of the forests, and wrio, in consequence of
their great distance from any settlement, seldom have
intercourse with the civilized world. Content with what

398 TRAVELS IN PERU.
bounteous nature offers them, and ignorant of the wants
of more refined .life, they seek nothing beyond such
things as they can, without any great efforts, obtain in
the districts in which they dweU. There they plant their
little patches of ground, the care of wriich is consigned to
the women. The men take their bows and arrows and
set out on hunting expeditions, during which, they are
for weeks, often months, absent from their homes. Trie
rainy season drives them back to their huts, where they
indulge in indolent repose, which is only occasionaUy
suspended when triey are engaged in fishing. The re
turn of trie sunny sky draws triem out again on trieir
expeditions in which they collect a sufficient supply of
food for trie year.
But wherever these Indians have settled on trie banks
of great rivers, the trading intercourse produces an
alteration in their mode of rife. Europeans and Creoles
then try to create among them, as among the plantation
Indians, a desire to satisfy unnecessary wants, and
thereby they are induced to coUect the valuable produc
tions of the forests. In the loftier districts of the Mon-
tarias the Peruvian bark is found : the lower and more
marshy places produce the sarsaparflla, and a sort of
wood for dyeing called Llangua. This last-named article
has not yet found its way to Europe.
In the month of May the Indians assemble to collect
the Peruvian bark, for which purpose they repair to the
extensive Cinchona woods. One of the party chmbs a
high tree to obtain, if possible, an uninterrupted view
over the forest, and to spy out the Manchas, or spots

PERUVIAN BARK. 399
where there are groups of Peruvian-bark trees. The
men who thus spy out the trees are called Cateadores,
or searchers. It requires great experience to single
out the dark leaf-covered expanse, the Cinchona groups
merely by the particular tint of the foliage, which
often differs but Very httle from that of the surrounding
trees. As soon as the cateador has marked out and
correctly fixed upon the mancha, he descends to his
companions, and leads them with Wonderful precision
through the almost impenetrable forest to the group.
A hut is immediately built, whicri serves as a resting-
place during night, and is also used for drying and
preserving the bark. Trie tree is felled as near the root
as possible, divided into pieces, each from three to four feet
long, and with, a short curved knife a longitudinal inci
sion is made in trie bark. After a few days, if the
pieces are found to be getting dry, the bark already
incised is stripped off in long slips, whicri are placed in
the hut, or in hot weather laid before it to dry. In
many parts, particularly in the central and southern
districts of Peru, where the moisture is not very great,
the bark is dried in the forest, and the slips are packed
in large bundles. In other districts, on the, contrary,
the bark is roUed up green, and sent to the neighbour
ing viUages, where it is dried. Towards the end of
September the Cascarilleros* return to their homes.
In the more early periods of South American history,
trie bark was a principal article of Peruvian commerce.
* Bark-gatherers. The Peruvians call the bark cascanlla, and they point out
the distinctions of a great number of species and varieties.

400 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Since the commencement of the present century its
value has, however, considerably diminished, chiefly in
consequence of adulterated and inferior kinds, which are
supphed from other quarters, perhaps also on account of
the more frequent use of quinine ; for in the production
of the alcoloides less bark is employed than was formerly
used in substance, j During the war of independence the
bark trade received its death-blow, and for the space of
several years scarcely more than a few hundred-weights
of bark were exported from Peru. The Montafias of
Huanuco, which once furnished all the apothecaries of
Europe with the " divine medicine," are beginning again
to yield supplies. I From the roots of the felled trees a
vigorous after-growth has commenced. In the Mon
tafias of Huamalies a land of bark is found, the nature
of which is not yet defined by botanists ; and from the
Montarias of Urubamba comes the highly esteemed Cas-
carilla de Cuzco, which contains an alcaloid, named Cus-
conin* Possibly the medicinal bark may again become
a flourishing branch of trade for Peru, though it can
never again recover the importance which was attached
to it a century ago. During my residence in Peru, a
plan was in agitation for establishing a quinine manu
factory at Huanuco. The plan, if weU carried out,
would certainly be attended with success. Triere is in
Bolivia an establishment of this kind conducted by a
Frenchman ; but the quinine produced is very impure.

* From Cuzco, the ancient residence of the Incas. It was discovered by
the French chemists Corriol and Pelletier, in the Cascarilla which is shipped
in Arica ; hence this alcoloid is also called Aricm.

INDIAN MEDICINES AND CHARMS. 401
The inhabitants of the Peruvian forests drink an infusion
of the green bark as a remedy against intermitting
fever. I have found it in many cases much more effica
cious than the dried kind, for less than half the usual
dose produces, in a short time, convalescence, and the
patient is secure against returning febrile attacks.
A class of Indians who live far back in the heart of the
woods of Southern Peru and Bohvia employ themselves
almost exclusively in gathering balsams and odorous
gums from resinous plants, many of which are burned in
the churches as incense. They also collect various
objects, supposed to be sympathetic remedies, such as the
claws of the tapir; against falling sickness ; and the teeth
of poisonous snakes which carefully fixed in leaves, and
stuck into the tubes of rushes, are regarded as powerful
specifics against rieadacrie and bhndness. Various salves,
plasters, powders, seeds, roots, barks, &c, to each of
whicri is attributed some infallible curative power, are
prepared and brought to market by the Indians.
When the rainy season sets in they leave the forest and
proceed in parties to the mountainous country. On
these occasions, contrary to the general custom of the
Indians, the men, not the women, carry the burthens.
They are accompanied by the women as far as the
Sierra ; for the loads, which are often very heavy, graze
the backs of the men who carry them, and the women
then act as surgeons. The injured part is first carefully
washed with copaiba balsam, moistened, then covered
with leaves fixed on with small stripes of leather, over
laid with the hide of some forest animal. These Opera-
D D

402 TRAVELS IN PERU.
tions being performed, the loads are again fastened on
the backs of the Indians. In their native forests these
people wear but httle clothing. Their dress is limited
to a sort of loose tunic without sleeves. for the women,
and for the men merely a piece of cloth fastened round
the waist. They go barefooted ; but they paint their
feet and legs with the juice of trie Huito {Genipa oblongi-
folia, R. Pav.) in such a manner that they seem to be
wearing half-boots. Trie juice of the Huito has the
effect of protecting them against the stings of insects.
The colouring adheres so strongly to the skin triat it
cannot be washed off by water ; but oil speedily re
moves it. In the Sierra these Indians put on warmer
clothing, and on their feet they wear a kind of boots
caUed aspargetas, made of the plaited tendrils of plants.
The stock of balsams and drugs being disposed of,
the Indians, after a few months' absence, return to their
homes. Some of them, however, wander to the distance
of two or three hundred leagues from their native
forests, traversing the greater part of Peru, and even
visiting Lima, carrying large flask gourds filled with
balsams. These wandering tribes seek frequent contact
with other nations. They are not distrustful and reserved,
but, on trie contrary, annoyingly communicative. It is
not easy to discover trie cause of triis exception,; or to
ascertain the time when the Indians began to travel the
country as physicians and apothecaries. Trie earliest
writers on the oldest epochs of Peruvian history make
no mention of triis race of medical pedlars.
The Indians here alluded to aU profess Christianity,

INDIOS BRAVOS. 403
and must, as Indios Christianos, in strict correctness, be
distinguished from the wild Indians, Indios Bravos, who
exclusively inhabit the eastern Montafias of Peru, towards
the frontiers of Brazil. These Indios Bravos compre
hend numerous tribes, each of which has its own customs,
religion, and also, in general, its own language. Only
very few of them are known, for since the overthrow
of the missions there is httle communication with
triem. Respecting trie Indios Bravos wrio inhabit the
Montafias of Southern Peru, I have been unable to collect
any accurate information. They remain quite unknown,
for impenetrable wilds intervene between them and the
eivflised world, and seldom has a European foot ventured
into their territory. The wild Indians in Central Peru
are most set against the Christians, particularly those
caUed Iscuchanos, in the Montana de Huanta, and those
known by the name of Chunchos, in the Montana de Vitoc.
The Iscuchanos sometimes maintain with the inhabitants
of Huanta a trade of barter; but this intercourse is ocea^-
sionaUy interrupted by long intervals of hostihty, during
whicri trie Iscuchanos, though rather an inoffensive race,
commit various depredations on the Huantanos ; driving
the cattle from the pastures, carrying off the produce of the
soil, and spreading terror throughout the whole district.
Some years ago, when the inhabitants of Huanta had
assembled for the procession of the Festival of Corpus
Christi, a troop of Iscuchanos came upon them with wild
bulls, turning the infuriated animals against the proces
sion, which was dispersed, and many of the Huantanos
were killed or severely wounded. These Iscuchanos are so
dd 2

404. TRAVELS IN PERU.
favoured by the locality of the district they inhabit, that
even were a military expedition sent to drive them farther
back into the woods, it would probably be unsuccessful.
The Chunchos are far more dangerous, and are one of
the most formidable races of the Indios Bravos. Triey
inhabit the most southern part of the Pampa del Sacra
mento (the terra incognita of Peru) and chiefly the
district through whicri flow the rivers Chanchamayo
and Perene. Those regions are inhabited by a great
number of tribes, most of which are only known by
name. The frontier neighbours of the Chuncrios are
the sanguinary Campas or Antes who destroyed the
missions of Jesus Maria in Pangoa, and wrio stiU occa
sionally pay hostile visits to San Buenaventura de Cria-
vini, the extreme Christian outpost in the Montana de
Andamarca. The savage race of the Casibos, the enemies
of all the surrounding populations, inhabit the banks of
the river Pachitea. Triis race maintains incessant war
with all the surrounding tribes, and constantly seeks to
destroy them. According to the accounts of the mis
sionaries, they, as well as the Antes and Chunchos, are
still cannibals, and undertake warlike expeditions for the
purpose of capturing prisoners, whom they devour.
After the rainy season, when the Simirinches, trie Ama-
puahas, or Consbos, hunt in the western forests, they often
fall into the hands of the Casibos, who imitate in perfec
tion the cries of the forest animals, so that the riunters
are treacherously misled, and being captured, are carried
^off as victims. ^ Many horrible accounts of this barbarous
tribe were related by the missionaries centuries ago,

INDIAN CANNIBALS. 405
when romantic stories and exaggerations of every kind
were the order of the day ; but trie most recent commu
nications of trie missionaries from Ocopa confirm the fact,
that in the year 1842 the Casibos continued to be savage
Anthropophagi. It is worthy of remark that they never
eat women, a fact which some may be inclined to attri
bute to respect for the female sex. It is, however,
assignable to a different feeling. All the South Ame
rican Indians, who stiU remain under the influence of
sorcery and empiricism, consider women in the light of
impure and evil beings, and calculated to injure them.
Among a few of the less rude nations this aversion is
apparent in domestic hfe, in a certain unconquerable
contempt of females. With the Anthropopriagi the
feeling extends, fortunately, to their fle^h, which is held
to be poisonous.
The languages spoken by the wild Indian tribes
are very various. From the Marafion to Omaguas,
Quichua, the language of the Incas, is spoken. On the
left bank of the Ucayali the dialect of the Panos pre
vails. On the right bank the Cascas, the Sinabus, and
the Diabus, preserve their own idioms, which are so
different that those races are reciprocally unable to
communicate with each other. On Upper Ucayali
evidences of common origin are said to be apparent
between the Simirinches, Campas, Runaguas, and Mocho-
bos. But on this subject no accurate conclusions can be
formed ; for the accounts given by the missions in early
periods were very imperfect, and most of the races are
so intractable that it has since been impossible to collect

406 TRAVELS IN PERU.
correct information. According to the accounts of
traveUed missionaries whicri I had the opportunity of
examining in the convent of Ocopa, it appears that,
besides the Quichua, the idioms spoken by the Panos,
Cascas, Simirinches, and the Chunchos, may be set down
as dialects of decidedly different origins.
The mode of living among aU these Indians is very
much the same. War and hunting in summer, and
repairing their warlike weapons in winter, are the occu
pations of the men. The women cultivate the fields, lay
up the stores of provisions, fish, spin and cook. Their
clothes are of the most simple kind. Many of the races
wear no clothing, and have their bodies whoUy or par
tially bedaubed with paint. The men of some races
wear a kind of shirt without sleeves, and the women a
petticoat reaching from the waist to the knees. These
garments are made of cotton obtained from trie unculti
vated tree Bombax, and their colour is white, blue, or red.
The custom of boring the ears, the nose, and the under
hp for the insertion of some ornament is much practised,
particularly by the Panos, Shipeos, and Pirras. Triey
paint their bodies, but not exactly in the tattoo manner ;
they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensis
women draw two stripes from the shoulder, over each
breast, down to the pit of trie stomacri ; the Pirras women
paint a band in the form of a girdle round the waist,
and they have three of a darker colour round each
thigri. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be
removed by washing. They are made with the unripe
fruit of one of the Rubiacacese. Some tribes paint the face

WARLIKE WEAPONS AND POISONS. 407
only ; others, on the contrary, do not touch that part ;
but bedaub witri colours their arms, feet, and breasts.
In hunting, bows and arrows are the principal weapons
used by the Indians. In war they use, besides bows and
arrows, clubs and a kind of sword made of wood. The
arrows are reeds, five or six feet long, and of the thick
ness of a finger. The point is of very hard wood, and
is strongly barbed by notches and with sharp fish teeth
about three inches long. To the other extremity of the
arrow coloured feathers are always affixed.
Among many Indians, particularly in trie western and
northern districts of the Pampa del Sacramento, the
Pocuna is a weapon much used in hunting. It is made
of a long reed, and measures eight or ten, or even more,
feet. At one end are fixed two teeth of a javali, or
white-ripped peccary {Dicotyles labiatus), on which the
reed is rested when taking aim. Trie arrows, which are
only one and a rialf or two inches long, are made of the
thick part of a strong cactus stem. In general trieir
smaU arrows are poisoned, for otherwise the wound
would be too inconsiderable to kiU even a httle bird.
The poison for arrows differs almost with every tribe,
and very mysterious ceremonies are observed at its pre
paration. On this account the art of preparing it, and
the ingredients employed, are only very partially known
to Europeans. Trieir elements are obtained from several
plants not yet defined botanicaUy, among which the
Apihuasca and poison capsicum are much resorted to.
Infusions of the leaves of a very strong kind of tobacco,
and of the Sanafio {Taberncemontana Sanafio, R. P.), and

408 TRAVELS IN PERU.
of Euphorbiaceae, are also taken. Some modern travel
lers, contrary to the testimony of the oldest writers on
Peru, have asserted that no animal substance is employed
in the poison for arrows. I am, however, enabled to
state, on the authority of an Indian who had himself
often made the poison, that not only the black and very
poisonous emmet {Cryptacereo atrato. affin), but also the
teeth of the formidable serpent, known to the Indians by
the name of Miuamaru or Jergon {Lachesis picta, Tsch.),
are used for that purpose.
The wound of the poisoned arrow is fatal and rapid.
Men and large mammalia die in about four or five
minutes after receiving the wound ; the smaller mam-
miferous animals and birds, in two minutes. The
blow-reed sends . these deadly arrows . with great cer
tainty to . the distance of thirty-two or thirty-six paces.
Hunting with the blow-reed must be long practised in
order to acquire dexterity in its use, and great caution
is requisite to avoid being self-wounded by the small
sharp arrows. An example came to my knowledge in
the. case of an Indian who let an arrow fall unobserved
from his quiver ; he trod upon it, and it penetrated the
sole of his foot ; in a very short time he was a corpse.
The club called Matusino is four or five feet long, and
is encircled in a spiral form at the thick end, by a row
of deers' horns. A single long horn is fastened in the
centre, the chief use of which is to stick it in the earth
when the club is rested. Only a few races of upper
and lower Ucayali and the Sensis use this formidable
weapon, which is very inconvenient and obstructive, in

HUTS OF THE WILD INDIANS. 409
passing through thick forests. The macana, or wooden
sword, is made of strong chunta. The colour of this
wood is a deep blackish brown ; it is very hard and
heavy, and is always used for implements whicri require
great durability and strength. The macana is about
four feet long, one inch thick, and from five to six
inches broad ; towards the hilt end the breadth is about
three inches, and it is rounded. It is so weU cut and
pohshed, that a sabre scarcely excels it in sharpness.
Trie weapon is so heavy that it requires both hands to
wield it. '
There are not only offensive, but also defensive,
weapons. One of trie latter is the viche, a very simple
shield, one and a half or two feet in diameter. It con
sists of a strong frame of twisted creeping plants, over
which the skin of a deer or tapir is stretched and fas
tened with twine. On trie inside there are two holds
for the^arm ; the edge is adorned with coloured feathers.
The Indians of the races above noticed seldom live in
viUages, but chiefly in huts scattered through the forests.
Sometimes they construct a few of their dweUings near
together, and so form a hamlet. Their huts are either
quadrangular, oblong, or circular. The walls consist of
strong stems of trees, bound together by twining plants ;
and the roof is of palm leaves laid over a skeleton of reeds.
The entrance, which is on the side opposite to the pre
vailing wind, is left open, and but seldom protected by a
door. At Chanchamayo I saw a very simple kind of
hut among the. Chunchos. It resembled an open um
brella with the handle stuck in the earth. The single

410 TRAVELS IN PERU.
wall, which also formed its roof, consisted of eight long
reeds : they spread out below in the form of a fan,
standing obhquely on the earth, and fastened to triree
stems of trees. On this simple skeleton were laid length
ways the leaves of trie omero, a kind of palm. A strong
stem fixed firmly in trie earth, extended obhquely to the
middle of the inner side of trie waU, and two thinner
stems on each side, served as supports for this frail build
ing. According to the direction of the wind the hut is
turned round.
The Indian huts all stand detached from eacri otrier,
and they are seldom divided internally into apartments.
They occupy very little ground, never more trian sixty
square feet of superficies'. In the principal settlement
of an Indian race, the riuts are scattered over a circuit
of some miles in trie forests.
Any form of government is a thing quite unknown to
most of the Indios Bravos of Peru. Uniformity of
speech, manners, and arms, unite together a number of
Indians, who thus form a race, but there is among them
no bond of subjection, or of duty to any government,
either voluntarily chosen, or self-constituted. Among the
inhabitants of Lower Ucayali, however, trie oldest, or the
bravest individuals of each race are either pubhcly, or
silently recognised as chiefs. Respect to age prevails
only among a few of the races, as the Setebos, Mayor-
riunas, and Panos. Among others, as the Campos,
Casibos, and Chuncrios, -the old are put to death. It
is a general custom of the wild Indian to kfll their aged
prisoners immediately on their being captured.

MARRIAGE CEREMONIES. 411
Social meetings among triese races are of rare occur
rence. Gloomy, reserved, and distrustful, the Indian is
only at ease in the circle he lias himself formed. When,
however, the general interest of the race is in question,
then he comes boldly forward in support of the whole.
Trie usual assemblages are for trie arrangement of long
hunting excursions, and warlike expeditions. ' Trie depar
tures and trie returns are celebrated by tumultuous
feasts, in wriicri intoxicating drinks flow freely. Most of
trie liquors are prepared from Yucca, or trie fruits of trie
Criunta, called the Mazato, or other species of palms.
In trie most remote forests, and among the most insu
lated tribes, the preparation of intoxicating hquors is
known ; and triere certainly is not in all South America
an Indian race which is not familiar with it. Wild
dances form part of the entertainments, and the banquet
usuaUy ends with a sanguinary battle.
Marriage in most races is celebrated socially, but not
among those in which polygamy prevails. The formula
observed on the occasion differs in different tribes ; in
some the union is effected under painful ceremonies to
trie bride, in others witri fasting and penitential torments
to trie bridegroom. In general the Indian selects a
wife for himself. In the greater number of tribes a
maiden is set up as a prize, and the young men com
mence a rife or death contest for her. The oldest war
riors are arbitrators, and from their hands the conqueror
receives the prize. This is the practice among the
inhabitants of the Rio de Santa Catahna. With triem,
as well as with most of the tribes of Western Ucayali,

412 TRAVELS IN PERU.
the birth of a child is festively celebrated. The oldest
individuals of the race assemble to receive the child,
which is repeatedly blown on to drive demons and
sickness away from it ; the name of an animal is then
given to it, and, according to Don Pedro Beltran, the
witnesses of the ceremony mark with a wooden pencil
some hieroglyphic characters on two leaves, whicri are
carefully preserved, and on the death of the Indian,
deposited in the grave with him.
The dead are buried in trie huts. The survivors
having testified their sorrow by a melancholy howl three
times repeated, leave the place and build a new residence
for themselves in a distant district. They break in
pieces all the household furniture of the deceased, but
they bury with him his warlike weapons and Lis agri
cultural implements, under the conviction that he will
use them in the place to which he is going. A peculiar
custom among several races is this : trie oldest son cuts
a piece from the heel of his deceased father, whicri he
hangs round his neck, and wears as a sacred relic.
Some of the tribes on the Perene and Capanegua do
not, like most wild nations,' respect the remains of trie
dead, but throw the bodies into the forest unburied, to
be devoured by beasts of prey.
Very little is correctly known of the religion of the
Peruvian Indios Bravos. All believe in trie existence of
superior beings, and distinguish them as good and evil ;
and they are accordingly venerated from gratitude, or
from fear. The former they regard as beneficent;
but the latter as having the power of bringing into

RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS. 413
exercise aU the destroying forces of nature. These
people, therefore, find in the sky, in the air, and on the
earth, objects for their adoration. Certain constellations
are regarded as favourable phenomena, while others are
looked at with a secret horror. The sun is by all gladly
worshipped, more particularly by the descendants of
those wrio in early times stood in connection with the
Incas. On the other hand, they pay but a reluctant
tribute to the moon, perhaps because by its pale light
fearful images are reflected around triem in trie forests,
and because its priases are to them involved in impene
trable mystery. They ascribe thunder and lightning
to demoniacal influences, and to the same origin they
attribute certain winds which have an injurious influence
on their riealtri. But their religious notions are not
connected exclusively with trie phenomena of nature,
which are to them inexplicable. With all their ideas
on surrounding nature, two conflicting principles are
invariably connected, one of which is believed to be
beneficial, trie other injurious to them. In the animals
of the forest, the plants, the stones, in everything,
triey trace triese beneficent or demoniacal powers.
Every idea, every action is with them a consequence of
the influence of one of triese two powers, and free will
is impossible. Triougri a rude materialism cripples the
intelligence of these Indians, yet triey seem to be sensi
ble of trie connection between that which is perceptible
to their senses, and something higrier — something beyond
the sphere of corporeal perception. But, of the nature
of this higher something, they have no comprehension,

414 TRAVELS IN PERU.
nor do they endeavour to render to themselves any
account of it. They are satisfied with an obscure idea
of the difference between the visible and the invisible ;
but, still this idea is so contracted that they always give
to the spiritual a corporeal form ; and they attribute to
natural objects with which they come most in contact,
the possession of good or evil qualities, thus assigning to
them the nature of spiritual beings.
None of these tribes appear, as yet, to have advanced
so far as to be impressed with the persuasion that the
whole of nature is guided by unchangeable laws over
which one will presides. In general, they have no idea
of a spiritual unity, and are utter strangers to the know
ledge of one God. Triey aU, however, beheve in the
immortality of the soul. They see the lifeless body,
they have certain proof that the earthly integument is
no longer the abode of trie soul ; but, as they can form
no notion of anything spiritual entirely self-existent, triey
imagine triat their dead will, in new life, appear under a
new bodily form. Trie several tribes differ greatly in
their behef of the nature of the metamorphoses which
they expect to take place. Triose who look forward to
the re-appearance of the deceased in human rife, bury
with the men hunting and agricultural instruments; but
their notions even on this head are not very clear, and
when questioned on the subject their answers are very
confused. They say that they are going to a very beau
tiful place, far from their present dwelhng ; but, accord
ing to trieir conception, it appears that the place though
distant is still on earth. . Those races who believe in

PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES. 415
metamorphoses into the forms of the lower animals, are
persuaded that the dead in their new forms will inhabit
the woods around their homes, and avenge the wrongs
they have suffered during life. Triis is the belief of the
inhabitants of Upper Ucayali and Pachitea.
In considering trie physical formation of the wild
Indians, we may class them according to their natural
divisions, viz., the inhabitants of the more highly situated
lands, or mountains, and those of the low riot flat country.
Trie former dweU on trie eastern side of the hill-chain,
dividing trie river territory of trie Huallaga and Ucayah,
and spreading to the banks of the Chauchamayo, Perene, .
and Apurimac. Triese are trie Iscuchanos. They are
rather taU and generally shm ; trieir limbs are vigorous ;
trieir riands and feet smaU, and in walking trieir toes are
mucri turned in. The head is proportionaUy large, with
very strong bones ; the forehead is low, the eyes small
and animated, the nose large and rather sharp, the cheek
bones a httle prominent. The mouth is not large, and
the hps are delicately formed, but often disfigured by
ornaments. The ears are smaU, quite the reverse of
those of the Indians of the flat lands. The pointed chin
is only sparingly covered with beard, whicri does not
appear until advanced age, and on the cheeks there is
none. The hair of the head is long, stiff, and of a bril
liant black. Many of the tribes dye their hair ; the
Criunchos dye it red, and the Antis are said to dye it
blue ; as to the latter colour it appears to me impro
bable, but I mention it on the authority of Friar Leceta.
The skin is fine and soft, the colour a deep rusty brown.

416 TRAVELS IN PERU.
In speaking of the South American Indians, it is usual
to describe their skin as copper colour, but this term is
incorrect, for there certainly is no single tribe to which
it migrit be perfectly applicable. It appears to me that
the colour of all is much fainter, and tending more to
brown or yeUow. "Rusty brown," if trie expression
may be used, appears to me far more descriptive..
The second natural section of the wild Indians inhabits
the northern part of the Pampa del Sacramento, the
banks of the Ucayah, and of the Marafion. Triey are
smaller than those just described. There is a certain
peculiarity in the make of these people ; for though they
are broad over the shoulders "yet trieir chests are flat,
and their shoulder blades lie low. Their limbs are lank,
and their hands rather small ; the soles of the feet are
broad and flat. The face is broad, the eyes long shaped,
the pupil deeply set, the nose is flat, with large oblique
nostrils, and the cheek-bones are prominent. The mouth is
wide, the lips thick, and among some tribes the mouth
and nose are very close together. The chin is small and
round, the ears large and standing out from the head.
The hair and beard of these Indians are the same as in
those of the hilly country, The colour of the skin varies
much ; in some it is a light reddish brown ; in others, a
kind of yellow, very hke that of the Mongols. .The
women of all these tribes are exceedingly ugly, and far
from corresponding with the picture a European imagina-.
tion might form of the daughters of the aboriginal forests.
These women soon become old, for they not only fulfil
female duties, but execute the greater part of those.

ANIMAL WORLD IN THE FORESTS. 417
severer labours which ought to fall to the share of the
stronger sex.
To the above outline sketch of the human inhabitants
of the aboriginal forests, I will now add some description
of the animal world, as it came under my observation in
those luxuriant regions.
Unlike the peaceful repose which presides over animal
life on trie level rieigrits, are trie constant aggressions and
combats which prevail in the forest regions. There the
strong attack the weak, and the cunning inveigle the
unwary : strength and inteUigence, caution and instinct,
are unceasingly in active operation. The variegated forms
and colours wriich meet the eye, and the multifarious
cries and tones whicri resound through the woods, form,
altogether, the most singular contrasts. The gold-
featriered coribri hums lightly througri the air, soaring
over the heavy, sombre-coloured tapir. The sprightly
singing-bird pours forth his melodious chaunts amidst
the thick foliage of the aged trees, whilst the fierce
ounce, prowling for his prey, growls as he passes
over their enormous, spreading roots. Slowly do
the eye and the ear learn to distinguish individuals
in the vast mass of apparent chaotic confusion, and to
recognise quickly fleeting forms, or distant resounding
sounds. The whole of the animal world is here developed to
the view, and it would be difficult to assign the predomin
ance to any one class. Yet, perhaps, the variegated
feathered tribe is relatively most extensively represented.
The number of the mammalia is also important. They
E E

418 TRAVELS IN PERU.
are seldom seen by the hunter during the day, but
twilight draws them from their hiding-places.
Troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree, looking
timidly around, and uttering • mournful howls. Among
them are swarms of the black marimonda {A teles), with-
slender long arms and red-brown or black faces ; in
some trie faces are encircled witri wriite hair' {Ateles
marginatus, Geoff), which gives them a striking resem
blance to an old negro. Next is seen a group of silver-
grey monkeys {Lagothrix Humboldtii, Geoff.), stalking
over heaps of broken branches and twigs in search of a
resting-place. These monkeys, whicri are the largest in
South America, are about three feet higri, and are bold
and vicious, When wounded they take a position of
defence against the hunter, struggling, and uttering loud
cries, upon which their companions hasten down from
the trees to assist them. But, soon, a short stifled cry
is rieard : it is trie cry of mortal convulsion. Triat sound
drives triem instantly back, and they disperse in wild
flight. The sly sayu ventures to approach the dwell
ings of men, where he plunders maize fields with
incredible dexterity. The delicate silky-haired monkey,
shivering at every cool breeze or shower of rain, and
starting at the slightest noise, creeps for shelter into trie
thicket, where he lies peeping witri Iris penetrating eyes
in the direction of the apprehended danger.
At sunset swarms of bats flutter through field and
forest in all directions, and greedily devour the insects
which in the twiligrit awaken to full activity. Some of
these bats {Phyllostoma hastatum, Geoff.) are remark-

BLOOD-SUCKING BATS. 419
able for their expanse of wing, which measures nearly
two feet. Others are distinguished for ughness and for
their offensive smeU. These latter fly into the Indian
huts at night and greatly annoy the inhabitants, who
cannot get rid of them by fire or smoke, or any other
means, until at the midnight hour they retire of their
own accord. Not less troublesome are the leaf-nosed
bats {Phyllosioma), which attack both man and beast.
This bat rubs up the skin of his victim, from which he
sucks the blood. The domestic animals suffer greatly
from the nocturnal attacks of these bats, and many are
destroyed by the exhaustion consequent on the repeated
blood-sucking. The blood drawn by the bat itself does
not exceed a few ounces ; but if, when satisfied, it drops
down to the ground, or flies away, the wound continues
to bleed for a long time, and in the morning the animal
is often found in a very weak condition, and covered
with blood One of my mules, on which a leaf-nosed
bat made a nightly attack, was only saved by having his
back rubbed with an ointment made of spirits of cam
phor, soap and petroleum. The blood-suckers have
such an aversion to the smell of this ointment that on its
apphcation they ceased to approach the mule. These
bats are very mischievous in the plantations of the
forests, where beasts of burthen and horned cattle are ex
posed to their attacks. Whether they venture to assail
man has been a much-disputed question. Several tra
veUers declare that they do not. I may, ' however,
mention a case which occurred within my own know
ledge. A bat {Ph. erythromos, Tsch.) fastened on the
E E 2

420 TRAVELS IN PERU.
nose of an Indian lying intoxicated in a plantation, and
sucked so much blood that it was unable to fly away.
Trie slight wound was followed by such severe inflam
mation and swelling that the features of the Cholo were
not recognisable.
Many beasts of prey, and among them some of formid
able strength and fierceness, make havoc among the
other animals of the forests. ' In the more lofty Mon
tafias the black bear {U. frugilegus, Tsch.) roams as
wild as his feUow-depredator of trie CordiUera. He
often enters the maize fields of the Indians, breaks
the stalks of the plants and drags the green tops
away to his hole. When this bear cannot obtain his
customary vegetable food, consisting criiefly of the
fruits of a pandanea, {Phytelephas) , he watches for the
deer and wild boars, or attacks the oxen employed to
turn the machinery in the sugar-miUs : he has even been
known to assail solitary traveUers. ^The lively coatis
traverse the forests in flocks. They coUect round the
roots of trees and search for the larvae of insects ; light-
footed, they chmb up bush and tree to find birds' nests,
and feast on the eggs and the young. With a monoto
nous howl, not unlike that made by some dogs on a clear
moonlight night, the yellow-breasted glutton, {Galictis
barbara, Wieg.), the omeyro of the Indians, announces
his presence. But the most fierce of all these wild
forest animals are those of the feline class. The spot
less dark-grey yaguarundi, not much larger than the
wild cat of Europe, pursues aU kinds of birds, particu
larly the pigeon, the partridge, and the penelope. The

THE PUMA AND THE OUNCE. 421
oscollo, {F. celidogaster, Tern.), the uturunca, {F. par-
dalis, L.), and the long-tailed, yellowish-grey tiger-cat,
{F. macrourura, Pr. M.), all lie in wait, not only for
the weaker mammalia, but sometimes they even venture
into the plantations and kiU dogs and poultry. The
maneless Mexican hon (the puma), roams through the
upper regions of the forest, where he has almost undis
puted hunting-ground. He fearlessly assails victims who
cannot effectually defend themselves, such as the horse,
the mule, and the ass, and he tears large pieces of flesh
from their ribs ; but he does not venture to meddle with
oxen. He shuns men, and in the forest he even flies
from the unarmed Indian. I fired at a very large
puma, which immediately fled, roaring loudly. When
severely wounded and driven into a corner, this animal
frequently commences a combat of despair, and some
times kills the hunter. The puma measures in length
about four feet, and in heigrit more trian two feet. More
direful than any of the felines mentioned above is the
sanguinary ounce, * which possesses vast strength, and
is of a most savage disposition. Though the favourite
haunts of this animal are the expansive Pajonales, yet he
frequently takes up his abode in the vicinity of villages
and plantations, spreading terror among the inhabitants.
Far from being intimidated at the sight of men, he often
attacks individuals, and when pressed by hunger is not
afraid, even in broad day-light, to slip into the forest
* The Indian name for this animal is Chague chinca. The black variety
Tana chinca is called by the Spaniards Tigre or Yaguar.

422 TRAVELS IN PERU.
villages in order to carry off food, and the booty, when
once seized, is not easily recovered.
An amusing example of this occurred in the Montana
of Vitoc. An Indian one night heard his only pig
squeaking loudly, as if in pain. He hastened to the
door of his hut to see what was the matter, and he
discovered that an ounce had seized the pig by trie
head, and was carrying it off. The Cholo, who deter
mined to make an effort to recover his property, seized
the pig by the hind legs, and endeavoured to drag it
from the grasp of the robber. This contest was kept up
for some time, the ounce, with his eyes glaring in the
darkness, holding fast trie head of the pig, and the
Indian pulling it hard by the legs. At length the Indian's
wife came to the door of the hut with a ligrited faggot,
and the scared ounce, with terrible howlings, slowly
retired to the forest. In general the Indians have a
great dread of these animals, and seldom venture singly
into the parts they frequent. The ounce hunter is trie
only one who ventures to approach them. He is armed
with a long spear, with, whicri he gives the ferocious
animal a death blow. He lets the ounce come within
a few paces of riim without making the least show
either of flight or attack. If, however, the stroke he
aims does not immediately reach the seat of rife, the
hunter, in generaLAecomes the victim of his bold attempt.
Before he can stand on his defence, the wounded
ounce drags him to^ the ground, and tears the flesh from
his bones. -*i'» ^<a
Sometimes the villagers collect trieir dogs together for

HUNTING THE OUNCE. 423
a general hunt. They drive the ounce into a place from
whence there is no escape, or often up a tree, where
they shoot riim with long arrows sent from their bows
or blow-tubes. In a few places snares are laid, or large
holes are dug, and a sriarp-pointed stake is stuck in the
middle, covered with stalks and branches of trees, on
whicri the bait is laid. The ounce is, however, too
cunning to be easily caught in traps, and it is only when
pressed by hunger that he can be tempted by a bait.
In some districts the ounces have increased so greatly,
and done so much damage, that the natives have been
compeUed to remove and settle in other places. I
need only refer to the Quebrada of Mayunmarca, in the
Montana of Huanta, near the road to Anco. There
once stood the httle village of Mayumarca, whicri has
been abandoned for more than a hundred years, as it
was found that trie jaguars annually decimated the inha
bitants ; this Quebrada is still in such bad repute that
not a single Indian will venture into it.
There is a black variety of the ounce, by many
erroneously regarded as a distinct species. It has the
identical marks of the common jaguar, or ounce, only its
colour is a dark, blackish-brown, whereby the whole of
the black spots are rendered indistinct. On the lower
banks of trie Ucayali and the Marafion this dark variety
is more frequently met with than in ihe higher forests ;
in the Montafias of Huanta and Urubamba it is also not
uncommon. It is upon the whole larger, stronger, and
more daring than the lighter kiri^6 -fX I riave actually
seen many black skins which exceeded the usual length;

424 TRAVELS IN PERU.
but of specific distinctions there is no indication. The
superstitious Indians assign extraordinary powers to
everything that departs from the common course ; the
black ounce is, accordingly, supposed to possess singular
properties. The yana chinca holds a prominent place in
the religious ceremonies of some of the Indian races.
Turning from these fierce natives of the forests, we
will now take a grimpse at trie peaceful inhabitants of
those umbrageous regions. In the hollow stems of
trees, or among their canopied branches, are found the
timid marsupial animals {Did. impavida, and noctivaga,
Tsch.) These animals remain in obscure holes until the
sun sinks beneath the horizon, when they slip out in
search of insects and fruit. Not unfrequently they
penetrate into the slightly guarded Indian huts, creeping
into every corner, until at last they are caught in traps
baited with pieces of banana and pine-apple. The lofty
Terebinthacece, with trieir walnut-like fruit, are inhabited
by swarms of squirrels, which strongly remind the Euro
pean of his own woods. Numbers of the mouse family,
from the smaU tree-mouse {Drymomys parvulus, Tsch.)
to the large, loathsome, spinous rat {Echinomys leptosoma,
Wagn.) swrarm over all the Montafias, and love to
approximate to the dwellings of man. These animals-
destroy the gathered harvest, and even in these remote
regions they become a plague. It is a striking fact, that
certain animals are almost inseparable from man. They
keep with riim, or folloAv him wherever he settles. The
mouse genus is one of these. On the coast mice are
not the same as on the mountains, and in the forests

THE SLOTH AND THE ARMADILLO. 425
they are again different. Everywhere they leave their
original dwelling places, which they exchange for an
abode with, man. As the mouse and the rat attack
the gathered fruits of the earth, the agouti preys on
those yet standing in the field. These animals are
seldom found in the depths of the forest, but more fre
quently on its edge near the chacras of the Indians.
Shortly before sunset triey leave trie thickets, and steal-
trifly repair to the maize, yucca, and anana fields, where
they scratch up the root and eat the grain and fruit;
but the slightest noise drives them back to their holes.
In the deeper recesses of the forest resounds the mono
tonous, drawling cry of the sloth. Here we have a
symbol of rife under the utmost degree of listlessness, "
and of trie greatest insensibility in a state of languid
repose. Triis emblem of misery fixes itself on an almost
leafless bough, and there remains defenceless ; a ready
prey to any assailant. Better defended is the scale-
covered armadillo, with his coat of mail. Towards
evening he burrows deep holes in the earth, and searches
for the larvae of insects, or he ventures out of the forest,
and visits the yucca fields, where he digs up the well-
flavoured roots. The ant-eater rakes up with his long
curved claws the crowded resorts of ants, stretches out
his long, spiral, and adhesive tongue, into the midst of
the moving swarm, and draws it back covered with a
multitude of crawhng insects.
In the soft marshy grounds, or in the damp shady
recesses of the forests, the heavy tapir reposes during
the heat of the day ; but when the fresh coolness of

426 TRAVELS IN PERU.
evening sets in, he roves through the forest, tears
the tender twigs from the bushes, or seeks food in the
grass-covered Pajonales. Sometimes a multitude of
tapirs sally from trie forests into the cultivated fields, to
the great alarm of the Indians. A broad furrow marks
the tract along which they have passed, and the plants
they encounter in their progress are trampled down or
devoured. Such a visit is particularly fatal to the coca
fields ; for trie tapirs are extremely fond of the leaves of
the low-growing coca plant, and they often, in one night,
destroy a coca field which has cost a poor Indian the
hard labour of a year.
Flocks of the umbilical hog, or peccary, traverse the
level Montafias. If one of them is attacked by the
hunter, a whole troop faUs furiously on him, and it is
only by promptly climbing up a tree that he can escape ;
then, whizzing and grunting, they surround trie stem,
and with their snouts turn up the earth round the root,
as if intending to pull down trie tree and so get at their
enemy. The stag lurks in the thicket to withdraw from
the eyes of the greedy ounce ; but towards evening he
leaves riis hiding place, and sometimes strays beyond
the boundary of the forest ; lie ventures into the maize
fields of the plantations, where he tarries until night is
far advanced.
The same diversity of nature and habits is seen in
the numerous hosts of birds that inhabit trie leafy cano
pies of the forest. On the loftiest trees, or on detached
rocks, eagles, kites, and falcons, build their, eyries.
The most formidable of these birds of prey, both for

THE TUNQUI. 427
boldness and strength, the Morphnus harpyia, Cab.,
darts down on the largest animals and fears not to
encounter the fiercest inhabitant of the forest. The owl
{Noctua, Scops, Strix,) and the goat-milker {Caprimul-
gus, Hydropsalis, Chordiles,) fly with softly flapping
wings to their hunting quarters to surprise their victims
whilst asleep. In the hilly parts of the Montafias the
black ox-bird {Cephalopterus ornatus, Geoff), the Toro-
pishu of the Indians fills the forest with riis distant
beUow, similar to the roaring of a bull. The Tunqui *
inhabits trie same district. This bird is of the size of a
cock ; trie body is bright red, but the wings are black.
Trie head is surmounted by a tuft of red feathers, be
neath which the orange bill projects with a shght curve.
It lives sociably with other birds in thickets, or among
Cinchona trees, the fruit of whicri is part of its food
Its riarsh cry resembles the grunt of the hog, and
forms a striking contrast to its beautiful, plumage.
Numberless fly-catchers and shrikes {Muscicapidce and
LaniadcB) hover on tree and bush, watching for the
passing insects, which they snatch up with extraordinary
dexterity. Finches twitter on the summits of the loftiest
trees beyond the reach of the hunter's shot : they are
distinguished, hke the Ampelidce, who, riowever, live
amongst trie lower busries, by the lively and almost
* Rupicola peruviana, Ch. Dum. The colour of the female is reddish brown,
and she is named by the natives Tunqui mulato ; the male is called Tunqui Colo
rado. In some parts of the Montafias the Cephalopterus ornatus is called Ycrna
Tunqui. Thus, even the Indians have observed the relationship of these birds,
which, classed according to our system of natural history, actually belong to one
family, the AmpeUdie. Their affinity is indicated very correctly byjhe Indian
name.

428 TRAVELS IN PERU.
dazzling colours of their feathers. In modest plumage
of cinnamon-brown, with head and neck of dark olive,
the Organista* raises, in the most woody parts of the
forest, her enchanting song, which is usually the prog
nostic of an approaching storm. The tender, melancholy
strains and the singular clearness of the innumerable
modulations charm the ear of the astonished traveller,
who, as if arrested by an invisible power, stops to listen
to the syren, unmindful of the danger of the threatening
storm. On old decayed stumps of trees the busy
creeper f and the variegated woodpecker are seen
pecking the insects from under the loose bark, or by
their tapping bring them out of their concealed crevices;
while the red-tailed potter-bird {Opetiorynchus rufican-
dus, Pr. Max.) builds his dwelhng of potter's clay, or
loam, as firmly as if it were destined to last for ever.
The pouched starlings^ hang their nests, often four or
five feet long, on the slender branches of trees, where
they swing to and fro with the slightest breath of wind.
Like a dazzling flash of coloured ligrit the colibri (hum
ming-bird) appears and disappears. No combination of
gorgeous colouring can exceed that which is presented
in the plumage of the golden-tailed humming or fly-bird
{Trochilus chrysurus, Cuv.) which haunts the warm
* The Organistas of Peru, Brazil, and Guiana, &c, mentioned by so many
travellers, all belong to the family of the Troglodytinse, to the two genera,
Troglodytes, Vieill, and Cyphorliinus, Gab. The Peruvian Organista above
alluded to, is the Troglodytes leucophrys, Tsch. In Guiana it appears to be the
Cyphorhirms carmatus, Cab.
t Xenops, Anabates, Dendrocolaptes, and many other kinds of Capito and
Picus. J These are different kinds of Cassicus and Icterus.

CURIOUS BIRDS. 429
primeval forests, but it is still more frequently found in
the pure atmosphere of trie ceja-girded Montafias. The
silky cuckoo {Trogon heliothrix, Tsch.) retires into the
thickest masses of foliage, from which its soft rose-
coloured plumage peeps out like a flower. Trie cry of the
voraciuos chuquimbis* accompanies the traveller from his
first steps in the Montafias to his entrance into the pri
meval forests, where he finds trieir relative, Dios te de f.
This bird accompanies its significant cry by throwing
back its head and making a kind of rocking movement
of its body. The Indians, who are always disposed to
connect superstitious ideas witri trie natural objects triey
see around triem, believe triat some great misfortune will
befaU any one wrio may shoot this bird, because it utters
the sacred word, Dios. Long trains of green parrots fill
the air with their noisy chattering. One kind of these
birds {Ps. mercenarius, Tsch.) is remarkable for regular
migrations. Every morning they sally forth in flocks
from the upper to the lower forests, where they pass the
day, and they regularly return before sunset to their roost
ing places. From year to year these parrots leave their
nigrit quarters daily at trie same hour, and return with
equal punctuahty before sunset. This regularity of de
parting and returning has caused the natives to give
triem the name of Jornaleros (day-labourers). From the

* Kinds of Pteroglossus. Those most frequently met with in the Montafias
are the Pt. atrogularis, Sturm ; PL cceruleocimctus, Tsch. (Aulacorhynchus, Orb.) ;
and Pt. Derbianus, Gould.
+ Dios te de, signifies May Cod give it thee. The sound which is interpreted
Dios te de, resembles very much the cry of most of the Todcans, or pepper-
eaters.

430 TRAVELS IN PERU.
depth of the forests sounds often arise which resemble
human voices, and the astonisried hunter then believes
that he is in the vicinity of his companions, or, perhaps, of
hostile Indians. He eagerly listens, and it is only when
well acquainted with the sounds of trie winged inhabitants
of the woods that he can recognise the melancholy tones
of the wood-pigeons {C. infuscata, Licht. ; C. melancho-
lica, Tsch.). When day begins to depart, groups of the
pheasant-like Hachahuallpa* assemble, and with the cry
of Ven acd, Ven acd,f summon their distant companions.
Not only are the trees of the forests peopled with
myriads of birds, but the earth has also its feathered
inhabitants, who seldom soar above the level of the soil.
They build their nests among the roots and faUen
brandies, arid depend for movement more on trieir feet
than on their wings. Among those members of the
winged tribe, who show no disposition to soar into trie
regions of air, we find here the turcassa, a pigeon
with richly-shaded plumage ; the beautifully speckled
toothed fowl {Odontophorus speciosus, Tsch.), and short-
tailed grass fowl, or crake,! whose flesh when cooked is
dehcately white and finely flavoured. In marshy places
and on the slimy banks of rivers, the jabiru {Mycteria
americana, L.), loves to wade, together witri the rose-
coloured spoon-bill {Platalea ajaja, L.) ; the fish-de
vouring ibis {Tantalus loculator, L.), the curved-billed
snipe {Rhynchoea Hilaerea, Val.), the party-coloured
* Several kinds of Penelope.
f The cry of this bird closely resembles the Spanish words Ven acd (Come
hither). X Seven species of Crypturus.

AMPHIBIA OF THE FORESTS. 431
cranes, plovers, land-rails, shrites, and even sea-swal
lows.* In trie rivers there are ducks : these birds are,
perhaps, carried down by the currents from the Andes,
or, possibly, they fly in great trains from the inner
waters of Brazil.
Of the amphibia in the principal forests of Peru,
only trie great fresh-water tortoise {Hydraspis expansa,
Fitz.), is useful to the natives. On the sandy banks of
rivers this animal buries its eggs, from whicri trie
Indians extract oil : its flesh, also, supplies well-flavoured
food. AU other animals of this class are objects of
terror, or at least of aversion, to the Indians. In the
warm sand of the river banks, lies the lazy caiman, f
He keeps his jaws wide open, only closing them to
swallow the innumerable flies which he catches on his
tongue. To the helplessness of these animals when on
land, the natives have to be thankful that they are not
the most dangerous scourges of the forest : in water,
their boldness and swiftness of motion are fearful. The
number of lizards riere is not great, nor do triey attain
so considerable a size as in other equatorial regions.
The serpents are to be feared, and on approaching
them, it is not easy to decide at the first view whether
they belong to a poisonous or innoxious species. In the
forests, where the fallen Agaves lie in thick, moist layers,
the foot of the hunter sinks deep at every step. Multi
tudes of venomous amphibia are hatched in the half-
putrescent vegetable matter, and lie who inadvertently
* Sterna erythrorhynchos, Prince Max. St. magnirostris, Licht.
f Champsa fissipes, sclerops el nigra, Wagl.

432 TRAVELS IN PERU.
steps on one of these animals may consider himself
uncommonly fortunate if he can effect his retreat
without being wounded. But it is not merely in these
places, which seem assigned by nature for their abode,
that loathsome reptiles are found : they creep between the
roots of large trees, under the thickly interwoven brush
wood, on the open grass plots, and in the maize and
sugar-cane fields of the Indians : nay, triey crawl even
into trieir riuts, and most fortunate is it for the inha
bitants of those districts that the number of the
venomous, compared with the innoxious reptiles, is
comparatively small. Of the poisonous serpents, only
a few kinds are known whose bite is attended with
very dangerous, consequences. The Miuamaru, or
Jergon {Lachesis picta, Tscri.), is, at most, three feet
long, with a broad, heart-shaped head, and a thick
upper lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those
lower down his place is fiUed by his no less fearful
relative Flammon {Lachesis rhombeata, Prince Max.),
which is six or seven feet in length. These serpents
are usuaUy seen coiled almost in a circle, the head
thrust forward, and the fierce, treaeherous-looking eyes
glaring around, watching for prey, upon Avhicri. they
pounce with the swiftness of an arrow; then, coiling
themselves up again, they look tranquilly on the death-
struggle of trie victim. It would appear, that these
amphibia have a perfect consciousness of the dreadful
effect of their poisonous weapon, for they use it when
they are neither attacked nor threatened, and they
wound not merely animals fit for their food, but all that

POISONOUS SNAKES. 433
come within their reach. More formidable than .the
two snakes just described, but happily much less com
mon, is the brown, ten-inch long viper.* It is brown,
with two rows of black circular spots. The effect of
ite bite is so rapid, that it kiUs a strong man in two or
three minutes. So convinced are the natives of its
inevitably fatal result, that they never seek any remedy;
but immediately on receiving the wound, lay themselves
down to die. In the Montafias of Pangoa this viper
abounds more than in any other district, and never
without apprehension do the Cholos undertake their
annual journey for the coca harvest, as they fear to fall
victims to the bite of this viper. The warning sound
of the rattle-snake is seldom heard in the hot Montafias,
and never in the higher regions.
Nature, who in. almost all things has established an
equilibrium, supplies the natives with remedies against
the bite of the serpent. One of the cures most
generally resorted to is the root of the amarucachu,
(Polianihes tuberosa, L.), cut into slips and laid upon
the wound. Another is the juice of the creeping plant
called vejuco de huaco {Mikania Huaco, Kth.), which
is already very widely celebrated. This latter remedy
was discovered by the negroes of the equatorial province,
Choco. They remarked that a sparrow-hawk, called the
huaco, picked up snakes for its principal food, and when
bitten by one it flew to the vejuco and ate some of the
__ , , ^
* EchiSna ocellatepMTsch. This is the only species of .the viper family belong
ing tq South America, as yet known.
F F

434 TRAVELS IN PERU.
leaVes. At length the Indians thought of making the
experiment on themselves, and when bitten by serpents
triey drank the expressed juice of the leaves of the
vejuco, and constantly found that trie wound was thereby
rendered harmless. The use of triis exceUent plant
soon became general ; and in some places trie belief of
the preservative power of the vejuco juice was carried so
far triat men in good health were inoculated with it.
In this process some spoonsful of the expressed fluid are
drunk, and afterwards some drops are put into incisions
made in the hands, feet, and breast. The fluid is rubbed
into the wounds by fresh vejuco leaves. After this
operation, according to trie testimony of persons wortriy
of credit, the bite of the poisonous snake fails for a long
time to have any evil effect. Besides trie two plants
mentioned above, many others are used with more or
less favourable results. The inhabitants of the Montana
also resort to other means, which are too absurd to be
detailed here ; yet their medicines are often of benefit,
for their operation is violently reactive. They usually
produce the effect of repeated emetics, and cause great
perspiration. There is much difference in the modes of
external treatment of the wound, and burning is often
employed. I saw an Indian apply to his wife's foot,
which had been bitten, a plaster, consisting of moist gun
powder, pulverised sulphur, and finely-chopped tobacco,
mixed up together. He laid this over the wounded part
and set fire to it. This application, in connection with
one of the nausea-exciting remedies taken inwardly,
had a successful result.

THE GIANT SNAKE. 435
Innoxious snakes* wind on tendriUed climbing plants,
or he hke necklaces of coral on the brown decayed
leaves {Elap. affinis, Fitz.). Where the branches of rivers
enter the gloomy forests and form little narrow lagunes,
over wriich trie high trees spread in vaulted cupolas
almost impervious to the light of day, there dwells the
powerful giant snake, {Eunectes murinus, Wagl.,) caUed
by the Indians, in their figurative language, yacumaman,
"mother of the waters." Stretched in listless repose,
or winding round the stem of an old tree, bathing her
tail in the cool lagune, she watches wistfully for the
animals of trie forest who come to the waters to quench
their thirst. Whilst she gazes at her distant prey, the
fascinating power of her eyes seems to subdue the trem
bling victim, and, unable even to attempt escape, he
falls an easy sacrifice.
The amphibia of trie frog species, which lie concealed
in silent repose during the day, raise, after sunset, their
far-sounding voices. The violet coloured throat-blad
der {Cystignathus silvestris, Tsch.) maintains his loud,
uniform croak beneath the bushes, or penetrates into the
huts of the inhabitants. The trapichero, or sugar-mill
frog, is a large species, almost half a foot in length. Its
croak resembles very much trie grating sound caused by
the working of a sugar-miU, for which reason the natives
have given it the name of trapichero, or the sugar-miller.
The croaking of these frogs, whose manifold tones blend
» Sphenocephalus melanogenys, Tsch. ; Eygophis Beginae, Wagl. ; L. taenhiru's,
Tsch. ; L. elegans, Tsch,
F F 2

436 TRAVELS IN PERU.
together in confused union, augments not a little the
distressing dreariness of a forest night.
Of the numerous species of insects which swarm in
these regions, few are remarkable for beauty ; but many
fix attention by their peculiar habits. The bites and
stings of numbers of them are very dangerous, and it
requires much caution to guard against their attacks.
Variegated butterflies flutter noiselessly among the
spreading branches of the trees, or sun themselves on
the warm masses of fallen leaves. The most remark
able of these butterflies is the large atlas, whose
brilliant blue tints shine out witri lustrous radiance in
the dim light of the forest. Along the banks of rivers,
and especially in hot marshy spots, small musquitoes
swarm. The bite of this animal produces an intolerable
burning sensation, and often causes considerable inflam
mation. But more troublesome, and also much more
numerous, are the stinging-flies {sancudos). On my first
arrival in the Montana, I lay several days exceedingly
ill in consequence of severe swelling of the head and
limbs, caused by the bites of these insects. To the
inhabitant of the forest the sancudos are an incessant
torment. In no season of the year, in no hour of the
day or night, is there any respite from their attacks.
Rubbing the body with unctuous substances, together with
the caustic juices of certain plants, and at night inclosing
one's self in a tent made oftucuyo (cotton cloth), or palm-
tree bast, are the only means of protection against their
painful stings. The clothes commonly worn are not
sufficient, for triey are perforated by the long sting of

STINGING INSECTS. 437
the larger species, particularly of the much-dreaded
huir-pasimi-sancudo (Lip-gnat). Regularly every evening
at twflight fresh swarms of these mischievous insects
make their appearance.
The ticks {ixodes) are a class of insects destined by
nature for the suction of plants ; but they often forsake
trees, shrubs, and grasses, to fasten on man and otrier
animals. With their long sharp sting3 they make punc
tures, in whicri triey insert their rieads, and thereby
occasion very painful sores. Triese insects appear to
riave no preference for any particular class of animals.
They are often found on the hair of dead mammalia, and
among the feathers of birds which have been shot ; even
the toad, the frog, and the scaly lizzard are not spared
by them. Much more troublesome than these insects
are the antanas, which are not visible to the naked eye.
They penetrate trie surface of the skin, and introduce
themselves beneath it, where they propagate with incre
dible rapidity ; and wrien some thousands of them are
collected together, a blackish spot appears, which quickly
spreads. If these insects are not destroyed when
they first introduce themselves into the punctures, they
multiply with incalculable rapidity, destroying the skin,
and aU the tender parts in contact witri it. Washing
with brandy, whicri is often found to be a remedy against
trie less miscriievous isancos, is not sufficient for the
removal of the antanas. For their extirpation the only
effectual remedy is frequently bathing the part affected
with a mixture of spirits of wine and corrosive sublimate.
Who can . describe the countless myriads of ants

438 TRAVELS IN PERU.
which swarm through the forests % Every shrub is full
of creeping life, and the decayed vegetation affords
harbour for some peculiar kinds of these insects. The
large yellow puca-fipi is seen in multitudes in the open
air, and it even penetrates into the dwelhngs. This
insect does not bite, but its crawhng creates great irrita
tion to the skin. The small black yana-pipi, on the
contrary, inflicts most painful punctures. A very mis
chievous species of stinging ant is the black sunchiron.
This insect inflicts a puncture with a long sting, which
he carries in the rear of his body. The wound is exceed
ingly painful, and is sometimes attended by dangerous
Consequences. My travelhng companion, C. Klee, being
stung by one of these ants, suffered such severe pain and
fever, that he was for a short while delirious. A few
nights afterwards, a similar attack was made on myself
during sleep. It suddenly awoke me, and caused me to
start up with a convulsive spring. I must confess that
I never, in my whole life, experienced such severe pain
as I did at that moment.
A most remarkable phenomenon is exhibited by the
swarms of the species called the Haui-huacan-pipi,*
the great wandering ant. They appear suddenly in
trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward in a
straight direction, without stopping. The smaU, the
weak, and the neuters are placed in the centre, while the
large and the strong flank the army, and look out for
prey. These swarms, called by the natives Chacus,

* From flaui, the eye, huacay, to cry, and ( in, the ant ; — so called by the
Indians, because the pain of its numerous stings brings tears'into the eyes.'

ANTS AND ANT-HILLS. 439
sometimes enter a hut and clear it of all insects,
amphibia, and other disagreeable guests. This work
being accomplished, triey again form themselves into a
long train, and move onwards. The united force of
these smaU creatures is vast, and triere is no approach
to the fabulous, when it is related that not only snakes,
but also large mammalia, such as agoutis, armadillas, &c.
on being surprised by them, are soon kflled. On trie
hght dry parts of trie higrier Montafias we find the large
conical dwellings of the termes so firmly built, that they
are impenetrable even to rifle shot. They sometimes
stand singly, sometimes together, in long lines. In form
they strongly resemble trie simple, conical Puna huts.
Before leaving the animal kingdom of these forest
regions, which I have here sketched only briefly and frag-
mentally, I must notice two insects, the Cucaracha and
the Chilicabra, species of the Cockroach {Blatta). They
are exceedingly numerous and troublesome. The Cuca
racha, which, more particularly infests the deep regions
of the forest, is an inch and a half long, and above half
an inch broad ; it is reddish brown, with a yellow neck.
The Chilicabra, though, smaller, is more mischievous,
by reason of its greater numbers. They settle in the
huts, where triey destroy provisions, gnaw clothes, get
into beds, and into the dishes at meal time. These
insects defy every precaution that can be taken against
their tormenting attacks. Luckily, nature has provided
enemies for their destruction. Among these is a small
reddish yellow ant, called by the Indians, the Pucchu-
pipi, a useful member of the ant family, for it pursues

440 TRAVELS IN PERU.
and destroys the mischievous cockroaches. There is
also a very elegant little bird, called the Cucarachero
{Troglodytes audax, Tsch.) which, wages war against these
insects. On seizing one of them it first bites off the
head, then devours the body, and throws away the tough
wings. These operations being completed, it hops to the
nearest bush, and tunes its melodious sOng, the sounds
of which closely resemble the words " Acabe la tarea!"
a name which the Indians give to this bird.* I could
yet fill many pages with descriptions of insects which
are dangerous or troublesome, and among them are
included the julus, measuring six inches in length, the
large black and red scorpion, not forgetting the numer
ous poisonous wasps and the cicadas. However, those
which have been noticed will suffice to afford an idea of
the ever-active movements of animal life in the forests.
Willingly would I take a view of the vegetation of
the virgin forests, and attempt to sketch its- progressive
developments and alternations from the hilly Montafias
of the eastern dechvities of the Andes to the humid level
banks of the larger rivers ; but I do not feel myself
competent to undertake a labour to which former tra
vellers intimately acquainted with the world of plants
have already rendered full justice, f Being devoted to
* " Acabe la tarea " may be translated "My task is finished." But the Indians
are not very consistent in their interpretations of the song of the Cucarachero ;
for in some districts, they contend that it repeats the words — Casa te Soltera,
" Go omd get married, Maiden.'''
+ A. von Humboldt, von Martius, and, in particular, Pbppig, who has pub
lished a narrative of his journey through Peru, distinguished by its precision,
and written in a style so elegant and simple that its perusal affords the utmost
interest and pleasure.

FOREST VEGETATION. 441
trie study of zoology, and, unfortunately, too little fami
liar with botany, I have confined myself to a description
of trie general impression produced by the luxuriant
growth of trie soil, without entering into the individuali
ties of the vegetation. In trie more highly situated
Montafias, where the cinchona is found in the place of
its nativity, the gigantic orchidea3, the numerous fern
plants, the tree-like nettles, the wonderful bignonias,
and the numerous, impenetrable complications of climb
ing plants, powerfully rivet the attention of the observer.
Lower down, in the . lighter forest soil, amidst numerous
shrubs and climbers, the eye delights to dwell on the
manifold forms of trie stately palm, on the terebin-
thacese, on trie thickly-leaved balsam-yielding legu-
minosse, on trie luxuriant laurels, on the pandanese or
the large-leaved riericonias, and on the solanese, with
their gigantic blossoms and thousands of flowers. De
scending stiU farther, the flat lands of trie forest
assume a dark and gloomy aspect. The massive foliage
of trees overarches stems which are the growth of cen
turies, and form a canopy almost impervious to the
right of day. On trie slimy soil no small shrub uprears
its head, no flowering plant unfolds its blossom. Trie
migrity trees stand alone, and erect in rows, like grave
stones in a churcriyard ; and the child of darkness — the
rapidly-shooting mushroom — finds genial nurture on the
warm humid earth.

CHAPTER XV.
Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc — Villages — Hacienda of Maraynioc — The Coca
Plant — Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it — Mastication of Coca — Evil
Consequences of its excessive Use — Its Nutritious Qualities — Indian Super
stitions connected with the Coca Plant — Suggestions for its Introduction in
the European Navies — Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo — The
Chunchos — Missions to Cerro de la Sal — Juan Santos Atahuallpa — The
Franciscan Monks — Depopulation of Vitoc.
The Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc is, without
exception, one of the most interesting districts of Peru.
It has on the one side, and at a short distance, trie
populous villages of the Sierra, and on the otrier it
borders on the forests, through which the wild Indians
range in their hunting excursions. It was formerly the
principal key to the missionary stations of the Pampa
del Sacramento, the Chanchamayo, Perene, and Upper
Ucayali. It is only twenty leagues distant from Tarma,
from whence the road leads through the fertile valley
Acobamba, to-Palca. Eastward of the latter place are
the ruins of a fort, which in former times must have been
a place of considerable importance. The wild Indians
have repeatedly made hostile sallies from trieir forests,
and it is only by this bulwark, which, with, four small
field-pieces, completely defends the narrow valley, that
they have been checked in their advance on Tarma.

PASSAGE ACROSS THE ANDES. 443
An exceedingly steep path runs about a league and a
half up the acclivity ; then, becoming somewhat more
level, it extends to the base of the crest, which at that
part is about 14,000 feet above trie level of the sea.
Here the aspect of the Andes is by no means so
imposing as that of the CordiUera, for the glaciers and
steep rocky summits are wanting. The highest peaks
rise only about 200 feet above the crest. As in the
Cordillera, the eastern declivity inclines much more
gently than the western, but the road is marsriy, and
is interspersed with large hoUows, into which the mules
often faU, and are kiUed. After passing over the Andes,
two leagues fartrier, we come to the hacienda Maraynioc,
where numerous herds of cattle are kept. Round the
riacienda there are potato plantations, and the potatoes
reared here are so exceUent, that they are celebrated
throughout the whole Sierra. Every morning the sky
is obscured by heavy clouds ; it rains regularly two
days in trie week, and triere are frequent falls of snow;
yet notwithstanding this excessive humidity, a bad
harvest is an event never to be apprehended. The
cultivation of maize is, however, found to be imprac
ticable here, for soon after germination the ears rot.
A smaU stream flows past the hacienda, and after a
course of about three leagues, it reaches the Montana
de Vitoc. Formerly, the road ran close along the bank
of this stream, but in consequence of trie repeated depo
pulation of Vitoc, it became neglected, and at length
impassable. The way is now over the Cuchillo, or sharp
edge of a mountain ridge, and it must be at least four

444. TRAVELS IN PERU.
times longer than the course formerly taken. From
Maraynioc the road proceeds, for the length of a league,
through a vaUey overgrown with brusriwood, and then
rises to a lateral branch of the Andes, which is almost
as high as the main chain. The Indians call this ridge,
Manam rimacunan ("Thou shalt not speak!"), for a
heavy wind, accompanied by drifting snow, blows con
stantly, and renders it scarcely possible to open the
mouth to utter a word. From Manarimacunan, down
ward, to the lower Montana, the road passes over
stones laid in echelon form, and through a very slippery
hoUow way, which descends rapidly downward, and is
surrounded by almost impenetrable woods ; the only
open and level place is the field of Chilpes, whicri is a
few hundred paces long.
Here it is highly interesting to contemplate the rapid
increase of vegetation, and the varied changes in the
animal world. From the brink of a ridge where only
feeble vegetation can be seen, we descend a few leagues
and speedily find ourselves in the region oftrie Cinchona
tree, and in the evening we are among lofty palms. Trie
first human dwellings seen on entering the Montana are
half a dozen small huts, forming the hamlet Amaruyo,
formerly caUed Sibis, and immediately after we come to
the village of Vitoc. It consists of about fifty wretched
huts, and has a smaU church, in which worship is per
formed twice a year for the inhabitants of the whole
valley. Vitoc is surrounded by two rivers, which uriite in a
sharp angle, called the Tingo, and which separate the

VALLEY OF VITOC. 445
valley from the territory of the wild Indians. The valley
is deep, and the surrounding heights are broken by many
quebradas. The soil is very fruitful, and the locality is
less than some others infested with troublesome insects ;
yet it is but scantily peopled, for, besides the two vil
lages and the Hacienda of Maraynioc, already men
tioned, it contains only a few scattered chacras. The
inhabitants of triis, the most favoured district of the
Montafias, scarcely amount to 200. The villagers em
ploy themselves chiefly in the cultivation of pines, which
are sent to Lima. The Indians of Palca and Tapo bring
them potatoes, salt, and butcher's meat, for which the
villagers exchange their pine-apples. The fruit is con
veyed by asses to trie coast, where, however, it seldom
arrives in good condition. The other productions of trie
Montana are maize, oranges, bananas, paltas, Spanish
pepper, &c. ; but these articles are sold only in the
Sierra. Each inhabitant of the . village cultivates his
own piece of ground, which he can enlarge when he
pleases ; but these people are too indolent to devote
themselves seriously to agriculture. It is only when the
governor in Tarma compels them to pay the annual
contribution, that they make an effort to augment their
earnings ; they then seek a market for the products of
their cultivation, and sell them for ready money. Vitoc
and some of the villages in its neighbourhood, form alto
gether only one ecclesiastical community, whose pastor
lives in Tarma trie wriole year round. He goes to
Pucara only once in six or eight months, to read a couple
of masses, and to solemnize marriages and christenings,

446 TRAVELS IN PERU.
but chiefly to coUect fees for burials which may have
taken place during his absence.
The plantation of Pacchapata is of considerable extent,
but produces very little. The system of repartimientos,
already described, by which the poor Indian is kept in
a state of slavery by advances of clothing, meat, brandy,
&c, is practised in this hacienda to a great extent. The
labourer who is set down in the plantation-book as a
debtor for ten or twelve dollars, has a good chance of
remaining during the rest of his life a tributary slave ;
for if he tries by prolonged labour to relieve himself
from the debt, trie owner of trie plantation causes brandy
to be made, and this is too great a temptation to be re
sisted by an Indian. The butcher's meat given to the
labouring Indians in general consists of Chalonas, that is,
the dry flesh of sheep which have died in the haciendas
of the hilly districts. For a meagre, tough, unwhole
some chalona the Indian has to add a dollar and a half
or two dollars to riis debt, while a living sheep in the
Sierra would not cost half the price. It is the same
with other articles furnished by the haciendas. Euro
pean importations, such as can be purchased at very
low prices in the Sierra, are sold at higri profits by the
owners of plantations to the poor Indians, who have to
repay them by long and severe labour.
At Paccriapata, besides maize, yuccas, and fruits, sugar,
coffee, and coca are also cultivated. Trie sugar-cane
grows in abundance, and is of good quality. An excel
lent kind of coffee is grown riere ; the bean is slightly
globular, and its colour is a greenish blue. In former

CULTIVATION OF COCA. 447
times the viceroy used to send the coffee of Vitoc as a
highly-esteemed present to the court of Madrid. The
coca is also very fine, and yields three harvests in the
year ; which, however, is only trie case in a few of the
Montafias, as, for example, at Pangoa and Huanta. I
may here subjoin some notice of this highly interesting
plant. The coca {Erythroxylon coca, Lam.) is a shrub about
six feet in height, with bright green leaves and white
blossoms. The latter are succeeded by small scarlet
berries. It is raised from the seed, in garden-beds caUed
almazigas. When the young shoots are one and a half
or two feet high, they are removed to regularly laid out
coca fields {cocales), where they are planted at the dis
tance of about three spans from each other. The coca
requires riumidity; therefore, during the first year or two
after it is planted in the fields, maize is sown between
the matas, or young srioots, to screen them from the too
great influence of the sun. When the leaves are ripe,
triat is to say, wrien on being bent triey crack or break
off, trie gathering commences. The leaves are stripped
from trie branches, a task usually performed by women,
and it requires great care lest the tender leaves and
young twigs should fee injured. In some districts the
Indians are so very careful in gathering trie coca, triat,
instead of stripping off the leaves, they cut them from
the stem by making an incision witri their nails. The
plant thus rendered leafless is soon again overgrown
with verdant foliage: After being gathered, the leaves
are spread out on coarse woollen cloths and dried in the

448 TRAVELS IN PERU.
sun. The colour of the leaves when dried is a pale
green.. The drying is an operation which likewise de
mands great care and attention, for if trie leaves imbibe
damp, they become dark coloured, and then they seU for
a much lower price than when they are green. The
dry coca is finely packed in wooUen sacks and covered
with sand. These sacks are of various sizes and colours,
in different parts of the Montafias. In Huanuco they are
grey or black, and when filled weigh from 75 to .80
pounds. In Vitoc they are grey and white, and contain
150 pounds. In Huanta and Anco they are smaU in
size,. and black or brown in colour, and contain merely
one aroba. In the Montafias of Urubamba, Calca, and
Paucartambo, the coca leaves are put into small baskets,
called cestos, and covered with sand. Great care is also
requisite in the carriage of the coca, for if damp be
allowed to penetrate the sack, the leaves become .hot, or,
as the natives express it, Se calientan, and are thereby
rendered useless.
The Indians masticate the coca. Each individual
carries a leathern pouch, called the huallqui, or the
chuspa, and a small flask gourd, called the ishcupuru.
The pouch contains a supply of coca leaves, and trie.
gourd is filled with pulverised unslaked lime. Usually
four times, but never less trian triree times a day, the
Indian suspends his labour, for the purpose of mastica7
ting coca. This operation, (which is termed chacchar or
acullicar) is performed in the following manner : some
of the coca leaves, the stalks having been carefully
picked off, are masticated until they form a small ball,

MASTICATION OF COCA. 449
or as it is called an acullico. A thin slip of damp wood
is then thrust into the ishcupuru, or gourd, and when
drawn out some portion of the powdered lime adheres
to it. The acullico, or ball of masticated coca leaves, is,
whilst still lying in the mouth, punctured with this slip
of wood, until the lime mixing with it, gives it a proper
relish, and the abundant flow of saliva thus excited is
partly expectorated and partly swallowed. When the
baU ceases to emit juice, it is thrown away, and a new
one is formed by the mastication of a fresh mouthful of
coca leaves. In Cerro de Pasco, and in places stiU fur
ther South, the Indians use, instead of unslaked hme, a
preparation of the pungent ashes of the quinua {Cheno-
podium Quinua, L.). This preparation is called Llucta or
Llipta. In using it a piece is broken off and masticated
along with the acullico. In some of the Montana
regions the Llucta is made from the ashes of the musa
root. The apphcation of the unslaked lime demands
some precaution, for if it comes in direct contact with
the hps and gums, it causes a very painful burning.
During a fatiguing ride across the level heights, where,
owing to the cold wind, I experienced a difficulty of
respiration, my Arriero recommended me to chew coca,
assuring me that I would experience great relief from
so doing. He lent me his huallqui, but owing to my
awkward manner of using it, I cauterised my lips so
severely that I did not venture on a second experiment.
The flavour of coca is not unpleasant. It is slightly
bitter, aromatic, and similar to the worst kind of green
tea. When mixed with the ashes of the musa root
G G

450 TRAVELS IN PERU.
it is somewhat piquant, and. more pleasant to European
palates than it is without that addition. The smell
of trie fresri dried leaves in a mass is almost over
powering ; but this smell entirely goes when they are
packed in the sacks. All who masticate coca riave a
very bad breath, pale rips, and gums, greenish and
stumpy teeth, and an ugly black mark at the angles of
the mouth. An inveterate coquero, or coca chewer, is
known at the first glance. His unsteady gait, his yel
low-coloured skin, his dim and sunken eyes encircled by
a purple ring, his quivering lips and his general apathy,
all bear evidence of the baneful effects of the coca juice
when taken in excess. All the mountain Indians are
addicted more or less to trie practice of masticating coca.
Each, man consumes, on the average, between an ounce
and an ounce and a-half per day, and on festival days
about double that quantity. The owners of mines and
plantations allow their labourers to suspend their work
three times a day for the chacchar, whicri usually occupies
upwards of a quarter of an hour ; and after that they
smoke a paper cigar, whicri triey allege crowns trie zest
of the coca mastication. He wrio indulges for a time in
the use of coca finds it difficult, indeed almost impossible,
to relinquish it. This fact I saw exemplified in the
cases of several persons of high respectabihty in Lima,
wrio are in the habit of retiring daily to a private apart
ment for trie purpose of masticating coca. Triey could
not do this openly, because among the refined class of
Peruvians the chacchar is looked upon as a low and vulgar
practice, befitting only to the labouring Indians. Yet,

CONSEQUENCES OP THE USE OF COCA. 451
Europeans occasionaUy allow themselves to fall into this
habit ; and I knew two in Lima, the one an Italian and
the other a Biscayan, who were confirmed coqueros in
the strictest sense of the word. In Cerro de Pasco
there are societies having even Englishmen for their
members, whicri meet on certain eyenings for the chac
char. In these places, instead of rime or ashes, sugar
is served along with the coca leaves. A member of
one of these clubs informed me that on the few first
trials the sugar was found very agreeable, but that
afterwards the palate required some more pungent
ingredient. The operation of the coca is similar to that of narco
tics administered in small doses. Its effects may be
jeompared to those produced by the thorn-apple rather
than to those arising from opium. I have already
noticed the consequences resulting from drinking the
decoction of trie datura.* In the inveterate coquero
similar symptoms are observable, but in a mitigated
degree. I may mention one circumstance attending
the use of coca, which appears hitherto to have escaped
notice : it is, that after the mastication of a great quan
tity of coca the eye seems unable to bear light, aud
there is a marked distension of the pupil. I have also
observed this peculiarity of trie eye in one who had
drunk a strong extract of trie infusion of coca leaves.
In the effects consequent on the use of opium and coca
there is this distinction, that coca, when taken even in
the utmost excess, never causes a total alienation of the
» See page 269 .
G G 2

452 TRAVELS IN PERU.
mental powers or induces sleep ; but, like opium it
excites the sensibility of the brain, and the repeated
excitement, occasioned by its intemperate use after a
series of years, wears out mental vigour and activity.
It is a weU-known fact, confirmed by long observation
and experience, that the Indians who regularly mas
ticate coca require but little food, and, nevertheless, go
through excessive labour with apparent ease. Triey,'
therefore, ascribe the most extraordinary quarities to the
coca, and even believe that it might be made entirely
a substitute for food. Setting aside aU extravagant and
visionary notions on trie subject, I am clearly of opinion
triat trie moderate use of coca is not merely innoxious,
but that it may even be very conducive to healtri. In
support of triis conclusion, I may refer to trie numerous
examples of longevity among Indians who, almost from
the age of boyhood, have been in trie riabit of masti^
eating coca three times a day, and who in the course
of trieir lives have consumed no less than two thousand
seven hundred pounds, yet, nevertheless, enjoy perfect
health.* The food of the Indians consists almost exclu
sively of vegetable substances, especiaUy roasted maize
and barley converted into flour by crushing, which they
eat without the admixture of any other substance. The
continued use of this farinaceous food occasions severe
obstructions which the weU-known aperient quarities of
* I allude here to individuals, (and such cases are by no means singular) who
have attained the great age of 130. Supposing these Indians to have begun tb
masticate coca at ten years old, and calculate their daily consumption as a mini
mum at one ounce, the result is the consumption of twenty-seven hundred weight,
in 120 years.

NUTRITIVE PROPERTIES OF COCA. 453
the coca counteract, and many serious diseases are
thereby prevented. That the coca is in trie highest
degree nutritious, is a fact beyond dispute. The incre
dible fatigues endured by the Peruvian infantry, 'with
very spare diet, but with the regular use of coca ; trio
laborious toil of trie Indian miner, kept up, under
similar circumstances, throughout a long series of years ;
certainly afford sufficient ground for attributing to the
coca leaves, not a quality of mere temporary stimulus,
but a powerful nutritive principle. Of the great power of
the Indians in enduring fatigue with no other sustenance
than coca, I may here mention an example. A Cholo
of Huari, named Hatun Huamang, was employed by me
in very laborious digging. During the whole time he
Was in my service, viz., five days and nights, he never
tasted any food, and took only two hours' sleep nightly
But at intervals of two and a half or triree hours, he re->
gularly masticated about half an ounce of coca leaves,
and he kept an acuUico continually in his mouth. I
was constantly beside him, and therefore I had the
Opportunity of closely observing him. The work for
which I engaged him being finished, he accompanied me
on a two days' journey of twerity-three leagues across the
level heights. Though on foot, he kept up with the
pace of my mule, and halted only for the chacchar. On
leaving me, he declared that he would willingly engage
himself again for the same amount Of work, and that he
would go through it without food if I would but allow
liim a sufficient supply of coca. The village priest
assured me that this man was sixty-two years of

454 TRAVELS IN PERU.
age, and that he had never known him to be ill in
his rife.
The Indians maintain that coca is the best preventive
of that difficulty of respiration felt in the rapid ascents
of the Cordillera and the Puna. Of this fact I was fuUy
convinced by my own personal experience. I speak
here, not of the mastication of the leaves, but of their
decoction taken as a beverage. When I was in the
Puna, at the height of 14,000 feet above the level of the
sea, I drank, always before going out to hunt, a strong
infusion of coca leaves. I could then during the whole
day climb the heights and foUow the swift-footed wild
animals without experiencing any greater difficulty of
breathing than I should have felt in similar rapid move
ment on the coast. Moreover, I did not suffer from the
symptoms of cerebral excitement or uneasiness which
other travellers have observed. The reason perhaps is,
that I only drank this decoction in the cold Puna, where
the nervous system is far less susceptible than in the
climate of the forests. However, I always felt a sense
of great satiety after taking the coca infusion, and I
did not feel a desire for my next meal until after trie
time at which I usually took it.
By' the Peruvian Indians the coca plant is regarded
as something sacred and mysterious, and it sustained an
important part in the religion of the Incas. In all cere
monies, wriether religious or warlike, it was introduced,
for producing smoke at the great offerings, or as the sacri
fice itself. During divine worship the priests chewed coca
leaves, and unless they were supplied with them, it was

MYSTERIOUS POWER ASSIGNED TO COCA. 455
believed that the favour of the gods could not be propi
tiated. It was also deemed necessary that the suppri-
eator for divine grace should approach trie priests with
an Acullico in his mouth. It was believed that any
business undertaken without the benediction of coca
leaves could not prosper ; and to the shrub itself worship
was rendered. During an interval of more than 300
years Christianity has not been able to subdue the
deep-rooted idolatry ; for everywhere we find traces of
belief in the mysterious power of this plant. The exca
vators in trie mines of Cerro de Pasco throw masticated
coca on hard veins of metal, in the belief that it softens
the ore, and renders it more easy to work. The origin
of this custom is easily explained, when it is recollected
that in the time of the Incas it was believed that the
Coyas, or trie deities of metals, rendered the mountains
impenetrable, if triey were not propitiated by the odour
of coca. The Indians, even at trie present time, put
eoca. leaves into trie mouths of dead persons, to secure
to them a favourable reception on trieir entrance into
anotrier world, and wrien a Peruvian Indian on a journey
falls in witri a mummy, lie, witri timid reverence, pre
sents to it some coca leaves as his pious offering.
Soon after the conquest of Peru, when the Spaniards
treated the Indians and aU their customs with contempt,
coca, became an object, of aversion to the whites. The
reverence rendered by the natives to the coca plant
induced trie Spaniards to believe that it possessed some
demoniacal influence. The officers of the government
and . trie clergy, therefore, endeavoured, by all possible

456 TRAVELS IN PERU.
means, to extirpate its use, and this is one cause, hitherto
overlooked, of trie hatred with which the Indians
regarded the Spaniards. In the second council held at
Lima, in 1567, coca was described " as a worthless
object, fitted for the misuse and superstition - of the
Indians ;" and a royal decree of October 18, 1569,
expressly declares that the notions entertained by the
natives that coca gives them strength, is an " iUusion of
the devil," {una elusion del Demonio). The Peruvian
mine owners were the first to discover the importance
of trie chacchar in assisting the Indians to go through
their excessive labour, and they, together with the plan
tation owners, became the most earnest defenders of
coca. Trie consequence was, that, in defiance of royal
and ecclesiastical ordinances, its use increased rather
than diminished. One of the warmest advocates of the
plant was the Jesuit Don Antonio Julian, wrio, in a work
entitled, " Perla de America," laments that coca is not
introduced into Europe instead of tea and coffee. " It
is," he observes, " melancholy to reflect that the poor of
Europe cannot obtain this preservative against hunger
and thirst ; that our working people are not supported
by this strengthening plant in their long continued
labours."* In the year 1793, Dr. Don Pedro Nolasco
Crespo pointed out in a treatise the important ad
vantages that would be derived from trie use of trie
coca plant, if introduced into the European navies, and he
* The worthy Padre forgets the high price that would be charged for coca in
Europe. In Tarma and Huanuco the aroba (twenty-five pounds) costs at an
average six Spanish dollars ; add to this the carriage to Lima, the freight to
Europe, custom-house duties, &e., and this price would be nearly doubled.

COCA IN THE MONTANA DE VITOC. 457
expresses a wish that experiments of its utility in that way
could be tried. Though it is not probable that Dr,
Crespo's wish will ever be realised, yet there is httle
doubt that the use of coca as a beverage on board ship
Would be attended with very beneficial results. It would
afford a nutritious refreshment to seamen in the exercise
of trieir laborious duties, and would greatly assist in
counteracting the unwholesome effects of salt provisions;
As a stimulant it would be far less injurious than ardent
spirits, for which it migrit be substituted without fear of
any of the evil consequences experienced by the coqueros.
After a long and attentive observation of the effects of
coca, I am fully convinced that its use, in moderation, is
no way detrimental to health ; and that without it the
Peruvian Indian, with riis spare diet, would be incapable
of going trirough the labour which he now performs;
The coca plant must be considered as a great blessing to
Peru. It is an essential means of preserving the na
tionality of the Indians, and in some measure mitigating
the melancholy fate of that once great race which disease
and excessive labour now threaten to destroy.
In former times trie cultivation of coca in the Mon-*
tafia de Vitoc was very considerable. Upwards of 4000
arobas used to be annuaUy forwarded to the market of
Tarma, Now only fifty arobas are sent. Vitoc pro
duces no fodder for riorses or mules ; those animals,
therefore, are very lean and feeble in this district, and
are usually unfit for work after two years. Indeed,
triey suffer so mucfi from the attacks of the blood-sucking
bat and the gad-fly (tabano), that after being only a few

458 TRAVELS IN PERU.
weeks in the Montana de Vitoc, trieir strength is ex
hausted, and they are scarcely able to reach trie Puna.
Black cattle, on the contrary, thrive excellently ; but it
is not possible to keep up herds, for trie young calves
are aU devoured by the numerous anrinals of prey. The
Hamas, whicri the Cholos bring from Tapo to Vitoc, are
so unfeebled and overcome by the journey, that on the
second day after their arrival it is often found necessary
to send triem to a colder district.
In this Montana the large animals of prey seldom
approacri human habitations, though sometimes the
ounce pays them a visit, and the Cuguar descends from
trie Ceja. Other animals of the feline genus are very
numerous, and trieir depredations render it impossible
to breed poultry. Even trie fabulous animal, caUed trie
carbunculo, is said to have been seen oftener than once
in Vitoc. In almost every place I visited on the coast,
in the Sierra, and in the Montafias, extraordinary stories
concerning this animal were related ; and many persons
even assured me they had seen him. The carbunculo is
represented to be of the size of a fox, witri long black
hair, and is only visible at night, when it slinks slowly
througri trie thickets. If followed he opens a flap or
valve in trie forehead, from under which an extraor
dinary, brilliant and dazzling light issues. The natives
believe that this light proceeds from a brilliant precious
stone, and that any fool-hardy person who may venture
to grasp at it rashly is blinded ; then the flap is let
down, and . the animal disappears in the darkness.
Such are the stories related by the Indians ; and it

THE CARBUNCULO. 459
appears that the belief of the existence of the carbunculo
has prevailed in Peru from the earliest times, and cer
tainly before trie conquest, so that its introduction
cannot be attributed to the Spaniards. It is even pre
valent among many of the wild Indian tribes, by whom
the early missionaries were told the stories which they
in their turn repeated about the animal. As yet nobody
has been fortunate enough to capture such an animal,
though, the Spaniards always showed themselves very
desirous to obtain possession of the precious jewel ; and
the viceroys, in their official instructions to the missiona
ries, placed the carbunculo in the first order of desiderata.
What animal may have served as a foundation for those
fabulous stories it is certainly difficult to decide ; pro
bably a different one in each particular district. On
the coast it may have been the aftash (one of the
mephitie animals) which seeks for his food only at night.
I have often observed for a moment a singularly bril
liant flashing in trie eyes of that animal when irritated.
The worst enemies of the delightful Montana de Vitoc
are trie wild Indians, wrio are only separated from the
Christian Indians by the two rivers Aynamayo and
Tullumayo. Triey belong to the ferocious race of the
Chunchos, and in their savage manners they somewhat
resemble the Casibos and Campas. They have their
chief residence in Chibatizo, nine leagues from Pucara.
Only three leagues from Paccriapata, at the confluence
of the Chanchamayo and Tullumayo, they have a pretty
large village ; and Palmapata, which they tempora
rily took possession of, is situated still nearer. They

460' TRAVELS IN PERU.
frequently extend their hunting excursions to the banks of
the great rivers, and make inroads upon the territory of
Vitoc, cruelly murdering all the Cholos they meet with.
Any kind of friendly intercourse with them is impractP
cable. I took some pains to accomplish that object, but
without success. While they were on their hunting expe
ditions I have left in their huts knives, fish-hooks, ear-rings,
and other things. In return for these presents they left for
me some of their edible roots, among which were yuccas,
but aU were poisoned, so that, had we not observed cau
tion, I and my venturous companion, Klee, might have
fallen victims to the treachery of these Indians. The
Chunchos, when on their expeditions, are almost in a
state of nudity. Sometimes they wear a short whitish-
brown shirt without sleeves. This garment, when worn
by the chiefs, is red. Most of them dye their hair with
achote {Bixa Orellana, L.), a deep vermilion, and paint
the face and breast the same colour. Their weapons
consist of a bow of chonta {Guilielma speciosa), with
which they use two kinds of arrows. One kind are very
long, with round points and barbs of chonta ;~* the others
are shorter, and have points made of reed, which inflict
deep wounds, very difficult to be healed. They also use
the great wooden sword the macana. A cross having
been put up in the forest, they fastened to it a few days
afterwards a macana and two arrows, as symbols of irre->
contilable enmity to Christians. Their warlike instru
ment is a reed, two feet long and four Inches broad;-
through which their howhngs resound in horrible discord!
It is a custom with the inhabitants of Vitoc to under-

THE CHUNCHOS. 461
take two expeditions every year against the Chunchos.
They are the most laughable enterprises imaginable.
AU the Cholos of the vaUey, with the Alcalde at their
head, or rather in trie midst of them, proceed, armed
with sticks, axes, forest knives and two muskets,* to
explore trie banks of botri rivers. Trie front ranks
advance witri drums beating, and a number of Indians
carry large calabasries filled with guarapo, to which they
pay their earnest devotions every half-hour. When by
accident some of trie Chunchos are seen, the Cholos fly
with aU the rapidity triat terror can inspire, and cannot
be got together again till they reach their village ; then
they raise a tremendous shout, and when safe in their
dwellings boast proudly of their heroic deeds.
The Chunchos are in possession of a very rich bed of
salt, some twelve or fourteen leagues from Vitoc, from
whence they permit trie neighbouring tribes with whom
they are at peace, to supply themselves with. salt.
Hostile tribes, such as the Campas and the Calhsecas,
sometimes attempt to carry away salt, and then a san
guinary contest ensues. This stratum of salt comes from
the top of a hill, caUed the Cerro de la Sal, and it runs
in trie direction from south-west to nortri-east, to the
length of nearly three leagues, covering a breadtri of
about thirty ells. The salt is mixed with red earth.

* The whole valley of Vitoc can furnish only two muskets, and these are in as
useless a state as possible. As for powder, there is a constant want of it. During
my -residence in Vitoc I usually gave the Alcalde some of my powder when he
went out with Ins Cholos, or when there was a firing on festival days. The want
of a suitable number of muskets, and sufficient powder in the dangerous vicinity
of the Chunchos, is characteristic of the improvidence of the inhabitants of Vitoc.

462 TRAVELS IN PERU.
It is probably a continuation of the great salt bed of
Maynas, stretching eastward along the left bank of the
Perene. It may be presumed that it does not extend as
far as the immense PajonaL as the Campas go for their
salt to the Cerro de la Sal.
In former times various attempts were made to convert
the Chunehos to Christianity ; and these attempts were
partiaUy successful. The first missionary wrio ventured
• among them was the intrepid Fray Geronimo Ximenes.
In 1635 he penetrated from Huancabamba to the Cerro
de la Sal, and there preached the gospel in the language
of the people. He built a chapel, and then directed his
course south-west, to Vitoc, where he founded the village
San Buenaventura. Two years after he embarked on
the Chanchamayo, with the intention of extending his
mission to the Campas tribe, by whom he was killed,
together with his companion, Fray Criristoval Larios,
and twenty-eigrit other Spaniards. Several missionaries
subsequently proceeded to the Cerro de la Sal, and found
favour with the natives, so that in 1640 they had no less
trian seven villages of converted Chunchos, Amagas, and
Campas ; but only a few years afterwards aU the mis
sionaries and soldiers were kiUed and the chapels were
destroyed. The Franciscan monks, inspired by their inde
fatigable zeal, ventured in 1671 on a new mission to the
fatal Cerro de la Sal ; and they had the good fortune to
found a village in which eight hundred Neophytes were
collected. A second and smaUer village was founded in
the vicinity of the destroyed San Buenaventura, and
named Santa Rosa de Quimiri ; but the avarice of some

MISSIONS AND CONVERSIONS. 463
Spaniards who fancied there were gold mines in the
Cerro, de la Sal, induced them to get the missions with
drawn from the superintendence of the priests, and to
turn the whole into a pohtical system. Then com
menced trie oppression of the Indians in those parts.
The consequence was a great insurrection in 1 6 74, when
aU the whites were massacred. Thus were the labours
of the missionaries a second time annihilated. Every
attempt for trie conversion of Indians was for a long
time fruitless, and trie missionaries who ventured to
approach them were shot. After the lapse of about
thirty years, during which interval the Chunchos had
faUen back to their original savage state, the founder
of the Convent of Ocopa, Fray Francisco de San Jose,
with four priests and two lay brothers, penetrated into
the valley of Vitoc, and entered upon the territory of the
Chunchos. At this time (1709) Vitoc was first peopled,
and in trie course Of twenty years six large villages were
built. In the year 1739 these missions, again flourish^
ing, counted ten Christian villages and three thousand
baptised Indians. Three years afterwards the Indian
insurrection, headed by the apostate Juan Santos, de
stroyed aU the missions of Central Peru.
Juan Santos was an Indian born at Huamanga, and
he claimed descent from the last of the Incas. This
claim was probably weU founded, for before the revolt
he was called AtahuaUpa, which was the name of the
Inca put to death by Pizarro. Juan Santos was haughty,
high spirited, and clever. In the year 1741 he killed,
in a quarrel, a Spaniard of high rank, and to elude the

464 TRAVELS IN PERU.
pursuit of justice, he fled to the forests. There he
brooded over plans for taking vengeance on the oppres
sors of his country. He first addressed himself to the
tribes of the Campas, and having gained them over, lie
proceeded to Quisopongo in the Pajonal. From thence,
in the year 1742, he made his first attack on the mission
of the Cerro de la Sal. Trie Spaniards riad already been
warned of trie intended rising, but they considered
it too unimportant to call for serious measures of repres
sion ; and whilst lulling themselves in their imagined
security, they were surprised and massacred by trie
Indians. The insurrection spread with incredible rapi
dity. Juan Santos himself led aU the principal attacks.
In one night he took the fortress of Quimiri witri sixty-
five men, all of whom were massacred in the most cruel
manner. The weU-defended fort of Paucartambo was
next taken by a small number of Criunchos, commanded
by Juan Santos. All the Christian churches were des
troyed by the insurgents. The sacred images and the
priests were tied together, and cast into the rivers ; the
villages were burned, and the cultivated fields laid waste.
The number of Spanish soldiers kiUed in this insurrection
was 245 ; the number of priests 26. In the course of a
few weeks aU the missions of central Peru were completely
destroyed, and terror spread even to trie mountains.
The Spanish government found it necessary to adopt
the most vigorous measures, for there was reason to
fear that the mountain Indians would revolt. Castles
and forts were built on the frontiers of all the Montafias
and strongly garrisoned ; but the insurrection did not

FRANCISCAN AND DOMINICAN MONKS. 465
extend farther. The ultimate fate of Juan Santos Ata-
huaUpa has never been satisfactorily ascertained. Some
assert that lie became a powerful ruler, and that as long
as he rived trie races of trie Criuncrios, Pacafies, Chichir-
renes, Campas, and Simirincries, were united. On an
old manuscript in the monastery of Ocopa I found a
marginal note, in which it was said, " As to the monster,
trie apostate Juan Santos AtahuaUpa, after his diabo
lical destruction of our missions, the wrath of God was
directed against him in the most fearful manner. He
died trie death of Herod, for his riving body was devoured
by worms."
Shortly after the tragical downfal of these missions,
two priests, Fray Francisco Otasua and Fray Salvador
Pando, visited the ruins of Quimiri, and endeavoured
to conciliate trie rebels; but in vain. After three months,
during which they suffered dreadful ill treatment from
the Chunchos, they returned to the monastery of Ocopa.
These missionaries were aU monks of the order of
San Francisco, Their active zeal and heroic submission
to any sacrifice in furtrierance of the cause in which
, they were embarked must excite at once astonishment
and admiration. Undaunted by incredible privations
and laborious exertions in the pathless forests, without
food or shelter ; undismayed by the continual apprehen
sion of a violent and cruel death, they courageously
obeyed the inward impulse which inspired them to
preach the gospel to the wild Indians. When intelli
gence was received of the violent death of one of the
brotherhood, others immediately offered to supply the
H H

466 TRAVELS IN PERU.
place of the victim, and the superiors of the order had
much difficulty in restraining the zealous monks. In
the central and northern missions of Peru, 129 Fran
ciscan monks were murdered by the wild Indians.
Those who compose that number are recorded by name,
but many others disappeared without leaving a trace of
what had become of them, and of course triey are not
included in the list. The number of lay brethren who
perished is much greater. It is indeed melancholy to
reflect how little advantage has been obtained by the
sacrifice of so many valuable lives. The missions have
nearly aU disappeared, and the Indians have now retro
graded into the savage state in which they were before
the conquest of Peru.
The Franciscan monks were mild and patient teachers.
They proceeded on the principle of leaving the Christian
religion to act for itself, and they scorned to promote it
by any kind of compulsion. The Dominicans, on the
other hand, who came to Peru with the conquerors,
preached Christianity with fire and sword. The Jesuits,
wrio headed the missions of Southern Peru, adopted the.
one way or the other, as they found most advantageous
to the object they had in view. By this means they
secured the attachment of the neophytes, and retained
most of their conversions. Many of the Jesuit mis
sionaries were higrily intelligent and weU-informed men.
We are indebted to them for important geographical
and statistical inforrnation, and in particular for some
philological works of great value, viz., a grammar and
dictionary of the language of every tribe they converted.

NEW VILLAGE FOUNDED IN VITOC. 467
The Dominican monks, who were mere ignorant fana
tics, sacrificed to their blind zeal for conversion all the
monuments of the early civihsation of the Peruvians,
and restrained, rather than promoted, the inteUectual
development of trie people. Trie Franciscans, animated
by pious inspiration, earnestly preached- the doctrines of
Christ to the wild inhabitants of the distant forests ; but
they communicated little information to the rest of the
world. A few imperfect maps, and some scanty notices
on trie manners and customs of trie Indians, are the
whole amount of their laical labours.
In the year 1779 an attempt was again made to
penetrate to the Cerro de la Sal, and a road was opened
leading from Palca to Chanchamayo, where a fort was
built ; but at the expiration of five years the govern
ment destroyed it, as continued irruptions of the
Chuncrios could not be checked. In 1784, the governor
of Tarma, Don Juan Maria de Galvas, supported by the
Superior of Ocopa, Fray Manuel Sobreviela, visited the
valley of Vitoc, which had been abandoned since the
Indian insurrection. The new village of San Teodoro
de Pucara was founded, and the destroyed fort, Santa
Ana de Colla, was rebuilt. Trie Montana was soon
peopled, and in a short time it contained upwards
of forty haciendas and large chacras. The village of
Sorriano, scarcely two ^leagues from Colla, was then
inhabited by Chunchos/ who showed a willingness to
maintain friendly intercourse with the occupants of
Vitoc, from whom triey took meat, tools, and other
things, which they repaid by agricultural labour. Unfor-
R7H 2

468 TRAVELS IN PERU.
tunately, the plantation owners soon began to take an
undue advantage of this friendly intercourse, and to
charge exorbitant prices for the articles required by the
Indians. For a pin or a needle they demanded two
days' work, for a fisriing-riook four, and for a wretched
knife, eight, ten, or more. A rupture was the conse
quence. The Chunchos burned their own village, and
returned again to Chanchamayo. StiU, however, they
continued on a sort of amicable footing with trie Cholos,
until one of the latter wantonly sriot a Criuncho at a
festival. The tribe then mustered in thousands to
avenge the murder. They destroyed the Christian
villages, and massacred aU the inhabitants who were
not able to fly. Thus was Vitoc once more depopu
lated : Cardenas, trie military governor of Tarma, made
a fresh endeavour to restore the cultivation of this
fine valley. He made the road again passable, laid
out the large plantation Chuntabamba, built and garri
soned the Colla fort. The site of trie former Criuncho
village, Sorriano, was converted into a cocal (or coca
field), and the Montana began once more to assume a
flourishing aspect. Still, however, the Chunchos con
tinued to harass their neighbours, particularly during the
time of the coca harvest, which could not be gathered
without military protection. During one of the harvests
a labourer was shot by the wild Indians, whicri so terrified
the Cholos, that they all fled to Sorriano. Soon after,
Cardenas died, and the coca plantation being neglected,
became a waste. A few years afterwards the haci
enda of Pacchapata was laid out. During the war

DESOLATION OP VITOC. 469
of independence trie Spaniards destroyed Fort Colla,
and the inhabitants of Vitoc were left without any
means of defence against their savage enemies. The
last attempt to reduce trie Criuncrios to subjection and
order was made by a military expedition under the
command of General Don Francisco de Paula de Otero,
but owing to fll-arranged plans it totally failed. No
more trian twenty-five years have elapsed since the
valley of Vitoc, witri its rich plantations, was in the
most flourishing prosperity. Now only faint traces of
its past cultivation are discernible.
The riistory of the Montana of Vitoc is the history of
all the Montafias of Peru. In aU, we perceive trie alter
nate rise and decline of cultivation and civilisation,
caused by the efforts of trie missionaries, and trie incur
sions of trie wild Indians. Throughout all these dis
tricts the present condition exhibits a marked inferiority
to the past, a circumstance which may be accounted for
by the long-continued civil war, during trie contest for
independence. / Nevertheless, the internal tranquillity of
trie country, and trie increasing population, suggest
favourable ^prognostics for the future.

CHAPTER XVI.
Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians — The
Repartimiento and the Mita — Indian Insurrections — Tupac Amaru — His
Capture and Execution — War of Independence — Character of the Peruvian
Indians — Music — Dress — Superstitions — Longevity — Diminished Popular
tion of Peru — Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants — Specimen
of Quichua Poetry — The Yaravies — The Quipu — Water Conduits — Ancient
Buildings — Fortresses — Idols — Domestic Utensils — Ancient Peruvian
Graves — Mode of Burying the Dead — Mummies.
A glance at the history of Peru serves to show that
prior to the Spanish conquest the Indians were the sub
jects of a dynasty, to which they rendered wilhng
obedience. We find, indeed, an uninterrupted series of
revolutions and wars, arising out of the continued exten
sion of the empire, to wriich nations differing one from
another in language, rehgion, and manners, were gradu
ally annexed. For some time after their subjugation these
nations struggled to recover their independence, but the
wise and mild government of the Incas graduaUy
restored peace, and established unity. In course of
time, the magnitude of the empire led to its downfaU.
Huayna Inca-Capac divided his dominions between his
two sons. To the elder, Huascar, he gave the southern
portion of the empire, and to the younger, Atahuallpa,
he gave the northern division. Between the two

PIZARRO'S LANDING IN PERU. 471
brothers there arose disputes, which led to a sanguinary
war; and in triat fatal interval, Pizarro, witri his invading
forces, landed in Peru. With a degree of speed, which
internal union among the people would have rendered
impossible, the Spaniards made themselves masters of
the country, massacred ahke sovereigns and subjects,
destroyed the sanctuaries, and established a new religion
and new laws. Trie barbarous cruelties by whicri that
religion and those laws were upheld are too well known
to require repetition here. Of the many oppressive
measures to which the Spaniards enforced submission
from trie conquered people, I will briefly notice two :
the Repartimiento and the Mita. The Repartimiento
was the distribution, among the natives, of articles of
European production. These distributions were under
the superintendence of the provincial authorities, the
corregidores, and the sub-delegados. The law was
doubtless intended, in its origin, for the advantage and
convenience of the native Indians, by supplying them
with necessaries at a reasonable price. But, subse
quently, the Repartimiento became a source of oppression
and fraud, in the hands of the provincial authorities.
AU the corregidores and sub-delegados became traders.
They purchased consignments of manufactured goods
from Europe, at a cheap rate, and sold them to the
Indians at exorbitant prices. To add to the grievance,
the articles thus forced upon the natives were, in many
instances, not necessaries, but objects of luxury utterly
useless to them. Even more oppressive and cruel than
the Repartimiento, was the Mita, which consisted of the

472 TRAVELS IN PERU.
forced labour of the Indians in the mines and planta
tions. Every Spaniard who wished to work a mine,
obtained from the corregidor a certain number of
Indians, to each of whom he gave daily four reals as
wages, with the agreement of paying to the government
a yearly tax of eight dollars. The condition of the Indians
who were distributed to the plantation owners was even
worse than that of the mine labourers ; they received
only two reals per day, and were required to work in the
fields from triree in trie morning until after sunset. Trie
Indians employed in this compulsory labour, whether in
the mines or the plantations, were called Mitas. But
there was another sort of forced labour, for which no
wages were paid. It was indeed less toilsome than
working in the mines and plantations, yet the Indians
employed in it were frequently subject to much ill-treat
ment. I allude to domestic service in the houses of the
corregidores, sub-delegados, and priests. The Indians
thus employed were called Pongos, and they were
required to continue in their places for the space of a
year, after which time they were discharged. A corre
gidor frequently had riaff a dozen of these pongos, whom
he provided witri miserable food and wretcried clothing.*
In the mines and plantations countless numbers of
Indians were annuaUy swept away by the excessive
labour consequent on the mita. Some writers estimate
at nine millions the number of Indians sacrificed in the
* Even to this day the custom of forced domestic service is kept up in some
parts of the Sierra, where the priest is allowed the services of a female cook
who is called a Mita, and a man servant, for whom the name of Pongo is reserved.
These servants are kept for the space of a week.

CORRUPT LEGISLATION IN PERU. 473
mines in trie course of three centuries. This estimate
is certainly too higri ; but triree miUions more may be
added for trie number of victims of the mita in the
plantations. That the government in Spain sriould have tolerated
this barbarous system, so obviously calculated to bring
ruin on trie nation, may naturally be matter of surprise.
But a glance at trie Indian laws {Leyes de Indias) suf
fices to sriow trie distinction between the intentions of
the Spanish, government and the corrupt legislation of
trie country. Trie laws are, with some few exceptions,
conceived in a mild spirit, and sriow triat trieir framers
riad in view the well-being of the colonies. The execu
tion of these laws was consigned to the superintendence
of what was termed the Indian council {Consejo de Indias).
This council consisted of a certain number of men who
resided in Spain, and who either were only in part
acquainted with the real state of things in South
America, or were bribed by Indian gold to wink at the
abuses committed there. From this council were chosen
the viceroys and high authorities of the colonies,
wrio, whilst in the exercise of their official functions,
amassed enormous wealth by unjust exactions from trie
Indians. One of trie latest viceroys of Peru was a man
who arrived in Lima in a state of utter poverty, and
who, in the short space of triree years, amassed the im
mense sum of five miUions of doUars.
Could it be matter of surprise if at length the Indiana
rose against their oppressors, and made an effort to
shake off the heavy yoke of their tyrants'? For two

474 TRAVELS IN PERU.
hundred years they had borne it silently, without a
single attempt to emancipate themselves. Juan Santos
AtahuaUpa was the first who stirred up revolt against
the Spaniards. The insurrection which he had headed,
though deemed too insignificant to fix the attention of the
short-sigrited government of Lima, nevertheless, convinced
the Indians that they were strong enough to make a stand
against their oppressors. Several partial risings in
Southern Peru were speedily put down ; a leader was
wanting to organise the disconnected plans and move
ments of the insurgents. This want was at length sup
plied in the person of the ill-fated Tupac Amaru, cacique
of Tungasuca, a descendant of the last Inca.
The event which caused Tupac Amaru to attempt a
movement against the Spaniards occurred in 1780. In
that year, the corregidor of Tinta, Don Antonio Ariaga,
made repartimientos to the amount of 340,000 dollars,
and with the most cruel rigour enforced payment of the
useless articles distributed. The cacique of Tungasuca
assembled the irritated Indians, who seized the corre
gidor and hanged him. This was the signal for a general
rising in aU trie neigribouring districts. Trie forces of
Tupac Amaru augmented daily. He was invested with
the title of Inca, and treated witri the honours due to
sovereignty. For several months an active war was
maintained in the Puna, where several towns and viUages
were taken by trie insurgents. Tupac Amaru had made
himself master of the village of Chucuito, and was pre
paring to advance upon Cuzco, when, about the end of
April, 1781, he, with all his family, were made prisoners

INDIAN INSURRECTIONS. 475
by the Spaniards. He was tried and condemned to
death, together with his wife, two sons, his . brother-in-
law, and several other individuals of note among the
Indians. But the execution of Tupac Amaru, which was
marked by circumstances of monstrous barbarity, far
from stemming the tide of revolution, served only to
stimulate the vengeance of the insurgents. They once
more mustered their warhke bands, under the command
of Casimiro Tupac Amaru, the brother of the late
cacique, his son Andres, and an intrepid Indian chief,
named Nicacatari. The latter, assisted by Andres,
burned several villages of Upper Peru, and murdered
aU the whites. They next advanced upon the strongly
fortified town of Sorrata, wriither trie Spaniards Of the
surrounding districts had fled for protection. The town
was taken by the insurgents, and the inhabitants, 22,000
in number, inhumanly put to death, with the exception
of eighty-seven priests and monks. The Indians then
advanced westwards, defeating several Spanish corps,
and spreading terror and dismay through the country.
But, that which neither the arms nor the executions of
the Spaniards could accomplish, was effected by their
gold. A treacherous Indian, bribed by the promise of a
large reward, conducted a division of Spanish soldiers to
the spot where the chiefs were accustomed to meet, Unat
tended by any guard, to hold their council. They were
surprised, captured, and condemned to death. Once
more deprived of leaders, the Indians disbanded and
withdrew, some to their homes, and others into the

476 TRAVELS IN PERU.
forests. Numberless victims paid the debt of retribu
tion to the Spanish government, which now adopted
every measure that could tend to annihilate the nation
ality of trie native Indians. Their dances, their music,
their dress — aU that could revive the remembrance of
their progenitors, was condemned to rigorous prohibi
tion ; ' they were even forbidden trie use of trieir mother
tongue, the Quichua language. The only beneficial
result of triese wars, in which upwards of a hundred
thousand hves were sacrificed, was the abolition of
the Repartimientos, which had been the cause of the
insurrections. Peace was now, at least to appearance, restored ; and
if, occasionally, symptoms of disturbance arose, they
were immediately repressed. This state of things con
tinued until the Creoles themselves gave the signal of
revolt, and the War of Independence broke out in aU the
Spanish colonies of South America. In this enterprise
the Indians readily took part. But it is a great mistake
to suppose that the Indian natives made common cause
with the Creoles against the Spaniards, for trie purpose
of bringing about trie present form of government.
Triey wisried to emancipate themselves in order to esta
blish their own dynasty and a government modelled
after triat of their forefathers. They wanted not a
repubhc, but a monarchy, and a sovereign chosen from the
sacred race of the Incas. Having no clear comprehen
sion of the real object of the War of Independence, the
Indians, when they saw whites fighting against whites,
directed their hostility against all Pucacuncas (pale

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 477
faces) without distinction, killing loyalists or patriots,
just as triey happened to fall in their way. This riatred
was so bitterly manifested, that in some provinces all the
whites and mestizos were obhged to fly, even though
they were the most decided enemies of the Spanish
loyalists. In Jauja trie Indians vowed not to leave even
a white dog or a white fowl alive, and they even scraped
the whitewash from the walls of the houses.
Trie provisional government ordered levies of troops
to be made in trie provinces wriicri riad faUen into the
hands of the patriots ; and then, for the first time,
Indians were enroUed in the army as regular troops.
But it was only in a very few districts triat they volun
tarily took part in the conflict for independence : they
performed the forced service of conscripts, and whenever
an opportunity enabled them to retire from it, they did
so. Trie Spanish dominion being overthrown, trie war
terminated, and a republican constitution was established.
The Indians then clearly perceived that they had been
made trie tools of trie leaders of the revolution. Upon
the whole, their condition was but little improved ; for if
triey were relieved from some oppressive laws, other
hardships weighed heavily on them, and they found
that they stiU were slaves in the land of their fathers*
The Creoles, rike the Spaniards, will draw the string of
despotism tfll it snaps. Then wfll arise another Indian
insurrection like triat headed by Tupac Amaru, but with
a more successful result. After a fearful struggle, they
may reconquer their fatherland, and re-estabhsh their
ancient constitution ; and can it be matter of surprise

478 TRAVELS IN PERU.
if they wreak cruel vengeance on the enemies of their
race ?
Since the War of Independence, the Indians have made
immense progress. During the civil war, wriicri was
kept up uninterruptedly for trie space of twenty years,
they were taught military manoeuvres arid the use of
fire-arms. After every lost battle the retreating Indians
carried with them in their flight trieir muskets, which
they stiU keep carefuUy concealed. They are also ac
quainted with the manufacture of gun powder, of which
in aU their festivals they use great quantities for squibs
and rockets. The materials for the preparation of gun
powder are found in abundance in the vaUeys of the
Sierra. In the year 1841, when I was passing through, a miser
able village on the confines of one of the Montafias of Cen
tral Peru, I took up my abode for some days in the hut of
an Indian, and whilst there I accidentally saw eighteen
muskets which were deposited in a place of concealment.
I, quite unsuspectingly, inquired of the Indian, why he
thought it requisite to keep so many weapons of defence 1
He replied, with a sinister frown, that the time would
come when he should find them useful. I could easily
perceive that my accidental discovery was by no means
agreeable to him ; and from the very marked criange
wriich I observed in his manner, I deemed it prudent to
withdraw from the village and its vicinity. Wriilst my
horse was being saddled, I noticed my host and some of
his confidential friends engaged in very earnest con
versation, and I could easily perceive that I was the

CHARACTER OF THE PERUVIAN INDIANS. 479
subject of it. On my departure the Indian asked me,
with apparent friendliness of manner, which way I was
going ? When I was beyond trie spriere of his observa
tion, I deemed it prudent to proceed quite in an oppo
site direction from the route which I told him I intended
to take.
The character of the Peruvian Indian is essentially
gloomy. It was not always so, if we may give credit to
the animated pictures drawn by early travellers in Peru ;
but triree hundred years of oppression and suffering
have impressed their melancholy stamp on the feelings
and manners of the people. This gloominess is strik
ingly manifested in their songs, their dances, their dress,
and their whole domestic economy. The favourite
musical instruments of the Indians are those called the
Pututo and the Jaina. The former is a large conch,
on which they perform mournful music, as the ac
companiment of their funeral dances. In early times
this conch was employed in the solemnities of royal
interments ; now its use is exclusively reserved for the
anniversaries rield in commemoration of certain events
connected with the fallen Inca dynasty. The Jaina
appears to be of more modern origin ; it is a rude kind
of clarionet, made from a reed. Its tone is indescrib
ably melancholy, and it produces an extraordinary im
pression on the natives. If a group of Indians are riot
ing and drinking, or engaged in furious conflict with
each otrier, and trie sound of the Jaina is suddenly
heard, the tumult ceases, as if by a stroke of magic. A
dead stillness prevails, and all listen devoutly to the

480 TRAVELS IN PERU.
magical tones of the simple reed; tones which fre
quently draw tears from the eyes of the apathetic
Indian. Their garments are all of dark and sombre hues-.
Dark blue is a favourite colour, and appears to be gene
rally adopted for mourning ; for whenever the Indians
foUow a corpse to the grave, they always wear dark blue
ponchos. The dress of the men usuaUy consists of short
trowsers, of coarse brown cloth, fastened round the waist
by a girdle, and a wooUen or cotton shirt. They seldom
wear a jacket, the ponchos of Alpaca wool being always
the outer garment. On their feet they wear sandals of
untanned leather, which merely cover the toes, and are
fastened round the ancle.
The dress of trie women consists of a loose under
garment, without sleeves, and made of coarse blue
woollen cloth. It is confined round the waist by a
broad girdle, caUed the huccau. Over trie arms are
drawn black sleeves, reaching from the wrist to about
the middle of the upper arm. A sort of robe or tunic,
called the anacu, descends from the shoulders to the
knees. It is fastened, not in front, but on one- side.
This garment is made of a thin sort of wooUen stuff.
It is always black, being worn in token of mourning for
the Incas. On the occasion of certain festivals,, trie
Indian women wear a particoloured dress, caUed a
faldillin. This garment frequently exhibits the most
glaring contrasts of colour, one half being bright red,
and the other yellow, in addition to whicri it is some
times adorned with flowers of brilliant hues, and taste-

DOMESTIC RELATIONS OF THE INDIANS. 481
less, gold embroidery. A mantilla, consisting of a narrow
piece of wooUen cloth, is passed over the shoulders, and
fastened under the chin, either with a long silver pin, or
a cactus-thorn, completes the costume. In triis mantiUa,
or in a poncrio, mothers are accustomed to wrap their
infants, and fastening them to their backs, they carry
triem about in this manner for a whole day, whilst
engaged in their work.
In their domestic relations, the Indians are unsocial
and gloomy. Husband, wife, and criildren live together
with but little appearance of affection. The children
seem to approach their parents timidly, and whole days
sometimes elapse without the interchange of a word
of kindness between them. When the Indian is not
engaged in out-door work, he sits gloomily in his hut,
chewing coca, and brooding silently over his own
thoughts. To his friend lie is more communicative
trian to Iris wife. With the former, he will often dis
course, apparently on some secret topic, for the space
of half-a-night; nevertheless, he cannot be accused of
treating his wife with any degree of cruelty, or of
regarding her merely in the right of his slave, as is
customary among many uncivilised races of people.
Besides the official authorities, to which the Govern
ment exacts obedience, the Peruvian Indian acknow
ledges other authorities, whose functions and power are
similar to those which existed under the Inca dynasty.
In like manner, though they have embraced the Christian
faith, yet they obstinately adhere to .certain religious
ceremonies, which have been transmitted to them by
i i

482 TRAVELS IN PERU.
their idolatrous progenitors. Thus their religion is a sin
gular combination of Christian principles and heathenish
forms. Hitherto the most patient and inteUigent of
their rehgious instructors have failed to outroot this
attachment to old forms. The Christian rehgion has
been spread among the Indians by force ; and for cen
turies past, they have regarded the priests only in the
light of tyrants, who make religion a cloak for the most
scandalous pecuniary extortions, and whose conduct is
in direct opposition to the doctrines they profess. If
they render to them unconditional obedience, accom
panied by a sort of timid reverence, it is to be attributed
less to the operation of the Christian principle, than to
a lingering attachment to the theocratic government of
the Incas, which has impressed the Peruvians with a
sacred awe of religion.
The superstition with whicri the Indians are so deeply
imbued is adverse to the inculcation of pure religious
faith ; it is the more difficult to be eradicated, inasmuch
as it has its origin in early tradition, and has in later
times been singularly blended with the Catholic form of
worship. Of this superstition I may here adduce some
examples. As soon as a dying person draws his last
breath, the relatives, or persons in attendance, put coca
leaves into the mouth of the corpse, and rigrit a wax
candle. They then collect together the household goods
and clothes of the deceased and wash them in the
nearest river. They put on the dead clothes, which are
made after the pattern of a monk's habit, and they
hang round the neck of the corpse a little bag, con-

SUPERSTITIOUS CUSTOMS. 483
taining seeds of coca, maize, barley, quinua, Sec, for his
plantations in the next world. In the evening ashes
are strewed on the floor of the room, and the door is
securely fastened. Next morning the ashes are care-
fuUy examined to ascertain whether they sriow any im
pression of footsteps ; and imagination readily traces
marks, which are aUeged to have been produced by the
feet of birds, dogs, cats, oxen, or llamas. The destiny
of trie dead person is construed by the foot-marks which
are supposed to be discernible. The worst marks are
those of hens' claws, which are beheved to denote that
the soul of the deceased is doomed to irrevocable perdi«
tion. The marks of the hoofs of Uamas are considered
favourable, and are beheved to indicate that the soul^
after a short purgatory, will be transferred to the joys
of paradise. The funeral is conducted according to
Christian forms, and under the superintendence of a
priest. But as soon as the priest takes his departure
food is put into the grave along with the dead body,
which is interred without a coffin. I have sometimes
seen one of trie nearest relatives leap into the grave and
strike the body with his foot, but the meaning of this
strange proceeding I never could clearly understand.
Some curious ceremonies are observed on All Souls'-
day. In every house in winch a member of the family
has died in the course of trie year, a table is laid out
with, brandy, coca, tobacco, together witri some of the
favourite dishes of trie deceased person, and the chamber
is kept closed the whole day. The family firmly believe
that the spirit of their departed relative on that day
I I 2

484- TRAVELS IN PERU.
revisits his earthly abode, and partakes of the repast
that is spread out on the table. A widow usuaUy wears
mourning for the space of twelve months. In some
provinces, on the anniversary of her husband's death,
the widow puts on a bridal dress, and over it her ordi
nary garments. AU her relatives visit her in her dwell
ing, where, to the accompaniment of doleful music, she
takes the lead in a funeral dance. As the hour ap
proaches at which the husband died in the previous
year, the dancing and the music become more and more
mournful ; but whenever the hour is past one of the
female friends approaches the widow and removes her
black mantilla. The other females then strip off the
rest of her mourning garments and adorn her head
with flowers. At length she appears in a complete
bridal dress. The musicians strike up a lively strain, to
whicri the whole party dance, and the evening is passed
in drinking and merry-making.
Among the Peruvian Indians there are marked varie
ties of form and complexion. These differences are
most distinctly observable between the inriabitants of
trie coast and triose of trie mountain and forest regions.
In general, trie Peruvian Indian is of middle rieigrit,
rather slender, and not very robust. The coast Indians
are more plump than the inriabitants of other districts,
because they lead a less laborious rife, and are less
exposed to privations. It is scarcely possible to trace
any particular national physiognomy among the Indians.
In each province a distinct character is observable in
the features of the inhabitants. The varieties of feature

VARIOUS TINTS OF INDIAN COMPLEXION. 485
are less distinctly marked than the differences of com
plexion. The pecuhar tints of the skin are decidedly
defined, and indicate respectively the inhabitants of the
three principal regions. The colder the climate, the
fairer is the skin. For example, the colour of trie Puna
Indian is a dark red-brown ; triat of trie native of trie
Sierra is considerably rigriter ; it is a rusty red, but stiU
darker trian triat of trie coast Indians ; and trie natives
of trie forests are yeUow, nearly approaching to maize
colour. These differences are singularly striking, when
one has an opportunity of seeing the inhabitants of trie
different regions in juxtaposition. It is curious that the
Cholos of trie Puna, when they settle, in trie forests,
become only a very little clearer ; and that on the otrier
riand, trie yeUow Indians of trie Montafia, after' being
several years in trie Puna, stiU retain trieir characteristic
tint. The women are, on trie wriole, extremely ugly, with
round inexpressive faces. Their hands and feet are
very small.
The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for lon
gevity, thougri triey frequently shorten their rives by the
intemperate use of strong drinks. Instances are not rare
of Indians riving to be 120 or 130 years of age, and
retaining full possession of trieir bodily and mental
powers. Stevenson mentions that on examining the
church, registers of Barranca, he found that within an
interval of seven years, eleven Indians had been interred,
wriose united ages amounted to 1207, being an average
of 109 years to each.. In the year 1839 there was
living in the vaUey of Jauja an Indian who, according

486 TRAVELS IN PERU.
to the baptismal register shown to me by the priest,
was born in the year 1697. He himself declared that
he had not for the space of ninety years tasted a drop
of water, having drunk nothing but chicha. Since lie
was eleven years of age, he alleged that he had masti
cated coca, at least three times every day, and that he
had eaten animal food only on Sundays ; on aU the other
days of the week he had lived on maize, quinua, and
barley. The Indians retain their teeth and hair in
extreme old age ; and it is remarkable that their hair
never becomes white, and very seldom even grey. Those
individuals whose advanced ages have been mentioned
above, had all fine black hair.
Since the Spanish conquest, the population of Peru
has diminished in an almost incredible degree. When
we read the accounts given by the old historiograpriers
of the vast armies which the Incas had at their com
mand ; when we behold the ruins of the gigantic
buildings, and of the numerous towns and villages scat
tered over Peru, it is difficult to conceive how the land
could have been so depopulated in the lapse of three
centuries. At trie time of the conquest it was easy, in
a short space of time, to raise an army of 300,000 men,
and, moreover, to form an important reserved force ;
whilst now, the Government, even with the utmost
efforts, can scarcely assemble 10,000 or 12,000 men.
According to the census drawn up in 1836, Peru did
not contain more than 1,400,000 men, being not quite
so many as were contained at an earlier period in the
department of Cuzco alone. Unfortunately there is no

DIMINISHED POPULATION OF PERU. 487
possibility of obtaining anything approaching to accurate
estimates of the population of early periods ; and even
if sucri documents existed, it would be difficult to deduce
from triem a comparison between Peru as it now is,
and Peru at trie period wrien Bolivia, a part of Buenos
Ayres, and Columbia, belonged to trie mighty empire.
I wfll here quote only one example of the immense dimi
nution of the population. Father Melendez mentions
that shortly after the conquest, the parish of AncaUama,
in trie province of Criancay, contained 30,000 Indians fit
for service (triat is to say, between the ages of eighteen
and fifty) ; now, the same parish contains at most 140
individuals, of whom one-third are Mestizos. The whole
coast of Peru, now almost totally depopulated, was once
so thickly inhabited, that to subdue King Chimu, in
North Peru alone, an army of 80,000 men was requisite.
The causes of trie diminished Indian population of Peru
have been so frequently and fully detailed by previous
writers, that I need not here do more than briefly advert
to them. Triey are found in the extensive and reckless
massacres committed by the Spaniards during the
struggle of the conquest ; in the suicides and volun
tary deaths resorted to by the natives to escape from
the power of trieir oppressors ; in trie mita, the small
pox, the scarlet fever, and the introduction of brandy.
The mita alone, especiaUy the labour in the mines, has
swept away four times as many Indians as all the other
causes combined. Since the abolition of trie mita,
the Indian population has been on the increase, though
there has not yet been time for any marked result

488 TRAVELS IN PERU.
to become manifest; the more especially, considering
trie numbers of lives sacrificed during the frequent
civil wars. Nevertheless, it is easy to foresee that a
decided augmentation of the Indian inriabitants of the
western parts of South America will, ere long, be
apparent. Among the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru a variety
of languages are in use. In trie southern parts of the
country, particularly about Cuzco, the Quichua is spoken.
It was the dialect of the court, and that whicri was most
generally diffused, and the Spaniards therefore caUed it
la lengua general. In the highlands of Central Peru,
trie Criincriaysuyo language prevailed. Trie Indians of
the coast, who belonged to the race of the Criuncrios,
spoke the Yunga. The Kauqui was the language of
that part of Central Peru which corresponds with the
present province of Yauyos. The inhabitants of the
north-eastern parts of Peru, as far as 'the HuaUaga,
spoke the Lama language,* and the ..natives of the
highland regions of Quito spoke the Quitena.f These
different languages, which, with the exception of the
Lama, proceed all from one source, differ so consider
ably, that the inriabitants of the several districts were
* Adelung, in his " Review of all Languages," considers the Calchaqui (still
spoken in Tucuman) to be a dialect of the Quichua. It is, however, a dialect of
the Aymara. Adelung makes another mistake when he observes, that the Lama
language is spoken in the neighbourhood of Truxillo.
+ Of the Quichua, Quiiena, and Lama languages several grammars and dic
tionaries exist. Of the Kauqui only single words have been preserved. There
is a very imperfect dictionary of the Chmchaysuyo by Figueredo. Of the Yunga
there is a grammar with a Confesionario and Prayers by Fernando de Carrera
— a very scarce work.

INDIAN DIALECTS. 489
reciprocally incapable of understanding each otrier, and
trie Incas found it necessary to introduce the Quichua
among aU the nations they subdued. The other dialects
were thereby much corrupted, and at trie time of the
Spanish invasion, triey were seldom correctly spoken.
Triis corruption was naturally increased more and more
after the arrival of trie Spaniards, by trie introduction of
a new language. Only for a few of the new articles
brought by the Spaniards to Peru did the Indians form
new names, taking trie roots of the words from their
own language : for most things they adopted the Spanish
names. By this means, but stiU more by trie future
intercourse of trie people witri trie invaders, the purity
of the natural language rapidly disappeared in proportion
to the influence whicri the Spaniards obtained by their
increase in numbers and moral superiority. At present
the Quichua is a compound of all trie dialects and the
Spanish ; it is spoken in the greatest purity in the
southern provinces, though, even there it is much inter
mixed with Aymara words. In Central Peru trie
Chinchaysuyo prevails, and on the coast the Spanish
and the Yunga. The present Indians and people of
mixed blood, who of necessity must speak the ever-
changing Quichua, and also the Spanish, speak both in so
corrupt a manner, that it is frequently almost impos
sible to understand triem.
Trie family of the Incas had a secret language of
their own, which was not learned by subjects. This
language is now almost totaUy lost, not more than two
dozen words of it being preserved. In early times, the

490 TRAVELS IN PERU.
Quichua language was much cultivated. It was used
officially in public speaking, and professors were sent by
trie Inca family into trie provinces to teacri it correctly.
For poetry, the Quichua language was not very well
adapted, owing to the difficult conjugation of the verbs,
and the awkward blending of pronouns with substan
tives. Nevertheless, the poetic art was zealously culti
vated under the Incas. Triey paid certain poets (caUed
the Haravicus), for writing festival dramas in verse, and
also for composing love-songs and heroic poems. Few
of these heroic poems have been preserved, a circum
stance trie more to be regretted, as many of them would
doubtless have been important historical documents ;
but for that very reason, the Spaniards spared no pains
to obhterate every trace of them. Some of the love-
songs have, however, been preserved. In Quichua
poetry, the lines are short, and seldom thoroughly
rhythmical. Rhymes were only exceptional, and were
never sought for. The poetry was, therefore, merely a
sort of broken prose.
A specimen of one of the best of trie Quicriua love-
songs is given by Garcilaso de la Vega, in his " Com
mentaries and Poems." It is copied from papers left
by a monk, named Bias Valera ; and some lines of it are
here subjoined. The subject is an old Peruvian tradi
tion :— A maiden of royal blood {Husta) is appointed
by the Creator of the world {Pacchacamac) in heaven,
to pour water and snow on the earth out of a pitcher;
her brother breaks the pitcher, whereupon thunder and
lightning arise.

QUICHUA POETRY.

Cumac nusta

Beautiful Princess,

Tnrallayquim

Thy Pitcher

Puynuyquita

Thy brother hath broken

Paquicayan

Here in Pieces ;

Hina mantara

For that blow

Cunununun

It thunders ; and lightning

Yllapantac

Flashes all around.

491

There were, however, instances of versification wriich
may properly be caUed poetry. Of this the Yaravies,
or elegies, afford some fair examples. These poems
have for their subjects unfortunate love, or sorrow for
the dead. Triey were recited or sung by one or more
voices, witri an accompaniment of melancrioly music, and
made a great impression on the hearers. A foreigner,
wrio for the first time hears one of these Yaravies sung,
even though he may not understand the Quichua words,
is nevertheless deeply moved by the melody. The
strain is sad and sweet. No other music is at once so
dismal and so tender. What trie donina is as an instru
ment, trie yaravie is in singing ; both convey the
expression of a deeply troubled heart. The yaravie
has been imitated by the Spaniards in their own lan
guage, and some of the imitations are very beautiful;
but they have not been able to reacri trie deep melan
crioly of trie Quichua elegy. The modern poetry of trie
Indians is inferior to trie old ; trie words are a mixture
of Quichua and Spanish, and are scarcely intelligible. .
The Spanish words have often Quichua terminations
affixed to triem ; on trie otrier hand, sometimes the
Quicriua words are inflected after trie Spanish manner,
making altogether a barbarous compound.
The ancient Peruvians had no manuscript characters

492 TRAVELS IN PERU.
for single sounds; but they had a method by which
they composed words and incorporated ideas. This
method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of
knots on strings, so as to render triem auxiliaries to
the memory. The instrument consisting of these strings
and knots was caUed trie Quipu. It was composed of
one thick head or top string, to whicri, at certain dis
tances, thinner ones were fastened. The top string
was much thicker than these pendant strings, and con
sisted of two doubly twisted threads, over which two
single threads were wound. The branches, if I may
apply the term to these pendant strings, were fastened
to the top ones by a simple loop ; the knots were
made in the pendant strings, and were either single or
manifold. The lengths of the strings used in making
the quipu were various. The transverse or top string
often measures several yards, and sometimes only a foot
long ; the branches are seldom more than two feet long,
and in general they are much shorter.
The strings were often of different colours ; each
having its own particular signification. The colour for
soldiers was red ; for gold, yellow ; for silver, white ;
for corn, green, &c. This writing by knots was
especially employed for numerical and statistical tables ;
each single knot represented ten ; each double knot
stood for one hundred ; each triple knot for one thou
sand, &c. ; two single knots standing together made
twenty ; and two double knots, two hundred.
This method of calculation is still practised by the
shepherds of the Puna. They explained it to me, and

THE QUIPU. 493
I could, with very little trouble, construe their quipus.
On the first branch or string they usually placed the
numbers of the bulls ; on trie second, triat of the cows ;
the latter being classed into those which were milked, and
those which were not milked ; on the next string were
numbered the calves, according to their ages and sizes.
Then came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Next fol
lowed the number of foxes killed, the quantity of salt
consumed, and finally, the cattle that had been slaugh
tered. Other quipus showed the produce of the herds in
milk, crieese, wool, &c. Each hst was distinguished by a
particular colour, or by some peculiarity in the twisting
of the string.
In this manner trie ancient Peruvians kept the accounts
of their army. On one string were numbered the sol
diers armed witri slings ; on another, the spearmen ; on
a third, those who carried clubs, &c. In the same
manner the military reports were prepared. In every
town some expert men were appointed to tie trie knots
of the quipu, and to explain them. These men were
caUed quipucamayocuna (literally, officers of trie knots).
Imperfect as was this method, yet in the flourishing
period of the Inca government the appointed officers
had acquired great dexterity in unriddling the meaning
of the knots. It, however, seldom happened that they
had to read a quipu without some verbal commentary.
Something was always required to be added if the quipu
came from a distant province, to explain whether it
related to the numbering of the population, to tributes,
or to war, &e. Through long-continued practice, the

494 TRAVELS IN PERU.
officers wrio had charge of the quipus became so perfect
in their duties, that they could with facirity communicate
the laws and ordinances, and all the most important
events of the kingdom, by their knots.
AU attempts made in modern times to decipher
Peruvian quipus have been unsatisfactory in trieir
results. The principal obstacle to deciphering those
found in graves, consists in the want of the oral commu
nication requisite for pointing out the subjects to which
they refer. Such communication was necessary, even in
former times, to the most learned quipucamayacuna.J
Most of the quipus here alluded to seem to be accounts
of the population of particular towns or provinces, tax-
lists, and information relating to the property of the
deceased. Some Indians in the southern provinces of Peru
are understood to possess a perfect knowledge of some
of the ancient quipus, from information transmitted to
triem from trieir ancestors. But they keep that knowledge
profoundly secret, particularly from the whites. The
ancient Peruvians also used a certain kind of hierogly
phics, whicri they engraved in stone, and preserved in
their temples. Notices of these hieroglypriics are given
by some of the early writers. There appears to be a
great similarity between these Peruvian hieroglyphics
and those found in Mexico and Brazil.
I have already mentioned one of the largest and most
wonderful works of Peruvian antiquity, namely, the
great military road which passes through the whole
empire leading from Cuzco to Quitu, and which has
many highly-important lateral branches. The mag^

AQUEDUCTS AND RESERVOIRS. 495
nificent water-conduits, by which barren sand wastes
and sterile hills were converted into fruitful plantations,
are monuments of equivalent greatness. Traces of these
water-conduits are to be seen throughout the whole of
Peru, and even where the canals themselves no longer
exist, the divisional boundaries of the fields they watered
are stiU discernible. In many districts wriere the valleys
of the Sierra run into the Puna — (I aUude here only to
the dechvities above Tarmatambo, on the road towards
Jauja) — there may be seen many square fields of uni
form size, each of which is surrounded by a low stonewall;
these fields are at present overgrown with. Puna grass,
and are not fit for cultivation. They are what were
called Tapu lands, which were distributed to every sub
ject of the Inca empire, so that each family enjoyed the
produce arising from trie cultivation of a certain portion
of ground. These Tapu lands were watered by skil-1
fully constructed aqueducts, whereby they were rendered
suitable for agriculture. Trie Spaniards having destroyed
. the conduits, the reservoirs dried up, and the soil became
barren. Many of these conduits were subterraneous,
and it is now no longer possible to find them ; in some
parts they were constructed witri pipes of gold, which
the Spaniards eagerly seized as valuable booty.
There still exist vast remains of well-constructed
colossal buildings, as palaces, fortresses, and temples.
The walls of these edifices were built of square stones,
so finely cut, and joined so closely together, that between
any two there is not space sufficient to insert the edge
of the thinnest paper. In the royal palace of Cuzco,

496 TRAVELS IN PERU.
and in the Temple of the Sun, a fusion of gold or silver
was used for cement between the stones. This was,
however, only employed as a luxury ; for in other great
edifices, for example, in the baths of Huamahes in the
province of Jauja, stones are kept together by their own
weight and the precision of the workmanship. These
stones are of very considerable magmtude ; some being
from twelve to sixteen feet long, from eight to ten feet
high, and equally broad. They are not all square ; some
are polygonal, and some spherical, but they were all
joined one to another with the same exactness : of this
a remarkable example is presented in the highly inte
resting ruins of the palace of Limatambo. A question
which naturally suggests itself is, — how did trie ancient
Peruvians, without iron tools, hew these vast stones, and
afterwards work the different fragments so skilfully 1
The first point is to me quite inexplicable ; the second
may possibly be accounted for by friction ; the softest of
two stones which was to be brought into a particular
shape being rubbed by a harder, and afterwards polished
by pyritous plants. The removal of the block from trie
quarry where it was excavated to the place of its desti
nation, and the raising of fragments of stone to con
siderable heights, could only have been effected by the
co-Operation of thousands of men, for no kind of ele
vating machinery or lever was then known.
The fortresses give a high idea of the progress made
by the ancient Peruvians in architectural art. These
structures were surrounded by ramparts and trenches.
The larger ones were protected by the solidity of the

FORTRESSES AND SUBTERRANEOUS PASSAGES. 497
walls, and trie smaller ones by difficulty of access. The
approaches to them were chiefly subterraneous ; and
thereby, they were enabled to maintain secret communi
cation with trie palaces and temples in their neighbour
hood. The subterraneous communications were carefully
constructed ; they were of the heigrit of a man, and in
general from three to four feet broad. In some parts
they contract suddenly in width, and the walls on
each side are built with sharp pointed stones, so that
there is no getting between them, except by a lateral
movement. In other parts they occasionally become so
low, that it is impossible to advance, except by creeping
on aU fours. Every circumstance had been made a sub
ject of strict calculation ; it had been well considered
how treasures might be removed from the palaces and
temples to the fortresses, and placed securely beyond
the reach of an enemy, for in the rear of every narrow
pass there were ample spaces for soldiers^ who might
dispute the advance of a whole army. Besides the
remains of the fortress of Cuzco, which are gradually
disappearing every year, the most important are those
of Calcahilares and HuiUcahuaman. Less interesting,
triough still very curious, are the ruins of Chimu-canchu
in Mansiche, near Truxfllo, whicri are not of stone but of
brick: The architecture of the small fortress of Huichay,
two leagues from Tarma, which defended the entrance
to that valley, is very remarkable. The front is built of
small but firmly-united stones, and covers a large cavity,
in which there are numerous divisions, intended for
the preservation of warlike stores, and for quartering
K K

498 TRAVELS IN PERU.
soldiers. On the steep declivity of the hiU there had
been a deep trench, between which there was a waU four
teen feet higher, flanked by three bastions. Around this
fortress nitre is found in great abundance. It is now
collected by the Huancas (the inhabitants of the valley
of Jauja), for making gunpowder. The diggings for
nitre have almost obliterated the entrance to the cavity,
and the fortress is already so much injured that possibly
in another century scarcely a trace of the edifice will
remain. Notwithstanding a search of several days, I
did not succeed in discovering the mouth of the cavity,
though an old Indian, who, years ago, had often visited
it, pointed out to me what he supposed to be its precise
situation. The walls of perpendicular rock in the neigh
bourhood of Huichay, are often from 60 to 80 feet riigh,
and the clefts or fissures in them are filled up with
small stones. It would be incomprehensible how the
Indians ascended to perform this labour, were it not
perceived that they have hollowed passages in the
mountain. It would appear they must have had dweU-
ings, or stores for provisions, on trie higher part of the
hill, for small windows are often perceptible in walls
of masonry.
The old Indian villages of the Sierra are for the most
part situated on heights, or sharp ridges, which are now
completely barren, as they no longer receive the artificial
watering with which they were formerly supphed. All
lie open to the east, so that the inhabitants could behold
their Deity the moment he appeared on the horizon.
All large towns had a square in their centre, where the

ANCIENT PERUVIAN DWELLINGS. 499
religious dances were performed. From the square a cer
tain number of regular roads or streets always ran in the
direction of the four quarters of the firmament. There
are great varieties in the construction of the houses.
SmaU insignificant huts often stand close to a palace
having twenty or twenty-five windows in one front.
Private dweUings in the mountainous parts are built of
unhewn stone, cemented with a very strong calcareous
mortar. On the coast the walls are of brick. In the
departments of Junin and Ayacucho, I met with the
ruins of great viUages, consisting of dwellings of a
peculiar construction, in the form of a tower.. Each
house is quadrangular, with a diameter of about six feet,
and seventeen or eigriteen feet riigh. The walls are
from one to one and a half feet thick. The doors,
which, open to the east or trie south, are only a foot and
a half high, and two feet wide. After creeping in
(whicri is a work of some difficulty) the explorer finds
himself in an apartment about five and a rialf feet in
height, and of equal breadth, without any windows. In
the waUs there are closets or cupboards, whicri served to
contain domestic utensils, food, &c. Earthen pots with
maize, coca, and other things, are still often found in
these closets. The ceiling of the rooms is overlaid with
flat plates of stone, and in the centre an aperture, two
feet wide, is left, forming a communication with trie
second floor, wriich is precisely like the first, but has two
smaU windows. The roof of this apartment has also an
aperture, affording access to the third floor, the ceiling
of which forms the roof of the house, and consists of
kk 2

500 TRAVELS IN PERU.
rather thick plates of stone. The upper room is usuaUy
less lofty trian the two rooms below it, and seems to
have been used as a provision store-room. I found in
one of these upper rooms the mummy of a child very
well embalmed. The family appear to have lived criiefly
on the ground-floors. The place for cooking is often
plainly perceptible. The second floor was probably the
sleeping apartment. In the course of my travels, when
overtaken by storms, I often retreated for shelter into
one of these ruined dwellings.
The ancient Peruvians frequently buried their dead
in their own houses and then removed from them.
This custom appears to have been very general about
the time of the Spanish conquest, wrien a great number of
Indians committed suicide in despair. Household uten
sils were placed in the graves, when the dead were buried
in the houses, as well as when they were interred in
other places. In many houses in which I made diggings
I regularly found the following arrangement. Under a
stratum of earth two feet deep lay the body, in a state
of good preservation, and generally, but not always, in a
sitting posture. On clearing away anotrier stratum of
earth equally deep there is found a variety of household
vessels for cooking, together with water-pots of clay,
gourds, hunting and fishing implements, &c. There is
frequently a third layer of earth, beneath which the
gold and silver vessels and the household deities are
deposited. The idols are of clay, stone, and copper, or
of the precious metals. Those of clay are hollow, flat,
compressed, and in most instances the faces are painted.

IDOLS AND UTENSILS. 501
Those of stone are of granite, porphyry, or sand-stone.
These stone images are solid, and often several feet
high. The golden idols are always riollow ; but they
exhibit no distinct trace of the soldering. They are of
various sizes ; some of them weigh three quarters of a
pound. Those of silver are always solid. All triese
images of deities have the same physiognomy, and a
disproportionately large head. In most instances the
head is covered by a pecuhar kind of cap.
The vessels used for riolding water or other liquids
are very various in" colour and form. Most of them
exhibit ludicrous caricatures of human figures ; others
are unrecognisable representations of animals or fancy
figures. These vessels have in general two apertures,
one by which they were filled, and the other by which the
hquid was poured out. On fining them a feeble flute-
like sound is heard. It is occasioned by the air escaping
througri trie other aperture. Most of these vessels are
made of red, or black clay, weU glazed. Triose for
holding chicha were very capacious. Some of them
which have been found, hermetically closed, have con
tained criicria upwards of triree hundred years old, and
remarkable for a very smoky flavour. On the vessels
made of gourds fanciful figures are generaUy carved.
Gold drinking cups have been found, adorned with weU-
executed embossed ornaments, and like the images, show
ing no trace of soldering. Among the warlike weapons,
the stone battle-axes are very remarkable ; they have
at both ends a tube, in which the handle was fixed by
ligatures. Articles for personal adornment, such as nose

502 TRAVELS IN PERU.
and lip rings, neck criains, pins, bracelets, and ancle
bands, are usuaUy of gold, and set with small coloured
shells. The sceptres of the Incas are of gold, and exqui
sitely wrought ; those of the Curacas of silver ; and
those of the Caciques of copper, sometimes gilt.
Idols and utensils made of wood are very rarely
found. It would appear that the ancient Peruvians
found more difficulty in the working of wood trian in
that of metal and stone. The Peruvians give to all
objects dug up from the old graves, the name of Hua-
queros, from Huaca, the word for grave in the Quichua
language. The huacas or graves vary in form and magnitude.
When destined for single individuals they were made
small ; but when for families, they were of considerable
extent. On the sandy soil of the coast, no elevation
marks trie spots- where bodies are interred ; but further
inland, (though stiU in the coast region) trie graves are
for the most part elevated and arched, and are built of
bricks. In the Sierra the tombs are of stone, quad
rangular, oval, or of an obelisk form.
In the riuacas, trie bodies are found in a sitting
position, and supported by stones or reeds : trie face
turned towards the east. In front of the body it was
customary to place two rows of pots containing quinua,
maize, potatoes, dried llama flesh, and other kinds of
provisions, and these pots were all covered with small
lids. On each side of the body were ranged cooking
utensils, and vessels containing water and chicha. The
body and all the objects deposited in the grave were

MODE OF BURYING THE DEAD. 503
covered witri a layer of sand, above which were spread
various articles of clothing. Over these was placed
another layer of sand, and trien trie tomb was built
above the whole.
The bodies are found wrapped in several coverings ;
and when first taken out of the graves, they have the
appearance of unfinished statues ; the position of the
head, knees, and feet being alone recognisable. A
strong net-work composed of twisted straw or bast
incloses a thick rush mat, in whicri the body is wrapped.
These coverings being removed, there is found a broad
wooUen bandage, passing round the body, and fastening
trie rusries or sticks which support it in a sitting posi
tion. Under this bandage is a red or party-coloured
covering which, goes over the whole body ; and beneath
this are one or two yeUowish-white coverings, strongly
sewed up. On removing these coverings, there are
found some pots or drinking cups, a few ornaments, the
Huallqui with, coca, and in most instances a silver or
gold idol suspended from the neck of the body. The
undermost wrapper consists of a cloth of rather fine
texture. Probably it was griginaUy white, but time has
changed it to a reddish-yeUow. This covering being
unsewed, the naked corpse appears ; the head alone
being encircled with two or three bandages, called
Huinchas. The body is always in a sitting posture ;
the knees being drawn up towards the face, and the
arms crossed over the breast, in such a manner that the
chin rests between the two clenched hands. The wrists
are tied together, and the ligature with which they are

504 TRAVELS IN PERU.
fastened is passed round the neck.. This, which was
evidently done only to keep the hands fixed in the
required position, has led some commentators on Peru
vian antiquities to suppose that bodies found with
strings round the necks were those of hanged persons.
In the mouth there is a thin piece of gold, silver or
copper ; most of the bodies are in a good state of
preservation, though the features are not discernible.
The hair is always found perfectly free from decay ;
and that of the females is beautifuUy plaited.
The question has arisen, whether these bodies were
embalmed, or whether their preservation is merely the
result of the mummifying nature of the climate. Both
conjectures have found zealous supporters. Don Fran
cisco Barrero, keeper of the Museum of Natural History
in Lima, mentions, in the Memorial de Ciencias Na-
turales* that among the ancient Peruvians certain men
were appointed as embalmers, and he describes the pro
cess they adopted as foUows : — Triey first extracted trie
brain through the nose, then took out the eyes, and
stopped up the sockets with cotton. The bowels, lungs,
and even the tongue, were removed, after which, the
body and skull were filled with a kind of powder, which
immediately after it is taken out of the mummies, dif
fuses a slight odour of turpentine ; this odour, however,
it soon loses on being exposed to the action of the air.
The face, hands, and feet, were rubbed over with an
oily substance, after which the body was incased in the
envelopes above described. I am disposed to believe
* Vol. II. p. 106.

MUMMIES AND EMBALMING. . 505
that this process never had any existence, save in the
imagination of Barrera : it indeed resembles the manner
in which the Egyptians prepared trieir mummies ; but
no such, method was practised among the Indians. The
mummies coUected in the museum of Lima present not
the shghtest trace of this powder, or indeed of any kind
of preservative material— a fact which is mentioned by
the director of that estabhshment, Don E. Mariano de
Rivero, in his Antiguedades Peruanas*
On those parts of the coast where it never rains, the
combined beat of trie sun and the sand has dried up the
bodies ; in trie mountain districts, the pure atmosphere
and trie peculiarly drying nature of the wind have pro
duced the same effect. Similar appearances may be
traced to different circumstances. Of this fact the burial
ground of Huacho, and the mummified animals seeri
on the level heights, furnish the most convincing proofs.
In districts exposed to frequent rain, mummies are
found in very bad preservation, most of them being
mere skeletons. All are in sitting postures. In those
parts of the Sierra where the soil is impregnated with
nitre, bodies, which must have lain in the ground for
several centuries, are found in a very fresh condition,
notwithstanding the humidity.
Gartilaso de la Vega and trie Padre Acosta state
triat the ancient Peruvians were acquainted with the art
of embalming, but that they employed it only for the
bodies of their kings. In the Temple of the Sun at
Cuzco, there were found excellently preserved mummies
* Published in 1841.
L L

506 TRAVELS IN PERU.
of the Incas, each seated on a throne. Several years
after the Spanish conquest, these mummies were con
veyed to Lima, and were buried in the court of the
hospital of San Andres. It is deeply to be deplored
that the fanaticism of the Spanish conquerors should
have destroyed these interesting remains of the ancient
sovereigns of Peru.
The facts adduced in the course of this volume, rela
tive to the barbarous colonization system of the Spaniards,
must sufficiently prove how adverse was Spanish domi
nion to the improvement of the natives, and to the pros
perity of the country. For Peru, Nature's bounteously
favoured land, let us hope that there is reserved a future,
happier than either the past or the present !

THE END.

LONDON :
HRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.