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jlJITED STATES.

LilSLPHIA: IBSILVER, & BUTLER.

c A

NEW HISTOEY

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.

JOHN LOED, A.M.,
AUTHOB OF A MODEKS HISTORY, FEOjr THB TIMES OF LnTHflB TO THK
FALL OP NAPOLEON.

PHILADELPHIA:
COWPERTHWAIT, DESILVER & BUTLER.
1854.

Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by
JOHN LORD,
in thu Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for
the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
8TEKE0TTPED BT J. PAGAN.

FEINTED BY SMITII i PETERS,
FranlElin Buildings, Sixth Stroot, below Arch.
Philadelphia

C4 b

INTRODUCTION.

The necessity for some new History of the United States,
for the use of schools, has been long felt, and frequently
expressed by experienced teachers; and it is with the hope
of supplying some of those deficiencies, of which so many
complain, that the author has been stimulated to prepare the
foUowing work. If any impressive generalization of well-esta
blished facts can be presented — if an unbroken narrative can
be preserved, interesting in its details and instructive in its
moral lessons — and, especially, if the youthful mind can be
inspired with patriotic sentiments and increased veneration for
the principles, labours, and struggles of our ancestors : no
more useful contribution to the cause of popular education
can possibly be made. Such have been the objects aimed at
by the author, and it now remains with the public to decide
whether these have been attained.
The narrow limits of this history necessarily have prevented
as full a description of many interesting events as might be
desired; but no fact which has an obvious relation to the
progress of the nation has been omitted, and all great characters
and actors have been treated in proportion to their importance.
(V)

n INTRODUCTION.
In the preparation of the work, original authorities and
standard historians have alone been consulted, and especial
attention paid to dates and names. The arrangement of chap
ters and subjects is somewhat peculiar, and the whole book
made as philosophical as the popular taste will permit. The
questions have been placed at the end of the volume, in order
that teachers may dispense with them altogether, if they please,
and as they doubtless will, if they have the ability and incli
nation to consult the greatest improvement of their pupils.
In conclusion, the author would modestly express the hope
that this little book may receive the attention which a life
devoted to historical composition should not unreasonably
claim.
J. L.
Boston, June, 1853.

CONTENTS.

BOOK I.
CHAPTER I.
THE DISCOVEBT OF AHESICA  PAGB 13
CHAPTER II.
TH£ INDIANS  23
CHAPTER III.
UNSUCCESSFUL SETTLEMENTS  29

BOOK II.
CHAPTER I.
THB SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA  85
CHAPTER II.
SETTLEMENT OP NEW ENGLAND  61
CHAPTER III.
SETTLEMENT OF NEW TOEK AND NEW JERSEY  85
CHAPTER IV.
SETTLEJIBNT OF MARYLAND  95
CHAPTER V.
SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA  99

VUI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 

109

CHAPTER VII.
FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS  119

BOOK III.
CHAPTER I.
EARLY COLONIAL HISTORY. — INDIAN WARS  123
CHAPTER II.
RELIGIOUS DISSENSIONS, DELUSIONS, AND PERSECUTIONS  133
CHAPTER III.
ENGLISH COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS  143
CHAPTER IV.
POPULAR DISCONTENTS, AND EARLY CONTESTS WITH G0TERN0R3  148
CHAPTER V.
EARLY INTERCOLONIAL WARS  156
CHAPTER VI.
STATE OF THE COLONIES AT THE COMMENCEMENT OP THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY  X62
BOOK IV.
CHAPTER I.
DOMESTIC HISTORY UNTIL THE OLD TRENCH AND INDIAN WAB  169
CHAPTER II.
SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA  J^g

CONTENTS. IX
CHAPTER III.
THE THIRD INTERCOLONIAL WAR  183
CHAPTER IV.
THE FOURTH INTERCOLONIAL, OR OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR  189

BOOK Y.
CHAPTER I.
THE BEVOLUTIONAEY WAE  209
CHAPTER II.
FIBST CAMPAIGN OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR  233
CHAPTEE III.
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1777, UNTIL THE SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE  249
CHAPTER IV.
THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR, FROM THE SURRENDER OP BURGOYNE TO
THE TREASON OF ARNOLD  259
CHAPTER V.
THE TWO LAST CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR  273

BOOK YI.
CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND THE EARLY PRESIDENTS.
CHAPTER I.
CONDITION AND HISTORT OF THE STATES UNTIL THE ADOPTION OF THE
FEDERAL CONSTITUTION  286
CHAPTER II.
THB ADMINISTEATION OF WASHINGTON  '  309

X CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
ADMINISTRATION OF ADAMS  332
CHAPTER IV.
ADMINISTRATION OP JEFFERSON  341
CHAPTER V.
PIEST TERM OF MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION  353
CHAPTER VI.
SECOND TERM OP MADISON's ADMINISTRATION  363
CHAPTER VII.
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1814  377
BOOK YII.
THE LATTER PRESIDENTS.
CHAPTER I.
ADMINISTRATION OF MONROE  389
CHAPTER II.
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN QUINCT ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON  396
CHAPTER III.
ADMINISTRATION OF MARTIN VAN BUEEN  4Q3
CHAPTER IV.
ADMINISTRATION OF GENERAL HARRISON  ^JQ
CHAPTER V.
ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT POLK  ^-yH
CHAPTER VI.
ADMINISTRATION OF GENEEAL TAYLOE  ^j

Landing of ColumbuB.

12

HISTOEY

THE UNITED STATES.

BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.
THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.
The latter part of the fifteenth century was the dawn book i.
of a new and brilliant age in the history of civilization. "chTT"
It was a period marked by the dispersion of the shadows , _
and delusions of the Middle Ages, when new hopes ani- 1460
mated all classes of people, and led to the exercise of to
unknown energies. It was the commencement of those loOO.
experiments and reforms which have since agitated Chris- Thespi-
tendom, and changed the whole structure of society. ^J^°^^°
The restless and the enterprising were no longer willing ana
to rest in the bondage and ignorance of feudal times. ° ™^'''
They aspired to break both their civil and ecclesiastical
fetters They were disgusted with prevailing absurdi
ties, and were clamorous for greater privileges. The
strife of parties and orders, of classes and interests, then
began, which has not yet passed away, and which will
continue until the people, everywhere, shall secure tho.se
great rights which constitute what is most to be valued
in civilization. 2 (13)

14 SPIRIT OF COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE.
Book I. And improvements in architecture, in husbandry, in
ch,i, mechanical arts, in dress, in cookery, and in all articles
of domestic comfcrt, kept pace with the progress of
1460 liberty and the extension of intellectual light. Nature
to revealed unknown sources of wealth, and art presented
1500. new forms of beauty. Sculptors arose, and rivalled the
EcTiTai faultless models of the classic world. Painters trans-
llio^ mitted to posterity the most beautiful conceptions of
learning loveliness and grace. Enthusiastic scholars collected
and collated valuable manuscripts. The muses again -
returned from their long and melancholy exile, and re
kindled the love of poetry and song. Philosophers re
vived the questions whioh had agitated the Grecian
schools, and speculated on the profoundest truths which
had ever moved the human mind. Reformers exposed
the follies and errors of the dark ages, and denounced
the corruptions which had crept into the Church. A
new life pervaded society, and produced a desire among
the people to improve their condition, and extend the
boundaries of knowledge. A great era commenced in
the history of civilization, and a better day dawned upon
the nations.
Re-rival ^^^ nothing has made this epoch more memorable
meTcT' ^^^^ *^® ^P'"* °^ commercial enterprise which first ap
peared among the Italian cities. The crusaders had
developed the maritime importance of such cities as
Florence, Venice, Pisa and Genoa, and stimulated the
love of adventure and wealth. Travellers penetrated the
East, and returned, as did Marco Polo, with glowing
accounts of the wonders and magnificence of Asiatic
cities. But whatever land adventurous curiosity may
explore, will also be visited by those who are animated
by the hopes of gain. The valued productions of Per
, sia, Arabia and India, such as spices, silks, muslins

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 15
shawls, carpets, ivory, and precious stones, were carried booki.
over mountains, rivers and deserts, and sold, in the marts Ch.i.
of eastern commerce, to the merchants of Italy. They ^_ j,_
rapidly acquired fortunes, which increased the desire for 1460
luxury, as well as encouraged literature, refinement, to
and art. 1500.
But the delay, inconvenience and expense attending ^ direct
the overland transportation of goods from Asia, made p"*'"**
. . 'to India
the supply more limited than the demand. It therefore by sea
became the great desire of the merchants to import their ^^m^
commodities direct from India by sea. But no direct ti^^ ag»-
passage was known to navigators; to discover one, be-
.came the great problem of the age.
None studied this subject with more earnestness than 1480.
Christopher Columbus, of Genoa; a great genius by
nature, and also acquainted, theoretically and practically,
with all the science and art then known which pertained
to navigation.
From the rotundity of the earth's surface, and from coium-
weU-attested reports of floating timber, curiously carved *"^ ™"
— of canoes with the dead bodies of unknown races — and rotundi-
of plants and trees, natives neither of Africa nor Eu- ^-^^'
rope, which had been found at a great distance at sea ^^^ »
west of Cape St. Vincent, or throvra upon the westerly passage
shores of the .\znres — be inferred that a great continent *°^'"''^
might be reached by sailing west, and that this continent
was India.
He did not expect to discover a new continent, still
less such as that of America, whose existence was not
even dreamed of by the nations of antiquity, or by the
most enlightened men of the fourteenth century. He
simply hoped, by sailing west, to reach the eastern shores
of Asia, having no definite idea of the greatness of the
earth, nor of the difficulties to be surmounted. He did

Ch. 1
A. D.

16 COLUMBUS SOLICITS PATRONAGE.
BOOK I. not even know of the passage to India round the Cape of
Good Hope. The only way known by which merchants
could easily reach this El Dorado was, either by crossing
^486 the Isthmus of Suez, and then undertaking the dangerous
' navigation of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean; or by
traversing the Syrian deserts to tbe Euphrates, and -then
descending the river and sailing through the Persian
Gulf; subject, in either case, to great hardships, and the
attacks of hostile nations and tribes.
Columbus, in order to realize the splendid idea of reach-
bus ap- ing India by a westerly passage, had need of powerful
t"f *" assistance. But the courts of Europe generally regarded
courts jjjs project as visionary, and declined to aid him. He
rope for was successively disappointed in bis overtures to his native
'^^ city, to John II. of Portugal, and to Henry VII. of
England, though those kings were known to be liberal and
enlightened patrons of commercial enterprise. At last,
under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain,
1492. be embarked upon the Atlantic Ocean with three small
vessels, provisioned for twelve months, and manned with
about a hundred followers. Providence favoured his bold
undertaking, and, without any serious misfortunes or dis
couragements, apart from the murmurings of his men,
this self-sustained and intrepid man of genius, after a
voyage of thirty-six days from the Canary Islands, and
seventy from the harbour of Palos in Spain, discovered
Disco- land. This memorable event happened on the 12th of
tod."' October, 1492 ; and the land discovered proved to be
Guanahani, one of the Bahama Islands, on which he
landed with considerable ceremony and deep emotion ; and
of which he took possession in the name of the King and'
Queen of Spain, muoh to the amazement of the natives,
who offered no obstructions, and who regarded their
visiters as children of the Sun.

oolumbus' first VOYAGE. 17
After discovering other islands, among whioh were book i.
Cuba and Hispaniola, Columbus returned in triumph to ch. i.
Spain, and was received with universal respect and atten- ^ j,
tion. His great services were appreciated, and, at first, 1493
rewarded. He afterwards commanded several expeditions to
to the new world, but was not sufficiently fortunate to give ¦'¦"'^"•
it his name. That glory was reserved for another. Nor bus' sub-
would Spanish pride and jealousy permit the great disco- '"^^"^^
verer to reap the rewards due to his matchless intrepidity.
His latter days were saddened by the ingratitude of the ma lat^
princes whom he served, and the neglect of the country **' ^"^^
he had enriched. The very great benefactors to our race
must be content with the glorious consciousness of having
elevated it, a posthumous fame, and the hopes of the fu
ture Ufe. Other rewards than these, they are not likely
to receive.
Columbus started with the idea of solving the great
problem of his age — a direct passage to India by sea.
His idea was not realized by himself; this passage was
discovered by the Portuguese. But how much grander conse-
was the discovery of a new westem continent, when all qnai"*'
•^ . ofthe
the future consequences of it are considered, than merely disco-
finding an easier way to import into Europe the riches of ^"7 °'
o J r r America
the Indies ! When we contemplate the inexhaustible
sources of mineral wealth, the vast extent of fertile tracts,
the rivers, prairies and forests ofthe new country — capa
ble of supporting so many millions of people ; and when
we consider the character of the people who settled it,
and their institutions and principles, destined to such un
limited expansion and application, and giving every rea
sonable hope of moral influence on the world's afl'airs
beyond the limits of human calculation — then the great
ness of the discovery which was made by Columbus can
not easily be exaggerated.
2*

first voyage.

18 VOYAGE OF CABOT.
BooKi. The merit, however, of first seeing the main -land, after
Ch.i. the great navigator had led the way, belongs to John
^ P Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but a citizen of Bristol, in
1496. the west of England. The claim to the discovery of the
main-land was disputed by Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren
tine, who succeeded in giving his name to the great conti
nent of which the United States now form the most
important part.
Cabot's In 1496, Cabot obtained from Henry VII. a commis
sion similar to the one granted to Columbus by Ferdinand
and Isabella, with this difference — that he was required
to defray the expenses of the expedition himself No
records are preserved of his first voyage, in which he was
accompanied by his son Sebastian ; but it is believed that
he reached the continent somewhere on the coast of La
brador. On his return to Bristol in 1498, he obtained a
new, but less ample patent from the king , and another
expedition was sent out, under the command of Sebastian
1498. Cabot, a man of singular talent and energy, who, after
Cabot's reaeijing the main-land in latitude 58 deerees, sailed south
second '-^ c 7
Toyage. aloHg the coast as far as Albemarle Sound, and then, for
of Am/ '"''¦'^t of provisions, returned to England. Even then
rican America was supposed to be some part of the eastern
coast. continent; and Cabot, like Columbus and other early
navigators, was in quest of a westerly passage to India.
The fruit of his labour was the. addition of a part of North
America to the English crown.
1504. In 1504, the French entered with other nations into
^f^cT'l ''o^Petitioi for the commerce and soil of America. Some
Breton, fishermen from Brittany discovered the island of Cape
Breton; and, a few years afterwards, in 1522 John
Verazzani, a Florentine, under the auspices of Francis I.
explored the coast from Carolina to Nova Scotia. In
1534, Jaques Cartier discovered the river St. Lawrence

EARLY SPANISH DISCOVERIES. 19
which he ascended as far as Montreal, which he named Book i.
from the beautiful hill on the island. ch. i.
The French and English now claimed between them ^^ jj
the northern sections of the American continent. The 1512.
Spaniards and Portuguese, however, were the first to avail
themselves of the great discovery which Columbus had
made. They sought the southern sections of the conti
nent, especially those which were supposed to be richest
in precious metals. The first colony was established, soon Early
after the discovery of America, in Hispaniola, or, as it was Spanish
afterwards called, St. Domingo ; and this was followed by ments.
a settlement in Porto Rico and Cuba, which islands were
conquered and enslaved.
Then followed the conquest of Mexico by Fernando Con-
Cortez, whose sovereign, Montezuma, was the most pow- ^^"-^^
erful and wealthy of all the Indian princes that have
reigned in America before or since the arrival of the
Europeans. The people whom he governed had attained
a considerable degree of civilization, having a regular
govemment, a system of laws, and an established priest
hood. They possessed considerable skill in many useful
and ornamental arts, were able to record events, and were
rich in cities, in palaces, and in gardens. But their gold
and silver excited the cupidity of the Spaniards, and
proved the greatest of their misfortunes. Mr. Prescott
has depicted their sufferings and min with exquisite art
and beauty; and the young student is referred to his bril
liant narrative, since the subjects to which it relates can
only be alluded to here.
About ten years after the conquest of Mexico, Pizarro, 1538.
another adventurous Spaniard, landed in Peru, and soon Con-
added that country to the dominions of the King of Spain, peru.
All Indians between the ages of fifteen and fifty were
compelled to work in the mines ; and so dreadful was the

20 SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE CONQUESTS.
Book l forced labour, that four out of five of those who were so
Ch.i. doomed, perished annually. There was no limit to Spa-
^ JJ nish rapacity, which was exercised wherever the Spaniards
1538. obtained a foothold on the American continent.
Portugal soon rivalled Spain in the extent and richness
quest of of its colouial possessions. Brazil was discovered in 1501,
Brazu. and was settled about fifty years afterwards. The natives,
inferior to the Mexicans and Peruvians, were still more
Effects easily subdued, and a powerful State arose over the ruin
ofcon- Qf j.]jg native princes. But the Spanish and Portuguese
quests. ^ -^ ^ ^ ^ *=>
monarchies were not enriched to the degree which was
anticipated from their possession of inexhaustible mines.
Tme riches are not in gold and silver ; these are only the
medium of exchange — the substitute for more valuable
materials. National wealth consists in industry, skill,
and art, as displayed in agriculture, commerce, and manu
factures. The Spaniards, insensible to this truth, ex
changed their gold for the productions of other countries;
and thus those most distinguished for art became the real
gainers. Still, all nations, in that period, were infatuated with
the supposed value of the precious metals, and unreason
able expectations were formed of the immediate advan
tages to be derived from the possession of the newly dis
covered continent. Not merely gold and silver were to be
procured in boundless quantities, with scarcely any diffi
culty; but fountains were to be found, whose waters,
flowing over beds of gems and gold, would prove the
elLsir of life, and produce perpetual youth. It was in
quest of this fair land that one of the companions of Co-
Disco- lumbus, Juan Ponce de Leon, a rapacious adventurer.
FioridI discovered the peninsula which he called Florida, from the
brilliant blossoms and fresh verdure of that country in
the early spring.

DIFFICULTIES TO BE ENCOUNTERF.D. 21
From the impression that Florida was a land of gold book i.
and jewels, sanguine adventurers went in quest of them. ch. i.
In consequence of their explorations, Georgia was visited,
and the mighty Mississippi was discovered. Fernando de
Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro in the conquest wscov'y
of Peru in 1538, was the first to see the queen of rivers, Missis-
which he ascended, in 1541, to its junction with the Mis- ^pp'-
souri. This latter river he explored for two hundred
miles, and would have advanced farther, had he not died,
exhausted with fatigue. From his discoveries, and also
those of de Leon and others, the Spaniards laid claim to
the country around the Gulf of Mexico, and also a part
of the Atlantic coast of North America.
The new world, therefore, fell into the hands of the Spa
niards, Portuguese, French, and English, on the ground
, of discovery. But it was not yet colonized by them.
Many unsuccessful attempts were to be made before this
could be effected. Difficulties and dangers were to be
surmounted. These chiefly arose from the perils of the
sea, want of provision, the unhealthfulness of the climate,
and the unsubdued face of the country — from the impene
trable forests, extreme heat and cold, wild beasts, and the
hostility of the Indians.
Before we trace these settlements, it is well to consider
briefly that singular race which the Europeans had to
encounter with such fierce warfare, and whioh presented
the greatest obstacle to the peaceful possession of the
country.

Aboriginal Americans,

THE INDIANS. 23

CHAPTER II.
THE INDIANS.
The early navigators, when they reached the shores bookL

of the new world, found that it was inhabited by a people ct. 2.
with whose language, manners and customs, they were j^ j,
entirely unacquainted. Their personal appearance was as 1492
strange as their language and habits. Their peculiarities to
were different from all other known races of men. Their -'^"-''^•
complexion was copper-coloured, their countenances me- Person-
lancholy and sedate, their hair straight and black, their ^^^^^f
aspect wUd, their bodies athletic and strong, and their tte sa-
language eamest and musical. Their mode of life showed xheir
that they had made no attainments in civilization. They ^=''"''-
were more completely barbarous than any people then
known on the globe. Those who inhabited the present lim
its of the United States were savages, scantily clothed, living
in mde huts, and dependent for their daily bread on precari
ous means of support. They had no arts, no literature, and
no records pf their origin and history. , Large settlements,
at least in North America, Mexico excepted, were unknown.
There were no cities, no temples, no palaces, no comfort
able houses. They had neither ships, nor domestic ani
mals, nor beasts of burden, nor any kind of mechanism to
lighten labour. They were ignorant of all luxuries, of
commerce, of agriculture to any extent, of manufactures,
and of the arts of cookery. They lived on a coarse kind
of grain called maize, on such game as the forests afforded,
and on the fish they caught in the rivers. They had no

24 THE INDIANS.
Book I. mechanical skill beyond the construction of a wigwam, or
Ch. 2. a birch bark canoe, or the rude weapons of war and the
^ J) chase. They were ignorant of government and laws, and
1492 submitted only to the mild and imperfect jurisdiction of
to their chieftains. There was no order of priests among
Ib-U. tjjgjjj^ ag among the ancient Celts and modern Hindoos.
Habits As individuals, they possessed no property aside from
toms^of" ^^^^^ arms, canoes, and a few ornaments, of which they
the In- were fond, unless we except the corn they had planted,
and the game they had killed. They revenged their
wrongs without having recourse to any public tribunal.
They spent their time in alternate torpidity and intense
excitement. Their pleasure, as well as business, were war
and the chase. The forests were their home, their joy,
and their security. Athletic games and feastings on
important occasions, however, varied the ordinary mono
tony of their lives. They indulged in no high hopes;
they formed no grand plans of life. All sedentary
employments were regarded as degrading and servile.
They committed to women the labour of the field and the
drudgery of the wigwam, while they abandoned themselves
to idleness and feastings, or engaged in amusements both
dangerous and uncertain.
Their Their dispositions and traits of character were as
tionr'' remarkable as their habits and customs. Individualism,
and in all its wild independence and in all its unsociality, was
the grand peculiarity of the Red man. He hated every
thing like civilization. He loved to roam unrestricted in
his forests, and avoid settlements and business. He had
no inclination for the comforts of a fixed habitation. He
was capable of great fatigue and privation, and exhibited
in the chase peculiar sagacity. He was at home in the
solitude of the wilderness, and never lost his way. He
was meditative, reserved, and quiet — rarely made profes-

traits.

THE NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES. 25
sions of friendship which were not sincere, and, for a Booki.
barbarian, had great respect for his word. As a friend, ch. 2.
he was true, disinterested, and stable. As an enemy, he ^ j,
was revengeful, implacable, and cruel. He never forgot 1492
a kindness, nor forgave an injury. He divided his last to
cake of bread with the stranger who claimed his hospita- lo20.
lity ; he tormented with the most merciless barbarity the
victim who had excited his vengeance.
He was not deficient in religious sensibilities; but, like Eeii-
the ancient German, whom he strikingly resembled, he fite^'^nd
disdained to worship God in temples made with hands, or ceremo
with statues and images. He was no idol worshipper.
He was not even a Pantheist, seeing God in the groves,
the rocks, the rivers, the thunder, the sun, the moon, and
the stars. Yet he believed in the reality of a Supreme
Being, who controlled his destinies — an invisible Spirit,
to whom all were subject and obedient. This Great Spirit
was the universal Father who protected his children, who
rewarded the good and punished the evil. The Indian
feared and adored, though vaguely and indefinitely, this
invisible power, and sought to propitiate -his favour or
avert his wrath by deeds of penance and severe medi
tation. He differed from the ancient Germanic barbarian in his yj^^^
views of woman, whom he degraded and kept in bondage, and
TT T 1 1 -Til treat-
He did not reverence her nature, or yield to her entrea- ^ent of
ties. He heard in her voice no inspiration, nor was he
influenced by her gentle counsels. He regarded her as
an inferior being, and made her his slave. She carried
his burdens when he travelled, she planted and gathered
his corn, she made his mats and blankets, she discharged
all the laborious duties of his home. Yet she toiled
without murmuring, and loved without a generous return.
She was rarely the mother of more than four children ;
3

woiiisn.

26 THE NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES.
Book I. but of these she was fond, and to their comfort she was
Ch. 2. devoted.
^ jj_ The great passion of the North American Indian was
1492 war. He was engaged in constant hostilities. He looked
to upon warfare as the most honourable and glorious of all
pursuits, and success in it secured both dignity and influ-
Games, cnce. The brave and successful warrior was the pride of
festivals j.jjg tpji)e^ and the object of unbounded panegyric. Next
to war, the Indian loved the chase; and his hunting-
grounds were more prized than all the united blessings
of civilization. He obstinately refused to be civilized.
Hatred He never exhibited any taste or desire for the privileges
aation.'" ^^^ blessings of society. When tamed and partially edu
cated by white men, he would generally retum to his wild
pleasures in the wilderness. He never sympathized with
the European in any of his pursuits. He neither envied
nor imitated him. He had a natural antipathy to him,
from whatever country he came, and whatever religion he
professed. All his tastes, his habits, his prejudices and
his passions, predisposed him to inveterate hostility to the
European race and European civilization. And since
barbarism cannot contend successfully with civilization,
the Indians, when brought in contact with civilized ene
mies, faded away. Their fate was as inscmtable, as it
was melancholy. But it has all the mystery of a Provi
dential event.
When, however, the Europeans first visited the shores
of North America, the natives were formidable, and muoh
to be dreaded. They were more numerous than at any
subsequent period, and were subdivided into numerous
tribes, speaking different dialects.
The most powerful of these were the Algonquins, the
Iroquois, and the Mobilians. The first named, whioh
included the Delaware, Nan-agansett, Pequod, and perhaps

NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES. 27
Huron tribes, inhabited the Atlantic coast, from Canada book i.
to the Chesapeake Bay. With these, the most desperate ch. 2.
contests were carried on. From these, the early settlers ^. d_
received the greatest injury. They were objects of un- 1492
ceasing fear and detestation. The second great division to
1 fion
inhabited the shores of the St. Lawrence, and afterwards
central New York, under the various names of Mohawks, y"'""'
' ' Indian
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. They were tribes.
called the Five Nations, and were chiefly formidable
during the colonial wars with the French and Canadians.
They lived too remote from the early settlements, to give
serious alarm. The third great race, the Slobilians,
included the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks,
Appalachees, and Yamassees. Their hunting-grounds
were still more remote from European settlements, al
though they were scattered along the Atlantic coast from
Canada to Georgia. Had aU these various tribes united
to expel their invaders — had they been capable of con
cert, the historian might have had to record a different
history of the colonization of America. But they were
at perpetual war with eaeh other, and did not know
the designs of the Europeans, and were not fully prepared
for an organized resistance. As their invaders obtained
a foothold, they retreated into more remote forests. They
could not relinquish their savage mode of life, and hence
they faded gradually away.

W:

"^"'l-h^l'-"

.- - ^. '"k

.^.jjb.

t'*^"^-..-!

5:^

Sebastian Cabot.
UNSUCCESSFUL SETTLEMENTS. 29

CHAPTER III.
UNSUCCESSFUL SETTLEMENTS.
The idea of visiting America with the view of a peace- book i.
ful and permanent settlement, rather than of conquest, ch. 3.
seems to have originated with the English ; for we read ^ ^
that, as early as 1536, a merchant of London, named 1536.
Here, in connection with several gentlemen of family and Attempt
character, attempted to colonize Newfoundland. But, ^^j^^
being in danger of starvation, they returned to England New-
in a French fishing-vessel which they had seized. land.
The next attempt was made by a party of Huguenots, 1552
in the reign of Charles IX. of France, with the hope of Hugue-
escaping religious persecution. Under the auspices of the J|,„'°i^
celebrated Admiral Coligny, John Ribault, of Dieppe, in Florida.
1562, sailed with two ships, not for Canada, but for more
genial regions, and approached the continent in the lati
tude of St. Augustine. Discovering the St. John's
river, he sailed to the Port Royal entrance, a spacious
inlet at the southem extremity of Carolina. Here he
built a fort, left a colony, and retumed to France for a
reinforcement. But none could be obtained, in conse
quence of the civU wars, and the colonists were obliged
to relinquish their ground. This was much to be regret
ted, since the colonists were animated by religious ideas,
as were the pilgrims who settled New England at a sub
sequent period. The next band of Frenchmen were of a
different stamp — mere adventurers, under the command
of Laudonniere, averse lo order aud greedy of gain. Dis-
B*

so FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN FLORIDA.
Book I. appointed in the hopes of sudden wealth, they in part
Ch. a. turned pirates, and alienated the natives by their unprin-
A. D. cipled and dissolute conduct. They soon were reduced to
1562 great extremity from famine, and were only saved from
to actual starvation by the arrival of Ribault with provisions
1565 J and new adventurers. But Spanish exclusiveness and
French ^
under jealousy would not permit the peaceful occupation of the
niere""' pl^ce, and Fort Carolina was taken, and the colonists were
murdered. These disasters happened in 1565, and, three
years afterward, the Spaniards were the only people who
inhabited any territory which now belongs to the United
1565. States. The settlement of St. Augustine, for more than
Settle- forty years, was the only European colony which proved
St. An- permanent, on the~ Atlantic coast, north of the Gulf of
«^""'=- Mexico.
English -^'^'^ 't was not until the reign of Elizabeth, that the
coioniza- English made any serious effort to colonize the new world.
tion un-
der Eli- The expedition of the Cabots in the reign of Henry VIIL,
aabeth. gjj^ ^jjg ygyageg of Willoughby and Chancellor during the
reign of Mary, were for discovery rather than settlement.
Navigators sought to discover either the north-west pas
sage to India, or the precious metals, which were supposed
to exist even on the frozen shores of Labrador.
It was the fisheries of Newfoundland whioh suggested
1578. ^^^ ^*'®*' ^°^^^ views of colonization to the English mind.
Hum- In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained a liberal patent
QiibTrfs °^ jurisdiction, for six years, over a territory extending
voyages, six hundred miles from any spot he might successfully
colonize. But his voyages were a continued series of
disasters, and he himself finally lost his life in a little
bark of ten tons, in which he foolishly attempted to
return to England, after the failure of his hopes. I
His step-brother, who made an effort to realize bis de
signs, was no less a person than the celebrated Sir Walter

VIRGINIA GRANTED TO RALEIGH. 81
Raleigh, one of the great wits who adorned the court of book i.
the « Virgin Queen" — a scholar, a courtier, and a soldier Ch. 3.
• — a man, indeed, of universal genius, but chiefly distin- j^_ -^
guished for his spirit of reckless adventure. He obtained 1580.
a similar patent to the one granted to Gilbert, and sent sir Wai
Amidas and Barlow with two ships to the American ^l^f^
coast. They landed, not on the barren shores of New- patent.
foundland, but in those genial regions where stately oaks,
flowering magnolias, and luxuriant vines, promised ferti
lity and invited to repose. This beautiful country they
called Virginia, in honour of their queen ; and so glowing
and enthusiastic were the accounts they gave of it on their
return, that a large expedition of seven ships was fitted 1585.
out, in 1585, with sanguine colonists, under the command ^™'»'^
, . unsuc-
of Sir Richard Grenville. After various perils they cessfui
reached the Roanoke, and their vessels returned to ^^j^^
England. The natives, though inclined to be friendly at first,
were not pleased to see the strangers occupy their hunt
ing-grounds with the idea of a permanent settlement.
Moreover, they were provoked by various acts of injustice.
The governor, Lane, was also unequal to his duties, and
permitted himself to be diverted from them by a foolish
search for gold. The men, too, sighed to return, after
the first flush of enthusiasm had passed. They dreaded
famine, and they feared the Indians. Impelled by no
lofty motives, they abandoned the settlement before the
year elapsed, having induced Sir Francis Drake, who had
visited them with twenty-three ships, to transport them to
their native land.
Scarcely had they sailed, when three ships arrived, with , -„_
new adventurers; and in the following year one hundred -^i^^^g
and fifty additional colonists were landed, over whom John Gover-
•' . ' nor of
White was appointed Govemor. But they were soon Virginia

S2 GOSNOLD's DIRECT PASSAGE.
Book I. reduced to great necessities, and the Governor returned to
Ch.3. England to solicit aid. His importunities were unfortu-
A J, nately disregarded, in consequence of the excitement which
1590. was produced by the fears of Spanish invasion. It was
not until 1590, two years after the arrival of the last
colonists, that White returned with the promised assists
ance. But he returned only to find a deserted colony.
No traces remained of the settlers he had left on the
island of Roanoke. They had all perished from famine,
or the-vengeanoe of the Indians.
1602. Two years after, Bartholomew Gosnold made a direct
Gosnold pa^^sage to America, avoiding the usual route of the Ca-
ers Cape naries and West India Islands, and landed on one of the
'^°''- Elizabeth Islands, near Nantucket. Having seen the
country in June, he formed too favourable an idea of ita
fertility. From his representations, the historian Hak-
luyt, one of the Prebends of Westminster, induced some
merchants of Bristol to found a colony ; but nothing was
done, except the further exploration of the New England
coast.
1605. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, the
Settle- King of France granted to one of his courtiers a vast
ment of ° °
Port tract of country, from the fortieth to the forty-sixth de-
^ ' gree of north latitude, called Acadie ; and four ships were
sent out to the new territory, with a view chiefly of se
curing a monopoly of the fur trade. The results of the
expedition were, the discovery of the rivers St. John and
St. Croix, the examination of the coasts of Maine and
Massachusetts, and the settlement of Port Royal, aban
doned however in 1606.
James I. of England viewed with distmst and jealousy
these movements of the French, and, to prevent their
occupation of the countr}', encouraged his subjects in new
and more extensive plans of permanent settlement. Un-

NEW PROJECTS OF COLONIZATION. 83
der his auspices, two new companies were formed, by booki.
whose efforts America was flnally colonized. Their object Ch. a.
was the possession of the country. The idea of a north- a. p.
west passage to India was beginning to be regarded as chi- 1606.
merical, and more enlarged views of colonization supplanted •'""f ''^•
' c3 A J. grants a
the notions of the early visitants. Still, the difficulties to charter
be surmounted, arising from the character of the wilderness getue- I
to be reclaimed, and the hostility of the Indian whose ""^''' °*
' . ¦' Virginia
hunting-grounds were invaded, were even yet not appre
ciated. The benefits which had been expected to result to Eng- Results
land and France had thus far proved delusive. Gold and yovages.
silver had not been obtained, and many valuable lives had
been lost. Great sums had also been expended in unprofit
able speculation. It seems to be the destiny of nations to
make real progress only through labour, sacrifices, and sor
rows. Nothing had yet been obtained except sad experi
ences. These, however, served as lights to point out dan
gers which could be learned only by experiment. Men are
ever doomed to pay dearly for their experiences. The
early navigators did little else than stimulate curiosity
and provoke adventure. They returned to Europe' with
only specimens of the furs and trees which subsequently
were to prove important articles of commerce. There was
one plant whicb they early introd,uced, however, whose
value has been increasing with advancing civilization, as
a source of wealth to the producer, if not of utility to the
consumer. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first to teach the
use of tobacco to the European world. Who can tell the
ultimate results of the introduction of this wonderful
plant? Is the world better or worse for this gift of
Raleigh to the courtiers of Queen Elizabeth ?

-a^=

Captain Smith Explaining the Compass.

BOOK II.

CHAPTER I.
THE SETTLEMENT OP VIRGINIA.
If anything connected with the history of America ia ^^^ jj_
grand or romantic, it is the struggles of the early colonists ^j^ j
to plant themselves, securely and permanently, in an un- A. D.
known wUdemess, far from the realms of civilization, and J-OOb.
in continual danger of annihilation from the hostility of Diflicu'.-
. , . „ . . •'ties at
savage enemies, the scarcity ot provisions, unaccustomed tending
changes of climate, and an entirely new mode of life, 'g^^^^'^
These struggles have an inherent interest which will never ments.
pas's away, because they illustrate great and glorious prin
ciples of human action. They not only show singular
enterprise and intrepidity, but, in many instances, were
prompted by the most elevated moral sentiments. The
colonization of the country furnishes some of the most
remarkable examples of courage, energy^ magnanimity,
and faith, which are to be found in the history of man
kind. It therefore claims the attention of all elevated
minds, and of the young people of America especially,
since it presents the toils and sacrifices of their ancestors,
by which alone they were enabled to lay the foundation
of a great republic. In no subsequent period were such
great deeds done, and such lofty virtues generated, if we
except the revolutionary contest alone. (36)

36 EARLY COLONIZATION.
Book n. The history of colonization has not only a moral and
Ch.i. romantic interest, but also a philosophical importance.
A. D. We are led to study the causes of that great movement,
1606. and, hence, contemplate those great ideas and principles
toricti' which produced emigration. And almost every movement
import- and every principle of the early settlers have had a de-
e^i°y°L cided influence on the condition and welfare of their de-
loniza- goendants. We can trace a connection between the
tion. ... .,-
earliest events and the formation of great institutions. It
should be the aim of the historian to present these, and
these chiefly; for how insignificant and devoid of perma
nent interest are the petty jealousies and contests of colo
nial life, when compared with the spiritual agencies and
great events whioh are connected with the progressive
development and ultimate expansion of the American
colonies !
Causes But WC are obliged, in surveying the progress of colo-
which nization, to examine the settlement of each colony by
loniza- itself, since different principles animated different settlers,
and since each colony was planted under peculiar circum
stances, which have affected the subsequent condition of
the most powerful States. At one time the love of gain,
and, at another, a restless passion for adventure, sent co
lonists to the new world. Again, the desire to worship
God, unrestricted by civil or ecclesiastical authority, and
still again, a craving for greater civil liberty, were ruling
motives among the emigrants. Sometimes all these prin
ciples and passions were combined, and operated together;
and, at other times, only some of them were discoverable.
And then they operated with greater or less intensity in
different sections, sometimes producing bigotry, acrimony,
and exclusiveness; and, in other places, favouring gene
rous equality and toleration. It was religious ideas chiefly
which planted Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Maryland,

tion.

CAUSES WHICH FAVOURED COLONIZATION. 87
Carolina, and Pennsylvania ; and yet, in all these colo- book n.
nics, different states of society were produced, although, Ch. i.
in each separate one, the 'early settlers transmitted to pos- a. d.
terity their peculiar sentiments and virtues. 1606.
The earliest English settlement on the shores of North Roman-
America was Virginia. Its early history is as romantic „otiha
'as that of any of the colonies, but not so sublime, since it ^ettie-
i 1-111 • I. Ill ment of
,was colonised by adventurers in quest of mere worldly Virginia
and material objects. Moreover, they belonged, for the
most part, to a different class of English society from that
in which either the Puritans, the Catholics, or the Qua
kers, mingled. They were more aristocratic, more de
voted to pleasure, more refined, perhaps, in manners and
taste. They were less religious, not so lofty in their
views, and not so well fitted to endure hardship and
privation. The condition of England in the early part of the seven- Cona-
teenth century favoured adventure in America. The England
prosperity of Spain and Portugal excited emulation and
the desire of sudden wealth. A redundant population
also sought new means of support. All ordinary occupa
tions were filled with supernumeraries. Many enterpris
ing people, who had served in the wars of Elizabeth, were
thrown out of employment. Men of wealth expected to
reap extravagant returns for all capital employed in the
new world, all parts of which were supposed to abound in
the precious metals. Great commercial prospects were
held out by adventurers to the credulous and the sanguine.
In this state of the public mind, James I. granted, in jame» i.
the year 1606, an ample patent to a company of noble- f^^rter"
men, gentlemen, and merchants, in and around London, &' "i"
for the exclusive possession of a belt of territory extend- ment ot
ing from thirty-four to thirty-eight degrees of north lati- ¦^'>'8™i»
tude. Whoever paid 12Z. 10s., about sixty dollars, into
4

*8 Newport's voyage.
Book n. the company's treasury, was entitled to a hundred acres
Ch. 1. of land, and to a hundred acres more when the first lot
A. D. was cultivated. And every emigi'ant was also allowed an
1606. equal quantity of land. The colonists were permitted to
Condi- transport, free of duty, for seven years, what arms and
tions provision they required, to search for mines, to coin money,
charter, to impose duties on all vessels trading to their ports, and to
enjoy all the ordinary civil and political privileges of Eng
lishmen. But this charter was not favourable to the de
velopment of liberty. It gave the council in England tht
general superintendence of common affairs ; while the su
preme legislative authority, and the control of all appoint
ments, were vested in the king. The aim of the company
and of.the colonists was money, rather than the extension
of democratic ideas ; and even the welfare of the colonists
was made subservient to the interests of the patrons at
home, who sought the means of improving their fortunes.
The first The company gave immediate attention to the settle-
Ty^of TO- ™®°* °^ Virginia. Christopher Newport sailed on the
lonista. 19th of December, with three small vessels and one hun
dred and five emigrants, to colonize the unknown wilderness.
And even these were men peculiarly unfitted for the task.
They were mostly adventurers, unaccustomed to manual
labour, and connected with families of consideration. They
were disunited among themselves, and filled with jealousy in
view of talents superior to their own. The only man in
the company fit to rule them was Captain John Smith, and
of him they were envious and suspicious.
Their "^^^ voyage was made by way of the West Indies, and
Toyage. lasted four months. It was the intention of Newport to
land at Roanoke; but a storm drove his ships to the
Chesapeake Bay, and they anchored at Old Point Com
fort, at the mouth of James river. After spending three
weeks in exploring the river and adjacent country, they

settlement of JAMESTOWN. 39
disembarked thirty mUes from the mouth of the river, at book ii.
a spot they named Jamestown, in honour of the king, — Ch. i.
the oldest English settlement in America. A. x>.
The govemment of the infant colony was entmsted to 1607.
a provincial council, the names of which had been kept in ,^^^1'^f
a sealed box during the voyage. Of these, Edward James-
Wingfield was chosen President — an intriguing man, un
worthy of his post, and unfit to be entrusted with power
in such an important crisis. Smith was excluded from
the council, in consequence of the jealousy of the Presi
dent, although his name was on the list.
While the men were employed in felling trees for their Expiota-
new abodes, Newport and Smith explored the river, and ^^^^
visited the residence of Powhatan, just below the falls of JoJ""
Richmond. This person was the most celebrated and
powerful of the Indian chieftains in that section of the
country, and in spite of the murmurs of the savages, over
whom he exercised almost absolute rule, he received the
strangers with great hospitality.
In June, Newport retumed to England with his ships, suffeiv
and the inexperienced and divided colonists were left to ^f ^f^
struggle with disease, famine, hardship, and danger. Be- nists.
fore September, half of them died, including Gosnold,
the projector of the enterprise. The marshes and the
summer heats generated disease among men unaccustomed
to the climate. Added to these evils, it was soon found
that the natives were unfriendly. The President, Wing-
field, was not only incapable of shielding the colonists,
but even contemplated desertion, and actually embezzled
the choicest stores. John Ratcliffe was chosen his suc
cessor, but was equaUy incapable ; and the govemment
fell at last into the hands of the ablest, even Smith,
who succeeded in imparting a gleam of sunshine into the
night of gloom and desolation.

40

CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.

^°°' n. With none of the early colonists are associated more
Ch. L talent, enterprise, and courage, than with this remarkable
A. D. man — a soldier, a traveller, a philanthropist, of decided
1607. reputation, before he was thirty years of age. He had
Charac- visited most of the countries of Europe. He had fought
hilt^* for the independence of Holland, and had also enlisted
T of against the Turks. He had been a prisoner in WaUacbia,
and a slave at Constantinople. He slew his taskmaster
in the Crimea, and returned, after innumerable perils, to
his native country. No one entered with more enthu
siasm than he into the project of colonizing Virginia ; and
it was by his experience and sagacity that the infant
colony was saved from ruin.
His cap- His enterprising spirit, however, led him into unneces-
the'i^ ^^"7 dangers, whioh neariy cost him his life. One of his
dians. adventures was attended with circumstances which still
invest his name with all that is romantic and interesting.
He had been exploring the wilderness, and was taken
cai)tive by the Indians. For a time he amused the hos
tile savages by showing them the wonders of a pocl^et
compass. Bnt, at last, they led him as a victim to their
chieftain, who decreed his death, as a man dangerous to
Indian interests. He was dragged to the ground, his
head placed upon a stone, and the warlike Powhatan stood
over him with his club. As the fatal blow was about to
Poca- be given, the chieftain's daughter, Pocahontas, a child
saTel'^is ^"^^^"^ y'^^^'s °f '^gS' clasped the prisoner's head in her
life. arms, and eloquently besought his life. Her entreaties
were respected, and the Governor was spared, as if by,
direct interposition of Heaven, for the future welfare of,;
the colony. ' j
When he retumed to Jamestown, after seven weeks'!
absence, Smith found the colony reduced to thirty-eight
men, discouraged, desperate, and resolved to abandon it.

CHARACTER OF THE COLONISTS. 41
But he succeeded in keeping up their spirits until New- ^""^ n.
port arrived with supplies, and one hundred and twenty Ch. l.
new settlers. These were, unfortunately, like those who a. d.
had preceded them, gentlemen adventurers, unused to 1607.
hardship and disdainful of toil — men whose thoughts Ecin-
were upon gold, and not on substantial welfare, and still ^^^
less upon religious ideas. Mistaking some glittering sand the colo-
for the anticipated treasures, they filled one of their ships °^' (
with the useless dirt, and returned to England. Smith
was wiser ; he loaded the other ship with cedar, skins,
and furs ; and these proved more valuable than gold
itself to the ultimate welfare of the country.
Moreover, he employed himself in making useful ex- Smith's
plorations, and actually visited every inlet, river, and bay ^j^j^
on both sides of the Chesapeake, making accurate maps tration.
and charts, and conciliating the Indians by presents and
kindness. Such a man was a noble benefactor to the co
lony over which he presided. But the patentees in Eng
land were dissatisfied. They cared but little for his genius,
and stiU less for his discoveries. They only wanted a
retum for their investments. Disappointed in this, they
threatened to desert the colony.
Then were developed the great energies and resources
of the President. He taught the goldsmiths, and re
finers, and vagabond gentlemen, who had hoped to make
their fortunes, that self-reliance which is greater than any
pecuniary reward. He accustomed them to fatigue and
labour, showed them how to protect themselves, and
induced them to plant com and build houses.
Still, the patentees were vexed that no gold was found, Paten-
and attributed the feilure to the provincial council, which ^tjgfl^
of course was more anxious to advance the interests of the ,
colony, than enrich greedy merchants at home. They
therefore applied to the Kling for a new charter, by which
4*

42 SECOND CHARTER OP VIRGINIA.
Book n. all authority should be withdrawn from the colonial rulers.
Ch.i. It was readily granted, and, in 1609, the territory as.signed
A. D. to the corporation was enlarged by a grant of two hundred
1600. miles north and two hundred south of Old Point Comfort,
James I. and extending west to the Pacific. The corporation ob-
P''"''^ tained the appointment of all the officers, and the chief
another ^ '¦ ' _^ ,
charter, command was entrusted to a Governor. Lord De la War
LordDe received the appointment, whioh was a good one, this
appoi^t> nobleman being as distinguished for virtues as he was for
ea go- rank. Under the auspices of so good a man, the greatest ea
gerness prevailed to colonize Virginia; and nine ships,
with five hundred emigrants, departed from England.
Only seven of the vessels, however, arrived ; and these
were freighted with the most unpromising set of men that
ever embarked on a scheme of colonization — men without
experience or character, broken-down tradesmen, impove
rished men of rank, and libertines sent away by parents
who vrished to avoid the disgrace they entailed upon their
families.
niscon- Such people could only give trouble to Smith, who re-
the*^" tained command until the arrival of the governor, or his
lony. deputies. The new settlers fomented rebellion, alienated
the Indians, and encouraged every species of disorder.
Smith was obliged to send the ringleaders to England,
Depart and shortly after to follow them himself, in consequence
Smith. °^ ^ wound he had received from the explosion of some
gunpowder. His departure was an incalculable loss. The colonists,
unprincipled, discontented, profligate and lazy, were a
prey to Indians, to famine, and to disease. So great were
their sufferings, and so complete was their despair, that
they were about to burn the settlement, and embark in
four miserable pinnaces for the fisheries on the banks of

bale's administration. 43
Newfoundland. But the timely arrival of Lord De la book ii.
War restored hope and confidence, and, under his mild ch. i.
and judicious administration, prosperity again dawned a. d.
upon the colonists. The rites of religion were observed, 1610.
industry was exercised, and provisions were garnered for Arrival
future contingencies. of Lord
Lord De la War, unfortunately, was obliged to return. War.
after a brief sojourn, to England, on account of ill-health.
He was succeeded, in 1611, by Sir Thomas Dale. This sirThoa,
governor was harsh and injudicious, and a rigorous mili
tary government succeeded the mild administration of
Lord De la War. He was soon supplanted by Sir Tho
mas Gates, who arrived with a new reinforcement of men
anji supplies. Such was the miserable state of the colony,
that he felt obliged to continue the strict military disci
pline introduced by Dale. It numbered, indeed, seven
hundred men ; but these were generally unused to labour
or restraint.
The patentees realized no more return under the new Third
charter than under the first one, and, as their object was "f y^"^
gain alone, they again applied for another and more gi^ia.
favourable patent. This was accordingly granted to them
in 1612, and they were invested with the right to all the
islands of the coast within three hundred leagues of Vir
ginia. A lottery was also given to them, by which 3000Z.
was realized.
About this time, a domestic event of considerable im- 1613.
portance occurred. A scarcity prevailing. Captain Argall Seizure
was despatched to the Potomac for a cargo of corn. Here hontaa.
he found Pocahontas living in retirement. This noble
creature he managed to decoy on board his vessel, carried
her as a prisoner to Jamestown, and then basely demand
ed a ransom from her father. The indignant old chieftain
rgeoted the offer with disdain, and prepared his tribe for

44 POCAHONTAS.
Book n. revenge. An exterminating war would have resulted, had
Ch. 1. not the angry father been soothed by the marriage of his
A. D. daughter with John Rolfe, who had gained her affections.
1613. She was converted to Christianity, and gained universal
Mar- respect for her exemplary vu-tues. She visited England,
riage of ^here she died prematurely, but not until she had given
hoSia. birth to a son, whom some of the best families of Virginia
"} are proud to acknowledge as their ancestor. It was hoped
that the example of Rolfe might have been followed by
others, since but few of the colonists were married. ... But
such a union was not to take place. The two races were to
remain for ever distinct, and inveterately hostile.
1614. Iu 1614, Dale resumed the government for two years,
Daie^s during which some useful changes took place respecting
tration. the settlement of lands. Until this time, the colonists
had lived upon the common stock ; and this colonial com
munism had produced idleness and discontent. It was
found that no one would work for the public as he would
for himself. The slothful trusted to the exertions of the
industrious, and the industrious were discouraged by the
idleness of the slothful. Accordingly, the land was di
vided into lots, and each family was obliged to support its
members. Prosperity and industry were the results.
Culture More com was raised than was needed, and considerable
and°tc^ quantities were exported or sold to the Indians. Tobacco
bacco. was extensively cultivated, and became alike the staple
and the currency of the colony. The gold-seekers turned
into planters, and, instead of servants of the company,
became the proprietors of the soil they cultivated.
1617. But the planters were still subject to an oppressive go-
Oppres- vemment, which checked the growth of the colony. And
Temors. there was a frequent change of governors. George Yeard
ley succeeded Dale after two years' administration ; and,
a year after, in 1617, he was supplanted by Captain Ar-

DAWN OP LIBERTY. 45
gall, whose rule was tyrannical in the extreme. Martial book n.
law was recognised, and there was no security of life or Ch. i.
property. Emigration nearly ceased ; for few would em- a. D.
bark for a distant colony, where a more oppressive despot- 1619.
ism existed than in any of the military govemments of change
the European world. The colonists made so earnest an ofgoyer-
nor.
appeal to the mercenary company at home, that Argall
was removed, and Lord De la War consented to supply
his place ; but this benevolent nobleman died on his out
ward passage, and the government was again entrusted to
Yeardley, who had recently been knighted.
He commenced his administration in 1619 with acts of Yeard-
beneficence. The planters were confirmed in the posses- ^"7'" ^
'- ^ wise ad.
sion of their lands, the old burdens were removed, martial minis.
law was relaxed, and a colonial assembly was called, com
posed of the governor, the provincial council, and the
deputies from the plantations, who were called burgesses.
This infant assembly was the germ of popular liberty colonial
in Virginia, and its acts gave great satisfaction. Civil ^^™^-
freedom, as well as industry, received an impulse. Twelve
hundred new settlers arrived, and among them sixty wo
men, who were speedily provided with husbands from
among the colonists. Their influence was most happy.
Domestic ties, for the first time, were formed; and vir
tuous sentiments and industrious habits were cultivated.
The colony rapidly increased, and numbered, in 1620,
several thousands.
The civil privileges which were obtained by the colo- xhe oo-
nial assembly, were happily confirmed by the company at '?J'^,''
home. Trial by jury was established, together with the oivii
ordinary privileges of Englishmen. The colonists were ' '
no longer servants of a commercial corporation, but citi
zens of a new republic. From this time, the power was
virtually in the hands of the Colonial ParUament, which

46 INTRODUCTION OP NEGRO SLAVES.
Book IL nursed the principles of Uberty and the interests of the
Ch. 1. infant settlement.
A. D. About this time, the captain of a Dutch trading vessel
1620. sold to the colonists at Jamestown twenty negroes, whom
Intro- he had brought from the coast of Guinea. Their number
duction incrgased as the colonists had need of them, and they were
of negro ^ ' *' ^
slaves, chiefly employed in the cultivation of tobacco. The intro
duction of African slavery made but little impression at
the time, however pregnant it was with mighty conse
quences, which it does not fall within the province of this
history to conjecture or discuss.
Indian This great event, however, was insignificant to the
ies and ™™ds of the colouists, Compared with a domestic calamity
schemes, which nearly proved fatal to the settlement. This was a
war with the Indians, and the first war of any extent
whieh had thus far taken place. The natives looked with
great anxiety, indignation and jealousy at the growing
encroachments of the English. Their settlements ex
tended one hundred and forty miles on both sides of
James river; and they tilled the ground in blind confi
dence of their safety, and with increasing contempt for
the Indians, who had been continually melting away.
There were not over five thousand of them, including fif
teen hundred warriors, within sixty miles of Jamestown ;
and these were unacquainted with the use of fire-arms,
and scattered about in isolated hamlets.
Plot to So long as Powhatan Uved, he had continued in friendly
ZT^e intercourse with the invaders. But his successor, Ope-
whoie chancanough, had different views and feeUngs. He hated,
I " ™^" with the greatest intensity, those foreigners who had taken
possession of the hunting-grounds of his ancestors, and who
treated his people with so much indifference and contempt.
He therefore resolved to exterminate the English wher
ever they had made a settlement in his extensive territo-

INDIAN MASSACRE. 47
ries. But his tribe was too weak to cope with the invaders Book n.
in open warfare. He knew it was only by treachery and Ch. i.
stratagem that his purpose could be accomplished. So, a. d.
with impenetrable secrecy, a plot was laid to massacre all 1622
the white people in the colony, without any regard to age
or sex.
The plot was fortunately revealed by a converted Indian The
in time to save Jamestown, whose inhabitants prepared ^^^^
themselves for the attack. But the villages on the river
were not so fortunate. On the 29th of March, 1622, at
an appointed hour, the Indians simultaneously fell upon Indian
the settlements on James river, and barbarously murdered
three hundred and forty-seven people. Moreover, the
massacre was aggravated with all the tortures which
Indian malice and ingenuity could suggest.
This was the greatest calamity which the colony had
ever suffered, and a bloody war was the natural result.
For a whUe, confusion, desolation and grief reigned
throughout the colony. Public works were abandoned.
Fields were left untiUed. Scarcity and sickness added to
the gloom which pervaded the whole settlement. All
plans of industry were abandoned for revenge ; and so
terrible waa this universal passion, so resolute were the
colonists, that a war of extermination followed. The In- indinn
dians, cunning as they were, proved no match for the ^'"'
Europeans in duplicity and treachery. They were en
trapped and slain, and driven like wild beasts from their
ancient domain.
War, famine and disease, had now reduced the colony jf)eg,r-
from four thousand to twenty-five hundred souls ; yet their t™es cf
disasters were speedily repaired, and their numbers reple- lony.
nished. The English at home, moved with generous
pity, displayed unusual liberality, and sent out new re
cruits. In consequence, the colony soon recovered from

48 DISSOLUTION OF THB COMPANY.
Book n. its misfortunes ; but, alas ! only to fall into new per
ch. 1. plexities.
A. D. The members of the company in England had been
1624. disappointed in realizing commercial profit, and their meet-
James ings had become scenes of disgraceful faction. Accounts
subverts gf their angry and bold debates reached the ear of the
the com- .
pany's joalous king, who soon pronounced the Virginia courts to
"^ ''¦ be but a seminary for a seditious parliament. He first
attempted to control the elections. Failing in this, he
resorted to intiraidation, and resolved to annul their char
ter, but, if possible, in a constitutional manner. He sent
commissioners to America, and they reported according
to his wishes. An order in council decreed that the pri
vileges of the corporation should be subverted. It refused
to surrender its charter. The king then resorted to the
writ quo warranto, and a servile bench of judges decreed
the dissolution of the company, which had thus far ex
pended 150,000Z. This act, which occurred in 1624,
though unjust and tyrannical, operated favourably to the
colonists ; for a commercial corporation, seeking a return
for investments, was not likely to pay much attention to
the social and moral advancement of the people whom
they controlled. -V-
1625. James I. died before he had completed his schemes for
Death of the government of the colony ; but Charles I. pursued
'™''° ¦ the arbitrary policy which his father contemplated. He
instituted a government whioh combined the unlimited
prerogatives of an absolute prince, with the selfish maxims
of a mercantile corporation.
1629. In 1620, he gave the government into the hands of Sir
^tatSn '^°^'^ Harvey, who proved to be both insolent and tyran-
ofHar- nical. His administration was so odious, that the colo
ny- nists complained, and succeeded in securing his impeach
ment. He was sustained in England, however, and re-

Berkeley's administration. 49
ceived a new commission. In 1639, he was succeeded by book ii.
Sir Francis Wyat, and that gentleman again, two years after- Ch. i.
wards, by Sir Wm. Berkeley, who favoured the institutions a. d
of freedom, though compelled by the king to impose severe 1642
restrictions on the commerce of the colony. Many privi- to
leges were, however, secured by the colonists, in spite of
Ithe tyrannical temper of the king, who was too deeply ^'™
[engrossed with his parliamentary difficulties to bestow ment of
'much thought on the colony. Berkeley, who filled the jg^_
office of govemor with great abUity for thirty-six years,
with the exception of a short interval, confirmed the plant
ers in their political privileges, and sustained the institu
tions of religion, as well as those of liberty.
Virginia, in possession of all the civil and religious
privileges it had ever claimed, or which were consistent
with royal government, rapidly increased in wealth and
population under the government of Berkeley, and conti
nued firm in its allegiance to the cause of Charles I.
Zeal for royalty and for episcopacy characterized the aris
tocratic colonists, until new emigrations and new social
institutions modified the temper of the people.
StiU, during the long administration of Berkeley, Change
though judicious and benignant, a change graduaUy took political
place in social life, which produced popular insurrections, ^^ °'
and, when these were suppressed, resulted in a state of lony.
society more aristocratic than in other sections of the
conntry. The difficulties and dangers attending the first period
of colonization, had bound the people together, and pro
duced considerable equality of feeling; insomuch so, that
the House of Burgesses, the first representative assembly
in America, was elected by universal suffrage. AU free
men, without exception, were entitled to vote. And even
the indentured servants of the colony, when their term
5

50 CHANGES IN THE CONDITION OP THE COLONISTS.
B°°g n. of service had expired, became electors, and might be
Ch.i. chosen burgesses.
A. D. Each officer was directly or indirectly chosen by the
1642 people, and each parish was left to take care of itself
to Tranquillity and a rapid increase of population were the
fruit of this representative democracy ; and, at the time
Charles II. was restored, Virginia contained thirty thou
sand people.
Germs Still, there were the germs of aristocracy among the
OTa^*°" settlers, which ultimately became developed. For anj
person whom a planter should transport at his own charge
into Virginia, he oould claim fifty acres of land ; and as
large numbers of indentured servants were brought over,
gi'eat proprietors existed from the beginning. As these
possessions were generally transmitted to the eldest son,
family pride was engendered as in ancient feudal times.
Rise of Moreover, a plebeian population arose from the descend-
ciMses ^^^ °^ *^°^® servants who had been doomed to a tempo-
and rary servitude. Some of them even were convicts, trans-
parti.8. pQj.te^ for political offences merely. These became a
labouring and inferior class, which increased dispropor
tionately with the other population.
In addition, the labouring class was vastly multiplied
by the increase of negro slaves, who at no time possessed
civil or social privileges, and who were, of course, regarded
as mere property, like land and cattle. As these increased,
the distinctions in society widened.
A rising -^"^^ the power of the rising aristocracy was still far-
arist.^ ther increased by the absence of all popular education.
There were no schools, and the rising population received
but little intellectual culture. "Every man," said Berke
ley, "instructs his children according to his abiUty; and
I thank God there are no free schools nor printing-
presses.''

cracy.

EARLY ARISTOCRACY OP VIRGINIA. 51
The great proprietors, in possession of increasing tracts book n.
of land, superior in intelligence, and accustomed to con- ch. i.
trol, from the servility, ignorance, and poverty of a large a. d.
part of the labouring class, naturally aspired to the go- 1642
vernment of the country, and the perpetuation of their to
power and privileges by legislative enactments. They ' "
naturally became the magistrates of a country where po- Power
pulation was scattered, and where there were no large °^^
towns, nor municipal governments. They also were proprie-
selected to be members of the council, and of the legis
lature. They gradually grasped the military, judicial,
legislative, and executive powers. On the restoration of
Charles IL, in 1666, these great landed proprietors, in
possession of poUtical power, formed a natural alliance
with the royal governors and officers, and were prepared
for additional usurpations. The tidings of the Restora
tion had diffused universal joy and enthusiasm throughout
the colony, which had ever incUned to the royal cause.
The general excitement in favour of royalty led to the
election of an assembly composed almost entirely of
Cavaliers and landholders.
Possessing an ascendency in the legislature, the rising
aristocracy, true to its instincts, modified the constitution,
and effected changes in favour of landed proprietors and
men of wealth. The Episcopal Church was made the Episco-
reUgion of the State, and in every parish twelve vestry- J'^ ^
men were appointed, with power to assess taxes and fiU ed by
vacancies in their own number. Nonconformists were *^'
excluded from many civil privileges, and some sects were
cruelly persecuted. Religious freedom was suppressed.
A member of the House of Burgesses was even excluded
because he was well-affected towards the Quakers.
And this aristocratic legislature established a perpetual
revenue to the royal officers by a permanent tax on all

52 ARISTOCRATIC LEGISLATION.
Book n. exported tobacco — the main staple of the colony — which
Ch. 1. thus enabled the governor to rule independently of the
A. D. people. Moreover, the justices of the peace, appointed
1642 by the governor, held monthly courts in their respective
to counties, and had the power to levy county taxes; which
was so far abused, that the commissioners levied taxes to
Thearis- mget their own private expenses.
tocracy , , , .
giasp all Nor was this all. The law which Umited the duration
power, ^j. agggjQ^jjjgg (;o two years was repealed, and the legisla
tors assumed to themselves an indefinite term of office.
For fourteen years this legislature retained authority, and
yielded it up at last only to a popular insurrection. And
the Burgesses were not content with power alone. They
voted for themselves extravagant wages, to be paid by a
tax on the people.
Even the freedom of elections was assailed. The she
riffs, appointed by the governor, and belonging to the
aristocratic class, made out false returns. In addition,
the system of universal suffrage was abolished, and none
were eligible as electors but freeholders and housekeepers.
Thus the new legislature voted away the liberties of
the people, and passed laws to perpetuate a landed
aristocracy.
Else of a Rut with the growth and ascendency of aristocratic
aS''^ power, there also arose a generation of people who viewed
Ious de- this power with great uneasiness. There were scattered
jy. through the colony young men who, reared in isolation,
accustomed to the freedom of the wilderness, and trained
to self-dependence and hardy exercises, were resolved to
recover the privUeges which all had originally enjoyed.
They met together in secret to complain of their hard
ships, and devise the means of resistance. A struggle
was at hand between wealth and prerogative on the one
side, and popular freedom on the other. There was only

THE CLASH OP PARTIES. 53
needed an occasion to precipitate matters into actual Book ii.
rebellion. ch. i.
An occasion was at last presented by the pretended ne- a. d.
cessity of an Indian war. A young planter was found, 1642
of fine talents and enterjjrising character, who had been to
bred to the bar in England, to sympathize with the de
mocracy. His name was Nathaniel Bacon, and he did all soi^mes
in his power to foment the popular discontents, perhaps oon.
with a view, as is the case with most demagogues, of rising
into power by exciting the prejudices and passions of the
people. Or, he may have been a true patriot, buming
with indignation against the oppression and injustice which
the governing class had exercised. /¦
The wise and sagacious old governor perfectly under
stood the character and designs of Bacon — that he wished
to fan the flame of Indian war, and then, when he had
collected sufficient force to subdue the savages, and had
returned with his followers to their homes with the glory
of victory, to make use of their power and the popular
enthusiasm to overturn the govemment. For it should
be stated that Bacon had soUcited permission to raise a
force and attack the Indians, and had been refused ; and
very properly, too, if order and law were to be maintained
by an aristocratic govemment, and if the Indians were not
needlessly to be destroyed.
There were doubtless Indian aggressions ; but all diffi- Indian
culties with them might have been easily settled, and a ^F^res-
war might have been prevented. It seems that the Seneca
Indians had driven the Susquehannas from their abode at
the head of the Chesapeake to the English settlements in
Maryland, and some outrages had been committed. The
people in Maryland invoked the aid of Virginia, and a
body of men had gone to their assistance. Mutual acts
of hostility were perpetrated, which ended by the Indiana
5*

54 WAR WITH THE INDIANS.
Book II. sending six of their chieftains with authority to treat for
Ch. 1. peace.
A. D. ReconcUiation was in the power of the Virginians, and
1676. was desired by the governor himself But it was not
Indian peacc they wanted. They desired an excuse to raise a
^^- large body of men, and further they were animated by a
cruel desire to annihilate their enemies. The govem
ment, however, took what measures it thought necessary i
to guard against Indian hostiUties, among which was the
erection of forts.
The democracy denounced these forts as a folly — as a
mean and cowardly system of warfare, and demanded more
vigorous measures; having all the while an ulterior point
in view, which being understood by Berkeley, he refused
permission to Bacon to raise the forces he desired.
Bacon But Bacon, sustained by the people, resolved to act
marches ^jthout the Consent of the constituted authorities, and
against '
the In- easily raised five hundred men to march against the In
dians, on the plea of the necessity of the case. This was
in 1676, fourteen years after the liberties of the people
had been abridged by the aristocratic legislature.
Bacon Scarcely had Bacon marched forth with his men against
cSmed *'^® Indians, than they were proclaimed traitors, and a
atraitor. force was raised to disperse them. Bacon, however, con
ducted a successful expedition, routed and destroyed the
Indians, and returned in triumph to his home. In the
mean time, the lower counties had risen in arms, and de
manded the dissolution of the Assembly. With the mass
of the people against him, and a triumphant leader at
their head, the old governor was obliged to yield, and the
hated assembly was dissolved.
He aa- " In the choice of new members, the late disfranohise-
^er. ™'5'^* °f freemen was little regarded, and Bacon, with
others infected with his sentiments, were returned. The

REBELLION OP BACON. 55
Church aristocracy was broken up, and the elective fran- book ii.
chise restored. Arbitrary assessments were prohibited, Ch.i.
and the fees of the governor curtailed. Above all, Bacon a. d.
was made commander-in-chief of the forces, much to the 1676.
satisfaction of the people.
But Berkeley refused to sign his commission, and Bacon oiyii
then extorted it by force of arms. The people rallied to *'^'
his standard, and so vigorous were his measures, that
tranquilUty was soon restored.
The people looked upon Bacon as their deliverer. Not Conflict
so did Berkeley. He viewed the enterprising defender of B^rke^
the colony as a rebel, and caused him to be proclaimed as I'^y ^'^
such. Bacon, in return, caused Berkeley to be denounced
as a tyrant, and summoned the people of Virginia to arms
to resist tyranny and oppression. His call was responded
to ; the public mind seemed to yield to his direction, and
a large force was assembled, both to resist Berkeley, and
to prosecute the war against the Indians.
Berkeley was in danger of being deserted and sup
planted. His situation was critical. He therefore pro
mised liberty to the servants of the insurgents, if they
would join his ranks. He also claimed the assistance of
the vessels in the harbour.
Both parties prepared for the civil war which now dis
tracted the colony. The friends of popular liberty rallied
around Bacon — the advocates of constitutional authority
supported the govemor.
Jamestown, the largest settlement of the colony, was james-
deserted by the royalists, and was taken possession of by ^T"^^^
the rebels. Fearful, however, that they were not strong
enough to retain it, they resolved to burn it; and the
village was accordingly destroyed, that no shelter might
remain to the enemy.
Bacon then resolved to prosecute the war stUl further.

56 Culpepper's administration.
fioQg n. and revolutionize the colony ; but, while he was preparing
Ch. 1. measures for more active hostilities, he sickened and died.
A. D. His death left his party without a head, and it was easily
1677. suppressed by the old authorities. Berkeley regained his
The re- powcr, and exercised it with great severity. Twenty-two
sup-"'' persons were hanged as rebels; and many more would
pressed, have expiated their resistance on the scaffold, had they
not fled into inaccessible retreats. " The old fool," said
Charles IL, " has taken more lives in tbat naked country,
than I did for the murder of my father."
Thus was suppressed, in 1677, a rebellion which had
for its object the attainment of popular liberty. After
the royal authority was restored, and offenders punished,
Berkeley returned to England, and was succeeded by Lord
Lord Culpepper, who was appointed governor for life.
per a^ Whenever a rebellion is unsuccessful, the old authority
pointed is re-established with increased force. It was so in Vir-
nor. ginia. Freedom now rested with the royal will. Assem
blies of the people were called but once in two years, and
the members were elected only by freeholders. AU the
acts of the assembly which had sustained Bacon were
annuUed. Each church was subjected to a self-perpetu
ating vestry. Taxes were levied in an oppressive form,
and the elective franchise was circumscribed.
1680. Affairs were still more lamentable under the adminis-
l^r' *^^*^°° °^ ^°^^ Culpepper, to whom had been granted the
ment of proprietorship of a part of Virginia. He mled only with
Ii?" the view of increasing his emoluments. The country be
came impoverished. The price of tobacco constantly de
cUned, and left the planters without hope. The governor
had no compassion for the people, and no sympathy with
the province which he ruled. So miserable was the con
dition of the colonists, that they appealed, in 1683, to the
king, to recall the grant to Culpepper and ArUngton,

TYRANNY OF ROYAL GOVERNORS. 57
which request, in view of existing circumstances, was at book ii.
length granted. Ch. i.
Soon after, Culpepper, notwithstanding his patent had a. d.
constituted him governor for life, was superseded by Lord 1683
Effingham. The new governor followed in the steps of to
his predecessor, and resorted to the usual course of extor
tion and injustice. Still, the population increased, though
not by voluntary emigrants. State prisoners and culprits
were sent out to cultivate the land as indentured servants.
There was no inducement for men who loved the institu
tions of freedom to emigrate to Virginia, where industry
was depressed, and royal authority severe. The king ap
pointed all the officers of the colony — the executive, the
council, the judges, the sheriffs, the county commissioners,
and local magistrates. Virginia had no town meetings,
no municipal institutions. Even the assembly was chosen
by a restricted franchise.
These severe measures and arbitrary rule, however, Discon-
caused disaffection, and favoured the spirit of resistance. *™'* °^
^ ' ^ ^ the co-
And so threatening did affairs become, that the govemor, lonists.
from fear, was at last obUged to practise moderation.
Finding the public displeasure general and uncontrollable,
in view of his extortion and tyrannical severities, and that
the colony was resolved to carry its complaints to James
IL, he embarked for England. But, before he arrived,
the revolution in that country had placed new sovereigns
on the throne.
Virginia, however, did not immediately gain much by 1692.
Jhat glorious and bloodless revolution. King William Sir Ed-
appointed Sir Edmund Andros, in 1692, to the office of j^ndros
governor — a man who had previously distinguished him- s"'''""^-
self by his arbitrary career as governor of New England.
But his authority was circumscribed by the power of the
assembly, which, after the English Revolution, obtained

58 OPPRESSIVE RULE OP ANDROS.
Book n. additional power, not merely in Virginia, but in all the
Ch. 1. colonies. By that great event, they were freed from their
A. D. dependence on the personal character of the king. He
1692. still continued to appoint governors, and men of sordid
Condi- feelings and narrow views occasionally were entrusted with
''°°°^ power. But the provincial assemblies generally found
nyon moaus to avoid the effects of their avarice, in proportion
lutioTrf as the spirit of freedom gained ground among them.
1688. Notwithstanding the evils which the colony had suf
fered from royal and aristocratic influences, it continuaUy
increased in numbers and wealth. In 1688, the inhabit
ants numbered about sixty thousand, of whom, however,
one-half were slaves ; and as many as twenty-five thousand
hogsheads of tobacco were exported, on whioh the duty
coUected in England amounted to over 135,000Z. At this
period, the province contained forty-eight parishes and
twenty counties. In every parish was built a church, and
the clergyman received for his salary a house, a glebe, and
sixteen thousand pounds of tobacco. The Bishop of Lon
don was the diocesan of the province, and appointed a
resident commissary to preside over the clergy. The doc
trines and rites of the Church of England were established
by law, and that church embraced in its ranks almost
every person of influence in the colony. After the Eng
lish Revolution, other opinions and practices began to
arise, and spread so rapidly, that, at the war of independ
ence, two-thirds of the people were dissenters from the
Episcopal Church. Slavery became more and more iden
tified with all the interests and institutions of the colony,
and furnished one of the main subjects of colonial legLs-
lation. Literature was but slightly cultivated; but the
want of general intelUgence was offset by considerable
refinement of manners. Hospitality, from the first, was
practised and enjoined; and seldom have men been more

CONDITION OP VIRGINIA. 59
peculiarly attentive to this noble duty, than the inhabit- book ii.
ants of the Old Dominion. The Ufe of the planter, how- ch. i.
ever, inclined him to inhabits of indolence and leisure, j^ j.
He lived isolated amid his dependants, ignorant of passing 1688.
events, averse to labour, scornful of trade, jealous of his
position, but chivalrous, frank, affable, and generous. His
situation developed peculiar virtues and peculiar defects —
quite foreign to those which characterized the Puritan
settlers of New England, whose early planting and his
tory it is now necessary to consider.

« V V • ' .^»^BBBlfc«rv 'V'-%nfe°'^;

Emigration of Mr. Hooker and his Company.

CHAPTER II.
SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND.
The more seriously we contemplate the struggles and book n.
principles of the Puritan settlers of New England, the oh. 2.
more powerfully are we impressed with the greatness of j^ jj
the men, and the greatness of their cause. They were 1592
not adventurers in quest of wealth ; they were not broken- to
down gentlemen of aristocratic tastes and connections, -toOo.
seeking to escape poverty and mortification in England ; Charao-
they were not dissolute young men, whom their friends the Pu-
exiled to avoid disgrace and shame ; they were not pan- '**''™-
pers, who fled their country to escape famine and disease,
and who were wiUing to submit to a base dependence ;
but they were religious, intelligent, independent men of
the middle walks of Ufe, who sought freedom to worship
God, and scope for the full development of their energies.
They were a class of religious enthusiasts, in whose eyes
the present was nothing in comparison with the future,
the material with the spiritual, or the ordinary pleasures
of life with the duties enjoined upon the followers of an
invisible King. They may have inclined to visionary
views of truth, and doubtless had many social peculiari
ties which were repulsive and gloomy ; but they had those
positive and exalted virtues whioh pre-eminently fitted
them to lay the foundations of ultimate greatness and
influence. Wherever we go in the United States, we see
the influence of their example and principles — we see the
6 (61)

62 CHARACTER OF THE PURITANS
Book Bt. effect of their laws, their colleges, their books, their no-
Ch. 2. tions, and their habits. They may not hold in their
A. D. bands the balance of politioal power ; but they furnish a
1592 disproportionate share of the schoolmasters, the clergy, the
to lawyers, the physicians, the authors, the editors, and the
successful merchants, of every great city. Men whose in-
Oreat- flugngg has been so good and so permanent, deserve our par-
thceariy ticular notice. Bien who have ever been found arrayed in
If "'ew defence of the great rights of mankind, and ready to make
"^"g- any sacrifice to secure them, merit our admiration. They
have extorted it from the whole world; and no partisan
ship, no sectarianism, no prejudice, can take it away.
They are immortal men. They would be objects of pane
gyric through all time, even if their principles no longer
lived.
Puritan It is unnecessary to give the history of Puritan conflicts
iuEng- iu England, before America was contemplated as a new
land. home. Difficulties first arose about some unessential form
of religious worship, which the exiles to Geneva and
Frankfort, during the reign of Blary, had adopted, through
the infiuence of Calvin, and which they wished to estab
lish on their return to England, during the reign of Eli
zabeth. They were first annoyed, and then persecuted,
which led them to separate from the communion of the
Established Church, and finally to seek the supremacy of
their own forms. Controversy, contention and prosecu
tion, inflamed their hostility, not only to the Church, but
also to the king. They became republicans, with new
ideas of liberty. To these ideas they attached great im
portance, but were denied the peaceful enjoyment of them.
Some of the more enthusiastic of these men, seeing that
there was not much prospect at home of securing what
they so highly valued, from the opposition of the Court
and the Church, resolved to emigrate to Holland where

THE PURITANS. 63
they heard there was liberty of conscience. Accordingly, book il
in 1608, a party; under John Robinson, settled in Ley- Ch. 2.
den. There, however, they were doomed to disappoint- a. d.
ment. Theydid not find scope for their energies, nor did 1608.
they wish to sever all connection with their native land, gettie-
The new world afforded better prospects. They could not ™™* **
secure a charter from the king for a separate settlement ;
but they obtained permission from the company to whom
Virginia belonged, to occupy a part of that colony. Thi- Resoiu-
ther they resolved to go. the pu-
But Providence had other designs for them to accom- ^'^^ *"
° ^ settle m
plish — 'Oven the colonization of a colder, more sterile, Ameri-
more forbidding clime, where new perils should surround
the pilgrim, and where he could earn a subsistence only
by constant toil and anxiety. It was in barren, stony,
stormy New England, that the great moral nursery of the
land was to be planted, and the firmest foundations were
to be laid for a powerful nation — laid, as usual, only by
iron energy and heroic fortitude. It was only by such
men that such a country could have been subdued. It
was only such a country that could have developed the
greatest strength and virtue. -^"
That country had been granted by King James to forty The Ply-
gentlemen in the vicinity of Bristol, called the Plymouth ™'^ ^
Company, to whom was given unlimited jurisdiction over ny.
a belt of the whole American continent, extending from
forty to forty-eight degrees of north latitude. Their pa
tent favoured a commercial monopoly of the most odious
kind. Their sole object was a pecuniary return for their
investments. Now, it was without the knowledge of this company,
and without aid from the king, that the band of pilgrims
estabUshed themselves in Massachusetts ; and it was even
against their own intentions, for they expected to settle in

64 THE PILGRIM FATHERS.
Book h. the northern limits of that part of the country which was
Ch. 2. claimed by the London company.
^ -Q It has been already said that a party of the Pilgrims,
1620. under Bobinson, first sought shelter in Holland. It was
Voyage i'l 1620 that they made preparations to emigrate to Ame-
to Ame- riga. A. portion of them still remained behind ; but the
rica. youthful and the strong embarked at Delft-Haven for
Southampton, and, two weeks after, on the fifth of Au
gust, re -embarked in two vessels for the new world. One
of these vessels, the Speedwell, being unfit for the voyage,
the company returned to Plymouth, and, on the sixth of
September, went on board of a single vessel, the Blay-
flower, and again set sail for their far-distant home.
Never before was a leaky ship freighted with so precious
a cargo — not gold, not wares of iron and glass, not fabrics
of silk and linen ; but men having the truth of God in
their souls, and resolved to establish it in a new and
boundless continent for the future glory and welfare of the
human race. There were only one hundred pilgrims in
the Mayflower ; but they were the true founders of Ame
rican liberty and greatness.
ArriTal The cxUcs Steered their bark for the country near the
p^^j." Hudson. But not there were they to find a resting-place.
tans on The beautiful banks of that glorious river were reserved
rican for their descendants only in a future generation. As the
shores, pilgrims approached the American shores, after a boiste
rous voyage of sixty-three days, they found themselves at
the southern extremity of Cape Cod. It was near this
barren headland that they expected to find the Hudson.
Unable to proceed south, they moored their vessel in its
harbour. But they did not prepare to land until they
had formed themselves into a community for the preserv
ation of order, and the promotion of the pubUc good.
Thus early did they recognize the necessity of laws and

LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. 65
government. They were religious, intelligent, and moral; book n.
but even in the wilderness, with God for their Sovereign Ch. 2.
Ruler, they felt that they required an earthly head. They a. d.
accordingly chose John Carver for their governor ; and 1620.
all the men, forty-one in number, signed an instrument
which constituted them a body politic. After spending
five more tedious weeks in exploring the barren and deso
late coast, they selected the harbour of Plymouth as the Landing
place of disembarkation; and, on the eleventh of Decem- ^ouo..
ber, 1620, (old style,) they trod upon the rock which has
ever since been preserved and cherished as the most inte
resting vestige of the early settlement of New England.
Thus, after tossing upon the ocean nearly five months, nisa*
after leaving their temporary shelter in Holland, exposed JJj^j,
to sickness, danger, and privation, did the pilgrim fathers ^^"^ ^^^
of New England land on a desolate and inhospitable coast, nists.
five hundred miles from any other European colony, in the
depth of winter, and with few preparations to meet its
chilly storms. Between showers of sleet and snow, faint
ing with exhaustion, unused to labour, and suffering from
disease, they erected a few rude huts to shelter them from
the severities of the climate. And when the birds began
to sing, in the opening spring of 1621, more than half
their number had died. The health of the governor sank
under his duties and privations, and, soon after, his wife,
broken-hearted, followed him to a better land.
In November, before the close of the season, the colony Famine
was recruited in numbers, though not in stores. A ^"^^j,
scarcity, nearly amounting to a famine, followed. For
three or four years, their chief dependence was on corn
purchased from the Indians. At times they had no corn
at all, and were compelled to subsist on fish.
For three years the colonists lived together as a com
munity. But all the influences of religion, and aU the
6*

66 condition OF THE COLONISTS.
Book II. perilous and pecuUar circumstances of their situation,
Ch. 2. could not induce the lazy to work, or prevent the indus-
A. D. trious from complaining. It was found absolutely neces-
1621 sary that each famUy should take care of itself — should
to plant its own corn, and provide for its own prosperity.
This arrangement restored industry, and industry pro
duced contentment and abundance. Before many seasons
had elapsed, more corn was raised than could be consumed,
and was profitably exchanged with the Indians for furs.
Discaae ^^ the PUgrims suffered from cold, privation and dis-
among gasc, they were mercifully preserved by Providence from
dians. the tomahawk of the Indians, until they were able to
contend with them. A fatal epidemic had carried off
nearly all the natives in the vicinity of the settlement.
A friendly Indian had even welcomed their approach,
soon after they landed ; and he, with two others, intro
duced them to Blassasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, with
Treaty whom a treaty of peace was made. But the Pilgrims,
Indians, notwithstanding the precariousness of their situation, their
limited number, and their Christian principles, could not
refrain from dipping their hands in the blood of a people
whom, at all times, they should have conciliated. " Oh !
how happy a thing it would have been," said the pious
Robinson in Holland, in a letter to the colonists, " that
you had converted some before you could have killed
any!" But Robinson was not capable, any more than
we are, of appreciating all the circumstances of his flock
in the wilderness ; and we may perhaps rest assured that
the excellent Governor Bradford, and the brave Captain
Standish, acted judiciously as weU as courageously.
Unobtrusive, unfettered, and trusting in the Lord for
help, the colony at Plymouth slowly but steadily increased.
At the end of ten years, it numbered three hundred souls.
Feeble as it was in numbers, it had stiuck a deep root into

PROGRESS OF THE COLONY. 67
the American soil, and was a tree which Providence Book il
planted for aU generations. The colonists suffered much ; Ch. 2.
but their hopes were bright, and their courage undaunted, a. d.
They were unmolested by the king, and existed as a pure 1621
democracy. They appointed their own rulers, and rulers to
who governed in the fear of God. Their laws were salu
tary, and were based on the Bible. Township independ- ^""^^^^
ence existed from the first, and this they succeeded in hard-
perpetuating — at once the nursery and the genius of Ame- jj^^ ,^
rican institutions. " Out of small beginnings," says the i™y-
early historian of the colony, "great things have been
produced ; and as one small candle may light a thousand,
so the Ught here kindled hath shone to many — yea, in
some sort, to our whole nation."
But aU parts of New England were not settled by Grant to
Puritans, or from reUgious considerations. The council j^^^^^^j..
of Plymouth, to whom the king had granted such im- gas.
mense territories and undefined jurisdiction, issued grants
of domains to various persons, who were animated by the
hopes of gain. In 1621, the country between Salem and
the Blerrimac river became the property of John Mason.
This grant was followed by another, the next year, to
Mason and Sir Ferdinand Gorges, of the whole territory
between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, and extend
ing west as far as Canada. But it was not until 1623
that any actual settlement was made ; and this was made
by fishermen, on the banks of the Piscataqua. Ports
mouth and Dover are among the earliest towns in the
United States ; but they did not fiourish like those estab
Ushed by the Puritans. Nor did the other settlements
which were attempted shortly after in various parts of the
coast. They were mere fishing-stations, or else designed
for traffic with the Indians, and have no historical
importance.

08 COLONY OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY.
Book n. The year 1628 is memorable for the formation of a
Ch. 2. new company of Puritans for the settlement of the coun-
A. D. try around Blassachusetts Bay. The scheme originated
1628. with a clergyman of Dorchester, in the west of England,
Forma- named White, who succeeded in instigating several gen-
th^M^ tlemen of consideration to engage in an active enterprise
sachu- for the colonization of the new world with men of Puritan
Bay principles. Among these were John Humphrey, brother
Compa- of thg Earl of Lincoln ; Sir Henry Roseville, Sir John
ny. Young, and John Endicott, who purchased of the Ply
mouth Company a belt of land extending from three miles
south of Charles river to three miles north of every part
of the Blerrimac. They were soon joined by some wealthy
citizens in and about London, including John Winthrop
and Sir Richard Saltonstall ; and also by others from Lin
colnshire, of honourable connections, such as Isaac John
son, Thoinas Dudley, Simon Bradstreet, William Cod-
dington, and Richard Bellingham — all famous in colonial
annals. These gentlemen, sustained by money and influ-
Eoyai ential friends, obtained in 1629 a royal charter confirming
charter, ^.[^g grant they had received from the Plymouth Company.
The charter was modelled after that of the late Virginia
Company, and contained nothing about religion ; nor was
the settlement designed to be exclusively Puritan. The
government was entrusted to the corporation in England,
who had the exclusive right to enact laws, raise money,
and settle all matters of importance. The executive ad
ministration of the colony, however, was entmsted tc
Endicott, assisted by twelve counciUors, seven of whom
were nominated by the company.
They ob- The charter was granted by Charles I. in March ; and
'h°to '° ^^^ following April, six ships, with two hundred emi-
^ grants, most of them Puritans, sailed for America. The
new band of pilgrims brought their religious teachers with

ARRIVAL OP THE COLONISTS AT SALEM. 69
them, and also such handicraftsmen as might prove most book n.
useful, together with oxen, cows, and horses. No idea Ch. 2.
of revisiting their native land ever entered their minds, a. d.
They would not accumulate riches, and then retum to 1630.
enjoy them; but they would spend their days in the new charao-
world, and their chUdren after them should toil in the ^ °' :
. . . *^^ ^^ 1
wilderness untU the foundations of a great nation should tiers. (
be laid.
It was in the latter part of June, the most cheering settie-
and propitious season of the year, that the colonists ^^"'
arrived at their destined place, which was called Salem.
Endicott, with two followers, had arrived the preceding
year, but had erected only a few mean huts and planted
a few insignificant cornfields. The thoughts of the set
tlers, even amid poverty and desolation, were still centred
on those great ideas which so speedily gave vitality to
their infant colony, and which, in the mother country,
were soon after destined to overturn the throne. The
Puritan colonists became a church in the wilderness, with
God for their sovereign ruler, and his word for their text
book and guide. They established religious worship on
the basis of independency. Each congregation elected
its officers, formed its creed, and subscribed to its cove
nant. The church of England was disowned and its
ceremonials abandoned.* The nearest human authority
the Puritans followed was Calvin, and him only in matters
of theology. His scheme of church government was not
sufficiently democratic for those stern republicans.
Before the year elapsed, a change was made in the jj^^
govemment of the colony which had a wonderful effect «>mp8-
upon its future growth and condition. The corporation transfer
in England voted to transfer their charter to the inhabi- ^J_° "^
tants of the colony themselves. A commercial corpora
tion thus became an independent provincial government.

70 SUFFERINGS OF THE COLONISTS.
Book n. In consequence of this transfer of power, many more
Ch. 2. persons of rank and property were induced to emigrate.
A. D. In 1630, as many as fifteen hundred additional colonists
1630. arrived, John Winthrop at their head, who had been
Arrival choscn govcmor by the board before its charter was
of new transferred. Boston was the place selected for the new
emi- . .^.j.
granta. plantation, and soon became the capital. Here was
convened the General Court for the settlement of the
government, composed of all the freemen of the colony.
But power, for a whUe, was in the hands of a few men,
who chose the magistrates from among themselves.
Moreover, the elective franchise was narrowed to mem
bers of church. Gradually the inconvenience of assem
bling all the freemen together was felt, and representatives
from each town were chosen to concert measures for public
utiUty.
Suffer- But before the colonists had modelled their new republic
thrcoio- luany of their number had died of hardship and disease.
nists. Provisions were scarce. Unforeseen obstacles discouraged
even the hardy and the bold. Their ranks were not
recruited, as had been hoped. " Men dreaded the hazards
of the voyage and the wilderness, and wanted to learn the
success of the first adventurers." Amid these discourage
ments the soul of Winthrop was serene and lofty. His
great abilities were exerted for the welfare of his associates,
and such was his wisdom and influence, that the clouds,
after two or three years of hardship, began to break
away. In 1633, two hundred emigrants arrived, among
whom were Haynes, Cotton, and Hooker; men of learning
and social position at home, and with whose labours is
associated all that is famous in the early history of tbe
colonies. Winthrop's administration lasted four years, during
which seven churches were organized, ferries were estab-

SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. 71
lished, a fort was erected in Boston, water-nulls and wind- Book rr.
mills set up, two ships were built, a trade in corn and Oh. 2.
cattle begun with Virginia, the country around was a. d.
explored, salutary laws were enacted, a representative 1633.
system of government formed, and Uberty based on a
sound foundation. The churches, especially, became the
admiration of the Puritans in England, and the colony
was regarded as the home of oppression and the hope of
future generations. But all amusements were proscribed,
and a rigid censorship of manners and morals established,
which ended in a social despotism, from which New
England is not yet entirely emancipated.
Notwithstanding the excellent character and wise Unpopu-
government of Winthrop, he was not sufficiently demo- °y^^_ °
cratic in his sympathies to suit the new settlers of Blassa- ttrop.
chusetts. When the charter was given, it was supposed _
that the freemen, or those to whom it was originally
granted, would be so few that aU might join in making
laws ; but when the freemen embraced the colonists thera
selves, the governor thought that their representatives 1634.
only should legislate for the public good. As this doc- suo-
trine was not relished by the people, Winthrop lost his ^^^^_
election, Blay 1634, and Thomas Dudley succeeded him ley.
as governor.
Havnes succeeded Dudley the following year — marked 1636.
by the emigration of sixty of the colonists to the banks jj^.^^^^
of the Connecticut. Early in the spring of 1636, and his
Hooker, "the light of the western churches," foUowed, ny emi-
with a company of one hundred men, driving before them, |5''''!'°
through tangled woods, across swamps and morasses, and ford.
over streams and highlands, their cattle, which were to
furnish them subsistence in their toilsome pilgrimage and
in their future resting-place. They selected Hartford as
their home, little dreaming of the danger which sur-

72

ROGER WILLIAMS.

Bo"^ n. rounded them, and the evils they were soon to encounter
Ch. 2. from the hostility of the Pequod Indians.
A. D. While these enterprising pilgrims were organizing the
1631. new State of Connecticut, a domestic event occurred in
Charac- Massachusetts which has furnished the enemies of the
Roger Puritans with lasting materials for slander and reproach.
Wil- This was the banishment of Roger Williams. This great
man had arrived in the country in 1631, and was himself
a Puritan and a fugitive from English persecution. He
was, doubtless, beyond his brethren in liberaUty of mind,
and advocated unbounded religious toleration. He de
fended the great principle that the civil magistrate had no
right to restrain or direct the consciences of men. But
with these views, altogether in advance of his age, he
also insisted that it was not lawful to take an oath to the
civil magistrate ; that it was not right for Christians to
join in family prayer with those whom they judged
unregenerate, and that all colonial patents were invalid,
since King Charles had no lawful power to dispose of the
territory of the Indians. He advocated his opinions with
great zeal, and mingled, as Graham asserts, much evil
with good, and muoh error with truth. His notions,
His per- whether false or true in the abstract, were considered jis
tjon_' hostile to the constitution of civil society, and unsuitable
to the scene of their promulgation. He was accordingly
looked upon with distrust, although his piety was above
reproach, and his genius beyond ordinary appreciation.
But his views found admirers in Salem, and he was invited
by the members of the church in that place to become
their religious guide, much to the scandal of the good
people in Boston. There he instigated Endicott, a magis
trate, to cut the red cross out of the royal standard, since
it seemed to be an emblem of Papal superstition. This
act of apparent treason was followed by penalties which

BANISHMENT OF WILLIAMS. 73
led to more open dissension, and whicb finally ended in book n.
the refusal of Williams to subject himself to the censm-e Ch. 2.
or control of the colonial churches. He firmly main- 1635.
tained his right to hold what opinions he pleased, in spite ^„^^^^
of the entreaties of Hooker and Cotton, and the displea- mo"' of
Itoger
sure of the General Court, before which he was sum- vvii-
Imoned. His threat of schism filled up the measure of his ''™' ,
I ^ and set-
joffences, and he was accordingly sentenced by the court, tlement
jOctober 1635, to depart from the jurisdiction of the igjand.'
'colony. The sentence excited great uproar in Salem,
and his silent admirers resolved to follow him into exile.
He obtained permission to remain tUl spring, but such
was the effect of his discourses that it was resolved to
send him back to England in the depth of winter. The
warrant was made out, but before it could be served he
and his companions had fled. After wandering fourteen
weeks in the wilderness, amid perils and hardships, without
guide and without friends, except so far as he was shel
tered and fed by the native chieftains, he established an
infant settlement at the head of Narragansett Bay, at a
place whioh he called Providence. From Canonicus, the
head sachem of the Narragansett Indians, he subsequently
obtained a title to the territory he had occupied. This
was the commencement of the colony of Rhode Island.
Here Roger Vf illiams founded a State on the principle of
pure democracy; giving to all unbounded liberty of con
science, making friends of the Indians, labouring for their
conversion, recommending the great ideas of toleration in
language more genial and beneficent than had at first
characterized him, and securing to the end of his life
universal respect, not only from his own people, but finally
from those who had persecuted and exiled him.
The next great event of importance in the early history
of the New England colonies was the arrival, in 1635, of
7

74 SIR HENRY VANE.
BOOK IL three thousand additional emigrants, whom the cruelties of
Ch. 2. Laud and Strafford, the ministers of Charles I., drove
1636. to the shores of the New World. Among these were
In- Hugh Peters, the celebrated chaplain, in after times, of
-.roased Oliver CromweU, and Henry — afterwards Sir Henry —
]^'^ Vane, so eminent in the parUamentary history of Great
Britain. He was then young, enthusiastic, and fearless;
deeply attached to Puritan principles, and possessing one
of the finest minds in that age of great men and great
Henry idcas. His influenoe was soon felt, and in 1636 he was
Vane go- giggtej] govemof of the province. But politics did not
yernor a x x
Of Mas- furnish a field wide enough for his active spirit, and he
setts?" plunged into the abyss of theological discussion. His
opinions, though sound on the whole, were, however, so
tinged with enthusiasm and extravagance, that he soon
lost most of the popularity he had gained by his urbanity
Ann and genius. He gave the most offence by his patronage
Hutch- f ^ Hutchinson : a woman of great character and
inson. 7 to
talent, but who advocated doctrines which were supposed
to be dangerous and heretical.
This celebrated woman raised a spirit of insurrection
Her per- against spiritual authority. She submitted with impa-
and oS- tience to the restrictions imposed on women in religious
nions. meetings, and established separate female assemblages,
where she revealed her views of truth to admiring listeners.
They were sub.stantially those of George Fox : that the spirit
of God communicates truth independently of his written
word. The clergy denounced her doctrines as heretical,
and she and her friends retorted in bitter and censorious
reproaches. The venom of religious discussion was in-
stiUed into the innermost recesses of society, and its peace
seriously compromised. The great majority, however,
were opposed to her, and she and her most zealous adhe
rents were banished. The people again rallied under

PEQUOD WAR. 75
Winthrop, who was chosen governor in place of Vane book u.
in 1637. Vane himself returned to England in disgust, cii. 2.
The female agitator whom he had befriended sought, with a. d.
her adherents, shelter in Rhode Island — long the home 1637.
of the oppressed. Not contented there, neither anywhere,
she removed to one of the Dutch settlements, and was
finally murdered by the Indians. Her brother, John
Wheelright, an able minister, with his friends, removed
to the banks of the Piscataqua and founded the town of
Exeter. It was in the midst of the dissensions occasioned by the Pequod
discussions of Ann Hutchinson, that the Pequod war ""'
broke out. This tribe, the most considerable in New
England, mustering seven hundred warriors, viewed with
jealousy and alarm the encroachments of the English,
especially their migration to the valley of the Connecticut.
Where there is secret hostUity, a small provocation is
enough to produce a war. An Indian trader, named Old- Kavages
ham, was murdered by a band of Pequods on Block Isl- "^ *'"'
and, and his pinnace seized. The pinnace was retaken,
and eleven Indians were kUled. But this retaliation did
not satisfy the new settlers of Massachusetts. They de
manded satisfaction for the murder of one Captain Stone,
a dissolute master of a trading-vessel to Virginia, who had
been kiUed in 1636, with seven of his crew. The Pe
quods refused the demands of Endicott, who had been
sent out against them with ninety men, and who retaliated
by buming some of their villages. The Indians, in
revenge, destroyed, in the course of the winter, thirty of
the new settlers on the banks of the Connecticut. A
special session of the General Court of Massachusetts was
called, the militia was organized, and preparations mado
to raise troops for approaching hostilities. \
But the Connecticut settlers had made vigorous exer-

76 DESTRUCTION OP THE PEQUODS.
BOOK II. tions. They formed an alliance with the Blohegans and
Ch. 2. the Narragansetts, and marched, with nearly all the force
A. D. they could raise, against the Pequod warriors. The colo-
1636. nists were commanded by John Blason, a man of military
Attack experience, assisted by Captain Underbill, with twenty
of the jjjgjj fpoju Blassachusetts. The Indians were entrenched, !
Pequods. in great numbers and considerable strength, upon a hill ;
and, feeling secure, had abandoned themselves to feasting
and revelry. But in their fancied security, before day,
when overcome with sleep, they were unexpectedly at
tacked, and their fort was fired. So successful was tha
assault, that six hundred of the Pequods perished, many
of them by fire, while only two of the English were
kiUed.
xhoir As morning dawned, three hundred more Indians were
'*™" seen to advance from another fort. But these were easily
plete de.
Btruo- defeated. What could undisciplined savages, with only
*'°°' bows and arrows, do when opposed by Europeans, equipped
with fire-arms ? The scattered warriors of the great Pe
quod tribe retired to their forests and morasses, but tbey
were pursued and hunted like wild beasts. Their wig
wams were burned, and every trace of their settlements
destroyed. The few who survived surrendered in des
pair, and were either doomed to slavery, or incorporated
with the Blohegans and Narragansetts.
Effectof '^^^ successful termination of this first Indian war
the war. struck terror into the hearts of the Red men, and secured
a long interval of peace and prosperity. It was doubtless
attended with severities whioh it is hard to reconcile with.
Christian magnanimity. Yet it can scarcely be doubted
that a rigorous policy was wise, and peculiarly demanded,
by the circumstances of the times. Had not the Pequods
been destroyed, it is probable tbat dangerous conspiracies
and combinations would have beon formed with other

PROSPERITY OF JtASSACHUSETTS. 77
jealous and hostile tribes, and a long contest ensued, book n.
which would have sapped the energies and damped the ch. 2.
ardour of the colonists. Results, at least, prove the wis- a. d.
dom of the course, since no serious war again occurred 1637.
for nearly forty years.
Charles I., engrossed by his troubles with ParUament, Prospe-
had not much leisure or inclination to interfere with the the coio.
affairs of the colonies; and Blassachusetts silently ad- ^^^^^
vanced, and had scope to organize its social institutions
on a firm basis. The good people of the colony turned
their attention to the establishment of a system of educa
tion, to the conversion of the Indians, to the settlement
of controverted points of faith, and to the exclusion of
offensive sectarians from their midst. This period is
memorable, therefore, for the founding of Harvard Col
lege, for the labours of Eliot among the Indians, and
for the Cambridge platform, which Umited political power
to church members alone, as well as established a theolo
gical creed which was essentially similar to that framed
by the famous council of divines at Westminster.
Winthrop and Dudley, distinguished as governors Of Death of
the infant settlement, died within three years of each ^^^.^^^
other, and just before the ascendency of Cromwell. Their
authority devolved on Endicott, who was re-elected to
office, with the exception of a single term, for fourteen
successive years. During his long administration, Mas
sachusetts had still greater scope for establishing the prin
ciples of self-government Cromwell favoured the Puri- Growth
tan settlers, and aUowed them to manage their own affairs, ^lony
In the course of this period, the clergy exercised great airing )
, . , , ^. ,' ,..,¦. . ° „ the timo
authonty, and took part m all the political discussions of of crom- 1
the day. It was also during this period that those dis- ^"^"'
graceful persecutions of tbe Quakers commenced, which, to
this day, have fumished a fruitful subject of reproach to
7*

78 NEW ENGLAND UNDER CHARLES II.
Book II. all who hate the principles and revile the memories of the
Ch. 2. PUgrim Fathers. As a separate chapter will be devoted
A. D. to the history of religious persecutions and dissensions, no
1640 further notice need now be taken of the crusade against
to the followers of Fox — a crusade, however, in which they
alone did not embark, either in America or in England.
ProTcss On the restoration of Charles IL, in 1660, the spirit of
ofthe CO- Puritanism began to decline, in America as well as in the'
lonies. . ° . . . !
country which gave it birth. New ideas and new habits
arose, not so favourable to religious growth or moral ele
vation of sentiment. With the decline of the primitive
grandeur of the Puritan character, also passed away many
of the asperities which unfortunately had marred its
beauty. The people became more prosperous, from the
absence of external dangers, from habits of industry and
severe morality, and from unbounded scope in self-govern
ment. But prosperity, while it caused the wilderness to
rejoice, and added to the resources, numbers, and wealth
of the colony, dried up some of the springs of spiritual
life, and unloosed some of the ties which had bound the
hearts of all together in one harmonious bond of union.
Their Moreover, we now begin to observe the influence of com-
^"^"^ ^ mercial restrictions whioh the mother country imposed,
royal go- and which were unfavourable to all interests but those of
vemors. . r\ •
agriculture. Opposition to royal governors, and contests
for freedom, also commenced, and were continued until
the people were prepared for their great revolutionary
struggle. But these will not here be traced, and allusion
wiU only be made to those general events, not of sufficient
importance for separate chapters, whioh took place until
the accession of WUUam and Blary to the throne of the
Stuarts. Charles II. was not proclaimed in Boston until 1661,
when the colony sent Bradstreet" and Norton to England

DEMANDS OF CHARLES II. 79
as agents to secure the favour of the monarch, and a con- book n.
tinuance of its privileges. The king confirmed the char- ch. 2.
ter, and promised oblivion for all past offences ; but de- ^ -^
manded the toleration of the Church of England, the 1662.
repeal of the law which confined the elective franchise to
members of the Church, and, finally, the admission of all
persons of honest lives to the sacraments of baptism and
the Lord's Supper. Though there was a strong party in
favour of the royal demands, the majority was still inclined
to support the theocratic system. An intermediate party me
had, however, grown up, which advocated moderate mea- ^.^^^^
sures, among which were Bradstreet, Norton, and Increase iiant.
Mather. This party had supported the " half-way cove
nant," by which the children of church members received
the spiritual benefits of baptism, and the civil privileges
of church membership.
In 1662, the colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut charters
obtained liberal charters from Charles II. , which gave to P'i'i*'^?
' o to Rhode
the freemen the right of choosing their govemors, magis- island
trates, and representatives, with judicial and legislative necticut"
authority. And it is a matter of surprise that such pri
vileges should have been conceded by a prince of the
house of Stuart. But the inconvenience of such inde
pendent govemments had not then been experienced. In Their
Rhode Island, the privileges of freemen were restricted ''.'^°^''
7^0 sions.
to freeholders and their eldest sons. The qualifications
required by the charter of Connecticut were, property to
the amount of twenty pounds, and " civil, peaceable, and
honest conversation." New Haven, at first, was unwilling
to accede to the charter, inasmuch as it inclined, Uke
Blassachusetts, to a spiritual rather than a property quali
fication ; but the fear of being absorbed in the colony of
New York, and the judicious conduct of some of its pro
minent men, led to the consolidation of the colony in

80 ENCROACHMENTS OF CHARLES.
Book n. 1667, which then contained four counties — New Haven,
Ch. 2. Hartford, Bliddlesex, and New London. Of the new
A. D. consolidated colony of Connecticut, John Winthrop, a
1664. man of great experience and wisdom, was chosen govemor,
and held that post for fourteen years.
Koyai Iu 1664, various complaints having been made in Eng-
commis- jg^jj^ agaiust the colony, the king resolved to send out
sent to commissioners to examine into its affairs, and settle con-
chusSts flicting claims and interests. Massachusetts remonstrated
to ™- against their appointment and powers, and its magistrates
into its treated them in a manner whioh soon led to bitter alter-
^'™°" cations. The commissioners, unable to come to an under
standing, proposed at length to sit in form. The General
Court prohibited this procedure as contrary to the charter,
and invasive of the liberties which it guarantied. The
commissioners, without a military force, were obliged to
yield, but complained of ill-treatment, and threatened the
king's displeasure. They moreover outraged the social
habits of the people by convivial pleasures on Saturday
evenings, which led to still greater mutual animosity.
But they were sustained by the royal government, and
Massachusetts was required to send five men to England,
to answer for its conduct. The demand, of course, excited
no Uttle -alarm. The General Court was convened, which
voted to send an address to his Majesty, and made great
professions of loyalty, but neglected to obey the royal
command. As Charles, at this time, was hard pressed by
domestic difficulties, the disobedience of the colony went
for a while unnoticed and unpunished.
1675. -^^^ ^^^ colonists themselves were soon diverted from
King distant, to immediate and more pressing dangers. In
Phihp s 1075^ tjjg mog(. digaatrous and desperate contest with the
aborigines which ever afflioted the Puritan settlers of New
England, broke out ; and the struggle was not ended untU a

ENGLISH COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS. 81
tenth of all the houses in the colony were burned, a mil- book ii.
lion of dollars expended, and six hundred people had Ch. 2.
perished, — to say nothing of the still greater misfortunes j^ j,
which befeU their savage enemies. This was the famous 1675.
war against the Narragansetts, in which King Philip
figured as the most intrepid of the Indian heroes. But
this disastrous contest will be further presented in the
chapter on Indian wars.
Soon after the termination of Indian hostiUties, 1677,
the province of Blaine, whioh had been granted to Gorges
and Blason, was purchased by Massachusetts for 1200Z.,
and added to its jurisdiction, which naturally drew the
attention of the English government once more to the
colony. The English merchants and manufacturers made loud English
complainta of Blassachusetts for its disregard of the laws '^"\
*- ° chants
of trade. The Committee on Plantations, to whom these com-
complaints were referred, suggested " a governor wholly l^'^
supported by his Blajesty." Randolph, a kinsman of 'ony.
Mason, was sent over to Boston, 1680, with a commission
as collector of the customs of New England, and he made a
vigorous attempt to exercise his office, but the whole popu
lation was against him. Perplexed and involved in law
suits, he returned to England ; but soon came back with
a royal letter which demanded the immediate appointment
of agents empowered to consent to a modification of the
charter. The colonists dared not disobey a direct royal command, 1682.
and proceeded to the appointment of agents ; but author- ?'*""^lj^
ized them, 1682, merely to lay certain concessions before the
the king. Charles threatened a writ of quo warranto, '°^'
unless they were furnished with more ample powers. The
General Court accordingly authorized its agents to make
any concessions consistent with the charter. This of

82 TYRANNY OF SIB EDMUND ANDROS.
Book h. course did not satisfy an arbitrary royal government, and
Ch. 2. the writ was accordingly issued. The people refused to
^ JJ surrender the charter ; but it was nevertheless declared to
1684. be forfeited by the English courts of law, and the barrier
fell, 1684, between the people of Massachusetts, and the
Pissatis- wiU of the English King. Soon after Charles II. died,
^''j™ and was succeeded by James IL, whose inflexible temper
colony, and tyrannical principles were fully known, and were soon
verified by the appointment of a special commission for
the govemment of the New England colonies. Against
this government the General Court of Massachusetts pro
tested, while it obeyed its directions. But the rule of the
royal commissioners was mild and conciliatory, in compa
rison with that of the governor whom James soon after
Andros Sent ovcr to supersede them. This agent of royal tyranny
OTrf"^" ^*^ ^i"" Edmund Andros, who was empowered, with the
New consent of a board of councillors named by the king, to
' make ordinances for the colonies, and raise taxes for their
support. The whole legislative and executive authority was now
in the hands of persons appointed by the king, not merely
in violation of the original charter of the colonies, but of
His dis- the fundamental laws of England. Andros, on his arrival
ooMuct ^* Boston, caused the Episcopal service to be performed
in the old South church ; he abolished the General
Court; he refused to permit the solemnization of mar
riage, except by clergymen of the Church of England ;
he increased the fees of all public officers ; he attempted
to take away the charters of Rhode Island and Connecti
cut, and abolished the regular governments of those pro
vinces ; he prohibited town meetings for the election of
town officers; he questioned the validity of titles, and issued
new grants of property, — in short, he compelled the people
to submit to grievous extortion and gross injustice.

ACCESSION OF WILLIAM AND MARY. 83
At length, the smothered rage of the people broke Book n.
forth. As soon as the tidings of the deposition of James Ch. 2.
II. reached Boston, a general insurrection of all classes a. d.
took place. The governor and all obnoxious persons were 1688.
seized, a committee of safety appointed, the old magis- insur-
trates were reinstated, and liberty was restored. The '¦«''t'0'='-
other colonies followed the example of Massachusetts.
The charter of Connecticut reappeared from its conceal
ment in the old oak-tree. Rhode Island acted as if its
own had never been relinquished. New Hampshire re-
annexed itself to Blassachusetts, and all things returned
to the state they had been in prior to the death of
Charles II.
WiUiam and Mary were proclaimed in Boston with the Liherty
same enthusiasm that they were in Virginia ; and consti- England
tutional Uberty received a confirmation from the English respect-
Parliament — henceforth, in reaUty, the supreme power in
England, as, heretofore, it had been in theory.
But the accession of William and Mary involved the Prospe-
EngUsh nation in wars, which also affected the condition thJ^io
and welfare of the colonies. Before the effect of these ^^'¦
wars can be traced, as well as sundry other matters of
importance, the settlement of other colonies demands our
attention. We take leave of the New England • settle
ments when their institutions were established upon a
permanent basis, when the population had extended for
more than one hundred miles into the interior, and when
they began to claim, from their inherent importance, the
attention of the English nation.

Landing of Henry Hudson.

CHAPTER III.
SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY.
Holland, in the seventeenth century, was the most book n
prosperous commercial State in Europe, and was not ch.a.
indifferent to the great possessions which the EngUsh, , „
Portuguese, and Spaniards, claimed in the newly-disco- 1609.
vered sections both of the eastern and western continents, j^,^^^^^
Accordingly, a powerful corporation was formed in 1609, East in-
called the Dutch East India Company, which succeeded p^ny.
in sharing with the Portuguese the lucrative commerce
of India and the oriental islands. Under the auspices of
this company of merchants, the Hudson river was disco
vered and explored, and the Dutch flag hoisted on the
island of Manhattan, where New York now stands. In
1613, a few huts were erected on the island for traffic
with the Indians, and, two years after, a fort was built at
Albany, then called Fort Orange. The whole country,
from the fortieth to the forty-fifth degree of latitude, was
claimed by the Dutch, and called New Netherlands.
In 1621, the Dutch West India Company was formed, 1621.
with the exclusive privilege of trade and settlement on Dutch
both coasts of America. The little province of New Viacom-
Netherlands fell under the control of this new corporation, pany.
and its actual settlement was contemplated.
¦ In 1623, two vessels with colonists were sent out from
Amsterdam, which entered Delaware Bay, and ascended
the river nearly as far as PhUadelphia. Here Fort Nassau
8 C85)

86 SCHEMES OF COLONIZATION.
Book n. was built, and a settlement commenced. In 1624, Peter
Ch. 3. Blinnick was sent out as governor of the colony, and
A. D. brought over with him some French Protestants, who
1624. were in reaUty the first settled inhabitants of the New
Settle- Netherlands. They occupied the north-west corner of
ment of Lgjjg Island. Shortly after, the island of Blanhattan was
Vork purchased of the Indians for about twenty-four dollars,
'^ *°" ^^^ ^ block-house erected at its southern extremity, which
was called Fort Amsterdam. Around this fort a little
village was formed, which gradually extended until it has
become the greatest city on the American continent, and
the metropolis of commerce, rivalling European capitals
in size, magnificence, wealth, and population.
1629. But the colony of the New Netherlands, after all, waa
New little more than a small population of Indian traders,
ofcoioni- until the year 1629, when a more extensive soheme of
nation, colonization was projected in Holland, and ratified by the
States-General. This was, that any member of the com
pany who might establish, in any part of the New Nether
lands, a colony of fifty persons upwards of fifteen years
of age, should become absolute proprietor of a territory
sixteen miles in extent, along the sea-shore or a navigable
river, or eight miles when both banks were occupied, with
an indefinite extent inward. He was to reign like a feu-
The Pa- dal lord, under the title of Patroon ; but the settlers were
°°°°- allowed as much land as they could cultivate, and freedom
from taxation for ten years. It was also stipulated that
the lands should be first purchased from the Indians, as
the lawful and original proprietors of the soil. The com
pany at home, under whose auspices the colony was to be
planted, exhibited the usual narrowness of commercial
corporations in that age. It looked to the profit of its
members, rather than the welfare of the settlement.
Hence, it imposed odious restrictions. The colonists were

GOVERNOR VAN TWILLER. 87
forbidden to make woollen, linen, or cotton cloth, and the Book n.
island of Manhattan was reserved to the company for Ch. 3.
purposes of trade with the Indians. A. d.
In accordance with this scheme of colonization, some 1633.
of the most inviting tracts of country on the Hudson settiem
river. Long Island, and Delaware Bay, were secured by ^J"**
enterprising members of the company. But the Patroons
did little more than was necessary to secure their grants.
The colony belonging to Van Rensselaer, near Albany,
was the most thriving. Indian trade was the great object
desired, rather than agricultural improvement. At Fort
Amsterdam, more serious efforts at colonization were
attempted under Van Twiller, who had succeeded Minnick
as director or governor in 1633.
StUl, the province was not flourishing. Difficulties Badma-
arose between the government and the Patroons. The "^'" .
. ment of
EngUsh laid claim to a part of the territory granted to the co-
the company, and established themselves on the banks of °°^'
the Connecticut. The govemor appropriated some of the
-finest sections of the country for his own domain, and was
accused of extravagance and negligence. A Swedish
colony settled on the banks of the Delaware. Rival
claims, bad management, and oommercial restrictions,
were fatal to the prosperity of the colonists, who, besides,
were not animated by any lofty religious principles. In
1638, when William Kieft succeeded Van Twiller, Man- 1638.
hattan Island was nearly deserted. In addition to other Kieft
evUs, the Indians commenced a savage warfare, which van
lasted for two years, to which they were provoked by the TwiUer.
Dutch themselves. The governor, Kieft, had foolishly
and wickedly ordered a massacre in retaliation for a mur
der which an injured Indian had committed.
It was not till 1647 that a better day dawned upon the
New Netherlands, under the government of Stuyvesant

88 WISE ADMINISTRATION OP STUYVESANT.
BoQg IL — a scholar, a soldier, and a gentleman. This enlight-
Ch. 3. ened governor pursued a mild course towards the Indians ;
A. D. and the Dutch West India Company, learning wisdom
1647. from experience, removed the restrictions upon commerce.
Prospe- The boundary between Connecticut and the New Nether-
alco- ^ands was amicably settled. Municipal privileges were
lony. obtained by the inhabitants. The stream of immigration
began to swell. Fugitives from New England, France,
Bohemia, Switzerland, and Italy, sought shelter in New
Amsterdam, which, in 1656, bad become a cosmopolitan
city. Amicable relations were maintained with Virginia
Swedish and the other colonies, with the exception of New Sweden
"" "^^ — a colony which had been planned by Gustavus Adol-
phus, and planted under the auspices of the celebrated
Oxenstiern, on the southern shores of Delaware Bay.
Rivalship provoked enmity, and enmity led to hostilities.
The only colony which Sweden had planted in the new
world fell, in 1655, under the jurisdiction of the Dutch,
after a feeble existence of seventeen years.
Claims But, though New Amsterdam was destined to become
Engh°h ^ g'^^^t city, and was already the home of the oppressed,
to New and the chosen abode of merchants, yet its government
dam. and possession were to pass away from the Dutch. Not
they, but the English, were to be the sovereign lords of
the Atlantic coast, from Canada to Florida, until their
descendants should call themselves by a new name, and
out asunder the ties which bound them to the fatherland.
The English had always laid claim to the ten-itories
occupied by the Dutch, on the ground that they belonged
to Virginia ; but the civil wars and other difficulties with
which the government had to contend, prevented the
enforcement of the claim. The Dutch were quietly
allowed to continue their settlements, without, however,
any recognition of their rights by England, which was

CLAIMS OF THE ENGLISH TO AMSTERDAM. 89
jealous of the commercial prosperity of Holland. A war book il
between these two great Protestant countries was the Ch. 2.
result, even under the dictatorship of Cromwell. The 1664.
Protector meditated the conquest of the New Netherlands,
and the design was revived by his son Richard ; but it
was not untU the restoration of Charles II. that the seiz
ure of the Dutch possessions in North America was
actually made.
Charles II., in defiance of the charter rights of Connec- charies
ticut, as well as the superior claims of the Netherlands, '^^- '^*<''"
granted to his brother, the Duke of York, in 1664, the Amster-
whole country from the Connecticut River to the shores ^^ *°
of the Delaware, as weU as the tract between the Kenne- d^i^o of
York.
bee and St. Croix ; and Sir Richard Nichols was sent to
America with three ships and six hundred soldiers to
secure the grant.
The Dutch colony at Manhattan was in no condition to English
resist the EngUsh. The company at home had refused *''^^p°»-
° f J session.
before to fumish means of defence against the encroach
ments of Connecticut. The colonists themselves were
lukewarm, and many were secretly friendly to the in
vaders ; since more Uberty was enjoyed in the New Eng
land colonies than among themselves. The people would
not expose their lives for a company who neglected their
interests; therefore New Netherland fell into the hands
of the invaders, and its name was changed to New York
in honour of the royal proprietor, September 1664.
But Uberal terms were granted by the conquerors. Con-
Free direct Jntercourse with Holland was permitted for a j^"^ "
whUe, and the Dutch settlers were promised security to Amster-
their customs, possessions, reUgion, and municipal regula- the Eng.
tions. The conquest of the capital was followed by the ^^^'
surrender of Albany, and a general submission of the
whole province to English mle was acknowledged by the
8*

90 DISMEMBERMENT OP THE PROVINCE.
Book n. beginning of October. Colonel Nichols was appointed
Ch. 3. governor, and faithfully discharged his duties until the
1670. province was reconquered by the Dutch, 1667.
Thus, by an act of "flagrant injustice and insolent
usurpation," was overthrown the Dutch dominion in North
America, and the rule of England established on the
Atlantic coast from Acadia to Florida. The Dutch West
India Company had the meanness to express dissatisfac
tion with that brave old govemor, who had secured more
favourable terms than a capitulating city had perhaps ever
before obtained. But the venerable Stuyvesant still ad
hered to the wreck of the institutions and community over
which he had faithfully and ably presided for seventeen
years. He did not return to Holland, but remained at
New York ; where, for a year longer, " he prolonged the
empire of Dutch manners and the respect of the Dutch
name."
Dismem- The couquest of New York resulted in a dismember-
^™™* ment of the province. The Duke of York, two months
pro- even before the conquest, assigned to Lord Berkeley and
Sir George Carteret the land between the Hudson and
the Delaware ; which, in honour of the latter, who had
been governor of Jersey, received the name of New
Jersey. The proprietors of the province offered terms nearly simi
lar to those which had led to the settlement of Virginia.
Fifty acres of land were offered to each member of a settler's
femUy, and the same amount for each slave or servant, at
c^Teret ^ I'iit-rent of half a penny per acre. A govemor and
govern- council, appointed by the proprietaries, administered to
NeJ' local affairs. PhUip Carteret was the first govemor, and
York. Elizabethtown was the first settlement. (
No difficulties occurred, and no mattei of importance
took place until 1670, when the time came to collect the

NEW JERSEY RECOVERED BY THE DUTCH. 91
quit-rents, against the payment of which the whole colony book ii.
combined; and so powerful was the resistance of the Ch. 3.
people, that the governor retumed to England. 1674,
'I'Three years afterwards New Jersey was recovered by „
the Dutch, as well as New York, at a period when De sey and
Ruyter and Von Tromp, those gallant admirals, sustained y*^ ^.^
the honour of their flag against the naval armaments of concLuer.
England. But, after holding possession fifteen months,
the Dutch, by the treaty of London, 1674, were com
peUed to restore their conquests, and New Jersey and
New York again fell into possession of the English.
The Duke of York obtained from his brother Charles New pa.
a new patent for both New York and New Jersey imme- *''°* , ,
.r J granted
diately after, and Blajor Edmund Andros, the same person to the
who subsequently oppressed the people of New England, y^^]^
was sent out to govern the united province, where he dis
tinguished himself by the same tyrannical acts which after
wards made his memory detested in New England.
In the mean time, however, Sir WUliam Berkeley sold
his share of New Jersey, which had reverted to the pro
prietors, to two Quakers, for lOOOZ. The followers of
Fox, having grown more quiet and anxious for repose,
looked towards America as a shelter against oppression
and scorn.
One of the new Quaker proprietors having got posses- The so-
sion of the whole territory of Berkeley, and then becoming jrjj^^
embarrassed, made an assignment of his claims to three p'^'^-
.^. chase
other members of his society, among whom was William west
Penn. A division of the province took place, and the ^^^
Quaker purchasers of Berkeley's part obtained the westem
section, which was called West New Jersey.
MeanwhUe, in 1675, PhUip Carteret, in behalf of his
kinsman, resumed the administration of the other section,
which was known - as East New Jersey. The colony,

92 CESSION OP NEW JERSEY TO THE FRIENDS.
Book h. howcvcr, was disturbed by the claim of Andros to the
Ch. 3. government, who even seized Carteret and detained bim
1675. in New York as a prisoner. An agreement was at last
made, in 1678, between the Duke of York and the East
Carte- ' ^ - j.* j.
ret go- Jersey proprietors, who had granted a free constitution to
If^East the settlers.
Now In 1682, the whole province of East New Jersey was
""''^' purchased by William Penn and eleven other persons of
the society of Friends. Twelve others were soon after
William united with them, and to these twenty-four proprieton
Po^^ 1 p 1 .
pur- the Duke of York executed a final grant of the province.
phases rpjjjg resulted iu a rapid emigration of Quakers from Eng-
New land, and in the settlement of the country with an indus
trious and peaceful population.
When James IL, however, ascended the throne, 1685,
he disregarded the engagements he had made, and at
tempted to deprive New Jersey of its privileges, but was
prevented by the revolution which seated William and
Mary on the throne in 1688.
1680 ^^ account of the complaints brought against Andros
to by the proprietaries of New Jersey he was recalled, and
1688. Anthony Brokholst was left to administer the affairs of
Succcs- the colony, who was succeeded, 1682, by Thomas Dugan,
TCFuorai^ afterwards Earl of Limerick; a man of moderation and
of New probity.
under On accouut of the arbitrary manner in which taxes had
£^"'^ been collected, the people rose in indignation, accused the
coUecter of the revenue. Dyer, of high treason, and sent
pie OfN. him to England to be tried. They moreover demanded
qm're "^ of the Dukc of York a share of legislative authority as
liberty. t}^Q only condition on which they would submit to taxa
tion, and the royal proprietary thought proper to grant a
reluctant assent to the demands of the colonists. Dugan
accordingly convoked an assembly which consisted of a

LIBERAL CONSTITUTION OP NEW YORK. 93
council of ten nominated by the proprietary, and a house book il
of eighteen chosen by the freeholders. And the people Ch. 2.
of New York, after being governed for nearly twenty ^ -p
years by the arbitrary will of the Duke of York and his 1688.
deputies, obtained a free constitution at the very time the
New England colonies were deprived of theirs.
In^688, Andros was appointed governor of New York Andros
as well as of New England, whose arbitrary and unlawful ^ g""*"
govemment has already been alluded to. When the peo- vemor.
pie of New England shook off his authority, on intelU
gence being received there of the English Revolution,
New York followed their example, and Jacob Leisler suc
ceeded in obtaining the government, which, however, he
refused to surrender to the governor whom King William
had appointed, and was consequently, in 1692, executed as
a rebel. About the period of the revolution which placed Wil- Tjje dty
liam and Mary on the throne of England, the city of of New
New York contained nearly four thousand inhabitants. 1688
But ita great importance as a commercial mart was not
then developed. The principal settlements were on the
banks of the Hudson, and the inhabitants devoted them
selves mainly to agriculture. The population was chiefly
Dutch, and the growth of the town was checked by dis
astrous Ii»dian wars, which will be described in a future
chapter. The settlement of the Catholic colony of Mary
land now claims our attention.

Cecil Calvert, Second Lord Baltimore.

94

CHAPTER IV.
SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND.
Among those who were persecuted in England for book rx.
their religious opinions, during the reigns of James I. ch. 4.
and Charles I., none suffered greater injustice than the ^ ^
Roman Catholics. The nation having, as it were, but 1640
recently rebelled from Rome, it was natural that the ad- to
herents of the old religion should be more closely watched, -*-"""•
and more severely punished; for the Catholics, like the i;«rsecu-
Puritans, not only sought religious toleration, but aimed Catho-
at absolute supremacy. Indeed, they were subjected to a ,"^ "''"
double persecution — from the Established Church, which James L
was jealous of her authority ; and from the Puritans, who charios
hated and feared them with peculiar intensity. Many ¦'¦•
other circumstances contributed to make the Catholics
odious to the nation.
The cruelties of the reign of Mary, the meditated con
quest of England during the reign of Elizabeth by Philip
II. of Spain, the repeated conspiracies of which the Ca^
tholics were accused, the intrigues of the Jesuits, the
Gunpowder Plot, the persecution to which the Protestants
were subjected in France and Germany, and the evident
inclination of James and Charles to relax penal severities,
against the general voice of the nation — inclined Parlia
ment, and all corporate bodies entrusted with power, both
in State and Church, to the greatest severity against the
members of the Roman CathoUc communion. They had
(95)

96 LORD BALTIMORE.
Book II. even stronger inducements than the Puritans to emigrate.
Ch.4. They were dealt with more harshly, unjustly, and absurdly.
A. D. The breath of calumny or the whisper of distrust was
1628. enough to consign a CathoUc to irremediable disgrace and
ruin.
Potent Among the courtiers and ministers of James I. was a
for New- tolerant and liberal-minded Catholio, who, for his distin-
found-
land guished services, had been created an Irish peer by the
fotat title of Lord Baltimore. While Secretary of State, he
Biiti- had entered zealously into those schemes of colonization
which then excited such general enthusiasm, and had ob
tained a special patent for the southern extremity of New
foundland. Twice he visited his territories on that island;
but finding them unfavourable to a prosperous colony, he
visited, in 1628, the infant settlements on James river.
There he was not well received, on account of the prevail
ing prejudices against the Catholics, and he with difficulty
escaped insult and injury. He therefore resolved to ob
tain a grant of some unoccupied territory, where he would
be unmolested. The country on the shores of Chesapeake
1632. Bay, beyond the Potomac, seemed to be uninhabited and
Mary- unclaimed, except by the aborigines ; and of this oountry
ded to he easily obtained a grant, in 1632, from Charles I.
''™" In honour of the queen, he gave to his new territory the
name of Maryland.
Liberal "^^y tbe terms of the charter. Lord Baltimore was made
charter, absolute lord and proprietor of the province, with tbe
power to enact, with the consent of the colonists, all
necessary laws. He had the patronage of churches, and
the power to establish the necessary tribunals, to incorpo
rate cities, and to grant titles of honour. But he could
not prevent emigration to his colony, nor had he power
over the Uves and property of the settlers. They were
allowed a sbare in legislation, and representative govern-

COLONIZATION OP MARYLAND. 97
ment was indissolubly connected with the charter, which book n.
became the basis of all succeeding charters. >' Ch. i.
Lord Baltimore died before this charter was issued; a. d.
but it^was granted to his son and heir, Cecil Calvert, by 1634.
whose exertions a colony was auspiciously begun in 1633. Mary-
The second Lord Baltimore did not conduct the enterprise J™? °°"
^ Ionized
in person ; but commissioned his brother, Leonard Cal- by Cai-
'vert, as his representative, under whose guidance about
. two hundi-ed persons, mostly Catholics, sought shelter in
the new world.
Under the mild and judicious government of the lord Prospe-
proprietary, Maryland received constant accessions. The aJ^io-
governor promised a thousand acres of land to all who °y-
should introduce five new-comers, for which a rent of
twenty shiUings was demanded, which was payable in
tobacco, the staple commodity of the colony. But every
person employed in planting tobacco was required to cul
tivate also two acres of corn. So luxuriant were the
crops, that within two years from the arrival of the first
colonists, ten thousand bushels of Indian corn were sent
to New England, and profitably exchanged for fish and
other provisions.
But material prosperity was not the greatest blessing Reii-
experienced by the thriving colony. Religious Uberty ut^ty.
was granted and enjoyed, and an example set even to the
Puritans themselves, who, with all their virtues, never yet
were willing to admit that such a blessing as religious
liberty could be extended by a Roman Catholic lawgiver.
Virginia viewed vrith jealousy the prosperity of her
sister colony, and especially the superior liberty which the Hosuii-
planters of Maryland enjoyed. The Virginia planters, '^"f/"^
from the first, had opposed the charter granted to Lord
Baltimore, but had been compelled by the government at
home to withdraw their opposition. And the validity of
9

98 REVOLUTION IN MARYLAND.
Book n. the grant also encountered an obstinate resistance from
Ch.4. WiUiam Clayborn, a member of Sir John Harvey's
A. D. Council, who claimed the territory as his own.
1642. Nor was this all. In consequence of the generous
Animo- toleration which the CathoUc settlers of Maryland had
the Pro- grated, many distressed Protestants had sought shelter,
testants. in the territories of Lord Baltimore, from the persecution
of their own brethren. They were ungrateful enough
to conspire against the interests of the original settlers,
and to seek to abolish the Catholic religion. Clayborn "¦
fanned the religious dissensions which the govemor strove
to prevent ; and such was the success of his intrigues, and
the animosity of the Protestant inhabitants, that the
govemment of the lord proprietary was overthrown, and
even that religious liberty which he had granted was taken
away, and by those very men who had fled originally to
Maryland for protection.
Iif cBttv- On the restoration of Charles IL, in 1660, the autho-
bhsh- J.JJ. q£ Lord Baltimore was re-established, offences were
mcut of -* _ ^ ^ '
erder. generously forgiven, and religious toleration restored.
Prosperity returned, industry was rewarded, and useful
laws enforced. Charles Calvert, son of the proprietary,
in 1662 became resident governor, and ruled with great
wisdom and moderation, preventing the encroachments of
the Dutch, and securing peace with the Indians. When
he succeeded his venerable father in 1676 as lord propri
etary, the province contained twenty thousand inhabitants,
who equaUy enjoyed the privilege of religious Uberty,
which was sacredly maintained so long as Lord Baltimore
retained his rights, and the Catholic population their
ascendency.

CHAPTER V.
SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA.
The first settlement of Carolina was projected by the ^^.^ jj^
Huguenots of France, during the civU wars in the reign ~ g
of Charles IX., 1562. Under the auspices of Admiral ¦'
CoUgny, the celebrated Huguenot leader, three vessels 1562
were despatched to the mouth of Albemarle river, which
were foUowed in 1564 by three additional ones, and these cessfoi
again, soon after, by a fleet, with all the necessaries for a ^^^^o,
permanent settlement. They were befriended by the Carolina
Indians, and had every reasonable prospect of prosperity aligu^
and peace. But reUgious bigotry induced the King of ™**
Spain to send out a hostUe expedition to the distant set
tlement ; and the colonists, unprepared for war, and sus
pecting no danger, were barbarously murdered. Nearly
one thousand persons perished from religious persecution,
and by a foreign power. Nor was the crime avenged by
the French government, then under the influence of the
ever-execrable Catherine de Medicis, who sympathized
with the bloody deed. Though the Spaniards were after
wards punished and destroyed in their turn, no further
attempt was made by the French to colonize this section
of the American continent.
It was more than sixty years before any new schemes patent
of colonization were projected. In 1630, a patent was eranted
granted by Charles I. to his attorney-general, Sir Robert charies
Heath, which he afterwards assigned to the Earl of Arun- ^'

100 CHARLES II. GRANTS A PATENT.
Book h. del ; but no serious attempt was made to settle the
Ch. 6. country.
1630. Soon after the restoration of Charles II. tbe country
Patent south of the Chesapeake was made a royal province by
granted the name of Carolina, from Albemarle Sound to the River
Charles St. John. This territory was conveyed to eight proprie-
^- taries, chiefly courtiers and ministers of the King, among
whom were the Lord Chancellor Clarendon, the Duke of
Albemarle (formerly General Monk), the Earl of Shaftes
bury, Lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. The char
ter was noarly similar to the one granted to Lord Balti
more. The eight grantees were made joint proprietaries,
with the right of property to the soU and extensive juris
diction.
New But before their charter was granted some New Eng-
"^mf ""* ^^^ adventurers had already planted a little colony near
grants, the mouth of Cape Fear River, and to these colonists the
proprietaries offered liberal terms ; giving them abundance
of land at a nominal rent, liberty of conscience, and right
to choose a governor and six councillors. The colony,
however, was not prosperous, chiefly on account of the
barrenness of tbe land and the insalubrity of the climate.
1622. It should be also stated tkat the country north of Albe-
Aibc- marie Sound was feebly colonized, 1622, by some perse-
marie cuted emigrants from Virginia, who had dissented from
ment the establishment of the Church of England in that
colony. This settlement attracted the attention of the
proprietaries soon after they had received their cbajter,
and Berkeley, govemor of Virginia, and one of the gran
tees of Carolina, appointed William Drummond, a man
of prudence and popularity, to direct its affairs.
In September, 1665, some planters from Barbadoes,
dissatisfied with their condition, purchased of the Indians
a tract on Cape Fear river, and commenced a settlement.

NORTH CAROLINA. 101
They begged and obtained from the proprietaries, the con- book n.
firmation of the purchase, and liberal terms of settlement; ch. d.
and so rapid was the increase, that, in 1666, the planta- a. d.
tion, which were caUed Clarendon, contained eight hun- 1666.
dred people. Its affairs were ably and successfully ma/-
naged by Sir John Yeamans, the governor. . Albemarle
and Clarendon formed distinct colonies for a while, with
a governor to each, but constitute the original foundation
of North CaroUna.
It was soon discovered that the colony was not within Bxten-
the Umits of the charter granted by Charles, and the °'™ ^ ^_
grant was therefore extended so as to include all the coun- Charles.
try between twenty-nine and thirty-six degrees thirty
minutes north latitude — from the present limits of North
CaroUna to nearly the southern extremity of Florida, and
extending west to the Pacific Ocean. ^
Great schemes of colonization were formed by the pro- Scheme
prietaries of this extensive territory. They were absolute ^"^tj^n.
owners of the soil; they had the right of legislation,
subject only to the consent of the future freemen of the
colony ; they had the power of erecting cities and manors,
of estabhshing orders of nobility, of levying troops, and
of making peace or war. They expected to reap an
immense revenue from colonial customs and the sale of
lands. It was therefore deemed proper to establish a form of shaftes-
govemment commensurate with the future dignity and 0."^^
greatness of the colony; and the Earl of Shaftesbury, '^'"''''•
one of the greatest geniuses of the age, a statesman and
a phUosopher, was deputed to draft a constitution. He
called to his assistance the celebrated John Locke, author
of the Essay on the Human Understanding ; and these
two great men employed all the energy of their genius in
preparing a form of government which excited great ad-
9*

102 THE GRAND MODEL.
Book n. mu-ation among the poUtical phUosophers and dreamers
' Ch. 6. of their day. It was caUed the " Grand Model," or the
A. D. " Fundamental Constitution," according to which the vast
1669. territory of Carolina, embracing the present States of
The North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama,
Funda- Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, Missouri, and
Consti- a large portion of Texas and Mexico, was to be divided^
tution. j^j,^ counties, each containing 480,000 acres. For each
county a landgrave, and two caciques or barons, were to
be created, who were to possess one-fifth of the land as
inalienable property. Another fifth was to belong to the
proprietaries, and the remaining three-fifths were reserved
for the colonists, and might be held by lords of manors,
with peculiar privileges. These landgraves and caciques
were an hereditary nobility, and, together with the depu
ties of the proprietaries and tbe representatives chosen by
freemen, were to constitute the Parliament of the pro
vince, which was to assemble biennially. No man was
eligible to any office unless he possessed property in land;
and every freeman was aUowed to possess absolute autho
rity over his negro slaves, who had been early introduced
and found necessary to till the soil. A man was required
to own fifty acres in order to possess the elective franchise,
and five hundred acres before he was eligible to Parlia
ment. Those who were merely tenants of the land were
subject to perpetual degradation, "adscript to the soil,"
" under the jurisdiction of their lord, without appeal,"
" leet men or tenants to all generations.''
AU executive power, and even judicial, in the last
resort, was vested in the proprietaries themselves, the old
est of whom received the titie of Palatine, and presided
in their meetmgs. Each proprietary was chief of a sub
ordinate court. A complicated series of perplexing regu
lations enforced the duties and Umited the rights of the

DEFECTS OF THE MODEL. lO.S
freeholders. The Church of England was the established book n.
reUgion, although every other form was tolerated. ch. 6.
This famous system of jurisprudence, of whioh Locke ^^ jj_
was so proud, was of course utterly unfitted to the circum- 1669.
stances and wants of the settlers, and could not be en
forced. It was impossible to erect an aristocratic, and
almost feudal govemment, in the forests of Carolina.
There was no scope for landgraves, and barons, and courts
of heraldry, among the scattered cabins of an almost un
inhabited wilderness. The grand model was complicated,
absurd, and visionary. Theoretical phUosophers haye
ever proved themselves unfit for practical legislation, how
ever Uberal their minds, or brilUant their genius.
In 1670, the Duke of Albemarle was installed in the 1670.
office of Palatine, and 12,000 Z. expended on the equipment Aihe-
of a fleet, which sailed the following year with a consider- adminis-
able body of emigrants. It was designed to found a *^^*'°=-
colony at Port Royal, and Col. William Sayle was ap
pointed its governor. He was accompanied by Joseph
Dent as commercial agent of the company. But the
colonists did not long remain at Port Royal. After a
short delay, they saUed into Ashley river, and commenced
a settlement wbich they caUed Charleston, in honour of
Charles II. This was the foundation of South Carolina.
Before we trace the progress of this settlement, the Stevens
Uttle colonies of Albemarle and Clarendon claim our „ of™i-
attention. The constitutional history of North Carolina iJemarie.
begins before Shaftesbury and Locke had matured their
scheme of govemment. In 1667, Samuel Stevens suc
ceeded Drummond as governor of Albemarle, which had
been increased by emigrants from New England and the
Bermudas. A simple form of govemment was adopted —
a councU of twelve members, and an assembly composed
of the govemor, the council, and twelve delegates from

104 INSURRECTION OF CULrEPPER.
Book n. the infant settlement. Every encouragement was ex-
Ch. 6. tended to the colonists, who enjoyed, for a while, prospe-
A. D. rity and contentment.
1674. But the government which practical wisdom had sug-
Confu- gested was overturned by the proprietaries, who wished to
1'°'°^ '° substitute that which Locke had devised. Confusion and
the co
lony, discontent were the inevitable result. The country was
' left without a governor, in 1674, by the death of Stevens;
and Cartwright, Speaker of the Assembly, acted for two i
years as head of the administration. The difficulty of
introducing the Grand Model induced Cartwright to visit
England, to lay the state of the country before tho pro
prietaries. The colony was now left in confusion, and
no historian has, thus far, presented a clear statement
of its affairs at this early period. It seems, however,
that the designs of the proprietaries were not promoted
by the provincial functionaries. Discontent was added to
faction. One Miller succeeded in holding the triple office
of govemor, secretary, and collector, 1677 ; but such was
his strict execution of the laws, that an insurrection took
1677. place, headed by John Culpepper, which seems to have
Popular been both popular and successful. MiUer and seven of
insur- , . . . .
rection. his couucil were imprisoned, and Culpepper assumed the
government, and even refused to acknowledge the author
ity of Eastchurch, whom the company had appointed
governor, but who died shortiy after, 1678. MiUer suc
ceeded in making his escape to England, and fiUed the
court with complaints of his sufferings. Culpepper fol
lowed him, and, protected by Shaftesbury, succeeded in
gaining the ear of the proprietaries. While these rivals
were disputing about their respective claims, Seth Sothel,
who had purchased the rights of Lord Clarendon, was
selected as govemor of the province, 1680; but did not
arrive at Albemarle until 1683, having been taken cap-

GOVERNOR SOTHEL. 105
tive by the Algerines, from whom, however, he contrived book n.
to escape. ' ch. e.
The administration of this man was marked by injus- a. d.
tice and oppression, and his name is more infamous than 1680.
any of the tyrannical governors who ever mismanaged the corrupt
affairs of the English colonies in North America. He ™*^<^
*^ vere ad-
cheated his associates, and robbed the colonists. He minis-
exacted enormous contributions, and engrossed the traffic „f g„.
with the Indians. Driven to despair, the people whom ^^^
he oppressed unanimously took up arms against him, in
1688. He was deposed and imprisoned. Rather than
be sent to England for trial, he abjectly begged to be
judged by tbe Provincial Assembly, which sentenced him
to banishment and perpetual exclusion from office. He
then made his appearance in Charleston, and, in his cha
racter of proprietary, succeeded in securing the office of
governor of the southern province, the affairs of which
now demand attention. '^
It has been stated that the banks of Ashley river were 1671.
colonized by a company led by WilUam Sayle. The first Settie-
site for a town had been selected without regard to com- ciaries.
merce, 1671. Its disadvantages being perceived, the set- *"°-
tiers removed to a neck of land called Oyster Point, which
graduaUy became the most prosperous mart of southem
commerce, and the largest city of the southem colonies.
Soon after the planting of the colony. Sir John Yea-
mans arrived from Barbadoes with additional settlers, and
with African slaves, and, on the death of Sayle, was ap
pointed govemor, 1671. The same year, two ships with
Dutch emigrants arrived from New York, discontented
with the EngUsh rule. Some accessions also came from
England ; but the colonists were exposed to unusual dan
ger, hardship, and misery. The heat of the country was
pecuUarly oppressive to men doomed to severe manual

106 FREQUENT CHANGE OF GOVERNORS.
Book n. labour. Their food was frequently destroyed by Indian
Ch. 6. depredators, with whom it was their misfortune to be in
A. D. constant colUsion. The losses which the proprietaries
1671. sustained, embittered their feeUngs both towards the go-
Misfor- vernor and the settlers. In consequence of the calamities
theTOio- °^ *^® colony, Yeamans was superseded by Joseph West,
ny. 1674 ; and as he preferred the interests of the colonists
to those of the proprietaries, he was displaced in 1683,
and Joseph Moreton appointed to succeed him. No less
than six governors ruled the province duiing the six suc
ceeding yeai's, none of whom realized the anticipations of
the proprietaries, who expected to derive a profit from
their investments.
Arrival Nevertheless, the colony rapidly increased in population
ofHu- g^jjjj wealth, reinforced by emigrants from Ireland, Scot-
guenots. ' ./ o /
land, New England, and even France. When the Edict
of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV. in 1685, a large
body of Huguenots sought a refuge from persecution in
the various colonies of the new world. But no one of
them was more inviting to these unfortunate refugees
than South Carolina. From Languedoc, Rochelle, Bor
deaux, St. Quentin, Poiotiers, and Dieppe, considerable
numbers sought the land in which religious toleration was
enjoyed; and to these exiles, some of the most consider
able famiUes of South CaroUna are proud to trace their
origin.
Failure When the English revolution of 1688 broke out, the
insutu-^ colonists were so powerful and numerous as to defy the
tions. authority of the proprietaries. Neither the rank, nor
' reputation, nor talents of the govemor could secure obe
dience to feudal institutions. Colleton was unable to
collect rents, or even maintain order. The people resolved
to secm-e a government more agreeable to themselves, and
more favourable to the extension of Uberty. In 1690, a

POPULAR EEVOLUTION. 107
meeting of the representatives of the colony disfranchised book il
the governor, and banished him from the province. Seth Ch. 5.
Sothel about this time making his appearance at Charles- a. d.
ton, headed the opposition, and succeeded in securing the 1690.
govemment of the province, which was now firmly
planted. But his tyrannical temper again subjected him to hos
tUity, and he was compeUed to resign. He died, soon
after, in North Carolina.
An event, insignificant in itself, happened in 1694, to intro;
which the prosperity of the colony is in no sUght degree ^"^^
to be traced. The captain of a ship from Madagascar
presented GiDvemor Smith, under whose administration
the Fundamental Constitutions were finally abandoned,
with a bag of rice. The governor divided it among his
friends, who planted it, in several parcels, in different
soils, and reaped from it a prodigious increase. Thus was
introduced one of the chief staples of South CaroUna, and
which, next to cotton, has contributed materially to ita
wealth.

"William Penn.

l-ol

CHAPTER VI.
SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA.
While Virginia was settled by aristocratic adventu- g^o^ u
rers, mostly members of the Church of England — New g^ g_
York by the Dutch, who sought the shores of the new
world with the view of improving their fortunes — Massa
chusetts by Puritans, Rhode Island by Baptists, Mary- DUTer-
land by CathoUcs, and CaroUna by Huguenots, who alike ™ j^"""
sought a refuge from religious persecution — Pennsylvania which
was colonized by the Society of Friends, who also desired aijterent
greater Uberty of reUgious worship than was enjoyed settlers.
either under Episcopal or Puritan influences.
George Fox, the founder of this sect, was one of the ig^g
most remarkable geniuses who ever impressed his mind
- 1 IT J? 1 Seorge
on future generations, without the advantages ot early jox.
education and social position. The fundamental principle
which he declared was, that the " Inner Light," or the
Spirit of God, would reveal to all earnest inquirers every
important truth pertaining to the soul's welfare and salva
tion ; and that the Spirit, though in harmony with the Scrip
tures, because they are the revelation of God, was still higher
than the declaration of the Scriptures, inasmuch as the
fountain is ever greater than the stream which issues
from it. This doctrine of divine inward revelation, Fox
and" his followers would not subject to the test either of
the outward authority of the Scriptures, or natural rea
son. Following the promptings of the Inner Light, or
10 (109)

110 THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS.
Book n. what he conceived to be a special revelation of the Al-
Ch. 6. mighty. Fox instituted many changes in the worship of
A. D. Ood and in social life, which were not in harmony with
1650. the practice of any other Christian sect, or the established
Princi- institutions of society. He dispensed with the teachings
pies of Qf ^ regular clergy, and the ordinary forms and ceremo-
?oi. nies of existing churches. He swept away the ordination
of the clergy, baptism, the Lord's Supper, the music of
the choir, and aU emblematical ceremonies. He refused
to give titles of honour, to take an oath even of subser
viency to the sovereign, or to enlist as a soldier. He
condemned all war, and all doctrines of expediency. He
would abolish all penal laws for religious opinions, aU
slavery, and resort to coercion in government. He advo
cated unbounded religious toleration, and universal phi
lanthropy.
Persecu- ^0'' the advocacy of such principles he was cruelly por
tion of secuted, as was to be expected in the seventeenth century.
ciety. So were his disciples. They were confined in jails, muti
lated, and even punished with death.
WiUiam Among the followers of Fox was William Penn, son
Penn. of Admiral Sir William Penn, who had rendered great
naval services to his country, and who left to his son a
very large fortune. WUliam Penn had early become a
convert to the principles of Fox, and had suffered divers
persecutions in consequence, from his family and from the
English government. Still, he was true to his principles,
and maintained great serenity of mind in disgrace and
suffering. His distinguished social rank, however, and
his great talents, secured him high consideration, in spite
of his unpopular doctrines, and be had easy access to the
court of Charles II. Among the bequests of his father
was a claim against the government for 16,000Z. This
was cancelled by a grant from Charles II. of a province

WILLIAM PENN. Ill
in the' new world, which included three degrees of latitude book n.
and five degrees of longitude west of the Delaware, 1681. Ch. 6.
The royal charter conferred on him powers similar to a. d.
those which had been granted to Lord Baltimore, and the 1681.
persecuted Quaker became a feudal proprietary. The Grant to
province, of which he was constituted absolute proprietor, ^™"'
was called Pennsylvania.
Early the next year, 1682, Penn published his cele- His
brated "Frame of Government" for his future colony; **™j^°'
and, in the following September, set sail for his new ment.
domains in the wUderness, accompanied by one hundred
emigrants. When he arrived on the banks of tbe Dela
ware, he found already a thriving colony of three thou
sand persons, chiefly Swedes and Dutch, intermixed with
the English settlers, principally Quakers, who had emi
grated shortly before. In the course of the year, no less
than two thousand additional colonists arrived, many of
them being persons of wealth and consideration in
England. Among the flrst acts of the proprietary, after he had Treaty
visited the various settlements of his infant colony, was y^'? **"
•^ Indians.
his famous treaty with the Indians. Beneath a large elm
tree on the banks of the Delaware, where Philadelphia
now stands, he met a numerous delegation of the Lenni-
Lenape tribes. There, to the original inhabitants of the
land, he proclaimed the principles of peace and love wbich
should regulate all his future intercourse with them.
" On the broad pathway of good faith and good-will,"
said he, " no advantage will be taken on either side. I
will not call you children, for parents sometimes chide
their children too severely ; nor brothers only, for bro
thers differ. The friendship between you and me, I vrill
not compare to a chain ; for that the rains might mst, or
the falling tree might break. We are the same as if one

112 penn's LEGISLATION.
Boos n. man's body were to be divided into two parts ; wg are all
Ch. 6. one flesh and blood." "We will live," responded the
A. D. simple children of the forest, touched by these beautiful
1682. doctrines, "in love with William Penn and his children,
as long as the sun and moon shall endure."
Perma- This glorious treaty, not confirmed by oaths or parch-
nenoeof ° , ,, ,,,,,,. ^ .,
the ment, was long sacredly regai-ded by both white man and
treaty. Indian ; and for seventy years, it is recorded, not a drop
of Quaker blood was shed by the aborigines, in spite of
all the encroachments of the new settlers upon their
ancient hunting-grounds.
Legisla- The treaty with the Indians was an act prompted by
Hon of generous impulses, and a regard to those laws of immu
table justice whioh Fox had. nobly propounded. The
constitution whioh Penn gave to his people was the
result of great practical wisdom and enlarged views. For
his legislative genius, Penn is now generally regarded as
a benefactor to the human race ; for, though he made
laws for only a small colony, the principles on which they
are based have entered into the schemes and systems of
subsequent philanthropists, not in America merely, but in
England and the countries of the continent.
Unboun- WiUiam Penn gave to all the colonists, of whatsoever
Etourto- •'^^ed or nation, the most generous reUgious toleration.
leration. Hc abolished the law of primogeniture, and instituted the
rule of equality. All had the right of suffrage who sub
mitted to the burdens of society. No taxes were to be
levied without the people's consent. Murder was the
only crime punishable with death. County courts wore
established for the administration of justice, with trial by
jtoy. The word of an honest man was received as evi
dence, without oath. Every Christian, of whatsoever
creed, was eligible to office.
When the work of legislation was finished, Penn, ih

CONSTITUTION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 113
1682, accompanied by his council, hastened to Newcastle book n.
to meet Lord Baltimore, and establish the limits of their Ch. e.
respective territories. There were many difficulties to be a. d.
settled; for Lord Baltimore claimed the whole country as 1683.
far north as the fortieth degree of latitude. Penn insist
ed that the charter of Maryland included only lands that
were unoccupied ; and as the banks of the Delaware had
been purchased and colonized before that charter was
written, they justly belonged to the original settlers. The
proprietaries parted without coming to an agreement,
intending to meet again.
To a part of this disputed territory some Swedish set- jounda-
tiers had laid claim. Penn obtained from them, by a p™ij^
promise of giving them other lands in exchange, a tract at delphia.
the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill. Near this,
he laid out the plan of an extensive city, which he called
PhUadelphia; designed as "a city of refuge" — "the
mansion of humanity;" where the Quaker brethren
"might worship God according to the dictates of the
Divine Principle, free from the mouldy errors of tradi
tion ;" and wbere they " might thrive in peace and retire
ment in the lap of unadulterated nature," " on a virgin
Elysian shore." So rapid was the grow.th of the city, that
eighty houses were erected before the close ofthe year 1683.
But while the new-comers lodged in caves and hollow
trees, the Quaker sovereign summoned together the repre- The pri.
sentatives of his dominions in the wilderness for the pur- "'eg'^s
which
pose of making such alterations in the original constitution Penn
as the circumstances of the colony required. More power f™°]^'*
was given to the people, who had the privilege of nomi- '^}°-
nating the council of the governor, and also all other
officers, except the governor, who was hereditary proprie
tary ; nor could even he perform any public act but with the
consent of his council. Penn not only gave a free con-
10*

114 penn's RETURN TO ENGLAND.
Book u. stitutioc to his colony, but dispensed with a reverence for
Ch. 6. himself Tax-gatherers were unknown in the province.
A. D. The principle which seemed to animate his whole govern-
1683 ment and legislation was to make the people as free and
happy as they could be.
The fame of his settiement went through Europe, and
emigrants, seeking an asylum from persecution or misfor
tune, hastened to the banks of the Delaware from Eng
land, Wales, Scotiand, Ireland, Holland, and Germany.
The institution and government of Penn inspired both
confidence and admiration. The colony increased more
rapidly than New England; and in three years from the
foundation of Philadelphia, it numbered more inhabitants
than New York had gained for half a century.
When the government was fully organized, peace with
Penn re- the natives confirmed, and wise laws established, Penn
turnp to tQoij leave of his people with expressions of affection and
land. generosity, and returned to England. One object of his
return was to settle his dispute with Lord Baltimore;
between whom and himself misunderstanding had ripened
into a quarrel. The question about the respective bounda-
Settie- ries of Pennsylvania and Maryland was discussed before
ment of jj^g committee of the plantations. Delaware, which had
ries. been originaUy settled by the Swedes, was separated from
Maryland. To Penn was assigned half of the territory
between the Delaware and the Chesapeake north of the
latitude of Cape Henlopen. But this decision did not
end the dispute ; and it was not till 1750 that the present
boundaries of Pennsylvania were decreed by tbe Lord
Chancellor Hardwicke. Eleven years after, the southem
line between Pennsylvania and Maryland was run by
Mason and Dixon ; which forms the present division of
free and slave labour.
Notwithstanding Penn, as absolute proprietary of an

PENN REVISITS HIS COLONY. 115
extensive province, granted the most generous and liberal book n.
terms to the colonists, and although they, as a body, were Ch. 6.
intelligent and virtuous, they were yet not long contented a. d.
witb their privileges ; so hard is it for man, in his degene- 1690.
racy, to be satisfied with any blessing which Providence nisoon-
bestows. They aimed at still greater freedom ; to di- *?"* °^
minish the Uttle remaining authority of that great and mats.
benevolent man who bad given them a shelter, and to
impair his revenues. The colonial assembly made changes
which were both unconstitutional and ungenerous, and the
executive power was but feebly administered.
In 1699, Penn revisited the colony he had formed, 1699.
accompanied by his family, with the intention of spending Ketum
his days on the banks of the Delaware. Still, difficulties °^ p™°
continued. The colonists were dissatisfied with the exist- colony.
ing constitution. Negro slavery and Indian intercourse
were subjects of continual disquiet. The tenants of the
proprietary wished to abolish the pajrment of their rents.
In short, Penn found so few inducements to remain, that
he resolVed to retum to his native land.
He remained long enough, however, to settle many of 1701.
the difficulties which were subjects of complaint, and, in j^^.^^
1701, prepared a new frame of government, which con- charter
tinued in force untU the revolutionary war. The most syiva-
striking feature of the altered constitution was the right ""*¦
of the assembly to originate laws, which had previously
been vested in the governor ; but it allowed the govemor
a negative on aU bills, and the right of appointing his
councU. This new charter, which was a sort of compromise The colo.
between the proprietary and the colonists, was not ac- ^^jj
cepted by the Three Lower Counties, which separated from ware.
Pennsylvania, and whioh formed what is now the State
of Delaware, whose original inhabitants were Swedes, and

116 PENN RETURNS TO ENGLAND.
«
^ooK n. -^ixo, in 1627, under the auspices of Gustavus Adolphus,
Ch. 6. emigrated to America and landed at Cape Henlopen. After
A. D. several times changing masters, the territory was surren-
1701. dered to the Dutch, who had laid claim to it, and they
held possession until 1664, when it was seized by Sir
Robert Carr and made a part of New York. In 1682,
the Duke of York sold the town of New Castle and
twelve miles round to WilUam Penn, and afterwards the
country between it and Cape Henlopen, and tbis territory
constituted the Three Lower Counties as a part of Penn
sylvania.
Return So soon as the last charter of Penn was accepted, he
of Penn returned to England ; but only to be harassed by com-
land. plaints against tbe deputies whom he had appointed. Nor
were the discontents allayed during his life, notwithstand
ing the great benefits he had conferred, not only on his
colony in particular, but as a benefactor of mankind at
large, and as one of the most distinguished reformers
whom our world has produced ; a legislator surpassing the
Solons and Justinians of antiquity in practical wisdom, a
philanthropist to whom the Howards and Wilberforces
of succeeding ages must yield precedence as an original
genius — as a man who far outstripped all his contempo
raries in enlargement of mind as well as generosity of
soul.
Growth No province gained so rapidly in population as Penn-
'"'* ^^ syl vania after it was once settled, in spite of all the diffi-
sources -^ ? jt
of the culties of the settlers with provincial governors, and with
the great proprietary himself. In 1701, it is computed
that it contained 20,000 inhabitants ; whUe Virginia, which
had been colonized nearly eighty years earlier, contained
at that time only 40,000. Massachusetts at tbis period
could boast of 70,000 souls, Connecticut of 30,000, Rhode
Island 10,000, New Hampshire 10,000, New York

ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 117
30,000, New Jersey 15,000, Maryland 25,000, and North book ii.
and South CaroUna 12,000 more— in all, 262,000. ch.6.
These various colonies imported from England all their a. d.
merchandise, and exported tobacco, poultry, beef, pork, 1701.
fish, grain, and lumber. Furs were the principal article General
of export from the New England colonies, and tobacco ?!"""",
from the southern. As the colonists, during the period the co-
of their settlement, were chiefly occupied in gaining a
subsistence, not much attention was paid to art and manu
factures. The first buUdings were made of logs, or were
constructed of stone, and few had more rooms than the
absolute wants of the people required.
TraveUing was almost entirely on foot or on horseback, HaMta
the roads being chiefly only narrow paths through the ^^^^
primeval forests. Schools were early instituted, and a the Eng.
common education highly valued. Manners were severe, tiers.
and morals generally pure. Laws were rigidly enforced,
and all disturbers of the public peace were promptly
punished. Many superstitions were mixed with the sim
ple notions of the early settlers, and many unhappy per
secutions accordingly resulted.
The desire of self-government and love of liberty were
the prominent traits of the colonists, from Massachusetts
Bay to the coast of Florida. And when these were min
gled with zeal for the honour of God and the prevalence
of reUgious truth, the most noble virtues were engen
dered, and a state prepared for the future development of
all that is great in character and in passion.
The colonization of all the States which subsequently
rebelled against the authority of England being now
effected, except that of Gfeorgia, we turn to consider the
discoveries and settlements made by the French in North
America.

Marquette descending the MisslssippL

118

CHAPTER VII.
FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS.
The efforts which the French made to possess them- book n.
selves of the North American continent, are too important ch. 7.
to be omitted in a history of the United States, especially . _
in view of the wars to which they subsequently led, and 1615.
the great consequence of these settlements on the future
history of the country.
The French, at an early period, were not inferior to the Motiyes
English in enthusiasm for discovery, in intrepidity and i^^ ^^g
endurance amid dangers, in eagerness to engross the trade French
with the Indians and the fisheries on the coast, or in am- da.
bition to possess a supremacy on the continent. Nor
were their motives, in many instances, without loftiness
and moral grandeur. The Puritans fled to the wilderness
of Massachusetts to enjoy tbeir religion; tbe French
sought the wilds of Canada to convert the Indians to the
Catholic faith. There was a romance exhibited by the
Jesuits, in their wanderings" both to convert the natives
and explore the country, never since surpassed. " My
companion," said the fearless Marquette, " is an envoy of
France to discover new countries ; but I am an ambassa
dor of God to enlighten them with the gospel."
As early as 1615, Champlain explored the lake which
bears bis name. In 1626, Franciscan priests had made
their way to the waters of the Niagara; and, in less than
ten years after, the members of the Society of Jesus had
(119)

mission aries.

120 JESUIT MISSIONS.
Book II. penetrated to the eastern projection of Lake Huron, not
ch.7. with the view of founding States, but of converting angry
A. D. savages to the truths of Christianity. Montreal became a
1626. missionary station, and a school for the instruction of
intrepi- Indian children, within four years of the foundation of Har-
dity of .yj^y^ CoUea-e. Still earUer than this, in 1634, an humble
Jesuit ° .,
church had been consecrated among the Huron tnbes
by Brebeuf and Daniel, and converts to tbe Roman faith
been made among the primeval forests wbich skirted tbe
Their Ottawa river. Within thirteen years, forty-two of tbe
sion of zealous followers of Loyola had laboured among these dis-
the In- ta^ut tribes, enduring unparalleled privation and hardship,
and exposed to constant danger. The Mohawk war par
ties captured many a missionary who attested his sincerity
by a triumphant martyrdom ; for the Iroquois, or Five
Nations, who chased the deer in the interior of New York,
were hereditary enemies of the Algonquin tribes who
dwelt on the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario. Of all the
Iroquois, the Mohawks were the most dreaded ; for they
lived nearest the European settlements, and made constant
war on the white man, whether missionary or hunter,
whether French or English. They had learned from the
Dutch the use of fire-arms, and bade defiance to forts and
entrenchments.
Discove- But Canada was not the only scene of Jesuit intrepid-
g- of the j(.y_ Missions were established on the southern outlets
sippi. of Lake Superior, and the country was explored to the
source of the Mississippi, which great river the adventu
rers descended in 1673, passing in succession the mouths
of the Illinois, the Missouri, and the Ohio, until they
reached the Arkansas. The glory of this enterprise
belongs to Marquette, who had laboured for years as a
missionary among the Hurons. ^
The discovery of the " father of waters" was received

^

JESUIT EXPLORATIONS. 121
with enthusiasm in the mother country, and quickened book n.
the ambition of Colbert, the minister of the French King. Ch. 7.
Nor were there wanting adventurers to prosecute further a. d.
discoveries, and add new value to the crown of France. 1679.
Of these, the most distinguished was La Salle, who had La Saiie
been the first white man to explore Lake Ontario, and ^''piores
the great
navigate the waters of Niagara. Under the auspices of lakes.
Colbert, who fumished him with ample means, 1679, he
saUed over, the great lakes in a vessel of sixty tons, and
last anchor in Green Bay. The vessel was sent back
iladen with furs, but was unfortunately lost. La Salle and
his company proceeded, meanwhUe, in birch bark canoes,
up Lake Michigan to the mouth of the St. Joseph, and
soon after crossed to a branch of the Illinois, which they
descended, and then made tbeir way back to Fort Fronte
nac, now Kingston, a port at the outlet of Lake Ontario.
In their absence. Father Hennepin and another priest had
descended the TUinois to the Mississippi, and then, ascend
ing the river, penetrated to the FaUs of St. Anthony.
In 1680, having recruited his company. La Salle iggQ.
retumed to the lUinois country, and built a fort which he Diacove-
caUed St. Louis, and the next year descended the Missis- ^°fgjj.
sippi in a barge which he had built during the winter, na.
and safely reached its mouth. He then formally took
possession of the country, which he called, in honour of
Louis XIV., Louisiana.
La Salle then retumed to France and procured a new 1689.
company, with a view of colonizing the country he had Meian-
discovered, but failed, with his new recruits, to reach the fate of
mouth of tbe Mississippi, and landed his dispirited com- ^ "'
pany on the coast of Texas, where they miserably perished,
victims of the climate,, with the exception of thirty-six
men ; half of whom, with La Salle at tbeir head, under
took to reach Canada by land; but only five of them
11

122 INDIAN WARS.
Book II. returned, the intrepid commander having been murdered
ch.7. by two of his mutinous companions. Thus perished the
^ JJ first adventurers who sought to colonize Louisiana, and,
1689. with them, the traces of even the forts which they had
built.
War Shortly after, the Canadians were involved in a war
¦with the ^ith the Iroquois, and Montreal itself was attacked, and
(juois. lost two hundred of its defenders. Canada, though long
planted, did not flourish. The colonists, exposed to the
rigour of a cold climate, to a military despotism, and with
out the motives which called out the energies of their
English neighbours, hardly numbered, in 1689, twelve
thousand persons ; scarcely a twentieth part of the popu
lation of the English colonies at the time.
Meed of And yet no small praise, after all, is due to the French
praise. Canadians. Against a formidable confederacy of Indian
tribes, they had explored the waters of the great westem
lakes ; they had navigated the Mississippi from the Falls
of St. Anthony to the Gulf of Mexico ; they had estab
lished successful missionary stations from Quebec to the
shores of Lake Superior ; they had engrossed the most
lucrative part of the fur trade ; they had established im
portant military posts ; and they claimed the whole eastem
coast from the Kennebec to Hudson's Bay, part of New
York, all of Acadie and Canada, the whole valley of the
Mississippi, and the territory to the south-west as far as
the Rio Bravo del Norte. Could France but have retained
these extensive regions, the English dominion would have
been restricted to those States which border on the Atlan
tic Ocean. But the jealousy of the English and of Eng
Ush colonies would not allow them to acquiesce in this
claim, and was destined to lead to future wars, and the
complete suppression of French dominion in America.

BOOK III.

CHAPTER I.
EARLY COLONIAL HISTORY. — INDIAN WARS.
We have now seen how the various English colonies Bk. m.
were successfully planted on the eastern coast of North ch. i. '
America, and alluded to the leading principles which led ^ jj
to their settlement. We have considered some of the 1606
influences which retarded, and some which facilitated their to
growth; the various govemments which coerced them, ^"'^°-
and the conflicting religious opinions which distracted Gradual
them. We have examined them in detail, as they were ment
gradually colonized, and the various evils to which the "^ *"
a J 7 ^ country.
early settlers were subjected; none of which, great as they
were, paralyzed their energies, or destroyed their bright
hopes. We are now compelled to consider their history in a
more general manner, and omit allusion to many events,
which, interesting to the colonists themselves, at an early
period, have had no very marked effect in the formation
of national character and institutions. The twig was bent
in the first half-century after it was planted, and, from the
inclination it then received, the tree has grown.
Still, there were from time to time great excitements,
sometimes religious, sometimes political, which called out
great energies, and which changed the ordinary current
(123)

lonies.

124 GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COLONIES.
Bk. m. of events. It therefore becomes us to mention those facts
Ch. 1. and influences which changed public opinion, and contri-
A. D. buted in a marked manner to elevate or depress society.
1606 Some of these originated with the mother country,
to others from colonial governors. At one time we observe
the influence of foreign interference, and at another of
English agitations resulting from domestic events. Conflicts with ;
view of ° ^ o ^ ^ ^
the CO- the Indians, religious delusions, English commercial re
strictions, and early contests for freedom, all had their effect
on the welfare of the colonies. After tbe English Revolu
tion, the same events, in many instances, which created
an excitement in New England, also affected the prospe
rity of Virginia. After that event, a more uniform
policy was observable in all the relations between the
English government and the colonies. Tbey were re
garded in England as a distinct nation, more than before ;
as composing a part of Great Britain itself, rather than
the property of a few nobles and commercial companies.
They were looked upon as communities bound to observe
the laws of England, to be taxed like towns and cities at
home for the support of the central government, and
under obligation to take a part in the wars which deso
lated the continent of Europe. From the first they were
dealt with unfairly. There was no jnstice or magnanimity
in English rulers when American affairs were regarded.
The colonies paid dearly for the protection afforded them.
The people received but few privileges as English sub
jects, and all they gained was earned by their own enter
prise and intrepidity.
The causes which promoted or retarded prosperity were
both domestic and foreign — intemal and external. Let
us first consider the domestic history of the colonies. One
of the most considerable of those events which affected
the condition of the country was the occasional recurrence

THE INDIANS. 125
of Indian hostilities ; extending, at different times, fr'om bk. m.
Maine to South Carolina, v Ch. i.
Allusion has already been made to the native peculiar- a. d.
ities of tbe North American Indians, and to the different 1622.
races whicb were scattered over the continent. We have to
also seen how they molested the Europeans " soon after ¦'¦"*'*•
an invasion was made upon their hunting-grounds," and Indian
from causes for which the aborigines were not always to ties.
blame. The war which the Vu'ginians carried on against
the successors of Powhatan, and also the destruction of
the Pequods in Connecticut, have been described in the
colonization of the country.
Had the various Indian tribes united on the first appear- ¦want of
ance of the European to expel him from the country he """"^ among
visited, they might have been successful. But they were theindi-
ineapable of concert, and were alienated from each other ™''
by mutual jealousies. They were almost constantly at
war, and possibly, in the progress of ages, might have
exterminated each other. Nor did they leam what might
be useful to them from the invaders of their country.
They copied the European only in his vices, and seemed
to be hopelessly and irretrievably wedded to savage life.
Still, they viewed the encroachments of the English Disgust
on their hunting-grounds, and their superior power, with ^ *'"'
great disquietude, and probably were never friendly since peans.
they were punished for their first massacre on the James
River — 1622, and since they were exterminated in the
Pequod territory — 1636. They were only restrained by
fear of their invaders from repeated and constant insur
rection. In 1644, the Virginians suffered severe losses from 1644.
Indian hostiUties, instigated by the aged Opecancanough, jj^^.^^
who had formed a scheme for the extermination of the o'e in
colonists. They were surprised as they were preparing nia.
11*

126 INDIAN WAR IN VIRGINIA.
BK.m. for the fast of Good Friday by a party of Indians, and
cii. 1. five hundred people were nmssacred.
A. B. The details of the war have not been handed down. It
1644. was, however, shorter than tbe previous one, when James
town would have been destroyed but for the admonition
of a friendly Indian. The Powhatan confederacy was
unsuccessful, and the natives either sunk into servile de
pendence, or dwindled away; unable to contend with'
white men in open hostility. I
1643. About this time tbe people of New Amsterdam became
Indian iuYolved in a war with the natives. The Raritans, a tribe
hostiii- on the west shore of the Hudson, were accused of having
Uow attacked a Dutch bark with the design of robbing it, and
^'"¦^' also were suspected of stealing hogs from Staten Island.
Accordingly, an expedition was sent out against them, and
several warriors were barbarously killed. The Raritans
naturally retaliated. Other causes also inflamed animosity
on both sides. The Hackensacs became involved in the
quarrel, against whom a party was led, and whioh resulted
in a massacre of eighty Indians. Roused by injuries,
eleven petty tribes united together against the Dutch, who
had indiscreetly fanned the flames of war. The Indians
were partially supplied with fire-arms, and were wrought
up to the highest pitch of ferocity. The terrified colonists
fled to New Amsterdam, and a fast was proclaimed. De
Vries succeeded in procuring a temporary reconciliation,
but fresh injuries provoked new hostilities. A tribe on
the Hudson, north of the Highlands, plundered a Dutch
canoe laden with furs, and the frontier settlements were
again assailed. It was at this time that Mrs. Hutchinson,
with all her family, were slain — 1643. The colonists
made renewed preparations and undertook several expedi
tions. The Indian villages in various quarters were
attacked and destroyed, and a large number of the war-

INDIAN HOSTILITIES. 127
riors kUled, but aot until the colony had suffered conside- bk. hi.
rably. Peace was restored in 1644. ch. i.
Indian hostilities, however, were desultory, and ill-con- 1573.
ducted, until the famous war broke out against the ISar- „
' . ° Narra^
ragansetts in 1673. Except in the destruction of the gansett
Pequods, the red men of New England bad not materially '"'^'
diminished in numbers. But their lands had gradually
fallen into the possession of the English. The curtailment
of the hunting-grounds and the increase of colonial settle
ments at last led to a dangerous insurrection.
None felt more keenly the growing power of the Eng- King
Ush than Pometacom, chief of the Wampanoags, who ^'"•'f of
' _ r o ^ Mount
stUl occupied the eastern section of Narragansett Bay. Hope.
He was nephew and successor of Massasoit, who originally
welcomed the pilgrims to Plymouth, and is best known as
the King Philip of Mount Hope ; the most enterprising
and sagacious Indian with whom the English were ever
destined to contend. He was suspected of hostile designs,
and had been compelled to deliver up his fire-arms and
enter into humiliating stipulations. Some of his men
were afterwards hung on suspicion of having committed
a murder. He retaliated by plundering some houses near
Mount Hope, in Bristol, and by killing several people in
Swanzey. The colonists prepared for war. Philip and
his warriors fled ; and as the Narragansetts on the oppo
site side of the bay were suspected of giving them shelter,
they were required to give pledges of peace. Philip,
however, succeeded in making his escape, though hedged
in with enemies, to the interior of Massachusetts, and
united with the Nipmucks in preparing for more systematic
hostilities. These Indians burned the village of Brook- ms rav-.
field, and, united with the natives on Connecticut River, ^'JJ^™
attacked Deerfield and Northfield and killed many of the ticut w-
inhabitants. They were now more formidable than at an

128 KINO PHILIP'S WAR.
Bk. m. earUer period of the colony, since they had learned the
Ch. 1. use of fire-arms, with which the colonists had indiscreetly
j^ J, furnished them. The Indians did not venture to fight
1675. openly, but in ambush; behind trees, and in dense
thickets ; and therefore they were not so easily to be
overcome.
Battle of The English were driven to the necessity of defensive
Broo/ warfare. A magazine and garrison were established in Had-
ley. Thither Captain Lathrop, with eighty picked men,
proceeded with three thousand bushels of wheat. But before
he arrived at Deerfield, at a stream called Bloody Brook,
he was attacked by a large body of Indians, and was
destroyed, with his whole company. Deerfield was aban
doned and burned. Springfield was attacked, but saved
by timely assistance from Connecticut.
Alarm The succcss of the Indians on the Connecticut encou-
of fron- pj^ged those who inhabited the forests which skirted the
tier °
towns. Merrimac ; for it cannot be supposed that the natives had
been restrained from hostiUties long before this (1675)
except by fear. The frontier settlements in the neigh
bourhood of Boston were abandoned or destroyed. The
Tarentans at the same time attacked the settlements in
Maine and New Hampshire. All the various tribes bad
the same griefs and the same desire to exterminate their
invaders.
Destruc- The Narragausctts were the most powerful tribe of In-
tion of (liang in New England, and had not, as yet, joined in hos-
dians. tUities. But they were so generaUy suspected, that it
was resolved by the colonists to make war on them as well
as the Wampanoags and otber tribes. A large force was
accordingly raised, and all New England prepared for a
desperate combat. The cold winter of 1675, when even
swamps were frozen, made the Indian fortresses accessible
to tbe colonists. The united forces, under the command

THE NARRAGANSETT WAR. 129
of Winslow, approached a swamp in the town of South bk. in.
Kingston, where the Indians were entrenched in a strong ch. i.
fort. It was attacked, and, after a severe struggle, it fell a. d.
into the hands of the assailants. Six hundred wigwams 1675.
were destroyed, and the provisions of the Indians were
burned. The assaUants, however, ' suffered severely. Two hun- injuries
dred and thirty men were either killed or wounded, while done to
•* ' . frontier
most of the Indian warriors escaped. Infuriated by their towns.
disasters, and suffering from famine, they recommenced
hostiUties with the utmost barbarity. They scattered
themselves along the frontier settlements, and inflicted all
the injury in their power. Lancaster was burned. Med-
field was half-destroyed, and Weymouth was attacked.
Providence, too, was seriously injured. The whole colony
of Plymouth was overrun. Houses were burned in
almost every town. No one could venture out without
danger of being destroyed. The colonists were filled with
alarm. A general insurrection and union of the natives
threatened every place witb danger. Men, women and
chUdren perished by the buUets or the tomahawks of the
Indians ; and some of the most flourishing of the settle
ments were abandoned. '
The dangers and sufferings of the English led to the League
necessity of a general confederation, and the Indians were *? *'*"„
J o J stroy the
now hunted like wild beasts, wherever the white man Indians.
dared to penetrate. Famine and disease rapidly destroyed
those whom war had spared. The Indians, at last, dis
couraged and broken, sought the most inaccessible retreats.
Philip himself, no longer sheltered by the Indians who
had committed such ravages on the settlements of Con
necticut river, fled to his native swamps. There he was Death of
followed, attacked, and killed by Major Church, and his ^ '''''"
foUowers were either destroyed or taken prisoners. The

130 WAR WITH THE SUSQUEHANNAS.
BK.m. Wampanoags and Narragansetts suffered the fiite of the
Ch. 1. Pequods, and their country was annexed to Plymouth,
A. D. and afterwards to Rhode Island. The few surviving
1675. members of these unfortunate tribes migrated to tbe
North and West, to inflame their brethren to future
hostilities.
War Nearly cotemporary with King Philip's war in Massa-
with the cijusetts and Rhode Island, was that wbich was carried
Susque- '
hannas. OU iu Virginia, against the Susquehannas and other tribes,
under the guidance of Nathaniel Bacon. Allusion has
been made to these hostiUties, so far as pertained to
Bacon's rebellion, and but little more need here be said.
For thirty years the Virginia Indians had maintained
peace; but the same causes which provoked the natives
in New England, also operated at the South. The occa
sion of the war of which Bacon was the leader, was the
attack of the plantations in Maryland by the Susquehan
nas. The cause, was the mutual hatred of the antago
nistic races, and the mutual injuries which had been
inflicted.
Theirde- Like all Other contests with the Indians, those unfortu-
^'^^°" nate people were the principal sufferers. Those who were
not exterminated, were sold as slaves; which fact shows
the eagerness of the colonists for offensive war ; while the
deserted Indian lands were vested in the several counties,
and applied by them towards defraying the expenses of
the war.
Nature The colouies did not again suffer from the Indians
of In- until they were incited by their enemies among the French
dian .i .7 o
II warfare, to attack the bordcr settlements. Their incursions were
unexpected and sudden, and marked by terrible excesses.
There was no general combination of large bodies of war
riors, nor did they make any systematic attacks on consi
derable settlements. They fought in isolated bands, and,

CHARACTER OP INDIAN WARFARE. 131
when tbey had destroyed a viUage or solitary farm-house, ^^- ^^^-
retreated again to their fastnesses, and reserved their ch. i.
strength for future barbarities. They could not easily be A. d.
tracked or conquered. They watched the white man, and 1681.
waited for an opportunity to seize him in the fields, or in Indian
an unprotected house, as they hunted for the deer or the ^'mjity.
beaver. The mutual jealousy between the French and Eng- 1690.
Ush settlers increased the national antipathies, and the Union of
r, . „ ., f, . . . , French '
tormer were especiaUy guilty oi instigating the savages and
in Canada and in New York to commit deeds which ""dians.
no ordinary warfare can justify. The French abso
lutely headed and guided the hostile natives in their
savage incursions. In one of these, Schenectady, a vil- Scheneo.
lage on the Mohawk, west of Albany, was almost totaUy t^J^^,
destroyed, 1690, and about sixty persons slain. Another
party surprised Salmon Falls, a frontier viUage on the
Piscataqua, kiUed most of the males, and led the women
and children as captives into Canada. York was sur
prised by a party of French and Indians, and lost seventy-
five of its inhabitants, while as many more were carried
as prisoners to Canada.
Seven years later, in 1697, a winter party of Indians 1697.
attacked Haverhill and Boston; and the people on the pears
frontier were kept in constant alarm. At this period "^""tod
^ . hy tbe
were built those heavy log houses, as garrisons for pur- Indiana.
poses of protection, some of which still remain. But
hardly was the white man safe even within these impene
trable waUs. The slightest cessation from his customary
vigilance, any short indulgence from fancied security,
exposed him to the tomahawk of foes who never slept.
He never ventured out into his field without his gun. He
was obliged to clear away tbe beautiful trees which sur
rounded and omamented his house, for fear that Indians

132 LEGENDS OP INDIAN CRUELTY.
Bk.m. might lurk behind them whUe he laboured for his bread.
Ch. 1. In every part of New England, legends are banded down
A. D. among the people of the sufferings and the heroism of
1697. their fathers. Women were known to defend themselves
with courage and success, in sudden attacks, when their
brothers and husbands were absent from their homes.
Hannah The intrepidity of Hannah Dustin surpassed that of Jael
and Judith of old ; for she, when taken by a party of
Indians, succeeded in killing the whole of them with her
own hands, in the dead of night, when they were over
come with liquor and sleep.
Hatred Amid such dangers and sufferings were the colonists
of tht" trained. But Indian hostilities, in spite of the superior
Indians, strength of the whites, retarded prosperity, and filled the
most prosperous settiements with alarm. The mere name
of Indian conjured up fear and hatred; and the defence
less and the timid were frightened at the word, even as
Saracen mothers once quailed before the name of Richard
Cceur de Lion.
Peculiar It is unnecessary to detail the injuries which the In-
rities of ^jang inflicted at a subsequent period, untU the final con-
Indian ^ _ * ' ^
warfare, qucst of Canada by the English. There is great uniformity
in the history of Indian hostilities, marked by treachery,
cunning, cruelty, and barbarity. Moreover, Indian war
fare, after the colonies were involved in the great contest
between England and France, is closely connected with
intercolonial wars, and will be further alluded to when
these are treated. It is time to consider other events
whioh affected the prosperity and tranquilUty of the
colonies. \:^

ranoe.

CHAPTER II.
RELIGIOUS DISSENSIONS, DELUSIONS, AND
PERSECUTIONS.
It seems odd to prefix a chapter with such a title, when bk. in.
we remember the claims which the colonists, and especially Ch. 2.
the Puritans, made to intellectual light and religious tole- a. d.
ration. It would seem that men with their experience 1650.
and sufferings, driven away from their homes by perse- Natnrai
cuting bigots, would be singularly free from the faults ^°°"^.
whioh they denounced in others, and would be bound religious
together by the bonds of charity and love. Doubtless '"""^
there was great affection between those who thought alike
on all the great questions of the day ; but, unfortunately,
they did not aU think alike, and, as they were all earnest
and ardent in defence of their pecuUar views, strife and
disunion were inevitable. It is a great infirmity, even in
noble minds, to be inclined to religious intolerance. It
were a mistake to suppose that antipathy to those who
differ from us is ordinarUy confined to the narrow and the
weak. Intolerance is in human nature itself, and gene
rally displays itself with the most bitterness where there
are strong passions and warm feelings. It does not come
from the head, but from the heart. There will be no
warmth of temper displayed in discussing mathematical
truths; for these appeal purely to the reason. Butwhen
moral and political questions are discussed, then senti
ments of affection or interest are brought out, and this
12 (133)

184 INTOLERANCE OE THB HUMAN MIND.
Bk. m. coolness vanishes. Even the strongest minds may exhibit
Ch. 2. the greatest love or animosity, since strong passions fre-
intoie- quently accompany powerful intellectual convictions. Thus
uidTCr- Burke could never forgive Fox, with whom he had been
^- in the closest intimacy, wben the latter advocated the
cause of tbe French Revolution. Thus, Dr. Johnson
could never speak decently of either dissenters or repub-
Ucans. With both tbese great men, with all their learn
ing and wisdom, their passions prevented the unbiassed
judgment of their reason, because, with them, passion
was as strong as their reason. Hence, advocates who are
successful and powerful should not be selected as judges,
because the same qualities which make them potent plead
ers, unfit them for cool and impartial sifters of truth.
Passion is one of the grand elements of eloquence ; but
passion is at war with reason. On this principle it is
unwise to take advice from sanguine friends ; for they see
everything as they wish to have it, through the medium
of excited feeUngs. It is much better to trust to the
judgment of cold, calculating, passionless men, who do
not enter warmly into our plans.
Ardent Now, the Puritans, as a body, were men of remarkably
oithe" strong passions and ardent religious sentiments, which
were united with great intellectual strength. They felt
strongly on aU moral and religious questions which were
agitated in their day. They could not be cool and calm,
if they would. They were jealous for the glory of God,
and the undimmed lustre of their system of truth. Any
departure from the principles which they honoured so
profoundly, seemed to derogate from the glory of God and
the welfare of the Church. Hence, they did not stop to
reason coldly when tbe temple of truth was invaded by
audacious and unholy hands. They would drive out the in
truders with whips and cords — they would eject them from

Puritans.

THE PURITANS NO EXCEPTION. 135
their abodes — from the precincts of the colony itself bk.iu.
They would have nothing to do with them ; for they Ch. 2.
sought, as it appeared to tbem, to bring dishonour on Puritan
what was most sacred and sublime. Hence, they did not J.^,,^
scruple to banish tbe Baptists and Quakers, in spite of
unexceptionable morality and inoffensive lives, beoause
they blended certain doctrines with their system of truth
which were regarded as dangerous to the Church of
Christ. Hence, they had no reproaches of conscience in
awarding to witches the punishments which their age pre
scribed. They abominated the idea that ignorant and
self-sufScient fanatics could be favoured with the special
iUumination of the Deity, when the Bible was in every
hand. They were shocked that any persons could have
the audacity to communicate with the agents of Satanic
power. They did- not stop to reason. They acted, with
out reasoning, from the prejudices of their age, and from
the education they had received. It is no argument
against their superior culture, that the people in Virginia,
wbo did not make high pretensions, should have been free
from simUar delusions and animosities. The Virginians
were thinking of other things — of cultivating tobacco,
and studying their physical prosperity. Those men who,
in our days, are zealously embarked in trade, politics, or
pleasure, are not the men who feel strongly and act vigor
ously respecting dangerous moral innovations. Those
who are infinitely their superiors in culture, in genius,
and in heart, may exhibit passions and weaknesses of
whicb their inferiors will never be accused.
And these truths should be bome in mind when we The Pu.
discuss tbe character of great men, or unfold the relations ^^*^°'^
of great events. It is only in this light that the conduct only a
of the Puritans may be palUated for tbeir participation "ng"^-
in religious persecution. Let not great historical facts be 'ty.

136 PERSECUTION OP THE QUAKERS.
BK.m. denied. Let them be admitted cheerfully by aU. And
Oh. 2. then let us view acts which derogate from tbe fame of
A. D. the good and great in the light of true philosophy and
1656. Christian candour, and we shall ordinarily see great pal
liatives. None are indeed perfect. We are called to
lament the follies of those we honour. But, with all
their follies and mistakes, we see nevertheless a great dif
ference between them and those who are more faultless,
but less glorious.
I have already shown the lamentable delusion which
led to the banishment of Roger WiUiams, and the found
ation of Rhode Island. The next marked outburst of
popular prejudice, and which can never be justified, was
in reference to the Quakers. It commenced in 1656, and
extended, at intervals, for many years. It was not con
fined to Massachusetts, but equally disgraced Virginia and
other colonies. '
Quakers AUusiou has already been made to the celebrated
^°ted founder of the Society of Friends, and also to their doc
trines, which contained some principles for the first time
advanced in the world, and which have contributed, in no
inconsiderable manner, to the progress of truth and civili-
ization. But there were some ideas of more questionable
value, which were advanced with presumptuous audacity,
and were exceedingly offensive to the men of their gene
ration. The notion that the Bible was a dead-letter book,
unless illuminated by the Inner Light, thus recognizing
special divine revelations, and placing them above tbe
authority of the Scriptures, was repugnant to the Puri
tans, who placed the authority of the Scriptures above all
other authority. And when this idea, and other new doc
trines equally obnoxious, were advocated with wild enthu
siasm, and with a recklessness inconsistent with the re
spect which seemed due to both mlers and priests, accom.

EXPULSION OP THE QUAKERS. 1,S7
panied with extravagance and indecorum of manners, yea, BK.m
even undisguised indecency, hard to be reconciled with Ch. 2.
the calm and rational deportment of the present followers a. d.
of Fox, the indignation and disgust of the colonists were 1656.
excited to tbe highest degree. For Quakers, male and Quakera
female, in some instances, not only committed acts which ^ ^"^
would now, in any civilized country, subject them to land.
imprisonment in the house of correction, but manifested
utter contempt for courts of justice, titles of honour, and
the ordinary laws of society. Their reputation had pre
ceded them to New England, and, when they arrived, there
were such strong prejudices against them, that they were
immediately arrested and examined to see whether they
bore any bodUy marks of witchcraft. And when such
indications were not found, they were sent back to Rhode
Island, from which colony they came. ->-
A law was passed, sentencing them to fine, imprison- Banish
ment, and exile. The four associated colonies adopted '^™*
' ^ of the
this law, and urged Rhode Island to do the same. But Quaisers.
the Assembly wisely regarded any punishment for reli
gious opinions as inconsistent with their principles, and a
violation of tbeir charter. The few Quakers who had
come to these distant settlements to propagate their doc
trines, were not content to remain in Rhode Island, and
were resolved to be martyrs rather than remain in rest
and quietude. Accordingly, they soon retumed to Mas
sachusetts. There they were joined by Blary Clarke, the
"wife of a tailor in London, wbo announced that she
had forsaken her husband and six children in order to
convey a message from heaven to the people of New Eng
land." They immediately raised their voices to abuse
everything especiaUy revered in social life, or in the ordi
nances of the churches. They were again seized, flogged,
and dismissed with yet more severe threats. Still they
12*

138 FORTITUDE OF THE QUAKERS.
BK.m. returned with increasing numbers, and succeeded in mak-
Ch. 2. ing converts and exciting compassion. The magistrates
A. D. of Massachusetts, exasperated at the repetition of their
1658. extravagances and the influence of their principles, intro-
Penai duced, in 1658, a law into tbe Assembly denouncing the
laws. punishment of death upon all Quakers retuming from
banishment. Although many opposed this sanguinary
and illiberal proposition, it was nevertheless carried, and,
in tbe two following years, four persons were put to death,
among whom was Mary Dyer, once a conspicuous disciple
of Mrs. Hutchinson.
The fortitude with which tbese persecuted people met
their fate, and the compassion whioh their sufferings occa
sioned, alarmed the magistrates ; and penal rigours were
relaxed, and continued to be relaxed, as the Quakers
became more orderly, or their principles were better
understood.
1688 When William and Mary were seated on the throne,
Toiera- morc liberal views were also embraced in the colonies
dCT°wii- respecting religious toleration, which was finally extended
Ham and to all Christians excepting Catholics, whose principles, it
Mai'y. . . 1^ ir 7
was maintained, so openly advocated the suppression of all
intellectual independence, that, in self-defence, the Pro
testants, of nearly every party, felt themselves justified in
withholding the privileges which themselves claimed.
2(3y4_ The intolerance shown to Catholics, partiy the result
Tntoie- of traditionary hatred, was most unjust in Maryland.
specTing T^'^* province had been settied by them, and they had
Gather ever exercised the greatest practical liberality. But when
dissenters from their faith settled among them, for they
were not excluded, and outnumbered them, they subjected
the CathoUcs to persecution, forbade the celebration of the
mass in public, 1704, and deprived them of the right of
suffrage. These disabUities were at length removed ; but

SALEM WITCHCRAFT. 139
in several States, Catholics, and Catholics alone, of the BK.m.
Christian sects, were ineligible to any high civil office. ch. 2.
But the most remarkable exhibition of superstitious a. d.
delusion and hateful severity which disgraced the early 1692.
colonists, was in reference to witches. It was supposed saiem
that certain unhappy people, chiefly old women, had made ¦'"t"'"*^-
a covenant with the devil for the tormenting of human
souls — a notion, however, not peculiar to New Eng
land, but which was common to England and various
parts of Europe. Some of the greatest men of the age
were firm beUevers in witchcraft, sorcery, and magic ; and
severe penal enactments were made against those who
were supposed to practise those arts, in every country in
Christendom. Henry VIII. made witchcraft a capital
offence ; - and many persons lost their lives for this im
puted crime, even during the Commonwealth.
The Puritans were not exempt from the superstition of puritan
their times, and they also punished witchcraft with death, ''?JTv'°*
since they regarded it as a voluntary compact between tbe craft
devU and evil-minded persons. And the prevailing delu
sion was stimulated by Increase Mather, and his son Cot
ton Mather, clergymen of Boston, and greatly distinguished
for learning and sanctity, although their piety bore a
close resemblance to Catholic asceticism. The latter per
son even took a child into his house who was supposed to
be' bewitched, that he might have an opportunity of stu
dying Satanic influences; and the girl made a dupe of
him, and furnished him with materials for a book on
" Witchcrafts and Possessions," which had great influence
on the common mind.
The delusion spread from Boston to Salem. Children
were seen to perform pranks which could not have hap
pened but for the agency of infernal spirits. The greatest
pains were taken to discover those who had bewitched

140 ALARM OF THE ENLIGHTENED.
Bk. in. them. Towns appointed committees for the purpose, and
Ch. 2. magistrates zealously lent their aid. Examinations took
A. D. place of accused persons in the churches, where were
1688. assembled the chief people of the towns. On the most
Cruel- trivial and absurd accusations, respectable people were
wes in- arrested, tried, found guilty, and executed. The govemor
on sup- of the colony, Phipps, took an active part, 1692, in the
witehes. prosccutious. And he was sustained by the General
Court. So powerful was the delusion, that it was hazard
ous to express doubts in reference to the accused. The
disbelief in witches was itself almost tantamount to an
alliance with evil spirits. The calm and wise dared not ex
press their convictions. Those wbom the afflioted accused,
either in malice or recklessness, were looked upon as
damned by the credulous crowd, and those who stimu
lated their folly ; and it was in vain to seek escape, except
by confession of the crime. The jails were full of prison
ers; new accusations increased, every day; alarm and
terror filled all minds. Neither age nor sex was spared.
Evil spirits were supposed to hover over the land. Ma
gistrates were even condemned, and a clergyman by the
name of Burroughs was executed.
Keao- At last, persons of such high character and influence
were accused, that the eyes of the community were opened.
Clergymen and magistrates of the highest social position
and moral worth, became implicated. The General Court
was alarmed, as well as the more judicious of the people.
A clergyman of Andover had the courage to remonstrate
publicly against the prevailing delusion, and the special
court which had been established for the trial of accused
persons was abrogated. Finally, King William vetoed
the witchcraft act, and, by order of the governor, all pri
soners were released, 1693, but not until more than
twenty innocent persons had been executed, and fifty-five

END OP THE DELUSION. 141
tortured until an acknowledgment of guilt had been Bk.hi.
wrung from them. Ch. 2.
With the passing away of this delusion, which pre- a. d.
vailed most extensively in Salem, a decline was also per- 1693.
ceptible in the religious ardour of the colonists, and their Decline
views were modified respecting a theocratic government, ^f *.''°,
The great peculiarities of Puritanism were no longer seen ive fea-
in their ancient force. Latitudinarianism became preva- p^Ttm-
lent and fashionable. The half-way covenant was adopt- i^'^
ed. Colman in Boston, and Stoddard in Northampton,
even admitted aU persons to the communion and the pri
vilege of church membership, who were not immoral in
their Uves. The ministers no longer pretended to advise
and control the executive and legislative governments;
and Cambridge itself, much to the mortification of Mather
and the members of the old theocratic school, presently
passed under the control of the latitudinarian party, whioh
went by the name of Arminian, and which insinuated, if
it did not openly profess, a leaning towards Socinianism.

Oliver Cromwell.

142

CHAPTER III.
ENGLISH COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS.
Thus far, we have considered chiefly the internal
history of the colonists; their struggles, their contests, bk. m.
their opinions, and their delusions. It is well, now, to ch. 3.
turn our eyes to the influence which English legislation
had on their prosperity as merchants, manufacturers, and 1Q40.
agriculturists. All tbe colonies recognized, to a greater
or less degree, their dependence on the mother country, ence of
They were governed by English laws. They yielded i^^J^,
homage to English govemors. Their charters established tion on
a close connection between them and the English govern- nies.
ment. It was only when they were feeble and insignifi
cant that they escaped the notice of kings and Parliaments,
and enjoyed an unrestricted freedom. As they became
flourishing they were subjected to the influence of English
legislatures, and the more more powerful they became the
more they felt the yoke.
Commercial restrictions were imposed as early as the
colonies promised to enrich the proprietors. The first were Legisia-
imposed on Virginia, when tobacco became a considerable *'°° ^^
. , n , . specting
article of export — during the reign of Charles I. In tobaoco.
165C, the ParUament, after its triumph over the king,
passed a law that foreign ships should not enter any of
the ports in Barbadoes, Antigua, Bermudas, and Virginia,
much to the detriment of the latter colony, which sold
great quantities of tobacco to Dutch traders.
j Cromwell, still more than Charles L, was induced to
(14.3)

144 NAVIGATION ACTS.
Bk. m. restrict colonial commerce, in order to confirm the mari-
Ch. 3. time power of his country ; and especially when he per-
1651 ceived that Holland was engrossing so large a share of the
trade of the world.
Kaviga- The first navigation act was carried through Parliament
tion act. jjy jjjg influence, 1651, by which the commerce between
England and her colonies, as well as the rest of the world,
was to be conducted by EngUsh ships alone. This act
was passed, however, not so much with a view of absorb
ing the wealth of Virginia, as to cripple the commerce of
the Dutch ; in consequence of which a naval war followed
between England and Holland, in whioh Blakc, De Ruyter,
and Von Tromp gained such lasting laurels.
1660. The British merchants, however, were not ,=atisfied with
Kaviga. the dcsirc of Cromwell to make England the emporium of
tion act , . , . , p , . ,
of trade, but also claimed an entire monopoly of colonial
Charles gommerce. And, soon after Charles II. wafl restored to
the throne, a new navigation aot was passed, 1660, by
Parliament, whieh gave to them all they desired. It was
decreed that no commodities should be imported into any
British settlement, or exported from thence, but in British
vessels, navigated by EngUsh sailors ; and that no valu
able and staple products, the growth of the colonies,
should be shipped thence to any other country than Eng
land. Nor was it allowed to import into the colonies
any European commodities which were not laden in Eng
land and transported in EngUsh vessels.
Depend- Nothing, it is evident, could be more exclusive than
thrcoio- t'^^^ ^°t> ^y which the colonies were kept in a state of
nies on complete mercantile dependence on the mother country,
land. and by which England alone was benefited. But Parlia
ment was not content with this, but prosecuted a domi
neering policy, and assumed the prerogative of regulating
the trade of the several colonies with each other.

RESENTMENT OF THE COLONIES. 145
This act, in England, was regarded as a masterpiece of bk. hl
commercial wisdom and political sagacity. In America Ch. 3.
it excited indignation and disgust. It was plainly an inva- a. d.
sion of the rights of the settler. It tended to make them 1668.
slaves. It had in it nothing paternal, nothing protective ; its in-
but a cold, calculating, mean way of enriching the mother Ji^t'oe
.;ountry at the expense of the colonies. There might be puiari-
3ome excuse in the policy, so far as it was intended to be ^'
3onducted against foreign nations; for England had a
right, like China, to make its own regulations of trade in
intercourse with foreigners ; but tbe Americans were not
foreigners. They were not regarded as such, but as the
children of Great Britain, exposed to peculiar dangers, and
iu peculiar need of indulgence and protection.
In none of the colonies did this tyrannical system exact Resent-
greater resentment than in Virginia, "where the larger yj^^.
commerce of the people, their pre-eminent loyalty, and °'*-
the recent Uberal forbearance of Cromwell, made the bur
den more severe and exasperating.'' No sooner was the
Navigation Act promulgated in Virginia, than the colo
nies warmly remonstrated against it as a grievance, and
petitioned for relief. Charles paid no attention to the
state of angry feeling, but rather resolved to enforce the
most vigorous measures, in wbich he was seconded by the
Parliament. The provincial authorities then evaded the
conditions of the act, and winked at noncompliance ; which
caUed out a royal mandate commanding the provincial
govemor to enforce the law.
Although a clandestine intercourse was kept up with ciandes-
the Dutch on Hudson River, still the effect of the act ^"^ '""
was to depreciate the value of tobacco — the staple of the course.
colony, since it was now confined to one market. The
colonists remonstrated, and feebly retaliated. Statutes
were enacted to restrain the culture of tobacco and intro-
13

146 DISAFFECTION THROUGHOUT THE COLONIES.
f't. m. duce new staples instead, but without success. The great
Ch. i. effect of the Navigation Act was to weaken those senti-
a. r. ments of loyalty which the Virginians had ever peculiarly
1668. cherished, and prepare the way for future rebellion.
N.%viga- The Navigation Act was not so injurious in its effect on
tion Act j.jjg northern colonies as on the southern during the sev-
particu- ^ ^ ° _
larly in- cuteenth coutury, but ultimately it caused great disaffoc-
to vipd. tion from Massachusetts to South Carolina. The colonies,
nia. in defence, either imposed export duties on goods shipped
in British vessels, or made exceptions in favour of colonial "¦
ships, which called out the complaints of British mer
chants and manufacturers to the Board of Trade, and led
to incessant difficulties. It was the constant policy of
England to prevent the growth or manufacture of any
ariiele in America which forined a staple in the mother
country. Wool, for instance, in the seventeenth century,
was the great article which was raised by British farmers
for purposes of manufacture and foreign trade. Hence
1609. ParUament passed an act in 1699 prohibiting wool, or any
manufacture made or mixed with it, which was produced
in America, from being transported from even one colony
to another, or even to be laden on any ship, vessel, cart,
Poverty Or horsc, uudcr any pretence. All manufactures were
and op- discouraged whioh could be furnished by British mer
er the chants, which of course reduced the colonies to great
dependence, keeping thera constantly poor, and in debt to
the mother country ; for the export of raw materials, such
as timber, pitch, and tobacco, never could produce enough
to furnish the colonies with any except tbe coarsest and
meanest fobrics, and tbese only to a limited extent. None
but the wealthy could afford to wear silks or fine woollens ;
and tea, coffee, and other luxuries, were sold at exorbitant
prices which amounted to a prohibition, except among
favoured individuals. The colonists were obUged to spin

colonists.

selfish policy op ENGLAND. 147
and weave their own wool and linen in their own houses, Bk.iit.
or go imperfectly clad. Even the production of iron, at Ch. s.
one time, 1721, was prohibited in the colonies ; and this a d.
prohibition would have been enforced, had it not been for 1721.
the serious remonstrance of colonial agents. Not a fur
nace could be erected in America — not a fiock of sheep
could be raised — not a ship could be built — hardly a
blacksmith's shop could be constructed, without calling
forth the doleful complaint of some interested British
manufacturer or mechanic to the Board of Trade. The
mercantUe jealousy which the mother country constantly
evinced, was equally sordid and ungenerous.
The colonies, however, in the early period of their his- Remon-
tory, did not dispute the right of the British Parliament ^j'j'J"'^
t-o impose restrictions on their commerce. They merely lonists.
remonstrated, and, when their remonstrances were of no
avail, retaUated in some feeble form, or contented them
selves with the expression of displeasure. They looked
upon themselves as a part of the British empire, and Par
Uament as the supreme authority. It was not untU Great
Britain proceeded to legislate on the government of the
colonies, as weU as on commerce and industry, that the
spirit of independence was awakened, and the great rebel-
Uon took place 

CHAPTER IV.
POPULAS DISCONTENTS, AND EARLY CONTESTS WITH
GOVERNORS.
Bk. IIL Hardly had the colonists escaped from the influence
Ch.4. of tyranny and persecution, both civil and religious, in
Com- England, and estabUshed themselves in their new abodes,
of""''°i before they began to be jealous of the authority of their
govern- rulers and govemors in America. In nearly every colony,
the people were desirous of greater privileges, as they
increased in numbers and power. No matter whether
governors were appointed by kings, by parUaments, by
absolute proprietaries, by corporations, or by the suffrages
of the people themselves, they found increasing obstacles
in the exercise of their functions. There was always
Popular some object of popular complaint — some struggle between
diseon- jjjQgg -^-[^q ruled, and those who were ruled. Either tax-
tents. '
ation, or EngUsh legislation, or royal encroachments, or
the arbitrary rule of governors, or restricted franchise, or
interference with religious and social rights, were subjects
of complaint and resistance. The people did not quietly
and permanently acquiesce even in compacts and arrange
ments with which they were at first contented. The same
disquietude, unrest, and discontent, which have ever
marked nations and individuals alike in the most favoured
and the most unfortunate situations, equally characterized
. our ancestors. It seems to be one of the laws of progress
(U8)

SUBJECTS OF DISCONTENT. 149
that discontents and agitations should arise ; for surely bk. hl
there could be no advance if men were uniformly content- Ch. 4.
ed with their lot. No state of society is perfect. There
is no situation without glaring evils, however desirable, or
however praised.
Favoured as all the colonies were, in respect to govern- niscon-
ment, from the very first, and in every part of the coun- *™' °^ .
try, when compared with the nations of the old world, pie with
there were everywhere causes of complaint. The great nation
contest of all time was going on between the rich and the ^"d pri-
. . yileges.
poor — between the privileged and the more unfortunate
classes. In the forests of America, as in every other part
of the world, and in all ages, aristocracy and democracy
conflicted. The rich wished to perpetuate the advantages
they had gained by their talents or industry — the learned
and dignified looked down on the pretensions of the ignorant
and base — magistrates aimed to Strengthen the arms of
power — and those who had nothing to lose sought, by
commotion and agitation, to overturn existing institutions,
and, in the conflict of parties and sects and interests, to
elevate their own social position, and grasp privileges
which had ever been denied them. Democratic as were Progress
the early settlers in comparison with Europeans, the great "f demo-
body of them grew still more democratic every day in the
wUdemess; and the tendency of American society, from
the first planting of the colonies, has been continually to
the increase of democratic power. Every change of go
vemment, every revolution, and every great social excite
ment, have contributed to raise the mass of the people in
their aspirations, self-respect, and self-sufficiency, if not in
real virtue and intelligence, as must of course be the case
wbere the abstract principles of universal liberty are
generaUy advocated, and form the basis of political insti
tutions. 13*

150 COMPLAINTS OF VIRGINIANS.
B^- in. The most aristocratic of all the colonies was Virginia;
Ch.4. but even the aristocrats of Virginia, so loyal in their
A. D. professions, and so attached to kings and parUaments, did
1660 not acquiesce in restiictions on their commerce, and loudly
to complained when Charles II. prevented the free exporta
tion of tobacco to any other country than England. They
Resist- resisted royal commissioners and royal governors, and
royal go- showed a spirit of disaffection by no means agreeable to'
James II. They claimed the right of nominating their
own treasurer under William IIL, at a time when the
govemor controlled the army, the revenue, the interpreta
tion of the law, the administration of justice, and the
Church. They refused to contribute for the defence of
the colonies against France, when required by the king.
They resisted the demands of the governor, whenever
such demands seemed against the interests of the colony;
and the governors were obliged, in their quarrels, to resort
to dissolutions of the Assembly. They even alleged, in
1718, that Parliament could not levy any tax on them
without the consent of the General Assembly.
jeai- In Massachusetts, the straggles of the people against
ousyof arbitrary power, and their jealousy of royal governors,
trates in were Still more marked, since the great body of the people
ohu-'"' were more democratic in their sympathies, and intelU-
setts. gence and wealth more equally diffused. As early as
1632 1640, the freemen had shown their jealousy of magistrates
to by declining to re-elect them more than one or two years
in succession, for fear that they would aspire to perpetual
authority. In 1641, they prepared a body of laws in
which their interests were carefully guarded. Even the
exceUent Governor Winthrop was impeached, and was
obUged to defend himself, in 1645, before the magistrates,
deputies, and an assembly of the people, from the charge
of having abused his authority.

GENERAL DISCONTENT. 151
They subsequently treated the commissioners whom bk.hl
Charles II. sent over, on his restoration, with marked ch. 4.
discourtesy ; and such was their resistance to the mother a. d.
country, when it attempted to enforce the Navigation 1665
Acts, that their charter was taken away. They refused to
to pay the taxes which Andros, the royal governor, im-
, posed when the charter was forfeited, and finally rose up Contests
against him and imprisoned him when news arrived of the vemors.
second English revolution. And when Bellamont was
govemor, in 1698, the General Court would., not allow
him to carry out his instructions, and jealously insisted
upon greater liberties. The Legislature of Massachusetts
even once resorted to the extreme measure of stopping
supplies when its petitions were disregarded by the king,
in 1731, so that no public officer received any pay for
more than two years. And, indeed, doWn to the period
preceding the American Revolution, Massachusetts, from
time to time, resisted all encroachments on its liberties,
and the royal governors were unable to carry out their
plans. The same jealousy of power was seen in nearly all the General
other colonies, no matter on what principles they were fa^tfon"
founded. As the population increased, difficulties with "fti's
1 1 rrn 1 colonists
propnetanes and governors increased also. The people with go-
always had a great reluctance to pay quit-rents to propri- ™''°'
etaries, whether in Carolina, Maryland, Pennsylvania, or
New York. And they all alike resisted the enforcements
of the acts of trade. They all aUke rebelled against op
pressive governors. Even the people of Pennsylvania
encroached on the private rights of the generous founder
of their colony, and he found it wise to grant such privi
leges as they desired; and, before his death, almost a
pure democracy was founded. But even these did not
content the settlers. Constant collisions between the

152 OBNOXIOUS GOVERNORS.
^^- ^^i- proprietary, as owner of unappropriated territory, and the
Ch. 6. people, eager to enlarge their freeholds, took place. At
A. D. the death of Penn, the executive was dependent on the
1691. people for its support, and all subordinate executive
Affairs officcrs wcro elcctod by them. The judiciary also was
syiv™"' fettered by the people, and all legislation originated with
hia, them.
And in But in none of the colonies was resistance to royal
Yorij. power more marked than in New York ; and in none was
it more necessary. It was early seen in the most stub
born violation of the Navigation Acts, and in the resolu
tions passed by the Colonial Assembly in 1691, in which
it was asserted that no tax whatever could be levied on
the colony without the consent of the Legislature. But
it was during the administration of Lord Cornbury that
the Legislature showed the greatest courage, which indeed
almost amounted to audacity; and Queen Anne was
obliged to remove from office the obnoxious governor who
ruled the province in her name. Of all the representa
tives of royalty in America, Lord Cornbury, grandson of
Lord Chancellor Clarendon, was the most contemptible
and the most oppressive. Happily, however, for the
colonies, the administration of such men as Cornbury,
Andros, and Dudley, fanned the spirit of resistance, and
led to self-reliance.
Preparar Thuswcrc the people of the various colonies preparing
f^(.^Jg themselves for future independence. Thus were demo-
indepen- cratic Sentiments gradually gaining ground. Thus was
hatred of EngUsh taxation silently engendered. The
hardy colonists, accustomed to toil, educated in the school
of self-reUance, and conscious of their strength, felt, for
half a century before they dreamed of independence, that
they already constituted a great nation, destined to illus
trious deeds.

ofthe co
lonists. ,

PREPARATIONS FOR INDEPENDENCE. 153
But this independence to which they so nobly aspired, bk. ni.
and this greatness wbicb they were destined to realize, Ch. 5.
were' not to be obtained until they had measured their a. d.
strength with most desperate enemies in the field, and 1691.
had acquired the valuable instructions of experience. It position
was necessary that they should more fuUy learn the spirit
of Indian warfare, and the miUtary tactics of European
foes. The great contests of European monarchs were ex
tended even to the shores of the New World, and the
hardy colonists were reluctantly embroiled in the strife
of kings. The Indians were incited, by French arts, to
more powerful combinations, and encroachments were
made by rival colonists on the territories of each other.
Indian and French wars form no inconsiderable part of
colonial history during the first half of the 18th centurj,
which it is now time to present.

Lou. £;, from Ureuuwich

CHAPTER V.
early intercolonial wars.
Great Britain exercised an influence on the colonies bk. hi.
not only by attempting to enforce the acts of Parliament cb 6.
respecting trade, and by imposing upon them tyrannical j^ j,
governors, but also by involving them in her wars with 1688.
European powers.
WilUam III. brought with him into England that in- Jealous-
tense hatred of Louis XIV. whicb had characterized him as ^^t^jj
Prince of Orange. The recollection of the injuries which and
Holland had received from the modern Nebuchadnezzar, and towards
his unscrupulous efforts to subvert the civU and religious lib- *"
erties of Europe, incessantly haunted the mind of William.
And his antipathy was also shared by his new subjects, who
both feared and hated the French king, not only because
he aimed to destroy the balance of European power, but
because he persecuted the Protestants. England, more
over, was jealous of French ascendency in the politics of
Europe, and of the efforts which France made to extend
manufactures and commerce, those branches of industry
which she herself wished to monopolize. Not least in
the scale of these aggressions were the projects of the
French to engross the fisheries, and secure theu* ascend
ency on the American continent.
It was for these reasons that England maintained a des
perate contest with France, with but little interruption,
luring the reigns of WUUam and of Anne, until Louis
XIV. was completely humbled by the victories of Marl-
lorough. (155)

156 hostility op England and france.
Bk. in. The English colonies entered into the feelings of the
Ch. 6. mother country, and made great exertions to resent the
A. D. encroachments of the French, even to dispossess them of
1688. those territories which were fairly theirs, both by prior
The col- discovery and settlement. Acadie, Canada, the region of
""'"^ the Great Lakes, and the VaUey of the Mississippi, be-
share ' *^ , .
the hos- longed to the French. Also the most lucrative traffic
*''''¦'¦ with the Indians was carried on by them, as well as profi
table fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland, in common
with other natives.
Union of The French were not disinclined for the contest for the
French sovereignty of North America; and, uniting with the
dians. Indians, whom they had conciliated by Jesuit missionaries,
made destructive inroads into the New England colonies
and the province of New York. The English colonists
retaliated, and carried the terror of their arms to the banks
of the St. Lawrence.
The desultory and protracted warfare with the French
Canadians, and their allies the Indians, constitute the
intercolonial wars until nearly the close of the reign
of Anne.
1689. The first one broke out in 1689, when the colonies had
French ^ population, altogether, of about two hundred thousand
Canadi- ^ '^ > a !
ans in- people, half of whom were removed from the scene of hos-
Engiilh" tilities. So sooU as a declaration of war between England
colonies, and France was known in America, Baron Castin excited
the Penobscot Indians to renew their depredations on the
settlements along Casco Bay and the Piscataqua River,
while Count Frontenac, as govemor of Canada, detached
three parties to desolate the villages on the Mohawk and
Hudson. The influence which the French had acquired
over the Indians was exerted to stimulate them to deeds
of unparalleled barbarity.
The EngUsh, on the other hand, tncouraged the Mo-

expedition against CANADA. 157
hawks and other tribes of the Iroquois to invade Canada BK.m.
and continue those atrocities which had nearly driven the ch. 6.
settlers of Montreal to desperation. The Iroquois stood a. d.
iu the way of the French for continuing their settlements 1690.
across the country to the banks of the Mississippi, and
were the most formidable enemies which the white man,
of any country, had ever encountered in America.
The attacks of the French and Indians on Salmon Falls, Expedi.tion
which have been previously mentioned in another chapter, against
aroused all the northern colonies, and a large force was ''*°'^*-
raised to carry the war into Canada itself. Massachusetts
took the lead in this united enterprise, and also, in addi
tion, sent ont eight hundred men, under Sir William
Phipps, and proved successful. Port Royal was easily
taken and unscrupulously plundered, 1690.
Meanwhile, the main body of the colonists, led by
Winthrop, son of the ex-governor of Connecticut, and
assisted by a party of Jlohawks, advanced towards Canada.
The expedition proved unfortunate. The van of the
forces under Schuyler was repulsed by Frontenac, while
the rest were stopped short at Lake George by the small
pox and want of provisions.
Phipps about this time sailed from Boston with a large Expedi-
force of two thousand men, besides a considerable addition 1°^ '"'"
from New York, which Leisler had fitted out. A hostile PWpps.
Indian carried the intelligence in fourteen days to Quebec,
which had time to prepare for its defence ; for Phipps, unac
quainted with the navigation of the St. Lawrence, was nine
weeks before he reached the city. Moreover, Frontenac,
hearing of the disasters of the EngUsh at Lake George,
hastened to Quebec and arrived in tirae to defend the city,
which was even then strong in fortifications. Phipps was
obliged to abandon the enterprise, and with difficulty oould
keep his men from mutiny, so dispirited were they with
14

Bion.

l-'iS RENEWAL OF THE WAR.
J^g-in- failure, and disappointed in not obtaining the promised
Ch. 5. plunder.
A. D. The Indians, meanwhile, kept up a frontier war, and
1699. tormented and kiUed all who fell into their hands, with
the exception of those whom they sold in Canada as pri
soners. It was at this period, during the latter part of the
war, that Wells and York were burned, and HaverhUl
Peace of and Audover attacked. The peace of Ryswick, which
wfck ^^ proclaimed in Boston December 1699, put an end to
the war which had proved so disastrous to the English
colonies.
War of It was soon, however, recommenced with increased bit-
splnish temess. Louis XIV. had secured, by intrigue and manage-
succes- ment, the throne of Spain for one of his grandsons. This
foolish ambition to place a Bourbon prince on the throne
of Charles V. and Philip IL, provoked beyond measure
the princes of Europe, and a general confederacy was
entered into to curtail his power.
This attempt of the king of France to retain the as
cendency in Spain united the two countries together, and
both were bound to sustain the claims which each nation
League put forth OU the American continent. Although the
between Spaniards had remonstrated against the attempts of the
French Freuch, uudcr D'Ibberville, 1699, to colonize Louisiana,
niards. yet, on the family alliance between the Bourbon sove
reigns, both Spaniards and French turned their arms
against the EngUsh settlements.
The central colonies were not destined to suffer much
by the renewal of the war. The Iroquois had made a
compact of peace with both France and England, and
rigidly adhered to it. But South CaroUna, bordering on
Spanish Florida, and New England, coveting the fisheries,
were exposed to hostilities.
In 1702, South CaroUna began hostiUties, and the

WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 159
governor, James Moore, headed an expedition of six hun- bk. m.
dred people for the reduction of St. Augustine, and sue- Ch. 6.
ceeded in taking the town, though not the fort, to which a. d.
the garrison retired. Nor could he long occupy the ground 1702.
he had taken, for the appearance of two Spanish vessels
near the mouth of the harbour compelled him to retreat,
with the loss of his ships and stores, across the country.
As South CaroUna had embarked in the contest with War in
the hope of making slaves of the Indians who were friendly
to the Spaniards, Moore, three years after, with another
company of fifty men, and assisted by one thousand
Creeks, aUies of the English, advanced into the territo
ries of the Appalachees of Florida, whom Spanish mis
sionaries had taught some elements of civilization, and
made captives of one hundred and fifty of them, and car
ried the English flag triumphantly through the wilderness
to the Gulf of Mexico. This expedition fumished the
English vrith a claim to Georgia, whose central forests
were inhabited by the Creeks. The war resulted, thus
far, in an extension of the English boundaries far into
those territories which the Spaniards considered as a part
of Florida.
The war at the North was disastrous to Massachusetts, 1704,
which colony alone was desolated. The frontier settle- Indian
ments of course suffered most. In February, 1704, the i^'iS
viUage of Deerfield, on Connecticut river, was attacked ; *°^''""
forty-seven persons were kUled, and one hundred and
twelve were carried prisoners into Canada. For three
successive years the inhabitants were obliged to keep sen
tinels abroad, and lived in constant fear of the Indian
tomahawk. " Children, as they gambolled on the beach ;
reapers, as they gathered the harvest; mowers, as they
rested from using the scythe ; mothers, as they busied
themselves about the household, — were victims to an

160 INDIAN RAVAGES.
Bk. ni. enemy who disappeared the moment a blow was struck,
Ch. 6. and who was ever present when a garrison or a family
A. D. ceased its vigilance."
1710. These barbarities inspired the EngUsh colonists with
detestation of the missionaries who were supposed to
instigate them, and of the savage foes wbo were used as
instruments by tbe French ; and a course of retaliation
was adopted. A bounty was offered for every Indian
scalp ; and the unfortunate natives were hunted like wild
beasts in the forests which they once proudly called their
own.
Reduc- Meanwhile, preparations were made in the colonies for
Port"*^ the reduction of Acadie and Canada; but it was not tiU
Eoyal. September, 1710, that any success crowned their efforts,
beyond ravaging an unprotected coast. But a fleet of
thirty-six English and colonial vessels anchored before
Port Royal, whose garrison, weak, reduced, and disheart
ened, immediately surrendered.
Failure This expedition encouraged the English to make stUl
"^ *e(U- g^'eater preparations ; and, accordingly, a fleet of fifteen
tion ships-of-war and forty transports, carrying seven veteran
^^hec. regiments from Marlborough's army, sailed from Ports
mouth, and reached Boston in safety. This great arma
ment, amply sufficient for the reduction of Quebec, was
entrusted to a man both obstinate and incapable — Sir
Hovenden Walker — and signally and disgracefully failed
in the object for which it was designed. The fieet did
not leave Boston till the middle of July, 1711; and it
was the twentieth of August before it reached the St.
Lawrence. A fog arising, the ships were drifted among
the breakers of the Egg Island, where eight of them were
lost, and nearly nine hundred men were drowned. A
council of war was held, and it was decided that it wftB
impossible to proceed.

TREATY OP UTRECHT. 161
Thus Quebec was saved from attack, and leisure was ^^•^"-
given to fortify Montreal, threatened by an army from the Ch. 5.
colonies, which, however, retreated when the disaster a. d.
which had happened to Admiral Walker was known. 1713.
The failure of both enterprises was severely felt in the
colonies, whioh had issued a large amount of bills of credit
to defray the expenses of the war, and had calculated
upon complete success.
Hostilities were closed the following year, 1713, by the Termi-
treaty of Utrecht, one of the most important in its conse- °f"'^°"
quences ever made in Europe, by which the balance of tiuties.
power was restored, and peace estabUshed for nearly half
a century. By this treaty, Spain lost all her European
provinces, but retained ber colonies ; while France ceded
to England the free trade of Hudson's Bay, Newfound
land, and Acadie. Dearly, however, was peace procured,
and smaU were the benefits which England reaped for the
loss of fifty miUions of pounds, to say nothing of the
great destmction of human life. Louis XIV., however,
was the great sufferer, since he lost fame, power, and ag
grandizement — the great objects to which he had ever
aspired — together with armies which had been his boast,
and treasures which France never recovered.
Thus closed the intercolonial wars which occurred dur
ing the reigns of WiUiam III. and Anne, in the course
of which the English colonies had doubled their popula
tion, and had begun to attract the attention of the civU
ized world, not only for their intrinsic importance, but
also, and in a higher degree, for the promise they gave
of becoming, some day, a mighty empire.

14*

CHAPTER VI. I
STATE OF THE COLONIES AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
BK.m. Notwithstanding the many obstacles with which the
Ch. 6. colonists had to contend, their condition constantly im-
A. D. proved. Neither Indian wars, nor reUgious persecutions,
1656. nor grievous commercial restrictions, nor oppression from
Progres- Toyal govcrnors, nor contests with the Canadians, nor the
Bive im- hardships attending the new life in the wilderness, pre-
prove- . .
ment of veutcd a steady and progressive increase, both of popula-
loies! ^^'^^ ^^^ wealth. The tide of emigration still rolled on
towards the West ; the colonists found a market for the
raw materials tbey raised, but which they could not ma
nufacture; their habits of industry produced thrift and
comfort; their institutions of learning trained them to
habits of refiection, and taught them self-respect; their
religious education restrained them from vice, and inspired
them with elevated sentiments; while their political
organization, their town meetings, their provincial assem-
bUes, and their management of public affairs, fitted them
for self-government and future freedom.
Popular It is difficult to know the exact population of the colo-
"'"'• niep at the beginning of the eighteenth century, since the
accounts of most writers are contradictory. It is probable
there were nearly 400,000 inhabitants, of which Virginia
and Massachusetts had over 70,000 each, Connecticut
35,000, Rhode Island 10,000, New Hampshire 10,000,
(162)

condition op the colonies. 163
Maryland 35,000, North and South Carolina 10,000, BK.m.
New York 40,000, New Jersey 20,000, and Pennsylvania Ch. 6.
40,000. This estimate is not an exact one, but is as a. d.
near the truth as we can now arrive. Of these colonies, 1658.
Massachusetts and Virginia were the most powerful and
flourishing. In all of them, a more liberal govemment
was exercised than in cotemporaneous French, Spanish,
and Portuguese settlements, where the power of royal
governors was almost despotic. The English colonists
carried with them to America the ideas of freedom and
equaUty, and the govemment at home was restrained
within the circle of constitutional liberty.
During the seventeenth century, the colonies patiently English
submitted to, if they did not theoretically acquiesce in, the th^ght
supreme power of Parliament. The revolution which oftaxor
placed WilUam and Mary on the throne, established tbe
submission of America to legislative control. " No taxa
tion of the colonies was practically attempted by the Par
liament, except what arose from the regulation of com
merce ; but the abstract right of indefinite taxation was
proclaimed repeatedly, and a power assumed to alter the
American charters, or at least to modify the constitutions
which those charters had created."
Overawed by the superior strength of the mother coun- popular
try, embarrassed by the movements of the French in discon-
. , tents.
Canada, annoyed by the Indians, and not united by any
poUtical association, the colonists submitted to English
legislation, rather than admitted the rights which Eng
land claimed. But this submission was rarely cordial,
and popular discontents continually arose, especially in
view of the offensive and arbitrary manner in which the
royal govemors exercised their functions. Tbey were not
men of talents and rank, but generally needy dependants
and mean sycophants about the court, who sought to

164 oppressive English legislation.
BK.m. recommend themselves to the king by headstrong zeal to
Cii. 6. support his prerogatives.
A. D. The colonies also were offended by the transportation
1690. of English felons into their midst; a practice in which
Trans- ' the government persisted, until the conquest of Louisburg
porta- hy the people of Massachusetts opened tbe eyes of Par-
Engiish liament as to the character and strength of the colonists,
°'°'''' who were heretofore supposed generally to be criminals
and negroes.
Appoini^ All the colonies had their Legislative Assemblies, in
ment of ^jjich their freemen were represented ; but there was a
govern- _ _ . 5 .
ors. considerable variety in their civil constitutions, and in the
exercise of executive powers. In Maryland and Penn
sylvania, the proprietaries had the appointment of gover
nors. In Carolina and New Jersey, the soil belonged to
the proprietary, and executive power to the king. In
Virginia and New York, both belonged to the crown. In
Massachusetts, the property of the soil was vested in the
people, although tbe king appointed the governor. In
Connecticut and Rhode Island, the people both owned
the soil and appointed the executive officers. These dis
tinctions led to disputes respecting boundaries, but
favoured the discussion of political ideas.
Educar The colonists early took the interests of education under
*'°°' their especial care, and expected nothing and received
nothing from the British government. It is not probable
that England was pleased to see this progress of mental cul
ture, since it naturally led to a spirit of independence. The
colonies were regarded merely as a theatre where the sons
of needy courtiers could exercise authority, or earn for
tunes — as a market for British manufactures — as a nation
of friends and customers, interested in the glory, and
favourable to the commercial importance of England.
The interest which she as a government took, was purely

POPULAR EDUCATION. 165
selfish — to promote her own prosperity, not that of che bk. m.
colonies. So long as they would raise abundance of raw ch. o.
material, and would receive ber manufactures, she was ^_ j)_
content. Schools and educational institutions would not 1675.
obviously increase her commercial importance ; therefore,
they were neglected. Nothing was encouraged wbich was
not of direct service to her. She did give a donation to
found a college in Virginia, that of William and Mary;
but this is the only instance of her bounty in the cause
of literature and science. She shackled the press, and
discouraged the printing of books.
Nevertheless, the walls of Harvard and of Yale were Popular
reared without assistance from the government of Great y„^
Britain, and schools were established in the colonies where
young men could prepare themselves for the liberal pro
fessions. The ministers of reUgion took them under their
especial patronage. Education was enjoined upon parents
as a duty, and few grew up without tbe requisite know
ledge to enjoy those blessings which had been reaped by
industry, and secured by freedom. As early as 1704, a
newspaper was printed in Boston, and printing-presses
were set up in Pennsylvania, New York, and Connecticut.
But the press was not free from odious restrictions until
1755. .5
No great improvements were seen in the art of agricul- state of
ture, or agricultural implements. The great abundance ^^
of land, and the ease with which the common crops were
raised, prevented much attention to draining, or manures,
or rotation of crops. Attention was chiefly given to
clearing the land of forests, rather than to making it pro
ductive. The tools which were used were generally
brought from England, vrith the exception of the wood
man's axe, the most necessary of all the implements of
the early colonists. Oxen, horses, and sheep, were on-

166 INDIANS AND NEGROES.
BK.m. ginally imported, as well as bees; none of which the
Ch. 6. Indians had seen.
A. D. The unfortunate aborigines declined as the new races
1673. advanced, both in character and in numbers. Still, at
Decline the commencement of the eighteenth century, there were
of the (^(j thousand native warriors in New England, and a pro-
Indiana. . , . i i ¦ . , ,
portionate number in other colonies, with the exception
of Virginia, where they had been nearly exterminated.
The Indians, however, disappeared more rapidly in conse
quence of the vices and diseases they had contracted from the
white man, than from war. Ardent spirits and the small
pox carried off more than the sword or the tomahawk.
Negro On the other hand, negro slaves increased with more
fatal rapidity than the Indians melted away. All that
Africa could give to England in exchange for manufac
tures, was labourers for her colonies. Ships entered every
considerable harbour of the colonies, south of Newport,
laden with slaves ; nor did tbe merchants of the North
scruple to engage in the odious traffic. The coast of
Guinea furnished these slaves in the greatest numbers ;
and the unhappy victims of European cupidity were
crowded into the holds of ships, ill-ventilated and worse-
provisioned, where, manacled together, and delirious from
fever, twelve out of every hundred died beforo they were
delivered to their American masters.
Had the climate of the North been favourable to the phy
sical constitution of the negro, and unfavourable to free
white labour, slavery might have been perpetuated in New
England, as it was in Virginia, as one of the institutions
of the country. But the slave was valuable as be pro
ceeded south ; and Providence therefore entrusted chiefly
to the southem colonies the guardianship of an unfortu
nate people.
It is difficult to say how many Africans had been intro-

THE SLAVE TRADE. 167
duced into the colonies at the commencement of the eigh- BK.m.
teen th century; but probably not less than one hundred Ch. 6.
and fifty thousand. The English took from Africa, be- a. d.
tween 1680 and 1700, about tbree hundred thousand; 1660
but these were intended for the West Indies, as well as ., *qq
for the continental colonies, and many of them must have
died on the passage.
However convenient it was for the American colonies iheEng-
to make use of slave labour, yet, as a whole, they were ''J^g^'^to
opposed to the slave trade ; and the first American Con- eoioniai
gress decreed, in 1776, that no slave should be imported tions on
into any of the thirteen united colonies. It was the ava- J^J^^siavo
rice of British merchants, and the selfishness of the
British govemment, as much as the convenience of south
em and West India planters, whioh caused the constantly
increasing traffic in slaves; for, before the declaration of
American independence, as many as three millions of
Africans were transported from their native shore in Bri
tish vessels alone, to say nothing of five millions in addi
tion who were consigned to slavery by the Duteh, the
I'ortuguese, the Spaniards, and the French. " We cannot
allow the colonies," said an English minister, "to check
or discourage, in any degree, a traffic so beneficial to the
nation." Thus it happened that, even in the early days
of colonial life, the seed was sown, not by the South
alone, but by British and New England merchants, which,
in our times, has produced such agitations, dissensions, and
domestic calamities; to say nothing of the moral and
physical evils which slavery has engendered, and which
are seen, admitted and lamented by none more candidly
than those who are bom to contend with it, and who can
not get rid of it if they would. :^

General Oglethorpe.

BOOK IV.

CHAPTER I.
domestic history until the old FRENCH AND
INDIAN WAR.
The history of the colonies during the reign of George bk. it.
I. and the first twelve years of George II. is not particu- ch. i.
larly eventful or important. Yet, during this period, the ^ p
population and resources of the colonies rapidly increased, 1715.
and a theatre was preparing for great developments of
action and passion.
In 1715, two years after the peace of Utrecht, which war
closed the second intercolonial war, South Carolina was 3'*'^ "^^
7 yamas-
reduced to the brink of ruin by an extensive conspiracy sees.
of the Indians. The Yamassees, a powerful tribe on the
Savannah River, were the chief promoters of it. Encou
raged by the Spaniards in Florida, who were jealous of
the EngUsh settlements, they united witb the Creeks and
Cherokees, and inflicted, suddenly and unexpectedly, great
barbarities upon the settlers of Pocotaligo and its vicinity,
and advanced upon Charleston. A panic spread through
out the colony, for aU the Indian tribes south of the Sa
vannah River had united together to exterminate the
civilized invaders. But Craven, the govemor, by making
extraordinary exertions, raised a considerable force, and
15 (169)

170 revolution in south Carolina.
Bk. IV. advanced to meet the Indian warriors. A bloody battle
Ch. 1. ¦was fought on the banks of the Salke-hachie, in which
A. D. the savages were completely routed. But they were not
1720. driven out of the colony until four hundred of the inha
bitants had lost their lives. Property to the amount of
100,000?. was destroyed.
Rovoiu- The war with the Yamassees was followed by a domestic
tion in revolution. Since the people had defended themselves
South ^ ^
Cai-ou- without the aid of England, they resolved henceforth to
"^ govern themselves and have no more to do with the pro- *¦
prietaries. Accordingly they elected a govemor of their
own — James Moore, and, without bloodshed, palatines,
landgraves, and caciques, together with all those feudal
institutions which the proprietaries had sought to revive,
passed away for ever. The Carolinians sent an agent to
England to defend their course, and obtained their end.
The old charter was abrogated, Carolina became a royal
province, and Sir Francis Nicholson was sent out to govern
it in 1721. The Jissembly which he called confirmed the
late revolutionary proceedings, regulated the administra
tion of justice, reduced official fees, and estabUshed a
system of looal electioneering.
Missis- About this time New Orleans was founded by the
rompa- French, and tbat famous scheme for improving the French
ny. provinces was projected by John Law, which bad so great
an influence on the settiement of Louisiana. It was
called the Mississippi Company, and was closely connected
with the royal bank of which Law was the director, aud
had for its object the parcelling ont of the Valley of the
Mississippi among stock-jobbers and commercial gamblers
in order to raise money for the French government, deeply
embarrassed by the extravagances of the court and the old
wars of Louis XIV. It does not fall within the limits
of this history to detail the acts and misrepresentations by

foundation op LOUISIANA. 171
which the Mississippi stock rose in value, and by which bk. iv.
the debts of government were shifted from individuals to Ch. i.
a company of its own formation. But during the height a. d.
of the delusion whioh afterwards, when dispelled, brought 1720.
such calamity on the commercial classes of France, the paiiure
Valley of the Mississippi was visited by thousands of °"'"'
Frenchmen with a view of making their fortunes ; for of Law.
Louisiana was supposed to abound not merely in the pre
cious metals, but in everything which constitutes a para
dise on earth. On the downfall of Law and the bursting
of bis bubble, 1720, Louisiana was already planted, and
French settlements extended, at intervals, nearly the whole
length of the Blississippi. Although the French suffered
frequent wars with various tribes of Indians, the popula
tion in 1740 was not far from ten thousand people, about
a third of whom were negro slaves.
One of the evils of this period was the depreciation of 1720.
paper money. The colonies were poor. They had but to
little gold and silver. Andyet they were, obliged to raise
large sums to defray the expenses of their numerous mill- '''"^..^^
tary expeditions. They could not make a forced loan the coio-
without exciting clamour. They could not wait to collect ""
taxes, for the enemy was at the door. They had to resort
to bills of credit. These rapidly depreciated in value,
since they could not be redeemed. In order to get rid of
this calamity, public banks were instituted in nearly all
the colonies, which gave a temporary impulse to trade, but
ultimately increased the difficulties. No issues were large
enough to satisfy the people. Every increase of paper
led to a new issue, and every new issue raised the compa
rative value of the precious metals, and consequently led to
a depreciation of paper money. In 1738, the New Eng
land currency was worth but one hundred for five hundred
dollars; of South Carolina, ono for eight; while in Lon-

172 ARBITRARY RULE OP ROYAL GOVERNORS.
^^- ^^- don the paper of North Carolina was worth but one for
Ch. 1. fourteen.
A. D. England undertook to fix the value of colonial paper,
1729. which was practically impossible, and led to disputes and
English collisions. But this was not the only subject of conten-
tioM. tion. The royal officers claimed for the British navy all
pine trees of the province of Maine which were fit for j
masts. The English government also forbade, 1725, the
assembUng of a synod of Congregational ministers in
Massachusetts to establish points of discipline and faith.
It attempted to enforce in Connecticut, 1728, the laws of
primogeniture. It resolved to make the royal govemors
independent of all legislative influence by securing them
permanent salaries. In Massachusetts the legislature was
in the habit of voting yearly such a grant as the services
of the govemor seemed to require, which England affected
to regard as an attempt to shake off an obedience to the
crown. In all the provinces there were con,stant subjects
of complaint and contention. \ Nor did Pennsylvania
escape. Even in tbat colony, Logan wrote to tbe pro
prietary, " faction prevails among the people, whose con
stant cry is liberty and privileges." In Maryla,nd, Lord
Baltimore was insolently treated by some of the assem
blies. The spirit of insubordination to royal authority
was manifest for half a century before tbe gi-eat rebellion.
Duties There were contests not only for the enjoyment of greater
nial pro- 'i^'^ty, but for the sake of conimercial gin. Nutbing
duce. irritated the colonies more than the duty imposed by Par
liament, 1733, on molasses, rum, and sugar, which were
brought from the French and Dutch West India Islands.;
And nothing was a more fruitful source of ill-feeling'
towards the colonies than the complaints of British mer
chants whenever the colonies engaged in any ai-ticle of
manufacture, however necessary. The whole object of

BERKELEY AND EDWARDS. 173
British legislation with regard to America was to raise up bk. rv.
a nation of customers for the merchants and manufac- Ch. i.
turers of the parent state. But this selfish policy need a. d.
not here be further enlarged on. 1728.
The colonies about this period received a visit from one Bishop
of the most distinguished of the English philosophers, f"^^^
Dr. Berkeley, afterwards Bishop of Cloyne. He conceived
a plan of improving colonial education and converting the
Indians, and with this view repaired to Rhode Island,
1728, to lay the foundation of a college; expecting a
large grant from the British govemment, as George I.
had approved his scheme, and directed Sir Robert Wal
pole, his prime minister, to recommend it to the notice of
the House of Commons. The minister was not favour
ably incUned, and when George II. came to the throne
he felt reUeved from all obligation. Berkeley, disap
pointed in receiving aid, returned to England, leaving his
Ubrary to Yale College and the people of Rhode Island. ::>
But a greater philosopher than Berkeley soon after 1740.
appeared in New England, whose influence on tbe Ame- Jona-
rican mind was more marked and permanent. This 1,^^^^. '
was Jonathan Edwards, the minister of Northampton,
and a native of Massachusetts. His Treatise on the Will
has placed him in the first ranks of metaphysical writers
of any age or country. But it was not as a scholastic
and religious metaphysician that his influence was most
remarkable in his day, but rather as the leader of a great
religious revival. George Whitefield was his illustrious
coadjutor in this religious excitement, which has had no
parallel in the religious history of the country, 1740.
Chauncey and other eminent divines of the latitudina- 1742
rian party opposed tbe movement as fanatical, but it was David
sustained by a great majority of the more earnest and eru.
religious. Among the fruits of this revival wore new
15*

174 THE GREAT AWAKENING.
Bk. IV. efforts to convert the Indians. David Brainerd, 1742,
Ch. 1. distinguished himself as a missiouary among the Dela-
A. D. wares; and even Jonathan Edwards himself, obliged to
1754. leave Northampton by reason of his unpopular attempts
Pounda- to enforce reUgious discipline, became a preacher to the
tion of Housatonic Indians at Stockbridge. It was here, in this
Dart- ^ o '
mouth lonely retirement, that the most able of his metaphysical
''^"' treatises was written. At Lebanon, Connecticut, Eleazar
Wheelock established an Indian missionary school, 1754,
which was subsequently removed to Hanover, New Hamp
shire, and became Dartmouth College.
Coium- Nearly contemporaneous with the foundation of this
bia Col- institution was the establishment of King's College in
New York, now called Columbia, and of Nassau Hall at
Princeton, 1748. Education in Penn.sylvania at the same
time received an impulse from Benjamin Franklin, then
the editor of the first American periodical magazine, and
the free academy which he projected finally settled into
the University of Pennsylvania. In 1752, Franklin
made those electrical discoveries which gave him a Euro
pean reputation, and laid the foundation of his lasting
fame ; next to Washington, the most distinguished person
born in America before the Revolutionary War, but already
famous when Washington was a boy.
Settle- A Uttie while before the " great awakening," a fortifi-
ment of cation was built on the Connecticut River, 1724, where
mont Brattleborough now stands, the oldest EngUsh settlement
in Vermont, years before it was merged into a state.
Meanwhile, another colony which demands our attention,
was struggling for ex'stence on the banks of the Savannah.

CHAPTER II.

SETTLEMENT OP GEORGIA.

The thirteenth and last of the colonies settled by the j^ jy
English in North America was Georgia. It owed its coloni- ^j^ ^
zation, in part, to the jealousy of the English government
of the Spaniards in Florida, and in part to the philanthro- 1700
pic efforts of Col. Oglethorpe to ameliorate the condition to
of poor debtors. A great part of the territories of South 1732.
Carolina remained unoccupied, and that especially which Causes
had been the scene of Indian wars, between the Savannah f 5"*
' led to
and the Altamaha, and which formed the southern fron- coioniza-
tier, was peopled only by Indians. It seemed necessary georgia.
for the security of South Carolina, as well as tbe general
interests of Great Britain, that a settlement sbould be
made in the southem part of the country before the Spa
niards should attempt to annex it to Florida, or the French
to Louisiana. But it was not easy to find men ready to
embark their fortunes in the attempt to colonize a region
peculiarly unhealthy, and exposed to hostilities from
Indians, French, and Spaniards. Some motive more
powerful than the love of gain was needed in this emer
gency. Fortunately, the zeal of a few benevolent individuals, General
bent on removing a great social evU, accompUshed what Ogie-
the desire for wealth could not. No colony ever was
founded upon principles more completely philanthropic
than the one designed by Oglethorpe. He, the descend-
(ITS)

176 COLONEL OGLETHORPE.
BK. IV. ant of an ancient and honourable family, educated at Ox-

cii. 2. ford, a military officer of rank and fame, a member of
A. D. ParUament, and a man of great practical benevolence, had
1700 his attention particularly directed to the condition of those
to unfortunate persons who were immured in prison for
''^"" small and trifling debts, which they, in their poverty, were
Visits unable to discharge. Tbe foulness of jails and the cruelty
sons. of imprisonment were among the many social evils of the
age. The sordid principles of commercial thrift out
weighed the love of liberty and regard for the great rights
of man. Decency, charity, and freedom were all forgot
ten by a nation devoted to commercial enterprise. Tho
legislation of England seemed to be mainly directed to
secure the rights of property. A trifling theft sentenced
a needy beggar to the gallows. An inconsiderable debt
was punished with a thraldom as vile as the bondage of
the greatest culprit in our age. Misfortune in trade was
more to be dreaded than exile and slavery, for it also
brought social disgrace as bitter as the penalty whioh was
expiated in a filthy dungeon. No pictures of misery can
be more revolting than those whioh have been handed
down to us of the interior economy of prisons in England
in the eighteenth century.
state of It so happened that the reverses of fortune consequent
J|iii3 in on the commercial gambling which prevailed in England
eight during the South Sea mania, filled the jails witb unfortu-
wntury. '^^tc prisoners. jMany of them had enjoyed high social
positions and envied wealth; were people of taste, culture,
and intelUgence, but doomed, alas, from the effect of
national delusion — the hope of enormous gains for smaU
investments, to blighted hope, mortified pride, and actual
suffering. The great increase of prisoners multipUed the
horrors of confinement. Moreover, the corrupting influ
ence of iraprisonraent rapidly undermined all the moral

CHARTER FOR GEORGIA. 177
sentiments and corrupted those who before their imprison- bk. iv
ment were pure. ch. 2.
The evil was so great that it was brought to the notice a. d.
of ParUament, and James Edward Oglethorpe had the 1732.
honour of being chairman of a committee of inquiry. He ogie-
had already conceived the idea of transporting to America t^ifrpe .
. ,, J- o ohtains
the unfortunate debtors, and proposed to the government a royai
to found a colony between Carolina and Florida, for the f^r^Gmr-
objects of his benevolence. Parliament entered into his eia.
design, and granted him 10,000Z. in aid of his object.
Other benevolent individuals co-operated, and, when the
plan was matured, applied to King George II. for a char
ter, which was readily granted, by which the territory
between the Savannah and the Altamaha was erected into
a royal province, under the name of Georgia, and was
vested in twenty-one noblemen and gentlemen, of whom
the Earl of Shaftesbury, Lord Percival, Lord Tyrconnel,
and Colonel Oglethorpe, were the most distinguished.
Lord Percival was chosen president of the corporation,
and Oglethorpe volunteered to accompany the emigrants
and exercise the functions of provincial governor.
Large donations to the enterprise were obtained from Dona-
public-spirited individuals throughout the kingdom, as fjon, j^
well as from the House of Comraons and the Bank of iie™ientindivi-
England, and preparations were actively made for the set- duals.
tlement of the colony, whose seal bore the device of a
representation of silk-worms, with the motto " Non sibi sed
aliis" — not for ourselves, but others ; the emblem of dis
interested benevolence. Moreover, tbe culture of silk
was contemplated by the corporation, and considerable
pains were taken to procure worms and mulberry trees,
which, it was supposed, would flourish as well in Georgia
as in Italy.
On the 6th of November, 1732, the first company of

178 CODE OP LAWS.
Bk. IV. colonists, consisting of one hundred and sixteen persons,
Ch.2. embarked under the command of Colonel Oglethorpe.
^ J, They first landed in Charleston, where they were hospi-
1732. tably received by the people and the Legislature. The
The first letter votod them a large supply of cattle and provisions,
<»io- and the emigrants soon after departed for their new abode.
G«>rgia. They selected a high bluff on the Savannah for a settie
ment, which they called after the name of the river, and,
having conciliated the favour of the Indians by presents
and friendly intercourse, laid the foundation of a new
State. The infant colony was soon after reinforced by
new emigrants, and the benevolent governor returned to
England to secure its defence and further welfare.
Code of By the code of laws which the trustees had adopted,
^""^^ fifty acres of land were allowed to every indentured serv
ant, and to every emigrant sent out by the corporation.
No grants of over five hundred acres of land were permit
ted to any individual. The use of rum was probibited,
as well as negro slavery. Women were not allowed to
inherit land — an arrangement meant to prevent a plurality
of aUotments from subsequently falling into the possession
of a single individual. In default of male heirs, estates
were to revert to the trustees. The whole code showed
but little common sense, and was difficult to be enforced ;
it evinced benevolent intentions, rather than enlarged
views of human nature and happiness. It was peculiarly
unpractical, and unfitted for the condition of an infant
colony.
immi- Oglethorpe was well received in England, and obtained
'to t!h^ benefactions from the king and parliament. He induced
new CO- a company of Moravians to emigrate to his new colony,
'"^^' where so much was promised, and so little was realized.
He also led thither another reinforcement of three hun
dred persons, 1736, among whom were John and Charles

THE SECOND EMIGRATION. 179
Wesley — young enthusiasts, who contemplated the eon- bk.iv.
version of the Indians, as well as the religious growth Ch. 2.
of the colony. But the age of religious enthusiasm had a. d.
passed away. Mystic piety found no admirers in a colony 1736.
of disoharged debtors ; and the great founder of Method- john
ism, after an unhappy sojourn of two years, during whioh ™*
he was involved in constant controversy, unappreciated by wcsiey.
tbe people and unsupported by the governor, melancholy,
homesick, and suffering from ascetic duties, was glad to
return to England. There, however, he succeeded in
kindling a religious Ufe among the middle and lower
classes, and in estabUsbing a discipline for the mem
bers of his association, whicb, for wisdom and effective
ness, has had no parallel in the history of religious
legislation. In the second emigration, more regard was paid by the second
trustees to the physical strength and condition of those t™f[^
who embarked. One hundred and fifty Highlanders, soon Georgia.
after joined by others from the north of Scotland, gave
energy and security to the colony, and proved among the
most laborious and industrious of tbe people.
The regulation of the trustees respecting the suppres- nffioni-
sion of all trade in rum, nearly produced a rupture be- *f ^j?*"
tween Georgia and Carolina. The Carolinians atterapted na.
to store a considerable quantity of this liquor at Augusta,
a fortified post on the Savannah, for the purpose of trade
with the Indians ; but, as the vessels laden with it were
passing Savannah, it was seized and destroyed. The
aot was, however, explained satisfactorily, and a mutual
understanding between the colonies took place, whioh
resulted in the agreement of tbe Carolinians not to
¦smuggle strong liquors among the settlers in Georgia.
The people of Georgia were not long satisfied with the
aws which the trustees had imposed. It was perceived

180 NEGRO SLAVERY.
Bk- IV. that Carolina had greatiy the advantage, both on account
Ch. 2. of a rrore Uberal tenure of land, and of the use of negro
A. D. slaves. They therefore demanded of the trustees the
1739. Uberty to import negroes, without which they predicted
Opposi- the utter desertion of the colony. The Moravians and
tion to jjjg Scotch Highlanders regarded slavery as an outrage
on huraan nature, and protested against its introduction ;
but both the just and unjust complaints of the settlers
were disregarded by the trustees.
Georgia Meanwhile, the injuries inflicted upon British com-
cnedV morce by tbe Spaniards, and the arrogant claims they put
the Spa^ forth respecting Georgia, involved England in a war with
Spain, in 1739; and effectual measures were adopted to
secure the new province to the English crown. Ogle
thorpe was made a general, and commander-in-chief of the
united forces of South Carolina and Georgia; while a
regiment of six hundred troops was sent to the colony,
together with a grant of twenty thousand pounds.
Spa, The Spaniards intrigued to raise a conspiracy among
tdKues" Oglethorpe's soldiers, and also to seduce the negro slaves,
who now numbered, in South Carolina, forty thousand.
Partial success attended these efforts, and five hundred
negro fugitives reached Florida, and were formed into a
regiment. But BuU, the governor of South Carolina,
vigorously attacked them, and easily dispersed a body,
unused to fire-arms, and abandoned to intoxication.
St. Au- In the mean time, a regiment of troops was raised in
hivest'-" Virginia, and North and South Carolina, to co-operate
ed- with Oglethorpe. It was resolved to commenco offensive
operations, and St. Augustine was invested with an array
of two thousand men. The invasion was unsuccessful.
The Spanish garrison was well defended, and, in addi
tion, received a powerful reinforcement ; while the colo
nial troops, enfeebled by the climate, by fatigue, and by

WAB BETWEEN THE SPANIARDS AND ENGLISH. 181
sickness, deserted in large numbers. Even the general bk. iv.
was attacked with a fever, and his regiment was worn Ch. 2.
out. It became necessary, therefore, to abandon the a. d.
enterprise. 1742.
The Spaniards, in their turn, resolved to invade Geor- invar
gia, and an armament of two thousand men was prepared ™° °.'
and enjibarked for St. Augustine. The infant colony was
in imminent danger ; but Oglethorpe, by a military stra
tagem, induced the invaders to believe that he himself
was reinforced by a still greater number ; and the Spa
niards, intimidated, hastily retreated to Cuba.
In 1743, Oglethorpe returned to England, having for 1743.
ten years renounced his own ease to promote the welfare Unpros-
of his colony, whose affairs, for a time, were managed by state of
a clan of military functionaries. These soon gave place ^^ "^
to a President and four assistants. But the colony did
not thrive. Fifteen hundred persons had been trans
ported from England, not half of wbom remained, on
account of the absence of negro slaves, and the feudal
restrictions in the tenure of land. The bulk of the popu
lation were indigent, and disinclined to labour ; and tbe
colony would have been ruined, had it not been for the
industry of the Scotch Highlanders and the German
labourers. Wearied with the complaints of the people, and dis- Georgia
gusted with the results of the colony, undertaken as it J^^j^
had been with the most benevolent motives, the trastees <=rown.
surrendered their charter to tbe crown, 1751, and John
Reynolds was appointed govemor of the province, the
constitution of which was now similar to that of South
Carolina. Negro slavery was shortly after introduced,
and extensively prevailed, as well as those questionable
pleasures which had been prohibited.
16

CHAPTER III.
THE THIRD INTERCOLONIAL WAR.
While the colonies were rapidly advancing in popula- bk.iv.
tion and commercial importance, a new war broke out ch. 3.
, between England and France, and involved the colonies ^_ j,
in fresh troubles. This war grew out of the question of 1744.
the Austrian succession. On the death of the Emperor .^^ ^^
Charles VL, the male line of the house of Hapsburg be- *" ¦*"*
came extinct. By the Pragmatic Sanction, the empire succes-
devolved on Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of the late ^'™'
emperor. The sovereigns of Spain, Saxony, and Bavaria,
disputed the rights of tbe Austrian empress to this great
inheritance, and presented rival claims. France inter
fered in the contest, and opposed the succession of Maria
Theresa, from jealousy of her great power. The aid of
England was invoked by the empress, and was granted,
not so much from a regard for her rights, as from opposi
tion to France. The subsidies of England to Austria
irritated France, and provoked her to a declaration of war.
All the powers of Europe were thus involved in the con
test which grew out of the troubles of Maria Theresa — a
contest which did not terminate until more than a million
of lives had been sacrificed, and one hundred millions of
pounds sterling had been expended by Great Britain.
Nor was the war confined to Europe, but extended
to all the colonies of France, Spain, and England. In
the East, the commercial companies of France and Eng-
(183)

184

ATTACK OP LOUISBURG.

^^^¦i'''- land straggled for supremacy, which finally resulted in
Ch. 3. the entire conquest of India by the troops of tbe East
A. D. India Company. In the West, the struggle began for the
1744. exclusive possession of North America, and finally ended
in the conquest of Canada, and the ruin of French inte
rests on the westem continent. It may be here remarked,
that the great war of the Austiian succession was really
the effect of international jealousy. The claim of Maria
Theresa to the empire of Germany was a matter of com
parative indifference. It simply furnished a pretext and
an occasion of war, and was not the real cause of hostilities.
That is seldom presented by statesmen ; indeed, it is in
general studiously concealed.
Ravages But, before news was received of a declaration of war
French betwecu France and England, a body of French from
^¦1 1°- Cape Breton captured an English fort on the north-east-
em extremity of Nova Scotia. Moreover, French priva^
teers from Louisburg greatly annoyed the New England
fishermen; whUe tbe Indians, incited by the French,
renewed their ravages on the frontiers.
Pro- In yiew of these things, Shirley, then govemor of Mas-
teck'lf*' sachusetts, proposed to tbe General Court an expedition
Louis- to attack Louisburg, the strongest fortress in North Ame-
^^' rica. The proposal was adopted, and an application made
to all the northern colonies to join in the enterprise, which
was undertaken without the aid, or even the knowledge,
of Great Britain. Only the New England colonies ren
dered any valuable assistance, or embarked with any spirit
in the scheme. Connecticut raised five hundred men, Rhode
Island and New Hampshire each three hundred • while
Massachusetts enUsted, in seven weeks, a force of 3250
men. The command was given to WiUiam Pepperell, a
wealthy merchant of Kittery, in Maine ; and Whitfield,
then a preacher in New England, lent the influence of bis

ITS CAPTURE. 185
great name to the enterprise, and furnished a motto for bk.iv.
the New Harapshire banners. Ch. 8.
The expedition, composed of fishermen, whose avocation a. d.
was now gone, of mechanics, lumbermen, and husband- 1745.
men, embarked at Boston, April 4th, 1745, and on the
30th came in sight of the walls of Louisburg, forty feet
thick at the base, and thirty feet high, surrounded by a
ditch eighty feet in width, and furnished with nearly two
hundred pieces of artillery. So perfect were the fortifi
cations, that it was supposed that'two hundred men could
defend tbem against five thousand assailants.
As soon as the disembarkation was effected, the siege siege
was commenced, and vigorous attacks were made; not, l^.^^gf
however, with much prospect of success. But the garri- Louis-
son, composed of six hundred troops, was discontented and
mutinous, and the commander incapable and irresolute.
On the first misfortune, the governor lost spirit, and offered
to capitulate ; and the strongest fortress on the continent
fell, as if by the band of Providence, certainly not from
the effect of military skill, into the possession of a body
of undisciplined fishermen and farmers, witb the loss to
the conquerors of only one hundred and fifty men.
For this service Pepperell was made a baronet, and Moral
commissioned as a colonel in the English army, as well as ep'^t.o'
° -' ' the vio-
Shirley, who had projected the enterprise. The success tory. "
which had attended it cheered the drooping spirits of
George IL, and afforded a momentary consolation for the
great reverses and misfortunes wbich the English suffered
in other parts of the world. But the great effect was to
implant confidence in the minds of the American colonists
themselves, and teach tbem self-respect.
The surrender of tbis strong fortress revived the hope,
so often disappointed, of the conquest of Canada; and a
large force was projected in tbe colonies. Massachusetta
16*

186 MEDITATED INVASION OP CANADA.
bk.iv. raised 3500 men, Connecticut 1000, New Hampshire
Ch. 3. 500, and Rhode Island 300 ; while New York voted 1600
A. D. men, New Jersey 500, Maryland 300, and Virginia 100.
1746. Great Britain agreed to send a large fleet and army to
Force co-opcratc, to be joined at Louisburg by the New England
raised to (jj-pops J whUe thoso from the other colonies were to be
invade r 7
Canada, assembled at Albany, under tbe command of Governor
Clinton, of New York. \
Expedi- As the British fleet did not make its appearance, tho
at^n. Massachusetts troops joined Clinton at Albany. But tho
doned. alarm of a French invasion, and the difficulties of a march
through the wilderness, prevented the advance to Mont
real, and the enterprise was abandoned. Parliament,
which had encouraged the colonies in this futile atterapt,
paid the expenses, which amounted to 235,000Z. Soon
after, the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, put an end to
the troubles. Louisburg was restored to the French, and
Massachusetts received 183,000Z. as indemnification for
the money expended on the expedition.
1748. '^^^ treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle stipulated the restoration
Treaty of all couquests made on every side during the war. The
la-cha restoration of Louisburg occasioned the most painful sur-
peiie. pj.jse and mortification in the colonies, wbich not even the
indemnification paid to Massachusetts could prevent. No
war was ever more disgraceful to Great Britain than that
of the Austrian succession. It increased the national
debt eighty milUons sterling, without procuring the slight
est national advantage, or the redress of a single injury
of which she had complained. Nor was any one of tbe
belligerent parties a gainer by the war; and to aU, except
Great Britain, its termination was an advantage.
This treaty also left the question of boundaries unde
cided, and, consequently, did not remove the occasion of
future war. The French stiU aimed at the entire posses-

AIM OF FRANCE. 187
sion of the North American continent, — to erect on these ^''¦^-
westem shores a new and military despotism. They '^'^•^¦
based their claim to disputed portions of the American a. d.
continent, as did indeed the English, on the ground +748
of prior discovery; and as it was difficult for the rival
powers to prove who really did first discover those portions,
the grand cause of contention still remained. But, then,
this claim to prior discovery was rather a pretext for, than
a cause of, war. Ambition and avarice were the real
causes — sentiments which have ever pecuUarly animated
the French nation, under an absolute monarchy as well as
under a republic.
The particular objects of dispute were the boundaries ohjeots
between Canada and New England, and the extent cf °^ f'*
o ' pute.
Louisiana. It was the aim of the French to unite these
remote territories. They claimed what now composes the
largest portion of the United States — even the valley of
the Mississippi, and the country around the great lakes.
To connect these immense territories, and to control the
Indians, they erected a chain of military posts from Canada
to Louisiana, -^Wrh -iirUl be considered in the succeeding
chapter.

CHAPTER IV.
the fourth INTERCOLONIAL, OR OLD FRENCH AND
INDIAN WAR.
Heretofore the hostilities in which the French and bk.iv.
English colonies had been engaged originated in quarrels Ch. i.
between European states, and were subordinate to the a. d.
main current of affairs across the Atlantic. They began 1748.
and ended when war or peace was declared in Europe, to
But the contest which is now to be presented grew out of
coUisions in America itself, and was not closed until it I'l^hch
' and
had involved the whole European continent and even the English
ancient empires of India. It was the final stmggle be- j^g.
tween the French and English for the country on the great
lakes and on the Mississippi River; or, in other words,
for supremacy on the American continent. " Had either
or both of the contending monarchs," as bas been forcibly
expressed by Graham, "perceived how injurious their
collision must prove to the interests of royalty, surely tbe
war which we are now approaching would never have
broken out, and human prudence would have anticipated
the mighty stream of events which, commencing with the
conquest of Canada, and issuing in the independence of
the United States and the impulse thereby communicated
to the spirit of liberty and revolution throughout the
world, haa so wonderfuUy displayed the dominion of su
preme wisdom and benevolence over the senseless, selfish,
and malignant passions of men." But French and Eng-
(189)

190 FRENCH AND ENGLISH ANIMOSITY.
Bg. IV- Ush animosity, commencing with the claim of Edward III.
Ch. 4. to the crown of France, nourished, by successive contests,
A. D. by religious differences, and unnatural rivalry, for centu-
1753. ries, was extended to the most distant sections, both in
French America and Asia, and arrayed otherwise peaceful colo-
f"*!' h '^^^'^ ^^ destructive antagonism. They stigmatized each
struggle other with epithets hard to be endured. They encroached
colonies, upou caoh othcr's rights. They laid claim to each other's
territories. They both sought to monopolise the fisheries
of the coast and the trade with the Indians in their dis
tant forests.
Compar Of these two races in America the English wero by far
forra^of ^^^ ™°^* powerful. They numbered more than a million
the par- of people iu the various colonies. They were in posses
sion of nearly the whole of the sea-coast which was desi
rable, and their settlements extended one hundred and
fifty miles into' the interior. And among the English
colonies liberty and education, those great auxiliaries to
national strength, were in a flourishing state. The people
were devoted to agriculture, were moral and industrious,
and were bound together by the ties of friendship and
mutual interest. The French numbered only about fifty
thousand ; they possessed scarcely any sea-coast or harbour;
they had made settlements only on two great rivers, nearly
two thousand miles apart; they were checked and con
trolled by a rigid colonial despotism ; they were indiffe
rent to tbe great interests of commerce and manufacture,
and cared more to fortify and occupy strong and remote forts
than to improve the soil, or cultivate industrious habits.
Between such states and people the final issue of a contest
could not be doubtful. And yet the French, intoxicated
by their military successes, and indulging in dreams of
universal dominion, were eager to embark in the unequal
contest. The English, on the other hand, conscious of

CAUSES OF THE W.VR. 191
superior strength, and equally ambitious, were not behind- Bk. iv,
hand with their rivals in arrogance and encroachments...,-'' Ch. 4.
It is difficult to decide who were the first to provoke an a. d.
appeal to arms. They mutually accused each other of 1715.
being the aggressors. Both parties were to blame, and Mutual
both were doomed to be sufferers. The Englisli govern- ^^^'"'°*
ment made a grant of six hundred thousand acres of land
on the Ohio River to a company of London merchants
and Virginia land speculators, with the privilege of exclu
sive traffic with the Indians ; which manifestly was an
encroachment on the rights of the French, if discovery and
occupation gave a claim to the ^Mississippi and its tributa
ries. The French occupied more than sixty posts at diffe
rent points between Canada and New Orleans, and a flou
rishing trade had long been carried on with the Indians.
This constituted a title to the western country, according
to the principles whioh were then maintained in Europe.
On the other hand, the French were accused of erecting
a chain of fortresses along the St. Lawrence, the region
of the lakes, and the course of the Ohio and Mississippi
Rivers, to the Gulf of Mexico, with a view of cutting off French
all communication of the English with the interior, and ""'''"
ot occupying the finest territory on the Amorioaii conti
nent, as far as the Pacific Ocean. For even in that age
the future greatness of America was appreciated and ac
knowledged, and it was not until the colonies had secured
their independence that it became the fashion in England
to affect indifference and contempt.
The design of the French to restrict the growth of the Design
British settiements was perceived as early as 1715, and, "JJ^^^,
;is the English meditated the possession of the whole con-
tment, the French wore regarded, of course, as hostile, and
as airaing at aggrandizement. But what most irritated
the English, both at home and in the colonies, was the

192 WASHINGTON.
Bk.iv. erection, by the French, of a chain of fortresses in what
Ch. 4. they considered as their territory, or as belonging to In-
A. D. dian tribes under their protection. England expostulated,
1753. and conferences were held at Paris to settle the difficul-
Eiection tics, especially tbose of boundary. But these only in-
of forts creased the irritation and perplexity which already existed
French, betwceu the two nations, and induced the French to
strengthen, rather than abandon, the posts they had forti
fied. The colonies were as indignant as the mother coun
try, especially Virginia, whioh was interested in the suc
cess of the Ohio Company. Accordingly, Governor
First ap- ] )inwiddie despatched George Washington to the French
ame of coinmander on the banks of the Ohio, with a letter
^* "''''" requiring him to retire from the oountry upon whioh he
was supposed to encroach. The future hero of the Revo
lution was then only twenty-one years of age, but of great
promise, being known as a man of uncommon energy,
judgment, and fortitude. None better than he knew the
wilderness through which he was to journey, having
traversed parts of it as a land-surveyor. He was also a
major in the militia, and disoharged the duties of adjutant-
general. He cheerfully undertook the dangerous mission,
which he nobly discharged, but without producing the
effect desired. The French still continued to construct
their fortifications.
1754. Dinwiddie now called on tbe neighbouring colonies for
aid to resist French encroachments, and the Virginia
Assembly granted ten thousand pounds to defend the
frontiers. North Carolina voted a regiment of four hun
dred and fifty men. The other colonies did not then
respond to the call of the governor of Virginia, being
engrossed with domestic difficulties.
A regiment of six hundred men had been enlisted in
Virginia, of which Frye was colonel, and Washington

HIS ADVANCE TO DU QUESNE. 193
lieutenant-colonel. Joined by two independent companies bk. rv.
from New York, and one from North Carolina, the colo- ch. 4.
nial troops penetrated to the frontier, with the view of j^ j,
dispersing the French, and buUding a fort at the junction 1754.
of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers. But the -^^i^.
French had already strongly fortified that post, which, in inston
honour of their governor-general, they called Du Quesne. against
Washington, by the death of Frye, became the commander J°^^ ""
of the forces, and advanced to make himself master of
that important fortress, having already been successful in
an attack on a detachment of tbe enemy at the Great
Meadows. Here he built a stockade fort, and then
marched towards Du Quesne. But hearing of the ap
proach of a superior French force, he fell back upon Fort
Necessity, which he had but lately built, resolved there to
defend himself. But, after a vigorous defence, he con- Failure
sented to capitulate, on condition of retiring with aU the ° edi.
honours of war, and his troops retaining their arms and *'<"!-
ammunition. Washington retreated with Uttle loss to
Wills' Creek, and assisted in the construction of Fort
Cumberland — the westernmost English post.
Meanwhile, the colonies, persuaded that a sanguinary Project-
war was impending, took measures for mutual defence, ofthTc*
and prepared to raise both money and men. But disputes ^'"°*'
about precedence and rank, and jealousy of a president-
general, prevented the confederation which had been pro
posed by FrankUn, and which was moreover distasteful to
Great Britain and many ofthe colonies. The discussion ofa
plan of union served, however, to famiUarize the idea of a
federation, and prepared the minds of the people for that
form of confederacy which was afterwards adopted in the
Revolutionary War.
The British ministers, on receiving inteUigence of the
estabUshraent of French posts on the Ohio, and of Wash-
17

194 GENERAL BRADDOCK.
""¦ IY. ington's defeat, perceived that a war between France and
Ch.4. England was begun, and took immediate measures for
A. D. vigorous hostilities. Early in 1755, General Braddock
1755. was despatched to America with two regiments of infantry.
Brad- while the provinces were called upon to furnish their
Bo°iiu quotas of men and money, to which call they cheerfully
Ameri- rospondcd. Braddock summoned the provincial governors
to meet him at Annapolis, and settle military operations.
Three expeditions were projected. The first, against Port
Du Quesne, was to be conducted by Braddock himself, "^
with British troops ; tbe second was entrusted to Governor
Shirley, of Massachusetts, and was designed to reduce
Fort Niagara ; and the third was to attack Crown Point,
on Lake Champlain, and to be undertaken by militia from
the northern colonies, under Colonel Johnson.
Tbe French made still greater preparations, when they
learned the departure of Braddock ; and a force of four
thousand regular troops, with a great quantity of military
stores, under Baron Dieskau, embarked for America, and
raost of them succeeded in reaching their destination.
inva^ While these preparations were making for a sanguinary
Nova war, the people of New England agreed to invade Nova
™ ''^ Scotia, on condition of being reimbursed by the English
governraent for the expenses of the expedition. Accord
ingly, about three thousand men, under the orders of
Colonel Winslow, of Massachusetts, departed for Nova
Sootia. There they were joined by three hundred regular
troops, and a small train of artUlery; and the command
of the united forces was given to Colonel Moncton, an
English officer of experience and talents. The expedition
was not particularly glorious, but was completely success
ful. The French forts erected in the province were de
stroyed, the French troops dispersed, and tbe unfortunate
settlers carried captive to New England, and scattered

¦HIS DEFEAT AND DEATH. 195
over the colonies. The Acadians were the most interest- bk. rv.
ing French colonists in America, and no plea of necessity ch. 4.
could justify the cruelty of tearing them away from their ^ jj
homes, and consigning them to wretchedness and poverty. 1755
This successful, but useless expedition, diffused a mo
mentary joy over the English colonies, and was regarded
as an omen of future triumphs — alas ! soon succeeded by
a series of disasters of the most melancholy character.
The army destined to reduce Fort Du Quesne, advanced Brai-
under Braddock to Fort Cumberland amid unexpected aj^ancB
difficulties. Here the British regulars were joined by the ^°''^^
-cr- - . 1 - , - -, .. - Quesne.
Virginia levies, the united forces amounting to twenty-
two hundred men. Through almost impenetrable woods,
and over tbe rough ridges of the Alleghany mountains,
the troops of Braddock slowly made their way. Vexed
at delay, the infatuated general left half his men, with
the heavy baggage, under Colonel Dunbar, and pushed
on heedlessly in advance. Washington was his aid-de
camp ; and he and others remonstrated against his reck
lessness, and wamed him of his danger. But Braddock
would take no advice, despising aUke his Indian enemies
and his provincial friends. At length, when he had
penetrated to within seven miles of Fort Du Quesne, just
after fording the Monongahela, his van, composed of Eng
lish regulars, was assailed by an invisible enemy. Eight FaUs in-
hundjed French and Indians, concealed by the high grass ^^^i^
and undulations of an open wood, poured upon the Eng
lish a most destructive fire, singling out the officers espe
cially for their deadly aim, of whom sixty were either
killed or wounded. Braddock knew not how to advance
or retreat, and insisted upon fighting according to rule, as
if Indians were to be subdued in their own forests by
European tactics. Accordingly, he lost half of his men , , .
and his own life. The provincials, accustomed to Indian defeated.

J&6 CONTINUED REVERSES.
bk.iv. warfere, were the only troops who effectually resisted;
Ch. 4. and Washington, the only unwounded officer who was
A. D. mounted, succeeded in securing their retreat — preserved,
1755. perhaps miraculously, certainly providentially, for the
future service of his country. The defeated army, un-
pursued except for a few miles, did not rally until thoy
reached the camp of Dunbar. They would have been
entirely cut off, had not their savage foes preferred plunder
to massacre.
Expedi- Meanwhile, the second expedition, designed to attack
^'"\ Fort Niagara, and composed of Shirley's and Pepperell's
Niagara, regiments, together with a few Indians and militia, pro
ceeded from Albany to Oswego. On reaching Lake
Ontario, August 21st, Shirley's forces were so much re
duced by desertion, so overcome witb fatigue, and so dis
couraged by the news of Braddock's defeat, that the
expedition was abandoned.
Against The forces whicb were to proceed to Crown Point, con-
v^°Zl ™ting of five or six thousand mUitia from New York and
the New England States, and entrusted to the command
of Colonel WUliam Johnson and General Lyman, reached,
toward the end of August, the southern extremity of Lake
George. Meanwhile, Dieskau, with two thousand troops,
advanced to relieve the fortress. Informed of his ap
proach, Johnson detached a body of one thousand men
under Colonel WilUams, and some Indians under Hen-
drick, to resist him; but, encountering Die=k;in's army in
a narrow defile, they were driven back with great loss.
Among the slain were Williams and Hendrick. The
former, before he left Albany, bequeathed a legacy for a
free-school in Westem Massachusetts, which has since,
grown into Williams College.
Dieskau was so elated with his success, as to venture
upon an attack of Johnson's camp, which was protected

MONTCALM. 197
by impassable swamps and a breastwork of fallen trees, bk. rv.
But the assailants were soon driven back, with the loss ch. 4.
of one thousand men. Dieskau himself was mortally a. d.
wounded, and taken prisoner. Had the provincial militia 1755.
known how to avail themselves of their success, or Defeatof
had they been favoured with an able commander, they dieskau.
might have taken Crown Point ; instead of which, they
even permitted the French to fortify Ticonderoga, while
the Indians perpetrated their customary barbarities on the
frontier settlements.
Thus completely failed the three expeditions whioh 1756.
England and the colonies had fitted out to dispossess the England
, 1 -r. -1 -1- remune-
Freneh of their strongholds. But these military opera- ratcsthe
tions, of course, led to a formal declaration of war between <=°i°'"<^-
England and France; and preparations were made for
prosecuting hostilities on a greater scale. The colonies
agreed to raise as many as twenty thousand men ; while
England voted 115,000/. as a reimbursement to the pro
vinces concerned in Dieskau's defeat. The French, too,
sent out a reinforcement under Montcalm, the successor
of Dieskau.
The campaign of 1756, however, terminated without
anything being accomplished by the English, partly be
cause the colonies did not raise so large a force as they
had contemplated, and partly because differences arose
between the English and provincial officers respecting
rank. And all plans of offensive operations were aban
doned in consequence of the successes of Montcalm, who gyo.
had succeeded in capturing the forts which the English <=^s'°' <>'
Mont-
had built on Lake Ontario. Upwards of one thousand calm.
men, and one hundred and thirty-five pieces of artillery,
together with a great quantity of provisions, fell into the
hands of the French general.
The campaign of 1757 was limited to the defence of
17*

198 EXPEDITION AGAINST LOUISBURG.
Bk. IV. the frontiers, and an expedition against Louisburg. But
Ch. 4. no sohcjne of defence could avail much when the great
A. D. frontier forts were in possession of the French, and the
1757. Indians were free to commit their destructive ravages;
Another ^.ud, SO far from capturing Louisburg, the large force
expedi- of twclvc thousaud troops which General Loudon led
against agaiust it, assistcd by eleven ships of tbe line, was forced,
burT to retreat, 'since a fleet of seventeen French ships hadj
anchored under the very batteries of the fortress.
Contin- While the EngUsh wasted their strength in a futile
" ter t 'attempt against Louisburg, Montcalm, with eight thousand
the Eng- men, laid siege to Fort William Henry; a strong fortifica
tion which the English had lately built on the southern
extremity of Lake George. Colonel Munroe had only
two thousand men to defend the post, and was obliged to
surrender, especially since no effort was made for his relief
by General Webb, who, with four thousand men, was
entrenched at Fort Edward, fourteen miles distant. Mont
calm, satisfied with his success, returned to Canada.
Thus, after three campaigns, the French still held pos
session of tbe disputed territory, and had, in addition,
gained signal advantages. They had expelled tbe English
from Fort Oswego and from Lake Champlain, and had
devastated the whole north-western frontier of the British
colonies. The English had gained nothing but disgrace,
and had wasted money and men enough to have conquered
Canada. The French exulted, while England was filled
with mortification and alarm. The feeble ministers of
George II. were assailed with reproaches from every cor
ner of the land. It was necessary for the king to make
William a change, or yield to French supremacy; and William
Pitt. pjjt^ afterwards Earl of Chatham, came into power.
The moment tbis great man assumed the reins of state
a new spirit animated both England and her colonies.

VIGOROUS MEASURES OP ENGLAND. 199
The most vigorous measures were immediately adopted, bk. iv.
and great preparations were made for offensive war. The chiT"
active minister wrote circular letters to all the provincial ^ p
govemors, inviting the colonies to a generous co-operation, 1757.
promising them compensation for any expenses they might p.^j.,^
incur, and appealing to their patriotism and their courage, minis-
A common zeal animated all the colonies, who responded
nobly to the call of Pitt. Massachusetts voted to raise
7000 men, Connecticut 5000, New Hampshire 900, New
York 2680, New Jersey 1000, Rhode Island 500, Penn
sylvania 2700, and Vu-ginia 2000. MeanwhUe, 12,000
British troops, under General Amherst, early in May,
arrived at Halifax, beside the regular forces which were
brought together from the various provinces.
The united EngUsh and American armies at this pe
riod, composed by far the largest military force ever yet
assembled in America, and equal to the whole number of
male French settlers in Canada. The supreme command
was given to Abercrombie — the chief blunder which the
English minister made, after assuming the direction ofthe
war. The old schemes of Shirley were renewed. Three
expeditions were planned — the first against Louisburg,
the second 'against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and the
third against Fort Du Quesne.
Louisburg was first assailed. Early in June, 1758, capitu-
Admiral Boscawen appeared before that fortress with latj™ °'
thirty-eight ships, and fourteen thousand troops. It was burg.
defended by only three thousand men, and was moreover
in a state unfit to withstand a cannonade. It of course
capitulated, and, with it, fell all its dependencies.
The second expedition, though well planned, failed
from the incapacity of the general-in-chief. Abercrombie,
at the head of fifteen thousand men, embarked on Lake

200 SUCCESSFUL CAMPAIGN.
Bg-rv- George in flat^bottomed boats, landed near its outlet, and
Ch. 4. advanced upon Ticonderoga. The van of the army, led
A. D. by unskilful guides, became entangled in the thickets,
1758. and would have experienced the same catastrophe whicb
Attack befel Braddock, had not Lord Howe, a brave and gallant
conde- offi<'6r, at the head of the right centre column, unexpeot-
roga. edly rescued the panic-stricken troops, though with the
loss of his life. The British forces, without further oppo
sition, then advanced to the attack of Ticonderoga, which
was strongly defended. The assaUants were repulsed with
the loss of two thousand men, and, dismayed by their dis
asters, made a rapid retreat to Fort William Henry.
Capture The expedition against Fort Du Quesne was more suc-
!? ^^ cessfui. It was entrusted to General Forbes with seven
Quesne. thousand men. After encountering great difficulties in
the pathless wilderness, they reached, in tbe latter part
of November, the French fortress, whose garrison, reduced
to four hundred and fifty men, retired as they advanced.
The fort was of course taken, and its name was changed
to Pitt, in honour of the minister.
Projectr The campaign was thus honourably terminated, on the
sfoiTIf whole, notwithstanding the defeat at Ticonderoga. But
Canada, preparations were made with great zeal for still more
vigorous measures the next year. The genius of Pitt
planned the entrance to Canada by three distinct routes,
with the view of attacking simultaneously all the strong
fortresses in the country. It waa designed that an army
under General Wolfe, who had greatly distinguished him
self at the siege of Louisburg, should ascend the St. Lav/-
rence and attempt the capture of Quebec. General
Amherst, who had superseded Abercrombie, was directed
to march against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and then
to penetrate Canada, and join Wolfe at Quebec. The
third army, composed of provincials, and conducted by

INVASION OF CANADA. 201
General Prideaux and Sir William Johnson, was to be bk. iv.
sent against Fort Niagara, and, after reducing that post, Ch. 4.
was ordered to embark on Lake Ontario, descend the St. a. d.
Lawrence, subdue Montreal, and then join Amherst and 1759.
Wolfe. The campaign of 1759 resulted gloriously to England,
but chiefly in consequence of the successes of Wolfe, who,
without the co-operation of the forces of Amherst or
Johnson, succeeded in taking the most important fortress
in America, and the capital of Canada.,V"^
General Amherst, on reaching Lake Champlain, found Croivn
both Crown Point and Ticonderoga abandoned, tbeir gar- ^^jj.
risons having been withdrawn for the defence of Quebec ; condero-
but he was unable to advance to the assistance of Wolfe, doned
from a lack of vessels to transport his troops. He was j^g'^^^
obUged to content himself with the possession of the shores
and forts of Lake Champlain.
Prideaux had a prosperous voyage from Oswego to Reduc-
Niagara, but was killed whUe investing the fortress by the iJi^ara.
bursting of a gun. The command devolved on Johnson,
to whom the fort surrendered ; but he, like Amherst, was
prevented from descending the St. Lawrence for want of
proper shipping.
To Wolfe alone belongs the gloryjjf the conquest of woife's
Quebec. After a successful voyage from Louisburg, he ^fP**"-
disembarked, with eight thousand troops, towards the end against
of June, on the Isle of Orleans, a littie below Quebec. '*™'™-
His naval superiority gave him the command of the river,
and he succeeded in gaining possession of a high eminence
opposite Quebec. But two months were wasted without
muoh prospect of success. His batteries had no effect on
the fortifications of the strongest fortress in the land, and
he was unable to bring the French into an engagement.
At last, the intrepid general meditated an attack on the

202 FALL OF QUEBEC.
Bk. rv. only point where the fort was weak. Could he but oncn
Ch.4. succeed in reaching tbe heights of Abraham, he might
A. D. induce the French commander to give him battle, and tho
1759. possession of Quebec would be the fruit of victory.
uci.^hts The heights in question were about a mile above the
of Abrar ^^^j, and Were guarded only by a feeble garrison ; for a
few men were deemed quite sufficient to prevent any num
ber of assailants from climbing to their summit. Nor was
it even dreamed of by the French that the English would
attempt to do so ; for the steep and rooky sides of the
hill were nearly precipitous towards the river. Should
the garrison be on its guard, repulse would be fatal.
Their Nevertheless, undeterred by danger, Wolfe resolved to
"y *" scale the heights. Accordingly, his army moved up the
Wolfe, river a few miles, apparently with- the intention of landing
in several places; but when midnight approached, the
troops were embarked in flat-bottomed boats, and rowed
to the only spot where a landing could be effected, and an
ascent made. They fortunately escaped tbe notice of the
sentinels, and, before day, the whole army had ascended
the narrow path which led them to the heights. Even
then, the victory was but half won ; for a battie, between
nearly equal forces, must be fought before the city could
be won. Had Montcalm retired behind the walls, it may
well be doubted whether Wolfe could have reduced the
Battle of city ; but he advanced, with chivalrous ardour, to meet
the enemy on equal ground. Both armies were destitute
of artillery, with the exception of two small pieces on the
side of the French, and a few whioh the English had
contrived to hoist up after they had gained the summit of
the heights. But the battle was scarcely less desperate
on account of tbe absence of artillery. It raged with
singular fierceness on both sides, and victory did not
incUne to the EngUsh until both commanders had been

reverses.

CONQUEST OP CANADA. 203
mortally wounded. That battie decided the fate of Que- bk. iv.
bee. The city, five days after, capitulated, and has ever Ch. 4.
since remained in the hands of the victors. A. d.
The conquest of Quebec, whUe it diffused universal joy 1759.
throughout the British dominions, was dearly gained by Effects
the death of Wolfe, the most promising and successful °' *"
. J. , T-, 1 Victory.
general of whom England was proud, next to the Duke
of Marlborough. The people mourned for him as they
did for Nelson, half a century later, with unaffected grief
Had he Uved, he would have been rewarded with estates,
and titles, and decorations ; but, cut off prematurely from
Ufe and its prizes, a grateful nation coidd only decree him
a monument, and cherish the memory of his fame. '
The French made desperate efforts to recover the 1760.
ground they had lost, while the English renewed tbeir French
preparations for the entire subjugation of Canada. The
campaign of 1760 opened, in the month of April, by the
embarkation of ten thousand men from Montreal, under
the command of M. de Levi, the successor of Mont
calm, with the hope of recapturing Quebec. Murray,
who had succeeded Wolfe, had hardly three thousand
men, and his provisions were scarce. Wishing to avoid a
siege, the English imprudently marched out from the garri
son, and, giving battle to the French at Sillery, were de
feated, and forced to retire behind their entrenchments.
They soon after received supplies by sea from home ; and
the French, thinking that tbe whole English fleet, which
had vrintered at Halifax, had arrived, raised the siege, and
retired to Montreal.
Against this last stronghold all efforts were now direct-
3d. Here the Marquis de Vaudreuil, governor-general
5f Canada, had fixed his head-quarters, determined to
nake a desperate stand, and bad rallied around him all
lis scattered troops.

204 WAR WITH THE CHEROKEES.
Bg- IY. The colonies assisted General Amherst all in their
Ch. 4. power, and three arraies advanced from different directions
A. D. towards Montreal, numbering altogether twenty thousand
1760. men, — regulars, militia and Indians. These armies, com-
Surren- maudcd respectively by Amherst, Haviland, and Murray,
Mont ™®'' '^6^1'ly simultaneously, on the seventh of September,
real. bcforc Montreal. The French commander, perceiving
that resistance was now hopeless, demanded a capitulation,
and, the next day, surrendered to tbe English every place
of strength in Canada.
Thus fell the colonial possessions of France on the con
tinent of America, with the exception of the infant set
tlement of Louisiana. Great was the exultation of Eng
land, and equally great that of the colonies, especially
those of New England, who were now delivered from the
scourge of Indian war on the frontiers.
'W'ar The southern colonies were, however, involved in a war
with the .
Chero- with the Cherokees, which the Virginians had provoked,
'""=^- and which the French had stimulated. A party of Che
rokees, retiring from assisting the EngUsh against Fort
Du Quesne, having lost their horses, seized such as they
could find in the woods, which happened to belong to the
Virginians. Inconsiderately this violation of the rights
of property was resented, and several Indians were killed.
The Cherokees, incensed dt receiving such treatment from
those whom they bad but just assisted, vowed revenge.
Receiving arms from the French, and incited by their
intrigues, they plunged into a furious war with their for
mer friends, and commenced a desolating incursion on the
frontiers. Virginia and the two Carolinas combined for
mutual defence. A large force marched into the territo
ries of the Cherokees, when the Indians submitted without
bloodshed, and concluded a treaty of peace. But, their
chiefs being insulted by the governor of South Carolina,

THEIR SUBVERSION. 205
they renewed tbeir incursions. General Amherst, on Bk. iv.
being made acquainted with the dangers to wbich the Ch.4.
southem colonies were subjected, sent a detachment of a. d.
Highlanders, under Colonel Montgomery, to their relief 1760.
These, united with provincial troops, marched into the
Cherokee country, committing most destructive ravages,
and routing the Indians in a great battle near Etchoe,
their central settlement. He then withdrew his troops
from CaroUna, and rejoined the British army, 1760.
As soon as he was gone, the Indians raUied, and com- ncifeat
mitted new ravages. A second application was made to chero-
General Amherst; and the Highland regiment, under ^"=-
Colonel Grant, was ordered back to CaroUna. New levies
were also made by the provinces in 1761, and Grant was
enabled to prosecute hostilities at the head of twenty-six
hundred men. On the tenth of June, he encountered
the Indians where Montgomery had fought the year be
fore, and routed them with great slaughter, laying waste
their corn-fields and vUlages. The defeated Cherokees
sought refuge in the mountain defiles, and, hufubled and
subdued, sued for peace, which was granted; and the
colonies enjoyed complete repose.
Nor were EngUsh successes Umited to the conquest of French
... losses in
Canada, and the suppression of Indian hostUities. Gua- the West
daloupe, Martinique, and all the Caribbean Islands, fell ^^'^^
into their possession. The French fleet was ruined, and
England obtained the sovereignty of the seas.
MeanwhUe, George II. died, October 25th, 1760; and Death of
in the following year, that great man, by whose genius j^^^"
glory had shone upon the British arms, had ceased to be
minister. George III. did not Uke the ascendency he
had gained, and was ambitious of ruling alone.^
Scarcely bad Pitt retired, before war broke out between
Spain and England, by which the former lost Havana, and
18

206 PEACE OP PARIS.
Bk. rv. incurred the ruin of her colonial commerce. The brilliant
Ch. 4. successes of the English, not in America merely, but in
A. D. India and every quarter of the globe, induced the hum-
1763. bled powers of France and Spain to enter into negotiations
Treaty for pcacc. In 1763, a treaty was signed at Paris, by
of Paris, .^jjjojj Great Britain retained Canada, and indeed the
whole country east of the Mississippi, New Orleans alone
excepted. Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, together
with New Orleans, was ceded to Spain. Havana was
exchanged for Florida. France lost all the territory on
the American continent for wbich she had so zealously
contended ; and nothing remained of her conquests but
her language, reUgion and laws, whicb even British legis
lation could not take away from the habitans of Canada,
or the planters of Louisiana.
Its bene- ^0 none was peace more grateful than to the colonies
floiai Jn North America, who had borne a large share of the
effect on ' °
the CO- burdens of the war, but who, by its glorious termination,
lonies. gould look forward to security and prosperity. British
glory and Ameriean safety seemed to be identified. There
never was a time when the colonies were bound to Great
Britain by such general sentiments of affection and
esteem, gratitude and hope. Had England cherished
these sentiments, the colonies might have been long pre
served. But the avarice, jealousy and pride in which
England indulged, weakened those sentiments which con
stituted her real power; and a spirit of resistance was
enkindled, which graduaUy ripened into a revolutionary
passion.
Ti^eur Nor did this long war with the French and Indians
nu«i" ^'"^^^i though it may bave impeded, the growth of the
grovrth. colonies. In "physical resources, as well as in population,
they aU continued to increase. The conquest of Canada,
and the subjection of the eastern Indians, gave a new

PROSPERITY OP THE COLONIES. 207
impulse to the settlement of Maine ; and the counties of bk. rv.
Cumberland and Lincoln were added to York. New Ch. 4.
settlers occupied the coast, also, 'from the Kennebec to a. d.
the Penobscot, and emigrants from New England sought 1763.
the distant territories of the Acadians.
New Hampshire equally profited by the peace of Paris, New
from which may be dated the prosperity of the province, Hamp-
which contained, at this time, over fifty thousand people.
Emigrants also came from other colonies, now that exter
nal danger was removed, and penetrated not only to the
interior, but even into Vermont, whose " Green Mountain
Boys" were soon to be distinguished in the struggle with
the mother country.
Massachusetts contained at this time a population of Massa-
two hundred and fifty thousand, of whom over five thou- *"•setts.
sand were slaves. Connecticut numbered one hundred
and fifty thousand, with a still greater proportion of slaves.
Rhode Island had forty thousand, of whom one-tenth
were enslaved. In New England there were five hundred
and thirty Congregational churches, still characterized for
Puritan principles.
New York contained about a hundred and twenty-five New
thousand people, and its largest town was already cele- ^°*'
brated for mercantile thrift and enterprise. No reUable
account of the population of New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, Maryland, or Georgia, has been handed down;
but all of these colonies kept pace with the others in
prosperity. About this time, the passion for emigration
to more westem sections began, and the Valley of Wyo
ming on the Susquehannah was planted by an association
frora Connecticut.
Virginia at this time contained about two hundred yirg;.
thousand souls, half of whom were slaves. Tobacco was "'"•
still the great article which occupied the attention of the

208 EDUCATION.
Bk. rv. colonists, nearly seventy thousand hogsheads being annu-
ch. 4. ally exported. In the more southern colonies, rice and
A. D. indigo formed the most important articles of exportation.
1763. Cotton, which has since become the great staple of the
South, was not yet cultivated.
Litera- Nor wcrc the interests of education neglected with the
the arts, material growth of the colonies. New schools and col
leges arose. Lawyers began to obtain more public consi
deration. The fine arts were advanced by Copley and
West, and eminent scholars appeared in every department
to which genius was directed.

BOOK V.

CHAPTER I.
THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
The American Revolution, in whatever Ught it may ek. y.
be viewed, was the grand event of the eighteenth century, ch. i.
and one of the most momentous, in its consequences, in a. d.
tbe whole history of society. It excited intense interest 1763
throughout the civiUzed world, when it took place, and J'"
its effect has been constantly progressive. All other sub
jects of American history are certainly tame in compari- '^^^^^
son with it. It is memorable for the great deeds of theAme-
heroes, for the development of unknown energies, for the "^j^ "^"^
estabUshment of a new westem empire, for the shock it *'™-
gave to poUtical power in Europe, for the impulse it com
municated to the cause of liberty throughout the world,
and for the hope it inspired, among all oppressed people,
of their own future triumph.
This great event might have been delayed, had the
government of England been gifted with greater poUtical
sagacity, and had it exercised more prudence and modera
tion. But blindness, arrogance, and a spirit of oppression,
are as natural to an unboundedly prosperous nation, as
the development of great energies among those who are
industrious and self-reliant.
When the peace of Paris was signed, England had
18 * (209)

210 POWER OP ENGLAND.
^^^- reached the height of her prosperity and power. Her
Ch. 1- ships whitened the ocean. Her armies occupied nearly
A. D. all the strongest fortresses in America and Asia. Her
1763 colonial possessions were greater than any nation had ever
,i2r possessed before. Her empire comprehended the extre
mities of the known world. Her manufactures were
at°fhe°'^ sought and prized in every corner of the earth. Her
peace of wealth was prodigious and unbounded. Her merchants
were richer than ordinary princes. Her nobles formed
the proudest aristocracy which ancient or modem times
had ever seen. Her triumphs of art, science and litera
ture, were the glory and the boast of the age. In every
thing she was great and unsurpassed. No wonder that
sentiments of pride were engendered.
British But pride is the curse of man. It is as blind as it is
andir- self-complacent. It ever goeth before destruction. Eng-
rogance. land, intoxicated with prosperity, overlooked the incipient
greatness of her colonies, underrated their strength, and
trifled with their affections. She imposed upon them bur
dens which were irreconcilable with freedom. She cast
upon them insults which not even imbecUity will bear.
She forced upon them rebelUon, without considering the
terrible power of union among those who felt that they
were capable of freedom.
Feeling ^or could any European power have long fettered the
ofthe CO- energies of continually expanding colonies, conscious of
strength, as well as of justice and right. They had grown
from feeble settlements to powerful States, and there
seemed no limit to future increase. There was scope for
every variety of talent, and every form of enterprise.
The people were born free — had been nursed in freedom,
had ever loved it passionately, had ever defended it with
enthusiasm. They had also, from the first, been taught
self-reUance. They had multiplied in spite of aU obsta-

COLONIAL GRIEVANCES. 211
cies. They had discovered their own strength in various bk. v.
intercolonial wars. They had measured themselves with Ch. i.
regular troops from the mother country. They had a. d.
learned the art of self-defence. 1763
When, then, they perceived that England regarded .1*°
them, not as chUdren, but as servants — that they were to
be kept in base dependence — that their interests were to ^MS'itis-
be made subservient to those of British merchants with
and the pride of British nobles — that, as they grew nja.
strong, additional burdens would be imposed, — tbey
resolved no longer to wear the yoke. Why should they
submit to evils which they could throw off? When love
was weakened, when interest no longer bound them, and
when the desire for absolute independence was nearly uni
versal, was it not in the nature of things that a stmggle
for Uberty should one day be made, and, when made, be
crowned with glory and honoui- ?
^ It was the wiU of God that a great and free nation
should arise in the West. And it is as absurd to specu
late on the means by which tbis event could have been
prevented, as it is to wonder wby the old Roman Empire
should have passed away, when tbe vices of self-interest
had perverted all orders and classes among the people,
and prepared the way for violence and anarchy.
Yet the story of English aggression is interesting, and British
teaches lessons of moral wisdom. The desire to domineer, gfo^."^
arising from great pride and prosperity, on the one hand;
and the spirit of liberty, fanned by unnumbered influ
ences, on the otber, gave rise to the American Revolu
tion. The consideration of these conflicting principles
and interests is the present subject of our inquiry.
It has already been shown that Great Britain, from the
time of Cromwell, had enforced a system of commercial
restrictions. The various navigation acts had fettered the

1775.

212 ENGLISH COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS.
Bk. v. commerce of the colonies, and operated unfavourably on
Ch. 1. American manufactures. To these evils the colonists had
A. D. at length submitted, though always with reluctance and
1763 expostulation. The moral effect of these restrictions was
to to create alienation on the part of the colonies, which
constantly increased with their growth, and would in time
have alone occasioned a disruption. This event was not
wholly unforeseen in England, but was placed at some
remote and indefinite period — a notion encouraged by the
mutual jealousies and divisions of the colonies, and an
exaggerated importance attached to the power of Great
Britain.
Contem- Scarcely any British statesman, with the exception of
mUitary I'°''<^ Camden, perceived the necessity of wholly removing
force in these restrictions, especially after tbe conquest of Canada,
ca. which had revealed to the colonies new sources of internal
strength. But such was the infatuation of government,
that it resolved to extend rather than curtail the control
exercised by the parent State ; and scarcely was the peace
of Paris announced, before it declared its intention of
maintaining permanently a regular army in America, and
supporting it at the expense of the colonies. No declara
tion could have been more unfortunate, especially as all
external danger was now removed, and as a regular British
force for protection had not been sent, when, owing to the
molestations of both French and Indians, their presence
was really necessary.
interfer- Another cause of alienation was the attempt of the
iv'ith c British government to suppress smuggling in tbe colonies,
lonial by caUing in the aid of the naval forces on the coast. All
the coramanders of ships-of-war cruising in the American '
seas, received commissions from govemment to act as
custom-house officers, and were authorized to receive an
ample share of contraband or confiscated cargoes as the

trade.

SCHEMES OP TAXATION. _ 213
reward of their disagreeable duties. These naval officers bk. v.
were then generally rough, boisterous and impetuous, and Ch. i.
often acted with inconsiderate zeal, making constant blun- a. d.
ders and mistakes, which called forth the indignant remon- 1765.
strances of those merchants whose ships they had perhaps
unjustly seized or detained.
Moreover, the British govemor and colonial custom- contra-
house authorities had, for a long time, connived and ^™*
winked at a contraband trade between the colonies and
the West India Islands, inasmuch as articles of British
manufacture were, to a considerable extent, advantageously
disposed of But the naval officers did not regard the
advantages which the colonies reaped, without injury to
the mother country, and were prompt to seize indiscrimi
nately all ships conducting those branches of trade which
hitherto had passed without question or notice.
The colonies, indignant, proclaimed their intention to The co-
purchase, in future, no British commodities which were rSeto
not absolutely necessary, since they could not pay for them p™-
with the gold they had hitherto procured from French British
and Spanish colonies. The British ministers yielded so ^°°"^''
far to their complaints as to authorize, by act of Parlia
ment, the commerce which had previously been considered
contraband, but loaded its most valuable articles vrith
heavy duties.
Had the English govemment been content with this contem-
mode of raising a revenue in America, the Revolution ^^^^
might have been delayed. But it was not. It was tion.
resolved to levy a domestic tax upon the colonies, on the
ground that, as they were protected by British arms, they
should contribute something towards that protection.
The colonies looked upon the project of taxation with
other eyes. They regarded it as the beginning of a sys
tem which would be indefinitely extended in proportion as

214 HOW VIEWED BY THE COLONIES.
Bk. V. they were wiUing or able to meet the demands of British
Ch.i. rapacity. They saw no justice or right in direct taxation,
A. D. when they were not represented in Parliament. The only
"1765. connection which they admitted, was the recognition of
Colonial their entire equality with Englishmen at home — as enti-
views of tie^ to the full privileges of Englishmen, if they were to
tax- share their burdens. Moreover, they no longer desired
* °°' the protection which England now was ready to bestow.
They looked upon the army to be sent among them, as a
means of coercing obedience to tyrannical injunctions, —
not to save them from foreign attacks. Tbey bad taken
care of theraselves in times of weakness and danger. They
surely could do so now, when dangers were removed, and
when the means of resisting them had increased. They
were willing to be ruled in accordance with those royal
charters which, from time to time, had been given them.
They were even willing to assist the mother country in
expelling ber enemies from adjoining territories. They
professed the strongest attachment to her laws, her inte
rests, and her institutions. They sought no poUtical
influence in England, and waived their rights as English-
ita in- ^^^ to be represented in Parliament. But they could
justice, jiot see by wbat right they should be made to pay for
English aggrandizement, or contribute to those wars by
whioh England alone was benefited. If they could be
taxed without their consent in one thing, they could be
taxed to an indefinite extent, and would incur the danger
of a mean and ignominious subjection — would fare worse
than Ireland — would be reduced to the condition of a
conquered country — would become what Sicily, and Gaul,
and Greece, and Africa, were to ancient Rome — what
parts of the East have become to modern European pow
ers, — provinces to be rifled, robbed, and enslaved.
The scheme of taxation originated with George Gren-

SCHEMES OF GRENVILLE. 215
vUle, successor of the Earl of Bute, as prime minister to bk. v.
George III. He was a man of great talent, but inconsi- Ch. i.
derate, unpractical, and rash. He had already shown a. d.
himself unfit to contend with the spirit of the age, by his 1765.
impolitic prosecution of Wilkes for a poUtical libel. But George
then, it should also be said, the great body of the British '™"
aristocracy shared with bim the delusion respecting Ame
rica. His scheme of taxation met with general favour.
Not so in America. As soon as his design was revealed, mn plan
it excited alarm, aversion, indignation, resentment. The ^^iQ^'
project was discussed in all the Provincial Assemblies,
and was universally condemned as unjust, oppressive, and
hateful. From all the colonies, petitions were prepared
and presented to the English government. They sent
agents to England, to remonstrate witb the minister.
They printed pamphlets and made speeches without end.
But, in spite of remonstrances, and protestations, and 1765.
appeals from colonial agents, especially from Franklin, ^tamp
IngersoU and Jackson, the minister was resolved to pro
ceed; and accordingly, early in the year 1765, brought a
biU into Parliament for coUecting a duty on stamps. The
tax, it was true, was Ught, but the principle involved
gave importance to the precedent. -jf
Then followed the debates in Parliament, in which netata
William Pitt, General Conway, and Colonel Barr6, distin- Hament
guished themselves in opposition to the ministers. In
reply to the speech of Charles Townshend, who styled the
colonies " children planted by our care, nourished by our
indulgence, and protected by our arms," Colonel Barr6
made this ever-memorable reply, preserved by all histo
rians : " The-i/ planted by YOUR care ! No ! your oppres
sions planted them in America. They fled from your
tyranny to a then uncultivated and inhospitable country,
where they exposed themselves to almost all the hardships

216 THE STAMP ACT.
B^^- to which human nature is Uable ; and, among others, to
Ch- 1. tbe cruelties of a savage foe, tbe most subtie and formi-
A. D. dable of any people upon the face of the earth. They
1765. nourished by your indulgence ! They gi'ew up by your
Elo- neglect. As soon as you began to care about them, that
otCoT ^"¦^^ ^^^ exercised in sending persons to rule them wbo
Barrs yfete perhaps the deputies of deputies, sent to spy out
their liberties, and to misrepresent their actions — men,
promoted to the highest seats of justice, some of whom
were glad, by going to a foreign country, to escape being
brought to the bar of a 'court of justice in your own.
They protected by your arms ! They have nobly taken
up arms in your defence, and have exerted a shining
valour for the defence of a country whose frontier was
drenched in blood. Believe me — remember, I this day
told you so — that the same spirit of freedom which actu
ated those sons of liberty at first, will accompany them
still, — that they are a people jealous of their liberties,
and wUl vindicate them if ever they should be violated."
Passage In spite of the warnings of the distinguished orator
stamp and soldier, who bad served in America, and of the peti-
¦*^°*" tions of London merchants, and of the remonstrances of
the colonies, the bill passed tbe House of Commons by
a very large majority — 250 to 50 — and was not even ob
structed in the House of Lords. So great was the national
delusion !
Its effect The news of the passage of this fatal act, March 22d,
in the 1765, created an immense sensation throughout the colo-
colonie.'!. ^ c -^" "
nies. Patrick Henry in Virginia, James Otis in Massa
chusetts, Trumbull in Connecticut, and others scarcely
less distinguished, lifted up their indignant voices against
it in the various Asserablies of wbich they were members.
There was everywhere a general ferment. In Boston and
Providence there were popular riots. The clergy preached

REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT. 217
political sermons. The Stamp Act was both ridiculed Bk.v.
and denounced ; and on the day when the execution of Ch. i.
the act was appointed to commence, the first of November, a. d.
every distributor of stamps in America had resigned his 1766.
office. Not a stamp was to be seen. Nor was this all.
Associations were formed not to import any more British
goods until the hateful act was repealed ; and that sheep
miffht be increased, and American manufactures encour-j,
aged, people agreed not to eat lamb or muttonf ' ; '' ,/ /
Grenville was not prepared for this outcry. The un- Besigna-
popularity of the measure, and the difficulty of enforcing g°^J
it, together with the odium which he incurred by the fiiie.
prosecution of WUkes, induced him to resign the reins of
government. Grenville waa succeeded by the Marquis of Rocking- The
ham, one of whose first measures was to bring in a biU ?°*^j^
for the repeal of the Stamp Act, although the Commons adminis-
insisted upon their right to tax America. Pitt supported
the repeal, and maintained that the kingdom had no right
to tax the colonies ; and bis decisive avowal made a pro
found impression on the House. But the ministry by no
means took the ground of Pitt. They placed the repeal
on the score of expediency. On this ground alone, the
Commons, by a vote of 275 to 167, voted for the repeal Repeal
of the tax, February 22d, 1766. The examination of "^ *^
Benjamin Franklin as a witness before the bar of the Act.
House, bad also great infiuence in producing repeal. He
was then an agent in England for Pennsylvania, and his
prompt and pointed replies gained him great credit, both
for genius and extent of information.
The news of the repeal produced transports of joy in joy ta
America, mingled with surprise, exultation, and gratitude. ^^"' ""
The Provincial AssembUes voted addresses of thanks to
his majesty, and to royal ministers and distinguished
19

218 LORD CHATHAM.
BK.V. statesmen, especially to Lord Camden, Pitt, and Barr6.
Ch. 1. Several provinces voted statues to the king, to Pitt, and
A. D. to Camden. Faneuil Hall was adorned with full-length
1766. pictures of Pitt and Barr6, the former of whom became a
popular idol. Professions of attachment to the mother
country again became general and cordial.
The Su- But, after the first fiush of popular enthusiasm, new
gar Act. subjects of complaint arose. The Stamp Act was indeed
repealed, but the Sugar Act remained in force. More
over, royal troops were sent to America, as if to overawe '
the people, and compel obedience. It was reported that
new bodies were to arrive. But the crowning evU was a
new scheme of colonial taxation.
This originated with Charles Townshend, Chancellor of
the Exchequer. The Marquis of Rockingham retained
office but a few months, and was succeeded by the Duke
of Grafton, in August, 1766, as First Lord of the Trea-
wiiUam sury. Pitt, recently created Earl of Chatham, was nomi-
^'"- nally the prime minister, but was unable to attend to
business on account of ill-health. Nor had he much
influence on his colleagues, who were, in most instances,
tories ; and they were left to pursue their own policy. It
was a blot on the fair fame of this great statesman, who
had hitherto sustained the American cause, that he con
sented to form a part of an administration which acted in
direct opposition to the course he had uniformly pursued.
It is true, he still opposed his colleagues in the council
chamber ; but his voice was no longer heard in the House
of Comraons, the scene of his glory, in vindication of the
cause of liberty. Could he have been seduced by the
glitter of a coronet and the title of a lord ? Certain it is,
that no raan ever made a greater mistake than he, in ac
cepting a seat among " the Incurables." He gained
social rank, dignity, ease, tities. But he lost popularity,

LORD CHATHAM. 219
power, and self-respect. The " Great Commoner," who bk. v.
might, as a popular leader, have arrested the calamities ch. i.
which so soon befell his country, now deprived of his ^ j,
strength, which lay in the affections of the people, re- 1766.
lapsed into indolence and spleen, and was laid on the HisfoUy
shelf as a man who had parted with his secret ; a Samson ™ ^"S
shorn of his locks, without his eyes, the sport of his se- peer.
ducers, the pity and reproach of those whom he had once
defended. Great was the fall of Pitt when he descended
from his glorious position as ruler of the House of Com
mons and idol of the nation, to be a nominal minister and
a powerless earl. No wonder that he languished and
died. A tory ministry, which hated Uberty, an infatuated 1767.
king, who repented, Uke the Egyptians of old, the con- i^^ities
cessions he had made, and the courtiers, who affected to tea, fc
lament the humUiation of royalty, resolved to retrieve
their dignity. Ambition and pride prevailed over wisdom
and moderation. It was resolved to impose a tax on the
colonies, as the sign of their dependence and degradation ;
perhaps with the hope of ultimately increasing the na
tional revenue. Accordingly, Townshend introduced his
bUl into the House of Commons, May 1767, to impose
duties on aU glass, lead, painters' colours, tea, and paper,
imported into America. It met with scarcely any oppo
sition, and was triumphantly passed.
SuUenness, indignation, and gloom, returned to the oppo-
colonies on the report of this new taxation ; not that they ^'*'°''
dreaded the burden, but they hated the principle. Trust cry in
in Parliament was irreparably weakened. Confidence in ^°""
royal ministers fled. New combinations of opposition
were organized. The press, the pulpit, and the senate
chamber, teemed with invective and reproach. The cry
of alarm was raised. The appeal to patriotism was made

i20 AMERICAN PATRIOTS.
Bk. V. from ten thousand tongues in every section of the
Ch. 1. country. A\
^ j)_ Foremost among the patriots of Massachusetts were
1767. Thomas Cushing, James Bowdoin, Samuel Cooper, Josiah
Patriot. Quincy, Robert Treat Paine, John Winthrop, James Otis,
ism of and Joseph Hawley; all of whom were men of great
Ameri- social position, talents, and weight of character. Equally
""^"^- ¦ distinguished as popular leaders were John Rutledge,
Henry Lawrence, David Ramsay, in South Carolina, and
Patrick Henry, Peyton Randolph, and Richard Henry
Lee, in Virginia. In all tbe colonies there arose orators
to plead the cause and stimulate the energies of freemen.
John Dickenson, in Pennsylvania, in a treatise called
Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer, wamed his country
men not to be deluded by tbe moderate rate of the new
duties, designed only to prepare their necks for a weight
which would bear them to the ground, while the inhabi
tants of Boston passed resolutions to discontinue the im
portation of all British commodities. The Assembly of
Massachusetts addressed to all the sister colonies a circular
letter, inviting them to co-operate in some general scheme
of resistance, and nearly all the provincial assemblies
acceded to the overture.
Changes lu the mean time, some changes had occurred in the
British British ministry. Townsend had died, and was succeeded
minis- by Lord North ; a man devoted to royal prerogative. Lord
Hillsborough, also a distinguished partisan r^f the crown,
had been entrusted with the management of American
affairs, which had been withdrawn from Lord Shelbume.
This latter nobleman strongly reprobated the conduct of
Massachusetts respecting the circular letter, and instructed
Governor Bamard to require of the Assembly its disap
probation of the act as hasty and rash. The minister also
wrote a circular letter to all the provincial govemors,

OPPOSITION TO BRITISH LAWS OF TRADE. 221
breathing insolence, folly, and spleen, wbich occasioned, bk. v.
of course, general disgust, and increased the rising disaf- ch. i.
fection. A. D.
Additional cause of offence arose in America from the 1768.
rigid enforcement of the laws of trade, whicb caUed forth ^^^^
opposition and inflammatory publications. The merchants cause of
were irritated by suits for past breaches of revenue laws, ,
and by new strictness in the collecting of duties. A sloop i
laden with wine from Madeira, belonging to Hancock,
was seized on the charge of smuggling a part of the cargo,
although nothing was done contrary to custom and usage.
A riot ensued, which resulted in the flight of the revenue
commissioners to Castie Island, where a company of Brit
ish artillery waa stationed. In the midst of this ferment
Barnard acquainted the General Court with the letter he
had received from Lord HUlsborough, which communica^
tion excited stUl more the patriotic spirit. The House
refused to rescind its measures, and justified itself in a
remonstrance to the Earl of HUlsborough. On the fol- 1768.
lowing day, July 1, 1768, the governor dissolved the as- ?"""j^
sembly, and the town and corporation retaliated by Massa-
denouncing him as a traitor, and choosing a convention to g^^j
meet in Boston to consider the public danger. This con
vention was regarded by the governor, and by the British
ministry, as a treasonable and criminal association, and
therefore its petitions and acts were wholly disregarded.
Jiloreover, Boston was regarded as in a state bordering on Troops
revolt, and therefore it was occupied by two regiments, Bmton.
while the harbour was commanded by a fleet of seven
ships of war. The people were required to fumish quar
ters for the troops. They peremptorily refused, and the
State House was accordingly seized by the governor, and
the town overawed by a mUitary garrison stationed in it
as a citadel. The Common was covered with tents, and
19*

ma.

.^22 PATRIOTIC ARDOUR IN VIRGINIA.
B^.Y. the streets were paraded by sentinels. Boston had all the
Ch. 1. appearance of a town under martial law.
A. D. The House of Representatives, on assembling in May
1769. 1769, resolved that it was inconsistent with their dignity
Remo- and freedom to deliberate in the midst of an armed force,
7^ °^ and petitioned the governor to remove the trooops from
gisia. Boston. Upon his refusal they declined to enter upon
^^^' business, and tbe governor adjourned the court to Cam
bridge, and finally prorogued it as unmanageable, and
returned to England to lay his complaints before govem
raent, leaving the adrainistration in the hands of Lieuten
ant-governor Hutchinson.
Spirit of In Virginia the spirit of resistance was equally marked.
ance in ^^^ General Assembly unanimously passed resolutions
Yirgi- that the sole right of taxation belonged to tbe representa
tives of the people, and that all trials for treason should be
conducted in tbe colonial courts ; for which offence it was
dissolved by the governor. Lord Botetourt. The members,
instead of dispersing, reassembled in a dwelling-house,
and, after choosing their late speaker, Peyton Randolph,
for moderator, unanimously signed an agreement to import
no more British goods, to which the people, throughout
the colony, acceded.
Inspired by the example of Virginia, the Assembly of
South Carolina refused obedience to the act for providing
quarters for British troops, and passed resolutions similar
to those of the Virginia Assembly. Maryland, Delaware,
New York, and Georgia, adopted substantially the same
resolutions. Indeed, the non-importatjion agreement was
generally adopted throughout the colon3(, and everywhere
the right of American legislatures to supersede the autho
rity of Parliaraent was discussed and advocated.
Nothing produced greater irritation among the colonies,
and led to a revolutionary spirit more decidedly, than the

OFFENSIVE DUTIES REPEALED. 223
quartering of troops in Boston. It was the occasion of bk. v.
perpetual tumult. A mob of boys and men made it a ch. i.
constant practice to insult the mUitary, and the military, j^_ -p
at length provoked beyond endurance, fired upon the 1770.
people. This act of violence created such an excitement
that the governor, Hutchinson, found it expedient to re
move the troops from Boston.
About this time, 1770, Lord North succeeded the Lord
Duke of Grafton as prime minister to George IIL, and, repeals
in order to pacify the Americans, yet still maintain the duties,
right of taxation, brought forward a motion in ParUament on tea.
to repeal aU obnoxious duties, except that on tea. This
was carried by a large majority, and his measure became
a law. It had in some respects the effect he intended.
It fumished an excuse to the colonies to abandon the non
importation agreeements, which were now limited to the
article of tea alone. But it was far from allaying the
spirit of disaffection, soon destined to burst out into a
revolutionary storm. New disputes constantly agitated
the colonies.
These arose from the continued restraints on colonial New dis-
manufactures ; from the presence of large bodies of foreign p^**°'
troops ; from rumours of a plan to establish episcopacy by
law ; from the support of royal governors by the govern
ment at home, thus destroying all dependence on colonial
legislatures ; from repeated dissolutions of colonial Assem
blies by royal governors, and from the accounts which
these governors transmitted to England of the state of
the provinces, which were considered as libellous and
unjust. These, and various impolitic measures of the
English govemment, hastened the crisis.
Nothing was more injudicious than the conduct of the
ministry respecting the tea duty act. By the constant
refusal of the colonies to use this luxury, except so far as

224 MINISTERIAL OBSTINACY.
bk-y. it could be smuggled by the French, Dutch, Danes, and
Ch. 1. Swedes, tea had accumulated in the warehouses of the
A. D. East India Company to the amount of seventeen milUons
1770. of pounds. The government would not repeal the duty
of threepence per pound, and the Company did not like
to lose their commercial profits. Hitherto, a heavy tax
had been imposed on the exportation of tea from Eng
land. This export duty was removed by the government,
under the impression that the Americans would now pur
chase tea, since its price was reduced. Accordingly, the
East India Company freighted several ships with the arti
cle, and sent them to the various American cities, hoping
to dispose of it. But this course only showed how igno
rant both British merchants and ministers were of the
Opposi- temper of the American people. The inhabitants of
tion in Charlestown suffered the tea to be landed, but deposited
the colo- . , , ' ^
nies to it in pubUo Cellars, and locked it up from either sale or
*t'te!i*^iise.-;The citizens of New York and PhUadelphia pre
vailed on the consignees to disclaim their functions, and
forced the ships to return to London with their cargoes.
The Bostonians were not so quiet. A mob of fifty men,
dressed like Indians, boarded the ships, staved the chests,
and threw the tea into the water. This affair happened
1773. on the 16th of December, 1773 ; and when the news of
it reached England, the rage of ministers was excessive.
Boston In their indignation, they brought a bill into Parliament
Bul to shut up the port of Boston, and remove the seat of
government to Salem, which passed almost unanimously.
This was foUowed by another, which gave the appointment
of nearly all officers to the governor, without the approval
of the CouncU, whioh was virtually an abrogation of the
charter of Massachusetts. A third bill was also passed
which provided that all persons charged with murders
committed in support of govemment, should be tried in

SCHEMES OF RESISTANCE. 225
England. Itis was again followed by a fourth act, which Bk. v.
provided for quartering troops in America, April, 1774. Ch. i.
The liberties and chartered rights of the colonies were a. d.
now plainly assailed. They were regarded as rebellious, 1774.
and only to be brought to terms by a military force. Troops
Ministers fooUshly resolved to terrify them into submis- ""'''* *<^
sion, notwithstanding the expostulations of Chatham,
Burke, Barr6, Fox, Conway, Dunning, and other illus
trious statesmen, who perceived that these severe mea
sures would end in war, and that war would lead to tbe
everlasting separation of the colonies from England.
The colonies, distressed, embarrassed and indignant, Resist-
now meditated a congress of delegates to take measures ^^em-
for their common defence, and advance their mutual inte- plated.
rests. The people everywhere were excited by popular
orators. Inflammatory pubUcations were openly circu
lated. Associations were formed for the purchase of arms
and ammunition. Proceedings in the courts of justice
were suspended, and ordinary business was neglected, in
the general ferment of impassioned feeling. Nothing was
thought of but resistance. Thomas Jefferson wrote a
pamphlet in which sentiments of independence were
broached. The spirit of liberty animated all classes from
New Hampshire to Georgia.
And yet the colonies did not, at this time, contemplate And re-
a separation. Nor were they prepared to plunge into a '^^^^
general revolt. They were only irritated and indignant ^an in.
to an extraordinary degree. They were resolved on resist- ence.
ance, rather than independence. It is true, there were
those who saw that resistance would lead to war, and war
to separation ; but such men were in advance of public sen
timent. In spite of the invasion of long-cherished rights,
there was yet a lurking love of the mother country, which,
had it been cherished, would have delayed the Revolution.

226 MEETING OF CONGKESS.
bk.v. This was the time, if it were ever to be, when the
Ch. 1. colonies should have been coerced by an overwhelming
A. D. military force, before measures of resistance were matured.
1774. But the British government neither sought to heal the
Msaffeo- wounds which their impolitic measures had inflicted, nor
tion of adopted a bold and prompt course of intimidation. Pitt
the CO- ^ . r r
lonies. would either have refrained from taxation, or would have
sent an army of forty thousand men to subdue the rebel
lious colonies. But every measure of the present minis
ters proved a blunder, increasing tbe general discontent
and irritation, without producing any decided advantage.
They supposed that the Boston Port Bill would produce
jealousy and disunion among the different towns of Mas
sachusetts, by dividing among them the commerce pre
viously enjoyed by the metropolis. But, on the contrary,
it produced a strong feeling of generous disdain, sympathy,
and co-operation. The people of Marblehead offered the
use of their wharves and warehouses to the Boston mer
chants. The citizens of Salem also refused to avail them
selves of the misfortunes of their neighbours.
Meeting In the midst of this general ferment, the contemplated
gress."' Congress assembled at Philadelphia, September 5th. It
was composed of delegates from all the colonies except
Georgia ; and as these were chosen by the several provin
cial legislatures, the national mind was fairly represented.
The instructions which they received, however, only
authorized them to deliberate on the means to secure the
rights and Uberties of America as a colonial possession of
Great Britain. Revolt was not contemplated, although
it may have been hastened in consequence of the asserably.
Its great Ot this Cougrcss, Pcytou Randolph, of Virginia, was
chosen President. It consisted of fifty-three delegates
all of whom were men of character and influence. Among
the more distinguished of them were Samuel and John

men.

COMMITTEES OP SAFETY. 227
Adams, of Massachusetts ; Sherman and Dean, of Con- bk. v.
necticut; Livingston and Jay, of New York; Henry, ch. i. "
Washington, and Lee, of Virginia; and the two Rut- ^ jj
ledges, of South CaroUna. The proceedings were con- 1774.
ducted with closed doors, and with great unanimity — with
prudence, talent, and despatch. It was resolved that
obedience was not due to any of the recent acts of Par
Uament, and that Massachusetts should be sustained in her
resistance to what was universally considered to be unjust
and unconstitutional. A " Declaration of Colonial Rights" Deciara.
was voted. A protest was made against standing arraies nights.
maintained in the colonies without their consent. All
the immunities hitherto enjoyed by the colonies were
claimed as estabUshed rights. The Sugar Act, the Stamp
Act, the Quartering Acts, the Tea Act, the Boston Port
Bill, the act for the regulation of the government of
Massachusetts, and the two acts for the trial in Great
Britain of offences committed in America, were enume
rated as violations of the rights of the colonies. In order
to enforce these rights, it was agreed to hold no comraer
cial intercourse with Great Britain and the West Indies,
and to take every measure to encourage domestic manu
factures and the breeding of sheep.
WhUe preparations were thus making for the American Boston
Union, affairs were fast hastening to a crisis in Massachu- jortjAed.
setts. The miUtary forces which had been sent out to
coerce or watch the colony, were commanded by General
Gage, who had succeeded Hutchinson as govemor. He
fortified Boston Neck, and cut off all communication of
the town with the country, justifying, all the while, his
military preparations on the plea of self-defence. Con
gress, in turn, adopted defensive measures, and appointed commit
I Committee of Safety, at the head of which was John gj^j-^ty.
Hancock, with power to call out the miUtia. It also took

228 EMBARRASSMENT OF PARLIAMENT.
measures for the defence of the province, and for procur-

Ch. 1. ing military stores. Gage denounced these proceedings ;
A. D. but none, save his own officials, paid any attention to his
1774. proclamation. The other cities of the Union appointed
committees of safety, volunteers were everywhere enrolled,
and arms and ammunition were seized. The country was
generally aroused by the expectation of serious conflicts,
and all things indicated an approaching convulsion.
Perplex- Great Britain received tbe report of these proceedings,
"^ °^ and of the general state of insubordination, vrith any feel-
Parlia- o i t • i i
ment. ings but those of indifference. The cabinet was perplexed,
and Parliament was agitated. The more experienced and
profound of British statesmen perceived the importance
Effort of of the crisis. Lord Chatham resumed his seat in the
Chit- House of Lords, notwithstanding his age and infirmities,
bam. and attempted to arouse his countrymen to a sense of the
great difficulties in which they were so unappily involved.
He besought ministers to withdraw the troops from Bos
ton, and revoke their obnoxious acts. He showed the
folly of metaphysical refinements about the right of taxa
tion, when a continent was in arms. He spoke of the
means thus far employed for enforcing obedience as inef
ficient and ridiculous. He panegyrized the American
Congress and the American people. The Marquis of
Rockingham and Lord Shelbume supported his motion.
Lord Camden, as an ex-chancellor and constitutional law
yer, declared that England had no right to tax America.
Burke, In the House of Commons, Mr. Burke, Colonel Barr^,

Barre.

and Fox ^°<^ ^^- -^°-^' proposed conciliatory measures. " My hold
on the colonies," said Mr. Burke, that great master of
moral wisdom, "is the close affection which grows from
common names, from kindred blood, from similar pri-yi-
lege, and from equal protection. These are the ties
which, though light as air, are as strong as Unks of iron.

WARNING VOICES. 229
Let the colonies always keep the idea of their civil privi- Bk. v.
leges associated with your government; they will cling Ch. l
and grapple with you, and no power under heaven will be a. d.
able to tear them from their allegiance. But let it once 1774.
be understood that your govemment may be one thing,
and their privileges another, then the cement is gone, and
everything hastens to dissolution. It is the love of the
people — it is their attachment to your government, from
their sense of the deep stake they have in such glorious
institutions, which gives you your army and navy, and
infuses into both that Uberal obedience without which
your army would be but a base rabble, and your navy
nothing but rotten timbers."
Nor were warning voices lifted up against the blunders infatua-
and foUy of government in the British Parliament alone. p™u^
Dean Tucker, who foresaw a long war, with all its ex- ment.
penses, urged, in a masterly treatise, the necessity of at
once giving to the Americans the liberty they sought.
Others, who looked upon the colonies in a commercial
point of yiew, respectfuUy petitioned Parliament to repeal
their offensive enactments. BoUan, FrankUn, and Lee,
agents for the provinces,' also petitioned to be heard at the
bar of the House of Commons, that they might explain
the subject of grievances, and communicate important
information. But the moral vrisdom of Burke, the reasonings of wam-
Tucker, and the entreaties of FrankUn, were alike lost on "f^^
an infatuated people. On Lord North, as the great repre- ¦Usre-
sentative of the English mind, the blame must rest for
ever of not adopting, in season, concUiatory measures,
before conciUation was impossible — not half measures,
indefinite and equivocal, but, which could but partially
allay irritation, when passion was stronger than reason or
fear ; but rather those which surrendered, in good faith,
20

280

COERCION RESOLVED UPON.

Warlike
measures.

Bg.Y. the unjust claims which ministers had advanced. Had
Ch. 1. he, however, at the eleventh hour, withdrawn his offensive
A. D. measures, it is doubtful whether he would have been
1774. sustained. It was resolved to coerce the colonies, and
they were accordingly declared to be in a state of rebellion.
This declaration was in fact a declaration of war — of no
common war, but of desperate, deadly strife. It was so
understood by the popular leaders in America. " We
must look back," said they, "no more. We must con
quer or die. We are placed between altars smoking with
the most grateful incense of glory and gratitude on the
one part, and blocks and dungeons on the other." Ne
cessity now stimulated those who before were timid. The
passion for liberty animated the bold. All classes of
people now felt that they must choose between slavery
and freedom, and every one echoed the sentiment of
Henry — " Give me liberty, or give me death !" " There
is," said this impassioned orator, " no longer any room for
hope. We must fight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight.
Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of
liberty, and in such a country as ours, are invincible by
any force which our enemy can send against us. Nor is
there retreat but in submission and slavery. Gentlemen
may cry peace ! peace ! — but there is no peace. The
war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from
the North wUl bring to our ears tbe crash of resounding
arms." Such were the sentiments now boldly declared in the
Continental Congress. There was only needed a spark
to kindle a conflagration. The tide of revolution could
not now be suppressed. The moment that blood should
actually be shed in defence of liberty, that moment it
would prove a signal for a general rising of the people,
and for the declaration of American independence.

PatrickHenry.

Impend ing con
flagra tion.

THE WAR BEGUN. 231
The town of Lexington, in Massachusetts, was the bk.y.
immortal spot wbere the first altar to perpetual Uberty Ch. i.
smoked with human sacrifice — where the fire of revolu- a. d.
tion was kindled, which spread, with the rapidity of light- 1775.
ning, until the whole continent was in a blaze. The flre
General Gage, haying learned that military stores and ^^^"^
arms were deposited at Concord, resolved to seize them,
and despatched eight hundred troops, under Colonel
Smith, for that purpose. His design was suspected,
alarm-bells were rung, the people flew to arms, the pro
vincial miUtia assembled, and preparations for resistance
were made. The head of the British column confronted, Battle of
at Lexington, a force of one hundred minute-men. The J*""^'
British officers caUed upon them to lay down their arms
and disperse. The order was not obeyed, and the British
fired. Only eight men were killed; but the blood of
eight men spilled, was enough to arouse tbe whole nation.
The miUtia around Concord and Lexington mshed to the
aid of their brethren in arms. The British troops, sur
rounded by superior numbers, hastily retreated. They
were pursued. Their retreat became a rout, and they
would have been entirely cut off, had not Lord Percy,
despatched by Gage, advanced to their relief.
Witb the battle of Lexington, April 19th, 1775,
opened the first act of the eventful drama of the American
Revolution. The die was now cast, and, for seven suc
ceeding years, the question for Americans to solve was—
Uberty or slavery.

REMARKS.
To commemorate the important event illuBtrated above, the Bunker Hill
Monument, a plain but striking obelisk, has been erected on tbe site of the
biittle, 62 feet above the level of the pea. The corner-stone wns first laid by
La Fayette, on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, in the presence of an im
mense concourse of people, .Tune 17th, 1825. Tbis foundation having been
found insecure, it was relaid in a more substantial manner, in March, 1.S27.
Tbe monument was completed July 23d, 1842, at a cost of $1 19,800, It is eub-
stantiLilly built of hewn Quincy granite, being 208 feet high from the base to
tile commencement of the apex, and from thence to the summit 13 feet, in all
22; li'L't. The interior ofthe structure is circular, having a diameter of 10 feet
7 inches at bottom, and 6 feet 4 inches at top. and is ascended by 294 steps.
The top is an elliptical chamber, 17 feet high, 11 feet in diameter, with 4 win-
dfuvs, and presents one of the most splendid views in the United States, com-
bi ling in a remarkable degree the beautiful and tbe sublime. Reing the most
eliyated object in the vicinity, tbis monument will stand in commemoration
of the gaUant patriots wbo here fought and fell iu defence of their country's
rights, and nobly contributed to the independence ofthe United Stales.
232

CHAPTER II.
FIKST CAMPAIGN OP THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
The news of the battle of Lexington produced an bk.v.

immense sensation throughout the colonies. The young oh.2.
men of Connecticut, burning with rage and valour, flew j^ j,
to arms', headed by Israel Putnam, wbo heard the news 1775.
as he was ploughing in the field. He instantly unyoked -gg^^j ^f
his team, and marched, with a large body of volunteers, t^e hat-
... .. -r, ..,.,', . ' tie of
to the vicinity of Boston, to join his brethren in arms. Lexmg-
Thither also repaired three regiments from New Hamp- *>"•
shire, one of which was commanded by John Stark. No
less than twenty thousand men blockaded the British
troops in Boston, and it was resolved by the New England
colonies to raise ten thousand in addition, with large stores
of ammunition. The other colonies showed equal spirit.
The whole country was fairly aroused.
In the first impulse of enthusiasm, Ethan Allen and Forces
Seth Warner raised a force among the Green Mountain
boys with a view to seize Ticonderoga and Crown Point,
wbich fortresses were defended at that tirae by only sixty
men. The same project had been conceived by Benedict
Arnold, of New Haven ; and he had even been commis
sioned colonel, with authority to raise men in Vermont.
As AUen, with eighty men, approached Ticonderoga, he
was joined by Amold, who, being refused the command,
agreed to serve as a volunteer. The fort was surprised,
20 * (2.S3)

234 WASHINGTON COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.
Bk. V. and easily taken. Warner was then sent to seize Crown
Ch. 2. Point, which, without difiiculty, fell into his hands. The
A. D captured fortresses furnished two hundred pieces of can-
1775. non, with a large quantity of military stores, to the army
Fall of of the insurgents. Arnold, in the mean time, joined by
Ticonde- ^^^ recruits, succeeded in occupying the important post
roga and  x ./ o x a
Crown of Skeucsborough, now Whitehall; and then, sailing
down the lake in a schooner he had seized, surprised
St. John's, and captured an armed vessel, with which he
returned to Crown Point,
Doings Before tbe tidings of these successes could reach Con
or con- gyggg^ which reassembled on the tenth of May, it had
resolved itself into a committee of the whole to take into
consideration the state of affairs consequent upon the
battle of Lexington. It was reported that hostilities had
been commenced by British troops, and it was therefore
voted that the colonies should be put in a state of defence.
A petition to the king was also voted, together with an
address to the people of Great Britain. A proclamation
was issued for a day of solemn fasting and prayer through
out the colonies, as on the eve of great calamities.
Appointr But the most iraportant measure which the Continental
ment of Qgngress adopted, was the appointment of a commander-
general ° sr 7 I I
Officers, in-chief. George Washington, one of the members, was
proposed by Johnson, of Maryland, and was unanimously
elected. He consented to serve without a salary, stipu
lating only for the payment of his expenses. Artemas
Ward of Massachusetts, Charles Lee of Virginia, Philip
Schuyler of New York, and Israel Putnam of Connecti
cut, were appointed major-generals. Horatio Gates, of
Virginia, was chosen adjutant-general, with the rank
of brigadier. Both Lee and Gates were Englishmen,
and had considerable military experience. Congress also
gave commissions as brigadiers to Seth Pomeroy, William

BATTLE OF BUNKER's HILL. 235
Heath, and John Thomas, of Massachusetts ; David bk. v.
Wooster and Joseph Spencer of Connecticut, Nathaniel ch. 2.
Greene of Rhode Island, John Sullivan of New Hamp- a. d.
shire, and Richard Montgomery of New York. These 1775.
were the general ofi&cers. The colonels and other infe
rior officers in the camp before Boston also received
commissions. But, before these arrangements were completed, was Battle cf
fought the battie of Bunker HUl, 17th of June, which ^^^""^
was productive of great moral results. The British army,
commanded by General Gage, and reinforced by a large
body of regulars under Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and
CUnton, now numbered ten thousand men, and were
strongly posted at Boston. The American forces which
blockaded tbe town numbered sixteen, and were com
manded by General Ward.
To complete the blockade of Boston, Colonel Prescott
was ordered, with one thousand men, including a com
pany of artiUery, to take possession of Bunker's Hill, an
eminence one hundred and thirteen feet high, in the
northem part of the peninsula of Charlestown, and which
commanded the great northem road. By mistake he
advanced to Breed's Hill, eighty-seven feet high, on the
southem extremity of Bunker Hill, nearer to Boston.
Before morning, his troops had thrown up a redoubt
which commanded the harbour of Boston. To dislodge the
Americans from this dangerous post, Gage sent Generals
Howe and Pigot, with three thousand men. The English
embarked in boats from the wharves in Boston, and land
ing at Morton's Point, at the eastern extremity of Breed's
HiU, formed into two columns, and advanced towards the
redoubt, supported by a fire from the ships and batteries.
They were permitted to press on until within one hundred
yards of the provincials, when a well-directed fire was

236 WASHINGTON JOINS THE ARMT.
Bk. V. opened upon them, which threw them into disoi-der. They
Ch. 2. rallied, and again advanced. Again they were driven back
A. D. in confusion. General Clinton, with new troops, advanced
1775. to the assistance of the British, and a third time they
were led up the hill. By this time the powder of the
provincials began to fail, and they were forced to fight at
the point of the bayonet. The redoubt was now attacked
in three several places, by superior forces, aided by artil
lery, and was carried. The provincials retreated across
the neck, and the hill reraained in possession of the
British. The battle was dearly gained, more than one
thousand being killed and wounded in the attack, while
the Americans lost only four hundred and fifty, among
Death of whom, howcver, was Doctor Joseph Warren, chairman of
General ^jjg Committee of Safety, who had, a few days before, re
ceived the commission of major-general, but who served
as a simple volunteer. His death was regarded as a
great public calaraity, and was deeply and universally
lamented. Generous, brave, zealous, and influential, — •
he was the John Hampden of the times.
Wash- In ahout two weeks from the battle, whioh tested the
Sc^m- ability of tbe provincials to meet British veterans, Wash-
bridge, ington joined the army, and fixed bis head-quarters at
Cambridge. Ward, with the right wing, was stationed at
Roxbury; and Lee, with the left, at Prospect Hill, two
miles north-west of Breed's Hill. The camp was soon
joined by some companies of riflemen from Maryland,
Virginia, and Pennsylvania; and, with all their forces,
the British were prevented from advancing into the
country. i
The situation of Washington was embarrassing and dif
ficult. On him was laid the task of organizing an army
of raw and undisciplined recruits, distracted by sectional
jealousies, and unprovided with adequate mcMis; and,

GREAT MILITARY PREPARATIONS. 237
with these forces, was obliged to keep in check an army ek.v.
accustomed to war, not greatly inferior in numbers, per- Ch. 2.
fectly equipped, and provided with money and stores. a. d.
Congress, which had not the constitutional power it at 1775.
present has, nevertheless did all it could to assist Wash- Appro- .
ington, and provide the means of successful resistance. It ^"gg™
voted biUs of credit, estabUshed a post-office system, issued gress.
military commissions, corresponded and co-operated with
colonial legislatures, prepared articles of war, and set forth
a declaration of the justice and necessity of their course in
taking up arms.
The English ParUament proceeded to measures equally ^^^'^^^
decided. It confiscated all American ships and cargoes, by Par-
and decreed the colonies in a state of revolt. It voted
liberal supplies to the king's ministers, who had nego
tiated for the aid of German mercenaries, and otherwise
increased the miUtary forces. It looked upon all concUi-
ation as at an end, and thought only of coercion and vigo
rous ofiensive operations. General Gage was recalled to
give an account of the battle of Bunker Hill, and was
succeeded in command by General Sir William Howe.
The provincial governors, appointed by royal authority,
abdicated their governments soon after the breaking out
of hostUities, and generally retired to British shipping for
protection. They quickly perceived that they could do
nothing, without overwhelming forces to sustain them,
when all the colonies were in arms, and united together.
The fia-st movements of the American Congress and Contem-
army were more vigorous than could have been expected ^^^ion
from their deficiency in money and military stores. No- "^ ^™*
thing less than the conquest of Canada was contemplated.
Ticonderoga and Crown Point had fallen into their hands,
and wby should not Montreal and Quebec? Nothing
seemed impossible to men animated by the first impulses

238 INVASION OF CANADA.

Bk.v.

of bravery and patriotism, before experience had taught
Ch. 2. them the difficulties even of defence.
A. D. This task was entrusted to Generals Schuyler and
1775. Montgomery; and, on the tenth of September, they ap-
-Generai peared before St. John's, but with a force inadequate to
Schuy- rgjuQg ;t_ Schuyler returned to Ticonderoga for rein-
ler in- -' ^
Tades forcements, was there taken ill, and was prevented frora
rejoining the army, the command of which devolved on
Montgomery. He successively captured Fort Chambly,
St. John's, and Montreal, and advanced, in the latter part
of November, witb a small force of a few hundred men,
to attack Quebec; expecting, however, the co-operation
of Colonel Arnold.
Arnold's That enterprising, but unprincipled officer, with 1100
enter- mgn^ ija(j pgnetratcd through the forests, swamps, and
mountains of Maine, ascending the Kennebec, and de
scending the Chaudiere, and, in six weeks after his de
parture from Boston, had reached the banks of the St.
Lawrence. Could he have crossed the river at once, be
might have captured Quebec ; for this important fortress
was defended by only two hundred regular troops. But
he .found no boats, and, before he could construct them,
Governor Carleton made his appearance from Montreal,
organized the people of Quebec into military companies,
landed the sailors, and increased the force of the citadel
to 1200 men.
Unsuo- Arnold, however, on the 13th of November, crossed
oessfoi ^jjg river, and ascended, as Wolfe did before him, the
onQne- Plains of Abraham. His little^ army had dwindled to six
hundred men, and, as he had lo means of attack, he
retreated to a post twenty miles up the river, where he
awaited the approach of Montgomery. On the 1st of
December, the two coraraanders formed a junction of their
troops, and advanced to attack the strongest fortress in

DIFFICULTIES OF WASHINGTON. 239
the country. Nothing could be more rash or more bold. bk. v.
Their united forces nr^mbered only a thousand men; whUe Ch. 2. _
the enemy, in superior strength, were entrenched behind a. d.
fortifications which could have defied ten tiraes their num- 1775.
ber, especially as their artillery was too Ught to be of any
service. Still, an assault was resolved upon, after three
weeks had been wasted in an inefiectual siege. On the
31st of December, in a snow-storm, the attack was made,
and failed ; Montgomery being killed, and Arnold wound- Death of
ed. The men fought with desperate courage, but courage gomery.
thrown away. Four hundred of them were lost, and the
remainder retired three miles from the city, and kept up,
during tbe winter, tbe semblance of a blockade behind
ramparts of frozen snow.
Meanwhile Washington remained in the camp before Embai-
Boston, attempting to organize an army which was enlisted ^^^^ ^^
but for a few months. The first burst of enthusiasm was yash-
over. A short acquaintance with military life had damped
the ardour of the troops, and they longed to return to their
homes. The commander-in-chief was surrounded with
difficulties. The camp was in danger of desertion. The
time of the Connecticut and Rhode Island regiments ex
pired in December, and none of the troops were engaged
beyond the 1st of April.
In this emergency. Congress called earnestly upon the Con-
several provinces for a renewal of enlistments, and corre- ^tes
sponded with the friends of liberty in foreign lands. Par- supplies.
liament was no less active, and voted twenty-five thousand
additional troops for the American service. It was re
solved, by both parties, to prosecute the war with vigour
when the spring should return.
The campaign of 1776 opened (March 4th) with the 1776.
occupation of Dorchester Heights, now South Boston, by
the American troops. This eminence commanded both

240 EVACUATION OF BOSTON.
Bk. V. the harbour and the town of Boston. Unless the Ameri-
Ch. 2. cans were dislodged, the town must be abandoned by the
A. D. British. Accordingly, General Howe resolved upon an
1776. attack; but, a storm having made the harbour impassable,
it was delayed until the American works were so strength
ened that no resource was left but an evacuation of the
town. -V
Eetreat By a tacit agreement, the British troops, numbering
British soveu thousaud men, besides two thousand sailors and
J°™ marines, were unmolested in their retreat; and on the
Boston. ' '
27th of March, Washington entered the town in triumph.
His army, in and around Boston, nurabered fourteen thou
sand men, exclusive of militia, and was now enriched by
considerable quantities of military stores which the fugitive
Wash- enemy had left. Washington, after a short sojourn, hast
ened for New York, both to defend that place and corre
spond more easily with Congress, which now issued four
additional millions of continental paper, appointed a Stand
ing Committee to superintend the treasury, established
two new military departments, Southern and Middle, and
commissioned six new brigadiers — Armstrong, Thomas,
Lewis, Moore, Stirling, and Howe.
But these measures were insufficient, when compared
with that great event which was to separate for ever the
colonies from the mother-country. For some time it was
publicly discussed, whether or not American Independ
ence should be officially declared. The idea encountered,
in the several colonies, strenuous opposition, but every
Debate day was gaining converts. On the 7th of June, the sub-
^ess^'e- J^°' "'^^^ introduced into Congress by Richard Henry Lee,
specting ¦^¦j^o moved, in obedience to instmctions from Virginia,
TndGpcii" ence. " that the United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and
independent States, and that their poUtical connection with
Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved." Congress

ingtonmoves towards
N. York.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 241
resolved itself into a committee of the whole to debate the Bk. v.

resolution. It was opposed by some of the greatest friends Ch. 2.
of liberty and some of the ablest men in Congress, as pre- a. d.
mature, — among whom were John Dickenson, Robert R. 1776
Livingston, and Edward Rutledge. John Adams was the
raost conspicuous advocate of the measure, which passed
by a majority of only one State — seven against six. On
the ever-memorable 4th of July, the Declaration of Inde- July 4.
pendence, drawn up by Thoraas Jefl'erson, was publicly ^^"^
proclaimed from the door of the State-House in Philadel- ludapen-
, dence.
phia, amid the ringing of bells, the firing of cannon, and
shnuts of universal rejoicing. It was everywhere received
by the Americans with unbounded enthusiasm, while it
took the English nation by surprise, and firmly united it
against the new republic. Both countries were now ar
rayed against each other in fierce hostility. The only
question to solve was — liberty or slavery.
A few days before this great event occurred, (June june28.
28th,) General Howe had landed on Staten Island, with ^^^if^
the armv which had retreated from Boston ; and, a few staten
Island.
days after, he was joined by his brother. Admiral Lord
Howe, with large reinforcements from England. These
forces, united with those of CUnton, from the South,
numbered 24,000, and all of them were veterans, a
large addition to these was also expected, and nothing
short of the complete subjugation of the country was con
fidentiy anticipated. It was the design of the British to
occupy New York and the Hudson river, and thus open
a communication with Canada, while, at the same time,
they separated the Eastern from the Middle States.
The American general could oppose to this great army strength
only 27,000 undisciplined troops, most of whom were Ameri-
militia, and part of whom were entirely inefi'ectual, par- "^
IT J *^^™V
tially provided with arras and ammunition, and distracted
21

242 THE ENGLISH LAND ON LONG ISLAND.
_^^Bk^ by sectional jealousies; stUl he resolved to prevent, if
°^-^- possible, the occupation of New York by a superior
A. D. force.
1776. Howe, before be made preparations to occupy New
York, sent a letter to Washington, offering terms of ac
commodation ; but as it was directed merely to George
Washington, Esq., without recognising his military rank.
General he very properly decUned to receive it. Without losing
Sndson ^^^ ™°''® '^6, the British general landed his troops at
Long Gravesend, proposing to approach New York by way of
Long Island. The American army, in anticipation of this
movement, was stationed at Brooklyn. Between the
American camp and the British army was a range of
hills, the passes of which were imperfectly guarded;
through tbese tbe British troops advanced in the night
Aug. 26. of the 26th of August, and nearly surrounded the Ame-
Battie of ricans the next morning. A battle ensued ; but, attacked
Brook- jj^ jj^g j.gj^j gjjij front by superior forces, the Americans
Heights, were compelled to retreat, with a loss of nearly two thousand
killed, wounded, and taken prisoners. Among those who
were captured were Generals Sullivan and Stirling. The
British lost about four hundred men.
Aug. 30. After such a check, Washington deemed it prudent to
o/wash- retreat from Long Island, wbich, of course, fell into the
•nfitou. hands of the British (August 30th). He left a consider
able force in New York, but encamped with his main
body on Harlem Heights, ready to retire, if necessary,
across the Harlem river.
jj„.^g After the battle of Long Island, Howe proposed to
negoti- confer with some members of Congress, in their private
capacity as gentlemen, in order to bring about a reconcili
ation. Congress refused to send any of their number as
individuals, but, as tbey were desirous of peace, oflfered to
send a committee ; and Franklin, Adams, and Rutledge

OCCUPATION OP NEW YORK. 243
were appointed to confer with the British commander. ^^•¦^•
They met on Staten Island ; but nothing resulted from Oh. 2.
the interview, neither party being willing to abandon the a. d.
ground it bad taken. 1776.
Tbis negotiation having failed, miUtary operations were Sept. I6.
resumed. Tbe EngUsh ascended, in then- ships, both the ^^.'"^
Hudson and East rivers, and landed on the east side of t'ous r».
the island, about three miles above the city. Orders were
sent to Putnam, who commanded in the city, to evacuate
immediately ; and it was only by moving rapidly to the
western shore, that he and his troops escaped capture. ^
The next day (September 16th), the Americans repulsed
the enemy in a skirmish, but lost Colonel Knowlton and
Major Fitch.
Howe, having entered the city, and not deeming it occcupa-
prudent to attack the camp of Washington on Harlem Won of
Heights, resolved to cut ofi' his communication with the by the
Eastern States. With this view, the main body of the "*^'''
Bjjtish army, passing up the Sound, landed in the vicinity
of Westchester, fourteen mUes from New York, while
ships of war, ascending the Hudson, cut off the supplies
of the Americans from New Jersey. Thus in danger of Betreat
being shut in by overwhelming forces, the commander-in- "f^^
chief abandoned the island altogether, with the exception eona.
of three thousand men, whom he left at Fort Wasbington,
on the Hudson, and retreated to White Plains, and after
wards to the heights of North Castle, where he strongly
fortified his camp (October 28th). It was the policy of
Howe to bring the Americans into an engagement, and it
was their policy to avoid one, inasmuch as they were
vastly inferior, both in nuinber and discipline, to the
British, who now numbered 35,000 men.
Foiled in the attempt to engage the Americans in bat
tle, and not daring to attack their fortified camp, tho

244 RETREAT OF WASHINGTON.
B^- 'y- British general sought to subdue the forts on the Hudson
Ch. 2. and penetrate New Jersey. Washington, perceiving this,
A. D. crossed the Hudson, near the Highlands, with the main
1776. body of the army, and joined Greene at Fort Lee, leaving
three thousand men, under Colonel Morgan, for the de
fence of Fort Washington. This force was inadequate,
Pall of and, accordingly, being attacked by the enemy, the fort
Wash- surrendered, and all the men, with a great quantity of
•"eton, artillery, feU into tbe hands of the British. They now
occupied the whole of the island, and coramanded tho
And of Hudson. They next directed their attention to Fort Lee,
Fort . - .
Lee. which post Washington was obliged to evacuate, leaving
Retreat behind him his military stores. He retreated across the
toeton''" Hackensack, before superior numbers, and thence across
the Passaic, with forces constantly diminishing, so that
by the 1st of November he had scarcely three thousand
men. Newark, New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton
were successively abandoned by the retreating army. On
the Sth of December he crossed the Delaware at Trenton,
the only barrier between Philadelphia and the British
army. So rapid was his retreat that the van of the pur
suing army appeared as the rearguard of the retreating
one had crossed the river.
This was one of the most gloomy crises in the war.
Success The English were everywhere victorious and triuraphant.
^g^h. "^^^y stretched along the banks of the Delaware from
New Brunswick to the neighbourhood of Philadelphia,
ready to cross the river so soon as it should be frozen.
Their forces were large, and well provided with arms,
ammunition, clothing, and provisions. They were elated
with success, and expected soon to reduce the whole
ftet°e™f country. The American troops scarcely numbered one-
Ameri- quarter of the enemy, were scantily provisioned, had ina-
can af- - ..•. _
fljrs. dequate mihtary stores, and were muoh dispirited. Lee

MILITARY OPERATIONS IN NEW JERSEY. 245
was a captive, being surprised at a house three railes from bk. v."
his main body, where he carelessly quartered. Newport Ch. 2.
was abandoned. A British fleet blockaded Rhode Island, a. d.
Georgia and Carolina were visited by an Indian war. 1776.
Congi'ess had retired to Baltimore.
Under these discouragements, and in view of the despe- Waah-
rate state of affairs. Congress wisely conferred on Wash- "^ed
ington almost dictatorial powers. He was authorized to ¦"'*''
° . . new
displace all officers under the rank of brigadier ; to fill up powers.
all vacancies; to take for the use of the army whatever he
needed, allowing the owner a reasonable price ; to arrest
all disaffected persons, and to raise forces wherever he
could find them. These powers were to continue for six
months. By great exertions he recruited his army to seven The
thousand men ; and, while the British were relaxing their „-™™'
' ' ^^ vein.
watchfulness, during the approaching Christmas festivities, arniyra.
he resolved to "clip their wings." On the evening of
Christmas, with twenty-five hundred of his best troops, he
crossed the Delaware, nine miles above Trenton, and ad
vanced, in a snow-storm, to attack the enemy. They
were corapletely taken by surprise, and fled, but not until
one thousand Hessians were taken, with six pieces of artil
lery. Washington lost only nine men. After performing
this brilliant exploit, he recrossed the river.
Determined to follow up his success, Washington, on d^^ 28.
the 28th of December, again crossed the Delaware, and Matties
' ° 'of Tren-
occupied Trenton, now deserted by the enemy, where he ton and
was joined by some Pennsylvania militia. But Howe, ^^^
alarmed at the surprise of Trenton, sent Cornwallis, with
a strong force, to attack the Americans. Washington
again was in a dangerous position. To cross the river in
the face of a vastly superior enemy was too hazardous to
be attempted. To risk a battle was equally rash, He
21*

246 AMERICAN ENCAMPMENT AT MORRISTOWN.
Bg-'V. resolved neither to retreat nor fight the enemy at Tren
ch. 2. ton, but, bya bold and unexpected march, to gain the
A. D. rear of the enemy at Princeton ; and then, if successful,
1776. to fall upon his stores at Brunswick. Accordingly, by a
Jan. 3. circuitous road, he reached Princeton at midnight (Janu-
1777. ary 3d), where a regiment occupied the coUege, which
soon surrendered. A marching regiment, in the rear of
tbe same, fled towards Brunswick; and two others, in ad
vance, marching to join CornwaUis, were attacked, but
succeeded in joining him, after a desperate contest.
The Araerioans were about to hasten to Brunswick and
seize the English magazines, when Cornwallis, having
penetrated the plan of Washington, was already close
Army upon his rear. The order to advance on Brunswick was
into countermanded, and Washington, desirous to occupy a
winter- defensible position, marched to Morristown, and en-
qnaJ>ters. trenched himself. Cornwallis, not venturing to cross the
Delaware with an army in his rear, and not anxious to
continue a winter campaign, retired to New Brunswick.
Besuits Thus closed the first regular campaign of the war, —
^^^ tbe main army of the Americans being entrenched at
puign. Morristown, while Putnam held Princeton on the one
side, and Heath, the Highlands on the other. The re
covery of New Jersey by tbe fragments of a defeated army
secured to Washington great military fame, in this coun
try and in Europe, whUe it inspired the American people
with fresh hopes of being able to secure their independ
ence. The recruiting service revived, and a new army
was organized. StirUng, St. Clair, Mifflin, Stephen, and
Lincoln were made major-generals ; Poor,. Glover, Patter
son, Vamum, Learned, Huntingdon, George Clinton,
Wayne, De Haas, Cadwalader, Hand, Reed, Waden,
Muhlenberg, Woodford, Scott, Nash, and Conway, re
ceived commissions as brigadiers. The prisoners taken

RESULTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 247
on either side were partially exchanged. Several ships bk. v.
of war were built. Privateers were commissioned ; and ch. 2.
so successful were their operations, that nearly three hun- . .^
dred and fifty vessels, worth, with their cargoes, five mil- 1777.
lions of dollars, were captured, and many of them sold to
the French. A national flag was adopted — the thirteen
stars and stripes, — and negotiations entered into with
France for assistance. In September, Franklin, Deane, Commissioners
and Lee had sailed, as commissioners to the French court, sent to
and received from the government a smaU sum of money, '^'¦'^'^^
which was expended in the purchase of arms and military
stores But Congress was perplexed by financial embar- rinan-
rassments. American bills of credit began to depreciate, ^'^rra^
and loans were not easily obtained. The attempts to ments.
sustain depreciated paper-money were abortive, and intro
duced confusion and calamity. Under all circumstances,
a successful stand was made ; but difficulties and embar
rassments perplexed both Congress and the commander-
in-chief, "who had now earned the name of the American
Fabius.

f fi

Surrender of Burgoyne.

CHAPTER III.
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1777, UNTIL THE SURRENDER OP
• BURGOYNE.
The war into which the obstinacy and stuj^ity of the bk.t.
ministers had plunged the EngUsh nation was, neverthe- ch. 3.
less, popular, and whatever money and supplies were ^ -p
asked for were readily granted by Parliament. It was 1777.
resolved to invade the provinces from Canada, and a large
force was placed at General Burgoyne's disposal for that
purpose. It was also resolved to prosecute the war with
vigour in other sections. Few, in England, doubted
that America would be reduced before another season
should close.
The campaign opened early. In March, 1777, a de- March.
tachment from New York, then occupied by the British, Jl^'^^
was sent up the Hudson to destroy the stores collected at "am-
Peekskill, the lowest point on this river held by the Ame
ricans. In consequence of this attack, whioh was success
ful, new efi'orts were made to strengthen the defences of
the Highlands, and Putnam was sent to take the com
mand. A month later, the town of Danbury, in Connec
ticut, was attacked by General Tyson, at the bead of
2000 men, and the provisions there collected for the use
of the American array were destroyed. Tyson then re
treated, but was molested by two corps of militia, one
under Wooster, and the other under Arnold ; but he suc-
(249)

250 GREAT MILITARY OPERATIONS.
ceeded in reaching head-quarters, with the loss of 170

Oh. 3. men, killed and wounded. Wooster was unfortunately
A. D. kUled, and Amold for his bravery was made a major-
1777. general.
E.v:pedi- ^he Americans retaliated by a similar marauding ex-
tfj Sag pgdition under Colonel Meigs, sent against Sag Harbour,
hour, by which twelve English vessels were destroyed, a large
quantity of provisions seized, and ninety men taken pri-
May 24. soners. Soon after. General Prescott, being quartered
0^00""^ carelessly in the vicinity of Newport, was captured by a
Prescott. small party, as Lee had been the preceding year. He
was afterwjirds exchanged for Lee.
Howe But, early in June, miUtary operations were conducted
j,'t„'>, on a great scale. Howe, being reinforced, left New York,
Jersey, ^itji 30,000 men, and advanced into New Jersey, with
the view of penetrating to Philadelphia, or of bringing
Washington out of his entrenchments, and forcing him to
a general engageraent. He had then removed to Middle
brook, with 8000 men.
But the American Fabius was too wary to fight under
June 30. . / °
Hisde- such disadvantages; and Howe, disappointed, embarked
PhSa™ 18)000 men at Staten Island, with the view of approach-
deiphia. iug Philadelphia by water, leaving the remainder of the
army under General Clinton, to co-operate with General
Burgoyne on the Hudson.
Washington, uncertain as to the destination of Howe,
proceeded to PhUadelphia, to confer with Congress; and,
Wash- there, for the first time, he met the Marquis De la Fayette,
mee^ ^^° ^^'^ j'^®* 8.rrived, and who had offered hiraself as a
'Latay- volunteer in the American service. This generous noble
man, influenced by zeal for the cause of liberty, had pur
chased a ship at his own expense, and loaded it with
miUtary stores for the use of the Americans. SUas
Deane, in Paris, had promised him the commission of

PHILADELPHIA OCCUPIED BY THE BRITISH. 251
major-general, and Congress, admiring his disinterested- bk. v.
ness, readily gave it to him, without, however, any mill- ch. 3.
tary command. Among other distinguished foreigners, a. d.
who came with him, was the Baron De Kalb, a German 1777.
veteran, who also was commissioned a major-general.
In the mean time, General Howe, learning that the
Delaware was obstructed, entered the Chesapeake Bay,
and landed at the head of Elk river, in Maryland, half- Aug. 27.
way between the Susquehanna and the Delaware, and
sixty mUes from PhUadelphia. Washington concentrated Sept. a.
his forces, which amounted to 15,000, at Wilmington, to
await the British army, which was much superior. Soon Amert-
after (September llth), he retired behind the Brandy- ftated,
wine, where he was attacked and defeated, and obUged to ™*j''^
retreat, during the night, to Chester, and the next day to
PhUadelphia. Here he remained but a few days, then
recrossed the Schuylkill, and preceded to attack the British
near Goshen, twenty mUes from Philadelphia; but a vio
lent rain compelled both armies to defer the engagement.
On the 22d, Howe crossed the Schuylkill, below the Howe
American army, and nothing but a battle could now save phua-
Philadelphia. Washington, with inferior forces, which aeiphia.
were deficient in arms and ammunition, and wearied by
recent marches, did not dare to risk a battle, and suffered
the enemy to occupy the city. Its fall had been foreseen.
Congress had adjourned to Lancaster, and the public stores
and private property of value had been removed.
While Howe occupied Philadelphia, his main army '^' *"
was encamped at Germantown, and Washington resolved ofthe
to attack it. The attack was unsuccessful. Wbat pro- ^l^^
nised to be a victory proved a defeat, with the loss to the German-
Americans of over 1000 man, who were, after this re
raise, obliged to retire twenty miles further into the
oun try.

252 INVASION FROM OANADA.
Bk. V. The next effort of the Americans, in tbis quarter, was
Ch. 3. to prevent the English fleet from ascending the Delaware
A D to Philadelphia, and there forming a junction with the
1777. army. Accordingly, Forts Mifflin and Mercer, which
Defences Commanded the Delaware, were strongly fortified. Both
on the these defences were attacked by the enemy on the 22d
ware of October, at first unsuccessfully ; but, after a series of
doMd attsicks, they were abandoned, and the navigation left
open to the English.
But, while the enemy triumphed in Pennsylvania and
New Jersey, a series of brilliant and unexpected successes
awaited the Americans in New York, and made the sub
jugation of the country next to impossible.
British It was the plan of the British to invade the country
Invar from Canada — capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point —
""'"• take possession of the posts on the Hudson, and form a
junction with the troops at New York; and thus entirely
separate the Eastem from the Middle States. Accord
ingly, General Burgoyne, with a brilliant army of more
than 8000 men, on the 16th of June, left St. Johns,
established magazines at Crown Point, and proceeded to
Eetreat invest Ticonderoga. General St. Clair, who coraraanded
Clair ^^® fortress, had only 3000 men — an inadequate force, —
and hence abandoned the fort, which, of course, fell into
the hands of the enemy. He had sent his baggage and
stores to Skeensborough, but these were unfortunately
overtaken by the enemy, and destroyed. Nor was this
his only loss. The rear of his retreating army, amount
ing to 1200 men, against his orders, had stopped at
Hubberton, six miles west of Castleton, and were at
tacked (July 7th) by General Frazer, and so completely
were they destroyed or disjersed, that only ninety men,
under Warner, joined his small army, two days after.
He at first retired to Rutland ; but, on the 13th of July

BURGOYNE ON THE HUDSON. 253
he malp a junction with the main army, under Schuyler, Bk. v.
at Fort Edward, on the Hudson. ch. 3.
The loss of Ticonderoga and all its artillery, the dis- a. d.
. aster at Skeensborough, and the defeat at Hubberton, 1777.
together with the dispersion of the American troops, Djjag.
almost overwhelmed Congress. The English seemed to ^^ "^
be triumphant everywhere. New York was in possession Amerl-
of the enemy. Philadelphia had also fallen, and was garri- '^''
soned by Howe's army. There was great difficulty in raising
men and money. Want of confidence in the American ge
nerals was whispered, and nothing seeraed to prevent the
full reaUzation of all the British schemes. Burgoyne was
so confident of success, that he issued a proclamation for
the re-estabUshment of the royal authority. Through the
unbroken wilderness between Lake George and the Hudson
he made his way — all impediments were overcome, and Arrfvat
at last, on the 29th of July, the banks of the Hudson of Bur-
were reached, and he had only to penetrate to Albany, on the
and be safe and victorious. Hudson.
But when be arrived at Fort Edward, which the Ame- Fort Ed-
ricans had abandoned to him, he found that he was defi- ^
' aban-
cient in provisions, nor could he advance advantageously doned.
until they were obtained. He therefore despatched a
strong detachment, of 800 men, under Colonel Baum, to
seize a quantity of stores which the Americans had col
lected at Bennington. It so happened that a party of
New Hampshire militia, under the command of Colonel
Stark, had lately arrived at Bennington. Informed of
Baura's approach, Stark sent off expresses for the militia
and the forces in the neighborhood. He was also joined
by fugitives from Hubberton. Baum, not wishing to en
counter these forces, entrenched himself, six miles from
Bennington, and sent back to Burgoyne for reinforce- Aug. 16.
ments. But before these could arrive, Stark had attacked victory.
22

A. D.

254 SUCCESSES OF THE AMERICANS.
Bk. V. him (August 16th). "There they are !" said the gaUant
Ch. 3. colonel — "We beat to-day, or Sally Stark's a widow 1"
Scarcely were the entrenchments carried and the enemy
dispersed, before the reinforcements arrived. The battle
was renewed, and gained by the Americans, who lost only
14 killed and 42 wounded. Of the enemy 200 were
killed, and 500 taken prisoners, together with 1000
stand of arms.
Success This disaster was a severe check to Burgoyne, and
Amer-- ^^^ ^°°'^ followed by the defeat of another expedition,'
cans. which he had sent to reduce Fort Schuyler, near tbe
head of the Mohawk. These successes operated like
magic, in reviving the spirits of the Americans, and
depressing those of their enemy. Volunteers, as well as
regulars, daily arrived at the camp of Schuyler, amid the
islands at the mouth of the Mohawk while the Indians
Schuy and Canadians began to desert Burgoyne. Much, how-
ne'rsMed '^'^^^t ''0 ^he chagrin of Schuyler, he was superseded by
byOates. Gates, just as affairs began to turn in bis favour and as
the way for victory was prepared.
Gates had now a large force of 6000 strong, besides
militia, to resist the English general, who was delayed a
month for lack of provisions. Having, however, collected
of Bur- enough to last for thirty days, Burgoyne, about the mid-
towards ^^'^ °^ September, crossed the Hudson to Saratoga, and
Albany, slowly advanced on his march to Albany. Gates, mean
while, had left his camp amid the islands of the Mohawk,
and occupied Behmer's Heights, near Stillwater. On the
19th of September, Burgoyne having arrived within two
miles of the American camp, he was attacked, but no
thing decisive resulted. His advance, however, was im
peded, and be was compelled to entrench himself, hoping
for a relief frora CUnton. But the expected aid not ar
riving, and suffering from want of provisions, it was

CHANCES OF THE CONFLICT. 255
necessary for him to risk another battle or retreat. He bk.v.
preferred the former ; and, on the 7tb of October, another ch. s.
action occurred, in which prodigies of valour were per- a. d.
formed on both sides. Burgoyne lost the day, and was 1777.
forced to return to Saratoga. Here, however, his situa
tion was not improved. He had only three days' provi
sions, and was surrounded by superior forces, fiushed with
recent success. He could neither stay where he was, nor
retreat, nor advance. Under these circumstances, he was gurren-
conipelled to surrender. 5642 prisoners, with all their ^^ °^
arms and military stores, fell into the hands of the Ame- goyne.
ricans. Ticonderoga and all the forts on the northern
frontier were abandoned when the news of tbis great mis
fortune reached the English. Clinton, who had advanced
with 3000 men to relieve Burgoyne, retreated to New
York. The surrender of Burgoyne indicated the fate of the Pros-
war, since it showed that the Americans fought under ^^° J^^
greater advantages than their enemy, and that the coun
try itself presented difficulties which were insurmountable
to an invader. It mattered but little tbat cities were
taken, when the great body of the people resided in the
country, — were scattered over mountains, valleys, and
forests — were willing to make sacrifices, and were com
manded by generals whom no danger could appal, and
no disasters could discourage. Washington, Gates, Greene,
Putnam, Lee, and others, knew that the issue of the con
flict was no longer doubtful. None were blind but the
EngUsh ministry. They alone still dreamed of achieving
an impossibility, — for it is impossible to subdue a great
nation, determined to be free.
Lord North, however, on hearing of the total surrender proposi-
of the great Northem army, which was to complete the ^^ina,
subjection of America, was forced to propose concUiatory «<"».

256 OABAL AGAINST WASHINGTON.
Bk. V. measures. He sent commissioners to America, who of-
Ch. 8. fered all that the colonies had ever asked previous to the
A. D. Declaration of Independence. But conciliation, without
1777. the recognition of entire independence, was now too late.
rrance The surrender of Burgoyne had also a great eflect on
Joins m ^_]jg French nation — ever dazzled by outward success, and
t)ie war. •' , '
easily led where glory opens the way. The government
may not have sympathized with the American cause, but
it hated England more than liberty, and accordingly ac
knowledged the independence of America, and prepared
to aid it with its forces, which action of course involved
tbe nation in a war with England. Lord North had now
to contend with the most powerful nation on the continent
of Europe, as well as rebellious colonies,'
Condi- Notwithstanding the probability of ultimate success, the
theArJe- Americans Were greatly embarrassed for lack of nioney, —
can nor was the army well supplied with clothing and stores,
"°'^' to meet the approaching winter. Out of 11,000 men in
Washington's camp at Valley Forge, near Philadelphia,
nearly 3000 were barefooted, and suffering under severe
privations. The officers were compelled to trench upon
their private property, and made sad complaints to Con-
Cabai gress. Moreover, a cabal was formed against Washington
^^^. himself, whose late disasters contrasted unfavourably with
togton. Gates's brilliant successes. Many influential members of
Congress doubted Washington's fitness for the supreme
command ; while a correspondence, extremely derogatory
to his military character, was carried on between Gates,
Mifflin, and Conway. Human nature showed its dege
neracy even among patriots, and heroes.
His Tin- But Congress, the array, and his country in general
sustained the commander-in-chief, by whose wisdom and
pmdence the nation had been saved. Others, as brave
as he, may have led triumphant battalions at Behmer's

CHARACTER OF WASHINGTON. 257
Heights. But none combined those moral and intel- Bk. v.
lectual quaUties, which secured, to so eminent a degree, Ch. 3.
the affections and confidence of his countrymen. The a. d.
perfection of character, so far as it was ever seen in 1777.
revolutionary times, was exhibited by Washington alone.

Battle of Monmouth.

2U

CHAPTER IV.
THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR, FROM THE SURRENDEB
OF BURGOYNE TO THE TREASON OP ARNOLD.
Washington remained during the winter of 1777-8 bk. v.
encamped at Valley Forge, with 11,000 men, watching ch.4."
the movements of the British at Philadelphia, and re- a. d.
organizing the army, in which he was greatly assisted by 1778.
Baron Steuben, a Prussian officer, and an excellent dis-
cipUnarian. Congress still continued to be greatly embarrassed by
the depreciation of paper-money, and the inability to se
cure loans. It was obUged to issue new billa of credit, to New :>
a great amount, as the only way to pay the half-discon- ™^g°^f
tented troops. credit.
In January, the treaties of friendship and alliance with Treaties
France were signed, by which both parties agreed to con- p'*'*'
tinue the war until the independence of America was gjgned.
recognized by Great Britain.
No miUtary movements of importance occurred until
the middle of May. In order to gain intelligence of the
movements of the enemy, and also to restrict foraging
parties from Philadelphia, Washington sent Lafayette,
with a division, to occupy Barren Hill, ten miles in ad
vance of the camp. Clinton, however, sent a force of
5000, under Grant, to cut him off; and the young general Retreat
was forced to retreat, which retreat he effected in a mas- etto.
terly manner, and thereby gained great reputation. (269)

260 BATTLE OF MONMOUTH.
3k. V. As the Delaware was Uable to be blockaded by a French
Ch. 4. flggt, SU Henry Clinton, who bad succeeded Howe, re-
A. D. ceived orders from his government to evacuate Philadel-
1778. phia, no longer to be held in safety. On the 18th of
'june IS. June, be sent his military stores and baggage to New
dd^hia ^'^^^ ^J Water, and crossed the Delaware with his army,
evacu- 12,000 stiong, with a yiew of marching through New
' ated. T-
J ersey.
TheBrit- Washington immediately set out in pursuit, and soon
New'' came near the English forces, intending to bring on a
Jersey, general engagement. Lafayette was ordered, witb 2000
men, to press upon CUnton's left wing, and draw him
from the heights. As Lee claimed the leadership, on ac
count of his superior rank, he was sent, with two addi
tional brigades, to take command, and attack the enemy,
then encamped at Monmouth ; Washington, meanwhile,
having promised to support him with the main army.
Retreat As Washington advanced on the morning of the 28th of
June, he met Lee retreating, and only an indecisive action
followed. Washington, greatly irritated, gave Lee a se
vere reproof, who, instead of bearing it quietly, wrote two
disrespectful letters to his superior, which resulted in bis
arrest, trial, and suspension for twelve months. On the
expiration of his sentence, he addressed an insolent letter
Hia die- to Cougress, and was dismissed wholly from the service.
from the Thus ended his military career, without having realized
service, the great expectations formed of him at the commence
ment of the war. He died in retirement, in 1782.
After the battle of Monmouth, the British proceeded,
without further molestation, to Sandy Hook, whence they
Arrival were transported to New York. Scarcely had they sailed,
French when the Count D'Estaing appeared, with a French fleet
fleet. of twelve ships of the Une and two frigates, with 4000
French troops. A joint attack on New York was con-

REDUCTION OF NEWPORT. 261
teinplated, and Washington crossed tbe Hudson, and took bk. v.
up his quarters at White Plains; but, as the pilots de- Cb.4.
clined to take the heavier ships over the bar, the attack a. d.
was relinquished. 1778.
It was then contemplated to reduce Newport, which, Keduo-%
for eighteen months, had been held by the British. Ac- JJ"""'
cordingly, upon a call from Sullivan, who commanded in port.
that quarter, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecti
cut, furnished 5000 additional troops, to co-operate with
the French, who had already entered the harbour of New
port, and bad caused the British to destroy six of their
frigates. Soon after, the American army, 10,000 strong,
landed on the island, expecting to be joined by the 4000
French troops. The greatest enthusiasm prevailed. Every
thing proraised success.
But the French really cared more to gain glory by de- nisaeter
. , to tll6
feating the English in a naval battle than to assist the French
Americans, in spite of their great professions and appa- ^"^ij^j,
rent co-operation. So soon as the fleet of Lord Howe fleets.
appeared off the harbour of Newport, D'Estaing left his
allies, to give battle to the English, notwithstanding the
remonstrances of Wasbington and Lafayette, and without
so much as disembarking his troops. This was both pro
voking and unfortunate. Before the naval action could
.commence, a storm arose and damaged both fleets, and
compelled them to retire, the one to New York and the
other to Boston. The English fleet, however, suffered less,
and soon reappeared at Newport, for the defence of the
town, which was soon after reinforced by 4000 troops frora
New York, under Clinton himself. Sullivan was placed SuUivan
in a critical situation, and had just time to retire. Thus J^rft^k •
ended all the hopes which had been formed of the reduc- ¦
tion of Rhode Island. Sullivan could not control his
feelings of disappointment, and uttered loud complaints,

262 WYOMING MASSACRE.
Bg'y- which were re-echoed throughout New England. It re-
ch. 4. quired all the policy of Washington to soothe the morti-
A. D. fied D'Estaing; and Congress, to heal the growing breach,
1778. passed resolutions approving his conduct, which was per
haps necessary.
Move- D'Estaing was not refitted until November, and then
ofthe sailed for the West Indies, now the principal seat of war
French fcgtween FraucB and England. Thither were also sent
and _ _ °
Kngiish. 5000 British troops from New York ; and, three weeks
later, 3500 men to attack Georgia. Enough, however,
remained in New York to defend it from an attack by
the Americans.
Frontier While the American forces were concentrated on the
tions. coast, the western frontiers were molested by the Indians.
Among the settlements most exposed to attack was Wyo
ming, on the Susquehanna, in the neighborhood of which
were unfortunately many hostile to the American cause,
and who were then called Tories. These Tories, uniting
with the Indians, surprised the garrison, and massacred
many of the inhabitants of the town, and laid waste the
surrounding country. The savage invaders then retired,
hearing of the approach of continental troops. The west
ern sections of Virginia would equally have suffered, had
it not been for the vigilance, activity, and bravery of
Colonel George Roger Clarke and a body of militia under
his command.
Sum- Nothing more of importance marked the campaign,
tbe^Kim- which gave satisfaction to neither of the contending par-
paign. ties. The English were the more successful in the few
'- actions which occurred. The Americans had recovered
Philadelphia, and came near expelUng the English from
Rhode Island. But these advantages were again coun
terbalanced by the successes of the enemy in Georgia.
Nor was the campaign of 1779 more encouraging or

MILITARY OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTH. 26'6
decisive. Congress was crippled for want of money, bk. v.
which was, with extreme difficulty, obtained, and then ch. 4.
only to a Umited extent. In consequence of the rapidly a. d.
increasing depreciation of paper-money, and the impossi- 1779.
bUity of securing loans, no offensive measures, on a large
scale, could be adopted. The only resource which Con
gress had was to issue new bills of credit, whicb imme
diately depreciated to such a degree that twenty dollars
were worth only one in specie. The whole American Amcri-
force consisted, in the spring of 1779, of but 17,000 ^^ces.
men ; 3000 of whom, under Gates, were posted in New
England; 7000 at Middlebrook, the head-quarters of
Washington during the winter; and 6000 amid the High
lands and on the east of the Hudson, under Putnam and
M'DougaU. General Robert Howe commanded, with 600 regulars Georgia
and as many more militia, near Savannah, an inadequate '"J";,^
force to resist the 3500 men sent from New York to ope- ofthe
rate against Georgia. He entrenched himself as well as
he could, two miles from Savannah, but was there at
tacked by Campbell, with great loss ; and Savannah and
aU Georgia feU into the possession of the British.
Military operations were now chiefly confined to the provost
South. General Provost, who commanded in Florida, *°*''''
' ' South.
was ordered to unite his forces with those of Campbell,
and assume the command. He was also joined by a con
siderable number of Tories, and was thus prepared to
undertake a devastating war, especially as his forces were
greatly superior to any sent out against bim.
At the request of the southem members of Congress, ^owc
General Lincoln was sent to supersede Howe, and take supcrse-
ded by
the chief command of the Southern army, which chiefiy Lincoln.
sonsisted of militia. These were no match for the Brit
ish regulars, and a succession of disasters was the result.

¦-Ot SURPRISE OF STONY POINT.
No decisive battles were fought, but the oountry was

Ch. 4. ravaged with fire and sword. Property, to a considerable
A. D. amount, was destroyed, and the inhabitants kept in per-
1779. petual fear.
Virginia While Provost was plundering Georgia and South Ca-
overrnn j-gliiia, having, however, failed in taking Charleston (May
British llth), General Matthews was despatched frora New York,
with 2500 men, to overrun Virginia. Portsmouth and
Norfolk fell into the hands of the enemy, who destroyed
130 merchant vessels and a considerable quantity of to
bacco. This marauding expedition, intended not so-much
for conquest as for plunder, after destroying property to
the amount of two millions, returned to New York.
Expedi- Tyson, with 2500 men, soon after, was sent on a simi-
Uonintn j^^, gjpgjjition into Connecticut, and succeeded in plunder-
tlcut. ing New Haven, and burning Fairfield and Norwalk. He
then prepared to attack New London, but was recalled in
consequence of the surprise of Stony Point, on the Hud
son, by General Wayne.
Defences At this place, and also at Verplanck Point, whioh com-
Hudson. manded the great Eastern road to the Middle States, and
where the Hudson was passed by a ferry, Washington
was raising defences. These were abandoned on the ap
proach of General Clinton, with 6000 men, who stationed
in them a considerable garrison, much to the annoyance
of the Americans, who were employed in fortifying the
Highlands.
July 11. This post, therefore, Washington was anxious to regain.
takes Wayne was accordingly sent against it, and succeeded in
Point surprising it on the llth of July, and taking 450 prison
ers, with the loss, however, of 100 men. Soon after this
brilliant exploit, Major Lee surprised a British garrison
at Paulus Hook, now Jersey City, killed 30 and took 150
prisoners. As Stony Point could not be defended with-

EXPEDITION AGAINST THE INDIANS. 265
out the risk of a general engagement, Washington again Bk.v.
abandoned it to the enemy. Ch. 4.
These successes on tbe Hudson were followed by a a. d.
considerablfe disaster in Maine. A British force of 1600 1779.
men from Nova Scotia had established themselves on the
Penobscot . The State of Massachusetts sent out an ex
pedition of 1500 men, in nineteen armed vessels, to dis
lodge them. This force, commanded by General Lowell, Lowell's
was found unequal to the task, and before he could be tSi^de.
reinforced, his ships were attacked by a superior force, fe^'"*-
under Sir jGeorge ColUer, and mostly destroyed. The
soldiers and seamen escaped to the shore, but endured
great hardships before they succeeded^ in making their
way back. This expedition was attended with great ex
pense, as well as disappointment and mortification.
The Indians, especially the Six Nations, continuing sniiivan
their depredations on the frontiers, General- Sullivan was 1°""=**?
\ . ' Chnton.
sent against them with a strong force. He proceeded
up the Susquehanna, and was joined at Tioga Point by
General James CUnton, with 1600 men, who, with his
own, composed an army of 5000. At Elmira, he en- Aug. 2.
countered the enemy, composed of Indians and Tories, tij^ in
under Brandt, the Butlers, and Johnson, strongly en- '''™^
trenched on a rising ground. Having routed this force, Tories.
he explored the valley of the Genesee, ravaged the coun
try, and compelled the Indians, for want of food, to emi
grate. It was the intention of Sullivan to attack Niagara, after Attack
dispersing the Indians. But want of provisions, and in- ""^ '"'^
sufficiency of means, prevented this great object of the vented.
expedition. In disgust, he threw up his commission, and
entered Congress as a delegate from New Harapshire.
While the Americans fought the Indians on the fron
tiers, the French and English fleets in the West Indies
23

266 NAVAL VICTORY OP PAUL JONES.
Bk. y. encountered each other in some indecisive engagements.
Ch.4. Returning from the West Indies, Count D'Estaing ap-
A. D. preached the coast of Georgia with twenty-two ships of
1779. the line. A frigate was despatched to Charleston with
Failure the ncws, and a plan concocted with Lincoln, who com-
of the inanded the Southern army, for the recovery of Savannah.
recover D'Estaiug would uot Wait for the effect of a regular siege,
n^!°" fearing injury, at that season of tbe year, to his fleet; so
Oot_ g_ an assault was made, by the French and Americans, which
failed, with a loss of 1000 men. On this disaster, the
French troops re-embarked, and again sailed for the West
Indies, while Lincoln returned to Charleston.
Move- Clinton, meanwhile, fearing that New York might be
of the attacked, withdrew bis troops from Newport and the posts
on the Hudson, and strengthened the fortifications of the
city. Moreover, resolving to make the South the princi-
Deo. 26. P^l theatre of the war, he embarked for Savannah, with
7000 men, so soon as he heard of D'Estaing's departure
for the West Indies.
Close Thus closed the campaign of 1779, without either side
°j„,j.° obtaining any important advantages, or fighting any de-
paign. cisive battle. There were some brilliant exploits per
formed, on a small scale, not merely on the land, but on
Naval the water. Among these was a naval action, on the coast
Jones, of Scotland, between a flotilla of French and American
vessels, commanded by Commodore Paul Jones, and a
large British frigate and one smaller ship, convoying a
fleet of merchantmen. Jones commanded the Bon Homme
Richard, a French vessel of forty-two guns, and engaged
July 23. ^jjg ggrapis, of equal or superior force. When his ship
was in a sinking state, the intrepid Jones (a Scotchman
by birth) lashed her to the English frigate, and carried
her by boarding, but not until 300 of, his men, out of
375, were either killed or wounded.

SURRENDER OP CHARLESTON. 267
The year 1780 opened with great embarrassments to bk. v.
the Americans. The final issue of the contest was not oh.4.
doubtful, but financial difficulties prevented vigorous mea- . _
sures. At no previous period did Congress find it so diffi- 1780.
cult to raise money. Their resources seemed now ex- -^i^^_
hausted. No one could advance an adequate loan. The '^'^ dia.
Continental biUs had depreciated so much that one hun- distress i
dred doUars were worth only one in specie. The com- °''''°.
•^ ^ Amen- |
missioners had neither money nor credit, and starvation cans. I
stared the soldiers in the face. Washington — such was
the distress — was obliged to levy contributions on tbe
surrounding country, — the last stretch of absolute power
— the last resource of a desperate army. The contest
was apparently no nearer a termination than after the sur
render of Burgoyne. The French alliance had held out
great expectations, and produced nothing but disappoint
ment. The expeditions against Newport and Savannah
had both failed for want of proper co-operation. The Snpe-
. . riority
British forces were still vastly superior in numbers, and ofthe
were well provided with the necessary supplies. England ^"*'^'^
seemed determined, this year, to make one more desperate
attempt to coerce the colonies. Accordingly, Parliament
granted ministers all they asked — 35,000 additional
troops, and one hundred millions of dollars.
During this year (1780), military operations were
nearly suspended at tbe North, but pushed with great
vigour at the South, which was doomed to fearful suf
ferings. The first enterprise of the British was to lay siege to Charie».
Charleston. On the 14th of April, the city was com- ^^^
pletely invested. On the 6th of May, Fort Moultrie,
which defended the approach by Ashley river, was taken.
On the 12th, when all things were ready for an assault, Surren-
' ^ "^ , der of
which must have proved successful, the garrison surren- the dty.

268 BATTLE OF CAMDEN.
Bk. V. dered, and General Lincoln and a large body of troops
Ch.4. became prisoners of war. Thus seven general officers,
A. D. te° regiments, three battalions, four hundred pieces of
1780. artillery, and four frigates, fell into the hands of the
enemy, — the greatest disaster wbich the Americans had
thus far met with, but for which no blame was attached
to Lincoln, since he was deprived of the co-operation of
the militia, which he had expected, and was opposed by a
superior force. This misfortune proved how little reU-
ance could be placed by southern cities on the aid of mi
litia from the country in times of imminent danger.
Royal Clinton, having re-established the royal authority in
ty re- South Carolina, returned, in June, to New York, leaving
billed CornwaUis, with 4000 men, to extend and complete his
conquests. There now remained of the army of tbe South
but a single continental regiment, and this was 400 miles
from Charleston.
Gates In yigw of the distress of the Southern States, Gates
the was despatched, with a considerable force, for their relief.
South, jjjg army, joined by different bodies of Virginia and South
CaroUna militia, numbered 5000 men. Cornwallis has
tened from Charleston to meet him; and, at Camden,
formed a junction with Lord Rawdon, afterwards the cele
brated Marquis of Hastings. The united British forces
advanced to surprise Gates, while Gates had left Clermont
for the purpose of surprising Cornwallis. The two armies
met near Saunder's creek, a branch of the Wateree, about
Aug. 13. 115 railes north-west of Charleston. A bloody battle
feat at was here fought, and gained by the British. The Ame-
Camdon. rioaus, indeed, were corapletely routed, and lost over 1000
men, with all their baggage and artillery. General Gates
retired to North CaroUna, with a few of his scattered
troops, leaving the South completely at the mercy of the
British, who acted the part of conquerors, and inflicted

DISASTERS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 269
signal and useless cruelties on the people. They hanged bk. v.
many of the militia as traitors, and confiscated the pro- oh. 4.
perty of those who were friendly to the cause of liberty. ^_ p_
Nor was the disaster, which suUied the laurels of the 1780.
victor of Saratoga, the only misfortune ofthe Americans, j^^ _
The brave Colonel Sumter, who had headed an insur- sal ofthe
rection north of Camden, and had made successful attacks u^j^cr
on some British posts, retreated when he heard of Gates's ^"'^"
defeat, but was followed and overtaken by Colonel Tarl-
ton, with a body of horse ; bis troops were attacked and
dispersed, and he himself escaped with difficulty. He
soon after collected a new force ; but all tbat the Ame
ricans could now do, was to carry on a guerilla warfare. Gates
The S(3uth was at the mercy of the British. Gates lost ^^^^
aU his fame, and was superseded by Greene.
The only success whioh balanced these evils at the Defeat
South, was the defeat of Colonel Ferguson, whom Corn- ^^^
wallis had detached to the frontiers of North CaroUna,
for the purpose of encouraging the loyalists to take up
arras. Exasperated by his excesses, a body of militia,
chiefly riflemen, attacked his party, at King's Mountain,
a post near the boundary between North and South Ca
rolina. Ferguson fell, and 300 men were killed or
wounded, while 800 were taken prisoners, together with
1500 stand of arms.
The carapaign of 1780 was the most calamitous and Results
unsatisfactory during thd whole war. The English were eam-
generally victorious, while the poverty of tbe Americans p^ku.
prevented the enUstraent of troops. The three Southern
States were incapable of helping themselves, and those at
the North were penniless. To add to these calamities,
General Amold proved a traitor, and came near deliver
ing West Pomt into the hands of the enemy. His ex
travagance had involved him in debt, and his insolence
23*

270 ARNOLD'S TREASON.
Bk. V. and pride had created numerous enemies. Mortified be-
Cb 4. cause his claims against Congress were cut down, and
A D complaining of ingratitude because he was not more araply
1780. rewarded for his services, he entered into treasonable cor-
Treaaon respondence with Sir Henry CUnton, through Major An-
of Ar- (jr^^ adjutant-general of the British array. In order to
facilitate his designs, he soUcited and obtained coramand
Aug. 3. of the fortress of AYest Point — for who dreamed that the
hero at Behmer's Heights and Quebec could be guUty of
treason, and consign his name, glorious in spite of his
faults, to an infamous iraraortality ? His treason was de-
„„ tected, iust as his scheraes were matured ; but the traitor
Sept. 22. ¦' ' .
Capture had time to fly. Major Andr6, who bad communicated
^^"^""^ in person with Ai'uold, was seized on suspicion, as he was
making his way alone back to New York, not being able
to retum the way he carae, which was by water. In his
stockings were found plans of the fortress and other trea
sonable papers, in Arnold's own handwriting. Colonel
Jamieson, the coraraanding officer at the lines, to whom
Andrfi was brought by the three raen who had seized him,
unsuspicious of Arnold's treachery, sent back to him the
Sept 24. letter found on Andr^. He received it while breakfasting
with Washington's aids-de-camp, the chief himself being
Arnold goon expected from Hartford. He immediately rose from
the table, called his wife up-stairs, bade a hasty adieu,
mounted a horse, rode to the river, embarked in his barge,
and safely reached the Vulture, the ship whioh had trans
ported Andr^ from New York. He was safe; but poor
Andr§ Andre was executed as a spy. Neither his family, nor
cuted aa ^^^^j "o'^ accomplishments, nor virtues, nor the interoes-
a spy. sion of the British commander-in-chief, could save him
from the fete which the stern rules of war demanded.
His execution was denounced in England as a murder,

ARNOLD COMMANDS A BRITISH FORCE. 271
and tended much to aggravate the feelings which were Sk. v.
now generaUy embittered towards the Americans. ch. 4.
Amold received for his treachery $50,000, and a com- a. d.
mission as brigadier -general in the British army — a 1780.
smaU recompense for the ignominy which settled over his Arnold's
name. Henceforth his fine military talents were em- "w=^*-
ployed against his countrymen. He was sent to the
Chesapeake Bay, and, with 1600 men, commenced the
devastation of Virginia.

;,c

i» it ^Miifc^^ wm

I iif 'M (HP

Signing ofthe Treaty with England.

CHAPTER V.
THE TWO LAST CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR.
The campaign of 1781 did not open with encouraging bk. y.
prospects to the Americans. Their means of resistance ch. 6.
were becoming more feeble ; their resources were nearly
exhausted ; their patience nearly wearied out. The Penn- 1781.
sylvania troops, amounting to 1300, abandoned the camp ... .
at Morristown. Both officers and men were getting wea- affaira.
ried of a contest in whieh they were acquiring neither
fortune nor fame. On aU sides, the British were in the
ascendant. They still occupied New York, and had re
duced South Carolina to subjection. Their troops ravaged
the South without resistance.
In tbis last crisis, Congress and the States made extra- ToKa,-
ordinary exertions. Taxation was resorted to, and, in the *'°?^'^
exigency of affairs, was acquiesced in. But the most effi- to.
cient aid was derived through Robert Morris, of Philadel- Morris'a
phia, by whose financial genius the treasury was reple- ciai dd
nished, and the troops kept from disbanding.
But the campaign of 1781 was, nevertheless, virtually Amoid
the last. It was commenced by the ravages and depre- yjj^^a.
dations of Amold in Virginia. Anxious to signalize him
self by a brilliant exploit, he ascended James river, with jan. 4.
900 men, and entered the town of Richmond without re
sistance, bumed many of the buildings, and seized valu-
(273)

274 DESIGN TO CAPTURE ARNOLD.
Bk. V. able stores — those which he oould not can-y away, he
Ch. 6. destroyed.
A. D. Baron Steuben was in Virginia at the time, organizing
1781. recruits for Greene's army; with a few hundred of these
Desio-n ^ud a body of militia, who rallied around him — assisted,
to cap- aigg^ \ij Nglson, who had collected another corps — he
noid. advanced to watch the traitor, hoping eventually to cap
ture him. Washington, also, was very desirous to secure
bis person, and accordingly sent Lafayette, with 1200
men, to assist Steuben ; and, a French fleet, at the same
time, co-operating, the plan seemed not unfeasible.
March. But the English general, apprized of this project, sont
Admiral Arbuthnot to attack the French fleet ; and Ar
nold, soon after, being joined by 2000 men, under PhUips,
who took the command of the united forces, the Ame-
His . '
escape, ricans were thwarted, and Ai-nold escaped; the British,
Contri- meanwhile, contenting themselves by levying contribu-
levioL' *'ODs on all places through whioh they passed, and, among
others, on Mount Vernon, the seat of Washington.
Hostiii- In another section, further south, hostilities were car-
ties for- , I'l
ther ried on early in the season. Greene commanded the
aouth. Americans, and Cornwallis the EngUsh. The former did
not atterapt to engage the latter in a pitched battle, being
greatiy inferior in strength ; but resolved to harass the
^nt^™ enemy he despaired to conquer. Accordingly, he sent
narass Colonel Blorgan to the western part of South Carolina, to
enemy '^'^sek the devastations of the English and the loyalists.
Cornwallis, then advancing against North Carolina, was
unwilling to leave Morgan in his rear, and therefore
despatched Colonel Tarlton, with a superior force, to drive
him away. Morgan retreated before his enemy, untU he
had selected a strong position, at a place called Cowpens
near Broad river, where he entrenched himself, and pre
pared to face his pursuers. Tarlton came up to him on

DESTRUCTIVE WARFARE IN THE SOUTH. 275
the 17th of January, and, confident of victory, made an Bk.v.
impetuous charge. But his men were weary from rapid ch. 6.
pursuit, while the Americans were fresh. At the first a. d.
assault, the Americans fell back, but suddenly facing 1781.
round, charged, and broke tbe British line, which was Defeat
followed by the complete defeat of Tarleton. Closely jf^*'^''*'
pursued, he lost 600 men, with all his baggage, while
Morgan lost but 80. Tarleton then joined Cornwallis,
who marched, the next day, in pursuit of Morgan, after
destroying all superfluous stores. But Morgan escaped,
and joined Greene (January Slst). Greene, however, was Gi^oono
stiU inferior to tbe enemy advancing to attack him, and
hence he continued to retreat. On the 14th of February,
he crossed the Roanoke, and entered Virginia. Soon
after^, he recrossed into North Carolina, and surprised a Snrprise
body of Tories, who were on the raarch to join the enemy, "(tories.
These he cut to pieces, as a warning to others, and then
took a new position. StUl unable to contend with Corn
waUis in a pitched battle, and unwilling to risk an attack,
he»changed his encampment every day, acting as his own
quarter-roaster, and never telling any one what position
he should occupy next. Like CornwaUis, he was obUged
to live at free quarters. ~^~
Nothing could be more destructive and harassing than (ri,^„_^
this warfare in tbe Southern States. One array was in *« of
constant pursuit of the other, and both armies could sub- fare.
sist only by levying contributions, as injurious to friends
as to enemies. Both arraies had to be perpetually on
guard against surprises. Advantages were nearly equally
balanced, i-
At last, by the middle of March, Greene's army was Qreene
so far reinforced, tbat he, in his turn, assumed the offen- assumes
' . . ' the of-
sive ; and CornwaUis, as his troops were better disciplined, feuBive.
did not decline an engagement. Accordingly, an action

276 CRUELTIES OP THE WAR.
Bk. V. took place near Guilford Court-house (iMarch 15th), and
Ch. 6. Greene was compeUed to retreat. He was not pursued,
A. D. on account of the severe loss the enemy had sustained, and
1781. his want of tents to receive the wounded, and provisions
Battle to refresh the soldiers. About 500 men were lost on each
at Gull- gj|jg_ Though the victory nominally belonged to Corn
wallis, his army was so much weakened that he was com
pelled to fall back to Fayetteville (then Cross creek), and,
being disappointed in not finding provisions there, still
further towards Wilraington.
sieve- Greene then marched into South Carolina, with a view
ofthe of driving away Lord Rawdon, who, with 900 men, was
armies, posted at Camdcu ; and Cornwallis, finding it impossible
to send succour in season, proceeded to Virginia, to join
the British forces under Amold and Philips.
Forts Greene was sufficiently fortunate to take a few of the
takenby
Greene, forts which thc British bad estabUshed, from the sea-coast
Defeat to the wcstem frontier; but he was defeated (25th of
of Us at- j^prji) in an attack on Rawdon, although the loss on both
Rawdon. sides (250 men) was nearly equal. Greene then occu
pied a strong position, twelve miles distant, and Rawdon,
reinforced, sought to engage him in another battle, which
Greene declined. On the 10th of May, Rawdon, finding
that some forts in his rear were attacked by Lee and
Marion, abandoned Camden, and retreated to Monk's
Corner. Then, reinforced, he again assumed the offen
sive; and Greene, in his turn, withdrew (June 18th).
Results Though defeated twice, the Americans, in this active
^nj. campaign of seven months, had reaped the fruits of vic-
paign. tory. A part of South Carolina was recovered, and the
English were confined to a narrow district, between the
Cruelty gantee and the Lower Savannah. Both parties carried on
ofthe . . '^
war. the war with great cruelty — shooting, as deserters, those
who had ever acknowledged the protection of the triumphan t

DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY IN VIRGINIA. 277
army — stealing each other's slaves — burning houses, and bk. v.
plundering private property. It was a predatory war, cii.6.
calculated to harass and irritate, rather than to conquer, a. d.
But mutual exhaustion and mutual barbarities led neces- 1781.
sarily to this savage mode, which, though not creditable
to the commanders, was perhaps scarcely controllable by
them. It was not by such a course that America could
be subdued, or the English driven away.
While these events occurred in North and South Ca- com-
rolina, CornwalUs overran Virginia, the defence of which ^"^''^
' , , over-
was entrusted to Lafayette. But, with bis small force runsVii*
of 8000 men, principally militia, he could do little more ^'"*'
than watch the enemy. Unable to force Lafayette to
a battie, CornwalUs employed himself in destroying
property. Petersburg and Richmond fell into his hands,
and were plundered ; while Tarleton penetrated to Char- ju^e i,
lottesville, and seized several members of the House of
Delegates. Soon after, Cornwallis received orders to send part of
his troops to New -York, Clinton having feared an attack
from Washington. On the 5th of July, he crossed James ^'f''^'.
river, and was then attacked by Lafayette ; but no deci- tacks
sive results followed. At Portsmouth, whither he had ™'
retired, the British general recalled the troops who had
just embarked for the aid of Clinton, and proceeded to oc- Aug. i.
cnpy Yorktown and Gloucester — two peninsulas, project- Heoccu-
ing into York river. Thither he removed with his whole York-
army, amounting to 8000 men, attended by several large *°^°'
sbips of war. This post was deemed desirable, being very
easily defended, very central, and favourable for ulterior
operations. From this place he sent out detachments hjj ^^
which committed great depredations. During his invasion =*™'="
to the occupancy of Yorktown, he had destroyed property proper-
to the amount of ten milUons of doUars.
24

278 TIMELY ARRIVAL OF FRENCH AID.
BK.T. Soon after the arrival of CornwaUis in Virginia, Wash-
Ch. 6. ington received intelligence that the Count de Grasse, the
A. D. new French admiral in the West Indies, would soon ar-
1781. rive in Chesapeake Bay. At first, he contemplated an
Arrival attack OU New York, but Rochambeau, the commander of
of tbo tjjg French forces stationed at New York, was opposed
French . j /
admiral, to it, as too great an undertaking for their united forces.
Wash- The commander-in-chief then resolved to take advantage
ro^m- •'f '^^ promised aid of De Grasse in Virginia, and strike
plates a blow at Cornwallis. Accordingly, advices were sent to
tack on the French at Newport, where they had remained idle for
*^S eleven months, to join Washington in the Highlands, —
also, to Lafayette, to take up a strong position in Virginia,
so aa to cut off the retreat of Cornwallis to North Caro
lina. Every effort, of course, was made to conceal from
Clinton the intended measures, and keep up tbe idea that
the attack on New York was still contemplated.
Mscon- ^g ^jjg American troops passed through Philadelphia
theAme- in the middle of August, uncertain as to their destination,
troops, ^^^y evinced considerable dissatisfaction. But Washing
ton was enabled to pacify them by a partial discharge of
Amval their arrears, in consequence of the timely arrival of Lau-
ney, &c Tcus from Frauco, with half a million of dollars, besides
Frmoe. ^'"™^ ^^^ ammunition. Rochambeau had also advanced
$20,000 from the French military chest. Had it not
been for this supply, the expedition might have failed ;
for American credit was then at the lowest point of
depression, and the old continental bills were worth next
to nothing. One dollar in specie would purchase $1000
in bills — so extreme was the depreciation — so low the
credit of the nation.
Advance As Washington, now furnished witb the means of ope-
ofWash ... , ., , -r^.
ington. rating with energy, advanced towards Virginia, leaving
fourteen regiments, under Heath, to defend the High-

CORNWALLIS INVESTED AT YORKTOWN. - 279
lands, Greene, with tbe Southern forces, kept the British Bk. v.
in check in South Carolina. A battle was fought, on Ch.6.
the 8th of September, at Eutaw Springs, fifty miles from a. d.
Charleston, on the Santee, and the victory was claimed 1781.
by both parties. The Americans, however, were the Battleof
chief gainers, since the English were now obliged to re- g"'."^
turn to Charleston and the neighbouring islands. The
forces of Greene, however, were too much exhausted to
continue active operations, and therefore he retired to the
hills of tbe Santee.
Meanwhile, the French fleet made its promised appear- The
ance on the American coast, and was joined by tbe French g^™°
ships from Newport; so that tbe combined fleets num
bered twenty-four ships of the line — a considerable force
in those times. The French and American army, also,
effected a junction, at Williamsburg, with Lafayette, and
immediately advanced to invest Cornwallis. The invest- Corn-wallis
ing army araounted to 16,000 men, 7000 of wbom were invest-
French. The British force, chiefly posted at Yorktown, ^
numbered 8000. Oomwallis was hemmed in on all sides
by superior forces. York and James rivers were blockaded
by French ships, which De Grasse bad despatched from
Chesapeake Bay ; so that the British could not escape by
sea. An attack on the camp of Cornwallis, wbich was Attack
strongly defended, was made on the 18th of October — camp.
his redoubts were taken, his guns dismounted, and his
ramparts rapidly crumbled down before the fire of the
besiegers, who were posted so as to prevent his retreat to
North CaroUna. A sally was attempted, and failed.
Nothing then remained but to cross the river to Glouces- his pe
ter Point, and force a passage through the troops there
stationed, and push on to New York, pursued by a
victorious and overwhelming enemy, and through a hos-

280 SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS.
Bk. V. tile country. But that desperate soheme was abandoned,
Ch. 6. in consequence of a storm, which drove the boats down
A. D. t'^e river.
1781. Under these circumstances, Cornwallis was obliged to
Surren- Surrender, and 7000 British troops were made prisoners
der of gf ^ar (October il?th). The shipping was allotted to the
wallis. French. Lincoln, who had given up his sword, eighteen
months before, to CornwalUs at Charleston, was appointed
to receive the surrender of the British army.
itsef- This great disaster to the British not only settled the
issue in the Southem States, but virtually closed the war.
It diffused, of course, universal joy throughout the States,
and produced a corresponding depression among the Eng
lish people. So soon as the news arrived, Clinton was
superseded by Carleton.^
Disposi- After the fall of CornwalUs, Wayne, with 2000 men,
theAme- ^*® ®^'^* '^ South Carolina, for the assistance of Greene.
rican The French army, under Rochambeau, encaraped, for the
winter, at Williamsburg. The main body of the conti
nental army returned to their old position near the High
lands. Washington spent much time in Philadelphia,
urging speedy preparations tor the next campaign. La
fayette returned to France. Wilmington was evacuated,
and North Carolina regained. Charleston alone, in South
Carolina, remained in the hands of the British. The war
languished — for all could now see that peace would soon
retum.
1782. MiUtary operations during the campaign of 1782
did not exhibit any brilUant action, although the forces
of both parties still kept the field. The year was most
marked by negotiations for peace, and the strategy of
diplomatists. The war was chiefiy confined to thc South
ern States, and but to small sections of these. The Brit
ish were chiefly confined to New York, Charleston, and

PRELIMINARY ARTICLES OF PEACE. 281
Savannah, which posts they held, and from which they bk. v.
occasionally issued on marauding expeditions, without the Ch. 6.
least expectation of conquering the country. A. 1>.
Lord North stUl manifested a disposition to prolong the 1782.
contest, with the hope of embarrassing the Americans,
rather than of finally subduing them ; and it was too
humiUating for George the Third to acknowledge the
great errors he had committed. But an indignant na- PnWic
tion, groaning under the weight of taxes, and stUl more, (^^^"g.
deprived of a market for their goods, expressed at length land.
tbe desire for peace in a way not to be misunderstood.
The minister, rebuked by the vote of the Commons on
the 4th of March, by which it was declared that whoever
should advise his majesty to any further prosecution of
offensive war against America should be considered a
pubUc enemy, soon after resigned. Lord Rockingham,
incUned for peace, succeeded him, but shortly after died,
and Lord Shelbume became premier.
Negotiations for peace were then opened in earnest. Earnest
Richard Oswald, a British merchant, who had been sent °«s°*'?'
' ^ _ ' tions for
to Paris to confer with Franklin, returned to London, pease.
with the information that nothing less than the acknow
ledgment of independence, a satisfactory boundary, and a
participation in the fisheries, would suit the Americans.
These terms, however unpalatable, were accepted as the
basis of a treaty. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin,
John Jay, and Henry Laurens; were appointed commis
sioners on the part of the United States; and Mr. Pitz-
berbert and Mr. Oswald, on the part of Great Britain.
Tbey met in Paris, and fought the battle of diplomacy;
the result of which was the signing, on the 30th of No- ¦^'^'o'"'
vember, of preliminary articles of peace.
By this great treaty American independence was un- Terms
reservedly acknowledged, together with the right of the treaty.
34*

282 WASHINGTON RESIGNS HIS COMMISSION.
BK. y. Americans to fish, to an unlimited extent, on the banks
Ch. 6. of Newfoundland. Great difficulty was experienced re-
A. D. specting boundaries, which were finally fixed nearly as
1782. they have since remained. No restitution was made, as
was strongly urged, to the American loyaUsts whose pro
perty had been confiscated.
Soon after this treaty was signed, and before the news
of it had reached America, Charleston was evacuated (De-
Cessa- cember 14th). On tbe 19th of April, the cessation of
hostui- hostilities was proclaimed from the camp at Newburg,
t'«s. the head-quarters of the American army, just eight years
after the battle of Lexington. On the 25th of Novem
ber, the British departed from New York, whioh tbey
had held so long ; and a few days after, Long Island and
Staten Island were given up, and the Americans took full
possession. On the 4th of December, Washington made
bis farewell address to his brother-officers, and then, after
taking them all affectionately by the hand, departed to
Annapolis, to resign his commission into the hands of
Wash- Congress. On the 23d of December, in presence of a
rerigDs numerous company of spectators, he, with mingled dig-
hiscom- nity and simplicity, expressed his congratulations on the
successful termination of the war, and thus concluded his
remarks to Congress : " Having now finished the work
assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of action;
and, bidding an atfectionate farewell to this august body,
under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer up
my commission, and take my leave of all the employments
of public life."
His cha. Thus spake the modern Cincinnatus, the most justly
venerated personage connected with American history,
or the history of latter times — venerated, not merely be
cause he was great, but because he was good — a man
who had the rare magnanimity of resigning, with oheer-

racter.

DISSATISFACTION OF THE ARMY. 283
fulness, great power, at the summit of his fame, and bk. v.
whose character shines brighter and more glorious with ch. 6.
the progress of ages, defying the most searching criticism ^ ^
to reveal any defects which can tarnish the uniform 1782.
beauty of his pubUo and private Ufe. He was equally
great, in victory or defeat ; ever mild, conciliatory, gene
rous, prudent, wise, dignified, not unmindful of his high
station, and acting, at all times, in accordance with his
high sense of the responsibiUties which that station im
posed. But, before the retirement of Washington to the tran- Dissatis-
quil pursuits of a Virginia planter, great embarrassments 't^*'""
had occurred as to finances, and the officers as well as the army.
privates of the army were with difficulty appeased. The
commander-in-chief, happily, was exposed to no tempta
tion of a pecuniary kind, since he was one of the richest
citizens in Virginia or the Union. But the officers ex
pected, as they had been promised, half-pay for life, as
weU as a compensation for the depreciation of what they
had already received. The ^magnanimity of Washington
was rarely copied by his brother-officers, and still less by
private soldiers, who manifested the usual infirmity of
human nature. StiU, it was but natural, that men who
made such sacrifices to defend their country should wish
those sacrifices to be appreciated, as, on the whole, they
doubtless were. In the main, the conduct of the army pharao-
' •' terofth*
was worthy of all praise, both for bravery and for endur- army
ance — the heroism of action and the heroism of suffer- ^
ing ; and we should render injustice to those who bled
or died for the future greatness of America, if we do not
honour their memory, and perpetuate their fame." Of all
the contests of modern times, the American revolution
was the most glorious in its principles, its actions, and
its results. No great and briUiant victories, indeed,

284 COST OF THE WAR.
crowned the arms of our countrymen, when they fought in

war.

Ch. 6. pitched batties, like those of Napoleon and WeUington ;
A. D. for they had not the discipline cf European veterans, nor
1782. were their commanders extraordinary for inilitary genius.
But, when all their circumstances are duly considered, —
their inexperience, their poverty, and the difficulties they
had to surmount, — their success was wonderful, and has
been universally acknowledged and honoured, even by their
enemies, and to such a degree, that we are compelled to
feel that they were specially aided by a superintending
arm. He who cannot see a Providence in that contest,
surely, will acknowledge no connection between the des
tinies of nations and the will of the Sovereign of the
universe.
Coet But, while we acknowledge the aid of Providence, let it
0^ ^^^ also be remembered that the cause of liberty was achieved
only by desperate struggles, and by the complete exhaus
tion of the country. Considering its resources at the time,
and still more the fact tbat men and money were not
extorted by tbe unrelenting arm of despotism, but were
voluntarily granted as a free-will offering, we are asto
nished at the magnitude of the sacrifices, — that so many
were willing to enlist with such inadequate pay, and that
they persevered in warfare when its ultimate result was
no longer doubtful. No less than 231,791 soldiers were
furnished to tbe continental ranks during the war, of
whom more than 57,000 were supplied by Massachu
setts. To say nothing of the various calamities of war,
not ordinarily mentioned by historians — such as, the
suspension of commerce and manufactures, the destruc
tion of private property, and the sufferings of the camp
and the hospital — a large national debt was created,
since, indeed, easily paid off, but seemingly enormous at
the time. Besides this federal debt, each individual

MORAL RESULTS. 285
State had a debt of its own, and all the debts together bk. v.
amounted to seventy millions of dollars. ch. 6.
It is difficult to tell how much Great Britain expended a. d.
and lost by the war. Nor does an estimate of the sums 1782.
expended, or the debts incurred, give us an adequate idea Moral
of the results of the contest, among either of the bellige- '^^^^**-
rent parties. The moral results are ever greater than the
physical, great as these may be. Whatever loss was
suffered, either in money, men, or fame. Great Britain
was the heavier loser. She lost the possession of a conti
nent and of a nation of freemen. She had the mortificar
tion of losing the American colonies by negligence, ex
tortion, and pride, which undermined affection, and cut
the cords of mutual interest. Nor could she regain tbem
by the exercise of any skill, courage/ or strength. It
must be allowed that the British fought bravely, and
persevered so long as a shadow of hope remained. They
were conquered, not by superior strength or skill, but by
the impediments which nature presented — by mistakes
of their own which no sagacity could have prevented, and
by the invincible will of a nation determined to be free,
and persuaded that no expenditure of treasure and blood
was too great for the attainment of such an invaluable
blessing as national independence.

BOOK YI.
CONSTITUTIONAL HISTOBT, AND THE EARLY
PRESIDENTS.

CHAPTER I.
CONDITION AND HISTORY OF THE STATES UNTIL THE
ADOPTION OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION.
The Revolutionary war, glorious as it was in its prin- j^. vi.
ciples, and grand in its results, still left the finances of "^hTir
the United States embarrassed, and the government un- . „
. A. D.
settled. There were also other evils. The foreign rela- 1783.
tions were not established upon a satisfactory basis.
There were difficulties with the various Indian tribes, tied
jiany of whom were hostile, and more were discontented, the
The western territories gave rise to perplexing claims, oountry.
The great slavery question was undecided. There was
no provision for a regular revenue — no mint, no uuiform
'customs. There were troubles rising with various Euro
pean states about navigation and boundaries. Commerce
was disordered. The imports far exceeded the exports
in value. Great and unequal fortunes had been made by
speculators. A spirit of luxury had been introduced into
(286)

CONVENTION ON REORGANIZATION. 287
maritime towns, unknown to former generations. Tho bk. vi.
fisheries were broken up. The country was drained of ch. i.
specie. Measures were taken in various sections to or- a. d.
ganize new and independent States. Riots were not un- 1783
common, and rebelUon disgraced the most respectable .,*„_
communities. The disbanded troops of the Continental
army, scattered through the country, and disinclined for
regular pursuits, fomented discontent.
This unsettled state of the country led to the necessity conven-
of a new organization. Accordingly, delegates from the j.^"" q.
several States met in the city of Philadelphia, toward the ize the
govern-
end of May, 1787, to revise the Articles of Confederation, ment.
As in the Continental Congress, it was agreed that each
State should have one vote, irrespective of the number of
delegates it should send, and that seven States should
constitute a quomm. The deliberations were held with
closed doors and injunctions of secresy.
The Convention was composed of the most illustrious ofwhom
citizens of whom the States could boast — men eminent pp^^
for talents, experience, character, and public services.
Among tliese was Franklin, who, thirty-three years be
fore, had sat in the Albany Convention, when the first
attempt had been made at Colonial union. Next in age
and experience were Dickinson, of Delaware, Johnson and
Sherman, of Connecticut, Rutledge, of South Carolina,
Livingston, of New Jersey, Morris, of Pennsylvania,
Wythe, of Virginia, and Gerry, of Massachusetts. Added
to these were men who bad lately arisen, and who were
destined to equal fame — Hamilton, Madison, Randolph,
Ellsworth, King, Pickering. Over all was Washington,
nominated president of the Convention by BIorris, of
Pennsylvania. The business of the assembly was opened Resoiu-
by Governor Randolph, of Virginia, who offered fifteen te^."'
resolutions as amendments to the existing federal system,

288 SUBJECTS OF debate.
BK.VI. and which served as an outline for the subsequent consti-
Ch. 1. tution. The first difficulty whicb arose, and this furnished
A. D. subject of most earnest debate, was in reference to the
1787. powers of the central government in connection with the
Suioects sovereignty of the individual States. The delegates from
o'do- the large States naturally desired a representation in the
future Congress proportioned to their population and
strength. Those from the sraaller States feared that such
a preponderating infiuence would be fatal to their inde
pendence. The election of members of Congress by the
people was opposed by some as too democratic. Sherman
and Gerry, especially, thought that the less the people had
to do directly with government the better. The delegates
also differed as to the- time which the members of the dif
ferent branches of Congress should serve, and still more as
to the ratio of representation — some maintaining that the
property, others that the number of citizens, should be the
basis. Here the free States were at issue with those in
whioh slavery existed. Debates were also held respecting
the manner in whicb the executive sbould be chosen —
whether by the people directly, by the several state legis
latures, or by the governors of the States ; also, as to the
powers he should exercise, the duration of his office, and
the salary he should be allowed. The judiciary depart
ment called forth considerable discussion, as well as the
legislative and executive, as to the mode of appointment,
powers, emoluments, &c.
Princi- It took Considerable time to discuss these questions,
piW,. besides many others of minor importance ; but the great
debates were in reference to the ratio of representation,
the regulation of commerce, of revenue, and of slavery.
Those which most excited the passions of the members
related to the subject of slavery, a topic appealing
to the interests of the North and South respectively.

ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 289
Long and eamest were the discussions on all these points, Bk. vi.
and had not the delegates felt their great responsibiUties, ch. i.
and the necessity of compromise and conciliation to har- a. d.
monize jarring interests and prejudices, the constitution 1787.
would never have been formed or adopted. It was im-
possiblo that men from different sections of the country
should see in the same light any question which was pro-
I posed for discussion, still less such questions as directly
, affected their pecuUar interests and institutions, or were
likely to touch the balance of power between tbe North and
South. Tbe great principles of conciliation, which were cgmp^j,.
finaUy adopted, were, tbat Congress should have unre- miseson
stricted power to enact navigation laws — that the smaller ing sub.
States sbould have an equal representation with the larger J*"**-
in the Senate, and that five slaves should be deemed equal
to three freemen in the representation of the country.
The first was a concession to tbe delegates of the com
mercial and Northern States ; the second, to those of the
smaller States ; the third, to those who represented the
slaveholding and Southern portions of the country.
After a four months' session, when all tbe provisions Adop.
of the Constitution had been earnestly discussed, it was t'ouof
•7 7 the con-
finally signed by a large majority of the members. Of stitu-
aU these members, there was probably not one to whom "^
aU its articles were satisfactory, and it was finally accepted,
not as a perfect one, but as tbe best of which circum
stances would admit. It was clearly and generally seen
that discord and anarchy would be the result, if some im
provement on the old Confederation were not adopted;
and it was deemed better to have an imperfect constitu
tion than none at all — some sort of a central and efficient
govemment, rather than a number of weak ones perpetu
ally in conflict, and ending, finally, in the ascendency of
the more powerful, to the prostration of general interests
25

290

THE CONSTITUTION.

t"^- '^L and the rights of those who were weak and defenceless.
,Ch. 1. There is nothing in the whole history of the country
A. D. which is more worthy of praise than the conduct of the
1787. delegates to this great national convention. There surely
never was any assembly collected together who settled, in
so short a time, such great and confiicting interests.
Provi. Before separating, the delegates made provision for any
amend- future amendment of the Constitution, on the proposition
ments. ^f two-thirds of both houses of Congress and with the
consent of three-fourths of the States. The new system '
was to go into operation whenever nine States should con
federate together. Happily, all the States which were
represented in the Convention agreed to the Constitution
(September 17th, 1787), which was then laid before
Congress, and by Congress transmitted to the state legis
latures. The following are the articles of that famous document,
which it is deemed expedient to print in the body of the
history, rather than in an appendix, on account of its
great importance : —
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.
PREAMBLE.
Objects. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per
fect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquillity, provide
for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure
the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain
and establish this constitution for the United States of America.
ARTICLE I.
SECTION I.
Legis- 1. All legislative poivers herein granted shall be vested in a oon-
'*owers ^^°^ "^ *^^ United States, which shaU consist of a aenate and housa
powers, ^j representatives. SECTION n.
House 1- The house of representatives shall be composed of members
of Rep. chosen every second year by the people of the several states; and

THE CONSTITUTION. 291
the electors in each state shall hare the qualifications requisite for Bk. VI.
electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. ""ch~l~
^¦^2. No person shall be a representative who shall not hare attained
to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a Citizen of the ^ . !"
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of ^j ]jep_
that state in which he shall be choaen.
3. Representatires and direct taxes shall be apportioned among Appor-
the aeveral states which may be included within this union, accord- tion-
ing to their respective numbers, whioh shall be determined by add- "*" °
ing to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-
fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made
witbin three years after the first meeting of the congress of the
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in
snch manner a5 they shall by law direct. The number of represen
tatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each
state shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumera
tion shall he made, the state of Neto ffampshire shall be entitled to
choose three; Massachusetta eight; Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations one; Connecticut five; iVew; York six; New Jersey four;
Pennsylvania eight; Delaware one; Maryland six; Virgima ten;
North Carolina fire ; South Carolina five ; and Georgia three.
4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, Vacan-
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fiU up oies,how
such vacancies. filled.
5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and Speaker,
other officera, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. . how ap-
SECTION in.
I. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two sena- No. of
tors from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; ^™^*o"
and each senator shall have one rote. gtate
2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of Classifl-
the first election, they shall be dirided, as equally as may be, into cation
three claaaes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be of Senar
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at °'''
the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expi
ration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every
second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise,
during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executire there
of may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the
legislature, which shall then fill such racancies. Oualifl-
3. No person shall be a senator who shall not hare attained to the cations.

ment iu
caseofconvic-

292 THE CONSTITUTION.
¦BK.yi. age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
Cb, 1. States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
state for which he shall be chosen.
Presid- i- The vice-president of the United States shall be president of
ing ofa- the senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
^ °^ 5. The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president
pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall
exercise the office of president ofthe United States.
Senate a 6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments.
court for When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
the trial ¦yp-j,g,j jj,g president of the United States is tried, the chief justice
peach- shall preside ; and no person shall he convicted without the ooncur-
ments. rence of two-thirds of the members present.
Judg. 7. Judgment in case of impeachment shall not extend further than
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
office of honour, trust, or profit, under the United States ; but the
tion. parliy convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indict
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law.
BBOTION rr.
Eleo- 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators
tions of and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legisla-
j, ' ture thereof; but the congress may, at any time, by law, make or
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.
Meeting 2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and
ofcon- guojj meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they
shall by law appoint a different day.
SECTION V.
Organi- 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and
cation qualifications of its own members; and a, majority of each shall
constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the
attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such
penalties as each house may provide.
Rules of 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish
proceed- jj^ members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the concurrence of
ing. two-thirds, expel a member.
Joumal 2. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from
ofcon- time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
gress. judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members
of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of
Adioum those present, be entered on the journal.
ment. 4. Neither house, during the session of congress, sball, without

of con
gress.

THE CONSTITUTION 293
the consent of tho other, adjotirn for more than three days, nor to Bk. VI.
any other place than that in whioh the two houses shall be sitting, "ch"!"
SECTION n.
1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation Compen-
for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the trea- sation
sury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, ""* I"^'
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during ^f mem-
their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in go- hers.
ing to or retuming from the same ; and for any speech or debate in
either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
2. No senator or representatire shall, during the time for which Plurall-
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority '^ of of-
of the United States whioh shall have been created, or the emolu- jjijiui^
ments whereof shall hare heen increased, during such time ; and no
person holding any office under the United States shall be a mem
ber of either house during his continuance in office.
SECTION vn.
1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house of re- g^jg
presentatires ; bat the senate may propose or concur with amend- how orl-
ments, as on other bUls. ginated.
2. Every bill which shall hare passed the house of representatives How
and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the bUls be-
president of the United States ; if he approre, he shall sign it ; but P"™"
if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which
it shall hare originated, who shall enter the objection at large on
their joumal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsi
deration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall
be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which
it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approred by two-thirda of
that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases, the rotes
of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names
of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the
journal of each house respectirely. If any bUl shall not be returned
by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall
hare been presented to him, the same shall he a law in like manner
as if he had signed it, unless the congress by their adjournment pre-
rent its retum, in which case it shall not be a law.
3. Every order, resolution, or rote, to which the concurrence of the Orders,
senate and house of representatives may be necessary, (except on a &e. to be
question of adjournment,) shall be presented to the president of the ^ t-,?"
United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be ap
proved by him, or being disapprored by him, shall be repassed by
25*

in con
gress.

294 THE CONSTITUTION.
Bk. VI. two-thirds of the senate and house of representatires, according to
Q]j J the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bUl.
.SECTION VIII.
Powers The congress shall have power —
vested j. Xo lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excise, to pay the
debts and proride for the common defence and general welfare of
the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uni
form throughout the United States :
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States :
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the
sereral states, and with the Indian tribes :
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws
on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States :
6. To coin money, regulate the ralue thereof, and of foreign coin,
and fix the standard of weights and measures :
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities
and current coin of the United States :
7. To establish post-offices and post-roads :
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing,
for limited times, to authors and inrentors, the exclusive right to
their respectire writings and discoreries :
"^9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court: To define
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and
offences against the law of nations :
10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make
rules concerning captures on land and water:
II. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years :
12. To proride and maintain a nary :
13. To make rules for tho gorernment and regulation of the land
and naral forces :
14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of
the union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions :
15. To proride for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mili
tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the
service of the United States, reserving to the states respectirely the
appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia
according to the discipline prescribed by congress :
16. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, orer
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
particular states, and the acceptance of congress, beeome the seat of
govemment of the United States, and to exerci.se like auihority over

THE CONSTITUTION. 295
all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the state in bk. VI.
which the same shall be, for the erection of fort^, magazines, arse- —
nals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings : — and,
17. To make all laws whieh shall be necessary and proper for car
rying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
rested by this constitution in the governmeilt of the United States,
or in any department or officer thereof. "¦.
SECTION DC.
1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the Provi-
states now existing shall think proper to admit shall not he prohi- sions in
bited by the congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred ^ \j^\.
and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importations, gration.
not exceeding ten dollars for each person.
2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- Habeas
pended, unlesa when, in cases of rebellion and inrasion, the public corpus.
safety may require it.
3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, ahall be passed. Attain-
4. No capitation or other direct tax ahall be laid, unless in pro- capita.
portion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be tion tax.
taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articlea exported from any state. Kegular
No preference shall be giren by any regulation of commerce or re- "ona re
venue to the porta of one state orer those of another : nor shall res- duties.
aels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay
duties in another.
6. No money shall he drawn from the treasury but in consequence Moneys,
of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account how
of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub- °^*'"''
lished from time to time.
7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and Titles of
no person holding any office of profit 'or trust under them shall, nobility
without the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolu- Fl?^
ment, office, or title of any kind whaterer, from any king, prince, or
foreign state. SECTION X.
1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; Powers
grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of of states
credit ; make anything but gold and silrer coin a tender in payment ^ )
of debta ; paaa any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im- '
pairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility.
2. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any jestrio.
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- tions.

296

THE CONSTITUTION.

Ch.i.

Execu-
~ tivepow-er vested
in a pre
sident.Howelected.

Proceed ings of
electorsand of
House
of Rep.

lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the neat pre-
duce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports,
shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States, and all such
laws shall be subject to the rerision and control of the congress.
No 4tate shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty of ton
nage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power,
or engage in war, unless actually inraded, or in such imminent
danger as will not admit of delay.
ARTICLE II.
SECTION I.
1. The executive power shall be rested in a president of the United
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four
years, and, together with the vice-president, chosen for the same
term, be elected as follows :
2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner aa the legislature
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number
of senators and representatires to which the state may be entitled
in the congress; but no aenator, or representatire, or person hold
ing an office of truat or profit under the United States, shall be ap
pointed an elector.
3. The electors shall meet in their respectire states, and rote by
ballot for two peraona, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabit
ant of the same state with themselres. And they shall make a Hat
of all the persons roted for, and of the number of rotes for each ;
which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat
of the gorernment of the United States, directed to the president of
the senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the
senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the
votes shall then be counted. The person baring the greatest num
ber of rotes shall be the president, if such number be a majority of
the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than
one who hare such majority, and have an equal number of rotes,
then the house of representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot,
one of them for president ; and if no person hare a majority, then,
from the flve highest on the list, the said house shall, in like man
ner, choose the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes
shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having
one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or
members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states
shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choioe of
the president, the person baring the greatest number of rotes of the

THE CONSTITUTION. 297
the electors shall be the vice-president. But if there should remain Bk. VI.
two or more who have equal rotes, the senate shall choose from ~3h~l~
them, hy ballot, the rice-president.
4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors. Time of
and the day on which they shall give their rotes ; which day shall choosing
' filoctorfl
be the same throughout the United Sta,tes.
5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the Qualifl-
United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall cations
be eligible to the office of president : neither shall any person be eli- of tlie
gible to that office who shall not hare attained to the age of thirty- ^.g^* '
five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United
States. 6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his Besort
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties in caae
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president, and of his
the congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, re- ^j.
signation, or inability, both of the president and rice-president, de
claring what officer shall then act as president, and such officer shall
act acctfrdinglj', until the disability be removed, or a president shall
be elected.
7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a His Bar
compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during lary.
the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not
receive witbin that period any other emolument from the United
States, or any of them.
8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the Oath t«-
following oath or affirmation : quired.
9. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute
the office of president of the United States, and will, to the best of
my ability, preserre, protect, and defend, the constitution of the
United States." SECTION n.
1. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and Powers
nary of the United States, and of the militia of the sereral states ofthe
when called into the actual service of the United States; he may P"^'" dent.
require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the
executire departments upon any subject relating to the duties of
their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves
and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases
of impeachment.
2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of
the senate, to make treaties, prorided two-thirds of the senators
present concur : and he shall nominate, and by and with the adrice

298

THE CONSTITUTION.

He may
convene

Bk. VI. and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public
^. . ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other
officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein
f tvT" otherwise provided for, and whioh shall be established by law. But
pfggj. the congress may by law rest the appointment of such inferior offi-
dent. cers as they may think proper in the president alone, in the courts
of law, or in the heads of departmenta.
3. The president shall hare power to fill up all racancies that may
happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions
which shall expire at the end of their next session.
SECTION III.
1. He shall, from time to time, give to the congress information
of the state of the union, and recommend to their consideration such
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on
con- extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them;
gre.is. and, in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time
of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think
proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ;
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall
commission all the officers ofthe United States.
SECTION IV.
How offl- 1. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the United
cers may gtates, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conric-
moved ''°° "^i treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
ARTICLE III.
SECTION I.
Judicial ¦'¦• ^''^ judicial power of the United States shall be rested in one
power, supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may from
''0^ time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour,
and shall at stated times receive for their services a compensation
which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
SECTION II.
To what 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity
arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority j to all
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; to
all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction j to controversies
to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies be
tween two or more states ; between a state and citizens of another
state ; between citizens of different states ; between citizens of the
same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and

vested.

cases it
extends.

THE CONSTITUTION. 299
between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, bk. VI.
or subjects. "ohTl"
2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court •'""^
' diction
shall hare original jurisdiction. In oil the-other cases before men- ^f ^j^^
tioned the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as suprema
to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as oourt
the congress shall make.
3, The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall Rules
be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the atate where the said y^spect-
crimes shall have heen committed ; but when not committed within +_jljg
any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the congress
may by law have directed. SECTION m.
1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in lerying Treason
war agauist them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid ^
and comfort. No person shall be conricted of treason unleas on the
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession
in open court.
2. The congress shall hare power to declare the punishment of How pn.
treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, ^^^
or forfeiture, except during the Ufe of the person attainted.
ARTICLE IV.
SECTION I.
1. FuE faith and credit shall be giren in each state to the public Validity
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of erery other state. And the ° f"t'°
congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which Such of states.
acts, records, and proceedings shall be prored, and the effect thereof.
SECTION II.
1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and Privi-
immunities of citizens in the sereral states. ^"^^ °'
ft * , , . „ . , citizens.
J. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, qj f,^^_
shall, on demand of the executire authority of the state from which tives
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state baring jurisdio- ^°'^
tion ofthe crime. J ^ •
3. No person held to service or labour iu one state, under the laws Kendi-
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or ^g_gQ„g
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour, but escaped
.hall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such serrice or from
abour may be due. =^"''=«-

800 THE CONSTITUTION.
Bk. VI. SECTION III.
-T— - 1. New states may be admitted by the congress into this union ;
but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction
^'ow of any other state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two
states. ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ p^^j.^ ^j ^j^^j^g^ without the consent of the legisla
tures of the states concerned as well as of the congress.
Public 2. The congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all
domain, needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other pro
perty belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this constitu
tion shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United
States, or of any particular stato. SECTION IV.
Kepubli- 1. The United States shall guaranty to every state in this union a
can gov- republican form of government, and shall protect each of them
euaran- ^g^'u^'- invasion; and, on application of the legislature, or of the
tied. executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against do
mestic riolence. ARTICLE V.
Amend- 1. The Congress, whenerer two-thirds of both houses shall deem
ments to j^ necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution : or, on
the con- .• > i. r j j
stitu- *^^ application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the sereral states,
tion. shall call a conrention for proposing amendments, which, in either
case, shall he ralid to all intents and purposes, as part of this con
stitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the
sereral states, or by courentions in three-fourths thereof, as the one
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the congress;
provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year
one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect
the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article :
and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal
suffrage in the senate.
ARTICLE VI.
Validity 1, All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the
?bt^'°' adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United
States under this conatitution as under the confederation.
Supre- 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall
macy of \,^ made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which ahall
'^j***^ be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the su
preme law of the land ; and the judges in every atate ahaU be bound
thereby, anything in the conatitution or laws of any atate to the
contrary notwithstanding.
Oaths of 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and ths
offlce. members of the sereral state legislatures, and all executive and

THE CONSTITUTION. 301
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, Bk. VI.
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution : -,. -
but no religious test shall erer be required as a qualification to any
office of public trust under the United States, v
ARTICLE VIL '^ "
1. The ratification of the conrentions of nine states shall be suf- Ratiflca.
ficient for the establishment of this constitution between the states *'on.
so ratifying the same.
Done in conrention, by the unanimous consent of the states present,
the serenteenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seren, and of the Independ
ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness
whereof we hare hereunto subscribed our names.
GEORGE WASHINGTON, Preaident, and
Deputy from Virginia.
New Hampshire. TnpMAS Mifflin Virginia.
John Langdon Robert Morris John Blair
Nicholas Gilman George Clymeb James Madison, Jb.
Massachusetta. Jared Ingersoll North Carolina.
Nathaniel Gorman James Wilson William Blount
Rufus Kiss GorEBNEUR Morris Richard D. Spaiqht
Connecticut. Delaware. Hugh Williamson
Wm. Samuel Johnson George Read South Carolina.
Roger Sherman Gunning Bedford, Jb. John Rutledge
New York. John Dickinson Charles Cotesworth
Alex. Hamilton Richard Bassett Pinckney
New Jersey. Jacob Bboom Chablbs Pinckney
William Livingston Maryland. Pierce Butler
David Bearlby James M'Henby Georgia.
William Paterson Daniel of St. Thomas William Few
Jonathan Dayton Jenifer Abraham Baldwik
Pennsylvania. Daniel Carroll
Benjamin Franklin Auesf, WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary.
AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.
[These amendmenta, proposed by the first Congress, and subsequently
adopted hy the States, are necessarily inserted here in order that the whole
ofthis important instrument as it now exists may be readily referred to.]
Art. 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of Civil and
religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the religious
freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peace- ""*"y'
26

302 THE CONSTITUTION.
Bk. VI. ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of
p. . grievances. Art 2. A well regulated militia being necessary to the aecurity of
Eight to ^ jj.^^ ^j^j jjjg J.J jjj ^j j.j^g people to keep and bear arms shall not
Dear
arms. be infringed.
Quarter- Art. 3. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in :iny
ing of house without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in
soldiers. ^ manner to be prescribed by law.
Search Art. 4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons,
'"'-"' houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and sel-
'*"' ' zures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon
probable cause, supported hy oath or affirmation, and particularly
describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be
seized.
Provi- Art. 5. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise
sions for infamous crime unless on o. presentment or indictment of a grand
t Von°" j"""?' oxcept in cases arising in the land or naral forces, or in the
of per- militia, when in actual serrice, in time of war or public danger; nor
son and shall any person be subject, for the same offence, to be twice put in
proper- jgppardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal
case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty,
or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property
be taken for public use without just compensation.
Trial hy Art. 6. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the
jury and right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the state
the ao- ^^^ district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which
oused. district shall hare been preriously ascertained by law, and to be
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted
with the witnesses against him ; to hare compulsory process for ob
taining witnesses in his farour; and to hare the assistance of coun
cil for his defence.
Suits at Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value in controrersy
, shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be pre-
serred; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined
in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the
common law.
Bail, 4o. Art. 8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessire fines
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
Rights Art. 9. The enumeration in the constitution of certain righta shall
retained not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
Powers Art. 10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the
reserved constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserred to the
states respectively, or to the people.

THE CONSTITUTION. 303
Art 11. The judicial power of the United States shall not be oon- Bk. TI.
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prose- q^ .
cuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state,
or by citizens or aubjecta of any foreign state.
Art. 12. g 1. The electors shall meet in their respective states, aud Amend-
vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom at least "i^jj
shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they gg^^. 4
shall name in their ballots the person roted for as president, and in respect- ;
distinct ballots the person voted for as vice-president ; and they shall '°8 the
election !
make distinct lists af all persons voted for as president, and of all of pregj.
persons voted for as vice-president, and of the number of votes for dent and
each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to vice-pre-
the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the pre
sident of the senate; the president of the senate shall, in the pre
sence ofthe senate and house of representatives, open all the certifi
cates, and the votes shall then be counted j the person having the
greatest number of votes for president shall be the president, if such
number be u. majority of the whole number of electors appointed;
and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having
the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted
for as president, the house of representatives shall choose immedi
ately, by ballot, the president. But in choosing the president the
votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state
having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a mem
ber or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all
the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the house of re
presentatives shall not choose a president whenever the right cf
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March
next foUowing, then the vice-president shall act as president, as
in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the
president. 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice-presi
dent stall be the vice-president, if such number be a majority of the
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a ma-
jorii^j then, from the two highest numbers on tbe list, the senate
shall choose the vice-president: a quorum for the purpose shall con
sist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority
of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice.
3. Bnt no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of
president shall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United
States.

B04 ADOPTION or THE CONSTITUTION.
Bg. TI. Such is the Constitution, which was framed by the
Ch. 1. wisest and most patriotic legislators that ever guided the
A. D. destiny of our country. It still remained doubtful how
1788. it would be received by the state legislatures and the
Opposi- people of the United States generaUy. There existed
tion to among the people jealousies to which the enlightened
stitu- members of the convention were personally strangers. A
spirit, hostile to taxation and to the bearing of those bur
dens which are incident to all governments, unhappily pre
vailed. Some feared that the interests of the poor would
be sacrificed to those of the rich, and that there were not
sufficient guarantees to ensure personal liberty. There
was everywhere, as was to be expected, great opposition
to many of the articles, especially to those which relate
to slavery, state rights, and the regulation of commerce.
Else of In view of these things, the framers of the Constitution,
parties ^^^ Congress, and the more enlightened of the commu
nity, felt intense solicitude. In that critical period, Alex
ander Hamilton, assisted by Jay and Madison, put forth
those famous papers which are known by the name of
" The Federalist," and which are the most luminous ex
positions of the great principles of the Constitution which
have ever appeared. Those who adopted the views of
the writers of these papers were called Federalists, and
they embraced at that time the most intelligent and influ
ential classes in the nation. Those who opposed them
were called Republicans, Democrats, and other names ;
and from that moment arose those two great rival political
parties which divided the nation until these later times.
Consti- Delaware was the first State to adopt the Constitution
Xted (December 7th), and was followed (December 12th) by
by the Pennsylvania. New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut,
speedily followed the example. The Massachusetts con
vention, by a small majority, ratified the vote of the dele-

ORGANIZATION OP THE NEW GOVERNMENT. 305
gates (February 7th), proposing at the same time several Bk.vi.
amendments. The conventions of Maryland, South Ca- ch. i.
rolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, and New York, sue- a. d.
cessively ratified the Constitution ; not, however, without 1789.
opposition, and without proposing several amendments.
North Carolina and Ehode Island did not join the con
federacy. Eleven states having adopted the constitution
preparations were made for the organization of the new
federal government. The old continental Congress aet- The old
tied up its accounts, and, after a continuance of thirteen '°^^l^
years, quietly and without note ceased to be a public body Con-
(Maich 3d, 1789). It was, in the first instance, a " mere
collection of consulting delegates;" but, as public danger
threatened, " it boldly seized the reins of power, issued
bills of credit, raised armies, declared independence, nego
tiated foreign treaties, carried the nation through an eight
years' war, and finally extorted from the proud and pow
erful mother-country an acknowledgment of the sovereign
authority so daringly assumed and so indomitably main
tained." On the first Wednesday of January, 1789, electors were Election
chosen to vote for the President and Vice-President of the ^^t'^d
United States, aa well as members of the new Congress, rioe-pre-
George Washington received the unanimous vote of the
electoral college for the highest office in the gift of the
nation ; and John Adams, recently retumed from Lon
don, after a residence abroad of nine years, in diflerent
courtB, as minister from the United States, received the
next largest number of votes, and waa accordingly elected
Vice-President. Congress was to have assembled in Federal Hall, New Meeting
York, on the site of the present Custom-house, on the 4th newOon-
of March ; but the state of the roads and other difficulties ^^"'^'
prevented a quorum until the 30th. Frederick A. Muhlen-
26*

306 INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON.
Bk. VI. berg, of Pennsylvania, was chosen speaker of the House
Ch. 1. of Representatives, and John Langdon president pro tem
pore of the Senate.
On the 6th of April, the electoral votes were counted,
and special messengers sent forthwith to notify Washing
ton and Adams of their election.
The messenger selected to inform Washington was
Charles Thomson, late secretary of the Continental Con
gress, who, on the 16th of April, executed his commis
sion.
Journey The joumey of the venerable President from Mount
ington. Vernon to the city of New York (then the seat of the
federal government,) resembled a triumphal procession,
rather than the peaceful journey of a public magistrate.
Everywhere on his route, the people flocked to the line
of his progress, to see with their own eyes the illustrious
man who had so signally served his country, and who was
yet willing, at the age of fifty-seven, to forego his private
ease and interests, with a single view to the public good.
His in- Qjj j-jjg 3Q(,]j of April, the oath being administered by
augura- ^ ' *^ *'
tion. Robert R. Livingston, chancellor of New York, in an
outer balcony of the Senate-chamber, and in sight of an
immense concourse of spectators, George Washington be
came the first President of the United States.
On retiring to the Senate-chamber, he addressed both
houses in an impressive speech, emphatically reminding
them, that no truth was more positive than that there
exists an indissoluble union between virtue and happi
ness — between duty and advantage — between the gen-
nine maxims of an honest and magnanimous people and
the solid rewards of public prosperity and felicity ; and
that the propitious smiles of Heaven could never be ex
pected on a nation which disregarded the eternal rules of
order and right, which Heaven itself had ordained. lie

RENUNCIATION OF HIS SALARY. 307
joncluded by saying that, in conformity with the principle Bk. vi.
he had adopted when commander-in-chief, he renounced Ch. i.
all pecuniary compensation for his presidential services, a. d.
farther than was equivalent to his additional expenditure 1789.
in office ; which should not, at any time, be greater than
was required for the public good.

Inauguration of Washington.

30»

CHAPTER II.
THE ABMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON.
On the 30th of April, 1789, commenced the admin- bk. vr.
istration of the most remarkable man of these modem ch. 2.
times. . _
A. D,
The first subject which required his attention and that 1789.
of Congress was to establish a revenue, and this was uj^,.^
chiefly raised by duties on imports. Thus, the Tariff venue:
became the first question which called out the talents onim-
and the passions of the new legislators — the absorbing p""*'
subject of legislation in all popular governments — the
most difficult and most important, being interlinked with
the whole science of political economy — that unsettled
science, concerning which there is, and probably ever
will be, great discrepancy of opinions.
The first questions were, whether the duties should be Dehates
imposed on foreign articles according to a specific rate or ^m"
an ad valorem scale, and also, whether protection to the
native manufactures should be chiefly considered ; in the
course of which, all those principles which still divide
politicians and different sections of this great country,
were discussed and agitated even as they are in these
times. On the whole. Congress agreed to protective duties, ftoteo.
though not so high as those subsequently imposed. The u^.^^
duties on tonnage, discriminating in favour of American (309)

310 REORGANIZATION OF DEPARTMENTS.
Bk.vi. commerce, were then considered, in order to encourage
Ch. 2. the growth of maritime power in the United States, and
j^ j3 also to favour those foreign powers who were in alliance
1789. with the oountry. In all these debates, Madison, Ames,
Sherman, Gerry, and Boudinot, were distinguished.
CoUeo- ^o'" ^^^ collection of duties the whole coast was divided
tion of into seventy districts, each district to have officers in
<iuties. •' ' • 1 , 1 J?
proportion to its importance, the most considerable of
which were the collectors, to superintend the entrance
and clearance of vessels and the receipt of duties; the
naval officers, to act as checks to the collectors ; and the
surveyors, to attend to the duties of inspection.
Eeorga- Having made arrangements for the collection of a re
venue, Congress next turned its attention to the reorga

nizationof execu

tiTede- nization of the executive departments. The Department
ments. of Foreign Affairs was first established, which finally set
tled into that of the Department of State.
The Treasury Department was reorganized on the plan
adopted by the Continental Congress of 1781, the head
of which was called Secretary of the Treasury, assisted
by subordinate officers, such as comptrollers, auditors, and
registers, whose duty it was to manage the revenue, sup
port the public credit, and grant warrants for all appro
priations made by law. To this department the manage
ment and sale of public lands was also entrusted.
The Army and Navy being small were at first managed
by the Secretary of War. The Post-Offioe was not reor
ganized until more complete information could be collected.
Presi- Earnest debates were then made on the question, whe
ther these heads of departments should be removed or
not at the will of the President. Muoh to the chagrin
of a large party, the recognition of the President's power
of removal prevailed — for how could he execute the
laws, if his subordinates were independent of him ?

dent'spower to
removeoiEcers.

VARIOUS ACTS OF CONGRESS. 311
The federal judiciary next occupied the attention of bk. vi.
Congress, being then established on its present system. Ch. 2.
The Supreme Court was to hold one annual session at a. n.
the seat of government; and, for the trial of cases under 1789.
its jurisdiction, two sets of tribunals were instituted, called' The ju
District and Circuit Courts. Every State was made a ^™'^
district, and every district had a judge of its own, who
had cognizance of all admiralty cases and lesser crimes
against the United States. The Circuit Courts, presided
over by one or two of the judges of the Supreme Court,
assisted by the district judge, had jurisdiction of all suits
of a civil nature, at common law or in equity, between
citizens of different States, or to which the United States
or an alien was a party. An appeal lay, as to all points
of law, in all cases where the matter in dispilte amounted
to two thousand dollars, from the Circuit Courts to the
Supreme Court of the United States.
Congress then turned its attention to the amendments Amend-
of the Constitution. All the States had many to suggest, ""^^
but scarcely any were of vital importance. Seventeen oonsti-
amendments were finally agreed to by two-thirds of the
House of Representatives, and the Senate reduced them
to twelve ; only ten of them received the sanction of the
state legislatures at that time, but the remaining two
were subsequently adopted.
The question of salaries was then considered, and the Salaries.
President was allowed twenty-five thousand dollars per
annum, and a house, this being deemed adequate to his
expenses. The salaries of other officers, executive, judi
cial, and legislative, were somewhat lower than are now
given, and even then scarcely adequate to their wants.
The duty was confided to the President and Senate The ap-
to make the appointments to the great offices of state, ment'of
The first in dignity and importance, that of Chief-Justice officers.

312 THE NATIONAL DEBT.
Ek. VI. of the Supreme Court, was given to John Jay, who. had
Ch. 2. been a leading member of Congress, minister to Spain,
A. D. one of the commissioners for peace, and acting secretary
1789. for foreign affairs. Alexander Hamilton was made Se
cretary of the Treasury; Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of
State; General Knox, Secretary of War; Edmund Ran
dolph, Attorney-General ; and Samuel Osgood, Postmas
ter-General. Generals Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Wil
liams, were respectively made collectors of Boston, New
London, and Baltimore, and Colonel Lamb, collector of
New York — revolutionary heroes whose virtues had kept
them poor.
Commercial treaties were soon after made with foreign
powers, and with the Indian tribes, although all along
the western jfrontiers affairs long continued in an unset
tled state.
Tour of Congress adjourned September 24th, shortly after which
!ident* the President made a tour through the Eastern States,
his re- and was everywhere received with an enthusiasm which
'^ ^ ' has never since been equalled. " We have gone through
all the popish grades of worship," wrote Trumbull, "and
the President returns all fragrant with the odour of in
cense." On the day of his retum to New York (Novem
ber 13th), the new convention of North Carolina voted
to ratify the federal Constitution.
1790. Congress reassembled on the 8th of January, 1790,
Nation ^^^ ^^^ President having recommended, among other
aidebt. things, that provision should be made for the payment
of the interest of the national debt, this became the great
subject of the session. The debates relative to the pay
ment of this debt were very animated; which, however,
in spite of the different views advanced, tended to the
maintenance of public credit. The foreign debt waa
nearly twelve millions, and the domestic was a little over

REPORT ON THE SUBJECT OF SLAVERY. 313
forty-two millions; in all, exceeding fifty-four millions, bjc. vi.
not including the state debts, which amounted to about ch. 2.
twenty-five millions. An acrimonious debate followed ^ p
upon the proposition that the federal govemment should 1790.
assume the state debts, which had been incurred in be
half of the common cause. It was supported by Law
rence, Ames, Sedgwick, Sherman, Fitzsimmons, Gerry, and
others, and opposed by Stone, Livermore, Jackson, and
White; but it finally passed by a small majority.
In the midst of the agitation growing out of the settle- siayeiy
ment of the public debt, a still more agitating question siaTe-
was introduced, in reference to slavery and the slave- *'"^^
' ... report
trade, in the form of anti-slavery petitions ; which, after on the
passionate discussion, whether they should or should not ^" '°°
be received, were referred to a committee, who brought
in the following report : —
" That the migration or importation of such persons as
any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit
cannot be prohibited by Congress, prior to the year 1808.
" That Congress has no authority to interfere in the
emancipation of slaves, or in the treatment of them in
any of the States; it remaining with the several States
alone to provide any regulations therein which humanity
and true policy require.
" That Congress has authority to restrain the citizens
of the United States from carrying on the African slave-
trade, for the purpose of supplying foreigners with slaves;
and of providing for their humane treatment, during their
passage, of slaves imported by the said citizens into the
said States a-dmitting such importations.
" That Congress, also, has authority to prohibit foreign
ers from fitting out vessels in any port, of the United
States for transporting persons from Africa to any foreign
port." 27

ization of aliens

314 PRINCIPAL MEASURES OF CONGRESS.
BK.'n. A great debate followed as to the reception of the arti-
Ch. 2. cies of the report, and the affair was finally compromised
A. D. by admitting the report on the journal of the House,
1790. without any legislation on the subjects to which it referred.
This was the commencement of that series of discussions
which from time to time have agitated Congress, and
whioh, thus far, have happily not been productive of any
calamitous results.
Rhode Early in June, Rhode Island was admitted into the
joins the Union, and now, of their own accord, all the States of
Union. ^Jjq original confederacy were reunited.
Nation- Before the session closed, provision was made for
andthe P^ji^g °^ ^^^ national debt; and the tariff was modified,
tariir. the duties being increased on most imported articles.
Natural- An act was also passed providing a uniform rule of
naturalization, by which any alien white person, who had
resided within the United States for two years, on proof
of good character and upon taking an oath or affirmation
to support the Constitution, might become a citizen of the
United States.
Patenta Among the other acts was one which secured to invent
ors of new machines the right to enjoy for fourteen years
the exclusive use of their inventions ; and then secured to
authors, for the same time, a copyright on books, to be
renewed, if the author were living, for an additional term
of fourteen years. By a recent act, this term has been
extended to twenty-eight years.
Mari- Maritime regulations were also enacted, in reference to
guia- the wages of seamen, requiring a written contract, which
tions. specified the voyage and rate of compensation, and also
Trade providing for the enforcement of obedience to orders.
with the , . /.
Indians. Uongress also made regulations for trade with the Indians,
on the present basis, by which no sales of lands by them
were valid, unless made at some public treaty.

and co
pyrights

CHARTER OP THE BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. 315
The criminal code of laws for the punishment of crimes Bk. vi.
against the United States was also established, by which Ch. 2.
death was made the penalty for treason, murder, piracy, and a. d.
forgery — the latter crime being now punishable by fine 1790.
and imprisonment. Bribery was also made punishable
by fine and imprisonment.
As early as this session, the salary for foreign ministers salary
was fixed, and has continued the same to these times. "^."^
' . , , reign
Nine thousand dollars and an outfit for ministers pleni- minis-
potentiary, and half that sum for charges des affaires.
Such were the principal measures of the second session
of the first Congress, which adjourned August 12th, to
meet in the following December.
The first Congress reassembled on the 6th of Decem- Propoai-
ber, 1790, in Philadelphia, and one of the first subjects ^1 »
which came under its consideration was a national bank, uationaihank.
proposed by Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, in order
to facilitate the monetary transactions of the government,
to provide for a redeemable currency, and to furnish a
resource for temporary loans. At that time there were
only four banks in the country : one at Philadelphia, esta
blished by Robert Morris ; one in New York ; one in Bos
ton ; and one in Baltimore ; the circulation of whose bills
was confined chiefly to those cities, and did not meet the
wants of the country.
The bin for this bank encountered but little opposition Bant
in the Senate, and passed the House by a vote of thirty- United
nine to twenty. It was, however, opposed in the cabinet states
by Jefferson and Randolph, as unconstitutional ; yet, it od.
nevertheless received the signature of the President. Its
charter was limited to twenty years, and its capital to ten
millions. Subscriptions were paid, three-fourths in stock
of the United States, and one-fourth in gold and silver —
being thus modelled on the Bank of England, and sub-

316 PROSPERITY OF THE COUNTRY.
, Bk. VL stantially on the principle of the new banking law of
Ch. 2. New York, by which a deposit of government stocks is
A. D. required as security for the amount of circulating bills.
1791. The bank waa forbidden to hold lands or buildings, and
all dealing in goods and merchandise was prohibited. Ita
general business was restricted to dealing in bills of ex
change. Its notes were payable on demand in gold or
silver, and were made receivable in all payments to the
United States.
Admis- The establishment of a bank was the great measure of
y™" the session, during which Vermont was admitted into the
mont. Union. Shortly after the adjournment of Congress, Wash
ington made a tour of three months through the Southern
Seat of States. On his progress, he stopped several days on the
ment. banks of the Potomac, and made use of the authority
vested in him to select a site for the future seat of go
vemment. The new city was laid out on a magnificent
scale, and many who anticipated its sudden and rapid
growth were ruined by the zeal with which they embarked
in building and speculation.
Foreign In August, 1791, Great Britain condescended to send
ten ^ minister to the United States. George Hammond was
the first who received this honour. In December, Thomas
Pinckney, of South Carolina, was appointed minister to
England, and Gouverneur Morris was sent to France.
Prospe- Prosperity seemed now to dawn upon the country.
ri^ of rpjjg gnances were placed upon a satisfactory basis ; tbe
country, credit of the country was restored, and relations of peace
were established with various European states. Wash
ington had the confidence ofthe nation, and the great parties
which subsequently divided it had not then attracted much
attention, although they were in process of formation.
Indian The worst feature of the time was the unsettled na-
"^^^^ ture of Indian affairs on the western frontiers. The Six

THE FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS. 317
Nations were unfriendly, and the Cherokees complained Bk. yi.
of encroachments, while actual hostilities were carried on, ch. 2.
under Generals St. Clair and Butler, among the Indians ^ j,
on the Wabash. Near the head-waters of this river (No- 1791.
vember 4th), St. Clair was unexpectedly attacked, and his Defeat
force totaUy routed. General Butler was killed, and St. of st.
¦^ - Clair.
Clair narrowly escaped. The loss of men dunng this
enterprise reached 900 — a great calamity, and one of the
most signal defeats the Americans had ever sustained
with the Indians. It produced the greatest alarm on the
north-western frontiers, but the Indians failed to follow
up the advantages they had gained.
In the mean time the second Congress assembled at The 2d
Philadelphia. Among the most distinguished of its new °^g
members was Aaron Burr, successor to General Schuyler,
as senator from New York ; Artemus Ward and George
Cabot, of Massachusetts; James Hillhouse, of Connec
ticut ; and Jonathan Dayton, of New Jersey.
By this time the two great parties of the country were Pederai-
fuUy organized — the Federalists and the Republicans. g'!,*°fj.
The leaders of the former were Adams and Hamilton ; cans.
those of the latter were Jefferson and Burr. The former
had an ascendency both in the Senate and the House, and
were the advocates of the financial schemes which were
recommended by Hamilton and carried out by the first
Congress : they also favoured the idea of a greater cen
tralization of power in the general government than was
desired by the other party. The Republicans feared the
abuse of power, and sought to narrow its exercise by the
federal government, and were disposed to allow absolute
authority to the popular judgment. They, moreover, were
great defenders of state rights, and feared the absorption
of the states in the general government. The latter party
inclined to be more democratic in its views — the former
27*

318 MEASURES OF THE SECOND CONGRKSS.
Bk.vi. was not disinclined to ceremonious distinctions and he-
Ch. 2. reditary rank. The party of Adams and Hamilton dis-
A. D. trusted the French Revolution, shuddered in view of its
1791. excesses, and absolutely abhorred the "Rights of Man"
as put forth by Paine. The party of Jefferson sympa
thized with the French Revolution as tending to promote
greater liberty throughout the world, and distrusted those
financial measures of the new administration as tending to
the ascendency of an aristocracy of wealth. It denounced
the funding system, the bank, and the assumption of the
state debts.
Ratio of One of the first measures of the new Congress was to
lento^ fix the ratio of representation at one member for every
tion. thirty-three thousand inhabitants, thus increasing the
number of members to one hundred and five.
Increase A third tariff act was also passed, increasing the duties
reTenue. OU imported articles. This was done in order to increase
the revenue — an act made necessary by the increasing
expenses of government, Indian hostilities, and additions
made to the army. The presence of the Indian war also
led to the organization of the militia, on the basis on
which it has since remained.
Mintes- By an act during this- session the Mint was finally
^ " established, and the coins were made which still compose
Impress ^^^ Currency of the country. A debate occurred in refer-
ofthe ence to the device and impress of the coins. There was
no objection to the national emblem of the eagle, with
the legend, " The United States of America," on one
side; but serious exceptions were taken to having the
heads of the presidents represented on the coin, as this
appeared like an imitation of monarchical governments.
The emblematical figure of Liberty was accordingly sub
stituted, much to the satisfaction of the people, so jealous
of all approximation to royalty, and not without the secret

PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY. 319
indifference of great men, who preferred the reality to Bk.vi.
the blandishments of power. ^^- ^¦
These were the principal acts, materially affecting the a. d.
great interests ofthe country, passed during this session; 1792.
but considerable acrimony had been manifested by the Party
two rival parties, which now began to attract attention ''¦^"^'
and divide the nation — an acrimony, which Washing
ton seriously lamented, and did all in his power to pre
vent. This increased, rather than diminished, after Con
gress adjourned, and a bitter newspaper contest was car
ried on by Jefferson and Hamilton, between whom arose
a personal as well as political difference.
The second session of the second Congress was charac- Relative
terized for warm debates on the redemption of the public ^n'he
debt, on the right of petition, and on the slavery question, parties.
Until now, the federal party had the superiority, but the
Republicans obtained a victory over the Federalists in
relation to Hamilton's scheme of paying off the public
debt; and such was the opposition to him, that he was
openly accused of failing to account for a million and a
half of public money ; but this charge was triumphantly
refuted, and resulted in raising the illustrious character
of the Secretary of the Treasury still higher in public
estimation. -^
The second Congress terminated without passing such Success
important acts as the first ; nor was it to be expected, for ""j^,
government was now fairly organized — all things gave "'™'-
evidence, in spite of party animosities, of a successful
experiment. During the first administration of Washington, a great -^g^y^.
step had been made in the progress of the nation. Con- '"Bton's
• 1 1 • /I first fld"
fidence m the credit of the country was restored. Com- minis-
merce had greatly prospered ; manufactures had arisen ; '"*''"'•
the exports nearly equalled the imports ; population had

320 arrival of genet, minister from PRANCE
Bk. VI. increased ; industry had received a favourable impulse ;
Ch. 2. law and order reigned throughout the land, and peace and
A. D. plenty added stability to those great institutions which
1793. the political genius of the age had devised. The Post-
Office, the Mint, and- the Bank, went into successful ope
ration. Judicial dignity was vindicated. The Army was
increased, and appropriations were made for all measures
necessary to carry on an efficient govemment. The United
States began to attract the attention of the civilized world,
and diplomatic agents were freely sent to and received
from the principal nations of Europe.
Second In view of this rising prosperity and of the pressure
ofwash- of domestic cares and feeble health, the venerable Presi-
ington Jent desired to retire. But, yielding to the importunities
Adams, of friends, and consulting the public welfare rather than
his own ease and interests, he consented to preside
once again over the nation he had saved by his arms
and councils. On the 4th of March, 1793, he was a
second .time inaugurated as President of the United States,
after an unanimous election. The choice for Vice-Presi
dent was not made without violent party outcry ; for the
Federalists and Republicans were now fairly pitted against
each other. The Federalists gained the day, and John
Adams again became the Vice-President, in opposition to
George Clinton, of New York, the republican candidate,
and highest on the list.
War Soon after the second inauguration of Washington,
hetween ug^g game of the declaration of war by France against
and England, which excited intense interest throughout the
°**" nation, and still more widely separated the great political
Arrival parties. Five days after. Genet arrived as minister to the
United States from Republican France. What course
should the government adopt ? Should he be received ?
And, should a proclamation of neutrality be issued ?

ofGenet.

RECALL OF GENET DEMANDED. 321
Our government adopted, in view of those great com- bk. vi.
motions in the Old World, the course which has since Ch. 2.
been pursued, and which has settled into a system — a. d.
that of neutrality — a friendly and impartial conduct to- 1793 .
wards all foreign belligerent powers. Such, however, Neutral
was the popular enthusiasm towards France and hatred ^°'"^ °^
towards England, that it would not have been difficult to vem-
embroil the nation in war, by making a common cause
with the French Republic. But Washington was too
wise and prudent to yield to such a course, and he was
happily sustained by the great leaders of the nation.
The French minister, however, was not so prudent. Charao-
He came over as an agent to draw the United States into conduct
the cause of French liberty, rather than as a diplomatist, ofOenet
to keep a watch over the interests of his country. He
was a mere partisan, inflamed with revolutionary ideas,
and full of wrong notions respecting his diplomatic duties.
Hence he was guilty of various indiscretions and follies,
unbecoming his position. He caused privateers to be
fitted out, manned mostly by Americans, but under the
French flag, to make prizes of English merchantmen.
He assumed authority to grant commissions to French
consuls in the United States to try and condemn prizes
brought by French cruisers into the American ports.
He made himself offensive to the government by various
acts of folly and presumption. He even was prepared to
struggle witb the executive in furtherance of his impolitic
mission. Supported by noisy enthusiasts and fanatical ar
ticles in the newspapers in sympathy with revolutionary
France, he attempted to appeal from the President to the
people. Under such circumstances, the government de- His re
manded his recall, and was sustained by the nation at ^^^^
large, in spite of the fanatical advocates of France, — a
measure extremely necessary, not only to support the

322 RESIGNATION OP JEFFERSON.
Bk.vi. dignity of the American government, but to prevent a
Ch. 2. rupture with Great Britain.
A. D. Great Britain, at that period, was both sensitive and
1793. arrogant as to her claims on the ocean, and had her own
Arro- interpretation as to belligerent rights — claiming the right
gance of jg ggj^e French property in American vessels, against all
Britain, the Settled laws of nations ; and also the still more ques
tionable right of seizing neutral vessels bound to France,
when loaded with bread-stuffs. The English govern
ment also made itself obnoxious by pressing into its ser
vice British-born seamen when found on the ocean even
in American ships, which made vessels liable to vexatious
detention and subject to constant insult; and, as this
pretended right was liable to much abuse, American sea
men were frequently absolutely pressed into the English
naval service.
Its effect This arrogant and unjust claim, and which afterwards
public ¦'''as no small cause of the late war, led to considerable
"^^ sympathy with Genet and France, and came near precipi
tating the United States into a premature contest with
the country with which they had but lately made peace.
Genet, however, had proved himself so insolent, rash, and
headstrong, that but little sympathy was found for him
among the more considerate and intelligent of the people.
Meeting Amid the agitations produced by Genet and the French
3d Con- Revolution and rival parties, the third Congress assembled
gress. (December 2d, 1793), and, soon after, Jefferson, retired
Jeffer- from his post, alleging his disgust of politics and desire
tires. for the pleasures of a rural life, with the respect of all
, parties for his abilities, and with the full confidence of
the President in his patriotism and integrity. His place
was supplied by Randolph, the Attorney-General, and
his again by William Bradford, of Pennsylvania.
The first business of importance after the affair of

BRITISH ORDERS IN COUNCIL. 323
Genet was disposed of, was in reference to the piracies bk. vi.
of the Algerines. It was a question, whether peace with Ch. 2.
them should be purchased by giving a ransom for those a. d.
whom they held in bondage, or whether a squadron should 1794.
be fitted out to demand restitution. It was determined
to adopt both measures — to purchase a treaty, and also
to provide for a naval armament. A bill was passed, March 4.
which authorized the building of six frigates of forty-four Creation
guns each, and two of thirty-six guns each — the first navy.
|tep towards the creation of a national navy. A bill was Har
poon after reported for fortifying the harbours, and works ^rtSlod
were commenced at Portsmouth, Portland, Gloucester,
Salem, Boston, Newport, New London, New York, Phi
ladelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, Alexandria, Norfolk,
Georgetown, Charleston, Savannah, and St. Mary, being
then the principal cities on the coast. Arsenals and ar- Arse-
mories were added to those at Springfield and Carlisle, erected.
These belligerent operations were undertaken to protect
commerce against the Barbary pirates, to inspire bellige
rent nations with respect for our rights as neutrals, and
to secure us from insult in our harbours and coasts. < -
Y At this time a great excitement existed against Great British
Britain in consequence of the British orders in council, "^ ^^j,.
which authorized the detention and examination of all o"-
ships laden with the produce of French colonies. These
tended to destroy the rights of neutrals, and war was ap
prehended. But these orders were soon superseded by
new ones, which restricted the capture of French produce
in neutral vessels which belonged to France. Still the
excitement against England continued, and Washington, spedai
wishing to avert the gathering storm, proposed to send a S" ^n-'
special minister to London, and Hamilton was the person ''°''-
vhom he desired to send. But such an outcry was raised
Igainst him, that Jay was selected in his stead.

324 THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION.
Bk. vi. Soon after the adjournment of Congress, an insurreo-
Ch. 2. tion occurred in Westem Pennsylvania, called the Whis-
A. D. ^ey Insurrection, which arose from the difficulty of col-
1794. lecting excise-duty from the distillers. The marshal of
jjij^j. the district was intercepted in the discharge of his duties
rection jjy g, party of armed men, and he and his officers com-
syivania pelled to flee for their lives. They were afterwards at
tacked by the mob, and blood was spilled. Various
other outrages were perpetrated, and the rioters, headed
by some prominent m«n opposed to the excise-duty, ap
pealed to the militia, actually mustered 7000 men, and
Prompt stood Out in open resistance to the laws. These outrages
for its appeared to be alarming symptoms to the government,
euppres- ^jig decided on rigid and prompt measures, to prevent
the popular contagion from spreading. A proclamation
was issued, and a demand made on the governors of Penn
sylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, for a force
of 13,000 men — soon raised to 15,000. The insurgent
counties had about 16,000 men in the field. The Pre
sident, wishing to preyent bloodshed, also sent commis
sioners to settle the difficulties. The counties called a
convention, and two hundred delegates assembled, and
appointed a committee of fifteen to meet the commission
ers. Several conferences were held, not very satisfactory
to either party, although the demands of the government
were moderate. Consequently, resort was had to more
decisive measures. The government troops advanced in
Law and earnest upon the rebels. Fear and alarm seized them, in
Btoraj'^ view of the great preparations which were made to sub
due them ; and they laid down their arms, in unconditional
submission to the laws. The prompt measures of the Pre
sident had a great moral effect, which much strengthened
the arms of government, as all unsuccessful rebellions do,
and occasioned great rejoicing, especially to the Federalists.

jay's treaty WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 325
Scarcely was this rebellion suppressed, before news ar- Bk. vi.
rived of the complete victory of General Wayne over Ch.2.
those Indians who had defeated St. Clair. A great bat- a. d.
tie was fought, on the Maumee, which broke for ever the 1794.
power of the Indians in that quarter.
Congress reassembled on the 4th of November, and im- Secret
mediately proceeded to the consideration of the President's pf (he
message, which was mainly occupied by an account of Jacobins
the late insurrection in Pennsylvania, and which traced
the disturbances in part to the secret societies of which
Genet, the French minister, had been one of the chief
promoters — societies inimical to the conservation of true
liberty. But these ultra democratic societies received a
blow, soon after, more effectual even than the one given
by Washington, through the downfall of Robespierre and
the Jacobin clubs, with whose sentiments these secret
societies sympathized.
Before Congress adjourned, information was received Treaty
of an important treaty which Jay succeeded in making Great
with the govemment of Great Britain, but which had ^"*»^°-
been made only with great difficulty and by mutual con
cessions — not in all respects desirable, but the best which
could be obtained.
By this treaty, signed by Jay November 19th, 1794, itssti-
the north-eastern boundary was fixed ; mutual losses sua- ^"J^
tained by merchants in consequence of seizure were in
demnified ; reciprocity in trading with the Indians was
guarantied ; American vessels were to be received into
British ports on an equality with English vessels ; con
traband articles were specified, and the maritime code re
specting the rights of neutrals was modified to the advan
tage of the United States. This treaty, whioh removed
many of the causes of irritation between the two countries,
and which, on the whole, placed the United States on a
28

326 RATIFICATION OF THE TREATY.
Bk. VL footing of greater equality, encountered much opposition
Ch. 2. from the republican party, who saw in it injury to France,
A. D. a base compliance with English arrogance, and ignomini-
1795. ous cession of American rights. But what excited the
Recogni- fiercest opposition, especially from the South, was the re-
^j™ "' cognition by Jay of the debts due British merchants by
debts, citizens of the United States, previous to the Revolution,
which amounted to £600,000, and, by the treaty, were
guarantied by the government, but which the debtors had
hoped to escape. This obligation to pay those old debts
much inflamed party animosity, and was one of the causes
of hostility to England ; and, as the South was more in
debted than the North, the hatred there was proportion
ally greater.
Speech The treaty was not immediately ratified, on account of
of Fisher . .•' ,^ it- hi
Amee. its great importance, and Congress had again reassembled
before it was finally acted on. No subject had, since thc
adoption of the Constitution, called out so much feeling,
talent, and eloquence. Fisher Ames, of Massachusetts,
made himself memorable by his wonderful speech on the
occasion — one of the most able ever made in Congress.
Vice-President Adams, who heard the speech, thus de
scribed it, in a letter to his wife : " Judge Iredell and I
happened to sit together. Om- feelings beat in unison.
'My God ! how great he is,' says Iredell. ' Noble!' said
I. ' Bless my stars ! ' continued he, ' I never heard any
thing so great since I was born.' ' Divine!' said I; and
thus we went on with our interjections, not to say tears, to
the end — not a dry eye in the House. The situation of
the man excited compassion. The ladies wished his great
soul had a better body."
1796. In spite of the opposition, and much to the chagrin of
Treaty ^hc Republicans, the treaty was ratified (April 30th, 1796)
'** the most important which the nation had yet made, since

«!PFERS0N'S OPINIONS OF THE FEDERALISTS. 327
it favoured peace with England, and conciliatory mea- Bk. vi.
sures. Jefferson, who had retired to Monticello, to write Ch. 2.
letters to all parts of the country and organize a more a. d.
effective opposition, as well as to seek repose in farming, 1796.
was independent and bitter, and thus wrote — " In place jeftei^
of that noble love of liberty which carried us through the ^""'^ ,
•^ . c> views of
war, an Anglican, monarchical, aristocratic party has the Fe-
sprung up, whose avowed object is to draw over us the ^^ ^^
substance, as they have already done the forms of the
British govemment. Against us are the executive, the
judiciary, two of the branches of the legislature, all the
officers of the government, all who want to be officers, all
timid men, who prefer" the calm of despotism to the bois
terous sea of liberty, British merchants, and Americans
trading on British capital, speculators and holders in
the banks and public funds — a contrivance invented
for the purpose of corruption and for assimilating us in
aU things, to the rotten as well as sound part of the Bri
tish model. It would give you a fever, were I to name
to you the apostates who have gone over to these heresies
— men who were Samsons in the field and Solomons in
the council, but who have their heads shorn by the har
lot of England."
Such waa the bitter and strong language with which Bitter-
Jefferson and the heads of the republican or democratic party
party, in those days, attacked the Federalists and their ^^'^^
principles. Such was the party spirit succeeding the re
volutionary strife. No matter for the virtues or the
greatness of the men belonging to the federal party — it
was said of them, as Jefferson said of Ames, when he
electrified the House and urged peace and moderation,
" Curse on his vu-tues ! they have mined his country." :tt. ,
Yet, amid these conflicting strifes of politicians, Wash
ington was neither duped nor perplexed. He alone stood

328 Washington's complaint of party injustice.
Bk. VI. above all parties and all sects. He alone had an eye to
Ch. 2. the highest good of the country, and inflexibly pursued
A. D. tis course, calmly, wisely, although occasionally yield-
1796. ing to bursts of indignation and passion. Washington
Policy sought liberty, but also sought peace and justice, and
ofWaah- gteered a middle course between parties, not because it
ington. ..It.
was a middle course, in mediis tutissimus ibis, but be
cause it was a true and wise course. Still, he felt deeply
the evil of that partisan warfare, which has not yet passed
away, and never will pass away, in a free country, so long
as men have power and men are degenerate. Said Wash-
Party ington, " I had no conception, till within the last year or
^esOT- *^°> ''^at parties would or could go the length I have
tations. ^lecn witncss to; nor did I believe that it was in the
bounds of probability, hardly within those of possibility,
that, while I was using my utmost exertions to establish
a national character of our own, as far as our obligations
and justice would permit, with every nation of the earth,
and wished, by steering a steady course, to preaerve this
country from the horrors of a desolating war, I should be
accused of being the enemy of our country, and subject to
the influence of another; and to prove it, that every act
of my administration would be tortured, and the grossest
and most insidious misrepresentations of them made, by
giving one side only of a subject, and that, too, in such
exaggerated and indecent terms as could scarcely be ap
plied to Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even a common
pick-pocket."
Inter- Such the animosities of party — such, in Washington's
"'th ° °^° language, the misrepresentations to which it would
Great lead. Still, wisdom had not left the land, and, in spite
secur'^. of all opposition, a treaty with Great Britain was made,
and peace and profitable intercourse guarantied for the
next ten years.

TENNESSEE ADMITTED INTO THE UNION. 329
Other treaties, also, were ratified with different nations bk. vi.
and with the Indians. Eleven hundred Indian warriors, ch. 2.
of twelve distinct tribes, met General Wayne in council, a. d.
at Fort Grenville, and settled the boundaries of their re- 1796.
spective territories. A tract of 25,000 square miles, in Indian
the eastern and southern part of Ohio, was ceded to the ^'^'''y-
United States; for which, and for various posts or trad
ing-houses, $20,000 in presents, and f9500 annually,
were given to the Indians. A treaty was made with Treaties
Algiers, but only by payment to that piratical state of Algiers
nearly ?800,000. By a treaty which Mr. Pinckney made ™*
with Spain, the Florida boundary, long in dispute, was
settled, and the navigation of the Mississippi made free
to both parties, through its entire length. The Indian
boundary was also determined, on the basis of Wayne's
treaty, which secured to the Indians full one-half of the
territory between the Atlantic and Mississippi, and be
yond which citizens of the United States were prohibited
to hunt, or fish, or settle, without permission — nay, even
to trade, without a license. This Indian peace led to the Tennes-
sale and settlement of public lands north of the Ohio. ^^^^^
By the terms of the act constituting the territory south Jut^ the
of the Ohio, the inhabitants claimed the right to be ad
mitted into the Union whenever their number reached
60,000. A constant tide of immigration having set into
that territory, a convention was held, and a state consti
tution adopted, and Tennessee was added to the United
States (January llth, 1796).
The French govemment had requested the recall of Monroe
Morris, after the difficulties with Genet, which request j™^^
was acceded to, and James Monroe, a warm advocate
.>f France, was sent to fill the vacancy, arriving soon after
the fall of Robespierre. He found American affairs in
confusion, and zeal for America much abated, since the
28*

330 ADAMS ELECTED PRESIDENT.
Bk. VI. American government had not rendered any assistance,
Ch.2. as was hoped, to the French revolutionists. But he
^ J, endeavoured to soothe French prejudices; and in the at-
1796. tempt he made promises which his government could not
fulfil, in justice to England or in accordance with its uni
form policy ; on account of which, and partly to give sa
tisfaction to Washington, he was recalled, and Charles C.
Pinckney appointed in his place (September, 1796).
FareweU Meanwhile the time for an election of a President drew
Address
ofWash- near, and Washington resolved not again to be a candi-
iugton. ^g^te. Accordingly, he issued (September 19th) his famous
Farewell Address to the American people, in which he
especially enjoined them to maintain the integrity of the
Union and of the Federal Constitution, and to keep free
from sectional jealousies and animosities, as well as pas
sionate attachment to and inveterate antipathy against
particular foreign nations.
Election This address, appearing so late, did not give much time
dent for electioneering. Still, parties were very busy. The
Adams, undoubted leader of the Federalists was Hamilton ; but,
as Adams was older, had performed great Revolutionary
services, was already Vice-President, was a man of ac
knowledged ability and patriotism, and the great represen
tative of New England, his claims were highest, and he
became the chief candidate of his party. His great op
ponent was Jefferson, over whom he gained his election by
a majority of one — so greatly had the democratic party
increased. The last session of the fourth Congress commenced as
usual, early in December, 1796; but nothing of conse
quence was enacted — all parties being full of the ap
proaching inauguration of the new President.
fu^g^ I' ^°^ place on the 4th of March, 1797, in presence
tion. of both houses of Congress, judges and other dignitaries,

RETIREMENT OF WASHINGTON. 331
as well as of Washington himself Ho delivered an ela- bk. vi.
borate and effective speech, alluding eloquently to the Ch. 2.
exalted character and deeds of the ex-President, and pro- ^ p.
fessing his determination, with the aid of Heaven, to de- 1797.
fend and support the Constitution.
All parties felt deeply the retirement of Washington, Wash-
and rendered him every mark of gratitude and respect, retires.
In a few days after the inauguration of his successor, he
retired to Mount Vernon, to spend the evening of his
glorious life in peaceful and quiet pleasures, in the dig
nity of a gentleman farmer, with books, and friends, and
nature — cheered by the voice of conscience and of the
world, and constantly refreshed by splendid recollections
— by the consciousness of having rendered the greatest
blessing to his country which God, in his providence, had
ever given it into the power of man to bestow. It was Hisclaim to
during his military career that the battles of Independ- our ve-
ence were fought. It was during his administration as "oratioK
President of the United States that the Constitution was
established, and those great acts passed by Congress
which gave direction to the future progress of the coun
try. It was Washington who delivered the nation from
a foreign yoke. It was Washington who directed the
helm of the ship of state in the most eventful periods of
the civil and constitutional history of the country. Sure
ly, to him the world has hitherto fumished no parallel.
Let us, let future generations, venerate his name — for
by his spirit, his wisdom, his courage, and his strength
of character, he, more than any other mortal, laid the
foundation of American greatness.

BK.TI.

CHAPTER III.

ADMINISTRATION OF ADAMS.

President Adams, on his accession to power, made

CJ, 3 no important changes in the cabinet, and retained the
ministers who had officiated under Washington. Thomas
1797. Jefferson, as Vice-President, presided over the Senate, in
which the federal party still predominated.
state of One of the first things which demanded the attention
the rela- pf the executive was the treatment which the French
tionswith Directory had shown towards the foreign ministers. The
France, prcnch, in the fury of revolutionary excess and trium
phant power, were disappointed and indignant that Ame
rica had rendered no important service to the cause of
their revolution, and apparently even favoured the Eng
lish, as they chose to infer from the treaty made by Jay.
Nor did the French government like the recall of Mon
roe, who then sympathized with revolutionary France
more than Pinckney, whom Washington had appointed
in his place. Accordingly, the Directory refused to re
ceive Pinckney, or any other ministers, until the griev
ances of which the French complained were satisfactorily
redressed. The hostility of the Directory was still fur
ther increased when the news arrived of the election
of Adams to the presidency, instead of Jefferson, the
French favourite. Pinckney was treated with studied
insolence and neglect, without any recognition of his
(332J

special mission TO FRANCE. 333
official position. Nor was this all. A decree was passed Bk. tl
against American commerce, by which American vessels ch. s.
and cargoes were liable to capture for any cause recog- j^_ p
nized as lawful by the British treaty. This was little 1797.
short of a declaration of war, which was not agreeable to
any party in America — for Napoleon was in the height
of his victories, and all the nations of Europe were in
terror and alarm. K
Under these circumstances, the President resolved to Special
send a special mission to France — for it was the object ™''™''
of the French government to compel the United States ^*'™"<»-
to renounce the British treaty, to renew all ancient dif
ferences with Great Britain, and, in short, to make use of
the United States as an instrument against England, whose
naval and commercial greatness had ever been the object
of French jealousy. The whole secret of the favour ex- '
tended to this country by France, during the revolution
ary struggle, was to injure England : and France has
been friendly or hostile in proportion as America has
been hostile or friendly to Great Britain. It is a mistake
to suppose that French alliance was rendered from know
ledge of or respect for this country. France looked upon
us aa a weak, divided, money-making nation, careless of
national honour, and not disposed to resent insult, as
proved by the contemptuous treatment of Washington
and this country by Genet, wheii he was minister —
a treatment not sufficiently punished, and even sustained
by violent partisans opposed to a strong executive.
Nor was the solicitude which the federal party felt Cause-
respecting French ascendency without foundation. Na
poleon was advancing from conquering to conquer, and
his country seemed to be rapidly realizing the dream of
Louis XIV. respecting universal empire. The Bank of
England had stopped specie payment, threatening destruc-

334 difficulties with france.
Bk. VI. tive to British financial power. There had been a great

Ch. 3. naval mutiny at the time, and English statesmen were
A. d. perplexed with difficulties. It was even seriously feared
1798. that war might be declared by France, and this country
as well as England be threatened with invasion.
Envoys Great pains were taken by the President in the appoint-
to Paris, ment of envoys to France, and, after great deliberation,
John Marshall, of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry, of Mas
sachusetts, were added to the mission. They departed
separately to France, in July and August, there to unite
with Piockney in a new attempt to terminate all differ
ences. Having joined each other in October, at Paris,
they sent notice of their arrival to the Minister of Foreign
Affairs, Prince Talleyrand, who informed them that as
soon as the report on American affairs was finished, he
The de- would let them know what was to be done. After an
of'^^e interval of ten days, they were informed that the Direc-
Prench tory were exasperated against the United States for some
tory. parts of the President's speech at the opening of Congress,
and that no audience would be granted until the conclu
sion of a private unofficial negotiation. The person sent
to negotiate was Hottinguer, the banker, who informed
the envoys that a loan to the Republic, and a private
douceur of $240,000 for the members of the Directory,
Reject- would be insisted on. A long unofficial intercourse en-
OLeln- ^^^^> which ended, notwithstanding all the arts of French
Toys. diplomacy, in the refusal of the envoys to grant a loan
or a douceur. The agents of Talleyrand threatened war
and other calamities, but the envoys were firm, indig
nant, and patriotic. The French evidently hoped to ter
rify the envoys into a course not merely undignified and
mean, but opposed to the whole policy and Constitution
of this country. Nothing was settled. No official inter
course took place, and Pinckney and Marshall retumed

preparations for WAR. 335
home, leaving Gerry to manage negotiations with Talley- bk.vi.
rand. Infamous proposals were^-made to him, and ad- Ch. 3.
vantage taken of his weak points; but Gerry maintained a. d.
the national honour, and finally, after unsuccessful nego- 1798.
tiation, returned to America. Nothing showed the grasp
ing, unprincipled, rapacious, contemptible meanness of
the French Directory more than the overtures unofficially
made to the American envoys, which virtually amounted
to secret bribery to the French executive, and a repudia^
tion of the treaty with Great Britain and of that neutral
policy which the American govemment had then and
haa since constantly maintained.
The American govemment, long before the return of Prepanv.
the envoys, prepared for war ; and Congress authorized .^°^ °'
the President to instruct the commander of the national
ships of war to seize any armed vessel which committed
depredations on American commerce — for the merchant-
vessels of the Americans were stUl seized by the French,
in defiance of aU neutral rights, and property amounting
to more than a million of dollars had been unjustly seized.
Moreover, an act was passed (June 12th, 1798) suspend
ing all commercial intercourse with France. On the 25th
of June, the President authorized merchant-vessels to de
fend themselves by force against search or seizure, and
large appropriations were made for the navy.
Anticipating a war with France, Congress, before ad- wash-
journing, appointed Washington lieutenant-general and ^^^^
commander-in-chief of all the forces raised or to be raised "^o «>™-
in the United States, and the hero accepted the appoint- ohiet
ment, although reluctant, in his old age, to leave his
peaceful pursuits at Mount Vernon. In view of the con
duct of the French Directory — " its insidious hostilities,"
said he, "to our government," "disregard of treaties,"
"war upon defenceless commerce," "treatment of minis-

336 overtures wade by france.
Bk.vi. ters," and "demands amounting to tribute." In the ap-
Ch. 3. pointment of generals and other high officers, Adams acted
A. D. without much advice, and a coldness between him and his
1798. cabinet resulted. He was jealous of Hamilton, and would
have deprived him of a high military appointment, as first
major-general, had not Washington insisted upon it as
the only condition upon whioh he himself would serve.
.Adams's great defect was unwillingness to ask or receive
advice, trusting to his own judgment alone, which was
often warped by his strong passions and prejudices. He
thus did great injury to his party, and was by no means
its oracle, as Jefferson was of the Republicans.
French Upon the return of Gerry to the United States, the
toreMjn- French government, really not desiring war, but only a
dUatiou bribe, made advances to reconciliation, took off the em
bargo imposed on American shipping, and released those
who wero imprisoned; which, however, was of no great
consequence, since but few American vessels were then
in French ports. Nor was Congress, more than the exe
cutive, disposed to submit to the arrogant demands of
France; and, expecting war, unhesitatingly prepared for
it — added considerably to thc navy, made large naval
appropriations, and passed an act of. non-intercourse.
Minister War was averted by the overtures of Talleyrand
ip ^^" and the consequent appointment of a minister to the
Repub- French Republic. Adams, at first, nominated M 'Mur
ray, resident minister at the Hague, on the suggestion of
Talleyrand, but without consulting his cabinet, which
widened the breach between him and the Federalists.
This appointment was unpopular, and a great clamour was
raised; but the President refused to withdraw the nomi
nation, and M'Murray was rejected by tbe Senate. Adams
then, without withdrawing his appointment, nominated,
conjointly with him, Chief-Justice Ellsworth and Patrick

dissatisfaction of the federalists. 337
Henry ; and the nomination, thus modified, was confirmed. Bk. vi.
Henry declined to serve, on account of age and infirmi- ch. 3.
ties, and General Davis, of North Carolina, was appointed a. d.
in his place. 1798.
The envoys were instructed to demand their passports instruo-
and return to America, if negotiations for the settlement ''°f'
7 o to the
of difficulties were not commenced within twenty days envoys.
; after their arrival at Paris. They were required to insist
upon indemnification for spoliations and the repeal of the
French decree for confiscating neutral vessels having Eng
lish merchandise on board.
A portion of Adams's cabinet were disinclined to a re- Bissen-
newal of diplomatic relations with France; and the great thTi'ii.
leaders of the federal party were disposed to coincide in uet.
this opinion, from doubts which they entertained of the
sincerity of the French government, and from a want of
confidence in Talleyrand. But Adams, bent on preserving
peace by any means, did not consult his cabinet, and has
tened the departure of the envoys, even after news had
arrived of a change in the French Directory ; which slight
on the cabinet consummated the breach in the federal
party, subsequently broke it up, and threw power into
the handa of the Republicans, in the ensuing elections.
But, however annoying and disagreeable his course was
to leaders of the party which had supported him, Adams tion of
was determined to preserve peace, and also to act inde- pijent*
pendently of party dictation. He was President, and was
resolved to exercise his prerogative — a resolution far from
agreeable to strong party-men, especially of his own cabi
net, who, particularly Pickering and Wolcott, resolved to
get rid of him at the close of his term of office, and sub
stitute a more reliable party-man — a man whom they
could control — the great policy of all politioal parti
zans since that time, as shown in their disinclination to
29

338 death of WASHINGTON.
Bk. VI. elevate to office the strongest and best men of the coun
ch. 3. try. No man can ever hope to be elevated to the presi-
A. D. dency by a party-vote, when he himself is stronger than
1800. his party, or is any thing else than the mere organ and
tool of a party, ready to adopt the most extreme party
measures. -t A
Kestora- Ncws being rcccived (May, 1800), from the envoys to
peace. France, of the probability of a favourable termination of
difficulties, an act was passed discharging the officers and
men of the additional regiments, with three months' pay. '
The envoys had been well received, and negotiations were
carried on with a mutual desire to settle all differences
in an honourable manner, and peace was soon fully re
stored.
Events This protracted negotiation with France, and those
Adams's i^ieasures of national defence which grew out of it, were
adminis- the great events of Adams's administration, although acts
of considerable importance were passed by Congress, and
other events of interest, of a personal rather than of great
national import, took place.
Death of The year 1799 was memorable for the death of Wash-
togton. ington (December 14th), which was a great loss to the
federal party. All parties, however, sincerely mourned
his death, and united to confer upon his memory every tes
timonial of respect. The funeral oration was pronounced
by Henry Lee, and all that Congress or the nation could do
to commemorate his great services and exalted character
waa done. The approaching anniversary of his birth
(February 22d) was set apart for eulogies, orations, and
other suitable manifestations of public grief throughout
the Union ; and, so far as a nation can mourn for any
one man, it mourned for him.
In the course of the summer, the seat of govemment
was removed to that new federal city, on the Potomac,

election OP JEFFERSON. 339
which is called by his name, although the public build- bk. yi.
ings were scarcely completed, and the city was ill fur- Ch. 3.
nished with accommodations. A. D.
The most marked peculiarity of the administration of 1801.
Adams was the vimlence of party-feeling, which divided, Adams
not merely the leading statesmen of the country, but even '^^
the cabinet of the President, and which induced him to
act more independently of it than was in accordance with
popular views, and finally led to the dismissal of Picker
ing and M'Henry and the resignation of Wolcott, as well
as to the total disorganization of the Federalists and the
ascendency of the Republicans. The hostility against the
President, even from his ovra party, was probably caused
by his jealousy of Hamilton, his egotism and vanity, his
eagerness to assume responsibility, and his independent
course, especiaUy in reference to France, which was viewed
as decidedly anti-republican.
In the presidential election of 1801 the republican Election
party gained the ascendency, which it has since, under eon.
different names, retained. The Federalists, as a party,
were completely defeated, partly by their own dissen
sions, and partly from the growth of more democratic
ideas, or ideas supposed to be so. Adams and Pinckney
were the candidates of the Federalists, and Jefferson and
Aaron Burr the candidates of the Republicans, for Presi
dent and Vice-President. The two latter were elected ;
but, as they both had an equal number of votes, the elec
tion passed into the House of Representatives, by whom
Jefferson was chosen.

Capture of Deme.

CHAPTER IV.
administration of JEFFERSON.
Thomas Jefferson, the most famous of the early bk. vi.
Presidents, next to Washington, commenced his adminis- ch. 4.
tration at a fortunate time. The country was at peace ; ^ j,
the storm which threatened war had blown over ; the 1801.
treasury was well filled ; commerce was flourishing ; and
the country had commenced a career of unbounded
prosperity, its population already numbering over five
millions. The federal party was decidedly overthrown,
and democracy had commenced ita reign.
One of the first acts of the new President waa to change Change
the great officers of state, and appoint those who were offl^ra."
strong party-men — a course perhaps necessary, but dif
ferent from that pursued by his predecessors. James
Madison became Secretary of State ; Albert Gallatin,
Secretary of the Treasury ; Robert Smith, Secretary of
the Navy; and Levi Lincoln, Attorney -General. A
change, still more uncommon, was also made in inferior
offices throughout the country.
When Congress assembled in December, it acted in Repeal
the spirit of the President, and repealed many of the "fi^"^"
laws enacted by the Federalists — for the administration i"™-
had a large majority in both houses. The judiciary act
was repealed, and also that imposing direct taxes, which
were ever obnoxious to the people, especially the excise
29 * (341)

342 vfAR with Tripoli.
Bk. VI. on distilled spirits. Jefferson regarded the public debt
Ch. 4. as a great evU, and recommended its speedy payment, as
A. D. well as the curtailment of offices and salaries.
1801 The first session of Congress was not marked by any
*° other measure of great importance, except authorizing
¦ the President to fit out a naval force against Tripoli, with
War which state the United States were forced to declare war.
withTripoli. The command of a squadron was given to Morris, and five
frigates and one schooner were added to the ships already
in the Mediterranean. The squadron, however, accom
plished nothing of consequence, except the blockade of
Tripoli. The ships, in the course of the summer of 1803,
were relieved by others under the command of Edward
Preble, who hoisted his flag on board the Constitution.
New ex- One of the frigates sent to relieve the old squadron, the
again™ Philadelphia, commanded by Captain Bainbridge, on her
Tripoli, passage out, captured a Morocco cruiser of twenty-two
guns, and retook an American brig, which caused the
emperor of Morocco to disavow any order to commit hos-
Lcss of tilities. But a great misfortune befell Bainbridge on hia
gate way to Tripoli to join Preble. His ship struck on a
drfphia sunken rock, and, while in a defenceless state, was at
tacked by a flotilla of Tripolitan gun-boats, and taken.
The crew, with their commander, were carried to Tripoli
and held as valuable prisoners, for whom a great ransom
was demanded.
Decatur Soon after, a bold exploit was performed by Lieutenant
and Decatur, then commanding the Enterprise. This brig
thefri- ^^^ captured a small vessel, bound to Constantinople, with
gate. a present of female slaves to the sultan. She was taken
into service, called the Intrepid, and, being manned
by volunteers from the Enterprise, stood into the har
bour of Tripoli, where the Philadelphia was refitting for
sea. At midnight, she approached the Philadelphia, and,

PURCHASE OP LOUISIANA. 343
being supposed to be a trading vessel, having lost her an- Bk. vt.
ohors, was permitted to approach so near that the American Ch. 2.
assailants, who had been heretofore concealed, were enabled a. d.
to board the frigate sword in hand : they drove the bar- 1804.
barians overboard, set fire to the ship, and, whilst she jeb. 26.
was burning to the water's edge, sailed unharmed out
of the harbour, under a heavy fire from all the batteries.
This gallant action of young Decatur contributed much
to raise the character of the American navy.
The blockade of the harbour of Tripoli was continued
during the spring and summer, and, in the latter part of
the season, was bombarded, but without much effect. J'n'ho
_ , , takenby
In the following spring, an attack was made by land Baton.
also, under Eaton, consul at Tunis, to co-operate with the
naval forces. Eaton, with 400 men, adventurers from
various countries, Tripolitan exiles, and Arab cavalry,
marched through the desert from Egypt, countenanced
by Ali Pasha ; and, assisted by the Argus, the Hornet,
and the Nautilus, American ships of war, he succeeded in
taking Deme, the Tripolitan port and settlement nearest
Egypt (April 27th, 1805), which brought the bashaw to
terms, and led to a negotiation and peace with Tripoli, ^^^a.
much to the dissatisfaction of Eaton, who expected to
reap some great advantage.
But an event of more importance than a war with this 1808.
piratical state occurred soon after it commenced. This The pur-
was the purchase of Louisiana from France. Ex-Chan- ohase of
Louiai-
cellor Livingston and Mr. Monroe were sent to Paris, as ana.
special ministers, to negotiate that bargain. Napoleon
wanted money more than an unprofitable settlement on
the banks of the Mississippi. After the usual haggling
between the French and American diplomatists, the French
agreed to a cession ofthe whole territory for the comparative
ly unimportant sum of fifteen millions of dollars — deducting

344 DUEL BETWEEN BURR AND HARHLTON.
Bk. vi. little less than four millions of dollars as an indemnifica-
Ch. 4. tion to American merchants for the spoliations which had
^ JJ been made. This arrangement was justly received with
1803. great exultation by the President and his cabinet, and
was ratified (October 20th, 1803) by the United States
Senate. Some doubts and difficulties still remained re
specting boundaries, the French claiming more territory
than Spain was willing to concede ; but these were allayed
by the moderation and pacific policy of the President.
After the peaceful acquisition of an immense territory
for a comparatively trifiing sum, no great political event
of general interest occurred during the first administration
of Jefferson. Party politics, however, ran high, and the
federal leaders made a great outcry.
Duel be- Unfortunately, this intense party animosity, never since
Bu„ equalled, led to the duel between Aaron Burr and Alex-
and Ha- ander Hamilton, into which the latter was forced by his
milton. ' •'
unprincipled opponent. Burr was eager for the blood of
Hamilton ; and nothing short of his death could possibly
appease him, in order that he might remove the great
obstacle to his ascendency, or gratify the malice of dis
appointed ambition. This melancholy and disgraceful duel
was fought on the llth of July, where Hoboken now is,
opposite New York, on the Jersey shore. " The parties,"
says a recent historian of the United States, " having ex
changed salutations, the seconds measured the distance
of ten paces, loaded the pistols, made the other prelimi
nary arrangements, and placed the combatants. At the
appointed signal. Burr took deliberate aim, and fired.
The ball entered Hamilton's side, and, as he fell, his
pistol too was unconsciously discharged. Burr approached
him, apparently somewhat moved ; but, on the suggestion
of his second, the surgeon and the barge-men already ap
proaching, he turned and hastened away. Van Ne,ss, his

death OP HAMILTON. 345
second, coolly covering him from their sight by opening bk. vi.
an umbrella. The surgeon found Hamilton half sitting ch. 4.
on the ground and supported in the arms of his second, j^^. u
The pallor of death was on his face. ' Doctor,' he said, 1803.
' this is a mortal wound,' and, as if overcome by the ef- Death of
fort of speaking, he swooned quite away. As he was ^™""
carried across the river, the fresh breeze revived him.
His own house being in the country, he was conveyed at
once to the house of a friend, where he lingered for
twenty-four hours in great agony, but preserving his com
posure and self-command to the last." ^^
Thus died Hamilton, the leader of the federal party. His
and one of the greatest men that this country has yet " °^'
produced — the friend of Washington, the chief framer of
the America,n Constitution, in the forty-eighth year of his
age, and in the midst of usefulness and honour. New
York never witnessed a more mournful spectacle than at
his funeral, from Trinity Church, in which Gouverneur
Morris pronounced his eulogy, before all that were learned
and distinguished in the city.
The public indignation against Burr was tremendous. Bxecra.
He was regarded as a wilful murderer, and was forced to g°" °'
flee. He embarked quietly for Georgia, lost all political
influence, and gained an infamous reputation, which will
ever cling to his name, even as the stigma of treason will
for ever be attached to the memory of Arnold — two men
who equally aimed at power even at the sacrifice of fame,
frienda, and country.
The peaceful acquisition of Louisiana, the curtailment 1805
of the public expenses, the prosperity of the country, and J^^l^
the great talents and patriotism of Jefferson, secured his t'on of
re-election to the presidency and the greater predominance son.
of his party.
Meanwhile, Burr, disappointed in all his hopes of

346 CONSPIRACY OF BURR.
Bk. vi. power, and blasted in reputation, abandoned himself to
Ch. 4. desperate and dangerous schemes. In April, 1805, with
^_ D_ aeveral nominal objects in view, he departed for the West,
1805. but with the probable intention of raising an expedition
Burr's ^^T the conquost of Mexico, or of separating the South-
conspi- western States from the Union and erecting out of them
racy °
a monarchy, of which New Orleans was to be the capital.
Be however failed to gain over to his yiews any men of
political influence, although he succeeded in entrapping
Blennerhasset, an Irish gentleman of property, settled on
an island in the Ohio, opposite Marietta. Rumour ac
cused him of something equally disgraceful in his in
trigues with the wife of this enthusiastic gentleman —
for Burr was vain of his power over women, who were
too frequently victims of his arts. Burr had made great
calculations on receiving the co-operation of General Wil
kinson, commander-in-chief of the army and governor of
Louisiana, as well as of General Eaton, with Truxton,
Preble, and Decatur, naval commanders. But these men
were true to themselves and their country; and Wilkin
son especially, detecting the dangerous schemes of Burr,
did all in his power to defeat them, acquainting the Pre
sident with Burr's intentions, arresting his coadjutors,
and putting New Orleans in a state of defence (1806).
Even Burr himself was arrested in Kentucky, through
the agency of Daviess, the district-attorney, and his trial
commenced at Frankfort ; but, the principal witness relied
upon by the government failing to appear. Burr had a
triumphant release. Meanwhile the boats which Blen
nerhasset had prepared for the descent of the river were
seized. StiU, Burr persevered in attempting to win over
the Western country, including the troops stationed at
military posts on the Mississippi. He remained some
time near Natchez, fearing to descend the river to New

ARREST AND ACQUITTAL OF BURR. 3-J 7
Orleans, on account of the measures of Wilkinson and the bk. vi.
proclamation of the President, which called upon all per- ch. 4.
sons in authority to exert themselves to suppress an enter- j^_ j,_
prise which had for its object the invasion of the Spanish 1806
territories. The govemor of the Mississippi Territory Arrest
actually called out 400 militia for the purpose of arrest- of Burr.
ing Burr, and he was obliged to surrender. There was
not, however, evidence sufficient to convict him, and he
remained at the house of one of his sureties ; but, hearing
that Wilkinson had sent some officers from New Orleans
to arrest him, and fearing to fall into his hands, he fled.
He was, however, captured and sent under guard to
Washington, the seat of government of Mississippi Ter
ritory. The exaggerated accounts of Burr's force having
become subjects of ridicule, and the alarm excited at New
Orleans having subsided, there was a reaction of public opi
nion, and Burr found defenders in Congress. Neverthe- His trial
less, he was tried for high treason at Richmond, before quittai.
Chief Justice Marshall, and was acquitted. The Federal
ists were inclined to make light of the whole affair ; but
the Democrats viewed it more seriously, especially the
President, who watched the trial with great interest and
ardently desired his conviction. Soon after the trial.
Burr embarked for Europe, and lived a while at Paris in
straitened circumstances and an object of suspicion to
govemment. He returned to America just beforp the 1807.
war with England, and resumed the practice of the law.
But his political prospects were completely blasted, and
his character was suUied by private vices. He lived to
the age of eighty — deserted, lonely, and embarrassed.
Meanwhile matters of greater national interest took
place. Napoleon, at this time, was in the height of his 1805.
victories and at war vrith England. In consequence, the
Americans enjoyed the carrying trade of the world. Great

348 BRITISH ORDERS IN COUNCIL.
Bk. VI. fortunes were made by American merchants. Being at
Ch.4. peace with both France and England, American vessels
A. D. traded with these two great belligerent powers of Europe
jl806. as well as with their colonies. These mercantile advan-
Engiish tages were regarded with jealousy by British merchants;
decrees ^jj^ British privateers-men and many naval officers com-
against *^ • x 1
rights of plained that there were no longer any prizes to taJie.
neutrals ^^^^ British Courts of Admiralty lent an ear to these
complaints, and passed decrees which declared that ves
sels engaged in carrying West India produce from the
United States to Europe were legal prizes. The seizure
and condemnation of several American vessels with valu
able cargoes followed, which, of course, occasioned loud
complaints in the United Statea. Public meetings were
held to consider the state of affairs.
Claim of These were not the only grounds of offence. England
"^''!h^ claimed the right to search American vessels for desert-
for Bri- ers from its own service ; in consequence of which, great
men. anuoyauces were inflicted on merchant vessels, and Ame-
lican sailors often forced into the British naval service.
Congress retaliated by prohibiting the importation of many
of the most important articles of British manufacture.
British But graver causes of offence soon after occurred. Great
""^"dT Britain, with a view to cripple Napoleon, as well as to
please her merchants, passed orders in Council (May,
1806) which declared several European ports, under con
trol of the French, to be in a state of blockade; thus
authorizing the capture of American vessels bound to
them, and violating the law of nations.
Berlin Napoleon, alao, wishing to retaliate on the English,
rather than to injure American commerce, devised a sys
tem by which he hoped to exclude English manufactures
from the Continent, and thus cripple Great Britain in the
most vital point, especially since by the battle of Trafalgar

decrees.

com
merce.

EMBARGO ON AMERICAN VESSELS. 349
England was the undisputed mistress of the ocean. He Bk.vi.
accordingly issued his famoua Berlin decrees (November, ch. 4.
1806), by which Great Britain was not only declared to a. d.
be in a state of blockade and all intercourse suspended, 1807.
but which forbade the introduction of any English goods
into the Continent of Europe.
The English retaliated by declaring the whole coast of
Europe to be in a state of blockade, and prohibited neu
trals altogether from trade with the Continent. Napo- MUau
leon then issued his Milan decree, which confiscated not
only the vessels of neutrals which should touch at an
English port, but such as should submit to be searched.
Under these decrees, the capture of nearly all Ameri- Critical
can property on the high seas was rendered almost certain, A.meri-
and thus a condition of things most disastrous to Ameri- oan
can commerce was effected through the efforts of these
two belligerent powers to embarrass each other in their
strife for mastery.
These were great evils ; and, during their continuance,
American commerce between France and England as well
as the rest of Europe waa virtually suspended : for Ame
rican vessels might be seized by either French or Eng
lish, and rates of insurance rose to a ruinous height.
The greatest alarm now prevailed in the United States.
The Federalists clamoured for war, and large appropria
tions for military defences. The Democrats thought that
there were not sufficient causes of war, and, in accordance
with the suggestion of Jefferson, only asked for an increase
of gun-boats, of no use, except in rivers. The American The em-
ships, however, were so much expoaed to capture that '"^^°'
Congress, in 1807, decreed an embargo, or a prohibition
to American shipa to leave their porta.
This efficient measure, although all parties had urged
the government to adopt a vigorous course in order
30

350 POLICY OF Jefferson's administration.
Bk.vi. to avenge the honour and protect the property of the
Ch. 4. country, soon excited a general opposition, especially in
A. D. the New England States ; and, not being able to enforce
1807. the restrictions imposed by the embargo without military
coercion, government prudently yielded and had recourse
to another expedient, — that of non-intercourse.
Capture The general irritation was also increased by the un-
°^t fortunate affair of the Chesapeake. This national vessel
r»»>.». was attacked by a British ship of superior force, the Leo
pard, and compelled to surrender, after several men had
been killed and wounded. The outrage was inflicted on
the ground that the American vessel sheltered deserters
from the British navy, and four of the crew were carried
off on that plea, three of whom were Americans. The
British government, however, disavowed the act of the
naval officer, although it offered no adequate reparation ;
and, notwithstanding the disavowal, it contributed to swell
the feeling of indignation against England throughout the
1808. land. This spirit of hostility was further increased by
the refusal of England to revoke her obnoxious decrees,
so unjust, and so injurious to American interests. The
decrees of Napoleon also were equally injurious ; in con
sequence of which Congress at last was compelled, in
March, 1809, after all negotiations had failed, wholly to
interdict trade and intercourse with both France and
England.
Jeffer- Such were the events of greatest public interest during
poUcy ^^^ administration of Jefferson, characterized on the whole
by great wisdom and forbearance. Though hostile to
Great Britain, he was averse to plunging the nation into
war, which, however, could not be averted, under his suc
cessor, without a loss of national honour.
It was Mr. Jefferson's policy to diminish the public
debt, to restrict the army and navy, to repeal all direct

POLICY OF Jefferson's administration. 351
taxes, to reduce the tariff, to maintain friendly relations bk. vi.
with the Indians, whose rights were respected, to add ct. 4.
new territories to the oountry, to extend the liberty of ^ jj_
the press, and to favour unbounded religious toleration. 1809.
This policy, with some exceptions, has since continued to
guide the course of the American government, and must
continue to do so, in accordance with the popular wishes.
Since the term of the first democratic President, the
general principles of his party have been in the ascend
ant. Political contests, however, though sometimes ex
hibiting much warmth, have not been attended with that
extreme degree of animosity which characterized the early
contests between the two old parties. American citizens
have come to believe, that a political antagonist is not
necessarily an enemy to his country, and that no party
whatever has the smallest chance of success, which does
not in the main support the honest principlea of republic
anism and the honour and interest of the whole country.

THE
NORTHERN FRONTIER,
~ A. D. 1812,^'i3, '14.
REFERHNCES TO THE SMALIEK MAPS.
Nn. 1. De'rnit an.t iis viciailr.
N... 2. N,r,ta.» rmn'ier.
N'l. .1. V ^ri&b.ir^aiid Ihe Victory on Lsko
Cltnin; :.iin.

Mr -I -
'^fifTTiegat Inlet ¦
 73 Lon. W. from Green^i''h|

CHAPTER V.
FIRST TERM OF MADISON's ADMINISTRATION.
Thomas Jefferson retired from the presidency at a bk. vi.
very critical period. " His policy of peace, — of com mer- ch. 5.
cial restrictions, moral philosophy, and dry docka," — was ^ ^
pursued imtil the nation was on the verge of internal and 1809.
external war. The overbearing and unjust measures of English
France and England respecting neutrals could no longer aggrea-
be patiently endured. England still looked with jealousy poUcyof
on the rising greatness of the American republic, and en- •^**""
deayoured to check it by low acts of diplomacy, by invar
ding international rights, by encouraging hostilities among
the Indians, by retaining possession of military posts
north-west of the Ohio, and, above all, by seizing Ameri
can vessels and impressing American sailors into her ser
vice. StUl, Mr. Jefferson pursued a pacific and concilia
tory policy, and was ably supported by his Secretary of
State, James Madison, who conducted the most delicate
negotiations with masterly ability.
When Mr. Jefferson retired, the eyes of the nation Madison
were fixed on Mr. Madison, as the only man who could p^"'™
bring existing difficulties to a successful termination ; and *«"'•'
he was accordingly chosen President of the United States.
He was inaugurated in March, 1809 ; and George Clin
ton, of New York, waa chosen Vice-President. Robert Hiscabi-net.
Smith, of Maryland, was appointed Secretary of State ;
30 * (353)

354 DECLARATION OF WAR.
Bk. VL Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania, was continued in the
cii.6. office of Secretary of the Treasury; William Eustis, of
A. D. Massachusetts, was appointed Secretary of War; and
1809 Paul Hamilton, of South Carolina, was called to the
^ Navy Department.
1819 .1 .
But the difficulties with foreign powers, which had on-
intei^ ginated during Washington's administration and increased
of com- during that of Jeffenson, were no nearer a termination;
merraai jjj^jggj^ ^^ey were more embarrassing and further from
course, adjustment. Great Britain still continued to usurp the
same power on the water that Napoleon did on the land ;
and the two great belligerents seemed to vie with each
other in their disregard for the rights of neutrals. As a
last resource. Congress prohibited all commercial inter
course with both Great Britain and France ; still wishing,
however, to preserve peace, the President was at the same
time authorized to renew commercial intercourse so soon
as these governments should repeal their obnoxious de
crees and orders.
warde. In 1811, France reluctantly revoked the Berlin and
Glared MJian decrees ; but the orders in Council were still con-
agaiast '
Great tinued by the British government, contrary to all justice
" "^' and the mutual interests of the two nations. At this
period, England had impressed from the crews of Ameri
can merchant vessels, peacefully navigating the ocean, no
less than six thousand seamen who claimed to be citizens
of the United States, beside seizing and confiscating an
immense amount of property. In view of these wrongs,
Congress could hesitate no longer, and accordingly de
clared war against Great Britain (June 18th, 1812).
Opposi- The declaration of war was received by different parties
the war. with different feelings. The old Federalists strongly op
posed the war, and palliated the unjust courae which Eng
land had pursued on the ground of necessity. They

INADEQUATE MILITARY PREPARATIONS. 355
maintained that the obnoxious ordere were continued out bk.yl
of fear of Napoleon rather than disregard to the Ameri- Ch. 6.
cans, and that, as England was straggling for existence, a. d.
it was ungenerous to take advantage of her critical situa- 1812.
tion. Moreover, they declared the nation unprepared for
war, and predicted calamities which would more than
balance the advantages to be gained. Nor did they be
lieve that there was a sufficient cause of hostilities, or
that the national honour was seriously compromised.
Among the most violent opposers of the war were the
clergy, the lawyers, and especially the merchants, of New
England, who viewed with regret the withdrawal of their
commerce from the ocean.
But, with a great majority of the nation, the war was popuia-
popular. The preservation of national honour was re- t^f °^.
garded of more value than that of any material interests.
Nor had hostility to England sufficiently abated since the
Revolution, to allow the people to do justice to the course
the English government felt constrained to pursue, while
opposing a barrier to the career of Napoleon.
There can be no doubt that the nation was not well Condi-
prepared for a contest with England. Mr. Madison had ^°^ "
indulged the hope that all difficulties would be settled, umted
and Congress itself was averse to making those large ap
propriations necessary to conduct a war with success.
The navy was insignificant. The army was small and
not well organized. The treasury was empty, and money
could only be raised by loans. Our geographical position
was unfavourable. On the one side was Canada, well
fumished with troops and all the munitions of war. On
the north-west and south-west were lawless savages, un
friendly to the American cause, and embittered by Eng
lish arts. On the south was Florida, occupied by Spanish
troops. The old revolutionary generals were dead or

356 FORCES ON THE FRONTIERS.
BK.yi. superannuated. The cabinet-ministers were unacquainted
ch.6. with military affairs. The community and Congress were
j^ J) divided as to the necessity of the war itself.
1812. Such was the condition of the country when the war
Ameri- ^as declared. Henry Dearborn, who had been Secretary
can gen- gf War during Jefferson's administration, was appointed
senior Major-Generai; under him were Major-Generals
James Wilkinson, of Maryland, Wade Hampton, of South
Carolina, William Hull, governor of Michigan Territory,
and Thomas Pinckney, of South Carolina.
HuU on In anticipation of hostilities, a large force was placed
^^'™' under the command of General Hull, in order that he
might cut off all communication between the Northwest
ern Indians and the British posts in the Canadas. By
some remissness in the War Department, the first intelli
gence of the declaration of war was received in Canada by
the British themselves, before it was known on the fron-
Lossof tier-posts. Consequently, Mackinaw, on the island of

nac.

macki. Michilimackinac, at the junction of Lakes Huron and
Michigan, on the 17th of July, 1812, was surprised by
the enemy and taken without resistance. This iraportant
post, the depot of the fur-trade and the key of the North
west, was thus unfortunately lost at the very outset.
Hull's Hull meanwhile set out, with a force of volunteers and
ofca^a- militia, from Detroit, his seat of government, to invade
da: his Canada, and issued pompous proclamations. But he met
disasters ... r r r
and sur- With nothing but a series of disasters, being opposed by
General Brock, an able and experienced commander.
His stores, despatches, and baggage were captured in a
boat. A detachment of his forces was cut tb pieces by
Tecumseh, the Indian warrior. His army was discou- '
raged by finding the savages more hostile than waa ex
pected. His flanks were in danger of an attack by the
Bntish, and his rear was not open to supplies. Under

UNSUCCESSFUL INVASION OF CANADA. 357
these circumstances, he commenced a retreat (August 7th), bk. vi.
ignominiously recrossed into Michigan, and (August 15th) Ch. 6.
surrendered, with his whole army, at Detroit, to General a. d.
Brock, without striking a blow, or performing one gallant 1812.
action, or even holding a council of war.
Thus waa the war opened by the most disgraceful sur- Trial of
render of an American army to an inferior force, without
exhibiting either courage or skill. The army, however,
as well as the country, was indignant in yiew of this use
less surrender, and Hull was tried by a court-martial
for cowardice, convicted, and sentenced to be shot ; but,
being recommended to mercy, he was pardoned by the
President, although dismissed from the service.
Before the surrender of Hull, a project had been laid Medit».
before the War Department for the capture of Halifax, taok of
the principal naval dep6t of the enemy ; but the project Halifax.
was not then deemed feasible by Mr. Eustis, and it was
accordingly abandoned, to be subsequently resumed.
The invasion of Canada, at this period, still occupied Forces
the attention of the American commander-in-chief, for **"*''«invasiou
which purpose 18,000 men were collected in various places of Cana;-
on the frontier. These were distributed in three divisions : **"
the first, under General Harrison, near the head of Lak«
Erie ; a second, under General Van Rensselaer, at Lewis-
town, on Niagara river ; and a third, under General Dear-
bom, in the vicinity of Plattsburg.
The division under Van Rensselaer, composed equally Failure
of regulars and militia, crossed the river, to attack the "fBena-
British on Queenstown Heights. The enterprise was gal
lantly conducted by the general, but was not properly
sustained by the army, only a part of whom were willing
to embark. Consequently, the assault was unsuccessful,
although General Brock was killed. Of 1100 men who
crossed the river, nearly all were killed, wounded, or

358 NAVAL SUCCESSES.
Bk. VI. taken prisoners. The battle was lost for want of disoi-

Ch. 6. pline. The troops would not obey the orders of the
A. D. general — and no courage can atone for disobedience.
1812. The unlucky and not very creditable campaign of 1812
General was closcd by a feeble attempt of General Dearborn to
pear- invade Canada. He commanded full 6000 men, and was
Dorn. well provided with money and the munitions of war ; but
after a miserable skirmish he relinquished the enterprise
and retired to winter-quarters. All that can be said in
his justification is, that his militia refused to cross the line,
regarding themselves as called out to resist invasion, not
to carry on offensive operations in the enemy's country.
The first year of the war would have ended in a total
eclipse of glory and honour, had it not been for some
brilliant naval encounters. The infant navy accomplished
wonders, and partially redeemed the misfortunes of the
army.
Capture Qn the 19th of August, three days after the surrender
ofthe - TT 11 TX • , J. • ^ .
Guer- of Hull at Detroit, the frigate Constitution, commanded
^ou'""^ by Captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere,
with the loss of only seven killed and seven wounded —
one of the most brilliant naval exploits on record. On
the 17th of October, the English brig Frolic surrendered
to the American sloop of war Wasp, commanded by Cap
tain Jones. The loss of the Frolic was thirty killed and
fifty wounded ; that of the Wasp was five killed and five
wounded. But both these vessels were subsequently re
captured by a British seventy-four.
Capture These successes were followed by others scarcely less
¦ M^o brilliant. On the 25th of October, Captain Decatur, of
nianand the frigate United States, captured the Macedonian, a fri
gate of the largest class, with the loss only of seven killed
and five wounded, while the Macedonian lost thirty-six
killed and sixty-eight wounded. On the 29th of December,

EFFECTS OF THE NAVAL SUCCESSES. 359
the Constitution, then commanded by Commodore Bain- bk. vi.

bridge, achieved a second victory, off San Salvador, by cij. 6.
capturing the British frigate Java, in a short but se- a. d.
vere action. Besides her crew of four hundred men, the 1812.
Java had on board one hundred men designed for the
British service in the East Indies. Her commander.
Captain Lambert, was mortally wounded, and sixty of her
men were killed and one hundred and twenty wounded.
The Constitution had nine killed and twenty-five wound
ed. The prize, however, was a complete wreck, and could
not be brought into port, ^z
These unexpected successes on the ocean raised the Capture
spirits of the Americans, so much mortified by the dis- ujh°e"s-
asters and disgrace which had accompanied the operations sei^.
of the army. Before the meeting of Congress, in Novem
ber, nearly two hundred and fifty English vessels were
captured, upwards of fifty of which were armed, carrying
more than six hundred guns.
Throughout the country, confidence was inspired, and Enthn-
a general enthusiasm prevailed. Numerous volunteer the^o-
corps were formed, and tendered their services to the f'*-
govemment. This patriotic spirit manifested itself espe
cially in the alacrity displayed by the people in Western
Pennsylvania, Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee.
Even females, of every condition and age, voluntarily en
gaged in the work of preparing clothing and knapsacks
for their relations and friends.
The President, in his message to Congress, which had Message
reassembled (November 2d) for a short session, did not gresa."'
attempt to conceal the misfortunes of the army on the
Canadian frontier, and which, he did not hesitate to say,
had partly resulted from the want of proper spirit and
patriotism in the governors of Massachusetts and Con
necticut, who were opposed to the war.

360 RE-ELECTION OF MADISON.
Bk. VL Congress ordered the construction of four ships of the
Ch. 6. line, six frigates, and six sloops of war, and passed an act
A. D. for a loan of sixteen millions of dollars, and also for the
1812. issue of five millions of treasury notes. This sum, in-
Suppiies eluding the loan of eleven millions, authorized on the
Toted 2^j}j gf March,, and five millions of treasury notes, on
greas. the 30th of June, made the appropriations for the prose
cution of the war amount altogether to thirty-seven mil
lions of dollars in one year.
Matin- About this time, several men, since distinguished in
^l^,." the congressional annals of the country, entered the na-
bors of tional legislature. Among these was Henry Clay, then
gross. Speaker of the House, Daniel Webster, who represented
a district in New Hampshire, Jeremiah Mason, Charles
J. Ingersoll, John Forsyth, Richard Stockton, John W.
Eppes, Timothy Pickering, and Timothy Pitkin. Rufus
King was then the leader of the minority, or the anti
war party, in the Senate.
Prasi- The presidential contest was animated in the Eastern
election. States; but only a slight opposition was made to Mr.'
Madison in the South and West, and he was re-elected
by a large majority. Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts,
was elected Vice-President, over George Clinton. During
the winter, some changes took place in the cabinet. Wil
liam Jones, of Pennsylvania, was appointed Secretary of
the Navy, in the place of Hamilton ; and General Arm
strong, late minister to France, Secretary of War, instead
of Dr. Eustis.
1813. Soon after Madison was inaugurated a second time,
Russia Russia, which had suffered from the interruption of Ame-
offers rican commerce, offered her mediation between the belli-
her me- . ,^, ... . ,
diation. gerent parties. Ihe President accepted the offer, and
appointed John Quincy Adams, Albert Gallatin, and
James A. Bayard, envoys extraordinary and ministers

ENGLAND DECLINES RUSSIAN MEDIATION. 361
plenipotentiary, to conclude a treaty of peace, under the bk. vl
auspices of the Russian Emperor Alexander ; but Great Ch. 6.
Britain, unwilling to abandon her pretensions, declined a. d.
the proffered mediation. The United States had no other 1813.
course than to prosecute the war, which will be considered
in the next chapter.

31

Battle of Lake Erie.

CHAPTER VI.
SECOND TERM OF MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION.
The campaign of 1813 opened with considerable mill- bu. vl
tary preparations on the part of the Americans. Briga- ch.8.
dier-General William Henry Harrison, of the Ohio militia, ^ ^
who had long been the popular governor of the North- 1813.
western Territories, was placed at the head of a large opj,jj,_
body of volunteers and militia, from Kentucky, Ohio, "*¦ "»»
Pennsylvania, and Virginia. A more gallant army never paign of
marched with higher hopes than the 10,000 men under ^^^^•
Harrison and Wilkinson, to recover what had been lost
by Hull, and even to conquer Canada. General Harri
son commanded the right wing, and General Winchester,
the second in command, the left. The latter general,
while Harrison was lying at Sandusky, detached Colonels
Lewis and Allen from the left wing, and sent them to
protect the village of Frenchtown, on the river Raisin,
from the Indians and Canadians. They fell in with a
party of the enemyj and obtained complete success. The
advantage which was thus gained inspired the troops
under Winchester to join Lewis and share his triumphs,
and the general yielded to their desires. He joined Lewis
on the 13th of January, with the intention of preserving
the position which had been gained on the Raisin. So
soon as Harrison heard of the success at Frenchtown, he
also set forward to effect a general junction of the army,
(363)

364 SIEGE OF FORT MEIGS.

Bk.

^ but, it being so early in the season, he was prevented by

Ch. 6. the difficulties of the march from accomplishing his object.
A. D. Before he could join Winchester, the latter was attacked
1813. (January 22d) by a large force of British and Indians,
Defeat and Completely routed. General Winchester himself and
chestei. Colouel Lewis were taken prisoners. Nor was this the
greatest calamity. Major Madison, who, with 500 men,
had succeeded in retaining his position, was induced,
through the influence of Winchester, to surrender to
Colonel Proctor, who had promised to treat him and his
troops with the honourable consideration due to captives.
Murder But the savagcs under Proctor, exasperated at the loss of
of Ken- their warriors, demanded vengeance, and he basely sur-
Boidiers. rendered 500 prisoners, comprising men from the best
families of Kentucky, into their hands. The next day,
the whole of them were ruthlessly murdered — one of
the greatest outrages in the annals of modern warfare ;
and Proctor, who permitted the slaughter, instead of be
ing cashiered and disgraced, was made brigadier-general.
Harri- General Harrison, after this disaster, retreated to his
'™'° post on the Miami, and proceeded to fortify Fort Meigs,
cesses, all further advance upon the enemy's territory being
necessarily abandoned. Here he successfully withstood
two sieges, from a vastly superior force under Proctor and
Tecumseh, and the enemy was compelled to retire. On
the 5th of May, General Clay, with 1200 Kentucky mi
litia, arrived in the vicinity of Fort Meigs, and was or
dered to attack the British redoubts, on one side of the
river, in concert vrith a sortie from the fort, headed by
Colonel Miller. The attack was successful ; but, instead
of returning to the fort, as he was ordered. General Clay
pursued the retreating Indians, until he himself, in re
turn, was surrounded and completely defeated. Only a
small part of his force reached the fort in safety. Thus

VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE BY PERRY. 365
ensued another reverse in consequence of disobedience of b^- yi.
orders, and the North-west was still left open to British ch. 6.
thraldom and depredation. A. d.
The campaign would have terminated before Harrison 1813.
could have matured his preparations to recover what
Hull had lost, had not the destruction of the British fleet
on Lake Erie, by Commodore Perry, opened the way to
the capture of Proctor on the Thames, and the complete
relief of the entire West from the enemy.
This event, one of the most signal and fortunate during Perry's
the war, took place on the tenth of September. The oniSo
American squadron consisted of nine vessels, carrying ^"*-
fifty-four guns ; the British, of six vessels and sixty-three
guns. The battle began at eleven o'clock in the morn
ing, and, at first, was unfavourable to the Americans, the
flag-ship of Perry, the Lawrence, being disabled by the
fire of two ships of equal size with which she contended,
and from which she could not escape on account of the
lightness of the wind. The gallant commodore, instead
of surrendering, left his ship, in an open boat, amid
a heavy and destructive fire, and passed unhurt to the
Niagara. The wind then rising. Perry succeeded in
bringing the whole squadron into action; and, in three
hours, his victory was complete. The loss of the Ame
ricans was twenty-seven killed and ninety-six wounded,
while the British loss was much greater. The prisoners
amounted to 600, exceeding the whole number of Ame
ricans engaged in the action.
This great victory of Perry over Barclay extinguished
the power of the British on the Lakes, and opened a
passage to the territory which had been surrendered by
Hull. General Harrison, assisted by the governors of
Kentucky and Ohio, succeeded in collecting an army of
7000 men, on the southern shore of Lake Erie, and which;
31*

366 RETIREMENT OF GENERAL HARRISON.
BK.VL embarking on Perry's fleet, reached Maiden the 27th of
Ch. 6. September. This great force filled General Proctor with
A. D. consternation, and he took to flight, after destroying every
1813. thing which came in his way. General Harrison pursued
Harri- ^^^ overtook the retreating enemy, the 5th of October, on
son'BTio- the river Thames, about eighty miles from Detroit. Here
tories. ' ° •'
Proctor, with Tecumseh, posted himself, and prepared for
the attack, when flight was no longer possible. Both ar
mies engaged with determined courage, and the Americans
gained the day. Tecumseh, the most celebrated Indian
warrior that ever raised his arm against the white men,
was killed, and, on his death, the Indians fled ; and the
English, with the exception of Proctor, who, with 200
dragoons, succeeded in escaping, laid down their arms.
Had the forces been more equal, the victory would have
been more glorious. Its result, however, was great, for
the north-western country was regained, and the way pre
pared for a more effectual invasion of Canada.
Harri- Upon this decisive battle. General Harrison embarked
stoshis ^°^ Buffalo, after discharging a great part of the volun-
commis- tecrs who had so honourably served, and leaving Colonel
Cass, with a detachment, at Detroit. Soon after, while
reposing on his laurels at home, in Ohio, he resigned his
commission, in consequence of a disagreement with the
executive, which, against his expectation, was received.^,^,j_
His mi- The victory of Perry on the water and of Harrison on
litary the land gave occasion for great public rejoicings, in all
tion. the chief cities of the land. Harrison was the first to
turn the tide of adverse events, for which he obtained the
nation's gratitude, and finally the highest honour in its
power to bestow. He, however, was fortunate, rather
than great — for his successful campaign will bear no
comparison, in military genius, with that which achieved
the conquest of Mexico under Scott and Taylor.

BRITISH FLEETS ON THE AMERICAN COAST. 367
While Harrison was recovering the ground lost by Bk. vi.
Hull, a series of disasters occurred on the Atlantic sea- Ch. 6.
board. England, engaged in her gigantic struggle vrith a. d.
Napoleon, had no leisure to beatow much attention upon 181. S.
the contest in America, comparatively of trifling import- British
ance; nor could she spare either troops or naval armar *"*"•
ments. British naval forces, especially, did not appear
on the American coast in any formidable numbers, until
after the war had been declared for more than a year.
But early in 1813, Admiral Warren, with two ships of
the line, four frigates, and several smaller vessels, took
possession of Hampton roads. Soon after, in March, De
laware Bay was occupied by a considerable force ; and,
indeed, the whole coast was pretty effectually blockaded
by British fleets, consisting of six seventy-four-gun ships,
thirteen frigates, and eighteen sloops of war. The Ame- Ameri-
ricans had no armaments capable of withstanding this ^
great naval force, although several gallant actions had
been performed by single ships. The American priva
teers had seized hundreds of British merchant vessels.
The Peacock had surrendered to the Hornet, commanded
by Captain Lawrence, while the President, under Rodgers,
the Congress, under Smith, and the Essex, under Porter,
had carried terror into every sea.
The arrival of British fleets on the American waters Depre.
was attended with most disgraceful depredations. The ^"^^
English acted altogether like unlicensed buccaneers, British.
wherever they found themselves unchecked by opposing
forces. They bumed hamlets, villages, and towns, along
the coast. They destroyed mills, bridges, foundries, sta
bles, and cottages. They seized pleasure boats, oyster
smacks, and market shallops. All these ravages, whose
only effect was to irritate, were encouraged by Admiral
Cockburn, afterwards a favourite of the prince regent.

368 CAPTURE OF KINGSTON.
Bk. VL But the British soon attempted something more serious
Ch. 6. than the destruction of barns and fishing boats. On the
A. D. 22d of June, Admirals Warren and Cockburn, with the
1813. seamen and marines of their fleets, joined by two or three
Attackof thousand infantry, under Sir Sidney Beckworth, made an
Craney attack OU Craney Island, near Norfolk, but were severely
and effectually repulsed. This repulse was revenged by
an attack on Hampton, a small fishing town in Hamp
ton roads, which was more successful, and gave occasion
to wanton barbarities that would have disgraced savages.
Silver was plundered from communion tables. Women
were outraged by indignities which are worse than death.
The churches were desecrated. The sick were murdered
in bed. Stores and shops were plundered. Slaves were
stolen, and either sold in the West India markets, or in
corporated with the troops. These outrages, however,
produced such general disgust, that the opposition to the
war was abated, and Congress was urged to more decisive
measures. Direct taxes were imposed, and heavy duties
laid on refined sugar, sales at auction, retailers' licenses,
stamps, carriages, and sundry other articles. But we
return to military operations in Canada.
General General Armstrong, the Secretary of War, had designed
Pike at- to attack Canada at Kingston, on Lake Ontario, where the
King. English naval and land forces were concentrated. Com-
ston. modore Chauncey commanded the lake, and had succeeded
in confining the British naval forces in the harbour of
Kingston. General Pike was the officer selected to make
the attack. On the 25th of April, his forces, amounting
to 1600 men, were transported by Chauncey's fleet to
wards Kingston, and landed about three miles from York,
or Toronto, as it is since called, the provincial capital.
The Americans successfully accomplished the disembark
ation, and succeeded in capturing the place ; although, by

WILKINSON TAKES THE COMMAND. 369
the explosion of a powder-magazine. General Pike was bk. vi.
unfortunately killed. After stripping York of the booty, ct. 6.
General Dearborn re-embarked, and attacked and carried ^ d_
Fort George. This exploit consumed a month, and was 1813.
an insignificant object compared with an attack on Kings
ton, which, with the great forces of the Americans at the
time, might haye been captured.
The attack on York left Sackef s Harbour in a com- Amert
paratively defenceless state, and, in the absence of the verses.
troops, it was attacked by a British force of about 1000
men, while Fort George was carried by the Americans.
The British, however, were repulsed, and the place re
mained in the hands of the Americans. But this repulse
was the last American success in 1813 on Lake Ontario
or the St. Lawrence. Indecisive and unfortunate results
still seemed to attend the American arms in that quarter.
The war was carried on at enormous expense, and more
money was expended for ship-building than would have
been required to transport large armies to Halifax. The
American troops remained ina(itive most of the time in
camp, decimated by disease and unwholesome food ; and
prices for provisions were so high, that, at one time, flour
cost $100 a barrel. The commander-in-chief, General
Dearborn, was incapacitated, by age and infirmities, for
his duties; but he resigned at last, and was succeeded by
General Wilkinson.
But he did not prove a more efficient commander, and Suecess-
a succession of reverses sullied the glory of the American EngUsiu
arms. At Forty Mile Creek, on the 3d of June, the Ame
ricans were beaten in an action, and Generals Chandler
and Winder were taken prisoners. Three weeks later.
Colonel Boerstler, with 600 men, was attacked by a
body of English and Indians, and compelled to surrender
at discretion. Nor was any offensive operation made

370 DESCENT OF THE ST. LAWRENCE.
Bk. VL after Boerstler's capture, while the enemy was as active
Ch. 6. as our forces were sluggish.
A. D. Ou the 20th of August, Qeneral Wilkinson arrived at
1813. Sackett's Harbour, with instructions to capture Kingston.
j^,^. His forces were deemed ample, having the control, in var
strong rious stations, of 11,000 men. On the 5th of September,
quarters the Secretary of War himself arrived at the head-quarters
of Wilkinson, to concert measures for the conquest of
Canada. But his plan of attacking Kingston was now
abandoned, and it was resolved to proceed to Montreal.
Two columns were accordingly concentrated at Grenadier
Island and Plattsburg, respectively commanded by Gene
rals Wilkinson and Hampton, for the invasion of Canada.
of tte* The former lingered at Sackett's Harbour until the latter
St. Law- end of October, and thus gave the enemy time to fortify
rence. . . , .. . ,
their posts on the river; and a fortnight more was con
sumed before his forces were fairly embarked, in 300
boats, upon the St. Lawrence. The descent was calami
tous, in consequence of shoals, rapids, fogs, storms, bad
pilots, and the enemy's guns. Moreover, from jealousy
between Wilkinson and Hampton, there was no co-opera
tion ; and when Wilkinson, after many peri/s, arrived at
St. Regis, where Hampton had been ordered to meet
him, he received a communication from Hampton stating
that, in consequence of the sickly state of his troops and
the want of provisions, he had fallen back to Plattsburg.
This conduct of Hampton was fatal to success, and the
whole expedition was necessarily abandoned.
Thus terminated the campaign of 1813, in the North,
disastrously and ignominiously, for want of concert and
ability among the great leaders of the enterprise.
In the South, however, the successes of General Jack-
son'somewhat atoned for misfortunes at the North. The
campaign was carried on mainly by volunteers and militia

GENERAL JACKSON IN THE SOUTH. 371
from Georgia, Tennessee and the Territory of Mississippi, bk. vi.
against the Indian foes, instigated and armed by the Eng- ch. 6.
lish and Spaniards. Of these, the Creeks, Choctaws, ^ j)_
and Seminoles, were the most noted and uncompromising 1813.
warriors. The chief agent of England, in inflaming In
dian animosities, was Tecumseh, who performed a joumey
from North to South, in order to enlist the various tribes
in one desperate league against those who occupied their
ancient hunting grounds, and to secure the long lost
rights of Indian freedom.
On the 13th of August, 1813, at Fort Mimms, on the Massa-
Alabama river, not far from Mobile, occurred one of those "''***
' ^ ' ^ Fort
horrible massacres which are consequent upon the atroci- Mimms.
ties of Indian warfare. The garrison in this place, com
manded by Major Beasley, from an overweening self-con
fidence, was surprised by a body of 800 savages, who had
been fumished with arms by the British, and 160 people
were barbarously murdered, with every indignity and
cruelty that Indian ingenuity could suggest. The news
of this massacre spread constemation throughout that
part of the country, and the great body of the settlers,
being without any means of defence, fled to Mobile, which
had been seized by General Wilkinson in the spring.
The massacre at Fort Mimms called for prompt and Defeat
vigorous measures, and Georgia, Tennessee, North and °^ *''®
South Carolina, acted with great decision. A force of
3500 men was placed at the disposal of Andrew Jackson,
who detached, on the 3d of November, General Coffee,
with a brigade of 900 men, and a squadron of cavalry
and mounted riflemen, under Colonels Allcorn and Can
non, to the Tallushatchee towns, where they routed the
Creeks with such slaughter, that scarcely any escaped.
This blow was followed by a succession of conflicts with
other Indian bands, in a campaign of six months, which

372 GENERAL PINCKNEY.
Bk. VI. SO prostrated their power, that they at last took refuge in
Ch. 6. entrenchments, and were finally overthrown, in March,
A. D. 1814, by the storming of their fortress, by General Jack-
1813. son himself, at the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa

Kiiin
:f the
Creeks.

After completing the destruction of the Creeks, Gene
ral Jackson returned to Tennessee in triumph, and was
made a brigadier-general, and major-general by brevet, in
the regular army.
General General Jackson was greatly aided in the subjection of
ney. the Cieeks by General Pinckney, of South Cafolina, one
of tho most eminent statesmen and accomplished gentle
men of the country. He served as a captain in the Re
volutionary war, was selected by Washington to succeed
John Adams as minister to London, in 1794, negotiated
a treaty with Spain, in 1795, afterwards was a prominent
member of Congress, govemor of South Carolina, and
major-general of the regular army. He first met Jackson
in the wilds of Alabama, at an old French fort, to dictate
terms to a conquered people.
Treaty By the treaty which Jackson imposed, the Creeks
yielded up a large part of their oountry to the United
States, and agreed to hold no intercourse with either
British or Spanish garrisons. The tribe was ruined — a
fact which we should deplore, had any tribe of North
American Indians, thus far, since their early contact with
Europeans, shown themselves capable of civilization.
That they are a doomed race, learning few of the arts and
all the vices of the white man, preferring their foresta
to all other pleasures, and hating all improvementa, is one
of the most mysterioua as well as one of the best attested
facts of all history.
The tide of naval triumphs, thus far nearly uninter
rupted, was arrested by the loss of the frigate Chesapeake,

ivith the
Indians.

LOSS OF THE CHESAPEAKE. 373
(June 1st, 1813,) in Boston harbour. The Chesapeake Bk. vi.
was commanded by Captain Lawrence, a gallant and he- oh. e.
roic commander, and had been challenged by Captain a. d.
Brooke, of the Shannon, one of the most efficiently armed 1813.
ships in the British navy. The Chesapeake was chiefly Loss of
manned by new recruits, whose officers were disabled by gj^pgako
''. sickness. Lawrence, unfortunately, without considering
' the disadvantages under which he laboured, accepted the
challenge, and put to sea, much against the inclination of
his men. The two ships were soon in conflict, and a
desperate fight commenced, in whioh, owing in part to
some mishap, the Chesapeake was early disabled, boarded
by the British, and taken, when nearly all the officers
were either killed or wounded. The gallant Lawrence,
though wounded, fought with desperation, and his me
morable words, " Don't give up the ship," have become
the motto in the American navy. He was killed soon Death of
. . . Law-
after, and his ship was obliged to strike to the victorious rence.
enemy, whose loss also was very considerable. The vic
tory caused much exultation among the British, as they
had heretofore in this contest been remarkably unfortu
nate in naval combats. Another triumph soon followed,
to solace them still further. The American sloop Argus,
on the 14th of August, surrendered, after a severe conflict
and the loss of Captain Allen, to the Pelican, a vessel of
superior force. But this loss was compensated, soon after, Capture
on the first of September, by the capture of the British Boxer.
brig Boxer by the schooner Enterprise; and also, the
capture of the schooner Highflyer by the President.
Several valuable prizes were also taken, about this
time, by American privateers, which, like the national
ships, maintained the honour of the American marine,
notwithstanding the large naval force then employed by
England. 32

374 NEW MILITARY PREPARATIONS.
BK.VL The year 1813 closed without any other signal and
Ch. 6. important actions, either on the land or water. At this
A. D. period, opposition to the war, in New England, was more
1813. fierce th.in at any preceding time; and, in Congress, Mr.
Opposi- Webster uttered the sentiments of his party with tremen-
tion to ^Qyg power, opposed, however, by the scarcely less splen
did and more popular eloquence of Calhoun, — both of
whom made themselves conspicuous in the debates con
nected with the war, and began to occupy a commanding
position in the national councils, whioh position neither
was destined afterwards to lose.
Preparar jhc second sessiou of the war-Congress began Decem-
another ber 5th, 1813, with disappointed expectations. Harri-
¦^"^ son's successes and Jackson's victories over the Indians
laign. did not compensate for the failure of the expedition against
Canada. Great Britain had rejected the proffered media
tion of Russia, and was making preparations for more ex
tended hostilities, while a third of the country was still
averse to the war. Under these circumstances. President
Madison recommended a most stringent embargo and non-
intercourse law, which was passed by Congress. It was,
however, repealed a few months afterwards (AprU, 1814).
A loan of twenty-five millions of dollars was authorized,
and laws were passed for the augmentation of the army
and navy.
We should not, perhaps, close this chapter without ad
verting to the profound sensation occasioned both in Eu
rope and America, by the very decided success which
crowned the arma of the United States in her naval
combats with Great Britain. The latter nation seemed
to have entirely lost sight of that special aptitude for all
exploits, whether peaceful or warlike, connected with hfo
upon the ocean, which distinguished the Americans, alike
in their colonial condition and in the war which secured

THE AMERICAN NAVY. 375
their independence. The intervening time from the Re- bk. vl
volution to the war of 1812, had been marked almost ch.7.
continuously by a series of naval triumphs on the part of a. d.
Great Britain, which nearly annihilated the squadrons of 1813.
the other European powera, and left her mistress of the
seas. It was therefore with a mingled feeling of surprise and Navy
mortification, that Englishmen contemplated the recent united
humiliation of their fiag, in repeated combats with Ame- states.
rican ships of war. For the first time in her naval his
tory. Great Britain enjoined it upon her officers to be
extremely cautious in giving battle to American frigates,
and always to avail themselves of superior force in so do
ing, whenever it was attainable.
The Americans exulted in the same proportion. The
people resolved upon having a navy, and measures were
devised to place upon the ocean a respectable force, effi
cient alike in striking at the enemy in the open sea, and
in guarding our bays and harbours against his predatory
incursions.

CHAPTER VII.
THE CAMPAIGN OF 1814.
The campaign of 1814 commenced with an unsuccess- bk. vi.
ful expedition against Michilimackinac, a post of consider- ch. 7.
able importance, so far as securing an influence over the ^ ^
Indians and controlling the fur-trade are concerned. But 1814.
before the troops could be embarked at Detroit, the bat- ^y^^^i
ties of Chippewa and Niagara redeemed, in a measure, thocam-
the military reputation of the country. The first step to
be taken, with a yiew to the conquest of Canada, was to
recoyer Fort Niagara and capture Fort Erie. The Ame
rican troops, less than 4000, on the Canada frontier, were
under the command of Major-Generai Brown, .sent thither
by General Wilkinson at Plattsburg, assisted by Briga
dier-Generals Scott, Gaines, and Ripley. The spring
passed away before he was in a situation to attempt any
thing against the British posts, then protected by Lieu
tenant-General Drummond, whose forces were augmented
by a number of veteran regiments.
On the 3d of July, General Brown invested Fort Erie, Surren-
which capitulated, without striking a blow, and the pri- ^^Tt
soners, 170 men, were marched into the interior of New ^™-
York. General Brown then resolved to attack Major-
Generai Riall, who, with a division of British regulars,
was entrenched at Chippewa. Here a general engage
ment was fougbt, with great coolness and bravery on both
32 * t37n

378 GENERAL SCOTT.
Bk. VI. sides ; but victory declared for the Americans, marshalled
Ch.7. by Brown and Scott. In this battle. General Scott, then
A. D. ^ young man of thirty, greatly distinguished himself, as
1814. well as Majors Jesup, Leavensworth, and M'Neill. The
Battle loss of the British was 505, in killed and wounded ; that
ofchip- of the Americans, 338. After this pitched battle, the
English fell back to Queenstown, and then to Ten Mile
Creek. The battle of Chippewa, although not decisive in its
results, was a brilliant victory, when it is remembered
that the Americans contended with a superior force of
regulars, accustomed to the wars of Europe. Moreover,
it was the commencement of a series of successes, after
the long prostration of the American arms.
Unfortunately, Commodore Chauncey was ill, and the
fleet on Lake Ontario was unable to co-operate with the
army, in prosecuting the successes which had been gained;
and General Brown, unprepared to pursue the enemy,
fell back to the junction of the Chippewa and Niagara.
Battleof Meanwhile, Lieutenant-General Drummond joined Ge-
Bndge- jjgral Riall, with a large reinforcement, assumed the com
mand, and led his forces against the Americans. The
two armies met at Bridgewater, near Niagara Falls, and
the most desperate and bloody conflict of the whole war
here ensued (July 25th). The battle was indecisive, and
victory was claimed by both parties, although the palm
is justly due to the Americans, since they contended
against a superior force, aud this force composed of
veterans, and finally held the ground. In this bat
tle, Generals Brown and Scott were wounded, and the
command devolved on General Ripley. The British Ge
nerals Drummond and Riall were also wounded. The
loss on both sides was nearly equal, a little short of 900
men being either "killed or wounded, among both tbp

ATTACK ON PORT ERIE. 879
Americans and English. In this battle, General Scott bk. vl
again signalized himself for impetuous bravery as well as Ch. 7.
cool intrepidity, and gave the promise of ultimately a. d.
reaching the height of his profession — which promise 1814.
he has gloriously fulfilled by his Mexican campaign.
General Ripley, Colonels Jesup, Miller, and Leavens
worth also won an honourable fame in that bloody battle
field. On the 3d of August, General Drummond followed siege of
the American invaders to Fort Erie, then defended by j,°[e.
General Gaines, to which he laid siege, with 4000 troops.
On the 12th, he attempted to carry the fort by assault,
but was repelled, with great loss. His troops, it must be
confessed, fought with desperate valour, stung with rage
at the disgrace of being beaten by raw American recruits.
But they were met with even greater valour. The Ame- f°omtte
ricans retained their ground, and even made a sortie, on ^rt.
the 17th of September, under General Porter, which
nearly destroyed the whole British force. In this sortie,
he was ably supported by General Ripley, General Mil
ler, Colonel Gibson, and Colonel Aspinwall, the latter
of whom was seriously wounded. General Gaines, for
his gallantry, was brevetted'.
General Izard, who now commanded at Plattsburg in- ^™iy
' , , ° march
stead of General Wilkinson, with 7000 men, had been ofGene-
ordered by the Secretary of War to move, with 3500 '^'''¦^^'^'^
men, from Sackett's Harbour, for the assistance of Gene
ral Brown. Had he arrived in season, the whole British
force might have been captured, and then nothing would
have prevented the advance of the Americans upon Mon
treal. But he did not arrive until late in the season,
partly from the difficulties of the march, and partly from
disinclination to add to the laurels of General Brown,
whom he looked upon with an eye of jealousy. He

880 BATTLE OF PLATTSBURG.
Bk.vi. certainly did not expedite his march, but took the longest
Ch.7. route, although General Brown had written to him im-
A. D. ploring speedy aid. It was not until the 12th of October,
1814. that he reached Fort Erie; and, being the senior general,
he aasumed the command. He was now at the head of
6000 excellent troops, and in good condition to face the
enemy. Leaving a sufficient garrison at Fort Erie, he
advanced towards Chippewa, to operate offensively against
Ameri- Cleneral Drummond; but the English commander de-
cans re- clined a battle. The Americans were then forced to
tint"-" abandon Fort Erie, and to retire into winter-quarters, on
quarters account of the approaching cold.
Thus terminated the third invasion of Canada, not in
gloriously, as in the two preceding campaigns, since the
British force was double that of the Americans.
Before the army retired to Buffalo and Batavia for
winter-quarters, a battle had been fought at Plattsburg,
which resulted in the success of the American arms.
British General Izard, on his retirement from Plattsburg to
upon" assist General Brown, left nominally 3000 men, under
piatts- the command of General Macomb, but only 1500 fit for
burg. . .
service. Sir George Prevost, commander-in-chief of the
British forces in Canada, soon after made arrangementa
to attack Plattsburg with an army of 14,000 men. In
this emergency. General Macomb called upon the gover
nors of New York and Vermont for assistance, and, in
obedience to their orders, 3500 militia repaired to Platts
burg. The splendid American autumn had now com
menced. The troops, though only half in number to
their adversary, were in good spirits, and vigorously ex
erted their energies in constructing defences.
It was resolved by Sir George Prevost to attack Platts
burg both by land and water. For this purpose, in addi
tion to his great army, he had a powerful co-operating

victory on LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 381
naval force, under Commodore Downie. The Americans bk. vl
also had a considerable, though inferior squadron, for the ch. 7.
defence of Plattsburg, under Commodore M'Donough. a. d.
On the llth of September, the battle commenced, and 1814,
the issue of it was decided on the lake. The British Battleof
commodore, too confident of victory, attacked the Ameri- ^^
can fleet in the harbour of Plattsburg, while the defences
were assailed on the land by the troops of Prevost.
M'Donough calmly awaited the attack, having chosen a
favourable position, and, by admirable management, nearly
annihilated the attacking squadron. General Macomb de
fended his position with equal skUl, and successfully beat
off the forces intended to crush him. Sir George Prevost,
after a few disastrous skirmishes, withdrew his forces into
Canada, in great haste and disorder. His disasters were
unaccountable, and almost incredible — thus adding an
other confirmation to the great fact in the history of na
tions, that the battle is not always to the strong, or the
race to the swift : to teach to the weak the great moral
lesson of the folly of despair, and to the mighty, the folly
of presumptuous self-confidence. Macomb, after his splen
did victory, was brevetted, and made commander-in-chief
of the American army, and, in that station, he died, at
Washington, universally respected and lamented.
By this victory on Lake Champlain, the most decisive Conae- quences
of the war, New England and New York were delivered ofthe
from an enemy of vastly superior force ; and courage and '™^°^-
energy, unequalled since the beginning of the contest,
were imparted to the American troops. Had the war
continued much longer, Canada would probably have
fallen, and been joined to the American confederacy.
While fortune smiled on the American arms on the
Canadian frontier, considerable reverses were sustained by
the navy. In the early part of the year, the frigate

382 BURNING OF THE CAPITOL.
Bk.vi. Essex, under Commodore Porter, was captured, in the
Ch. 7. harbour of Valparaiso, by two British vessels ; a loss
A. D. which was soon after redeemed in the capture of the
1814. Epervier by the Peacock, in the Gulf of Mexico, and
Naval through that of the Reindeer and Avar by the Wasp,
'''f°- each of her own size. On the 21st of September, the
Wasp also captured the Atalanta, making her thirteenth
prize ; but she herself never returned into port. Nearly
contemporaneous was the capture of the President by a
British squadron ; a misfortune soon forgotten in the
brilliant action achieved by Captain Stewart of the Con
stitution, in which he captured the frigate Cyane and
sloop of war Levant. On the 23d of March, 1815, the
Hornet captured the Penguin — the last naval action of
consequence in the war.
More important affairs now demand our attention.
While our troops were marshalled at Plattsburg, the
English succeeded in making a descent upon the capital
of the nation, and in inflicting disgraceful outrages.
British In the month of August, a powerful squadron, under
the Che- Sir Alexander Cochrane, having on board a large body of
eapeake. troops. Commanded by General Ross, entered the Chesa
peake Bay, and proceeded up the Patuxent to Marlbo
rough, where they landed without opposition. Through
the negligence of the Secretary of War, suitable prepara
tions had not been made to resist the enemy ; and the
indecision and want of energy of General Winder, who
commanded the American troops, hastily collected to
gether, enabled them to achieve an easy victory over him
' Wash- at Bladensburg. The British commander then proceeded
"efzaT ^° Washington, and destroyed the dock-yards and ship
ping, and the public edifices of the government, including
the capitol, with the valuable library of Congress and the
President's house. "The President himself narrowly

meditated attack on BALTIMORE. 383
escaped capture. Having completed the work of devas- bk. vl
tation, like so many Vandals, the British soldiers retired ch. 7.
to their ships, and descended the river to the Chesapeake." a. d.
General Armstrong, Secretary of War, was so severely 1814.
censured for the disastrous capture of Washington, that Eesigna-
he was compelled to resign. Mr. Monroe, Secretary of ^°^°
State, took charge of his department, and continued to strong
hold it till the 2d of March, 1816, when Mr. Crawford,
of Georgia, was appointed Secretary of War. Ill health
compelled Mr. Campbell, about this time, to resign the
office of Secretary of the Treasury, and he was succeeded
by Mr. Dallas, of Pennsylvania.
On the 6th of September, the English fleet, with more British
than 5000 soldiers, sailed up the Chesapeake, with a view „„ b"i.
of capturing Baltimore. They landed on the 12th, at tunore.
North Point, and General Ross and Admiral Cochrane, in
the van, proceeded, without resistance, about four miles,
when they were attacked by General Strieker, and com
pelled to retire, with the loss of the British commander.
The country was now fairly aroused, and the English
squadron, fearing its own safety, descended the bay, and
sailed for Pensacola, where large reinforcements, under
General Packenham, a relative and a favourite lieutenant
of WeUington, shortly after arrived; the capture of
New Orleans by these forces being now projected.
The scene of war now changed to the southern sections
of the country, and was destined to be ended by the
splendid successes of General Andrew Jackson.
After concluding a treaty with the Creeks residing in Jackson
Alabama and Georgia, this able general transferred his p^^
head-quarters to Mobile. Here he learned that three "o'*-
ships of war had arrived at Pensacola, then a possession
if the Spanish nation, and had landed 300 soldiers and a
arge quantity of military stores. Having in vain remon-

384

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS.

B^- YI. strated with the governor of Pensacola for harbouring
Ch. 7. and assisting our enemies, he determined to seek redress
A D. without waiting for authority from Washington. Rein-
1814. forced with 2000 Tennessee militia and some Choctaw
Indians, he advanced toward Pensacola, and, reaching the
city on the Oth of November, he stormed it on the follow
ing day. On the 9th, having accomplished his purpose,
he returned to Mobile.
New It had long been feared that New Orleans would be
threat- the ncxt object of attack by the British ; the city was
"'^'^ accordingly put in the best possible state of defence, and
the militia organized. General Jackson, apprehensive of
danger, arrived from Mobile, on the 2d of December.
He superintended, with great zeal, all the various de
fences, called on the legislature for assistance, and secured
considerable military supplies.
On the 9th of December, the enemy, with sixty sail.
Was seen off the coast of Mississippi. On the 22d, a di
vision of the British, under General Keane, came sud
denly on the American guard, and took them prisoners.
On the 23d, the enemy was in tura attacked by General
Jackson, with considerable loss, and nothing but a fog,
suddenly arising, prevented their complete discomfiture.
Fortifl- Meanwhile, General Jackson continued to fortify his po
of New sition, between the Swamp and the Mississippi, and here
Orleans, erected a breastwork of earth and cotton bags, a little
outside of the city. After several ineffectual attempts to
drive the Americans into the city. Sir Edward Packen-
1815. ham, on the 8th of January, 1815, brought his whole
The air force, 15,000 strong, to attack the Americans, entrenched
4rtory behind their breastwork, one mile in length, with a ditch
ofthe in front. Jackson's efficient force was about 3000 men.
cans. The English advanced in solid column, on the even plain,
assailed by the American batteries, until within musket-

TREATY OF PEACE. 385
shot, when a dreadful fire was opened upon them, so bk.vi.
deadly and effective, that the enemy's columns were lite- Ch. 7.
rally swept away. No troops could stand a fire which a. D.
destroyed hundreds at every discharge. The British were 1815
broken, dispersed, and disheartened. The commander-in- Groat
chief was killed in an ineffectual attempt to animate them IZ^^^f.
¦r the Bn
by his own example. They however raUied, under Gene- tish.
rals Gibbs and Keane, and again were driven back, with
immense slaughter. So dreadful a carnage has scarcely
ever been recorded. So great a disproportion between
the victors and the conquered is not furnished in the
whole annals of war. Nearly 3000 of the enemy were
slain, or wounded, or taken prisoners, while the Ameri
can loss was only seven killed and six wounded.
General Lambert, who succeeded Sir Edward Packen- Conse-
ham in command, and who was the only general officer ItlhT
left upon the field, immediately made preparations to re- ¦''<=*°''y-
embark his troops ; and, relinquishing the hopeless enter
prise, the British, in the night of the 18th, with great
secrecy, regained their ships.
The news of this great victory was hailed with triumph- -
ant joy throughout the United States, and every honour
was lavished on the illustrious commander. This battle
closed the war.
Meanwhile, before it was fought, a treaty of peace had I814
been concluded at Ghent (December 24th, 1814). The
treaty was signed on the part of the United States by J. of
Q. Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan ™
Russel, and Albert Gallatin. It stipulated for the mu
tual restoration of places taken in the war, the relinquish
ment of captures by sea, the cessation of Indian hostili
ties, the exchange of prisoners, and the adjustment of
boundaries. But the subjects of impressment and the
rights of neutrals, which had provoked the war, were left

386 REFLECTIONS ON THE WAR.
Bk.vi. unnoticed. The orders in council, however, had been
Ch. 7. revoked, and impressment was no longer practised. ^
A. D. Thus closed the war with Great Britain, which had
1815. lasted two years and eight months, in which our armies
Reflec- at first were signally defeated, owing to long habits of
tions on pgace and want of abler generals. The misfortunes on
the war. ^ ° -t i • • i.
the land, however, were compensated by victones on the
water, whioh showed the superiority of the American
navy over the English, whenever it contended with equal
force ; and, before the war had closed, our armies gained
victories proportionate to former defeats, as the exigencies
of the times and military practice developed the talents
of the younger generals and accustomed the people to the
use of arms. The war was attended with great expenses,
but the moral effect was beneficial, since the Americans
gained much experience as well as the respect of Euro
pean nations. This war also showed the utter impossi
bility of gaining any material advantage over the Ameri
cans on their own soil, however great the forces of the
enemy, while it taught the nation the necessity of being
always prepared for war, by increasing the defences of
the seaboard, maintaining a respectable miUtary and naval
force, and, above all, cherishing a decent respect for the
military profession — for, a nation, in which the military
spirit is extinct, is certainly doomed to great misfor
tunes.
Sudden One of the effects of the war was to cripple for a while
prices' t^s commerce of the country, and to cause all British
manufactured goods to rise to an enormous price.- On
the return of peace, the market was glutted with English
merchandise; prices fell, and extensive bankruptcies en
sued. At no time, in the history of the country, were
greater reverses of fortune experienced.
During the war, extensive manufactories were esta-

IMPORTANT ACTS OP CONGRESS. 387
blished, and such was their success, that an immense BtVL
capital was soon invested in them. With peace, these ch.7.
establishments, in some instances, were broken down, a. d.
but still, on the whole, continued to thrive, until the 1815
United States have become nearly independent of all *°
other nations.
Before the adjournment of the thirteenth Congress, an Aige-
act was passed, authorizing the President to despatch a ^|^
squadron to the Mediterranean, to chastise the Algerines. tised.
This force was put under the command of Commodore
Decatur, who soon captured and destroyed aU the princi
pal vessels of the enemy, and dictated to them the terms
of peace.
After many ineffectual attempts to secure a national Nation-
bank, a bUl was reported by Mr. Calhoun, on the Sth of
June, 1815, which passed both houses of Congress, and
was approved by the President. By this bill a bank was
chartered, with a capital of thirty-five mUlions, and was
located at Philadelphia.
During the session of the fourteenth Congress, a new TariBof
tariff of duties on importations, designed to protect mode
rately American manufactures, was adopted, with the
concurrence of several members of the democratic party.
The last session of Congress held during the adminis- Acts of
tration of Mr. Madison commenced on the 2d of Decem- ^j^^.
ber, 1816, and closed on the 3d of March, 1817. One E"8a.
of the most important acts of this session was that which
provided for the payment of the national debt, which then
exceeded one hundred and twenty millions. The navigar
tion laws were revised, and an act passed regulating the
territories, and auth«rizing them to be represented in
Congress by one delegate from each.
On the llth of December, 1816, Indiana was admitted
into the Union, which had been partially settled by the

388 STATE OF THE COUNTRY.
Bk. VI. French a century before, and which then composed a part
Ch. 7. of the Northwestern territory.
^ ]3 At the close of Madison's administration great efforts
1817. were made in the cause of education, whioh had languished
Com- ^O"^ several years, and a spirit of religious inquiry, un-
menee- ]jnown for half a century, once more aroused the couutry.
ment of n 1... .1 . 1 1 I
prosper- The arts of life, too, received a great impulse, and tue
"''¦ nation, now amounting to nine millions five hundred
thousand people, made new strides in civilization and
power. The tide of emigration set strongly towards the
West, and the great valley of the Blississippi and its
branches were rapidly filled with enterprising inhabitants
from the Old World and the Atlantic States. With the
Refleo- establishment of peace was also a breaking up of the old
Madi- political parties. The Federalists ceased to be a political
son's ad- organization with the dissolution of the Hartford Con-
tration. vention, and new interests demanded new advocates. Tbe
ancient animosities in a measure disappeared with the re
tirement of Madison from the office which for eight years
he had held with so much honour. It was his fortune to
conduct affairs at a critical period, and when he retired to
that private life which he knew so well how to enjoy, he
bequeathed to his countrymen an unusual degree of tran
quiUity, prosperity, and happiness. In the midst of lite
rary and agricultural occupations he spent his declining
days, honoured by the respect of the nation, and cheered
by the society of cultivated friends. With his retirpinoot
from office, March 3d, 1817, and the accession of James
Monroe, a new era commenced in American affairs. ;

BOOK VII.
THE LATTER PRESIDENTS.
CHAPTER I.
ADMINISTRATION OF MONROE.
The election of James Monroe, of Virginia, to the bk. yn.
office of chief magistrate took place at a period of tran- oh. i.
quillity unexampled since the second election of Washing- a. d.
ton. He was a statesman of great moderation, and aimed 1817.
to heal the divisions which had distracted the country.
In the formation of his cabinet he made choice of John Mon-
Quincy Adams as Secretary of State ; Mr. Crawford was cabinet.
continued in the Treasury Department ; Govemor Shelby
was made Secretary of War ; Mr. Crowninshield, Secre
tary of the Navy ; and Mr. Rush was appointed Attorney-
General. Mr. Rush was soon after sent to England, and
Mr. Wirt took his place.
After arranging affairs at Washington, the President
made a tour of inspection through the Middle, Eastern,
and Westem States, and was everywhere received with
demonstrations of respect. •
The fifteenth Congress assembled on the 1st of Decem
ber, 1817, and Henry Clay was unanimously chosen
33 * (389)

Union.

390 WAR WITH THE SEMINOLES.
Bk. vn. Speaker of the House. Daniel D. Tompkins, as Vice-
Ch.L President of the United States, presided over the Senate.
A. D. On the llth of December, Mississippi, huving adopted
1817. a State Constitution, was admitted into the confederacy —
jiissis- ^ State which was first visited by Ferdinand de Soto, in
sippi ad- 1539. The first settlement was at Natchez, where a fort
into the was crccted by the French. The French retained their
title untU 1763, when they ceded the territory to the
English. The Spaniards, however, claimed thc territory,
after the treaty of 1783, and occupied Natchez until 1798.
Early in the year 1817, a band of smugglers and pri
vateers had taken possession of Galveston, in Texas, un
der authority, it was pretended, of the Spanish colonies,
and with the view of a hostile enterprise against Florida.
But the United States government deemed itself autho
rized to disperse the band.
Tariff The subject of internal improvements early occupied
the attention of Congress, and an additional protective
duty was imposed on various articles with great unanimity.
Changes During the session of Congress further changes were
cabinet, made in the cabinet. Governor Shelby declined his ap
pointment as Secretary of War, and John C. Calhoun was
appointed. IMr. Crowninshield resigned the situation of
Secretary of the Navy, and Smith Thompson, of New
York, was appointed in his stead.
^thth Repeated outrages having been committed on the
Semi- Southern frontiers?, during the summer of 1817, by the
Creek and Seminole Indians, who had taken refuge in
Florida after their defeat by General Jackson, he was
again sent against them. Ho accordingly pursued the
Indians into the Spanish territory, and, by vigorous and
severe raeasures, restored .tranquillity. One of his acts
produced considerable excitement at that time. Two
Englishmen were found in Florida, e.xoiting the Indians

THE MISSOURI QUESTION. 391
to insurrection, one of whom was sentenced to be shot bk. vn.
and the other to be hung. General Jackson's severity ch. i.
was much censured by those who supposed he had tran- a. d.
scended his powers; but Congress sanctioned his pro- 1818.
ceedings. The Seminole war and the seizure of Spanish posts did Florida
„ . „ ceded.
not prevent an amicable treaty with Spain. On the 22d
of February, 1818, Florida was ceded to the United
States, on a consideration of five millions allowed for
spoUations. In the same year, December 3d, Illinois was
admitted into the Union, which had been first settled by
the French, in consequence of the discoveries of La Salle.
On the 14th of December, 1819, Alabama was admit- 1°!^
ted into the Union — a territory which had long been the Admi*
hunting ground of the Indians, and over which Georgia Aiaha.
laid claim after the Revolutionary war. ""^
The most important question which was discussed by The Mi*
Congress, during the administration of President Monroe, ^^gg.
was that which related to the admission of Missouri into *'°°-
the Union. It was maintained by a large class, chiefly
northern men, that no additional State tolerating the ex
istence of slavery ought to be received into the confedera
tion, thus reviving the agitation of the slavery question.
The war, which has not yet ended, was then fairly opened.
The congressional debates were exceedingly warm. The
champions of the South were William Pinckney, James
Barbour, Henry Clay, and John Randolph ; those of the
North were Rufus King, John Sergeant, John W. Tay
lor, and Samuel A. Foote. " The waves of anarchy began
to surge violently over the ramparts of the Constitution,
and Cassandras were "not wanting to predict the fall of
Troy." Neither party gained the day. Mr. Clay pro
posed a compromise, and hushed the strife. His amend
ments were adopted, and the President approved the bill.

392 DIVISION OP PARTIES.
^^- '^^- Missouri was subsequently admitted (August 10th, 1821),
«"". 1. with the clause that slavery should be for ever prohibited
A. D. in that part of the tenitory, except the State then formed,
1820. lying north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes north
latitude — a line which formed the southern boundary of
the State. Maine became an independent State the pre
vious year (March 3d, 1820).
The administration of Monroe had been one of unex
ampled peace and tranquillity, few acts of importance
having been passed by Congress, and few events of poll--
tical interest having occurred. No serious opposition
was made to his re-election, and he was inaugurated a
second time, March 5th, 1821.
icii. rpjjg seventeenth Congress assembled on the 3d of De-
New cember, 1821, and three new Senators, of subsequent
bers ot fame, took their seats — Martin Van Buren, Samuel S.
g°°Jg Southard, of New Jersey, and Thomas H. Benton, of
Missouri. Among the other prominent members who
were re-elected were Messrs. J. W. Taylor, Sergeant,
MaUery, M'Lane, Barbour, Randolph, Cambreleng, Wal
worth, M'Duffie, and Poinsett.
New po- Divisions now began to be more apparent in the repub-
parties lican ranks, and six candidates appeared for the next pre
formed, gjijential contest — John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jaok
son, Henry Clay, William H. Crawford, William Lowndes,
and John C. Calhoun. The great questions of a protective
tariff and a general system of internal improvements now
became the leading subjects of discussion. The old fede
ral party was broken up, and John Q. Adams and Henry
Clay, both republicans, stood forth the champions of that
party which finaUy settled into what is now called the
Whig. Their chief opponents were the friends of Gene
ral Jackson and Calhoun.
1822. In March, 1822, the President recommended the public

VISIT OF LAFAYETTE. 393
recognition of the independence of the revolted States of bk. vn.
South America, against the protest of the Spduish minis- Ch. i.
ter, and Congress, by an almost unanimous vote, appro- a. d.
priated one hundred thousand dollars to defray the ex- 1823
penses of a mission to those newly declared republics. ^°
Few acts of general interest were passed by either the
seventeenth or the eighteenth Congress, all being absorbed
in the election of a new President. But some eminent men
were elected to the national legislature, among whom were
Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina, Andrew Jackson,
of Tennessee, Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, Forsyth,
of Georgia, Rives, of Virginia, and Livingston, of Lou
isiana. Neither of the presidential candidates succeeded in ob- Adams
t.aining a majority of the electoral votes, and it was there- p^°gi"
fore left to the House of Representatives to make a selec- dent.
tion from the three highest on the list, and the influence
of Henry Clay being thrown in favour of J. Q. Adams,
he was accordingly chosen President. IMr. Calhoun had
already received a majority of the electoral votes for Vice-
President. Before the administration of Monroe came to an end. Arrival
the oountry was visited by an illustrious guest — the Mar- fayette.
quis de la Fayette, whose services in the Revolutionary
war had secured him the gratitude of the nation. His
visit occupied about a year, during which he visited each
of the twenty-four States, and was everywhere hailed with
enthusiasm. Congress treated him with marked atten
tion, and bestowed a grant of a township and two hun
dred thousand dollars as a remuneration for his past ser
vices. No foreigner ever visited our shores who was
received with such universal respect.
Mr. Monroe left the helm of state when the country
was making rapid strides to greatness and wealth. A

S94 PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.
Bk. vn. large accession of territory had been made during his
Ch.i. administration, and the national debt had been greatly
^ J) reduced. Meanwhile schools and colleges had been en-
1825. dowed in every quarter, and phUanthropic societies had
Progress everywhere been established, to ameliorate the condition
In arta, of the miserable, or to send the gospel to the heathen.
euuca^' Many of the States made large appropriations for public
iite°a-"* instraction, and a new class of authors arose — those who
ture. devoted their talents to the improvement of school-books.
Newspapers, devoted to the advancement of the various
objects of religion and philanthrophy, as well as politics
and literature, increased wonderfully during this adminis
tration. The North American Review was commenced
in 1815 ; Silliman's Joumal in 1817 ; The Christian
Spectator in 1819, afterwards merged into the Biblical
Repository. Sabbath-school Unions were formed in 1817,
in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Baltimore. In
1817, Mr. Gallaudet introduced a system of instruction
for the blind at Hartford, and, in seven years after, there
were six insane retreats established in various parts of the
country. About this period the American Education So
ciety, the American Peace Society, the Tract Society,
Sabbath-school Society, and the Missionary Society, were
steam- either incorporated or received a great impulse. Steam-
tion. navigation also fairly commenced during this period,
ploughing the mighty waters of the Mississippi as well
as inland lakes and ocean bays. In 1819, Captain Shreve
made a trip in twenty-five days from New Orleans to
Louisville, and in 1820 the first steamer ascended the
Arkansas. Lake Erie was first navigated by steam in
1818. RaUroads were not constructed until 1827, and
the application of electro-magnetism to the oommunicar
tion of inteUigence was made at a stiU later date.
One of the most exciting and interesting subjects which

PROSPERITY OP THE COUNTRY. 39-5
came under general discussion at this time was the Uni- bk. vii.
tarian question. The war was commenced in Boston in ch. i.
1815, and Drs. Channing and Ware led the van, opposed a. d.
by Drs. Woods and Stuart as the principal leaders among 1825.
the adherents of the ancient faith. In 1822 the Chris
tian Register opened its batteries, which were answered
by the Spectator and the Spirit of the PUgrims. Since
1824 the controversy has declined in character and in
terest. Thus, reviving commerce, arts, science, literature, and
great popular movements in education, philanthropy, and
religion, closed the peaceful administration of James
Monroe — a man whose mind was "unwearied in the
pursuit of truth ; patient of inquiry ; courteous, even in
the colUsion of sentiment; sound in its ultimate judg
ments, and firm in its final conclusions." -^

CHAPTER II.
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND
ANDREW JACKSON.
Bk. vn. On the 4th of March, 1825, John Quincy Adams was
Ch. 2. inaugurated President of the United States, and took the
A. D. chair vacated twenty-eight years before by his venerated
1825. father. He selected Henry Clay for Secretary of State,
Hew Richard Rush for the Treasury, James Barbour for the
cabinet, -^j^j. Department, Samuel L. Southard for the Navy, and
William Wirt for Attorney-General.
As we now descend to our own contemporaries a mere
chronicle of their deeds will be registered, without enter
ing into the merits of those subjects which they discussed.
Party spirit, that necessary evil to free governments, will
not enable the clearest minds to see party questions in
the light they will appear to future generations.
Com- The year 1825 was marked by a spirit of commercial
specula- ganibling, produced by the unexampled prosperity of the
tion. last few years. Everything rose in value — all kinds of
stocks and every variety of merchandise — followed, of
course, by a revulsion, both in England and America,
which made bankrupts of thousands, and reduced every
thing to less than its previous value.
1826. The year 1826 was signalized by the deaths of Thomas
Jefferson and John Adams, the venerable ex-Presidents,
on the fiftieth anniversary of the National Independence
(.396)

ADMINISTRATION OF GENERAL JACKSON. 397
Funeral orations were delivered in every part of the Bk. vii.
Union. That delivered by Mr. Webster is perhaps one Ch. 2.
of the most eloquent efforts of this greatest of living men a. d.
of genius. 1826
Mr. Adams was doomed to experience a fierce and un- '^
precedented opposition in Congress, whioh deprived him
of the opportunity of carrying into execution many im
portant measures, and hence congressional history during
this administration is unusually barren. The most im- f^"^
portant measures related to the tariff. A bill passed the
House on the 22d of April, 1828, and the Senate on the
13th of May, which gave but little satisfaction to the
country at large. By this bill protection was given to
various branches of manufactures, which has since been
withdrawn. Although Mr. Adams, by force of great opposition,
was prevented from carrying his plans into operation, still
he could, at the close of his administration, in 1829, look
back upon his labours with satisfaction. The national
debt was still further reduced, and large appropriations
were made for objects of lasting public benefit. Five mil
lions were granted to the surviving officers of the Revo
lution, and one and a half million were appropriated in
extinguishing Indian titles.
On the 4th of March, 1829, General Andrew Jackson, Jact-
by a large electoral vote, succeeded J. Q. Adams in the cabinet.
presidency, and chose for his cabinet, Martin Van Buren
for the State, Samuel D. Ingham for the Treasury, John
H. Eaton for the War, and John Branch for the Navy
Department. John M. Berrien was made Attorney-Ge
neral, and William T. Barry Postmaster-General.
With General Jackson commenced the system of exten- Change
sive removals from office — a system which has since been ° ^° '"''
34

398 MEASURES RECOMMENDED BY THE PRESIDENT.
Bk. yti. generally adopted, and which was designed to reward po-
Ch. a Utical partizans. This course of the President was vio-
A. D. lently denounced by his opponents, and as strongly justified
1829 by his friends. It is not for the author of this history to
to pronounce upon the wisdom or folly of the policy — it
certainly had the merit of being something new in the
history of civiUzed nations : one of those evidences of pro
gress, similar in its spirit to that which appoints judges for
a limited time, and selects the young, in preference to the
old and experienced, for important and responsible posts.
Presi- Iu the message of the President to the twenty-first
dent's Congress, he recommended a modification of the tariff,
mes- o /
sage. the removal of the Indians to the west of the Mississippi,
and a consideration of the renewal of the United States
Bank — all of which subjects led to violent and angry
debates, and finally to the passage of acts in accordance
with the wishes of the executive.
New General Jackson did not long remain at peace with his
cabinet, cabinet, which resigned in the spring of 1831, in conse
quence of domestic intrigues. The new cabinet was com
posed of Edward Livingston as Secretary of State, Louis
M'Lane, Secretary of the Treasury, Levi Woodbury, Se
cretary of the Navy, Lewis Cass, Secretary of War, and
Roger B. Taney, Attorney-General.
Bank In 1831, a bUl was brought forward for granting a
veto- charter to the United States Bank, the old charter being
about to expire. The discussion of the bill was angry
and animated. It passed only by a small majority, and
was vetoed by the President. No one has exercised the
power of veto more than General Jackson. During his
administration he vetoed no less than ten bills. The
other Presidents combined have vetoed but eight.
hortm- ^^^ ^®^^ ¦'¦^^^ ^^^ marked by hostUe incursions of the
Ues. Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Poxes — Indians inhabiting the

SOUTH CAROLINA NULLIFICATION. 399
Upper Mississippi — under the celebrated Black Hawk, bk. vn.
against whom Generals Atkinson and Scott were sent, ch. 2.
who in a short time completely dispersed them, and a. d.
restored tranquilUty on the frontiers. 1832.
But a greater subject of interest marked this year, south
which was the disposition of South Carolina to secede Carolinathreat-
from the Union. The discontent was caused by the pro- ens to 1
tective duties, which the South Carolinians declared were fr^ti,e
hostile to their interests and unconstitutional in them- Union.
selves. It is ever to be regretted that the celebrated John
C. Calhoun favoured the agitation. Governor Hamilton
even recommended to the legislature the organization of
the miUtia and the coUeetion of munitions of war, with a
view of secession. But the President immediately took
the most vigorous measures, and issued an ordinance in
which he declared his resolution to enforce the laws.
The course which the President a"dopted gave general
satisfaction, except to South Carolina, whose government
perceived the folly of open contention with the whole
power of the land, and gradually withdrew its oppo
sition. The biU for a new tariff, which had been introduced in 1838.
1832, passed the 3d of March, 1833, and gave satisfac- New
tion to no partizans of any school. It was simply a com- *"^'
promise between the North and the South, effected by
that great pacificator and patriotic statesman, Henry Clay,
whom the whole nation has loved, but never united to
honour. General Jackson was re-elected in the autumn of 1832,
and on the 4th of March, 1833, entered upon his second
term, while Martin Van Buren was elected Vice-Pre
sident. One of the first measures of importance which the Pre
sident took after his second inauguration was the removal

400 INDEPENDENCE OF TEXAS.
Bk. VII. of government deposits from the United States Bank,
Ch. 2. against which he had waged war. This measure raised
A. D. one of the most violent clamours ever known in the
1835. United States, chiefly among commercial men, who pre-
Eemo- dieted national bankruptcy; and much embarrassment
¦^¦^ °' really resulted. The House of Representatives sustained
govern- *' ^
ment the President ; the Senate condemned the measure as
eposi s. jjjjgQQgtjtutional ; but the President, with his usual firm
ness, maintained his position, and continued the warfare.
In his annual message he denounced the bank as the
scourge of the people, and accused it of corruption and
bribery, and of extending its accommodations for political
purposes.
Rebel- In 1835, the people of Texas rebelled against the go-
rpexM vernment of Mexico, which had aboUshed slavery through-
againat Qyt its territory. But the people of Texas, chiefly emi
grants from the southern and south-western States, wish
ing to restore slavery and annex their province to the
United States, declared war against the Mexican Repub
lic. Thousands of volunteers rushed to the standard of
the revolted province, and among them doubtless many
citizens of the United States. General Houston com
manded the Texan troops, and by his admirable military
talents, aided by means from the United States, a govem
ment was organized, slavery established, and the way pre
pared for its ultimate admission into the Union. John
Quincy Adams was then a member of the House of Re
presentatives, and denounced the whole insurrection as a
project designed to perpetuate and extend slavery. He
had already commenced the agitation of the slavery ques
tion in Congress by the presentation of petitions. The
southern members became alarmed, and Congress was in
duced to pass resolutions declaring that it had no consti
tutional authority to interfere with the institution of

REMOVAL OF THE SEMINOLES. 401
slavery in any of the States, and that it ought not to Bfc- Yn.
interfere with slavery in the District of Columbia. Ch. 2.
This was the period when the discussion of this subject a. d.
was most agitating and general throughout the northem 1835
States, which led to many outrages and to great acrimony ^
between the North and South.
In 1835, preparations were made for the removal Remo-
of the Seminole Indians from East Florida, which 1°^°.'
' Semi-
Icd to a brief contest with that unfortunate tribe. In noies.
1834, a treaty was concluded with them, in which they
agreed to remove beyond the Mississippi. During the
three foUowing years a part emigrated, but a large number
refused to go. They wandered about the country, com
mitting depredations, and hiding themselves in swamps
and thickets, from which they issued to commit new acts
of violence. Their leading spirit was Osceola. A de
tachment was sent against them, under General Clinch,
who however met with considerable loss. Nor was any
thing satisfactorily effected against them until after the
retirement of General Jackson, in 1837, who, after a suc
cessful and vigorous administration, resigned his powers,
which some maintained he had exceeded, into the hands
of Martin Van Buren. No President, if we may except
Jefferson, has had such bitter political enemies as Jaok
son. None have had the misfortune to stem greater
party animosities than he ; and it has been the fortune
of none to have them so speedily and generaUy allayed.
Andrew Jackson will pass down to posterity as one of the
most remarkable men of his age, successful in war, and
patriotic as the chief magistrate of a great nation.
Before the administration of General Jackson closed,
Arkansas and Michigan were admitted into the American
confederacy (June 15th, 1836).
The north-western States, during this administration,
34*

402 COMMERCIAL SPECULATION.
Bk. Yn. rapidly increased in population and resources, and a spirit
Ch. 2. of commercial speculation arose, unprecedented in the
A. D. history of the country. This reached its climax in 1836,
1836. a year memorable for the absurd extension of credit to
all speculators. Speculation was extended to every vari
ety of business, but to nothing so remarkably as to west-
Land ern and eastern lands, which reached a fictitious price.
lation. New cities were laid out in the wilderness, and high prices
demanded for building-lots, whioh still remain unsettled.
The delusion and mania extended to all parts of the com
munity, and affected the strongest minds. All articles
rose in value, and scarcely a man was engaged in business
who did not dream of realizing an enormous fortune.
^™' But an end soon came to their dreams, and the revulsions
mercialembar- of fortune, in the year 1837, taught the country the in-
ments. evitable disaster which must sooner or later attend all
commercial gambUng. Moreover, a great fire in New
York destroyed, in 1835, some twenty millions of pro
perty — a loss which was subsequently felt by all classes
in the community. Blany insurance companies failed,
and involved in their failure the ruin of many widows and
orphans who had invested in these corporations what little
property they possessed. These commercial evils were
destined to break up for a time, the ascendency of the
democratic party. v^

CHAPTER III.
administration OF martin van buren.
Martin Van Buren was inaugurated on the 4th of bk. vn.

March, 1837, and continued the policy of his "illustrious ch. 3.
predecessor,'' and made but few changes in the cabinet ^_ -p.
or occupants of official stations. ' 1837.
The great commercial revulsion of 1837 marked the (^^_
first year of his administration — caused, not only by ex- mercial
cessive speculation, but also by extravagant importations sions.
of European goods. To pay for these, there was abund
ance of paper-money, but very little gold. Moreover, the
specie of the country was gradually collected in the public
offices, in consequence of the circular of 1836, which re
quired payment for public lands to be made in gold or
silver. Large quantities also had been sent to France
and England for useless luxuries. In consequence, the
banks were compelled to suspend specie payments in all
of the principal cities of the country, and general disaster
and bankruptcy followed. All confidence was destroyed.
Business was suspended. The sinews of enterprise were
severed. Innumerable failures resulted. Property of
all kinds declined in value, and those who had the year
before fancied themselves rich found themselves pennUess.
Most persons who owed money to any extent, no matter
what their nominal assets, were ruined, for they were
unable to sell what they possessed. The year before all
(403)

404 return to industry and economy.
Bk. vn. were anxious to buy. This year all were anxious to sell,
Ch. 3. but purchasers could not be found, except at ruinous
A. D. prices. " It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good."
1837. Those who had kept aloof from speculation, and had
money at command, made large fortunes; but the great
mass of people were depressed. Trade and manufactures
stood still. Poor people could not find employment.
Constemation seized upon every class in society.
Change In this general calamity a change to some extent was
habita gradually wrought in the habits of the nation. The peo-
of the pie who had been speculating and trading became farmers.
The land still remained, capable of unfolding illimitable
wealth. The agricultural population received a great ac
cession of respectability and means. Farms rapidly im
proved. Importance was attached to the cultivation of
the soil, which had been unknown since the Revolutionary
war — for this kind of employment seemed at least more
free from reverses of fortune. It was observed that the
farmers suffered less than any other class in the commu
nity. Those who were free from debt felt themselves to
be rich, and were truly independent ; for the land yielded
its increase, in spite of commercial revulsions. There can
be no doubt that the embarrassments and misfortunes
which afflicted the commercial and manufacturing classes
resulted, in the end, in developing truer sources of wealth,
inasmuch as habits of industry and economy were again
formed by a large body of men who had relied on their
wits for support, and who had indulged in the delusion
that the exchange of property, and great issues of paper-
money to facilitate that exchange, would add to material
irue wealth. There are no real sources of wealth, in any na- '
na^OTai *^°°' ^^''^P' ™ tabits of industry, directed to manufac-
weaith. tures, agriculture, and a limited commerce. After all,
land is the foundation of wealth, not gold and silver, since

EXTRA SESSION OP CONGRESS. 405
land alone will feed the hungry and clothe the naked, bk. vil
Gold is only a medium of exchange, and declines in value ch. 3.
In proportion to the ease with whioh it is obtained, while a. d.
labour, directed to the improvement of the soil, to the cul- 1837.
ture of fruits and herbs and vegetables, increases the ca
pacity of a country to support a rising population, and
gives a healthy leisure to those who are doomed to toil.
An extra session of Congress was assembled on the 4th TheSub-
of September, 1837, in order to deliberate on the financial ^^^
distresses of the country. The President recommended scheme.
a scheme, called the Sub-Treasury, instead of a national
bank, the charter of which had expired, and the directors
of which were now winding up its concerns. This cele
brated scheme proposed to place the public revenues
in the custody of commissioners, instead of banks, sub
ject to the control of the Secretary of the Treasury.
A bill, accordingly, was introduced into the Senate, to
meet the recommendations of the President, whioh passed
that body, 26 to 20, but was lost in the House, 120
to 107.
The enemies of the administration attributed the exist- Party
ing evils to the refusal of Congress to recharter the nitons
United States Bank, and the consequent distribution of
the pubUc moneys into local banks, which, unchecked
and uncontrolled by a great central institution, were in
duced to discount bills too freely upon the deposits which
were transferred to thom, and thus to encourage a spirit
of speculation. The friends of the administration main
tained, that the embarrassments were caused by the con
traction of a large foreign debt, by a spirit of extrava
gance, by over-trading, by vast internal improvements,
and the great fire in New York, December, 1835. The
other party did not deny these facts, but still maintained
that this over-trading and speculation were caused by the

406 THE AFFAIR OP THE CAROLINE.
Bk. vn. improper facilities which the banks afforded in conse-
Ch. 3. quence of the destruction of the controUing central money
A. D. power.
1837. Congress convened again, on the first Monday in De-
Rea«- cember, 1837, and the President again recommended the
^'^' Sub-Treasury scheme, and the issue of treasury-notes to
bling of '' rr\\ • J} •
Con- meet the wants of government. This favourite measure
^^^' of the President again passed the Senate, and was again
defeated in the House.
1838. The year 1838 was marked by serious disturbances in
Canar Canada, between the inhabitants and the colonial govern-
troubies "^eut. A large party had arisen favourable to independ
ence, which was favoured by many Americans on the Car
nadian^ frontier, both from sympathy and with the hope
of its vfflifimate annexation to the United States. A party
of reckless adventurers took possession of Navy Island,
in the Niagara river, and hired a steamboat, caUed the
Caroline, to facilitate their unlawful designs, notwithstand
ing the proclamations of the President and the governor
of New York, enjoining a strict neutraUty. But the Ca
roline was not suffered by the Canadians to be used by
these American sympathizers; and an armed party of 150
men proceeded, in the night of the 20th of December,
from the Canada side, and burned the vessel, after dis
persing the crew.
Specie On the 13th of August, 1838, the banks resumed
ments. specie payments, to the great satisfaction of the mercan
tile community; but, unfortunately, in the following year,
Oth of October, the Philadelphia banks, and consequentiy
' those south and west, again suspended their payments in
specie.
'^iltL- ^'"'^ ^^^'" ^^ rendered memorable in the theological
cussions annals of the country by the divisions of the Presbyterian
church into two rival bodies, called the Old and the New

THE PRESBYTERIAN CONTROVERSY. 407
School. The difficulties commenced by an attack on an bk. vii.
eminent clergyman in Philadelphia, Rev. Albert Barnes, Ch. 3.
for heresy. He was accused of preaching certain doctrines, a. d.
which were fashionable at New Haven, pertaining to free- 1834
will and original sin, and which, by many, were thought *o
to have too close a resemblance to ancient Pelagianism.
The controversy, which led to the establishment of a the- '^•'« O'*
¦' ... and New
ological school at East Windsor, in 1834, in opposition to schools.
that of New Haven, also led, in 1835, to the trial of Mr.
Barnes, on charges preferred by Rev. Dr. Jenkins, in the
Philadelphia Presbytery, and he was acquitted. Dr. Jen
kins appealed to the Synod, which reversed the judgment
of the Presbytery, and suspended Mr. Barnes from the
ministry. Mr. Barnes then appealed to the General As
sembly, which sustained him, and restored him to his
ministerial standing. Upon this, the Old School party
raUied, and, in the General Assembly which met in Phi
ladelphia in 1837, having a small majority, cut off certain
synods, in which the new doctrines prevailed, from their
body. This led to a separate organization of the New
School party, which, as weU as the Old School, claimed
to be tha Presbyterian church, and consequently laid
claim to the property of the church. The courts of law,
however, gave such decisions that the property remained
with the Old School party.
During this controversy the reUgious world was divided "ther
by various other dissensions, arising out of new measures gicai
as weU as new views, and connected with discussions on
various moral questions, especiaUy those pertaining to
slavery and temperance. The Episcopal church, both in
England and America, was distracted by the famous Ox
ford tracts and the movement which Dr. Pusey and his
followers encouraged, in reference to external forms and
ceremonies and symbols, as well as points of faith. This

contro-
Tcrsies,

408 POLITICAL CHANGES.
Bk. VII. period was the era of benevolent societies and organiza-
Ch. 3. tions to propagate every form of doctrines and every mode
A. D. of moral reformation. It was the golden age of agents
1837 and lecturers, aud platform speeches and moral machinery
*^o to remodol society. Peace and tract, and anti-slavery and
1840 • • ¦ •
temperance, and moral reform, and missionary societies,
Popular ggQt out their various lecturers into every city and hamlet
reforms. ¦' ¦^
of the land, and the people were called upon to decide-
the great principles of ethics as well as to contribute
money to that great system of public enlightenment
wbich was destined to produce such magnificent results.
Indeed, this was the era of agitation throughout the civil
ized world. Great Chartist meetings were held in Eng
land. O'Connell was addressing discontented Irish com
munities. The Jesuits were suppressed in Spain; and
debates on the corn-laws were beginning to agitate the
]3ritish nation. All these poUtical and moral commo
tions were considered as the necessary ebullitions of an
age of progress and freedom.
l-oiiticai Meanwhile the general discontent of the American
tions. people, and the great commercial sufferings which had
been experienced, led to a revulsion in politics, and de
stroyed faith in the existing political rulers. Great po
litioal agitations ensued, and every thing else was neg
lected in the heat of the new presidential election.
Coni-en- ^ Convention assembled at Harrisburg, two days after
ton at the opening of the twenty-sixth Congress, December 2d,
burg. 1839, which nominated General Harrison, for President,
and John Tyler, for Vice-President. " The election
campaign of 1840 was distinguished for its popular en
thusiasm, mass meetings, long processions, and song-simr-
ing." A change of rulers, it was asserted, would restore
prosperity. Hope stimulated energy, and HaiTison re
ceived the suffrages of thp people.

PASSAGE OF THE SUB-TREASURY. 409
Congress, during the long session of 1840, did almost bk. vii.
nothing but direct the election campaign. However, two Ch. 3.
acts of some importance were passed — one which provided a. d.
for the taking of the sixth census of the United States, 1840.
and the other, which adopted Mr. Van Buren's scheme of
collecting and disbursing the pubUc revenue. The Sub-
'• Treasury scheme at last became a law, on which the Pre-
1 sident had staked his political fortune — a stake he was
destined to lose. In his last message, December 7th,
1840, he congratulated the country on the restoration of
public prosperity — an assertion which needed quEdifica-
tion. Nothing of consequence was transacted during the Retire-
second session of the twenty-sixth Congress ; and, at its yan
close, Mr. Van Buren retired to Kinderhook, and has Buren.
since led a Ufe of dignified leisure. ^ _

35

oabiuot.

CHAPTER IV.
^ administration OP general HARRISON.
Bk. vn. No President, since Washington, has entered upon
Ch. 4. the duties of his office with more popular enthusiasm
A. D. than William Henry Harrison. From no administration
1841. were greater expectations formed : since an entire change
of policy was expected, in order to relieve the public em
barrassments, restore credit, and foster the various inte
rests of the country.
The now Daniel Webster, the most commanding and compre
hensive intellect which our nation has produced, was his
Secretary of State; and this great statesman was sup
ported by Thomas Ewing, as Secretary of the Treasury ;
John Bell, as Secretary of War ; George E. Badger, as
Secretary of the Navy; John J. Crittenden, as Attorney-
General, and Francis Granger, as Postmaster-General.
These distinguished gentlemen formed one of the ablest
cabinets known since the times of the early Presidents —
selected for their ability and experience, and representing
all sections of the land.
Death of But before the assembling of Congress — before any
measure of importance could be adopted, and within one
month from his inauguration. General Harrison died, 
worn out with the excitements pertaining to his new po
aition, and oppressed by the load of responsibUities. He
(410)

IlaiTi-6on.

Tyler's administration. 411
had for years led a quiet life, in agricultural pursuits, at bk. vil
his farm on the North Bend, near Cincinnati, and was Ch. 4.
not fitted to encounter the long speeches and long dinners a. d.
to which he was compelled to submit, or the importunities 1841.
of office-hunters, or the intrigues of poUticians. He was
killed with kindness and labours, even as Voltaire, after
a long residence at Ferney, was smothered with the roses
which the Parisians coUected for his honour.
The Vice-President, John Tyler, became, of course,
the occupant of the "White House," retaining the cabi
net of his predecessor, and. pursuing for a while the
nieasures of the party which had elevated him into
power. On the 31st of May, 1841, a special session of Con- Repeal
gress was convened, in pursuance of a call made by Har- "^J^"
risen, with a view of relieving the financial troubles of the irear
country. On the 6th of August, Congress repealed the ™'^'
Sub-Treasury law of Van Buren, and also estabUshed a Bank-
uniform system of bankruptcy throughout the United ™'''
States, which latter created a sort of commercial jubilee
for all bankrupts and debtors, and by which their debts
were cancelled and their claims relinquished. Such was
the universal commercial distress and the extent of faU-
ures, that this extraordinary measure proved advantageous,
although designed as a mere remedy for existing evils,
rather than as a settled policy to be uniformly pursued.
The attention of Congress, however, was mainly di- Veto of
rected to the establishment of a national bank, as the i,^^^
most efficient means of restoring the credit of the country.
But, to the general disappointment of his party and the
dismay of all financial men, the President vetoed the bill.
Another, similar in character, was passed, and was again
vetoed ; upon which the cabinet resigned, with the excep
tion of Mr. Webster, who was induced to remain, from

412 NEW TARIFF PASSED.
Bk. vn. patriotic considerations, and attend to the rising difficul-
Ch. 4. ties with England.
A. D. The United States were now on the eve of a war with
1841. tho first power of the world — the country was deeply
Bepudi- embarrassed, and its credit in Europe destroyed. Many
ation. pf the States were compelled to suspend the payment of
the interest of their debts, and were stigmatized abroad
as repudiating States. Pennsylvania, which had greatiy
suffered by the faUure of the new bank, under jMr. Bid-
die, which bore the name of the United States Bank, and
thus deceived foreigners, and which also suffered from
injudicious public expenditures, became a by-word in
Europe. Its stock fell below fifty cents on the dollar,
and great numbers who held the stock were ruined ; ajid
it is a glorious proof of the immense resources of the
State that it should so soon retrieve its fortunes and its
good name.
New On the resignation of the old cabinet, Walter Forward
became Secretary of the Treasury, John C. Spencer, Secre
tary of War, Abel P. Upshur, Secretary of the Navy, Hugh
S. Legare, Attorney-General, and Charles A. Wickliffe,
Postmaster-General. The twenty-seventh Congress commenced its session on
the 6th of D ecember, 1841, and passed an act apportion
ing the representatives according to the new census, which
had just been completed, by which the United States
contained over seventeen millions of people — being a
gain of thirty-three and a half per centum, or about one-
third, over the preceding ten years. It must be borne in
1842 uiind that this gain was made during all the financial
troubles of the country. This Congress also passed a
riff bill, new tariff law, and provided for the publication of Lieuten
ant Wilkes's account of the Exploring Expedition, which
had returned, after a three years' cruise, with 500 sketches

MR. WEBSTER AND THE ENGLISH TREATY. 413
of natural scenery, 200 portraits, and 2000 specimens of bk. vn.
birds, beside a great quantity of sheUs, fishes, animals, Ch. 4.
insects, &c., — which coUeetion furnishes an excellent a. d.
foundation for a national museum. 1842.
The great event of 1842 was an important treaty with Treaty ,
England, negotiated with Lord Ashburton by Mr. Web- ;?'*"
ster (August 20th), which settled the question of the land.
North-eastern Boundary, and which prevented hostilities
with that nation, which, of all powers, should be the last
for the United States to encounter in war. Amid the
wrecks of liberty in Europe and the triumphs of absolut
ism on the Continent, it behooves our government to ex
tend a sympathizing arm to England — the only country
in Europe where liberty is enjoyed, and our sister by the
ties of blood, as well as our best friend from kindred lan
guage, literature, and religion. Mr. Webster was muoh
aided in effecting this memorable treaty by the judicious
and magnanimous course pursued by General Scott, amid
the excited people of Maine, and who, but for his concili
atory course, might have been involved in hostilities be
fore the treaty could be made. The general who conquers
on the field of battle is great ; but greater is that general
who foregoes the acquisition of military laurels in the
disinterested desire for national peace.
Mr. Webster, soon after he had effected this great Retire-
treaty and saved the nation from war, retired from the Mr.Web-
post he had so gloriously filled, and Mr. Upshur received '*°'''
in his stead the portfolio of the State Department. But
Mr. Upshur retained the seal of office only a short time,
being accidentally killed, with Mr. Gilmer, Secretary of
War, by the bursting of a large gun on the steam-frigate
Princeton. John C. Calhoun then became Secretary of
State, and a complete change of measures from those with
which the administration started, ensued. He signed-
35*

414 THE INSURRECTION IN RHODE ISLAND.
BK. vn. a treaty of annexation between the United States and
Ch. 4. Texas, which treaty the Senate did not confirm. It con-
A. D. firmed, however, an important treaty whieh he made with.
1843 China.
*° The last session, of the twenty-seventh Congiess repealed
¦ the bankrupt law, which had been perverted and abused^
and by which creditors had been despoiled of their pro
perty.
The The administration of Mr. Tyler was marked by do-
taEhode mestic troubles in Rhode Island, from the efforts of a
Island, large party to secure a new and more democratic consti
tution. A convention was accordingly called to draft a
new constitution, in which universal suffrage should he-
instituted. It is singular that the colony of Roger Wil
liams should not have kept pace with the surrounding
states in popular privileges. The convention assem--
bled in the autumn of 1841, and adopted a constitution!,.
and submitted it to the people for ratification. The
proceedings, however, were deemed illegal, inasmuch as.
the legislature alone could authorize the governor to call
such a convention-, and the majority of the people refused
to vote. The constitution, which had; been adopted' by
14,000 voters, was declared treasonable by the governor,
in a proclamation. The result was an appeal to arms by
the friends of radical reform. Thomas H. Dorr, elected
governor by the votes of this party, attempted to seize
the arsenal, and to defend his position. He gathered
together about 1000 men, who however dispersed on the
appearance of a body of 7000 men. The leader of the
party fled, and f 1000 were offered for his apprehension.
After various adventures he surrendered himself to gov-
impri- ernment, was tried for treason, found guilty, and sen-
Bonment tonced to the penitentiary ; but, on taking, afterwards,,
""' thje oath, of aUegiance,. he was released (July 1845)^

ADMISSION OF TEXAS. 415>
Disturbances, nearly contemporaneous, took place in Bh. vn..
Albany and Rensselaer counties, in the State of New Ch. 4.
York, from the unwillingness of the tenantry to pay their a. d..
rents to the patroon at Albany. Itwas regarded by those 1843
tenants,, who occupied lands which had been anciently ., *°
granted to the Van Rensselaer family, and for which they
paid a small annual sum, that these rents, however small, -^'"'^
were a relie of feudal institutions. In the attempt to col- Anti-
lect them serious opposition was made, and the disturb
ances extended to the Livingston manor, in Columbia
eounty. So violent has been the resistance to the law,
that the tenantry have virtually carried their point, on
account of the sympathy of the more democratic portion
of the community.
By far the most important event of this administration, j^^n,;,.
if viewed in its ultimate results, was the admission of ^'o" <>*'
Toxas.
Texas into the Union (February 23d, 1845). The Tex
ans had secured their independence chiefly through the
mUitary successes of General Houston, who defeated the
Mexicans at the battle of San Jacinto, and took Santa
Anna himself, the president of Mexico, a prisoner. After
independence from Mexico was secured, Texas made re
peated overtures t& be received into the Union, which
were objected to by General Jackson and Mr. Van Buren,
on the ground of the peaceful relations with Mexico.
But a stronger opposition existed in the minds of the
aorthem members of Congress, on account of the exten
sion of slave territory and the practical endorsement of
slavery by the United States. But the recommendation
of President Tyler had the fortune to be approved by ai
majority of Congress, including nearly aU the southera
members, and Texas, with a territory from which foui
new slave States might be formed, was admitted into the;
Union. The Mexican war was the result ofthis act.

416 ELECTION OF JAMES K. POLK.
Bk. VII. In May, 1844, two important conventions were held
Ch. 4. in Baltimore, to nominate candidates for the presidency.
A. D. Henry Clay was nominated by the Whigs, and James K.
1844. Polk by the democratic party.
Presi- ¦^'^ man, in the political annals of this nation, has
dcutiai excited such general admiration as Clay, or has been
electon. . °
favoured with more enthusiastic friends; but he had his
enemies also, and was committed to measures which wero
not universally popular. Hence, the illustrious pacifi
cator lost his election. James K. Polk, who had been
Speaker of the House of Representatives, became Presi
dent of the United States, 4th of March, 1845. ^

CHAPTER V.
ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT POLK.
James K. Polk was inducted into his high office on bk. yn.
the 4th of March, 1845 ; and his party, which has had ch. 5.
the ascendency, with few brief intervals, since the retire- ^ jj_
ment of the elder Adams, had full scope to prosecute its 1845.
measures. He selected for his cabinet, James Buchanan, of Penn- The
sylvania, as Secretary of State ; Robert J. Walker, of °* "
Mississippi, Secretary of the Treasury ; WUliam L. Marcy,
of New York, Secretary of War; George Bancroft, of
Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy; Cave .Johnson,
of Tennessee, Postmaster-General ; and John Y. Mason,
of Virginia, Attorney-General.
Nothing important of a national character, except a
threatened invasion of Texas by Mexico, transpired pre
vious to the meeting, in December, of the twenty-ninth
Congress. By the battle of San Jacinto, Texas had won her in- inde-
dependence, and her separate nationaUty was acknow- en^'of
lodged by the'United States, as well as by other govern- T«as.
ments. In the exercise of the right which this independ
ence secured, she sought a union with the United States.
This right was undoubted, whatever may have been the
course of her citizens to secure independence, or what
ever may have been their motives in seceding from a
State which did not recognise the institution of slavery.
(41?)

418 DIFFICULTIES WITH MEXICO.

r.K. vn.

When Texas signified its willingness to become a mera-
Ch. 6. ber of the American confederacy, after its annexation had
A. D. been voted by the twenty-eighth Congress, Mexico re-
1845. caUed her minister, and made preparations to appeal to
arms. Anticipating these troubles, the United States
government sent a miUtary force into Texas, and also a
squadron into the Gulf of Mexico.
In the mean time negotiations were opened, both to
avert hostilities and to settle the boundary between Texas
and Mexico. With respect to Texas, the question was
the Rio Grande, as the proper boundary. With Mexico,
ppfusai the whole of Texas itself was at issue. Mexico, intent
nt' Mexi- , , , IT . 1 t
CO In ne- upon recovering her provmoe, or quarrelling with the
goiuate. United States, refused to treat, unless our ships were
withdrawn from her coasts and our troops from her soil.
Meeting Svich. was the stato of things, a quasi war, when Con
or con- gress assembled. One of its first measures was the con
summation of the annexation of Texas, which was declared
to be one of the United States of America, on equal foot
ing vrith the rest. But the subject which most deeply
1846. engaged Congress was in reference to the tariff. The
tariff-law of 1842 was repealed, and a lower scale of duties
substituted, much to the detriment of manufacturers,
especially of iron.
Troops The attention of Congress however was soon recalled
tfthe"' ^° ^^^ difficulties with Mexico. General Taylor, who
Rio commanded the American troops at Corpus Christi, had
been ordered by the Secretary of War to the Rio Grande,
the disputed boundary; and, in April, 1846, the little
army under his command was encamped upon its banks.
The design of this movement was to induce Mexico to
negotiate, or to precipitate hostiUties. But the people
of Mexico could only be pacified by an appeal to arms,
and they were only to be awakened to a sense of their

COMMENCEMENT OF THE MEXICAN WAR. 419
inferiority, or of their duties, by the sad experience of Bk. mi.
defeat and dismemberment. Cb. o.
General Taylor, in the latter part of April, occupied a a. d.
menacing position opposite Matamoras, after having built 18-iG.
a fort at Point Isabel, which was made his main depot, nostiu,
A body of Mexicans, meanwhile, was encamped on the *j^''_
west bank of the river, to watch the movements of Gene- ened.
ral Taylor. These were under the command of General
Arista, and were among the best troops in the Mexican
service. On the 24th of April, Captain Thornton, with sixty- capturi
three dragoons, was sent up the river to reconnoitre ; but °^
^ J. -t-i . -I Thorn-
he feU into an ambuscade, and was compelled to surren- ton's
der to a superior force, after sixteen had been killed or **^'^'
wounded. The capture of this party left no doubt of the hostile
intentions of Mexico, and General Taylor immediately
made a requisition for 5000 troops; however, before these
could arrive, the campaign was fairly opened by the bril
Uant action of Palo Alto.
In the latter part of April, the Mexicans crossed the mcxi-
Rio Grande, with a view to occupy the ground between ""^ ,.
Poiot Isabel and the station which General Taylor occu- Rio
pied, and thus to cut off his communication. But Gene- "^^ "'
ral Taylor, on the fir^t of May, left a detachment of his
troops with Major Brown to defend the river-fort, which
afterwards bore his najne, and marched with his main
body toward Point Isabel, in order to secure free access
to his depQt. He, however, encountered no Mexican ene
mies. On the 7th of May, having secured his object, he
commenced his retum to Fort Brown.
This retum to the river the Mexican general deter- Battio
nined to prevent, and hence concentrated his troops, Aito.
learly 6000 in number, at Palo Alto, directly across the

420 DECLARATION OF WAR BY CONGRESS.
Bk. vii. road over which Taylor was to march. Here occurred,
Ch. 5. on the 8 th of May, the first battie of consequence in the
A. D. war, in which the Americans overcame a body of well-
1846. posted troops, nearly double their own number, and with
the loss of only 55 killed and wounded, while the enemy
had 200 kiUed and 400 wounded.
Battleof The next day another still more bloody fight occurred
at a ravine, called Resaca, in which the Mexicans were
totally routed, with great loss, and the capture of General
La Vega, together with General Arista's papers and mili
tary stores. In this action, where 39 Americans were
killed and 83 wounded, the light artillery did great ser
vice under Lieutenant Ridgely. The dragoons, under
Captain May, also distinguished themselves.
Retreat These brilliant victories resulted in the retreat of the
rf^t^e Mexicans across the Rio Grande, and in the occupation
canj. of Matamoras by General Taylor. It was now resolved
upon, both by the government at Washington and Gene
ral Taylor, to follow up these successes by an invasion
of the enemy's territory, and by the attack on Monterey,
the capital of New Leon, and the first position of strength
on the highway to Mexico, as well as the key to all the
northern provinces.
The con- Congrcss, meanwhile, had declared war with Mexico,
quest of and voted to raise ten mUlions of doUars and 50,000 men.
Mexico „ . Ill •
contem Great Vigour was shown by the government in transport-
piated. jj^g troops to the Rio Grande, the base of military opera
tions, although the means of forwarding them after their
disembarkation were not sufficiently considered. By the
middle of August, General Taylor found himself at the
head of a considerable force, composed chiefly of volun
teers, all burning with eagerness to enter " the Halls of
the Montezumas."
With all invading armies the means of subsistence

BATTLE OF MONTEREY. 421
becomes the controlUng question. Without sufficient at- bk. vii.
tention to the commissariat. Napoleon's generals suffered Ch. 6.
great disasters in Spain, and he himself was cut off in a. d.
Russia — this was his blunder. General Taylor disco- 1846.
vered that only about 6000 men could be subsisted in
the country around Monterey; nor had he the means of
transporting a larger force.
Accordingly, with about- 6000 men, he commenced his Advance
march to Monterey, on the 20th of August, leaving 2000 Ameri-
behind, under General Patterson, to garrison Camargo, "^ans.
his main depot on the Rio Grande. On the 19th of
September, he arrived within three miles of Monterey,
defended by fortifications of immense strength, and addi
tionally protected by forts erected outside of the city, on
the two imposing heights of Independence and Federation.
The possession of these works, called the Bishop's Palace
and Fort Soldado, made certain the reduction of the city.
On the 20th, General Worth, with a division of the Battleof
army, was put in movement, to storm these heights, while ""^
the remainder of the army was displayed on the eastern
or opposite side of the city, to distract the enemy's
attention. The gallant stormers of Fort Soldado, under Colonel
P. E. Smith and Captain C. F. Smith, effected their
object, and possessed the heights of Federation; while
Generals Twiggs and Butler attacked the city itself, and
forced an entrance, though with great loss of life — 394
being killed and wounded. This severe conflict withdrew
attention from General Worth, who followed up his suc
cess, on the 22d, by storming the Bishop's Palace, which
had been considered impregnable.
The Mexicans now withdrew from their outer defences,
and occupied the cathedral and the main plaza, while the
Americans made preparations to attack them, and gradu-
36

CAPITULATION OF MONTEREY. 423
ally advanced, amid dreadful encounters, tiU within one bk. vn.
square of the principal plaza, where the enemy was con- ch. 6.
centrated. General Taylor then withdrew his troops to a. D.
the edge of the city, to concert with General Worth for a 1846.
renewed attack on the following day.
On the morning of the 24th, General Ampudia, who Capitu-
commanded the Mexicans, submitted a proposition to ^^^^
capitulate, which was agreed upon, and the city, with its "y-
miUtary stores, fell into the hands of the Americans —
the garrison, which had been 10,000, being permitted to
march out with the honours of war, retaining their arms
and six pieces of cannon. An armistice of eight weeks
was also agreed upon.
Monterey now became the head-quarters of General
Taylor, whUe Saltillo and Panas were respectively occu
pied by Generals Worth and Wool, with large detach
ments of the army.
A change of administration now occurred in Mexico, Santa
and Santa Anna, the ablest of all the Mexican generals, recalled.
was recaUed from Cuba and placed at the head of affairs.
By indefatigable exertions, he raised an army of 20,000
men, concentrated them at San Louis Potosi, and strongly
fortified his position.
General Taylor, who had left Monterey, in the early Taylor's
part of December, for the interior, soon perceived that a
larger force would be necessary, to attack San Louis Po
tosi, than what could be easily pushed forward. He ac
cordingly came to the opinion that the advance should
be abandoned, a defensive line occupied, and the decisive
blow struck against the capital from the neighbourhood
of Vera Cruz.
It so happened that the government was of the same
opinion, through the suggestions of General Scott, who
convinced Secretary Marcy, in an able communication.

424 GENERAL SCOTT SENT TO VERA CRUZ.
Bk. VII. that a vigorous march from Vera Cruz upon the city of
Ch. 5. JMexico would alone compel the jMexicans to sue for peace.
A. D. -A-s early, however, as the 22d of October, an expedition
1846. against Vera Cruz was resolved upon, though without any
Plan of ulterior purpose than the reduction of the city. To the
the in- geuius of General Scott the country is indebted for the
vasion. ° • , tit * i
magnificent plan of strategy by which Mexico was sub
dued. He proposed first to capture Vera Cruz, and then
to advance on the capital in two columns : one, of 10,000,
from Monterey, and the other, of 20,000, from Vera Cruz
By this it was shown that, if Santa Anna remained at
San Louis Potosi to oppose General Taylor, General Scott
could then advance unresisted to the capital ; or, if he
detached to oppose Scott, then Taylor could advance upon
San Louis Potosi.
The plan, however, was only partially adopted. It was
settled that Scott should attack Vera Cruz, and then ad
vance upon Mexico, while Taylor should maintain the
defensive. -
Scott General Taylor's effective force now amounted to
the chief 16,000 men, 4000 less than was supposed, from which
""°" General Scott, now sent to take the chief command, de
mand. ^ ' '
' tached 9000, in order to invest Vera Cruz, and advised
Taylor to retire to Monterey.
Had Taylor, with his reduced force, retired to Monte
rey, it would have been considered by the enemy as a
defeat ; but he resolved to hold on to the position which
he then occupied, in advance of Saltillo.
If he had then commanded the army, before so large a
body was detached, with sufficient means of transporta
tion, the great battle of the war would have been fought
under the walls of San Louis Potosi, and Mexico entered
from tbat side. But with 7 or 8000 men he could not
act on the offensive.

EXPEDITION ORGANIZED. 425
Taylor did the best his means and circumstances per- Bit. vn.
mitted. He maintained a bold position, at the edge of Ch. 6.
the desert in advance of Saltillo, and thus invited an at- a. d.
tack from the Mexican general, whose army, the best that 1846
Jlexico ever saw, was defeated, demoralized, and reduced ^o
' 1847
to half its numbers, and a way opened for Scott to ad
vance upon the capital. Had it not been for the battle
of Buena Vista, General Scott could not hav.e taken
Mexico, with the forces under his command, without
great embarrassments.
While Taylor was thus maintaining his defensive atti- motb-
tude, and Scott organizing his expedition to attack Vera ments of
Cruz, Santa Anna came in possession of General Scott's
despatches, and immediately resolved upon his measures,
which, it must be conceded, were bold and grand —
they were, to attack Taylor with his whole force, and
then turn and crush Scott on his march to Mexico.
But it was the misfortune of Santa Anna to be beaten ganta
where he expected an easy victory. Buena Vista was ¦^"°*
^ ./ ./ advan-
won by skill and fortune. General Taylor occupied, for ces upon
several weeks, a bold attitude at Agua Nueva, where he
refreshed his troops, under 5000 in number, and imparted
to them additional discipline. Upon this position Santa
Anna advanced, with 20,000 men, on the 21st of Febru
ary, 1847. Taylor hastily abandoned his camp, in order
to lure the Mexicans to an unprepared attack, and by
troops exhausted by fifty miles of continuous marching,
and still suffering from hunger and thirst. Santa Anna,
believing that the Americans were flying in dismay,
eagerly pursued, until he was drawn into a mountain
gorge, where alone a victory could be gained by the
Americans, and where alone their commander was deter
mined to fight.
This position had been choscn by General Wool, and
36*

BATTLE OP BUEN.i VI.STA. 427
adopted by General Taylor. On the morning of the 22d bk. vn.
of February, the birth-day of Washington, the battle com- Ch. 6.
menced, and was fought with desperate valour during that a. d.
day, and also during the next, before fortune declared in 1847.
favour of the Americans. Great assistance was rendered. Battle
during this encounter, by the flying artillery, under Cap- ^P^'^'^
tain Bragg. Both officers and men greatly distinguished
themselves, but none so much as the intrepid commander,
without whose ability the Americans would probably
have been overpowered by superior numbers. The Mexi
can loss was over 2000 in killed and wounded, beside 3000
deserters. The American loss was 267 killed and 456
wounded. Santa Anna stiU had 15,000 men left, after this deci- Retreat
sive battle, but he was without money and without de- ^nn™ "
p6ts, and, in addition, a revolution was springing up in
the capital of Mexico ; he was, therefore, compelled to
retreat towards San Louis Potosi, while General Taylor
advanced to Agua Nueva.
While these splendid successes had been gained by Scott oiv
General Taylor, General Scott was organizing his own ^g
expedition, and, early in March, landed in the vicinity of '''""Ps-
Vera Cruz, and invested that city. General Scott, in his
communication to the Secretary of War, deemed that
20,000 men were necessary to capture Vera Cruz and
advance upon Mexico. But he had only 12,000 men
when, on the 28th of February, at Lobos, he organized
his forces — with these he advanced to Vera Cruz.
It was the subject of deliberation with the illustrious Move-
commander-in-chief, whether he would take the city by before
siege or by assault. Either course was practicable. The J"''''
former would require science ; thc latter, desperate cou
rage. By the former course fewer lives would be lost ;
by the latter, greater eclat would be gained. To his

CAPTURE OF VERA CRUZ. 429
honour, the considerations of humanity weighed more bk. vii.
than those of glory — for, in war, the more Uves that are ch. 6.
lost, and the more desperate an action, the more impres- a. d.
sive is the victory in the eyes of the great mass of the 1847.
people. The investment of the city, which contained about siege of
15,000 inhabitants and was defended by a respectable q^^^
garrison, commenced on the 10th of March. The bat
teries were planted with great judgment, about 900 yards
from the city. But the works were frequently destroyed
by the heavy northers, and the troops suffered much from
excessive labour. On the 22d of March, the investment
was completed, and General Scott summoned the city to
surrender. General Morales, who commanded both the
city and the castle of San Juan de UUoa, a strong fortress
in front of the city, peremptorily refused, and the bom
bardment commenced, both from the American batteries
and from the shins in the harbour. On the 29th, the Surren-
. ' der of
surrender of the city and castle was made, and the Ame- the city.
rican flag was planted on the enemy's works.
Thus was this important place taken by the American
commander, with only the inconsiderable loss of 65 men
killed and wounded, and a secure base formed for military
operations in the interior. Had the city been taken by
assault, more than 2000 persons would probably have
fallen, beside the great loss of life in the city itself.
Meanwhile, the news reached the camp of General Soott
Scott of the brilliant victory at Buena Vista and the ^""^I^'
retirement of Santa Anna upon San Louis Potosi. As vanceon
the sickly season was fast approaching, and as he wished
to anticipate the enemy, in gaining healthy positions on
the first mountain barriers. General Scott resolved to
commence the march to the city of Mexico. As soon as
means of transportation could be collected, they were put

PLAN OF THE BATTLES OF MEXICO.
On the 19th and 20th of May, and the Sth, 12th, and 13th September, 1847.

MARCH TO MEXICO. 431
in motion. General Twiggs, with his division, was sent bk.jvii.
on in advance. Ch. 5.
He had not expected opposition. On the 12th of April, a. d.
he found himself before the enemy, consisting of 13,000 1847.
men, under Santa Anna himself, strongly posted at Cerro com-
Gordo, a conical hill, which towered above the heights ™<*°<^'=-
77^ o ment
and forests of the surrounding country. General Scott ofthe
had received intelligence of the proximity of the enemy
on the llth, and the next day started in person to join
General Twiggs. General Worth's division marched on
the 13th.
The enemy was weU supplied with water and other Battleof
necessaries, and hoped to present an obstacle to the lur- Qordo.
ther advance of the Americans, until the yellow fever
had wasted their ranks. But General Scott, perceiving
the necessity of an immediate advance, resolved to storm
the heights. On the 18th of April, the attack com
menced, and was completely successful. The Mexicans
fled, and Santa Anna himself, with great difficulty, ef
fected his escape on the wheel-mule of his carriage. The
American forces were 9000, and their loss in killed and
wounded, was 431. The enemy was completely dispersed,
and lost all his artillery. The loss, in killed and wounded,
was 700, beside 3000 prisoners, including five generals.
This battle was followed by the rapid occupation of
Jalapa and Perote, and the invaders advanced to Puebla,
on the great road to Mexico, and, on the 15th of May,
took possession of that city. Santa Anna himself returned Santa
to Mexico, to defend the city of Montezuma from the Ame- mea^
rican invaders. He found it in a state of anarchy. The """"'¦
violence of faction, and the decline of his own popularity,
prevented him from rallying, to the extent desired, his
beaten and scattered forces. But, being still possessed
of extraordinary powers, he seized and confined the most

432 FORTIFIC.VTIONS . OF MEXICO.
Bk. VII. turbulent chieftains and the generals most unfriendly to
Ch.6. him. He then sent in to the Mexican Congress his re-
A J) signation, whioh was neither accepted nor rejected. No
1847. action being taken upon it, and thc public affairs being
Prepara- Very Critical, he withdrew it, and virtually became dicta
tions for tQj._ Jf any one could save the capital, it was he, and
fence of he excrted his utmost energies to collect troops and
Bloxico. strengthen his defences; and such were his efforts that,
by the end of July, he had under bis command, around
Mexico, according to Mexican accounts, 36,000 men and
100 pieces of artillery.
Meanwhile, his preparations for the last stand of re
sistance were closely watched by the American comman
der at Puebla. In order to increase his strength, he
gave orders to abandon 'Jalapa, while a new accession to
his forces was made by the arrival of General Pillow, on
the Sth of July, thus increasing his troops to 10,276, of
all arms, although over 2000 remained upon the sick-list.
On the Oth of August, his army was further increased by
a force of 2429 men under General Pierce.
Advance During this pause at Puebla, General Scott collected
°p£,n aU the information in hie power respecting the different
Mexico, routes to the capital. On the 7th of August, Harney's
cavalry and Twiggs's division marched towards Mexico,
followed, the next day, by Quitman's volunteers, and, on
the Oth, by Worth's division; while the remainder ofthe
troops marched on the 10th, General Pillow's composing
the rear. No opposition was made by the eneray, and,
on the 10th of August, the advanced guard entered the
Valley of Mexico.
A system of active reconnoissance was now commenced,
and the different routes were closely observed. After
much deliberation, the road round Lake Chalco, south
east of Mexico, was decided upon. The most direct route

BATTLES OF CONTRERAS AND CHURUBUSCO. 433
to the city was defended by El Penon, a fortress seven Bk. vir.
and a half miles distant, and deemed impregnable, al- Ch. 5.
though that fortress niight be avoided by a detour to a. d.
Mexicalcingo, another strong position, a few miles south- 1847.
west of it, and still nearer the capital. But the daring
and skilful reconnoissance of the Chalco route, by Colonel
Duncan, removed all doubt, and, on the 15th of August,
the march was commenced.
So soon as Santa Anna was apprised of the fact that
General Scott was advancing south of Lake Chalco, he
withdrew most of his troops from El Penon and Mexi
calcingo, and fortified San Antonio and Churubusco, about
four miles from the city, determining to make a strong
defence at these points.
On the 17th of August, Worth, in advancing, seized
San Augustin, about twelve miles from the city, from
which reconnoitring officers examined the position of the ¦
enemy, and which became the key of operations. >?-¦
^ On the 19th and 20th of August was fought the battle Battleof
of Contreras, which resulted in the destruction of the ^^_ '""
veteran division of General Valentia, who had been posted
on the road to San Angel, to dispute the passage over the
Pedregal, a vast field of lava, and entirely impracticable
for cavalry or artillery, except by a single mule-path.
The loss of the Mexicans could not have been less than
2000 in killed and wounded ; four general officers were
taken prisoners, and the whole train of artillery, with
heavy stores of ammunition, fell into the hands of the
victors. Not more than 60 Americans were killed and
wounded. A vigorous pursuit of the flying enemy was made, and Battle of
the advance brigade of the veteran division of Twiggs ^^^'
brought up at the post where Santa Anna had concen
trated his forces, and the terrible conflict of Churubusco
37

BATTLE OP MOLINO DEL REY. 435
commenced. The Americans suffered severely, 1000 of bk. vil
our bravest troops having fallen in that desperate encoun- cb. s.
ter. But the Mexican loss was dreadful. It is supposed a. d.
that 7000 were either killed or wounded. The panic was 1847.
extreme, and Mexico was at the mercy of the conquerors.
The consequence of this decisive victory, which gave
the most incontestible evidence of General Scott's energy
and capacity, as well as the bravery of his subordinate
generals, was, that an armistice was agreed upon, for the
purpose of negotiating a peace.
The commander-in-chief has been censured for this Armi-
armistice, but it reflected immortal honour upon him, IJ^^
showing his great moderation in the midst of victory, upon.
and his eamest desire to avoid an unnecessary waste of
life. But this armistice proved of no avail, and termi
nated on the 7th of September. At its conclusion, the
effective force of the Americans amounted only to 8500.
On the Sth of September was fought the battle of Mo- Battleof
lino del Rey, near the castle of Chapultepec, with a view aeiRey.
of breaking up a foundry for cannon. The assault was
committed to General Worth, and was gallantly performed.
The place was taken, and the enemy fell back into the
grove of Chapultepec, but were not pursued. This action
was the most severely contested of the whole war. The
force engaged was less than 4000, but of these 789 were
either killed or wounded. The forces of the enemy were
10,000. No decisive results, however, followed this action.
The American commander now directed the whole force scott
of his genius to the reduction of the city of Mexico, into ^^^^g"'^"*
which the greater part of the defeated forces had retired, sauit
The reconnoissances upon the enemy's works were com
menced on the 10th, and were pushed over the two main
causeways which led to the city from the south, the most
important of which was San Antonio, from which the

436 CAPTURE OF MEXICO.
B^- ""I- Mexican generals anticipated the flnal assault upon the
Ch. 6. city.
A. D. But Scott resolved to begin with Chapultepec, a rock
1847. which rose 150 feet from the plain, and which was strongly
storm- defended, not only by important works, but also by a large
cifapui- garrison, under the command of Don Nicolas Bravo, one
tepee, of the most celebrated of the Mexican leaders. On the
12th, the batteries were opened on this strong fortress ;
but the cannonade and bombardment not effecting much,
the storming of it was ordered. This took place on the
following day, and the assault was entrusted to General
Pillow. After an hour of fierce contest, the American
flag floated on the highest points of the castle, and the
western defence of Mexico was in the possession of the
Americans.
FaU of Generals Worth and Quitman pursued the flying enemy
^""'' over the causeways, and before night succeeded in seizing
the western gates and advancing a considerable way into
the wty. Santa Anna, during the night of the 14th,
withdrew his troops, and the next morning the main plaza
and the national palace were occupied by the American
generals. Both the city and the valley of Mexico were
now in undisputed possession by our troops.
The strength of the American forces which were en
gaged during these final operations did not exceed 6800
men, and the aggregate of losses in killed and wounded
was 863. The great dependence of the Mexicans was
upon the castle of Chapultepec, and when this fell, all
confidence departed from them.
Refleo- That so Small a body of troops should have successively
the con- bcateu armies more than thrice their number, led by so
guest, able a general as Santa Anna, and entrenched behind
defences that were deemed impregnable, and that, finally,
the constantly diminishing army of the invaders, at last

MOVEMENTS OF SANTA ANNA. 437
reduced to a handful of men, if measured with European bk. vii
conflicts, should successfully assault the capital of a great oh. 6.
nation, is one of the wonders and prodigies of modern war- a. d.
fare. Great as is the praise due to the American troops in 1847.
general, as well as to the gallant officers who led them on Great
to victory, the chief merit belongs to Scott and Taylor ^'^^*tj
themselves, by whose transcendent coolnes.s, firmness, and and
judgment the great victories were won. They had the
rare talent of grasping and weighing and understanding
their whole field, and of directing the energies of their
subordinates in the right channel.
To the credit of Santa Anna, it must be said, he dis- Move-
puted his ground inch by inch, and fought bravely to the g^^^
last ; but it was his misfortune to lead dispirited and en- ^""'^•
ervated troops, and to contend with Americans and such
generals as Scott and Taylor. After the reduction of
Mexico, he established his head-quarters in the city of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, but was without money and provi
sions. His last resort was to attack the communication
of the American army, and accordingly he marched upon
Puebla, where the campaign had been commenced; but,
before marching, he resigned his presidency into the hands
of the judges of the Supreme Court of Justice, and con
tented himself with the subordinate power of a general.
He arrived at Puebla on the 22d of September, which
was defended by Colonel Childs, with only about 500 ef
fective men, 1800 being on the sick list. This city was Attacita
already besieged by a party of guerrillas, under General
Rea, and Santa Anna's arrival was the signal for an as
sault, which was, at intervals, continued until the 30th of
September, without success. It being known that an
American force was advancing from Vera Cruz, Santa
Anna withdrew, with 4000 men, and continued to harass
the Americans until the 12th of October.
37*

Ch. 5.
A. D.

438 TRE.WY OF PEACE WITH MEXICO. -
R.- VTT. In the mean time, General Taylor, finding that his
forces in the north of Mexico, after garrisoning Saltillo,
Monterey, Camargo, and Matamoras, were not sufficient
1847 to advance upon San Louis Potosi, confined himself to
to defensive measures, and was in favour of sending all his
^^'^^- surplus troops to the aid of General Scott. Having re-
March ceived, at his own suggestion, instructions to that effect,
of Lane ' ^° /-, i . it n
and he despatched Generals Lane and Cushing to Vera Lruz,
to i&°i- with about 2500 men. They arrived at that city on the
">¦ 20th of September, and soon aftei: marched towards
Mexico, dispersing the various guerrilla parties to which
the Mexicans were now reduced. On the 12th of Octo
ber, General Lane entered Puebla.
occupa- While these things were occurring, the main body of
tion of 1 . . -1 . /. Tifl- •
Mexico, the Americans remained at the city of Mexico, waiting
for the new Mexican government to enter into negotia
tions, now that the conquest of the country was fairly
secured. After arranging the internal affairs of the city.
General Scott turned his attention to preserve his lines
of communication with Vera Cruz.
As the Mexican authorities still refused to sue for
peace, when all hope of gaining any important advantage
was at an end. General Scott forbid the payment of
revenues to the Mexican government, and imposed a
system of contributions. Mr. Trist, the American com
missioner, not giving satisfaction to his government, was
Arrestof recalled ; and Generals Pillow and Worth, in consequence
and of unfortunate differences with the commander-in-chief.
Worth, yfere arrested.
Treaty However, before the recall of Mr. Trist was known to
IZ: *^^^ Mexicans, a treaty was made at Guadalupe Hidalgo,
Hidai.0. Febraary 2d, 1848. By this treaty the territories of
New Mexico and Upper California were given to the
United States, as indemnity for the war, while Mexico

EVACUATION OF MEXICO. 439
released all claim to Texas. But, in consideration of these bk. vii.
extensive grants of territory, the United States agreed to Ch. 5.
pay fifteen miUions of dollars, and assumed the debt a. d.
which Mexico owed to her own citizens, amounting to 1848.
nearly five milUons additional. Although these negotia
tions were made after Mr. Trist was recaUed, still they
were ratified by both governments, and Messrs. Sevier
and Clifford were appointed commissioners.
General Scott, in the mean while, was relieved from g^^i
his command, and General Butler succeeded him. The reUeved.
government had nobly seconded General Scott in his
measures to secure the conquest of Mexico, but, when
this was completed, party animosities and rivalries be
tween the leading chieftains recommenced, with their
usual bitterness, and efforts were made to deprive the
Ulustrious commanders, and especially the commander-in-
chief, of the glory they had earned.
On the 12th of June, the treaty being duly ratified, Evacua^
the American troops yielded up to the Mexicans their Mexico.
capital, and commenced their march to Vera Cruz. By
the end of July, the country was completely evacuated.
The volunteers were discharged, and the regiments of the
regular army disbanded, according to the laws of their
organization. Thus ended one of the most brilliant series of military
successes La these modem times, the ultimate results of.
which, for good or evil, are beyond the power of mortal
man to anticipate. This war was the chief event in the
administration of Mr. Polk, and this alone vrill render it
ever memorable.
During this administration, however, the country was state
. . , , „ . ofthe
in a very prosperous state, in a commercial point ot view, country
The political troubles of Europe, and the distress of the
Irish population, in consequence of the potato-rot and

440 ELECTION OF TAYLOR.
Bk. vu. other evils, caused an immense immigration, which again
Ch. 6. resulted in the settlement of the Western States. Iowa
A. D. 'lid Florida were admitted in 1846, and Wisconsin in
1848. the following year.
Election lo JiDe, 1848, was held a great Whig convention, in
of Tay- Philadelphia, which nominated General Taylor for Presi
dent and Millard Fillmore for Vice-President. The hero
of the Mexican war was chosen by a considerable ma
jority. On the 4th of March, 1849, President Polk
Death of retired to private life, but survived his retirement only a
^°"'- few months. He died, Juno 15th, 1849.

CHAPTER VI.
administration of GENERAL TAYLOR.
On the inauguration of President Taylor, March 4th, Bk. vn.
1849, he made choice of John M. Clayton, of Delaware, ch. 6.
for Secretary of State ; William M. Meredith, of Pennsyl- a. d.
vania. Secretary of the Treasury; George W. Crawford, 1849.
of Georgia, Secretary of War; W. B. Preston, of Vir- Taylor's
ginia. Secretary of the Navy; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, '""'"°*-
Secretary of the Interior ; Jacob Collamer, of Vermont,
Postmaster-General ; and Reverdy Johnson, of Maryland,
Attorney-General. The thirty-first Congress assembled in December, but
no acts of great historical importance were passed until
late in the session. An act providing for the taking of
the new census was passed, 23d of May, 1850, and also 1850.
for a new apportionment of the House of Representatives, q^j,^^
which, after 1853, shall consist of two hundred and
thirty-four members.
Califoraia was admitted into the Union, September Oth, caiifor-
1850, its gold mines having led to an unexampled increase ^'^^
of population ; and the city of San Francisco arose, as by
magic, on the shores of the Pacific, as the future metro
polis of the extreme westem section of the nation. An
act also passed, at the same time, establishing a territorial
government in Utah. (441)

442 death of PRESIDENT T.iYLOR. ,
Bk. vil But the most agitating law of the session was the act
Ch. 6. respecting fugitive slaves, by which they might be re-
A D claimed by their masters under the authority of special
1850. commissioners and with the aid of the United States mar-
Fugitive shals. This act produced great excitement throughout
slave the Union, and was the occasion of threatening debates
and the severest animadversion from a powerful party. It
passed September 18th, and put a stop, for the present,
to anti-slavery agitation in Congress.
Death of The year 1850 was signalized by the death of John C.
Camoun Qjijjjcmj^ .^ho expired in Washington, on the 31st of
March, after a briUiant career as a statesman, and after
having held some of the highest offices in the land, win
ning from all classes admiration for his talents and respect
for his private worth.
Death of On the 9th of July, the nation was called to mourn
Taylor. ^^^ death of the patriotic President, whom the gratitude
aud admiration of the people had raised to the most ex
alted office in their gift. The death of General Taylor
was felt as a great national calamity ; but the time had
come when the loss of no statesman or President, how
ever eminent, could materially affect the destiny of the
nation.
Acccs- By his death, the administration of affairs devolved on
Fillmore 'te Vice-President, who fortunately possessed the confi
dence of the country, and under whose auspices the nation
has been still more rapidly advancing in wealth and poU
tical importance.
With the accession of Millard Fillmore the old cabinet
resigned, and a new one was appointed, at the head of
which, as Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, assuraed
the post for which he was so well fitted, and the Senate
lost the services of its greatest ornament.
At this point, we close our brief history, regretting

STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 443
that our narrow limits prevent allusion to those passing bk. vii.
events which are to be chronicled by future historians, ch. 6.
Nor has it been the aim of the author to allude to any a. d.
events in the administration of the latter Presidents ex- 1851.
cept such as are of great historical importance.

STATE OF THE COUNTRY ON THE ACCESSION OF
PRESIDENT FILLMORE.
On the accession of President Fillmore the country Prospe-
was in a state of unexampled prosperity, and was rapidly ^J °
advancing to be the first power upon earth. country.
The United Confederacy, in the year 1851, numbered Extent
thirty-one independent States and four Territories, beside union.
the District of Columbia, eighteen of which had been
added since the formation of the Federal Government.
The military force to govern and protect so great an Military
extent of territory, from Maine to Florida, and from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, has been proved to be adequate
to the wants of the nation, although it numbers but little
over 10,000 men, chiefly stationed at posts remote from
the centre of civilization.
The navy is small, compared with the mercantile power Naval
and wealth of the country and with the maritime nations "'*'
of Europe, being composed of twelve ships of the line,
fifteen frigates, twenty-one sloops of war, four brigs, three
schooners, five steam-frigates, and fifteen smaller steamers.
The shipping in the merchant -service amounts to Ship-
1,585,711 tons. During the year 1851, over eight ''™^'
thousand American vessels cleared for foreign countries,
containing over one hundred thousand seamen.
The productions of the country have constantly in-

Educar
Lion.

444 STATE OF THE COUNTRY.
Bk. vil creased with its extending limits. During the year
Ch.6. which closed the last half century, the exports and iin-
A. D. ports each amounted to $136,946,912.
1851. The population, according to the last census, numbered
Popnia- 20,087,909 free persons, and 3,179,589 slaves.
tion. With the increase of population and wealth, physical
Internal improvements have received an impulse. Railroads con-
improve- ments. uoct thc different States, and afford facilities for transpor
tation from the Mississippi to the Atlantic Ocean. Ca
nals connect the Father of Waters with the great lakes
and the ocean. Emigrants find employment in works of
art and in the cultivation of the soil.
Colleges and the higher seminaries are established in
every State, and schools in all our villages. In 1851,
there were one hundred and twenty colleges and eight
thousand students. The professions are supported ; reli
gion is respected ; toleration prevails ; and the laws are
enforced. This country has been blessed with the smiles and pro
tection of an overruling Providence. If the people are
faithful to the cause entrusted to their keeping, they will
become a most powerful nation; but if they disregard
their privileges, and suffer the vices to undermine their
moral health, it will furnish confirmation of the great
truth, so often impressed upon the world's history, that
" pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit bo-
fore a fall."

THE END.

aUESTIONS
TO
HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES.

BOOK I. — CHAPTER I.
Pase 13. What was there peculiar to the latter part of the fifteenth
century? What characterized the people t
14. What improvements took place in this period ? What of sculp
tors, painters, scholars, poets, philosophers, and reformers ? What, on
the whole, made this epoch most memorable? Describe the progress
of commercial enterprise.
15. What was the great problem ofthe age, and why was it? Who
gave the most attention to it ? What were the reasons which led him
to infer the rotundity of the earth ? What did he hope to accomplish
hy sailing west ?
16. What were the ordinary passages to India? How was the pro
ject of Columbus received? Who encouraged him 7 Whatwas the
result ? When did he discover America ?
17. How was Columbus treated on his return ? What effect had
this treatment on him ? With wbat reward must great benefactors be
content? Who reaUzed the idea of Columbus ? What was the effect
of Portuguese discoveries ? What was the greater result of the disco
very of America ?
18. With whom does Columbus share his glory as a discoverer ? By
whom was Cabot patronized ? What were the results of his voyages ?
Who competed with the English for the soil of America 1 What French
navigator explored the coast ?
19. Who first availed themselves of the discovery of America?
What sections did they seek ? Who conquered Mexico ? What Indian
Prince ruled the land? Describe his subjects. What excited the
cupidity of the Spaniards ? Describe the conquest of Peru.
20. When was Brazil discovered, and by whom? Were Spain and

446 QUESTIONS TO
Portugal enriched to the extent anticipated? In what do true riches
consist? Why? Were all nations equally infatuated ? What did they
expect to find ? Under what circumstances was Florida discovered,
and by whom ?
21. What followed the discovery of Florida? Who was the first to
ascend the Mississippi 7 When was it discovered? What results fol
lowed ? What difficulties had the colonists to contend with ? What
was the consequence ?
CHAPTER II.
23. What did the early navigators find on reaching the American
shores? What was their appearance? What were their habits ? How
far were they barbarians ? Of what were they ignorant? On what
did they live ?
24. What was the degree of their skill 7 Mention some of their
peculiarities. How did they treat women? What were their dispo
sitions ? What was the leading trait of the Indians ? How was this
illustrated 7
25. How did he treat friends and enemies? What were his reli
gious notions ? What of the Great Spirit 7 How did he differ from
the Germanic barbarian, in his estimate of woman 7
26. What was the great passion of the Indian 7 What was the next
strongest passion ? To what had he an invincible antipathy ? What re
sulted from this tiait? What was the state of the Indians on the first
arrival of the Europeans? Who were the most powerful of the tribes?
What other tribes did these include ?
27. What was the second division, and what sections did they in
habit? What distinguished them? What was the third division?
Who composed it ? What were their mutual relations ? What hence
resulted ? CHAPTER III.
20. Who flrst dreamed of colonizing America ? Who made the
first attempt? The second 7 Under whose auspices? What disco
veries were made 7 What prevented the success of the colony ?
30. Who made the third attempt? What animated them? What
fortunes attended them? What resulted to the colony? In whose
reign did the English attempt colonization ? What suggested it 7 Who
obtained a patent, and when 7 What resulted from it ?
31. What distinguished man obtained a similar patent? For what
was he distinguished 7 What resulted from his patent 7 Why was
the country called Virginia? How did the natives treat the strangeis?
Why did they abandon the settlement? Who arrived afterwards ?
32. What was their fortune? What happened in 1602? What
grant did the King of France make 7 What was it called ? What

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 447
resulted from the expedition? How did James I. regard the move
ments of the French?
33. What did James do? What resulted from his encouragement?
What evils were not at that time appreciated 7 Wherein had the pro
mised benefits proved delusive? What moral do we hence learn?
What did the navigators carry back to Europe ? Who first introduced
tobacco ? Was it for better or worse ?
BOOK II. — CHAPTER I.
34. What makes the history of America grand and romantic ? What
examples does its colonization afford ?
36. Wherein is it of philosophical importance ? What should be the
aim ofthe historian? What causes led to colonization? Wherein
were they different in different States?
37. What was the earliest English settlement? Whatwas the cha
racter of its colonists ? What the condition of England in the seven
teenth century? What were the conditions of the patent granted by
the King?
38. Wherein was the charter unfavourable to liberty? What was
the aim of the company ? Describe the band of colonists under New
port. Describe the voyage.
39. Who were the first governors? What Indian chieftain received
them hospitably? What was the early condition of the colony? Who
rescued it from destruction?
40. What were the previous adventures of Smith? Describe his
capture by the Indians. What of Pocahontas? Describe the condition
of the colony on Smiths return ?
41. By what were they deluded ? How was Smith a benefactor?
What were some of his excellences? How was his government viewed
by the company in England?
42. What was the result? Who was the first governor under the
new charter? What was the character of the colonists who sailed
with him ? How did they regard Smith 7 What was the result of his
return to England ?
43. Who succeeded Lord Delaware? Whatwas the condition of
the colony under him ? What domestic event of interest occurred ?
44. Who was Rolfe, and whom did he marry? Describe the go
vernment of Dale. What oppressions were the colonists subject to ?
45. What hence resulted ? Whatwas the character of Yeardley's
administration? What was the germ of popular liberty? What
political privileges resulted ?
46. Describe the introduction of African slaves. What domestic
calamity happened contemporaneously? What did the Indians resolve
todo? Who headed them ?

448 QUESTIONS TO
47. Who revealed the plot? Did it avert misfortune ? When did
the massacre happen? What resulted from it? How much were the
colonists reduceti ?
48. Why did James subvert the Virginia charter? How did it ope
rate? When did it happen? How did Charles I. manage ? To whom
did he delegate his powers?
49. What was the character of Harvey? Who succeeded him?
What was his administration ? What the condition of Virginia ? What
the political privileges under Berkeley ?
50. How were oflicers chosen? What were the germ of aristo
cracy? What the germ of a plebeian population? What the influ
ence of slaves? What still further increased aristocratic power?
51. Describe the aristocracy. What power did they grasp? How
did they view the Restoration? What privileges did they give to
Episcopalians? 52. How were the royal governors enabled to raaintain power?
What changes were made in the legislature? How were the liberties
of the people assailed ? Describe the growth of democracy.
53. What were the schemes of Bacon? Why was he opposed by
the governor? What were the Indian aggressions?
54. What did the democracy desire? What did it demand ? Whal
did Bacon do? What were his successes? What effect had they on
the governor ?
55. What modifications were made in the government? What
further resulted? Describe the conflict. What happened to James
town? 56. What was the effect of Bacon's death 7 What resulted from the
suppression of the rebellion 7 How did Lord Culpepper administer
the government? What was the condition of the colonists?
57. By whom was Culpepper succeeded 7 How did he conduct
affairs 7 What effect had his rule on the colonists ? Who succeeded
him? What was his character ?
58. What was the effect of the EngUsh Revolution? What was the
population in 1688 ? What was the prevailing religion ? What effect
had slavery? How was literature cultivated? What the social and
private Ufe of the planter ? CHAPTER II. I
61. What was the character ofthe Puritan settlers of New England?
What the influence of their example and principles?
62. In what consist their claims to greatness? What led them to
separate from the EstabUshed Church ?
63. In what year commenced the settlement in Leyden ? Who was
the leader ofthe party? State the jurisdiction granted by King James

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 449
to the Plymouth colony. Was it the intention of the Pilgrims to settle
in Massachusetts 7
64. State particulars of the voyage to America in the Mayflower.
When and where did the Puritans arrive in America?
65. Who was chosen tbeir first governor ? State the disasters of the
Pilgrims on their first arrival at Plymouth.
66. What was the condition of the Indians when a treaty of peace
was made with them ? What was the number of the colonists at the
end of the first ten years?
67. What constituted the basis of their government and laws? What
was the nursery of American institutions? State the extent of the
grant to Mason. When and by whom was it made ? State the terri
tory granted to Mason and Gorges. When and where did the first
settlements under this grant commence?
68. Describe the particulars of the formation of the Massachusetts
Bay Company. To whom was the executive government of this com
pany entrusted ? Describe the number and character of the settlers
under the charter granted by Charles I.
69. State particulars of the settlement at Salem. What systera of
church government did they adopt ? What resulted from the transfer
of their charter ?
70. Who was the leader of the colony which arrived in 1630 ? How
many did the colonists number 7 What place became. their capital ?
By whom was the elective franchise exercised ? What were the dis
couragements of the colony under Winthrop ? Name the principal
emigrants who arrived in 1633, and their position.
71. State the length and events of Winthrop's administration. Why
was Winthrop unpopular? Name his successor.
72. When did Hooker and his companions emigrate to Hartford?
State the character of Roger Williams. What was the cause of his
persecution ?
73. Where did he and his companions go and settle? What prin
ciple did he adopt in the early settlement of Rhode Island ?
74. State the cause of increased emigration in 1635. Name the
principal emigrants. By what was the administration of Sir Henry
Vane distinguished? What were the opinions of Ann Hutchinson,
which caused her persecution 7 How were her doctrines esteemed by
the clergy ? What became of her, after the return of Vane to England ?
75. Who founded the town of Exeter, in New Hampshire ? State
the origin of the Pequod war. What ravages did the Indians commit
on the Connecticut ?
76. How many Pequods fell in the attack of tbe colonists on the
forts? What became of the Pequod warriors? What was the effect
of the war upon the Pequods 7
38*

450 QUESTIONS TO
77. State the doings of the colonists in Massachusetts after the Pe
quod war. What three events distinguished this period ? Wbo was
governor of this settlement after the death of Winthrop and Dudley?
In what manner did Cromwell favour the colonists?
78. What occasioned the decline of Puritanism on the restoration
of Charles II.? What were the habits of the colonists at tbis period?
What was the influence of the oommercial restrictions of tho mother
country 7
79. What demand did Charles II. make upon the colonists to propi
tiate the royal favour? Did they yield to the demand ? By whom
was the Half-way Covenant adopted? What privileges were secured
by a profession of this covenant? What rights were granted to the
colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut in 1662? What privileges
were granted to the freemen of Rhode Island? What qualifications
were required by the charter of Connecticut? Did New Haven ac
cede to the charter 7
80. Who was chosen governor of the consolidated colony in Con
necticut 7 In what year 7 How long did he hold the office 7 What
counties did this colony contain? When did the King send commis
sioners to Massachusetts, to examine into its affairs? How were they
received 7 What was the procedure of the General Court? Was the
disobedience of the colony published ?
81. In what year did King Philip's War break out / What misfor
tunes did it occasion the colony? For what sum was the province of
Maine purchased by Massachusetts ? At what period was the pur
chase made? Why did the English merchants complain ofthe colony
of Massachusetts? Who was sent from England to be Collector of
Boston? What difliculties arose between the King and the colonists
in 1681 ?
82. By whom was Charles II. succeeded ? How was his accession
received by the colonists? Who did he appoint governor of New
England 7 What were tbe acts of Andros after his arrival in Boston?
83. State particulars of the insurrection, after James II. was de
posed. What resulted from the confirmation of liberty in New Eng
land by the Parliament? What was the state of the colonies after the
accession of William and Mary ?
CHAPTER III.
85. In what year was the Dutch East India Company formed ? Who
discovered Hudson river 7 Who flrst controlled the Dutch West India
Company? What was the name of the island on which the city of
New York stands ?
86. State particulars of the flrst settlement of Ngw York. What
was the colonization scheme first projected in Holland ? How ditl the
title of Patroon originate 7

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 451
87. For what purpose was tbe island of Manhattan reserved 7 To
whom did the most flourishing colony belong? Where was it situated^
Where did the Swedish colony settle?
88. What resulted from the accession of Kieft as governor 7 In what
year terminated the Swedish colony 7 What were the claims of the
English to New Amsterdam ?
89. When and to whom did Charles II. cede New Amsterdam ? In
what year was the name New York substituted for that of New Ne
therlands ? What were the terms granted by the conquerors ? What
succeeded the conquest of New Amsterdam by the English?
90. In what year was New Amsterdam reconquered by the Dutch?
What gave name to New Jersey? How much land was offered to the
first settlers of New York? Who was the flrst governor appointed by
the proprietors ?
91. In what year did New Jersey and New York oome into posses
sion of the English ? Who governed these colonies under the new
patent? To whora was New Jersey sold in that year 7 Who were
the purchasers of West Jersey 7 Who assumed the governraent in East
Jersey 7
92. In what year was East Jersey purchased by members of the
Society of Friends ? Name the governors of New York under James II.
93. When did the people of New York obtain a free constitution ?
When was Andros appointed governor ? State the population of New
York in 1680. Where were the principal settlements? State the cha
racter of their population at that time.
CHAPTER IV.
95. Why were the Catholics persecuted during the reigns of James
I. and Charles I.
96. What was the character of Lord Baltimore ? What territory waa
ceded to him, and when? What name did he give to this territory?
What power was ceded to him by the charter 7
97. In what year did Lord Baltimore die? By whom was Mary
land colonized after the death of Lord Baltiraore? What led to the
prosperity of the colony? Was religious liberty enjoyed by the colo
nists? How did Virginia view the prosperity of the colony? ~
98. What was the conduct of the Protestants to the Catholic settlers
of Maryland 7 What beneflted the colony on the restoration of Charles
II.? State the character ofthe governor, Charles Calvert. How many
inhabitants did the province contain in 1576?
CHAPTER V.
99. Who projected the settlement of Carolina ? In what year was
it commenced? What caused a hostile expedition against the Hugua-

452 QUESTIONS TO
nots? How many of thera perished? In what year was a patent
granted by Charles 1.7
100. State the extent of tbis patent. To whora was the territory
conveyed? Where did the New England emigrants settle 3 By whom
was the Albemarle settlement raade? Wbo settled a tract on Cape
Fear river, and when?
101. State the country included in the extended grant. State sorae
of the privileges of the proprietaries of this territory. Who drafted
their constitution?
102. What was it called? What future States did it include ? What
were the peculiarities ofthis constitution? Where did they place the
executive power ?
103. What was their forra of religion? Was this systera of jurispru
dence popular? Where and when was Charleston settled? What
was the foundation of South Carolina ? Who succeeded Drummond as
governor of North Carolina?
104. In what year did Stephens die 7 Who succeeded him ? Who
headed the popular insurrection ? What occasioned it?
105. What characterized the administration of Sothel ? State the
neck of land selected as the site of Charleston. When was Yeamans
appointed governor ?
106. Who superseded Yeamans? By whora was West succeeded?
How raany governors were appointed in six successive years 7 When
did the Huguenots arrive in Soyth Carolina? What caused thera to
seek refuge in Araerica? Whence did they eraigrate?
107. How were feudal institutions regarded in 1688? State the
teraper and death of Seth Sothel. What led to the introduotion of rice
in Carolina? What is the second chief staple of that State 7
CHAPTER VI.
109. What led to tbe settlement of Virginia? Who settled New
York, and for what? Who settled Massachusetts? Maryland? By
whom was Pennsylvania colonized ? Who was the founder of the
Society of Friends? What are those fundaraental principles, called
*he "Inner Light?"
110. State the principles of George Fox. What were his views
upon war, penal laws, and religious toleration? What fate attended
his disciples in the seventeenth century? Who was an early and dis
tinguished convert to Fox 7
111. In what year was the grant of Pennsylvania made to Penn?
Slate the extent of the grant, and the powers it conferred. In what
year did Penn publish his frame of government 7 State the particulars
of his famous treaty with the Indians.
112. Where and when did he flrst promulgate his principles of love?

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 453
How long was tbis treaty kept inviolate ? What were the fundamental
principles established by Penn 7
113. State the negotiations between Lord Baltimore and Penn.
Where did the latter lay out an extensive city, as a city of refuge ?
State the number of houses erected in Philadelphia in 1683. What
privileges did Penn grant the colonists under him ?
114. From what countries did emigrants settle Philadelphia 7 What
was the growth of the city in three years? What was the object of
Penn in returning to England ? In what year was the present bound
ary of Pennsylvania settled ? What forms the division between free
and slave labour ?
115. What discontent prevailed among the colonists in 1690? When
did Penn return to his colony? What subject of disquiet arose after
his return ? What were the most striking features of the new charter
for Pennsylvania? Who were the original settlers of Delaware, and
' where did they land 7
116. What constituted the three lower counties as part of Pennsyl
vania 7 State the character of Penn as a reformer. State the popula
tion of the respective colonies in 1701.
117. State the imports and exports of the colonies at the same pe
riod. Their occupations and buildings. Their customs in respect to
travelling, schools, manners, laws, and superstitions. What constituted
the prominent traits of the colonists?
CHAPTER VII.
119. What motives led the French to settle Canada? When waa
Lake Champlain explored? In what year did the Franciscan priests
discover Niagara ?
120. What was Montreal in 1626 7 State the character of the Jesuit
missionaries. What was the character of the Molia'wks ? State par
ticulars of the discovery of the Mississippi.
121. Who discovered Lake Ontario? Who penetrated to the Falls
of St. Anthony 7 Who took possession of Louisiana, and when? How
did the name of Louisiana originate? State particulars of the fate of
La Salle and his coadjutors.
122. Whatwas the population of Canada in 1689? With whom
was the province involved in war? What is said of the early enter
prise of the French Canadians ? What caused the decline of French
dominion in America?
BOOK III. — CHAPTER I.
123. Advert to the leading causes which led to the settlement of the
coast of North Araerica.

454 QUESTIONS TO
24. What had effect upon the early prosperity ofthe colonies?
Slate whether tbe Indian tribes were first united to expel the European
from this continent. What restrained the Indians from repeated in
surrections 7 How many people were massacred by the Indians in
1644? 125. State the Indian hostilities in New York. In what year were
Mrs. Hutchinson and her family slain?
126. In what year did the Narragansett war break out? Whatwas
the character of King Philip?
127. What were his ravages on Connecticut river?
128. Describe the battle of Bloody Brook, and its result. What gave
alarm to the frontier towns? Which was the most powerful tribe of
Indians in New England ?
129, Who attacked the Indians near Kingston, and in what year ?
What resulted from that engagement? What injuries were done to
tiie frontier towns ? Describe the league to destroy the Indians. What
befel King Philip 7
130. What caused the war against the Susquehannas? Who was
the leader of it? Who were the principal sufferers by it? What was
the character of the Indian warfare?
131. What occasioned the Frenchand Indians to unite ? In what
year was Schenectady destroyed ? What took place at Salmon Falls?
What at York? Was the white man safe from the tomahawk of the
Indians? When did the Indians attack Haverhill and Boston?
132. What legends are handed down of the sufferings of New Eng-
Innd? Describe tbe intrepidity of Hannah Dustin. What was the
effect of the hostilities of the Indians? What is related of these
hostilities 7 CHAPTER II.
133. What is the character of reUgious intolerance? Were the
colonists affected by it 7
134. Is intolerance universal ? What strong minds have been af
fected with it? What feelings did the Puritans raanifest on reUgious
questions ?
135. How did the Puritans conduct toward the Baptists and
Quakers? What were the great mistakes of the Puritans? Did the
^Puritans reason when they were opposed ?
136. Wasthe intolerance of the Puritans to the Quakers confined to
one place? When did it commence? In what light did the Puritans
regard the authority of the Bible ?
137. What characterized the Quakers of New England? What
edict was proclaimed against thera 7 Did Rhode Island regard it?
By whora were the Rhode Island Quakers joined ?

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 455
138. What penal law was enacted against the Quakers? Who were
sentenced under this law? Was it subsequently relaxed? What
religious views prevailed under William and Mary? How were the
Catholics of Maryland treated ?
139. Relate what is said of Salem witchcraft. By whom was witch
craft made a capital offence 7 How did the Puritans regard withcraft?
What is said of Increase Mather and his son •
140. Who was governor of the colony in 1688? What part did lie
take in respect to this popular delusion ? What cruelties were inflicted
on supposed witches? How many innocent persons had suffered?
141. Where did this delusion mostly prevail 7 Were the religions
views of the Puritans raore liberal? Who adopted the Half-way ^
Covenant? What name was given to the latitudinarian parly? What
place was under its special influence ?

CHAPTER III.
What influence did English laws exercise over the colonies? What
legislation of the English was detrimental to Virginia ?
144. What was the influenoe of the Navigation Act of Cromwell
upon the colonies 7 When was it passed? What were the restric
tions of the Navigation Act of Charles II. 7 What was the date of its
passage? To what extent did Parliament control the trade of ihe
colonies ?
145. How was this act considered by the colonies? Did it produce
resentment in Virginia, and why? What effect had it upon the value
of tobacco? What was the staple of Virginia?
146. What was the policy of England relating to articles grown oi
manufactured in the colonies? What act of Parliament had special
relation to wool ? What led to the poverty of the colonists at this
period? 147. What other prohibitions of England depressed the colonists?
Did the colonists dispute the right of England to impose restrictions ?
In what way did they manifest displeasure at the legislation of Eng
land touching these raatters ?
CHAPTER IV.
148. What were the subjects of coraplaint by the colonists? What
did the people of these colonies want of the raother country !
149. What were the causes of discontent among the colonists?
What has been the tendency of the colonists to increase deraooriitic
power? What has formed the basis of political institutions in the
colonies ?

456 QUESTIONS TO
150. Which of the colonies was most aristocratic? State the com
plaints and resistance of Virginians to royal governors? What were
the struggles in Massachusetts against arbitrary power? What acts
indicated the opposition of Massachusetts to royal governors ?
151. What acts did the legislature of Massachusetts pass to resist
encroachment? How did the colonists regard quit-rents to proprietors ?
Did they resist the enforcement of acts of trade ? Was Pennsylvania
satisfied with the state of affairs?
152. After the death of Penn, were the colonists free from colli
sions ? What resistance was manifested in New York to royal edicts ?
What acts of the administration tended to fan the spirit of resistance 7
What sentiments were gaining ground ? What made the colonists so
conscious of their future prospects ?
153. What was necessary before the visions of the colonists could
be realized? How were the Indians incited to combine against the
colonists ? CHAPTER V.
155. What acts of the French were obnoxious to the English?
During whose reigns was England engaged in war with France? Why
were the Dutch jealous of the French king?
156. Of what territories belonging to the French did the English
endeavour to take possession 7 Who raade destructive inroads into
New England and New York?
157. What were the intercolonial wars, at the close of the reign of
Queen Anne? Who incited the Penobscot Indians to hostilities, near
Portland and Piscataqua 7 Who desolated the villages on the Mohawk
and Hudson? Who was leader of the expedition against Canada in
1690? How large was the expedition under Phipps? Was it suc
cessful? 158. What was the consequence of the peace of Ryswick, 1699?
What led to the re-comraencement of the war? What caused the
Spaniards and French to attack the English settlements? What colony
was particularly exposed to hostilities?
159. Who headed an expedition against St. Augustine in 1702? Did
it succeed? What resulted from the war in Florida? In what part
of Massachusetts did the Indians carry desolation in 1702? What
effect had the Indian tomahawk upon the people ?
160. State the kind of retaliation adopted by the colonists. To what
power did the garrison of Port Royal surrender? To whom was en
trusted the expedition against Quebec ? When did it arrive in the St.
Lawrence? What disaster caused the failure of the expedition?
'*1. What important treaty terminated hostilities in 1713? What

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 457
was accomplished by the treaty of Utrecht ? What did Spain lose?
What did England gain? What nation was the greatest sufferer?
What was the condition of the colonies at the close of the reigns of
William III. and Anne ?
CHAPTER VI.
162. State the reasons which accelerated and elevated the condition
.ofthe colonies at the commencement ofthe eighteenth century? What
was the probable population of the different colonies respectively ?
! 163. Which two colonies were most flourishing? Did the English
claim the abstract right of taxation ? Was it tacit submission to Eng
lish legislation in the colonies, or the admission of the colonies of the >
right of England to tax them ?
164. What opened the eyes of England to the strength of the colo
nies? How were the governors appointed in the respective colonies?
Did Britain favour the cause of education in the colonies ?
165. What college was founded by the bounty of England ? Who
established the colleges of Harvard and Yale ? When was the first
printing-press set up in Boston ? What was the state of agriculture at
this time ?
166. What occasioned the disappearance of the Indians ? Where
were slaves imported from? Was the traffic in slaves tolerated? How
did it happen that slavery was perpetuated in the South, and not in
the North ?
167. How raany slaves had been imported into the colonies at the
beginning of the eighteenth century 7 How many slaves did England
take from Africa between 1666 and 1688 ? What was the action of
the North American Congress, in 1776, in relation to slaves ? What
caused the British traffic in slaves before the declaration of American
independence ?
BOOK IV. — CHAPTER I.
169. State the conspiracy of 1715 against South Carolina by the
Indians 7 Who was governor at the time ?
170. What waa the result of the contest? In what year did Caro
lina become a royal province ? What acts did the Assembly decree ?
By whora waa New Orleans founded 7 Describe the scheme called
the Mississippi Company.
171. Who was John Law? What became of his bubble? What
caused the depreciation of paper money 7 What was New England
worth in 1738 ?
172. What did the English exact of Maine 7 OfMassachusetts?
Of Pennsylvania 7 Of Maryland 7 What duties did Parliament assess
on colonial produce, 1733?
39

458 QUESTIONS TO
173. What English philosopher visited the colonies 7 What was his
object 7 What his benefaction to Yale College ? Who waa Jonathan
Edwards ? Who was his coadjutor in reUgious revivals ?
174. Who was David Brainerd 7 Who founded Dartmouth College,
and when? When were Columbia College and Nassau Hall founded?
Who was editor of the first periodical magazine 7 Who, next to Wash
ington, laid the basis of colonial independence ? When was Brattle
boro, Vt., settled ^ CHAPTER II.
175. What causes led to the settlement of Georgia? Upon what
principles was tl»e colony founded 7 Who was its founder, and what '
his character and acts ?
176. Was imprisonment for debt common in the eighteenth century?
What caused reverses of fortune at this period ? What was thought
of misfortune in trade?
177. When was a royal charter granted to Georgia? What sum did
Parliament grant in aid of benevolence ? Who was governor, and
who were coadjutors under this royal charter ? What was the seal
prepared for this colony ? What production was intended in Georgia ?
178. Where did the first company of colonists land in 1732? Of
how many persons did this colony consist 7 What place did they select
for a settlement? What was the substance of a code of laws adopted
by them ? Who emigrated to the new colony ?
179. Who were John and Charles Wefeley ? Why did John Wesley
return to England? Who afterwards emigrated to this colony? Was
there any rupture between Georgia and Carolina, and for what?
180. What did the Moravians and Scotch Highlanders think of
slavery? What involved England in war, 1739? How many negro
slaves inhabited South Carolina at this time ? In what place was a.
large army invested ?
181. What armament was embarked to invade Georgia? What was
the state of the colony in 1743 ? When did Georgia revert to the
crown ? Who was appointed governor ? Was negro slavery intro
duced at this time?
CHAPTER III.
183. Describe the war of the Austrian succession. What aid did
England render, and at what expense ? Was this war conflned to
Europe ?
184. To what countries did it extend? What was ita effect ? Waa the
claim of Maria Theresa to Germany the real cause of the war ? By
whom were colonies ravaged at this period ? What was the propoaed

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 459
attack upon Louisburg? What colonies rendered most assistance?
To whom was the coraraand assigned?
185. Of whom was this expedition coraposed? When did it em
bark at Boston ? State particulars of the siege and capture of Louis
burg. What honour was conferred upon Pepperel for this service 1
What was the raoral effect of the victory ?
186. What force was raised in the respective colonies to invade
Canada? What caused the abandonment ofthe enterprise? Who
paid the expenses ? Was Louisburg restored ? What indemnification
did Massachusetts receive 7 What were the stipulations of the treatj
of Aix-la-Chapelle ?
187. What were the real objects in dispute? What territories did
the French claim ?
CHAPTER IV.
189. What caused the final struggle between the French and Eng
lish ? What did Edward IIL claim 7
1 90. What force had the English in the colonies ? What force had
the French 7
191. What act of the English encroached upon the rights of France *
What act of the French was obnoxions to the English ? In what year
did France meditate a restriction of the growth of the Britiah settle
ments? 192. What events increased the irritation of England 7 On what
occasion did Washington make his first public appearance ? What was
his age ? Who despatched him to the French commander on the Ohio *
How did he discharge his mission ?
193. Who commanded the forces against Fort Duquesne ? How did
the expedition of Washington terminate 7 What among the colonies
familiarized the idea of federation ?
194. When was Braddock sent to America? What three military
expeditions were projected at Annapolis 7 What preparations did the
French make on this occasion 7 By whom was the invasion of Nova
Scotia raeditated? Who commanded this expedition?
195. What difficulties attended Braddock's march to Duquesne ? By
what force was his van assailed near the fort ? What happened to
Braddock and his army ?
196. What befel the expedition against Niagara? What the expe
dition against Crown Point? Who were among the slain? Who
endowed a free school in Western Massachusetts ?
137. When was Ticonderoga fortified.? By whom were the colonies
remunerated for their losses? What were the successes of the French
in 1756? 98. How large a force retreated from Louisburg? How large a.

460 QUESTIONS TO
fleet did the French anchor near that fortress? What other disasters
befel the EngUsh? What celebrated man came into power in England
at this time 7
199. What measures were prosecuted under Pitt's ministry ? How
large an army composed the English and American forces? Who was
commander? What expeditions were planned? When did Louis
burg capitulate 7
200. What resulted frora the battle of Ticonderoga? What English
General lost his life 7 What success attended the expedition of Gen.
Forbes against Fort Duquesne ? Who projected the invasion of Ca
nada? What incipient raeasures were raeditated?
201. What was the result to England of the campaign against
Canada, 1759? Whatwas the fate of Crown Point? Ticonderoga?
Niagara ? Who deserve the glory of conquering Quebec 7
202. Describe the ascent of Wolfe to the Heights of Abraham. The
battle of Quebec.
203. What were the effects of the conquest of Quebec ? Who lost
their lives 7 What reverses befel the French 7
204. When was Montreal surrendered to the English ? Why did
the colonies exult iu the defeats of the French ? Describe the war
with the Cherokees.
205. What became of the Cherokees after their defeat? What
islands in the West Indies fell into possession of the English ? What
became ofthe French fleet? When did the death of George II. occur?
206. What were the stipulations of the treaty of Paris ? How was
peace regarded by the colonies 1 Did they continue prosperous ?
207. What irapulse was iraparted by the conquest of Canada to the
settlements of Maine ? What benefits did peace impart to New Hamp
shire? To Massachusetts? What was the condition of New York in
1763? 208. What were the population and exports of Virginia ? What was
the state of literature and the arts in 1763?

BOOK V. — CHAPTER I.
209. Whatwas the grand event of the eighteenth century? State
for what the Revolution is memorable. What does unbounded na
tional prosperity sometiraes produce 7
210. What was the condition of England at the peace of Paris ?
What did the arrogance of Britain lead to in respect to her colonies?
What were the feelings of the colonists toward the mother country 7
211. Why were the colonists dissatisfled with British rule? What
led to the American Revolution ?
212. What was the effect of commercial restrictions upon the colo-

HISTORT OP THB UNITED STATES. 461
nists? What was the feeling of the colonists in view of a British
army stationed in Araerica ? In what did the British interfere with
the colonial trade ?
213. In what light did British naval officers view a contraband trade
carried on 7 Did the colonists refuse to purchase British goods ?
214. What were the colonial views of English taxation? With w1iom
did the scheme originate ?
415. How did the English aristocracy favour the scherae of taxa
tion? In what light did the colonists regard it? In what year was
the Stamp-Act proposed to Parliament ? Who took part in Parliament
in opposition to the ministry?
216. State the reply of Barr^ to Charles Townshend. What was
the vote in the House of Commons for and against the Stamp-Act?
Was the Stamp-Act seriously opposed in the House of Lords ? When
did it finally pass ? What was its effect in the colonies ?
217. What Americans were most eloquent in opposition to it? In
what places did it occasion popular riots ? What did the colonists do
to manifest their indignation? What was its effect on the British
ministry? Who succeeded Lord Granville ? When and by what vote
did the Commons repeal the act? What American had influence in
effecting this result ? How was it received in America ? ^
218. What English statesmen were conspicuous for their advocacy
of the repeal ? What odious act remained unrepealed ? Who origi
nated the scheme of colonial taxation ?
219. In what did the " Great Comraoner" of England mistake «
What articles were first taxed in the colonies ? Who introduced the
bill to tax the colonies ? What reception did the tax meet with in
America ? {
220. Who in Massachusetts first pleaded the cause bf freedom ? Who
were popular leaders in other States ? Who was the author of the
Letters of a Pennsylvania Fanner ? What changes uow took place in
the British ministry ?
221. What produced new causes of offence in America ? State the
tronbles in Massachusetts. Did tbe people of Boston furnish quarters
for the British troops ?
222. What did the House of Representatives do in the midst of an
armed force ? State the acts of the General Assembly of Virginia at
this crisis. What course was adopted by the Legislature of South
Carolina and other States ? Was the right of American Legislatures
to oppose the authority of Parliament advocated ?
223. When did Lord North repeal the obnoxious duties, except on
tea ? What new disputes hastened the Revolution ?
224. What acts of opposition did the colonists commit respecting the
duty on tea ? What was the nature of the Boston Port Bill ?
89'^

462 QUESTIONS TO
225. When were English troops sent to Boston ? Who expostulated
against this measure ? Did the colonists contemplate resistance ? Who
wrote a letter in favour of independence 7
226. How did the disaffection of the colonists manifest itself? When
did Congress assemble? Who was President of Congress? How
many delegates composed that body? Who were its most distinguished
members ?
227. What was included in their declaration of rights ? By whora
was Boston Neck fortified ? Who was at the head of the Committee
of Safety ?
228. What effort did Chatham make in the House of Lords? Who
opposed hira? Who were the leaders in the House of Comraons in
favour of conciliatory raeasures ?
229. Who foresaw the blunders of Parliament? Were the expostu
lations of these men regarded?
230. What sentiment did Patrick Henry invoke at this crisis? What
was the feeling in regard to independence ?
231. Where was the first battle fought? Describe it. When did
this battle occur? CHAPTER II.
233. What was the effect of the battle of Lexington ? Who raised
a force to seize Ticonderoga 7
234. Give the particulars of the fall of that fortress. What were
the proceedings of Congress at this crisis ? State the general officers
appointed to the array. Who was Adjutant-General ? Who were
Brigadier-Generals 7
235. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. What were the respective
forces engaged ?
236. How many were killed and wounded in the attack ? What
distinguished American fell ?
237. What measures were adopted by Congress for a vigorous pro
secution of hostilities ? What course was pursued by the English Par
liament ?
238. To whom was entrusted the invasion of Canada 7 Who com
manded the array after the illness of Schuyler? What force had
Arnold on his arrival at the St. Lawrence? What prevented his cap
ture of Quebec ?
239. What were the united forces of Arnold and Montgomery?
When did they commence an attack? What distinguished officer was
killed.? Who wounded? What was the total loss ?
240. What embarrasaed Washington in the carap before Boston?
What did Congress at this time 7 What additional troops did Pariia-

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 463
ment order to America? Who commenced the debate in Congress
respecting independence 7
241. Who opposed it? Who was its most conspicuous advocate?
When and where was the Declaration of Independence proclaimed ?
By whom was it drawn ? How was it received in America ? How
by the British 7 How many troops did General Howe land on Staten
Island? What was the strength of the American array at this tirae?
242 When was the battle of Brooklyn Heights fought ? What was
the loss of the corabatants respectively 7 To what place did Washing
ton retreat from Long Island ? Who did Congress appoint to negotiate
with Howe? Where did the negotiation take place?
243. What was its result? What railitary preparations ensued?
Where did the British army take position 7 How far from New York ?
Where did the American army retreat to ?
244. State the circumstances of the fall of Forts Washington and
Lee. To what place did Washington continue his retreat 7 State the
successes of the English after the retreat of Washington. What was
the condition of the American troops at this time 7
245. What new powers were conferred upon Washington by Con
gress? When did he cross the Hudson? With what force ? How
many Hessians were taken by surprise 7
246. At what time did the battles of Trenton and Princeton occur ?
Where did the American army retire for winter quarters ? Where did
Cornwallis retire? What were the results of thia campaign? Who
were Major-Generals of the new army 7 Who were the Brigadier-
Generals ?
247. What three commissioners were sent to France? What were
the financial embarrassments of the country?
CHAPTER III.
249. Did Parliament vote supplies to continue the war 7 In what
month did the carapaign of 1777 open? At what point did the British
commence operations? How large a force under General Tyson
attacked Danbury 7
250. What distinguished Ameriean officer was killed in this cam
paign? Whatwas the fate ofthe expedition against -Sag Harbor?
What force under Howe marched into New Jersey ? Where did Wash
ington and Lafayette have an interview 7
251 What other distinguished foreigner accompanied Lafayette?
What occasioned the defeatof the Americans at Brandywine 7 Was
a battle risked on Howe's occupation of Philadelphia? State the
result of the battle of Germantown.
252. What is said of Forte Mifflin and Mercer 7 What was the Bri-

464 QUESTIONS TO
tish plan of invading the country? How large was Burgoyne's army
at Ticonderoga? What disaster attended the retreat of St. Clair?
253. When did Burgoyne arrive on the Hudson ? Who commanded
the New Hampshire militia at Bennington? What course did Stark
pursue upon the approach of the invaders?
254. What was the memorable saying of Stark when he attacked
the British force? State the result of the victory. The loss of the
Americans. The loss of the British ? What was the effect of this
victory upon the contending parties? Who superseded Schuyler?
What was the force of Gates ?
255. What were the circurastances resulting from the surrender of
Burgoyne ? What prospects encouraged the Americans at this crisis ?
What American officers were confident of success 7 What conciliatory
raeasures did Lord North propose ?
256. What effect was produced in France by the surrender of Bur
goyne? What was the condition of the American army 7 Who were
disposed to doubt the fitness of Washington for coramand ? By whom
was the comraander-in-ohief sustained 7
257. What qualities of Washington secured the oonfidence of bis
country 7 CHAPTER IV.
259. By whom was Washington assisted at Valley Forge 1 What
were the pecuniary embarrassments of Congress? When waa the
treaty of alliance signed with France 7 What occasioned the retreat
of Lafayette from Barren Hill ?
260. At what time was Philadelphia evacuated ? By whom 7 Who
took the lead in attacking the British at Monmouth? What followed
the retreat of Lee? What ended the military career of Lee? When
did he die ?
261. Who commanded the French fleet? How many troops were
furnished to take posseasion of Newport? What happened to the
French and English fleets ? What was the situation of Sullivan at this
tirae? 262. What frontier settlement was attacked by the Indians 7 What
protected western Virginia frora their incursions? State the incidents
of the campaign.
263. What measures did Congress adopt to obtain raoney ? What
were the American forces in 1779, and where stationed? Did the
British obtain possession of Georgia? Where were military operations
chiefly confined? Who took command of the southern army?
264. State the loss of Virginia by the plunder ofthe British in 1779.
Describe the expedition of Tyson into Connecticut. In what place was
Washington eraployed in raising defenoes 7 What was Wayne's ex
ploit at Stony Point?

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 465
265. Relate the disaster at Penobscot under Sewell. What was the
force comraanded by Sullivan and CUnton against the Indians? Were
the Indians routed and corapelled to emigrate 7 What prevented Sul
livan from attacking Niagara ? What did he do on resigning his com
mission ?
266. Were the French and Americans successful in their plan for
recovering Savannah ? With what force did Clinton embark for that
port? Describe the naval action of Jones on the coast of Scotland.
267. What were the difficulties and distresses of the Americans in
1780 ? What additional troops and money did Parliament grant the
ministry? What was the first enterprise of the British at the South in
1780? What befel Charleston?
268. State the disaster of the investment of Charleston to the Arae
ricans. Did blarae attach to General Lincoln? By whom was the
royal authority re-established in South Carolina 7 With what force was
Gates despatched to the South 7 State the defeat of Gates at Caraden,
and his losses.
269. By whora was Gates superseded 7 Relate particulars of the
defeat of Ferguson in North Carolina 7 Relate the results of the cam
paign in 1780 ?
270. Relate the correspondence and treason of Arnold ? Who cora
municated with Arnold ? When and how did Arnold escape? For
what was Andr6 executed ?
271. What reward did Arnold receive for his treachery? Where
was he employed by the British ?
CHAPTER V.
273. What was the condition of affairs in 1781 ? By whora was
financial aid obtained in this crisis ? Describe the ravages of Arnold
in Virginia.
274. Who formed the design to capture Arnold 7 How did it suc
ceed? On what places were contributions levied by the English?
Where was Morgan sent to harass the enemy 7
275. How many raen did Morgan lose by his defeat 7 Whither did
Green retreat, on the 14th of February 7 What position did Greene
take after recrossing into North Carolina? What was the character of
the southern warfare ?
276. Describe the battle of Guilford. What was the result of the
attack on Rawdon ? What were the results of the campaign? What
sort of war was carried on by both parties ?
277. How was Cornwallis employed in Virginia ? When and where
was he attacked by Lafayette ? What places did the British General
occupy in Virginia ? What amount of property was destroyed by him ?

466 QUESTIONS TO
278 Why was an attack upon CornwaUis contemplated ? How did
Washington pacify the American troops? Where did he obtain pecu-
niary aid 7 „ . ..rr, , .- .
279 Describe tbe battle of Eutaw Springs. What naval force made
its appearance on the coast 7 Where did the French and American
armies effect a junction 7 How large was the investing army at York-
town ? What was the British force ?
280. When did Cornwallis surrender? What number of British
troops were made prisoners ? What waa the effect of the surrender
of Cornwallis 7 What was done with the American forces after the
fall of Cornwallis? What distinguished the year 1782, during the
campaign? 281. Describe the state of public feeUng in England in 1782. Who
succeeded to the ministry on the resignation of Lord North? What
terms of peace were proposed ? Who were the coramissioners ap
pointed by the respective parties ?
282. Wheu and where was the cessation of hostilities proclaimed?
When did the British depart from New York ? When did Washing
ton resign his coraraission 7 What were his concluding remarks to
Congress ? Give a summary of the character of Washington.
283. What created dissatisfaction in the array? Describe the cha
racter of the American army? What was the character of the Ame
riean Revolution ?
284. What special agency should be acknowledged in this contest?
How many soldiers were furnished for the war ? How many were
supplied by Massachusetts? What calamities resulted from the war?
289. What araount of debt was caused by the war ? Whioh nation
was the greatest sufferer 7 What were the raoral results of the contest?
BOOK VI. — CHAPTER I.
86. Describe the condition ofthe country at the close ofthe war.
287. When and where did the delegates assemble to reorganize the
government ? Who were the most distinguished members of the con
vention? Who was its president? Who opened the business of the
convention ?
288. What chief difficulty arose in the debates? In what were the
free States opposed to those which held slaves? What different opi-
T,nions were held relating to the choice of the executive? What, in
respect to his powers? What, in respect to the judiciary? What
were the great questions of debate?
wa^s^de^''^' ^'^^' P"".°'P'es of compromise were adopted? What
smaU^r^rs,'T^rt"ry%'''\'=°™'"c""^' «'^'^^- What .othe
convention in session ' Southern States? How long was tha

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 467
290. What was the great merit of this convention ? What provision
was made for araendraents of the constitution 7 How many States
represented in the convention agreed to the constitution? When was
this instruraent fully ratified ?
Recite the objects of the constitution? Where is the legislative
power vested? How often are members ofthe Hbuse of Representa
tives chosen ?
291. What are the qualifications of a Eepresentative ? How are
representatives and direct taxes apportioned 7 How often shall an
enumeration be raade after the first three years? How are vacancies
filled 7 How is the Speaker appointed ? What is the number of
Senators from each State, and hovir are they chosen ?
292. What are the qualifications of Senators ? Who shall be Presi
dent of the Senate ? What branch of Congress tries impeachments ?
By whom is the mode of electing Senators and Representatives pre
scribed ? How often shall Congress asserable 7 What constitutes a
quorum to do business? At whose desire shall the yeas and nays be
called ?
293. How is the compensation flxed for Senators and Representa
tives? What are their special privileges? In what branch do bills
for raising the revenue originate ? After a bill has passed both
Houses, and before it can become a law, what is required ?
294. Give a summary of the powers of Congress.
295. What are the provisions relatiiig.to emigration? What in re
spect to the habeas ocirpus ? To ex post facto laws ? Taxes or duties ?
How sball moneys be drawn from the treasury? What provision in
respect to titlea of nobility ? What are the restrictions upon the
States? 296. In whom is the executive power veated ? How long shall the
President hold office? How is he elected? State the proceedings of
the Electors. Of the House of Representatives.
297. When are the Electors choaen 7 State the qualifications of the
President. State |>roceedings in case of his removal. What is his
salary? His oath? What are his powers? ^ .
298. Who has power to convene Congress? When 7 How may
the President be removed? ,How is the judicial power vested? To
wjiat cases does it extend ? ,
299, In what cases haa the Supreme Court jurisdiction ? What
original? What appellate ? What rules regulate jury trials ? What
constitutes treason ? Hqw is it punished ? What credit is given to
the public acts of States 7, What arrangement is made for the delivery
of fugitives ftom justice 7 What in case of persons escaping from
service ?
300. What are the provisions jrespecting new States ? The pubUc
domain? What protection is guaranteed to each State? What are the

468 QUESTIONS TO
provisions in respect to araendraents of the constitution ? What is the
supreme law of the land?
301. What are civil officers sworn to support? What is provided
in respect to religious tests ? How many States were required to ratify
the constitution ? When was the constitution ratified ? Name the
delegates frora each State who signed the constitution.
302. What is stipulated in respect to civil and religious liberty ?
The right of assembling and of petition ? Of bearing arms? Of quar
tering soldiers? What is provided in respect to search-warrants?
What for the protection of person and property ?
302. When and where, in criminal suits, is a trial by jury secured?
What rights are secured to the accused party? What in suits at cora
mon law ? What is provided in cases of bail, fines, and punishment?
What are the powers reserved ?
303. What is the provision respecting the election of President and
Vice-President? Who is ineligible to the office of Vice-President?
304. What articles in the constitution were specially objected to?
Who were the authors of the papers called "The Federahst?" State
the origin of what was known as the Federal party. Who were called
Democrats or Republicans ?
305. What States adopted the constitution, and which did not?
When did the Continental Congress cease to exist 7 When was the
first election for President and Vice-President? Who was elected
President? By what vote? Who Vice-President ?
306. When and where did the first Congress assemble? Who was
Speaker of the House ? Who President pro tem. of the Senate ? Who
was chosen to inforra Washington of his election? When was Wash
ington inaugurated 7 Who adrainistered the oath of office ?

CHAPTER II.
309. What was the first subject whieh attracted the attention of Con
gress ? What subjects were debated respecting the revenue ? What
policy did Congress adopt ?
310. How was the collection of duties provided for? What is called
the Department of Foreign Affairs ? Name the principal and subordi
nate offices of the Treasury Departraent. By whom was the army and
navy managed ?
311. Describe the organization of the Suprerae Court. The Circuit
Court. The District Court. What salary did Congress allow to the
President ?
312. Who was Chief-Justice 7 Secretary of the Treasury? Secre
tary of State? Of War? Attorney-General? Postmaster-General?
Name the first collectors of the principal ports. When did Congress

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 469
adjotfrn? Where did the President make his first tour? When did
North Carolina adopt the constitution 7 When did Congress reassem
ble ? How large was the foreign debt?
313. How large was the doniestic debt ? What becarae of the State
debts? State the report on the anti-siavery petitions.
314. What was the disposition of this report ? When was Rhode
Island adraitted into the Union ? Whatwas done with the naUonal
debt and tariff? State the act of naturalization. What was the patent
act? What that on copyright of books 7 Whatwas enacted respect
ing seamen 7 What relating to trade with Indians 7
315. Whatwas the criminal code of laws? What was fixed for
the salary of foreign ministers ? Who proposed a national bank, and
when? By whom was the bank opposed, and why? What was the
duration of its charter ?
316. When was Vermont admitted into the Union? When did
Washington select a site for the seat of government, and where ? Who
was the first minister to England 7 Who succeeded hira ? Who was
minister to France 7
317. Describe the defeat of St. Clair in 1791. Where did the
second Congreaa asserable ? Who were among its distinguished new
members ? What two great parties were organized ? Who were the
leaders of these parties ? What were the opposing principles of each
party ?
318. Which party syrapathised with the French? What flnancial
measures were opposed by the Republicans? What was fixed as the
ratio of representation ? Whatwas enacted to increase the revenue?
What act was passed in reference to the currency? Whatwas the
impress upon our gold coinage ?
319. What was tbe relative state of the parties at this time 7 What
benefits resulted from Washington's first administration ? Mention his
principal measures.
320. Who was the second President 7 When was he inagurated ?
Who was opposed to Adams as Vice-President? Which political party
gained the victory ? Who was then minister to this government from
France 7
321. Whatwas our national policy toward foreign governraents?
Describe the character of Genet. What acts of his were offensive ?
Was his recall popular 7
322. What acts of Great Britain were deemed arrogant? When did
the third Congress assemble ? By whora was Jefferson succeeded, on
tbe expiration of his second term ?
323. State the origin of the navy. What harbors were ordered to
be forufied ? What arsenals were erected 7 What were the British
Orders in Council ? Who was deputed special minister to England ?
324. Give an siccount of the Whiskey Insurrection. In what State
40

470 QUESTIONS TO
did it originate ? What action of the government caused its suppres
sion ? What good resulted from the prompt measures of the President ?
325. What were the topics of the President's message on the re
assembling of Congress 7 When was Jay's treaty signed ? What were
its stipulations?
326. Why was the treaty obnoxious to the South? Who distin
guished hiraself in Congress by a raeraorable speech? State the effects
of this speech. When was the treaty ratified ?
327. How did Jefferson regard this ratification ? What feeling gene
rally prevailed among the Republican leaders 7
328. Describe the policy of Washington in 1798. In what respects
was he misrepresented ?
329. What were the stipulations of the Indian treaty ? Of the treaty
with Algiers 7 Of the treaty with Spain ? When was Tennessee
added to the United States ? After the recall of Morris, who was de
puted minister to France ?
330. By whora waa Monroe succeeded 7 When did Washington
issue his farewell address? When was John Adams inaugurated Pre
sident 7 Who was his opponent for the office ? What waa Adams's
majority ?
331. What incidents attended the retireraent of Waahington ? What
are his claims to the respect and veneration of his country?

CHAPTER III.
332. What were our relationa with France upon the accession of
Adams ? Who was Vice-President ?
333. What obnoxious decree was passed by France? What seemed
to be the coercive policy of that nation 7 How did she look upon this
country ?
334. Who were appointed envoys to France in 1798? Who was
then Minister of Foreign Affairs in France ? State the deraands of the
French Directory. Who was sent to negotiate ? Was the offer accepted
by our envoys 7
334. How rauch Araeriean property was seized by France ? What
raeasures did Congress adopt at this crisis 7 Who was appointed com
mander-in-chief at this crisis ? Did he accept ?
335. Of whom was Adams jealous 7 What was the great defect of
Adams? Wbat course did the French government adopt to effect a
reconciliation? Who waa norainated by the President aa rainister to
France ? Was he rejected 7 Who were finally appointed ?
337. What instructions were given to our envoys ? What caused a
rupture in the cabinet? What was the policy of the President in
respect to France? What raembers of the cabinet differed from him?

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 471
338. What did Congress do upon the restoration of peace ? What
were the great events of Adams's administration ? For what was the
year 1799 memorable 7 When did Washington die ? Who pronounced
his eulogy ?
339. What peculiarity marked the adrainistration of Adaras ? What
caused the hostility ofthe Federalists to him? Which party prevailed
in the election of 1801? Who was elected President? Vice-Presi
dent? Who were the unsucessful candidates ? Why was the election
of President carried to the House of Representatives ?

CHAPTER IV.
> 341. State the condition ofthe country on the accession of Jefferson
Who did he appoint to the chief executive offices ? What acts did
Congress repeal 7
342. What important measure did Congress adopt in the session of
1801 7 Who commanded the squadron against Tripoli? What did it
accomplish? Who commanded the next expedition against Tripoli?
What caused the loss of the Philadelphia ?
343. What bold exploit was perforraed by Decatur? What was
done by General Eaton ? Who secured peace with Tripoli ? Give the
particulars of the purchase of Louisiana.
344. What caused the duel of Burr and Harailton? When and
where was it fought ? Who fell ?
345. How old was Harailton at his death ? Describe his character.
Who pronounced his eulogy ? What happened to Burr ? What secured
the re-election of Jefferson ?
346. When did Burr depart for the West 7 Whora did he entrap ?
Who was Blennerhasset? Who detected the schemes of Burr? Where
was Burr arrested, and when ?
347. Where was he tried ? Where did he go after his trial 7 When
did he return to America? How old was he when he died 7
348. What were the British decrees against neutrals? Who claimed
the right of search for British seamen 7 What measures did Congress
adopt ? When were the Orders in Council passed ? What was their
effect? What was the object of the BerUn decrees?
349. When were they issued? What were the Milan decrees?
What led to the embargo? When was the embargo law passed ?
350. Relate the circumstances attending the capture of the Chesa
peake. When did Congress interdict trade with France and England?
What was the policy of Jefferson ?
351. Which of the two great political parties of the United States
ha# generally been in the ascendency ?

472 QUESTIONS TO

CHAPTER V.
353. Give a summary ofthe English aggressions ? What course did
Jefferson pursue 7 By whom was he ably supported ? Who was
inaugurated President in 1809? Vice-President?
354. What persons composed the cabinet of Madison? What act
did Congress pass against the two belligerents 7 When was war de
clared against Great Britain 7 State the cause of the war. Who
opposed the war, and for what ?
355. What classes of citizens were hostile to the war? In what
Ught was the war regarded by the people ? Was the nation prepared
for war ? State the condition of the army, the navy, and the treasury.
Describe our geographical position.
356. Who were appointed Major-Generals 7 Where was General
Hull placed 7 What important post was flrst taken, and when 7 What
disasters attended the invasion of Canada? When did Hull surrender
with his array?
357. State the trial and sentence of Hull? What forces were col
lected to invade Canada? Who commanded the three divisions re
spectively ? Describe the attack on Queenston Heights. What British
General was killed?
358. Describe the campaign of General Dearborn in 1812. How
large was his force 7 Give the particulars of the capture of the Guer-
rierre. When and by whom was the Frolic captured ? The Macedo
nian 7 State the loss of the latter vessel.
359. Describe the capture of the Java. What was the moral effect
of the Araeriean naval victories 7
360. What raeasures were adopted by Congress about this time ?
Who was elected President? Vice-President? Who were appointed
coraraissioners to negotiate a peace ?

CHAPTER VI.
363. How did the campaign of 1813 open 7 Who was appointed to
the command of the north-western army?
364. Give the particulars of the defeat of General Winchester. By
whom were the Kentucky soldiers massacred ? Who perraitted the
slaughter? What general officer commanded Fort Meigs? Who com
manded the Kentucky volunteers? Was General Clay successful in
pursuing the Indians?
365. What event opened the way to the capture of Proctor? Wheu
and where was Perry's victory gained ? State the loss of the Ameri
can and British forces in this engageraent. What opened a passage to
the territory surrendered by Hull 7

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 473
366. In what battle was Tecumseh slain? What was the result of
this battle? When and where did Harrison resign his commission?
What was his military reputation ?
367. Where and when did the British fleets arrive 7 State the con
dition of the American Navy at this time. Describe the depredations
of the British on our coasts. What British Admiral encouraged these
ravages ?
368. State the particulars of the attack on Craney Island. Where is
it situated? What outrages were committed? What general officer
was selected to attack Kingston ? Where is Kingston 7 What forces
did General Pike command ?
369. What occasioned his death 7 What British force took Sackett's
Harbor ? What was the character of Dearborn as a general ? Who
succeeded hira ? In what battle were Generals Chandler and Winder
captured ?
370. What enterprise was entrusted to General Wilkinson 7 How
many men were under his coraraand ? What success attended the
expedition ?
371. Describe the massacre of Fort Miraras. What was its effect?
Who received the command of the troops ?
372. Who was conspicuous in the war with the Creeks? When did
General Jackson return ? By whom was he aided ? Relate the career
of General Pinckney, of South Carolina. What terras did General
Jackson impose in his treaty with the Indians? Were the Indians
capable of civilization ?
373. When and where was the Chesapeake captured ? Who com
manded that vessel? Who commanded the Shannon? What were
the memorable words of Lawrence? When and by whom was the
Boxer captured ?
374. Who was the leader in Congress in opposition to the war ? By
whom was Webster opposed ? What coercive measures did Madison
recommend ? When was the embargo repealed 7 What loan was
authorized in 1814?
375. How did the English contemplate the American navy? Waa
the navy popular in the United States?
CHAPTER VII.
377. What American officers coramanded on the Canada frontier?
What was the plan of the campaign? When did General Brown
attack Fort Erie ? What was the result?
378. What American officers were distinguished at Chippewa? How
old was Scott? State the loss of the British, and of the Americans.
Describe the battle of Bridgewater. What American Generals were
wounded? On whom did the coraraand devolve?
40*

474 QUESTIONS TO
379. What American officei-s were distinguished in this battle?
When did Drummond besiege Fort Erie? What was his force 7 Who
commanded the sortie on the 17th of September? Whatxiflicers were
distinguished 7 What General was brevetted for his gallantry 7 Who
commanded at Plattsburg? What was his force? Did Izard arrive
in season? Why not?
380. Why did the Americans abandon Fort Erie ? Who comraanded
the British forces in their advance upon Plattsburg? How large was
their army 7
381. Give the parUculars of the battle of Plattsburg. What Ame
rican naval officer distinguished himself? What American general
officer was brevetted ? What resulted from the victory on Lake
Champlain ?
382. When and by whom was tbe Essex captured? State the Ame
rican naval victories in 1814. What was the last important naval
action of the war? When did the British squadron enter the Chesa
peake? Give the particulars ofthe battle of Bladensburg. Ofthe
seizure of Washington.
383. Who was Secretary of War at this period ? Why did he
resign? Who succeeded him? What were the British designs on
Baltimore ?
384. When and with what force did Jaokson storm Pensacola? How
did Jackson fortify New Orleans, and when ? What BriUsh general
attacked New Orleans ? What was Jackson's efficient force ?
385. What was the loss of tbe respective armies? What was the
consequence of the victory of New Orleans 7 When was the treaty
of Ghent concluded? Who signed the treaty on behalf of the United
States 7 State the stipulations of the treaty.
386. What were the effects of tbe war upon the United States?
What raoral lesson did it teach the naUon ? What were the financial
effects of the war ?
387. What was its effect upon manufactures? Who commanded the
squadron against Algiers ? What resulted from it? When was the
national bank incorporated? What was its capital? Where was it
located? What important act was passed in 1815? What by thc
fourteenth Congress ?
388. What distinguished the close of Madison's adrainistration?

BOOK VII.  CHAPTER I.
389. When did the election of Monroe take place? Name his cabi
net officers. Who was chosen Speaker of the fifteenth Congress?
390. When was Mississippi admitted into the confederacy? What
led to the invasion of Florida by Jackson ?

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 475
391. When was Florida ceded to the United States, and for what
consideration? When was Alabaraa admitted into the Union? What
was the most important question during Monroe's administration?
392. When was Missouri admitted ? Maine? When did the seven
teenth Congress asserable 7
393. Who succeeded Monroe in the Presidency? Who was Vice-
President? How was Lafayette received 7
394. Give a summary of the progress of the country about this
period. What is aaid of steam navigation ?
395. What religious question was agitated in New England ?
CHAPTER II.
39fi. When waa John Quincy Adams inaugurated as President?
Whom did he select as Secretary of State ? What event signalized the
year 1826?
397. What is said of Adams's administration 7 Who succeeded him ?
What systera commenced with Jackson ?
398. What subjects did the President recoraraend to the twenty-first
CuiiKress? Who composed his cabinet? When waa a bill passed to
recharter the United States' Bank? By what raajority ? Did the Pre
sident approve the recharter 7 How raany bills were vetoed by
Jackson ?
399. State the circumstances attending the threatened secession of
South Carolina. What distinguished citizen advocated the raeasure ?
What course did the President adopt ? What was the object of the
tariff of 1833? Who were inaugurated President and Vice-President
in March, 1833?
400. Wbo directed the reraoval of the deposits from the United
States' Bank? Did the House sustain the President? Whatwas the
action of the Senate upon this raeasure 7 In what year did Texas
rebel agaiust Mexico? Whatwas the object of the rebellion? Who
commanded tbe Texan troops ? What distinguished meraber of the
House denounced the insurrection 7
401. To what place were the Seminole Indians removed ? Who
was their leading spirit? State the character of Jackson's administra
tion. When were Arkansas and Michigan admitted into the Union ?
402. In what year did commercial speculations prevail? State the
effects of the land speculations ? What was the loss by the great fire
in New York in 1835 7 CHAPTER III.
403. When was Van Buren inaugurated President 7 What caused
the suspension of the banks? What was the effect of the bank sus
pension ?

476 QUESTIONS TO
404. Did the calamity effect a change in the habits of the people?
What is the true source of national wealth ?
405. What important treasury scheme was recommended by the
President? What success did it meet in the Senate? Did it pass the
House? Upou what subjects were the political parties divided at this
period ?
406. What were the prominent measures recommended on the re
assembling of Congress? What troubles arose in Canada in 1838?
What befel tbe schooner Caroline? When did the banks resume
specie payments?
407. What divisions took place in the Presbyterian Church ? What
doctrines prevailed at New Haven ? What caused the establishment
of, a theological school at East Windsor? How did the courts decide
in respect to property owned by the Presbyterian Church ? What were
the movements of Dr. Pusey in the Episcopal Church ?
408. What popular reforms wore contemplated at this period? What
were the doings of the convention at Harrisburg in 1839?
409. What two important acts did Congress pass in 1840 7 When
did President Van Buren retire to private life 7 Where has he resided
since ? CHAPTER IV.
410. Who were members of President Harrison's cabinet 7 When
did he die ?
411. Who succeeded President Tyler in the White House? Name
the two first important acts of this Congress? Was a national bank
established by Congress ? Why did it not become a law ?
412. What gave the name of repudiation to several States? Which
member of Harrison's cabinet did not resign 7 Who constituted the
new cabinet of President Tyler? Wbat was the population of tbe
United States by the census of 1841? Whatwas the gain as com
pared with the census of 1830?
413. What was the great event of 1842? By whora was Mr. Web
ster aided in effecting the treaty with Great Britain 7 Who negotiated
the treaty on the part of Great Britain? Who succeeded Mr. Webster?
Who succeeded Mr. Upshur?
414. Did tbe Senate confirra a treaty for the annexation of Texas?
Was the treaty with China confirmed ? When was the bankrupt law
repealed ? Describe the troubles in Rhode Island. Why was the
constitution of Rhode Island deemed treasonable ? Who was then
governor ? What fate awaited Dorr ?
415. What disturbances arose iu New York 7 Who were the Anti-
Renters? When was Texas admitted into the Union? Why did
Jaokson, Van Buren, and others, object to its admission? What war
resulted from it?

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 477
416. Who was the Whig candidate for President in 1844 7 Wbo
was the Democratio candidate ? Which was elected ? What is said
of the popularity of Clay ?

CHAPTER V.
417. Who composed the cabinet of President Polk 7 By what battle
did Texas gain her independence ? Was her nationality acknowledged ?
By what power?
418. Why did Mexico recall her minister from the United States ?
What was deemed the proper boundary between the United States
and Texas ? What did Mexico consider the proper boundary ? When
was the tariff law of 1842 repealed? What was the scale of duties
of the new tariff? When were troops ordered to the Rio Grande ?
Who commanded the American forces 7
419. Where was the main depot of General Taylor ? How large a
requisiuon for troops did he make ? Why did the Mexicans cross the
Rio Grande ?
420. When did the first important battle with Mexico occur ? State
its result. What was the result of the battle j)f Resaca? How much
money did Congress vote to carry on the war with Mexico? How
many men were to be raised ?
421. When did Taylor arrive near Monterey 7 What was the result
of the battle of Monterey 7
423. What Mexican General submitted a proposition to capitulate ?
What munitions of war fell into the hands of the Americans ? How
long an armistice was agreed upon ? Where were the head-quarters
of General Taylor? Who of the Mexican Generals was recalled and
placed at the head of affairs ? How large an army did Santa Anna
raise 7 What was the position of General Taylor at this time ?
424. Describe the plan for the attack on Vera Cruz. What Ameri
can General was to command the troops? Did General Taylor retire
to Monterey 7
425. What was his position 7 Wbat were the movements of Gene
ral Scott? Describe the advance of Santa Anna upon Taylor.
426. When was the battle of Buena Vista fought? Give an account
of it. What force had Santa Anna in his retreat toward San Luis
Potosi? 627. How large was the force of Scott when he advanced to Vera
Cruz ? What was the course of General Scott in his attack ?
429. Describe the siege of Vera Cruz. When did the city surrender?
What was the American loss ? What American General was sent on
in advance of General Scott to Mexico?

478 QUESTIONS TO
431. Wbat force bad the enemy at Cerro Gordo? On what day was
that position attacked ? What was the American loss 7 What was
the loss of the enemy? What measures did Santa Anna adopt?
432. Wbat preparations were made to defend the city of Mexico?
Describe the advance of General Scott upon that city. Was any oppo
sition made by the Mexicans ?
433. What posts did Santa Anna fortify ? Describe tbe battle of
Contreras. Of Churubusco.
435. Wbat was the effect of the victory of Churubusco? Why
was the armistice granted by General Scott honourable to him? To
whom was committed the assault upon Molino del Rey ? Did any
decisive result follow this battle? In what manner did Scott prepare
«o assault Mexico 7
436. To whom was the assault upon Chapultepec entrusted? State
the result of this contest. When did Santa Anna withdraw his troops
ifom the city of Mexico? State the strength of the American forces
«t the termination of hostilities.
437. Whal reflections are suggested by the conquest of Mexico? To
whom is to be ascribed the honour of the conquest ? Describe the
further movements of Santa Anna. What took place after his arrival
at Puebla?
438. When did General Lane enter Puebla? Did the Americans
continue in the occupation of Mexico ? Wbat awaited Mr. Trist, the
American commissioner? Why were Generals Pillow and Worth
arrested? Wben was the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo made? What
were its stipulations 7
439. By whom was General Scott succeeded in command 7 When
did the American troops evacuate Mexico ? What was the chief event
of Mr. Polk's administration? What was the state of the country at
this time ?
440. When were the States of Iowa, Florida, and Wisconsin, admit
ted into the Union ? Who were nominated at the Whig convention
ibr President and Vice-President? Who was chosen? When did the
death of President Polk occur ?

CHAPTER VI.
441. Who constituted the cabinet of President Taylor ? What two
important acts were passed in 1850? When was California admitted
into the Union 7 When was a territorial government established in
Utah? 442. What act was passed to terminate the slave agitation? How
were fugiUve slaves to be reclaimed? When did John C. Calhoun

HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 479
die ? When did President Taylor die ? Who succeeded him ? Who
was appointed Secretary of State ?
443. Describe the state of the country upon the accession of Presi
dent Fillmore. What was the nuraber of States in 1851 7 What the
number of Territories ? How large was the military force of the
United States ? How large was the navy ? State the amount of ton
nage in the merchant-service. Give the number of vessels cleared in
1851. The number of seamen eraployed.
444. What was the amount of exports and imports in 1850 ? What
was the population of the Union, according to the last census ? De
scribe the internal improvements of the United States. State the
number of colleges. The number of students. What remains for tha
American nation to realize the fruits of the Revolution 7

THE Eia><