3 9002 0655 1 530 /_

YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

Bequest of
WILLIAM LYON PHELPS
YALE 1887

STREET OF BAGDAD

LIFE IN THE
MOSLEM EAST

BY
PIERRE PONAFIDINE
\ \ *
Imperial Russian Consul General in Constantinople
Formerly occupying similar positions in various
parts of Persia and Turkey

Translated from the Russian by
EMMA COCHRAN PONAFIDINE
NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1911

Copyright, 1911, By
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
Published, October, 1911
All rights of translation into foreign languages
are reserved, including Scandinavian

To our dear Friend
STEPHEN M. CLEMENT
A tribute of love and
sincere esteem

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
It is with much diffidence that I give the translation of
my husband's book to the English-speaking public, and I
hope they will deal leniently with my share of the work.
The book itself I feel needs no apology. It is not a
pretentious history, nor an exhaustive treatise on the
countries upon which it touches. It is more a series of
studies of certain phases of the life, religion and customs
of people among whom my husband has passed the
thirty-six years of his service, people for whom he
has learned to have a deep sympathy, and often affection,
and whom he has striven to present impartially.
The fact of his having been for some years Secretary
of Legation in Teheran, acting Consul General in Tabriz,
five years Consul in Bagdad, five years Consul General
in Meshed, two years on a special mission to Tashkent
and the Pamirs, and for the last seven years Consul Gen
eral in Constantinople is a guarantee for his personal ac
quaintance with the subjects treated.
It is the English part of the work that calls forth
these lines, for it has been done under various difficuties.
Being my first attempt in translating I have not always
found it easy to preserve as I have endeavoured to do,
something of the style and individuality of the author in
the original, and yet render it in good English.
A second difficulty is one always met with in such
works, and that is, the English spelling of Oriental
names. In dealing with this problem I have followed
such writers as have seemed to me to give the most cor
rect rendering of Eastern names and words, even though
they are not always the most popularly accepted forms.

PREFACE
The third difficulty, and perhaps the most serious one,
has been in the distance from the publishers, which has
made it impossible for me to correct the proofs.
In conclusion I would add that we feel that it is our
duty as well as pleasure to express our sincerest thanks
to our friends, Mr. and Mrs. Hugh Edward Poynter,
for their warm interest and help, without which I doubt
if I should have had the courage to undertake the trans
lation. Constantinople, May ist, 1910,

CONTENTS
CHAPTEt PAGE
I. In Bagdad -.. „• -.- ,. . . . ,.- .., ,., ,.. ,.. ... . 3
Serdabs — Means of Navigation on the Tigris — Past and
Present Bagdad — Inhabitants — The Tomb of Zobeida —
Mosques of Ab'dul Kadir, Ahmed Heaeh and Sauk-el-Gazele
— Kazmain — Mosque of Imam Musa — Life in Bagdad, its
Peculiarities — Nomads — Amusements — Buffaloes — Snakes —
Bagdad Nights — Unpleasant Neighbours — Dervishes and their
Orders — Orders of Rufai and Mevlevie — Begging Dervishes
— What are the Conditions of the Existence of Dervishes —
Initiation — Miraculous Powers of the Sheikhs— Travelling
Dervishes — Kalandars.
II. Mesopotamia, the Portals of the Desert .... 23
Desert Politics — Our Caravan — Goanese — Mendoza and
Fernando^Hamdanie and Seglawie— Character of Meso
potamia— Nefuds— Duradji— Ceremony of Meetings in the
Desert — In Camp— Original Adventures of Turks with
Arabs— Ancient Canals— Duradj Shooting— At the Wells-
First Acquaintance with the Daughters of the Desert— The
Disappearance of Ahmed— His Reappearance— Unexpected
Results of Medical Treatment— Blood Feuds.
III. The Ruins of Babylon and Among the Kurds and
Yezidis  42
Hillah, its Population— Cuneiform Tablets— Ruins of Baby
lon—The Work of Turning the Euphrates— Ruins of Nimrod
or Aker Rouff— Kurds in the Himrin Mountains— Charac
ter of Kurds— Invasion of Urumiah by Sheikh Obeidullah—
Yezidis— Devil Worshippers— Sect of Ali Allahis.

IV. Epidemics in Bagdad  •_ •
The Plague Epidemics of the Nineteenth Century— The
Diary of a French Consul— Historical Route of Epidemics
—A Dinner Spoiled by Dread Tidings— Appearance of

58

vi CONTENTS
CHAPTEB PAGE
Cholera in Bagdad — Population Flees — Life in the Desert —
Arabs Attack Us — Punishment of Prisoners — Return to Town
— The Further Progress of the Epidemic — The Plague of the
Eighteenth Century in Constantinople Described by an Eye
witness — Symptoms — Measure of Prevention — Treatment —
Depopulation Caused by Plague — Its Periodical Appearance
— Fanaticism One of the Chief Causes Making it Impossible to
Fight Epidemics.
V. Sunnites and Shiites, and the Relics of the Prophet 74
Division of Moslem World into Two Factions — The Koran
the Foundation of Islamism — Views Regarding Paradise and
Hell — Chief Factors towards Obtaining Paradise: Prayers,
Fasts, Pilgrimages to Holy Places, Alms, Sacred Wars — Teach
ings Regarding Pure and Impure — Ablutions — Daily and
Special Prayers — Fasts — What are Sunnites and Shiites? —
Original Cause of the Division — Twelve Shiite Imams —
Imam Mehdi — Mudjtaheids — Their Importance Among the
Shiites^Shiite Hatred of Abu-Bekr, Omar and Osman —
Result of Split in the Mohammedan Religion — Religious
Wars — Letter of Selim I. to Shah Ismael — The Passing of
the Moslem Holy Places from Shiites to Sunnites — The Per
sian Sacred Banner — The Sacred Banner of the Kor — The
Origin of the Prophet's Sacred Banner — Its Passing into the
Possession of the Turkish Sultan — The Significance of Sacred
Banners — Sacred Garments arid their Origin — Ceremony of
15 Ramadan — Two Holy Teeth — Holy Beard — Mysterious
Appearance in Various Parts of the Mohammedan World of
Hair Significance of these Relics — Inferior Relics.
VI. Pilgrimages and Carrying of Bodies to the Holy
Places of the Shiites in Turkey  97
Pilgrimages Obligatory to Moslems — Places of Worship
Common to Both Sunnites and Shiites — Titles of Meshedi,
Kerbeli and Hadji — The Mohammedan Calendar — Lunar
and Solar Years — Names of Lunar Months and their De
rivations — Formula for Transposing Moslem and Christian
Eras — Pilgrimages of Caucasians and Persians to Holy Places

CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER page
Found in Turkey — Unexpected Discovery Made by a Physi
cian — Contraband Caravanserai — Suburb of Kerbela —
Ancient Canals — City of Kerbela, Population and Profes
sions — Torbas — Revenues — Treasures of Kerbela Nedjef —
Mudjtaheids — Occupation of Inhabitants — Cities of Cufa
and Samara — Hadji Mirza Hassan, Most Popular Persian
Mudjtaheid — His Part in the Abolishment of the Tobacco
Monopoly in Persia.
VII. Arabia, Nejd and the Wahabees  113
The Camel and its Significance in the Life of the Bedouin
— Arabia Geographically — Bible Life as Seen at the Pres
ent Time — Limits of Territory Occupied by Nomadic Arabs
— Hadramuth — The Great Desert — Oman, El Hassa, Nejd
and the Nefuds — Cause of Isolation of Nejd — Character
of Nefuds — Red Locusts and Samkh as Principal Diet of the
Bedouin and His Horse — Travellers Who Have Visited
Nejd — Wahabees and Wahabeeism — The Wahabee Kingdom
— Occupation of the Hedjaz, Mecca, and Medina by Waha
bees — Pillaging the Kerbela Mosque — Raids on Damascus —
Expedition of Mehmed Ali Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha — Occu
pation of Nejd by Egyptian Forces — Fall of Wahabeeism
— Struggle for Supremacy — Ibn-al-Rashid — His Popularity —
Hayil — Abuse of Pilgrims — Climate of Nejd — Slavery — Nejd
the Cradle of the Arabs — Mesopotamia — El Jezira — El Irak
— Shamiya — Suffering in Years of Drought — Importance of
the Camel in the Bedouin's Life — Pacing Camels — One-
humped and Two-humped Camels — Examples of Endurance
— Shortcomings of Camels — Examples of Camels' Vengeance.
VIII. Bedouins  130
What are Bedouins, Hidkaris and Fellaheen? — Gradations
between their Tribes, Sub-tribes and Families — Care in
Preserving Pureness of Blood — Sheikhs, their Significance,
Powers and Duties — Customs — Religion — Abstinence of
Bedouins and its Cause — Early Hardships — Marriage —
Polygamy — Divorce — On what Bedouins Exist — Hunting
with Hounds and Falcons — Sheep Raising — Raids — Sheep

yiii CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGS
Lifting— Ghazus— Blood Feuds— The Bedouin in Poetry and
in Reality — Explanation of Hospitality of Bedouins. Their
Idea Concerning Muscovites — Four Seasons of the Bedouin
Year— Spring— Migration, or " Rahla "—Order of March-
Camping— Dry Milk as One, of the Chief Items of Bedouins'
Diet— Their Period of Hunger— Bedouin's Day— What They
Eat During Famine Period — Lack of Water — Diseases —
Sacrifices, or " Kurban "—Arrival of Guests— Justice— Posi
tion of Women.
IX. The Arab Horse in its Native Land . . . ... . 153
Horses of Arab Descent in Europe and Asia — Why Arabia
Produces the Finest Horses in the World — The Horse's
Power of Adapting Itself to its Food — Points of a Bedouin's
Horse — Limitation — Impossibility of Buying Thoroughbred
Mares — Proverbs — Mares Owned in Shares — The Natural
Condition of a Horse's Life — The Origin of the Arab Horse
—Are there Many Thoroughbred Arab Horses in Arabia? —
Subdivisions of Breeds — Examples of the Bedouin's Estimation
of His Horse's Genealogy — " Shammarie," the Pearl of the
Desert — Hunting the Wild Ass — Our Wild Ass in Meshed —
Endurance of the Arab Horse — The Bedouin as a Rider —
Colour of Horses — Points — Defects — Length of Horse Life
— Bedouins' Treatment of the Horse — Our Arab Horses in
Bagdad — Hamdanie, Seglawie and Rishan — Personal Obser
vations.
X. From Bagdad to Bassorah ... v. ,., -.- . . . . .174
"Califah" — Bagdad Filters and Water Coolers — Ruins of
Ctesiphon and Seleucia — Suleiman Pak — Kut-el-Amara — The
Shatt-el-Hai Canal — Lions in Mesopotamia and Persia — How
Persians and Arabs Meet Lions — An Unexpected Lion Hunt
— Sand-Storms — Kurna — Tree of Knowledge of Good and
Evil — Tomb of Ezra — Palm Groves — Importance of Palm
Tree — Palm Cultivation — Artificial Fertilisation — Varieties of
Dates.
XL From Bassorah to Muscat .  190
The Date Harvest — Cherdaks — Dates as an Item of Export

CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER — Sabiehs or Sabians, Followers of John the Baptist— New
arid Old Bassorah— S. S. " Kilwa "— Mohammerah— Karun
Behmishahr— On the Bar— Somali Fight— Bushire Shark
Fishing— Bender-Abbas— Hardships of the Persian Gulf-
Dominions of the Sultan of Oman — Muscat — Occupation of
the Inhabitants of Muscat — English Gunboats — Commerce-^
Climate — Muscat Lion.
XII. Bombay, Castes, and the Towers of Silence ... . 207
Bombay, its Significance— Variety of Nationalities— From
the "Slavansky Bazaar" to Watson's Hotel — History and
Development of Caste — Laws of Manu — Principle of Pre
serving Race of the Conquerors Distinct — Marriages —
Caste as Seen To-day, and its Effect on Daily Life — Eng
lish Feeling of Caste towards Natives — History of Bom
bay — Parsis — Similarity of Russian and Indian Styles of
Architecture — Personal Reminiscences — Tower of Silence
— My Acquaintance with Parsis — Baku and the Eternal
Fire — Zoroaster, His Teaching — Zend Avesta — Traces of
Zoroastrianism in the Persian Religion — Gabars, their Former
and Present State in Persia — "Mobeds," "Andjuman"—
Rites and Ceremonials — Shah Abdul Azim near Teheran-
Ruins of Rei and Tower of Silence.
XIII. Thugs in India .... . ... ... ... ... ,., ,.. 2241
India Past and Present — Secret Sects — Mutual Relations of
the Conquerors and Conquered — Hickley, Hutton and Colonel
Meadows-Taylor — Two Opinions Concerning Thugs — Con
dition of India in First Half of Nineteenth Century — Period
of Disorder and Oppression — Trials by Ordeals — Formation
of Bands of Robbers — Pindarees — Gussoons — Methods of
Travelling — Thugs as Companions on the March — Doctrine
of Thugs — Brahma, Vishnu and Siva — Goddesses — Bhow-
anee, or Kali — Initiation of Thugs, their Duties — ^Thank-Of
ferings — Division of Work among Bands — Inveiglers, Stran
gles, Grave-Diggers — Thug Methods of Working — First
Intimation of Thugs in 18 10 — Trial of 18 12 — Expedition
against Thugs — Commission Formed in 1830 to Investigate

x CONTENTS
CHAPTER PA°I
Accusations Brought against Thugs — Conclusion of Commis
sion and Result of its Work — From Bombay to Jiddah —
Perim — Circumstances Connected with Annexation of Perim
— Aden.
XIV. Mecca, the Moslem's Palestine  246
Pilgrimages and their Significance — The Supremacy of Mecca
as a Sacred Spot — Christian Travellers Who Have Visited
Mecca — Ancient Cult of the Kaaba — Cause of Accepting Such
a Cult — Mohammed's View of Pilgrimages to Mecca —
Foundation of Mecca and the Kaaba — Stone of Abraham
— Divine Origin of the " Black Stone " — Spring of " Zem
Zem" — Golden Water Trough — Sacred Places Situated
near the Kaaba — Conditions under which Pilgrimages May be
Made — Pilgrimages of Women and by Proxy — Appearance
of Hadj — " Ihram " — Day of Doubt, Day of Knowledge,
Day of Sacrifice — Rites Connected with these Days — Mena,
Arafat — Stoning the Devil — Fete of Kurban Bairam — Day
of Drying Meat in the Sun — Why Mohammedans are Ad
vised to Leave Mecca upon the Completion of their Obliga
tory Rites — Population of Mecca — Causes of Mortality among
Pilgrims — Sanitary Condition of Mecca during the Hadj of
1907 — Prevalent Diseases and their Causes — Unfavourable
Conditions for Carrying Bodies by Sea — Quarantines.
XV. Pilgrimages to Medina . ,.. ,. . ,., .... 269
Boundary of Holy Larid — Tribes of Medina — Water Supply
— Date Palms — Last Years of Mohammed's Life — His Pil
grimage to Mecca — Sermon from Mount Arafat — Return
to Medina — Rivals — Illness — Last Testament — Last Attend
ance at the Mosque — Absence of Direct Male Heirs —
Favourite Wives — Their Influence — Property Left by Mo
hammed — The Sword of the Prophet and its History —
Tomb of the Prophet — Abu-Bekr, Omar and Others — Muz-
zawir — Mosque of Kuba — Cemetery of El Bakia — Other
Mosques — Forced Worship at Omar's Tomb — Staff of the
Mosque — Eunuchs — Slave Trade — Inhabitants of Medina —
Shereefs and Sayids — The Damascus Caravan — Its Historical

CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER PAGE
Origin — Surrie Emini — Ceremony of Start from Constanti
nople — Sacred Camel — Mahmal — Gathering of Pilgrims in
Damascus — General Character of Route — Akiam, Sakkas,
Muhafez — Stages — Sanitary Conditions — Order of March
— Tent Pitching — Appearance of Camp, Food of Pilgrims —
Water — Martyrs or Shahudies — Caravan During Epidemics
— Robberies by Bedouins and Their Causes — Road between
Mecca and Medina — Mutual Relations of Bedouins — Kharbi
— The Hedjaz Railway and its Importance.
XVI. In the Land of the " Lion and the Sun "... 290
Climate of Persia — Forms of Irrigation — Three Types of
Villages — Cultivation of the Soil — Sheep-raising — Haying
— Gardens and Orchards — Three Enemies of the Farmer —
The Agricultural Class — Persian Cities — Baths — Instances of
Burying Alive — Squares — Street Dogs.
XVII. The Position of Women in the Moslem World,
According to the Teachings of the Koran . . 304
Woman as a Creature Distinguished by Her Love of
Ornaments and Disputing without Reason — Woman as
the Property of Her Husband — Principle of Control over
Woman as Found in the Koran — Are Women Admitted to
Paradise? — Harems and their Exclusiveness — The Koran's
View as to the Benefits of Marriage — Polygamy — Principle of
Equality among Wives — Easiness of Divorce One of the
Curses of Islamism — Property Rights of Women.
XVIII. The Position of Women in Persia  315
Costumes of City and Village Women — Beroun and En-
deroun — Harem Servants — Occupation of Women — Super
stitions — Excursions — Visiting Shrines — Education of Women
— Betrothals — Weddings — Various Forms of Marriage — A
Wife Agde and Sege — Monogamy and the Reason for its
Preponderance — Marriage with Slaves — Marriage — Marriage
with Christians — Position of Christian Wives in Harems —
Marriage of Mohammedan Women with non-Mohamme
dans Forbidden — Divorce the Husband's Privilege — Uncer-

xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER pag>
tain Position of the Woman in Her Husband's House —
Harem Intrigues — Powers of Persians as Husbands and
Fathers.
XIX. Persian Days of Mourning, Fasts and Feasts ., . 340
Characteristics of Shiite Fetes — Friday — The Sacred Month
of Muharram and its First Ten Days — Historical Origin of
these Celebrations — Religious Processions — Mystery Plays —
Tekke Actors — Birthdays of Mohammed and Ali — Fasting
During Ramadan — Anniversary of Ali's Death — Night of
el-Kadr — First of Month of Shawwal — Omar-Kushan —
Kurban Bairam — The Persian New Year — Its Origin arid
Significance in the Life of Persians — Calls — Solar Year —
The Calendar in the Persian's Life — Divisions of Summer
and Winter into Periods — Divisions of the Twenty-four
Hours.
XX. Shiite Pilgrimages to their Sacred Places in Persia 364
Rleason of Meshed's Being Formerly Inaccessible to Europeans
— History of Meshed — City of Tus — Sanabad — Meshed at the
Present Time — Sacred Rights of Refuge, or " Bast " — Causes
Giving Rise to This Privilege — The Shrine of Imam Riza
as a " Bast " — Muteveli Bashi, Rezavi and Tulabi — Abuse of
"Bast" — Ways of Entering the "Bast" — Conversion of
Christians to Mohammedanism — Sani Kuhneh — The Tomb
of the Imam — Mosque of Gauhar Shad — Sani Nouv — Libra
ries^ — Income and Expenses of the Shrine — Miracles — Stones
as Pilgrims — Kum — Mosque of Fatima — Grave of the Shahs.
XXI. Law Proceedings in Persia, Retaliation, and Teach
ings Concerning the "Price of Blood" and
Punishments  377
Unchangeableness of Persian Social Life — The Koran's
Principle of an " Eye For an Eye " — Who Can, Accord
ing to the Shariat, be Appointed as Judge — Shariat and
Urf — Ministry of Justice — Civil Law Proceedings — Mohas-
sels — Box of Justice — Criminal Laws According to the Koran
— Punishments Laid Down by Shariat for Theft, Murder,

CONTENTS xiii
CHAPTER pAGE
etc— Punishments According to Urf for the Same Crimes-
Home-made Punishments for Theft— Punishment for Spread
ing False Reports, for Robbery and Physical Injuries-
Fatalism— Why a Dull Knife is Used in Beheading— Three
Forms of Murder as Admitted by the Shariat— Price of Blood
for Man, Woman, Slave, and Unbelievers — Price for Physi
cal Injuries — Right of Retaliation and Blood Feuds — Right
of Refuge — Instances of Blood Feuds — Blood Feuds among
Nomads arid in High Life — Chief Points of Difference in
Moslem Laws and Those Recognised by Europeans.
XXII. The Persian at Home . . :.: ,., :„ . . . ,.. 402
Manner of Building His House — Enderoun and Beroun —
Cellars — Water-Reservoirs — Kursie — Summer-Resorts — Ab
sence of Fashions — Daily Occupations — Presents — Food, Law
ful and Unlawful — Wine Forbidden — Persian Table — Sweets
— Gez — Wine-Making — Hashish and Opium Serious Men
aces to Persia — Edible Varieties of Earth — Amusements —
Tamashas — Dinners — Sports — Falconry — Training of Fal
cons^ — Special Forms of Sport — Races — Jugglers and Gymnas
tics.

ILLUSTRATIONS
Street of Bagdad  .. ,.. ... . Frontispiece PACING PAGE
Mosque of Imam Azam Hanife  8
The Tigris at Bagdad  x8
Mosque of Shiekh Abdul Kadir  26
Tomb of Zobeida, Haroun-Al-Rashid's Favorite Wife . 36
Kurdish Warriors  42
Birs-Nimrod, or Tower of Nimrod  52
Outside the City Wall, the Square of Imam Azam and
the Civil Hospital of Bagdad  60
The Interior of Mosque of Shiekh Abdul Kadir ... 68
Pontoon Bridge Across the Tigris at Bagdad .... 82
Mosque of Imam Hussein  92
Bagdad Type  100
Mosque of Imam Musa, Kazmain, {front view) ,. . . 108
Arab Guides  116
Group of Arabs Showing the " Kafiyah," or Head-Dress 124
A Bedouin Tent  138
Group of Bedouin Men, Women and Children . . . 148
Arab Horsemen  160
European Children Riding in Boxes on Donkey Back . 168
Tigris: English Steamers Running Between Bagdad and
Bassorah  178
Artificial Fertilization of Date Palms  184
Mosque of Shiekh Maaronf Ker Rhie, on the Tigris
Opposite Bagdad  194
Arch of Ctesiphon  202
Town of Bassorah on the Creek  210
Group of Bombay Parsees  218
Birds Eye View of Kerbela  234
Court of Mosque of Shiekh Abdul Kadir  250
Mecca  264

ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
General View of City of Nedjef . ... ,..,.,... 280
Type of Arab Physician  292
Type of Dervish  298
Persian Woman  306
Persian Woman Drawing on the Out of Door Trowsers 310
Persian Lady Raising Her Veil  324
Persian Ladies Listening to Music  336
Muharram " Bloody Procession "  354
Flat Roofs, From Top of Military Quarters . . . .370
Russian Consulate, Meshed  382
Persian Kursie  392
Type of Palace in Teheran  410
Shah's Shooting Box in the Mountains . ...... 420

LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST

CHAPTER Ii
IN BAGDAD
Serdabs — Means of Navigation on the Tigris — Past arid Present Bag
dad — Inhabitants — The Tomb of Zobeida — Mosques of Abdul
Kadir, Ahmed Heaeh and Sauk-el-Gazele — Kazmain — Mosque of
Imam Musa — Life in Bagdad, its Peculiarities — Nomads — Amuse
ments — Buffaloes — Snakes — 'Bagdad Nights — Unpleasant Neigh
bours^ — Dervishes and their Orders — Orders of Rufai and Mevlevie
— Begging Dervishes — What are the Conditions of the Existence
of Dervishes — Initiation — Miraculous Powers of the Sheikhs —
Travelling Dervishes — Kalandars.
BAGDAD, October; that is to say, the season of the year
when the inhabitants of the city are thinking of moving
out of the underground rooms called "serdabs," in
which the hottest months are passed.
In Bagdad, and a few other towns of Western Asia,
where for six months of the year the thermometer rises
to 115° F., in every house these subterranean chambers
are built. The deeper the " serdab " the cooler it is, but
at the same time the damper. The word " cooler," when
applied to anything describing Bagdad, must be taken
comparatively, as even in the best serdabs the thermome
ter varies from 92° to 990 F. These rooms are usually
kept dark, the light entering through small windows,
sometimes openings, where instead of glass is placed a
lattice of palm filled with the prickly camel's thorn, called
" agul." Several times a day water is sprinkled on these
thorns, and the moisture thus formed cools the hot wind
as it passes through the rooms, giving a comparatively

4 LIFE IN, THE MOSLEM EAST
refreshing breeze. But towards sunset these serdabs be
come unbearably close, and then the entire city mounts
to the flat roofs, where they dine and sleep.
As I write these lines, living in a different climate
and among quite other surroundings, and separated from
the period of which I am writing by nearly twenty
years, before my eyes as by magic comes the picture we
used to see from the height of our roofs : the Tigris shin
ing in the moonlight, which in that cloudless sky is un
usually radiant; the green belt of palm and orange
gardens watered by this Biblical river bounding Meso
potamia, the cradle of the human race, and the site, ac
cording to some more or less problematical theories, of
the Garden of Eden; the scene of the feats of Nimrod
and of Nebuchadnezzar — at that time a flowering gar
den, now a desert. But now, as then, the troubled wa
ters of the Tigris sparkle and shine in the moonlight, as
they rush by. In perfect accord with the scene is the
sound of the amateur singer who floats by in his round,
cup-like boat of basket work smeared with bitumen, and
guided by a sort of shovel in lieu of an oar. These bowls
used instead of ordinary boats are mentioned by Herod
otus, and are to be seen on some of the old Assyrian
sculptures that date back 1,000 years before our era.
They are called " guffas," and are often of considerable
size, capable of carrying 1,500 pounds or more.
The swift current of the Tigris, or " Arrow," makes
the round form of these boats preferable to those of usual
pointed shape. The swiftness of the waters of the Tigris
fully justifies the name of "Arrow," for in the spring
the current sweeps down at a speed of fully six miles an
hour. Under tl;ese circumstances an ordinary boat is
easily capsized, while these round boats prove to be more
stable. Going down the river the guffa has two motions,
the forward one and a constant rotating on its own axle.

IN BAGDAD 5
This turning has the advantage of presenting a constant
change in the landscape, but to the uninitiated it some
times proves disagreeable, bringing on giddiness that
can only be overcome by keeping one's eyes fixed on the
bottom of the boat — hardly an inspiring way of travel
ling. Against the current the guffas have to be towed.
Aside from the guffas the only other native craft on
the Tigris are sailboats called " bellams," built of palm
wood and also covered like Noah's ark of old with bitu
men. They sail with the current, and against it with
favourable winds, but in a calm, or with head winds, they,
too, are towed by men. These bellams are to be met with
mostly between Bagdad and Bassorah. Between Mosul
and Bagdad the communication is by "kelleks" — rafts
made by inflating sheepskins, and by laying over them
matting or a floor of branches or boards. Fifty or a
hundred skins are often used in the construction of such
a raft, which, on arriving at Bagdad, is broken up and
the skins sold at a good profit. If passengers are carried,
a tent or small hut can be arranged. The rafts float down
with the speed of the current, from one to six miles an
hour, according to the season of the year. As the raft
passes villages, or the black tents of the half-nomadic
tribes, the women often come out riding astride on a
buffalo that swims alongside the raft, carrying on their
heads curds, milk, butter and eggs to sell. In this way
the traveller gets fresh supplies for his table and his
sense of the picturesque satisfied at the same time.
But Qther recollections come to me — not the autumn,
but the hot season. The same moonlight, the same cloud
less sky, but quite different impressions. Worn out by
the continued heat one longs for a respite and a breath of
cool air, and here on the roof, though it is night and the
bricks have been freely wet with cold water, the tempera
ture is ninety-nine degrees or above. Even at this dis-

6 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tance I cannot remember without a shudder the long,
sleepless nights passed on the roof at Bagdad 1 Some
times in addition the hot simoom blew, bringing clouds
of the finest dust, and during such fearful nights cases
of death by heat apoplexy not infrequently occurred.
At such times the only relief to be found was in covering
up head and all in a thick quilt.
With the first rays of the sun one has to go down to
the verandas or gardens, ,and a little later to the dusky
serdabs where the whole day is spent, until the evening
cool again permits of going up to the roof. And so we
drag on day after day, without the possibility of escaping
from the heat even for a few hours. Adding to this the
numberless swarms of mosquitoes and other insects, scor
pions, and sometimes snakes that frequent the serdabs,
the reader can understand that the mere fact of existence
may become a burden.
The derivation of the name of Bagdad is disputed.
Some authorities claim it to come from Baga, the
name of the mythical god of the Chaldees; others con
sider it to be from Bag, garden; and a third supposition
traces it to the name of a dervish who enjoyed great
popularity at the time of the building of Bagdad. The
city is built on both banks of the Tigris, connected by a
pontoon bridge 700 feet long. The city proper, how
ever, is on the left bank of the river. Here are to be
found the administrative buildings, the ancient citadel,
mosques, caravan serais and all the foreign consulates,
excepting the Persian. The city on the right bank has
now dwindled to a mere suburb inhabitated by Shiite
Arabs, and here, too, is the Persian consulate.
The population of Bagdad is estimated to be about
145,000, of which 50,000 are Sunnite Mohammedans, and
35,000 Shiite Mohammedans. Of Christian sects there
are Greeks, Greek-Catholics, Armenians and Armenian-

IN BAGDAD 7
Catholics, in all about 7,000. The Jews are estimated at
52,000. Bagdad was founded 763 A.D. by the second Abbasside
caliph, Abu Jaffar-el-Mansur, according to his own
plans. It took three years to build the city, and a good
description of it has come down to us. The city was sur
rounded by a wall thirty feet high and eight feet wide.
The palace of the caliph, of which not a trace now re
mains, was of fabulous beauty. Twenty-four thousand
streets were laid out, each of which possessed its own
mosque and public bath. One hundred and fifty canals
ran through the city carrying water from the Tigris, and
across which were thrown one hundred and fifty bridges.
By the order of the Caliph Jaffar-el-Mansur a colossal
canal was dug and can yet be traced. From this main
artery ran six hundred small canals carrying water to
irrigate the suburbs of Bagdad, now a desert.
Thanks to its geographical position Bagdad flourished
rapidly, and during the reign of Haroun-al-Rashid be
came the centre of the Eastern trade and the seat of cul
ture. The fame of its glory and untold riches spread
throughout the then known world, and has come down
to us through the Arab historians., who devoted many
pages to describing its palaces, mosques and public build
ings, at a period when Europe was yet sunk in barbarism.
At the close of the ninth century the population of
Bagdad is said to have been 2,000,000, that is as many as
there are now to be found in the whole, huge province
of Bagdad.
Haroun-al-Rashid fully merited his world renown
and may well be termed the " Caliph of the Sun." He
was a contemporary and ally of Charlemagne, with
whom he kept in frequent communication, and we read
of many presents passing between these two great repre
sentatives of the Eastern and Western civilisation.

8 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Among the gifts sent by the caliph to Charlemagne is
mentioned a wonderful clock, the first ever introduced
into Europe.
Haroun-al-Rashid died in the full strength and prime
of life at the age of forty-seven, after reigning gloriously
twenty-three years, and was buried within the sacred
mosque of the eighth Imam Riza, at Meshed.
Already during the reign of the third son of Haroun-
al-Rashid the decline of Bagdad began. The capital
was transferred to Samara, ninety- three miles from Bag
dad. The caliph turned the slaves captured in Turkes
tan into an army, and though he led them to victorious
wars, they were mutinous, and disorders, culminating in
civil war, followed. By 1 118 the Abbasside caliphate
had lost much of its former prestige and power, and by
1258 Bagdad was taken by Hulaku, the grandson of
Jenghiz Khan, who ordered the execution of all sayids
and wise men; during his wholesale massacres 350,000
souls perished.
In 1401 Bagdad was taken by Tamerlane and then
passed successively from Persians to Turks and back
until it came finally into the hands of the latter in 1638.
This event is commemorated by the conquering Sultan
Murad IV. in an inscription over one of the citadel gates
— now bricked up — through which he broke into the city.
It is not to be wondered at that from the thirteenth cen
tury the importance and power of Bagdad diminished, its
fabulous wealth vanished and its population decreased.
This was hastened by the epidemics which devastated
Bagdad, the great plague of 183 1 carrying off over half
of the population. In the Bagdad of our days it needs
the liveliest imagination to reproduce that once famous
queen of the Eastern cities.
At the present time Bagdad serves as the commercial
centre joining the trade of Europe and Asia. The chief

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IN BAGDAD g
exports, amounting to the sum of $7,500,000, are grain,
wool, feathers, licorice, tobacco, silk, skins, hides, gum,
carpets and horses. In exchange are imported Man
chester goods, iron, tea, coffee and sugar, in all amount
ing to the sum of $4,800,000.
From a distance, and especially from the deck of the
steamer as one approaches, Bagdad is very beautiful,
with its mosques and minarets framed by the lofty date
palms and the noble river in the foreground; but the
moment one sets foot on shore, and sees the narrow, dirty
streets, the illusion vanishes. Few cities have been built
and rebuilt on so many successive layers of ruins. Very
little remains to mark the golden age of Bagdad, though
one constantly comes across the yet more ancient bricks
bearing the stamp of Nebuchadnezzar that have been
brought from the ruins of Babylon and are used in mod
ern buildings. We do not know even where the famous
palace of Haroun-al-Rashid stood. From this epoch
remains only the tomb of Zobeida, Haroun-al-Rashid's
favourite wife, and Khan Ortma, a handsome and exten
sive caravanserai. All other ancient buildings are of a
later date and present an unusually happy combination
of Persian and Arabic styles of architecture. Worthy of
notice among the latter is the mosque over the grave of
Abdul Kadir Delani, restored by Sultan Murad IV. in
the seventeenth century. Abdul Kadir is one of the most
revered of the Sunnite saints, and great donations have
been received by this mosque for its support and that of
the school connected with it. Its yearly revenue is 50,-
000 Turkish pounds, or about $231,000. Among the few
monuments of interest must be added also the unusually
beautiful mosque of Ahmed Heaeh, with its minarets;
the mausoleum over the tomb of Haroun-al-Rashid's
brother, built in the thirteenth century; the mausoleum of
Joshua, which is in the care of the Jews, and, finally, the

jo LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
mosque of Sauk-el-Gazele, with its beautiful minarets
one hundred and eight feet in height.
In speaking of Bagdad one must not forget Kazmain, a
town about four miles from Bagdad and inhabited by
Persian and Indian Shiites. This town is more attract
ive than Bagdad, as the Persians have far more artistic
instinct than the Turks, and their love for trees and1
flowers is seen on every side. However small a court
yard, a few flowers, trees, or even bushes are sure to be
found, and wherever irrigating streams of water flow
along the side of the street a row of trees is planted. Even
the small shopkeeper will have a few marigolds and
four-o'clocks growing in front of his door disputing the
narrow sidewalk with the passer-by.
But Kazmain is noted chiefly as a place of pilgrimage
for the Shiite world, drawn here by the tomb of one of
their saints, Imam Musa, in whose honour is the mosque
with five minarets bearing his name. There is no build
ing in Bagdad to compare in size and beauty with this
mosque. Its two domes are covered with gold leaf, the
present of Naser-ed-Deen Shah. From all over the
Shiite world pilgrims come to pray at this tomb, bearing
offerings until the revenue of the mosque has reached
a colossal sum.
^ Life in Bagdad owing to its unusual climatic condi
tions has its peculiar characteristics. As during the
greater part of the seven hot months the inhabitants live
by day in the serdabs and at night on the roofs, they are
obliged to rise very early, before the sun is up, or at least
with its first rays. At that hour the city begins to live,
bazaars and offices open and the working class com
mences its day, but towards noon the city life dies down
until between four and five o'clock. During these mid
dle hours of the day all adults cease work and only half-
grown boys find something to do. I often remarked with

IN BAGDAD n
feelings of deepest pity the burdens far beyond their years
carried by boys in Bagdad.
With the beginning of the cooler weather, September,
the serdabs may be exchanged up to midday for the ve
randas, but from then to four o'clock one is again con
demned to serdabs, returning later in the afternoon to the
veranda and at night again to the roof. Throughout
this period one has to live a nomadic life particularly
inconvenient during illness, or when working, thus being
obliged to move all one's belongings several times a day.
The long evenings on the roof were particularly
wearisome. It was impossible to read or write, as myri
ads of mosquitoes and other winged insects attracted by
the light poisoned one's existence, and therefore lamps
were placed at a distance from those sitting on the roof.
Amusements? What amusements can one have in an
Eastern city and with such a climate? From time to
time dinners, tennis and cricket for the more energetic,
and rides that all tried to keep up for health's sake if not
for pleasure. The rides were invariably in one direc
tion — out in the boundless desert where all met on some
little mounds, the nearest apologies for mountains we had,
about a mile and a half from the city. These rides were
taken either very early in the morning before sunrise, or
an hour or so before sunset.
We often drove out in a little one-horse carriage, and
many were the amusing incidents that broke the monot
ony of the drives. In our time there were but three or
four other carriages in all Bagdad, which was fortunate,
as many streets were too narrow for two vehicles to pass.
IWe generally had outriders ahead to see if the road was
clear, but once or twice we were caught in these narrow
streets meeting the governor general. Then all we
could do was to alight and with him stand in the street
until the horses were unharnessed, one of the carriages

[12 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
turned arouribj by hand and then, the horses heading
towards the opposite direction from which they had
come, one of us would make way for the other.
The most unpleasant meetings were with buffaloes that
just at our hour for driving in the morning or evening
would be going or returning from their pastures. In
Bagdad and throughout Mesopotamia cows find diffi
culty in surviving the great heat and therefore buffaloes
are kept as better able to bear the climate. These useful
creatures fulfil various functions; buffalo cows are
milked ; buffaloes take the place of horses in cultivating
the fields, in carrying burdens on their backs, and even
form substitutes for boats in case of need, and their flesh
is used for food. These powerful animals are fine swim
mers, and an Arab mounted astride one will cross the Ti
gris about 1,500 feet broad, not at full flood, but still
when the current is running two and a half to three miles
an hour. The process is very simple. The Arab strips,
makes a bundle of his clothes, which he carries on his head,
and with a stick in his hand they enter the river. The
buffalo fights the current bravely, swimming with only
his nose and horns above water, the Arab encouraging
him with his voice and stick and endeavouring to so guide
him that the current may not carry him too far below
their goal on the opposite bank.
It is interesting sometimes to watch a whole family
cross the Tigris in this way. If, as occasionally happens,
an Arab slips off the buffalo's back, he tries to get hold
of the tail or swim along on the upper side of the animal.
The Arab cultivators of the soil, or fellahs, bordering the
Euphrates or Tigris, are all good swimmers from child
hood. Every morning about sunrise during the summer
months we watched from our roof the same picture: a
whole class of boys, thirty or forty, swimming under the
guidance of a teacher, who, seated in a guffa, paddled

IN BAGDAD 13
after th'errh Seldom we saw a boy need more than an
encouraging shout from the master, each one tried to
swim for himself. The only real danger here was from
sharks that sometimes follow steamers up from the
Persian Gulf, but they generally attack solitary bathers.
Occasionally very large sharks get up as far as Bagdad.
To return to the buffalo. This animal is not as gentle
as its stupid looks would lead one to suppose, and from
time to time the inhabitants of the city would, with jus
tice, complain of him. A herd will sometimes stampede
without any apparent cause, rushing madly through the
narrow streets, bellowing and sweeping down all before
them, pedestrians and even horsemen. We had such an
experience with them on returning from a drive one even
ing. We were in the carriage with four outriders, two
ahead and two behind. Just at the entrance of the city
we overtook a herd of about twenty buffaloes. In pass
ing them I noticed that the head one tossed his huge
horns in a menacing manner. A few minutes later we
heard from behind the cry of "Buffaloes! Buffaloes!"
All the horsemen back of us dashed past, but as we pretty
well filled the narrow street they had almost to jump over
our wheels or graze their horses. Those on foot tried to
get into gateways or slip through open doors. Looking
back I saw the buffaloes with lowered heads gaining on
us and I put our horse into a gallop. He, frightened by
the tramping herd behind, and instinctively feeling the
danger, broke into a full run, and all that I could do was
to try to guide him safely around sharp corners. In this
way, tearing madly along, we finally reached the broad
gates of our yard and had just time to swing in while the
waiting groom, grasping the situation, closed the gates and
the enraged herd rushed by. We found afterwards that
in their victorious charge they had injured several per
sons.

14 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
As the cool season approached one could shoot duradji
in the gardens about Bagdad. These birds keep close to
the prickly cover to be found everywhere, and European
dogs find great difficulty in raising the game, though re
turning from their efforts with badly scratched ears. The
local mongrel dogs work their way very cleverly and do
not so quickly tire. The most unpleasant part of shoot
ing was the constant danger of stepping on snakes, though
we were not free from that danger even in the houses.
My writing table in the serdab stood right under the
" bagdir," or ventilating shaft running up from the ser
dab to the roof. One day working there I heard some
thing soft and heavy flop down on the table. Raising my
head I saw a large snake over a yard long crawling
towards me over the table. It was killed and proved to
be a harmless kind. But there is an exceedingly ven
omous snake, almost as much so as a cobra, that we found
from time to time in the house. They glide into such
small cracks that it is difficult to believe one's own eyes
seeing the size of the reptile.
Once sitting on the veranda we were attracted by the
cries of our monkey Figaro, whose language we under
stood. His danger cry was a shrill sound resembling
krrr, krrr. Glancing at Figaro I saw that he was look
ing and pointing at one of the stone pillars that sup
ported the veranda, but could see nothing. The mon
key, too, calmed down, but in a few minutes repeated his
warning " krrr, krrr." Soon I saw from a hole so small
one could hardly pass one's finger, the head of a snake.
At my approach it disappeared. We were determined
to dislodge our unwelcome tenant, but for a time all our
efforts were in vain. Finally some one found the way.
Bringing boiling water it was thrown into the hole, and
the snake immediately flung itself out and was killed.
It proved to be poisonous. Another time a venomous

IN BAGDAD i5
snake was found in the bed. The natives affirm, and in
Persia I have heard the same, that as nights become cool
snakes often creep into beds to get warm. How correct
this interpretation of their motives may be, it is a fact that
snakes are not infrequently found in beds. The wife of
our cook was in this way bitten by a snake, and though the
poison was immediately sucked out and then the wound
cauterised with a hot iron, she was seriously ill for a
couple of weeks.
And the famous Bagdad nights of Sheherazade!
Those nights when Haroun-al-Rashid in disguise lis
tened to the conversation of the passerby on the pontoon
bridge! Alas, either the climate has undergone a change
since that time, or one must be born in Bagdad to appre
ciate such nights. For from six to seven months in the
year the nights are simply unbearable, when even the
" cold light of the moon " does not lessen but at full moon
actually increases the heat. Though the flat roof is fre
quently and plentifully sprinkled with water, it evapo
rates almost instantly, leaving a hothouse atmosphere.
What added to the misery of our nights was the adjoin
ing " tekke," or home of the howling dervishes, the
founder of which, Abdul Gelian, died in Bagdad 1165
A.D. Over his tomb is the tekke and mosque mentioned
above. Their peculiar service was held every Thursday
evening on the roof of the house almost adjoining ours,
beginning at about nine o'clock and lasting until mid
night or much later, until some one ended in an hysterical
fit and in convulsions cried out wholly unintelligible
words. At the beginning the sheikh sang a solo from
verses of the Koran in rather a pleasing tenor, but this
did not last long. Then followed the repetition of their
creed, " La Illahi illal Lahu," there is no God but God,
constantly increasing in fastness of time until it becomes
a dull roar, changing after an hour into positively inhu-

i6 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
man sounds, broken occasionally by hysterical shout's or
screams. These neighbours were so unpleasant that we
should have changed our house had there been a suitable
one vacant on the Tigris.
The institution of dervishes occupies so important a
place among the Sunnites that it is worthy of some men
tion here. In speaking of dervishes Europeans usually
compare them with monks, and their common living
houses with the monasteries. This is hardly an accurate
comparison. A religion that permits polygamy and
whose picture of paradise is peopled with houris does
not, of course, admit monks in our sense of the word, and
most dervishes are married men. But from the point of
view of asceticism, withdrawal from the world, living the
life of prayer and meditation — in a word, live to obtain
paradise — in this sense, perhaps, it is correct to compare
them with monks and their common habitation, or tekke,
with a monastery, though still with certain reservations.
According to Mohammed's teachings all the joys and
rewards of paradise are purely secular. It is a place of
indulgence of every sort. In seeking for this happiness
forty persons from Medina during the lifetime of the
Prophet formed a brotherhood founded on the socialistic
principle, of all property being common, and, abjuring
the world, devoted themselves to a life of prayer and
meditation. This brotherhood was called Sufi, some
think from the name of a place near Mecca where the
cult was formed, others from the Greek word "sophias"
(wisdom), while the third theory is that the name was
derived from " saf," pure. This community formed the
seed of the future dervishes. In the year. 37 of the he-
gira, a certain Uveiz-Karshi declared that to him ap
peared Gabriel (the angel who plays so prominent a role
in the Mohammedan religion) commanding him to leave
the world and to live a retired life. The rules of the

IN BAGDAD 17
order of Uveizi were most stringent, demanding absolute
abstinence from all that was worldly, and a literal imi
tation of the life of the Prophet. The founder of the
order went so far as to have all his teeth extracted in re
membrance of Mohammed's having lost four teeth in
battle. Under such conditions it was not surprising that
the followers of this order were few. But, notwithstand
ing, simultaneous with this cult others with less drastic
rules were formed. The founders were among the most
devoted followers of Mohammed's sons-in-law, Ali and
Abu-Bekr, the first caliphs. In all there were thirty
such orders. Of these those of Besstani, Nakshe Bendi,
and Becktashi count Abu-Bekr as their patron, the rest
Ali. Each of these orders takes its name from its
founder. The successive leaders of these orders are
called pirs or sheikhs, and all the other members of the
community dervishes, a word of Persian origin meaning
threshold, symbolic of the humiliation and meekness that
should be the attributes of every dervish, to whatsoever
cult he may belong. There was one order that stood out
quite distinct from all others, that of the Nakshe Bendi,
to which in the last century belonged nearly the whole of
the Turkish aristocracy. This was in fact a religious
society that assembled at the house of its president in
order to read prayers. No other conditions were laid on
this order.
All other orders have their rules and their particular
robes and head-dress. Some wear high pointed felt caps,
others low and round, some turbans wound according to a
certain fashion. Many communities, too, have their pe
culiar way of wearing the hair. Some let it grow long
and let it hang freely over the shoulders ; others braid it,
while some twist the hair into a sort of chignon, etc.
The succession in each order is jealously guarded. The
leadership is inherited by the one most closely fulfilling

18 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the conditions of the holy life, wherefore the genealogy
in each order is called " Silselit-ul-evlia-Ullah " which
being interpreted is, " the chain of sacred gods."
Though differing in the interpretation of holy living
and its duties, all dervishes unite in seven chief articles of
faith, forming the basis of oral worship. Aside from the
regulated prayers, they are obliged to repeat as often as
possible the formula of their creed. First, La illahi illal
lahu. Second, Ya Allah, "O God." Third, Ya
Khuba, "He, Existor." Fourth, Ya Hakk, "O Just."
Fifth, Ya Hai, "O, Living." Sixth, Ya Khai Um,
" O, Existing." Seventh, Ya Kakahar, " O, Revenger."
These exclamations enumerating the principal attri
butes of God are repeated constantly by dervishes of
whatever order they may be. They also have their place
in the initiation of neophytes. When anyone expresses
a desire to enter an order, the candidate has to go through
a trial which differs in different communities. Then the
candidate is admitted to a general assembly of the der
vishes, where the sheikh for the first time whispers in his
ear the first article of the creed, " La illahi illal lahu,"
which the novice is required to repeat a certain number
of times, varying from one hundred to three hundred.
After this the neophyte is obliged to retire from the
world and give himself up to meditation, and any vision
or dream that may come to him at this time he is obliged
to relate to the sheikh. The latter invites the neophyte
after a longer or shorter time, judging by the number and
character of these visions, to a second meeting, where he
whispers in his ear the second article of faith, " Ya Al
lah," and so on until he has gone through the seven arti
cles of their creed, which sometimes takes months or even
years. Only after this initiation is the neophyte admit
ted to the full privileges of a member of the brotherhood.
In this way the ceremony of initiation has the same key-

THE TIGRIS AT BAGDAD

IN BAGDAD 19
note, differing only in some details. Their religious
services also follow more or less the same order. The
sheikh first chants certain verses from the Koran, the der«
vishes from time to time bursting in with one of the seven
exclamations, or during pauses repeats "Ya Allah" or
"Ya Khuba." In some of the communities during this
chant all are seated on their heels rocking the whole body
from right to left (or in some orders the reverse) in
rhythmic motion. Some begin the ceremony standing
and continue it sitting; others begin standing, joining
hands and swaying the whole body in unison. The order
of Rufai, or, as they are known to Europeans, howling
dervishes, and Mevlevie, or whirling dervishes, are the
most wealthy. The first was founded by Said Ahmed
Refai, who died in 1188 of our era, and the second by
Dgelal-ed-Khunkeir, who died in Koniah in 1273.
Their services are rather different from that of the others.
The Rufai divide their service into five several parts.
In olden times they often went into such ecstasies that
they seized in their hands red hot iron and licked it, and
cut themselves with knives. Such extremes are now rare.
The order of Mevlevie has a peculiar form of initia
tion. During one thousand and one days the neophyte
has to pass through a most severe probation. Whatever
his birth, he is obliged to do the hard work in the kitchen,
whence he is styled the kara kulukhchij or black work
man. If during this term the candidate omits one day or
spends one night outside the walls of the tekke he has to
begin all over again. At the end of the one thousand and
one days the head cook, or aschi bashi, presents the neo
phyte to the assembled dervishes. The candidate goes to
the sheikh, kisses his hand and then seats himself opposite
to the sheikh, and next the cook. The sheikh then re
moves from the candidate his head-dress and recites verses
attributed to the founder of their order : " True happi-

20 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
ness and true greatness consist in closing the ear to all
human passions, and the fruit of this is the overwhelming
power that is given by the blessing of the Prophet." After
this the sheikh places the headdress on the neophyte and
he and the cook withdraw to the centre of the room, where
they modestly seat themselves, that is with folded hands
and heads bent on the left side. The sheikh then ad
dresses the aschi bashi in the following terms: "May
the labour of thy brother dervish be acceptable to the
Ever-existing and to our Pir. May his praise be in
creased in this nest of his obedient followers, in this cell of
the poor. Recite the Khubain in honour of our Mev-
lian." The assembly cries aloud "Khuba!" and the
ceremony is at an end.
Not entering into the exceedingly mystic teachings of
these cults, it is sufficient to say that in the origin of all
lies the one desire common to all, that of glorifying God,
not only from the heart and through speech, but by the
outward movements of the body that represent to them a
harmonious idea of God. This is expressed in various
forms of exaltation, beginning from swaying the body,
and ending in knocking the head against stone walls, lick
ing hot iron or in hysterical fits.
The dervishes live, as has been said, in communities
called tekkes, where they are under the absolute control
of the sheikh. Each tekke possesses gifts in the form of
real estate from the sultan and other rich Moslems, the
income of which goes to the support of the dervishes who
live in common tekkes or in individual cells. The mar
ried live in private houses but are obliged to be at the
tekke on the eve of the day when services are held there.
As they receive only food and lodging at the tekkes and
have to clothe themselves, most dervishes are obliged to
have some profession. Begging is strictly forbidden to
all except the cult of Bakhtashiyah, whose rules require

IN BAGDAD 2T
them to live only by what is given them. Their formula
of begging is " Shean l'illah," which means, " Something,
for God's sake."
It is permitted to any member to leave an order, but
this is seldom done. Many Moslems consider the orders
of dervishes as profanation of the teachings of Moham
med. Occasionally even there is a persecution of der
vishes. Such was the case during the reign of Sultan
Mohammed IV., but they were saved owing to two cir
cumstances. First, because the founders of these cults
were in every instance persons of high standing in the
Moslem world, and secondly, the fact that, according to
the Moslem belief, the Mohammedan religion is upheld
by three hundred and sixty-six living saints, or holy ones,
who must exist as long as does the Moslem religion, and
the belief that most of these individuals are to be found
among the dervish communities. In the estimation of
the public most of the saints are endowed with miracle-
working powers, and this can be seen even now in the
order of the Rufai when after the service little children,
sometimes nursing babes, and sick folk are brought and
laid down for the sheikh to pass over. The sheikh walks
over their prostrate bodies, stepping on each one, often
even stopping to change from one foot to the other on the
same person without apparently giving any pain. Other
sick persons are seated in front of him, and he, fixing the
patient with his eye, gazes long and intently into the pa
tient's face and finally blows on him to exorcise the evil
spirits. The sheikh also gives amulets, charms and other
medical treatment.
Among other orders the sheikhs are supposed to have
power over snakes, which is passed down upon each suc
cessor. These sheikhs are often called in to free a house
which has become infested with serpents.
There are also travelling dervishes; but these are

22 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
mostly persons who have been expelled from some com
munity. Among such dervishes were the kalandars of
olden times that are so often mentioned in the "Thou
sand and One Nights." The founder of this order was
a Spanish moor from Andalusia, Kalandar Joseph Anda-
lousie. He was a pupil of Becktash and afterwards be
ing expelled from this community organised the order of
Kalandars, travelling dervishes who live by begging.
One comes across such travelling dervishes all over the
East, especially in Persia and central Asia. They sim
ply live a tramp's life justified by the guise of dervishes.
They are mostly opium smokers, and in general occupy
themselves in ways quite foreign to the requirements of
any religious cult whatsoever.
It is a common sight in Persia to see one of these para
sites installed in front of the gate of some great man.
Sometimes the dervish pitches a tiny tent, makes himself
a miniature garden and sits all day begging in an arro
gant rather than an humble way. These dervishes often
resort to dramatic means of forcing alms. We once
found one fastened by the neck to the balustrade of our
stairs, and he announced that he would remain there, even
if he starved, until we gave him something. Another
dervish settled himself in front of our gate, where he
ploughed, with a tiny model of the wooden ploughs used
in the East, a few square inches of the unpaved street. This
plot he sowed with grain and then announced that he
would remain until the grain sprouted, grew, ripened,
was harvested, and finally was threshed and ground into
flour, if before that time we had not given him a certain
sum. In most cases when it is a Moslem before whose
house these dervishes encamp, repeating in menacing
tones "Ya Hak," belief— or rather, a half-superstitious
fear of the supernatural power of calling down curses
that these wild men may possess — generally obtains for
them what thev demand.

CHAPTER II
IN MESOPOTAMIA, THE PORTALS OF THE DESERT
Desert Politics — Our Caravan — Goanese — Mendoza and Fernando
— Hamdanie and Seglawie — Character of Mesopotamia — Nefuds —
Duradji — Ceremony of Meetings in the Desert — In Camp — Origi
nal Adventures of Turks with Arabs — Ancient Canals — Duradj
Shooting — At the Wells — First Acquaintance with the Daughters
of the Desert — The Disappearance of Ahmed — His Reappearance
— Unexpected Results of Medical Treatment — Blood Feuds.
A JOURNEY into the desert is accompanied by many hard
ships and privations, and those who care first and always
for their own ease and comfort will do best not to under
take it. But those who care for new impressions are in
terested in the nomadic life of the desert, and in visiting
the traces of the ancient civilisation that are to be found
all through this part of the country, will feel amply re
warded for any physical privations and sufferings they
may encounter.
After passing the summer in the dark and stuffy " ser
dabs " the reader can understand how, with the approach
of the cool season, we longed for the freedom of the des
ert, and all those who are able to do so make plans for
an excursion, and my wife and I are among these fortu
nate ones. We endeavour to unite pleasure with profit.
I wish to get some personal acquaintance with the Arab
tribes surrounding us and to have some shooting: and my
wife is interested in the ruins, or rather the traces now to
be found, of Babylon and the four ancient cities built by
Nimrod, " the mighty hunter before the Lord."
23

24 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
After many-sided considerations and consultations the
plans for our journey are made. Waterskins are bought,
the tents and camp furniture overhauled, saddles and
guns put in order, and last, but certainly not least, the
present state of desert politics is ascertained from vari
ous sources. For even a desert has its politics, the im
portance of which the traveller who disregards them
finds to his cost. We were obliged to find out the rela
tions of one tribe to another, between which ones was war
or peace, and if our guides would be able to safely pass
with us from one to another. After being sure of a safe
conduct and guarantee of peace, then, and onlv then,
could we start with security.
To be quite correct I informed the local vali, or gov
ernor general, of my contemplated trip. He, like all
Turkish valis, was infected by the mania of suspicion, and
also doubtless realised that in case of trouble in the desert
he was quite powerless to save my precious life, and so
tried by every argument possible to dissuade me from my
project. Failing in this, he offered me an escort, know
ing in advance that I would decline, and then, having ful
filled all his official obligations and cleared himself from
every responsibility, gave a sigh of relief, and, wishing
each other all blessing, we parted in mutual satisfaction.
At last all was ready, and the day of departure fixed.
Our caravan consisted, besides ourselves, of Karim, our
caravan bashi, or leader of the caravan, three grooms, six
teen pack horses carrying our tents, kitchen, provisions,
barley for the horses, and water. Three beaters, four
Arabs to act as guides and at night to watch the camp, our
butler Mendoza and cook Fernando, the latter Indian
Portuguese, devout Roman Catholics we had brought up
from Bombay with us. Not to be omitted was Ahmed,
a city-born Arab, a simple-minded water carrier, the butt
of all the practical jokers in the caravan. In all we mus-

IN MESOPOTAMIA 25
tered fifteen souls and thirty-one horses, counting our
own mounts.
In passing, a few words about our Portuguese men
may be of interest. They were both from Goa, the Portu
guese colony with a capital of the same name. Goa is on
the Indian Ocean and south of the Bombay Presidency;
it has a fair haven and has a certain pathetic interest as
being the last representative of the palmy days of Portu
guese colonial and maritime might that dated back to the
sixteenth century, as many towers and ruined strongholds
scattered all through the Persian Gulf bear witness. At
present the inhabitants of the entire colony of Goa are
estimated at about half a million, mostly Catholics, the de
scendants of the converts of the apostle to the Indies, Fran
cis Xavier, one of the founders of the Jesuit order who
laboured and died in Goa. The Goanese are mostly half-
castes, tracing their descent with great pride to the early
conquerors and Indian mothers. But as in later years
there was little addition of European blood, the present
Goanese bear few traces of their white ancestors. They
are bronze in colour, with black curly hair, flat noses, and
remind one more of the Negro type than European.
Their origin is betrayed only by their names, de Sousa, de
Gama, Cortez, etc. They are excessively proud of their
forefathers, and in contracting marriages the name counts
for as much as in the proudest time of the Spanish and
Portuguese grandees. The jealousy with which these
families keep apart is evidently begotten by the strong
caste spirit prevailing throughout India. Goa is a poor
colony, the principal industry being the cultivation of
rice, but in such meagre quantities as to barely serve for
their own consumption. Cocoanuts and braided mats are
about the only items of export. Naturally, therefore, the
men are forced to seek work outside the country, the better
class serving mostly as cooks, butlers and musicians to the

26 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
English in India, and with whom they get scattered to
many parts of the world. Though separated in this way
from their families, sometimes for years, they yet keep in
close and tender touch with them, as nearly all can write.
Our two servants, for instance, kept up a regular corre
spondence with their families during all the years that
they were with us, and, as we had occasion to know, faith
fully sent them all their earnings except just what they
actually needed for their own expenses. There were a
good many of these people in Bagdad as servants, and if
any one of their number was sick, or out of work, they
all clubbed together to help him during that time and to
get him a situation. They are generally excellent serv
ants, knowing their profession thoroughly, thanks to their
training. For instance, to get the position of butler they
first have to go through a course of several years as cook,
which makes them invaluable as butlers, for in India the
heat makes it impossible for a European housekeeper to
enter into the details of kitchen and shopping, and these
capable men are able to take all the responsibility. It
is true that one often finds among them such as are given
to drink, but if one is fortunate, as we were, in finding
sober Goanese, they have the best servants in the world.
We have the warmest recollections of our faithful men,
Mendoza and Fernando, who during the many years they
were in our service never once gave us occasion to find
fault with them. Always good-natured and willing, and
very adaptable in all surroundings — provided the climate
was warm — they often proved themselves invaluable to
our comfort. During trying journeys when women serv
ants would only be a burden, Mendoza turned nurse, and
a more tender or efficient one with the baby would be dif
ficult to find. But in cooler countries the Goanese find
it difficult to live, and our Mendoza began to cough in
Constantinople in the month of October with the tempera-

MOSQUE OF SHEIKH ABDUL KADIR

IN MESOPOTAMIA 27
ture at 700 F., and against Our mutual inclinations we
were obliged to part with him and send him home.
But we have with us other inseparable companions in
our desert wanderings, our pure-blooded Arab horse,
" Hamdanie," that my wife rides, and my own " Segla-
wie," both descendants of two of the five famous mares
belonging to the Prophet Mohammed (may whose ashes
rest in peace, Alie-hu-salam). The Arabs consider as
pure bred only the five strains whose pedigree can be
traced back to these five mares, two of which were called
respectively Hamdanie and Seglawie. It is wonderful
how unhesitatingly an Arab will recognise a horse be
longing to any of these strains. More than once, when
passing some Arab encampment for the first time, we
heard the Arabs, on seeing our horses, exclaim :
"Hamdanie, Seglawie!" and adding "Mashallah!"
(God's will), the highest form of praise and also a for
mula warranted to keep off the evil eye which praise
might draw on the horses.
At last the day set for our departure arrives. Long
before dawn we are picking our way through the narrow,
dirty streets of sleeping Bagdad, and are soon at the pon
toon bridge crossing the Tigris. On the right bank of
the river we find ourselves in Mesopotamia. When as
yet a child, pictures of the desert would present them
selves very vividly to my mind as a vast plain of rolling
sand, broken by occasional oases. In reality all the
desert that lies between the rapid, muddy Tigris and the
clear sparkling stream of her sister, the Euphrates, can
only be called a desert on account of the absence of cul
tivation and irrigation. But the soil is of the richest
loam, capable of being transformed into a blossoming
garden during certain seasons of the year. At high
water, during the months of February and March, the
tract between the two rivers forms a veritable lake, the

28 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
home of flocks of water fowl. The water, to be sure, is not
deep, from a foot to eighteen inches, and when it subsides
the desert becomes covered with the most luxuriant car
pet of grass and flowers, which, alas! dry up in May, and
again the term desert is not out of place. With compara
tively little pains and expense all of Mesopotamia could
again be the fertile country it was in the time of the hang
ing gardens. As the summer advances with its fierce
heat, the soil becomes dry, and crossed by great cracks
covered here and there with bits of dried grass or forlorn-
looking bushes, and once this place was covered with
forests that passed entirely away only in the last century!
It is only west of the Euphrates that the desert proper
begins, the El-Hamud, and south of it the great Nefud,
answering to my early conceptions of it. Here for hun
dreds of miles stretches the vast, sandy desert, with its
horseshoe-shaped dunes, such as those seen in Trans-
caspia, through which with almost superhuman struggle
the railway was built between the Caspian and Bokhara.
Here one finds the real desert the symbol of death, and it
is with no feeling of surprise that the traveller notes the
skeletons of camels and perchance of human beings that
mark the whole way down to Nejd, the cradle of the Arab
and the home of the real Bedouin.
We move on slowly but gaily until about ten o'clock
the sun begins to make itself felt and we think of calling
a halt. A suitable spot found, a tent is quickly pitched
and the cooks are busy about their improvised stoves. At
two o'clock, after a good rest, and after having watered
our horses from the skins carried with us, we start on
again in order to reach the first wells before night. The
landscape continues to present the same monotonous fea
tures ; here and there are to be seen dry shrubs, or such
bushes as have long roots that reach down to the moisture
of the lower strata.

IN MESOPOTAMIA 29
" Duradji ! " .suddenly cries out one of our beaters, slip-,
ping quickly off his horse and running toward some
bushes just off the track. Picking up the corners of his
burnoose and flapping them, he runs round and round
in ever narrowing circles and continuing to wave his
cloak. " Where is the duradj?" I ask, overtaking the Arab.
" Here," he says in a stage whisper. " Look under the
bush — see, he is turning his head — shoot! for Allah's sake,
Effendi, shoot!" And he continues breathlessly to circle
and to wave his burnoose. The sweat rolled in drops
from the poor man, who fairly trembled in his anxiety to
make me see and kill this coveted desert game, a bird re
minding one somewhat of our grey partridge. But try
as I might I could not see the duradj, although in our
northern woods I could easily distinguish a wood hen
crouching on the bough of a tree, which, as all sportsmen
know, is not an easy thing to do.
" Can't you see it, Effendi? " imploringly whispers the
Arab again, and then in despair throws himself with
outspread burnoose flat on to the little bush, hoping to
catch the bird in his hands, but it slips out and takes to
flight. I raise my gun and fire twice, but the bird sails
merrily off, and the Arab, breathing heavily, gazes at me
with eyes full of mute reproach.
There are many duradji to be found in these places,
and the Arabs have an original way of their own in hunt
ing them, based on the known timidity of the bird. As
soon as their sharp eyes spy the game, an almost impossi
ble thing for a stranger to do at first, as its plumage is the
exact colour of the desert sand, the " sportsman " gets be
tween his victim and the sun and begins to advance, flap
ping his burnoose. The bird, taking the shadow thus
cast for a huge bird of prey, crouches flat against the
earth.

30 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The Arabs are very economical of using powder and
so charge their guns with less than half a thimbleful of
powder and with very little shot, and then, to avoid any
chance of missing, circle up till they are within touch al
most of the crouching bird and fire. Naturally, with
such a small charge, this is the only way of killing a bird,
and the danger of missing at such close range is not very
formidable. We overtake the caravan and go on for another couple
of hours. The sun begins to sink and the breeze to have
a little coolness that freshens up the whole party, includ
ing the horses. Suddenly the caravan bashi reins up his
horse and rising in his stirrups shades his eyes with his
hand and gazes intently into the distance. One of the
guides rides up to him and both study the horizon, carry
ing on an animated discussion. It seems they have dis
covered horsemen coming towards us. I strain my eyes
and see absolutely nothing but the rolling desert. My
wife can see nothing, neither do our Indians nor the
town-bred Ahmed. A few minutes pass and our Arabs
count fifteen riders, and yet we can distinguish noth
ing! The keen eyes of these Arabs are wonderful. Their
life in the wide expanse of the desert, where their very
existence often depends upon their farsightedness, ena
bling them to discover an enemy, or a bit of green mark
ing water at a great distance, develops their vision as it
does in the case of the Turkomans and Kirghizes of cen
tral Asia.
After some time I see dots on the horizon that gradu
ally become more distinct and begin to take shape. At
last we are near enough to make out the colour of the
horses. Our escort unsling their berdans and lay them
across the saddle in front of them and we continue slowly
to approach each other.

IN MESOPOTAMIA 31
"Jereffa!" (the name of an Arab tribe) suggests one
of our men.
"No, Shamars!" says our caravan bashi.
But hardly are the words out of his mouth when the
strangers put their horses to a run and with spears bal
anced sweep down upon us like the wind. Our caravan
bashi gallops forward to meet them and we all follow his
example with more or less sinking of the heart, and Men
doza and Fernando, whose bronze skins are incapable of
turning pale, become a bluish yellow. The cook gallops
madly on, with his pots and kettles beating an accom
panying jingle in the saddle bags. We tear on for some
rods, when, as we approach each other, both parties stop
short as if by command — all excepting poor Fernando,
who continues his way flying over the horse's head and
after turning one or two somersaults in the air sits up
on the ground blinking in amazement, while everyone is
too much occupied to take any notice of him. Both parties
stand within twenty feet of each other in silence for a few
seconds. "Who are you? Where from? Whence going, and
why?" etc.
Our caravan bashi satisfies their curiosity and then in
turn cross-examines them. It appears that the strangers
are Shamars, going to carry on some negotiations with an
other tribe and are peaceably inclined. These prelimi
naries being at an end and both parties being relieved, we
become quite sociable. We give them all the city news
and they give us that of the desert. The sheikh of such
and such a tribe is ill ; another is preparing for his mar
riage with the daughter of the sheikh of a neighbouring
tribe, and therefore there is hope of an alliance and
friendship between these tribes instead of the enmity long
existing among them. This alliance, and all the possible
results arising from it, are gravely and exhaustively dis-

32 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
cussed by both parties. Then water is offered to the new
comers, and with many good wishes and consigning each
other to the care of Allah, we continue our several ways.
This is the usual desert way of meeting with everyone
the traveller encounters, either friend or foe, according to
circumstances or the politics of the day. But it is not
always that these encounters end as peaceably as did ours.
Often the spears are brought into play and with the blunt
end the rider is unhorsed (the real Arab rides without a
saddle), and according to the desert law the horse be
comes the property of the more skilful or lucky party.
Occasionally, but rarely, these affairs have a bloody end,
But here it is sunset, and we have reached our wells,
but alas, there is no water! We find, too, that our bril
liant water carrier has forgotten to bring the ropes so
necessary for procuring water from these deep wells!
All our men, with rare unanimity, fall upon the unlucky
man, calling him the "father of stupidity" and the
"father of a donkey," and so overwhelm him with re
proaches that the poor fellow finds no answer. For the
present his carelessness affects us less since there is no
water in any of the wells, and we shall have to make
what the skins contain do for ourselves and a small quan
tity for each horse, and for to-morrow we will see — if we
find wells we can perhaps make the horses' halters do
service. The camp is soon taking on shape, tents are going up,
Fernando is rattling his pots merrily and blowing his fire,
Mendoza is putting up camp beds and setting out the
folding chairs, while the grooms are unsaddling the horses
and getting the leg ropes ready. In a little over an hour
our supper is ready and then around the various camp
fires begin low-toned conversations, mostly turning on the
events of the day's march, of desert and hunting episodes
of the present vali and the various Arab tribes.

IN MESOPOTAMIA 33
I always love this hour. Sitting at the door of our
tent in my easy camp-chair, under the bright stars and
listening to their chat, I often get much that is useful as
to the ideas and ways of thinking of these people, and of
their judgment of events of local interest.
At an early hour the next morning the caravan is mov
ing. For miles we follow the lines of gigantic canals
that bear silent witness to the high state of culture once
enjoyed by these lands. Along these canals, still deep
enough in places to hide a horse and his rider, the growth
of bushes becomes almost like a low jungle.
Suddenly we hear a characteristic cry and whizz, a
duradj raised by one of the dogs. I spring from my
horse, throwing the reins to one of the men, and run into
the brush. Whizz — dash — another 'duradj ! I fire and
miss. Another, with the same result, but finally luck
turns and I have a pair of beauties for our supper. I re
trace my steps to where the man is holding Seglawie, and
we gallop on to overtake the caravan, and hand over the
birds to Fernando, whose bronzed face shines with pleas
ure as he takes them, saying in his broken English :
"Nice roast, sir."
We come to some wells, where we camp, intending to
make this our headquarters while exploring the vicinity,
and later to go on and visit some of the nomadic tribes
that interest me. The sun seems hotter and harder to
bear than usual, and our horses, that have received but a
few swallows of water, are lagging heavily, when the
sight of the wells rouses them as well as ourselves. As
we draw near to the wells we see Arab women who
have come from a near encampment for water. We see
them drawing up water in leather buckets by means of
ropes, but as soon as they spied us they fled, and, what in
terested us most, carrying with them the ropes on which
we had set our eyes. This roused our men to a fresh at-

34 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tack upon the unlucky Ahmed. We dismount and on
examining the wells find them to be extremely deep, and
a discussion arises as to whether all our horses' ropes
united will suffice. But feminine curiosity comes to our
aid. The sharp eyes of our caravan bashi discover the
figures of the women crouching in the brush and eagerly
watching us. But no amount of coaxing nor compli
ments would induce them to lend us their ropes, and when
one of our men showed intentions of going nearer to them,
these wild daughters of the desert fled like gazelles and
came to a stand again among the bushes at a distance.
Some one suggested making a flank movement and sur
rounding them, but in view of the complications sure to
arise from such decided measures, this plan was dropped.
Finally my wife suggested her going alone and trying to
convince them of our good intentions, and as proof of
which, to offer them some coins that are understood even
in the desert. Whether it was the eloquence of my wife
or the effect the sight of the money had, the result was
that in a quarter of an hour she returned in triumph ac
companied by four women. In less time than it takes to
tell, the ropes were lowered, the horses, fully under
standing the significance, snorting and pulling at their
bridles to get nearer the well, where a drinking trough
had been made by the Arabs by digging a hollow basin
and plastering it with mud. The water proved to be tol
erably good, though it had a decidedly earthy taste, but
we were all too thirsty to be critical. Filling our water
skins, we move on for about a quarter of a mile, where we
camp. The tents are soon pitched, a hurriedly prepared
meal done justice to, and we give ourselves up to a luxu
rious rest, idly listening to the conversation carried on
between our own men and the Arab guides. They are
discussing the defeat of the Turks by the Shamar tribe
that had taken place a few years previously. This tribe,

IN MESOPOTAMIA 35
it seems, refused to pay a tax that the Turks had levied
upon them and orders had come for a company of regular
Turkish troops to march into the desert and forcibly col
lect the tax. The troops hesitated to enter the desert,
where the Arabs were at home, while the troops would
need large quantities of provisions, fodder, water, etc. At
that time the Arabs were armed principally with spears
and muskets, rifles being seldom met with. But the fact
of their being as familiar with the desert as with their
five fingers, immured to hardships, and they and their
horses possessing great powers of endurance, being able
to make seventy-five miles without water, and sustaining
life on a handful of dates — the main article of food for
man and beast — gave them an enormous advantage.
The expedition was sent out in the winter, when the
nomadic Shamars are encamping near Bagdad, where
they come to buy dates, their chief support, as well as
coffee and other articles necessary for their simple life.
The plan of campaign drawn by the local staff of the
Turkish army ended in a fiasco, thanks to a clever ruse
that would only enter the head of these desert children.
The Arabs in a short time collected over two thousand
camels. " The ship of the desert " with all its good quali
ties is not noted for sagacity, and is easily given to stam
peding. At such times it is ready to run for miles in a
straight line, regardless of obstacles. When the camels
were gathered, the Arabs loaded them with saddle bags
filled with sand and approached the Turkish camp dur
ing the night. They then made holes in the bags, after
which they frightened the camels in a way known to
themselves, and stampeded the whole herd, which, ac
companied by the shouting Arabs, poured like a flood
into the camp, bringing about a confusion and panic that
was increased by the dust and sand sifting through the
bags. The camels crushed everything in their way as the

36 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
cries and confusion of the camp increased their fright.
The result was that the entire camp fell into the Arabs'
hands without the latter losing a man.
After a good rest and having watered the horses, we
start out on an exploring expedition with four of our
shikaries, a groom, and Ahmed with his waterskin. We
soon come upon some mounds, the site of one of the most
anciently recorded cities. Before sunset we have visited
a number of these mdunds and then turn to go back to
camp with some disappointment, for we had expected to
see something that at least bore traces of a ruined city.
We are riding quite rapidly when we notice hiding
among the bushes an Arab. I have time to get a glimpse
of the "kafiyah," the usual head-dress, consisting of a
fringed silk handkerchief thrown over the head so as to
form a complete shelter, only leaving the face exposed,
and held in place by a rope wound round the crown of
the head. From under the head-dress the long braided
locks that the men wear fall about his shoulders. He
approaches Ahmed, who after some talk dismounts and
begins to untie the waterskin and to give the stranger a
drink. The rest of us push on, thinking of our camp and
the welcome supper that by now is awaiting us. I get
several shots at duradji on the way, but ill-luck is surely
following me, for not a bird drops to my bag until the
fifth shot brings down a fine hen. Overtaking the cara
van we go on for another half hour, and we come in sight
of the white tents of our camp, where the smoke rising
from the cook's quarters tells that a good supper is pre
pared for us. We dismount with that pleasant physical
fatigue mingled with a feeling of peace with the whole
.world, that one only gets from long horseback riding.
After a wash we sit in the long camp-chairs at the door
of the tent waiting for the supper to be served. As we sit
.there we hear the soft tinkle of the head bells, mixed with

TOMB OF ZOBEIDA, HAROUN-AL-RASHID'S FAVORITE WIFE

IN MESOPOTAMIA 37
the deep bass dong of the huge bells hung from the camel.
saddles, announcing an approaching caravan. We
watch the "pashang," as the gaily caparisoned leader
of the caravan is called, come in sight. A word as to
these horses may not be devoid of interest. They are
trained to lead caravans and are as proud of their posi
tion as any human being could be, and if any of the other
horses tries to get ahead, the pashang will resent it and
by snapping at him try to head him off and drive back
the insolent upstart. However tired after a long march,
and however heavy the load, these brave horses will
struggle to keep at the front. One we once saw of whose
pluck the " charvadars," or muleteers, had taken an un
fair advantage and loaded with heavy boxes that none of
the other beasts could carry. In spite of being so over
loaded, the gallant pashang kept at the head of the cara
van until blood gushed from his mouth and nose and he
finally dropped dead — surely as true a hero as any human
being falling at his post of duty.
As the caravan looms in sight we see that each ani
mal is carrying long, narrow boxes that stand out in
sharp contrast against the rosy evening sky, and as the long
string in single file come out of the gathering dusk, the
deep-toned bells fall upon our ears with a weird feeling
as of a funeral knell, for all those long boxes are full of
the bones, or in some cases the comparatively fresh bodies,
of Moslems whose faithful friends and relatives are
taking for burial in sacred ground. As the last notes of
the caravan bells die away, we are glad to be aroused from
the rather grim reflections caused by this procession of
the dead, by the cheerful call to supper. I have not had
time for more than a swallow of soup that seemed unusu
ally savory when the caravan bashi enters the tent. At
the first glance at his face I see that something unusual
has happened.

38 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
" Effendi," he says, " Ahmed has not come, and his
horse has just returned to camp riderless. What are
your orders?"
"Where can he be?" I exclaim, "We must send one
or two men on horseback to search for him."
" Had we better not wait a bit? " suggested the caravan
bashi. "Who saw him last, and where?"
"That is what I have inquired," answered the man,
" and it seems that since he was seen talking with the un
known Arab, who asked for a drink, no one remembers
seeing him. We thought he was following on slowly, and
were not troubled, but now the horse has come and no
Ahmed. There is nothing good to expect from him; he
is the father of all stupidity and has probably lost his
way — though the stars are out and any child could find
the camp," he ended, glancing out at the tent door at the
sky, where by this time the stars were shining in all the
glory of the Eastern nights. I kept silent, but thought to
myself that though not a child, I should not like to be left
in the desert to find the camp by such means alone.
It was finally decided to send off at once three horse
men in search of our ne'er-do-well. My wife and I, left
to our soup, began to discuss the situation, and the various
mishaps that may have come to our unlucky retainer, for
the chances of his getting out of any scrape seemed small
in view of his abnormal stupidity. And this leads to
reminiscences of the various occasions on which he has
distinguished himself. A picture rises before us of one
night after a dinner party when we, with all our guests
in the drawing-room, drinking Turkish coffee, were
startled by a terrible crash, as if a whole crockery shop
had gone to pieces. On rushing out onto the open ve
randa to make inquiries we found that Ahmed in his capa
city of dishwasher had just emptied a large dishpan of

IN MESOPOTAMIA 39
water from the window into the courtyard below. Now
this was strictly forbidden, but probably the joy of break
ing rules made him forget that the dishpan contained,
besides water, at least a dozen pieces of our best dinner
service that had come to grief on the hard stone pavement
below !
We spent half an hour — an hour, and a second hour
passed in waiting, and at last the caravan bashi returned,
leading Ahmed. At first I hardly recognised the man,
he seemed smaller, shrivelled and bent, and the few wits
he ever possessed had evidently deserted him, for to all
our questions he answered by a wholly unintelligible stam
mering. The caravan bashi suggested a cup of coffee,
that Arab panacea for all mental woes, as it is the actual
cautery for physical ills. To the coffee my wife and I
decided to add some brandy and a dose of bromide from
our travelling medicine case. The result of the combina
tion was decided but unexpected. Ahmed promptly went
off into a sound sleep and we were forced to leave the
unravelling of the mystery until the next day.
Early the following morning on looking out of the
tent door I saw Ahmed seated on the ground and sur
rounded by the entire camp. He had again resumed his
usual good-humoured dull look and seemed to be enjoy
ing his unwonted notoriety. I joined the listeners and
heard the following account of his adventures.
It seems that the Arab who had asked for water was
nearly exhausted from thirst, as he had had nothing to
drink for two days. He had been in hiding from some
men of a tribe from whom he had carried off a girl and he
begged to be saved from their vengeance. Anyone in Ah
med's place could easily have done so by taking the man
up behind him and riding after us, for at that time we
were yet in sight. Ahmed, however, wasted precious time
in aimless questions and so sealed the fate of the poor fel-

40 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
low. Seeing that we were at some distance, several Arabs
sprang up from the bushes where they had been in hiding
so long as we were near, and falling upon their victim
with daggers while he was writhing on the ground in his
death agony, they cut out his yet palpitating heart, and,
dividing it, each man ate a piece ; in this way wiping out
the disgrace their tribe had suffered. Having satisfied
their awful sense of vengeance, the Arabs began to discuss
what to do with Ahmed, who had stood, more dead than
alive, an unwilling witness of the terrible deed. Some
were for killing him for fear he would betray them.
Others claimed that it was to their advantage to let him
live and tell how their tribe knew how to repay an in
jury. The latter opinion prevailed and it was decided to
spare Ahmed, but he was kept there some time and in
the meanwhile his horse had found its way to the camp.
They told how they had lain in the bushes all the hours
we were there and how on several occasions one or an
other of our party had almost stepped upon them as they
crouched in the bushes. Finally Ahmed was allowed to
go free, but he was so horror-stricken by what he had seen
and haunted with the fear that the Arabs might change
their mind and follow after him and kill him, that his
knees shook and often failed him altogether and he would
fall. Stumbling and running, he had at last reached
the camp in the speechless condition described.
These reminiscences, to one not acquainted with the
East and its ways, and the blood feud in particular, may
seem almost incredible. But unfortunately they are facts,
and during the many years spent in the East I have re
peatedly known cases where, under the protection of the
law of blood feud, or some other religious prejudices,
crimes, even murders, were committed, often passing
down from generation to generation, founded on the old
doctrine of " an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth."

IN MESOPOTAMIA 41
I shall have occasion in another chapter to refer in de
tail to this custom that will place the incident just re
lated in its true light, and if it will not furnish extenu
ating circumstances, it will at least explain the psychology
of such acts.

CHAPTER III
THE RUINS OF BABYLON AND AMONG THE KURDS
AND YEZIDIS
Hillah, its Population — Cuneiform Tablets — Ruins of Babylon — The
Work of Turning the Euphrates — Ruins of Nimrod or Aker Rouff —
Kurds in the Himrin Mountains — Character of Kurds — Invasion of
Urumiah by Sheikh Obeidullah — Yezidis — Devil Worshippers — Sect
of Ali Allahis.
The next day we start on to visit the camp of a sheikh
of my acquaintance. Two days' march brings us to the
small town of Hillah, the administrative centre of the
district of the same name. The Euphrates divides this
province from east to west, watering it by means of
canals. One, the Mekhoul, was dug by Haroun-al-Ra
shid, the other, Nahr, by the Persian Shah Abbas, the
Great. Aside from these there are about ten other canals
of ancient date. Thanks to this artificial irrigation palm
groves are met with quite frequently, and in the district
of Hillah it is estimated that there are as many as half
a million date palms. All of the dates raised here are
consumed by the Arabs of two tribes, the Shamar and
Aneizeh, who migrate towards Hillah in the autumn to
buy their year's supply.
The population of this district does not exceed thirty
thousand, while in the city of Hillah itself there are not
more than eight thousand souls. All the houses are one-
storied and mostly built of bricks taken from the ruins
of Babylon. The city is greatly spread out owing to the
fact that nearly every house is surrounded by its garden
42

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THE RUINS OF BABYLON 43
of palms, lemon, orange and pomegranate trees. The city
f Hillah is divided into two parts by the Euphrates,
across which a pontoon bridge is thrown.
The city occupies the site of the ruined city of Baby
lon, which was explored at a comparatively recent date,
1848, by Layard. From that time, thanks to discovering
the key to the cuneiform inscriptions, the archaeologists
have been able by deciphering the many cylinders and
other inscriptions found in the excavations to get a pretty
clear idea of the peculiar but high culture achieved at
that epoch. The cylinders that are found in such num
bers are generally contracts of sales and give the date
and name of the king during whose reign the transaction
took place. These cylinders can be bought anywhere in
Bagdad and Hillah, but an amateur can easily get a
worthless purchase, as they are cleverly imitated.
Even if a genuine one is bought its intrinsic value depends
upon whether the date and the name of the king men
tioned throw any new light on already known dynasties
or events.
The city's history practically begins with the royal
house called the Dynasty of Babylon, consisting of eleven
kings who reigned in all about 290 years, beginning ap
proximately 2,000 years before Christ. Babylon reached
the apogee of its glory during the reign of Nebuchad
nezzar. According to Herodotus, who lived a century
later, the city was built on both sides of the river in the
form of a square, each side being nearly sixteen miles
long. It was surrounded by a moat and wall, the latter
pierced by 100 gates ; the walls were 87 metres high and
17 broad. All the principal buildings were constructed
of bricks made with bitumen. These bricks bore Nebu
chadnezzar's name in cuneiform character and according
to archaeologists belong to two periods, the beginning
and end of Nebuchadnezzar's reign. Bitumen was

44 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
brought, according to Herodotus, from Isa, the modern
Hit on the Euphrates. Bricks with Nebuchadnezzar's
seal are to be found in many towns, Kufa, Bagdad and
other places, where they are brought from the ruins of
Babylon. In 1892 the Turkish Government with the help
of French engineers turned the waters of the Euphrates
back into their former bed that they had left for a distance
of several hundred miles. In forming dams for this work
these bricks were used, a fact that will probably cause
much discussion and confusion among archaeologists of
the future centuries who may discover this work. I hap
pened to visit this place and saw the engineering work,
in which several thousand Arabs were employed. Their
camp at night presented a most unique sight; there were
no tents or huts for so many, and as the Arabs are very
sensitive to the cold, when the nights became cool each
man dug himself a hollow, and buried himself for the
night all but his head in the warm sand. The result
was that on a moonlight night the camp looked like a
huge field covered with melons.
The ruins of Babylon impress the traveller by their
vast extent ; not that there are buildings or walls or gates,
but that for hours one can ride over mound after mound
that was once the site of a building. The largest of these
mounds are four. The first, to the southeast of Hillah, is
called Birs-Nimrod, or the Tower of Nimrod, identi
fied, possibly erroneously, with the Tower of Babel,
"whose top was to reach to heaven," and where the
miracle of the confusion of tongues took place. This
mound is 195 feet high, and all that is left of the wall of
the tower are 36 feet in height. According to Strabo the
height of this tower was about 600 feet. During the
reign of Nebuchadnezzar the tower was called the Seven
Spheres and was used as an observatory.
The second large mound, south of Hillah on the left

THE RUINS OF BABYLON 45
bank of the river, is called Babel, " the gate of the gods."
This heap of ruins has served as a brick quarry for the
last two thousand years. The Arab tribe of Babel, con
sidered by some to be the descendants of the ancient Baby
lonians, has enjoyed the exclusive right of selling the
ancient bricks excavated from this mound for use as
building materials.
The third mound, Kasir, or Palace, is also to be found
on the left bank of the Euphrates. There are here traces
of a huge palace of the time of Nebuchadnezzar. This
mound is no less than 4,875 feet in circumference.
Lower on the same bank is the fourth mound, called
Amran, where the famous hanging gardens were supposed
to have been. After the time of Alexander of Macedon
this was used as a burial place, the dead being placed in
arched galleries upon which it is supposed the hanging
gardens were constructed centuries before, in the form
of terraces. Here is shown one of the many tombs of
Abraham, over which, at a late date, a mausoleum,
crowned by a cupola, has been erected.
From a distance all these mounds look like low hills
rising out of the flat desert. On examination they seem
to be heaps of rubbish with only here and there a bit of
wall or tower that has been disclosed by the excavations.
To gather any just impression of the extent of these
mounds one must remember that Babylon had a length
of about 16 miles on each of its four sides, representing
an area of 256 miles. The excavations carried on here
have not given us great results in stone monuments, as
in this alluvial plain stones were not to be had, but were
brought from Persia, Egypt and Arabia. This explains
the clay cylinders, mentioned above, which have been the
principal means of casting light upon the darkness of the
far past. American and German archaeological expedi
tions are making excavations in these districts and are

4.6 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
constantly making new and valuable additions to our
knowledge of the history of this country.
To dwell upon the wonderful work done by archaeol
ogists of various nationalities, here and in other parts of
Mesopotamia, would take me far beyond my knowledge
and the modest range of this book. If I have mentioned
Babylon at all, it is only to speak of it as we saw it, with
the interest that such historical places must have for all
travellers. Turning our backs to the Euphrates we start on the
last stage of our expedition, which is to visit the Him-
rin Mountains before the rainy season sets in. This range
runs along the Persian frontier for almost three hundred
and fifty miles until the point where the Tigris receives
its left tributary, the Little Zab. The hills rise on an
average only some five hundred feet, and are inhabited
by Kurds, an interesting people with whom we had al
ready become acquainted in Persia. The way is long,
as we intend to make a detour to visit the ruins of Aker
Rouff, known to the Arabs as " the palace of Nimrod."
These ruins disappoint us, as they are only groups of
huge formless pillars rising to a height of some hundred
and forty feet, and built of sundried brick between which
are occasional layers of reeds. Approaching the Himrin
range, we enter the Turkish provinces of Suleimanieh,
Kerkouk, and Tauk, which are inhabited by Kurds.
The Kurds occupy an enormous area of nearly one
thousand five hundred square miles, stretching from
Ararat and Urumiah on the north down to the middle of
the length of the Tigris and the valley of its tributaries,
the Little and Great Zabs. The mountain region inhab
ited by them touches the Russian frontier, then follows
the Perso-Turkish frontier south, and it is a more or less
inaccessible mountain region, watered by streams that
secure good pasturage for the flocks of sheep kept by all

THE RUINS OF BABYLON 47
Kurds. Though possessing villages in which they spend
the winter months, the Kurds are half nomads, following
their flocks as they need change of pasturage. The coun
try occupied by them, and known as Kurdistan, lies as
seen partly in Persia, partly in Turkey. Being for many
months of the year quite inaccessible it has been possible
for those people to preserve even in our day their wild,
practically independent state, easily slipping from one
country to the other as their lawlessness makes it incon
venient to remain in the one. Kurdistan is so divided that
a greater number of the Kurds live in Turkey and the
smaller number in Persia. The frontier between the two
countries was settled in a treaty drawn up in 1639 by
Sultan Murad IV. and Shah Sefi, and later on it was
more definitely traced by a special commission including
Russian and English delegates, that was formed after the
treaty of Erzerum in 1851. The result of this last com
mission was the establishment of a status quo that has of
late years given rise to much controversy.
In Turkey the Kurds are mostly settled on the plateau
of Van and the vilayets of Diarbekir and Erzerum,
Mosul, and in parts of Bagdad. In Persia they are the
predominating inhabitants of Soujbulak and Ushnuk and
Kermanshah. In Turkey they are estimated to be about 1,500,000 and
in Persia 600,000. In Persia Kurds are found in the
provinces bordering upon Transcaspia, the provinces of
Khorasan, Budjnurd, Kachan and Derigez, where they
number as many as 300,000 souls. They were brought
to these provinces from Kurdistan in 1600 by Shah Abbas
as a counter barrier against the Turkish tribes inhabiting
the plain of what is now Transcaspia. Aside from these
places Kurds are to be met with elsewhere, but here I will
speak only of the tribes that are in Kurdistan proper.
The Kurds call themselves Kurtmanchi. The Turks

48 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
and Persians call them Kurds, and the Arabs Kart — Ekart
the plural. They have been in these provinces from time
immemorial, and Xenophon speaks of them as Karduks.
Always a lawless and warlike tribe, these people are a
constant menace to their Christian neighbours, the moun
tain Nestorians and Armenians.
Kurds are divided into sedentary, or Huran, as they
are called in Persia, and Ria in Turkey, and the nomadic
warriors, Kermanie. The nomads are broken up into
many subtribes, governed by begs, or sheikhs, whose
local authority is far greater than is that of Arab sheikhs.
Kurdish warriors are born horsemen, far excelling the
Arabs in this respect. Their horses are undoubtedly of
Arab origin, particularly in those parts near Arab coun
tries, but horse-breeding is not carried on with them as
with the Arabs, nor do they esteem the breed as much as
they do the individual animal. These horses have de
veloped a special type and become a strong shaggy ideal
mountain pony, scrambling up steep hills with the sure-
footedness of the mountain goat. Since the time of the
Russo-Turkish war the Kurds are well armed with Mar
tini-Henry rifles, from which at full run they seldom fail
in hitting the mark. They can execute with great grace
and skill many feats of horsemanship, and present valu
able and rare material for cavalry. Their robber instinct
is strongly developed, and a traveller in Kurdistan may
consider himself fortunate if robbed but once. If no re
sistance is made, Kurds seldom kill their victims, satisfy
ing themselves with booty.
The various tribes are often at war with each other
on the ground of blood feuds. The Kurds are an inde
pendent, hospitable people, loving their liberty and true to
their given word, or to " bread and salt." Their women
have more freedom than those of any other Moslem
people and go about with uncovered faces even in the

THE RUINS OF BABYLON 49
presence of guests. They, however, have heavier work
laid upon them than have those of most Mohammedan
countries. On the whole, in spite of their being a nation
of robbers, they have many noble qualities that raise
them above the Arabs.
The Kurdish costume is very picturesque. It consists
of full, white, or highly-coloured trousers, embroidered
jackets and mantles. They are fond of bright colours, but
harmonise them so well that the result is pleasing to the
eye. A Kurdish warrior is a walking arsenal ; daggers,
revolvers and sword are in his belt; cartridge belts filled
with cartridges are sometimes worn across both shoulders,
a quick-firing rifle slung over the back, and when
mounted a spear is almost invariably carried. Their
language belongs to the Aryan group, but it has been con
siderably modified by the introduction of words from
languages of the countries where the peculiar circum
stances of their life have thrown the Kurds — in Tur
key, Persia and Transcaspia. Among the latter many
Russian words are found. The Arabic characters are
used in writing.
In spite of their being scattered over three empires,
the Kurds preserve a close connection between the various
tribes and are capable of uniting when occasion arrives,
as was shown in 1880 during my sojourn in Persia when
Sheikh Obeidullah invaded that country.
The Russo-Turkish war was just ended and the Kurds
found themselves well supplied with rifles that had been
in part given to them by the Turkish Government, whose
allies they were during the war, and partly picked up on
the battlefield. At the opportune moment an energetic
and popular man appeared in the person of one of the
Kurdish sheikhs, Obeidullah by name, who, uniting the
Kurds, dreamed of \ founding an independent Kurdish
kingdom — an enterprise full of risk, and which of course

50 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
was not successful, though it gave a great deal of trouble
to Turkey, and still more to Persia, causing the ruin of
whole villages and the loss of thousands of lives. Sheikh
Obeidullah was a remarkable personage. He lived in
Turkey a few miles from the Persian frontier in the
mountain fastness of a place called Mams-i-deen. Being
a sheikh and at the same time a sayid and a man of more
than ordinary force of character, he possessed great in
fluence, not only over his own tribes, but over all the tribes
of Kurdistan. He held a daily durbar, seated in the
summer in the open window of a room on the ground
floor of his " palace," and everyone, to the meanest of his
subjects, could have a personal hearing. As many as six
hundred Kurds would sometimes gather from all parts of
Kurdistan for advice, some to have tribal disputes settled,
or other complications adjusted. To all of these the
sheikh listened patiently and attentively, and his wide
spread popularity was largely owing to the impartial
justice, so rare in the East, that he meted out, together
with the broadest hospitality and generosity. He fed all
those who came to him on business, helped the poor and
gave a refuge to the weak and oppressed. If illness or
absence prevented his attending these daily durbars, the
duty was relegated to his son.
Carefully laying his1 plans, Sheikh Obeidullah per
suaded the most influential Kurdish sheikhs of Turkish
and Persish Kurdistan to join him. Among them was
Sheikh Hamza Agha, well known for his cruelty, who
had his old scores against the government. To under
stand what follows it is necessary to bear in mind that that
part of Azerbaijan adjoining the Turkish frontier is the
plain of Urumiah with a Christian population of Nesto-
rians, or Syrians, supposed by many to be the followers
of the Bishop Nestorius condemned for heresy by the
Council of Ephesus in 431. By a strange coincidence,

THE RUINS OF BABYLON 51
these Nestorians are scattered as are the Kurds on both
sides of the frontiers, so that there are Nestorian Turkish
subjects, and Nestorians under the Persian Government.
The Persian Nestorians, estimated at about 40,000, live in
the districts of Urumiah, Salmas, Sulduz, Baradost, Ter-
gawar and Mergawar. In some of these districts Ar
menians are scattered, to the number of about fourteen
thousand souls. The rest of the population consists of
Persian Shiites and Kurdish Sunnites. In September,
1880, the Turkish Kurds crossed the frontier, seizing the
towns of Ushunuk and Soujbulak and Miandaub, and on
their devastating march laid waste scores of villages, kill
ing thousands of Christians and Shiite Persians. Sheikh
Obeidullah himself at the head of eight thousand war
riors laid siege to Urumiah, that was saved only through
the personal influence of an American missionary physi
cian, Doctor Cochran. The latter succeeded in persuad
ing the sheikh to postpone the final assault upon the city,
thus giving time for the Persian troops sent from Tabriz
to arrive, and the Kurds were repulsed. The sheikh him
self, owing to his friendship for Doctor Cochran, did all
in his power to protect the Christians, and mercilessly
punished those of his fierce followers who were caught
pillaging or murdering them. But he was powerless to
wholly hold in check his wild savages, who under the
influence of fanaticism, revenge, and lust of gain could
not be held back from committing indescribable outrages.
The invading horde gradually approached Tabriz, the
principal commercial centre of the province as well as
seat of the heir to the throne. A panic seized Tabriz,
and all those who could do so fled. In Teheran the truth
was as much as possible withheld from the shah until
the Russian and English representatives laid before him
all the danger of the situation. A force of twenty thou
sand was at once sent from Teheran to Tabriz under the

52 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
command of the ex-minister of war, Sepah Salar, who at
that time, not being in favour with the shah, was occupy
ing the modest post of governor of Kasveen. At the same
time Tamur Pasha, the ruling khan of Mak, a province
bordering on Russia, marched to the rescue of Urumiah
at the head of five thousand men, while at the shah's re
quest the Russian troops moved to the frontier. All this,
particularly with the menace of the Russian troops, led
to the Kurds gradually withdrawing to the Turkish fron
tier. As the Kurds evacuated the country, the Shiite
population began to take vengeance upon the Sunnites
living among them who had taken the part of the Kurds,
their co-religionists. Tamur Pasha's men and finally the
regular Persian troops joined in this pillaging and massa
cre, so continuing the ruin of the country. The Persian
troops went into winter quarters along the Persian-Turk
ish frontier. Under pressure brought to bear by the
European powers the Porte ordered Sheikh Obeidullah
to Constantinople, where he was received with great
honour and a palace placed at his disposal. During the
Ramadan fast, the sheikh, under the pretext of praying
and fasting, withdrew entirely into the privacy of his own
apartments. And at the close of Ramadan he was found
to be again in his native land! This time it was with
great difficulty that the Porte succeeded in taking him,
and he was exiled to Mecca, where he died in 1883. Most
of the other rebellious Kurdish sheikhs, among them
Hamza Agaby, were taken by the Persians by guile and
put to death.
The Kurds living in the Sinjar Mountains differ some
what in their language and Customs from those living in
the north. In addition they belong to a sect called Yezidis.
The followers of this sect can hardly be termed idolaters,
Moslems or Christians, though in their belief are clear
traces of all these religions. The Mohammedans despise

BIRS NIMROD, OR TOWER OF NIMROD

THE RUINS OF BABYLON 53
them as the followers of Yezid, who killed Hassan, and
the Christians not without reason consider them to be devil
worshippers, while both attribute mysterious ceremonies
and orgies to them. The Yezidis on their side hate the
Mohammedans, and the Turkish Government has never
been able to get them to serve the military term. They
occasionally appeal to Christian missionaries, asking to be
admitted nominally to some Christian community, with,
however, the right of continuing their secret ceremonies.
The Yezidis are more inclined towards Christianity than
towards Mohammedanism, with which religion the only
point of contact is their esteeming Mohammed as a
prophet. The Yezidis never call themselves other than
by the name of the tribe to which they belong. Further
more, even the derivation of their name is a mystery.
Some consider it to be from Yezid, the name of the kalif
who caused the death of Hassan and1 Hussein, others
from the town of Yezd, and a third theory is that it is
taken from the Persian word Yazdan — God.
As nearly as it has been possible to learn their doctrine
it seems that the Yezidis believe that in the beginning Gotf'
created from his own essence the sun, moon, stars and
angels. The devil, also created by God, rose in rebellion
and was cast out. After suffering for seven thousand
years, and filling seven vessels with tears of remorse, the
devil repented. These tears will on the great day of
judgment be used to quench seven fires. God finally for
gave the devil and restored him to his place among the
angels. Upon this theory they base their authority for
worshipping God, the sun, moon and stars as well as the
devil. It is easy to trace the influence of the old Persian
fire-worshippers in the Yezidi worship of the sun as the
origin of all good and of the devil as the representative
of evil. The heathen dualism here seen in the worship
of both good and evil is founded on the principle that as

54 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the good from its very substance does not need propitia
ting they attempt only to propitiate the representative of
evil in the form of the devil. This is the cause of their
being ready to kill anyone who speaks slightingly of the
devil. They themselves not only avoid pronouncing the
word devil — Sheitan — but any word or sound that may
resemble it — they even avoid, if possible, the sound " sh."
When obliged to mention the devil they try to get around
using his name, substituting such vague phrases as "he
of whom ye know," " he who is despised by the ignorant
and foolish," or they call him Malek Taus, king of pea
cocks, the sacred symbol of the devil that is worshipped
by them.
The influence of Christianity is shown in their recog
nising Christ, though not as God's Son, but as an angel.
They even have a tradition to the effect that one of their
sect, wishing to lessen Christ's sufferings when on the
cross, drew out one of the nails. They also have a legend
telling how as soon as Christ was born he could speak
and even brought to life a man one thousand years dead.
Further, the Yezidis have a ceremony resembling that
of christening. The newly born child is laid on a metallic
tray on which is the image of the devil in the form of the
Malek Taus and thus is immersed in water. Another
detail reminding one of Christianity is the partaking at
certain times of wine called the " blood of Jesus Christ."
On receiving the cup, the hand of the bearer is kissed.
They also have something like penance. In case of a
quarrel, the one in fault is obliged to express his public
repentance. The Yezidis have a religious and a civil head. The
religious head of the Yezidis, their Pontifia maximus,
called the great sheikh, lives not far from Badri in the
village of Sheikh Adi. This title is hereditary. To him
are subject all the " pirs, " or Kavali, clergy that he or-

THE RUINS OF BABYLON 55
dains. It is worthy of note that up to 1875 the Turkish
Government accepted without appeal the decisions of this
religious head in all civil and criminal cases arising
among the Yezidis, and even his right to give the death
penalty was recognised up to the date when the Yezidis
in Turkey were included in the laws governing other
Turkish subjects.
These " pirs " are illiterate, which, however, is not an
obstacle to their fulfilling their duties in view of the ab
sence of all sacred books. Their prayers are handed
down from father to son verbally, and all their prayers
are repeated in a whisper. Prayer at sunrise is obliga
tory. They have no religious marriage ceremony. A
solemn worship of the Melek Taus is annually held in
some cave, which ceremonies — according to the Moham
medans — are accompanied by various orgies. These ac
cusations, however, must be accepted with certain reser
vations, as up to now no facts have been found to prove
these statements.
The Yezidis also sacrifice each year thirty sheep to Jesus
Christ and eighteen sheep to Mohammed. The clergy
are dressed entirely in black, and they alone have the right
to wear this colour. It is also forbidden to wear red and
blue, and most Yezidis dress in white. The funerals of
the clergy are accompanied by much gaiety, dancing and
music. The Sinjar Kurds do not differ in their ordinary life
from the other Kurds living in Persia. While the Kurd
ish Yezidis are to be found scattered throughout the south
west part of Kurdistan, one finds in its northern part as
well as in various places in Persia another sect known as
Ali Allahis, a branch of Mohammedans that is equally
despised by Sunnites and Shiites.
Ali Allahis are literally believers in the divine origin
of Ali, though they call themselves Ahli Allah — God's

56 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
people, or Ahli Hakk — the people of the truth. While
fulfilling the ceremonies prescribed by the Mohammedan
religion there is a decided gulf between them, as they do
not accept one of the chief dogmas of Mohammedanism,
the principle of pure and impure, nor do they recognise
the fasts, and in many other ways differ from the parent
religion. The foundation of their religion is a panthe
ism: the incarnation of God in every creature animate
and inanimate. This incarnation is particularly recog
nised in certain persons, as in the Old Testament patri
archs, Moses, Abraham, David and others, and later in
Christ. But they regard Ali above all as the incarnation
of God's greatest benevolence. All these chosen ones to
the number of one thousand and one are called " pirs."
Ali is by some identified with Christ, for which reason
the Ali Allahis call Christians their elder brothers. They
regard light as the highest product of the Deity — its
emblem. They believe in the transmigration of the soul
to endless time. Together with the rite of circumcision
they have a celebration resembling that of the Passover,
when they slaughter a lamb as a sacrifice to Ali and drink
grape juice.
Their sacred books are in Turkish writing, composed
by a certain Sultan Nahanie, who lived in the sixteenth
or seventeenth century. Polygamy is seldom met with
among them. They have religious meetings that are
accompanied by music and singing and also sacrifices are
offered. In regard to their veneration of Ali it appears that
according to their belief he above all others is the repre
sentative of God and therefore worthy of divine homage,
while Mohammed they regard as Ali's forerunner. Ac
cording to some scholars the Ali Allahis are supposed to
have been formerly Christians, but under persecution
nominally became Moslems, that they might conceal their

THE RUINS OF BABYLON 57
Christianity, and that while worshipping Ali outwardly
they really worshipped Christ. As time went on it is
supposed that their former faith was lost and finally
merged into the actual worship of Ali.
One should further add that the Ali Allahis are sub
divided into various sects, according to their preference
for one or another of their one thousand and one " pirs."
Unfortunately we must confess to as yet knowing very
little that is definite regarding this very interesting sect.

CHAPTER IV
EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD
The Plague Epidemics of the Nineteenth Century — The Diary of a
French Consul — Historical Route of Epidemics — A Dinner Spoiled
by Dread Tidings — Appearance of Cholera in Bagdad — Population
Flees — Life in the Desert — Arabs Attack Us — Punishment of Pris
oners^ — Return to Town — The Further Progress of the Epidemic —
The Plague of the Eighteenth Century in Constantinople Described
by an Eyewitness — Symptoms — Measure of Prevention — Treatment
— Depopulation Caused by Plague — Its Periodical Appearance —
Fanaticism One of the Chief Causes Making it Impossible to Fight
Epidemics.
Turkish Arabia has always been considered the home
of two of the scourges of mankind, the cholera and the
plague. Of these the latter was at one time almost endemic and
seldom a year passed without its breaking out somewhere
among the marshes of the lower Euphrates. But at times
the plague appeared in epidemic forms of such violence
as to cause devastations so overwhelming as to be difficult
for one who had never witnessed such scenes in the Orient
even to imagine. The severest outbreak of the nineteenth
century was that of 183 1, when the city of Bagdad lost
over half of its population. In 1849 and in 1877 the
plague again appeared, carrying off an enormous number
of victims. From that date, possibly owing to different
conditions of life, some regard to sanitary measures and
comparative cleanliness, the plague has not again visited
Bagdad. During such epidemics the only salvation was in fleeing
58

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 59
from the contaminated towns and villages into the desert,
and it is easy to understand the frame of mind and the
sufferings of those who fled, as well as of those who were
forced to remain in their homes.
We found in Bagdad several survivors of the great
plague of 1849, whose experience had left most vivid rec
ollections of the scenes they had passed through. One
of my acquaintances on whom we called one hot day re
ceived us in his deep dusky serdab, where he showed us
were buried with his own hands his father, mother and
several brothers and sisters. The servants had died and
there was no one left to help him, a lad, the only survivor,
to bury the last of his family. And I can vouch for this
being not an exceptional case for those dark days, and
under the floors of many still inhabited serdabs the
bones of the victims of the plague repose.
On account of the general exodus provisions were hard
to obtain in the towns and people were obliged to eat
whatever they could find. Houses and shops were for
saken, and it is stated that blooded Arab horses wandered
ownerless through the streets, picking their way through
the heaps of dead bodies, seeking for something to eat.
The dragoman of the French consulate, a worthy old
man who had lived through the plague of 1849 and had
also buried all his family, told us of a most pathetic diary
now in the archives of the French consulate at Bagdad
that was kept by the consul during that time. The diary
tells of the beginning of the epidemic; how it spread
throughout the city and finally attacked the French con
sulate and the monks. One after another all the monks and
the members of the consulate died, until the consul and
one servant alone remained. The diary goes on to tell how
the sole surviving servant went out in the morning to buy
provisions and did not return ; evidently he was stricken
down, and the writer had no one left to serve him, and at

6b LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the same time he complains of feeling badly himself.
Later on, he diagnoses his own case as the plague. The
final entry, in a shaking hand that rambles all over the
page, says : " I can write no more ! "
The cholera, too, is a frequent visitor in Turkish
Arabia. Some authorities even lean to the opinion that
the marshes of the lower Euphrates are capable of giving
birth to the microbes and that these epidemics are not
necessarily brought in every case from India, as was for
merly held. And it seems unreasonable to claim that
India is the only cradle of this disease when in other
places are to be found the same conditions of climate and
soil that give rise to it there. But according to my own
observations and from that of data gathered which I will
not enlarge upon, there is a great difference between the
cholera that had its origin in Turkish Arabia and that
brought from India, namely, the former is easily local
ised and does not spread, whereas that brought from
India travels by historical routes, so to speak, and spreads
with the rapidity of communication. Coming up by the
steamer from the Persian Gulf they follow the river and
caravan routes up into Persia and Russia and eventually
find their way into western Europe. This was the regular
route by which all the cholera epidemics entered Europe
up to the time of the opening of the Suez Canal, when the
epidemics have travelled by sea and reached Europe
sooner than by the old caravan routes.
It was in June, 1889, that we received in Bagdad Indian
papers telling of an outbreak of cholera there, but we
paid little heed, as the cholera is always in one part or an
other of that land. In a few weeks we heard of its being
in the ports. of the Persian Gulf, and about the middle of
August it appeared in Bassorah, five hundred miles south
of Bagdad.
It so happened that the day we received this news we

OUTSIDE THE CITY WALLS, THE SQUARE OF IMAM AZAM AND
THE CIVIL HOSPITAL OF BAGDAD

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 61
had a few friends in to dinner and were sitting on the
flat roof lighted by lamps and coloured lanterns, chatting
merrily. In passing I will remark that in Bagdad the In
dian custom has been adopted of taking one's own butler
when invited out. Each guest has his own man standing
behind his chair to serve him, or with fan in hand to keep
off the myriads of winged creatures that, attracted by the
lights, swarm about. There are few sights more pictur
esque than these prettily decorated European dinner tables
surrounded by white women in evening dress and the
dusky Goanese, in their immaculate white English mess
jackets, standing behind them with palm leaf or peacock
feather fans in their hands ; and back out of the circle of
lights the tall feathery palm trees rising against the
brightly starred sky.
During the dinner one of those present received a tele
gram informing him of the appearance of cholera in
Bassorah, and he, fortunately or unfortunately, showed it
to us. Instantly a change came over the gay company and
appetites most strangely vanished. Though we repeatedly
agreed to taboo the subject it was impossible to keep from
it, and one or another would constantly refer to what was
uppermost in all our minds. It was evident that the
shadow of the dread epidemic came over all those
present, some of whom we were not destined to meet
again. The climax was reached when at the end ice cream was
handed round. One after another declined, and amidst
the joking that met each refusal I whispered to our butler
to see that the ice was thrown away, that none of the ser
vants should be tempted by it. By the time coffee and
liquors were reached a little of the gloom had been dis
persed, and when the guests rose to leave we had almost
forgotten what had up to then been the chief topic of con
versation.

62 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
A few minutes after our friends had left the roof our
attention was attracted by a noise in the courtyard below,
and on looking down we could see by the light of their
lanterns our guests grouped at a respectable distance
about a prostrate and writhing form. It seems that our
unlucky Ahmed had not been able to endure the thought
of so much good ice cream thrown away, and rather than
have done it had seated himself and conscientiously made
way with what had been prepared for half a dozen per
sons. The results were most natural, as the physician we
called in confirmed, and the alarming symptoms had
nothing in common with the cholera. The rumour, how
ever, was spread that the first case of the dread disease
had taken place in our house, and the next day our street
was avoided.
Three or four more days passed, and in the poorer
quarters of the town one or more cases were reported, and
a few days later the epidemic had seized the whole of
Bagdad. At this time the heat was at its height, the ther
mometer rising to ioo degrees F. in the shade. Epi
demics of this kind are always fearful in Oriental coun
tries, but more so in Turkish Arabia than in some places,
owing to its intensitiveness and to the way of living, as
well as to the form in which the oooulation expresses
its grief.
During the hot months rich and poor sleep on the flat
roofs, and consequently one is very often an involuntary
witness of the sufferings of one's neighbours. And then
as soon as a native is dead all the women folks set up a
long wail, rising in the night air higher and higher while
with the hand they beat on their mouths; the effect is
weird in the extreme, and as the epidemic increased we
would hear sometimes first from one roof and then from
another the dismal cry go up, until our nerves were in a
state to make us easy prey to the disease. It proved to be

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 63
more than the inhabitants of the unfortunate city could
stand, and a wholesale exodus began to take place.
At this stage of the epidemic there were very few re
coveries, and cases were reported where death ensued in
three to four hours after the seizure. Often in the after
noon we would hear of a funeral of someone we had seen
the same morning in perfect health. It is not to be won
dered that a panic fell upon the city and everyone was in
spired with the thought to flee. Where to was not of
much consequence, nor indeed was there much choice;
to be sure the desert was open to all, but only along the
river banks could water be had.
Each party tried to isolate itself by camping as far as
possible from the others, and day by day a steady stream
poured out of the doomed city in spite of the great heat,
that made living anywhere but in the serdabs a misery ;
in spite of difficulties in procuring medical help or pro
visions of any kind, the only thought was to escape from
the empty streets, where hour after hour the only living
beings seen would be frequent groups of men hurrying
along carrying bodies, often in the sheet in which the
person had died, seldom in coffins; and to escape from
the nights on the roof in that stricken city where sleep was
made hideous by the frequent wails announcing a fresh
victim. In three weeks' time the epidemic had reached its
height, the grave diggers could not keep up with their
work and piles of dead accumulated in the cemeteries.
The greater part of the bazaars were closed, and at night
the river was dotted with the lights of the many guffas
floating down the river with fleeing families who took
advantage of the coolness of the night. The administra
tion was hampered in all its sanitary and quarantine ef
forts by the Moslem belief that all such epidemics are
sent as a punishment by God, to fight against which is

64 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
sinful. The natives continued to drink unboiled water
from the river as well as from basins and cisterns, and to
eat fruit and vegetables of doubtful quality. They con
tinued also to bring bodies from outside of the town for
burial within the walls, and when the police took severe
measures against this they tried in every way to smuggle
their dead in. One day the police found in a cart full
of vegetables for the market the unwashed body of a chol
era victim ! This event filled the cup of our long-suffer
ing, and we decided to leave the city. But where to?
Our only choice was somewhere along the banks of the
Tigris, and we set out to select an isolated spot. The
camp and our horses were taken out by land, and my wife
and I decided to go by river to avoid passing the grave
yards, where, in spite of constant work day and night,
iiodies were heaped up awaiting burial.
From our house to the water's edge where we took the
guffa was but a few minutes' walk, and yet in this short
distance we saw several bodies being hurried through the
streets to be laid in the grave without a prayer or service
of whatever religion they might belong to. Not the least
sad of those sad times were these hasty funerals and the
nameless graves that were the result.
And so we find ourselves seated on camp-chairs that
were placed in the guffa smoothly turning round and
round down the Tigris. On both sides of us the banks
are dotted with the campfires of those, who like us, have
escaped from the terrors behind. As we row on the
lights become fewer, and after passing dark banks for
some time the lights of our camp come in sight. We set
tle ourselves in our double Indian tent: the servants in
tents made by the Jews in Bagdad, Mendoza and Fer
nando as Christians having one apart from the Moham
medan servants. We also have with us, aside from our
town servants, some Arabs from the immediately sur-

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 65
rounding tribe to act as watchmen and to guard us against
their own and other tribesmen.
The next day we establish regular communication with
the city and something like a quarantine. We arrange a
regular course of diet for the whole camp, over the strict
observance of which I myself keep watch. We lay in a
provision of rice, buy sheep and fowls alive, and com
mence to drag out our miserable existence under the burn
ing sun far from any shade to protect our tents. It was
literally dragging out one's existence and not living. The
thermometer in our tent rose to 100° F., and then, our pet
monkey breaking it, we never knew how much higher it
might have gone. One became dizzy and faint from the
heat, and green circles seemed to swim before our eyes —
a bad sign! We kept cold compresses on our heads and
counted the hours till the setting sun would free us from
the worst heat. In the evenings we found relief sitting
by the water's edge. Just as twilight is setting in all the
life of the desert seems to come here for the evening
drink. Jackals would play fearlessly like dogs twenty
feet from us if we were quiet, not seeming to mind the
presence of human beings; or we would see duradji, sin
gle file, stepping carefully along the bank with out
stretched necks. As soon as darkness sets in the jackals
begin their concert. They were our greatest pests, as they
came insolently into the tents at night and carried off
everything they could eat, from chickens to boots and
shoes. As it grew darker an occasional guffa rising out of the
gloom would whirl silently past. Sometimes one would
half stop and a voice in the darkness would be heard ask
ing whose camp this was, and if we knew anything of
their relatives or friends, from whom they had become
separated. Sometimes we could give them no informa
tion, but occasionally we had bad tidings of those whom

66 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
we knew had fallen. One night we were hailed by a
guffa that proved to be full of Chaldean acquaintances
of ours. They told us that they were changing their
camp for the third time, as the cholera kept following
them, and in the last place they had left a child not yet
quite dead but for whom they knew there was no hope.
It cannot be said that these evening visitors added to the
cheerfulness of our life.
And so the days passed slowly and painfully. One
night we were aroused by cries that brought the whole
camp to its feet. We could hear the sound of running
and an occasional cry of "Here he is!" "Catch him!"
etc. It proved to be an attempt on the part of Arabs to
take off our thoroughbred Arab horses.
Horse-stealing is generally done in the following man
ner: A dark night is chosen by a party consisting of sev
eral individuals, stark naked and oiled with cocoanut or
some other vegetable oil in order to make themselves
slippery and hard to catch. They divide in two parties,
one approaching the camp farthest from the place
where the horses are tethered and there begin to howl as
jackals; the others lie in wait as near to the horses as pos
sible. If it is found that the watchmen are at their post
the first party betrays itself, and when the alarm is given
and all rush to that point, their accomplices creep up to
the horses and in the confusion often succeed in getting
them off. This time the attempt proved abortive, as our
watchmen were experienced and not to be easily caught.
As this was repeated another night I had the unfortu
nate idea of arming our watchmen with rifles, which a
few nights later I had cause to regret. The alarm was
again raised, but the shouting and running soon changed
to firing on both sides. On account of the intense heat
we were sleeping just outside of the tent and found our
selves at one time between the belligerent parties in the

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 67
direct line of fire with the balls whistling over our heads.
After perhaps a quarter of an hour, which seemed to us
in our helpless position to be hours, the firing slackened
and finally ceased. On calling the roll we found to our
surprise that in spite of so much noise no one was hurt,
and though we had kept off the attack not so much as a
prisoner had been taken. The next morning I decided
to take away the rifles and send for our dogs. Left in
Bagdad were my two pointers, about which as sporting
dogs the less said the better, but as watch dogs they were
matchless. A few nights after the dogs arrived they
gave the alarm and the usual shouting and confusion en
sued. This time, thanks to the two dogs, a prisoner was
taken. He was brought in triumph to the camp to be
judged by the watchmen and punished according to the
desert laws. I, however, stipulated that they should
neither beat nor torture him, to which they very reluct
antly consented.
The camp quieted down and for a long time we could
hear the quiet and apparently friendly conversation be
tween our watchmen and their prisoner. They all
seemed to take the night's work as a matter of course.
Kismet, that this time had spelled failure for the horse
thieves, might under other circumstances be their own
lot, and they were not therefore inclined to look upon the
prisoner other than as one whose luck had forsaken him;
the latter on his part accepted his fate as kismet and asked
for no mercy.
The next morning I saw our prisoner. He was quite
naked, squatting on his knees with his wrists tied to his
ankles. He was a young man with long braided locks
falling on his shoulders, and his face wore a calm expres
sion as if he were perfectly reconciled to his fate. As I
approached he bowed his head, avoiding my eye, and I
passed by in silence. Being sure that no real harm would

68 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
come to him, I considered it wisest to leave him to his
tribesmen, supposing that they would soon set him free.
What then was my surprise on leaving the tent a little be
fore sunset to find the poor fellow quietly sitting there in
the same forced position. It seems he had been kept all
day thus with his bare head exposed to the sun, an ordeal
that would have given anybody but an Arab a sunstroke.
I ordered him to be set free at once, the Arabs protesting
and saying that he might consider himself lucky if they
let him off by night-time. However, they untied him
and during the process lectured him as to the uselessness
of attempting another attack on us and advised him to
warn his fellows that a like reception awaited them if
they came. The prisoner continued to keep silent and
when they freed him rose stiffly and staggered off, and
for a long time I watched his diminishing silhouette
lighted by the slanting rays of the setting sun. Whether
it was that the hours spent in our camp were so vividly
described as to kill any desire on his own part or that of
his companions to risk another raid, the fact remains that
we were no more molested during our sojourn in the
desert. In September it became evident that the worst of the
epidemic was over; the number of cases reported each
day steadily diminished, while the number of recoveries
increased, and so, taking heart, the inhabitants of Bagdad
began to think of returning to town.
That we and all those with us safely survived the epi
demic was possibly owing to the strict control I kept of
the diet and drinking of the whole camp. But on our
return to the city we found that many of our acquaint
ances had fallen victims, and for weeks after we reached
home we kept discovering blanks in the list.
One of the saddest cases was that of a family we knew
well : the father, both children and several servants were

THE INTERIOR OF MOSQUE OF SHEIKH ABDUL KADIR

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 69
carried off within a few hours, and the wife and mother
returned alone to England, her native land, leaving all
she held dear buried in unknown graves.
But though weakening in Bagdad, the epidemic con
tinued with devastating march up the Tigris to Mosul
and northeast by the pilgrim routes into Persia and the
Caucasus. It was just the period for the pilgrims' return
from their sacred places in Turkish Arabia, Nedjef and
Kerbella, and in the great caravans the cholera made
enormous havoc. These caravans thus formed, so to
speak, artificial means of spreading the disease as fast as
they could travel throughout countries through which
they passed.
In conclusion, it will perhaps be interesting to mentior
the plague of the eighteenth century in Constantinople,
when it was a yearly guest in that capital, continuing from
seven to eight months annually and dying out only as a
cold season set in. We find very interesting material on
this subject in a work by D'Ohsson, who was Swedish
charge d'affaires in the last of the eighteenth century.
This book, which in every respect is a valuable one, is un
fortunately at the present time out of print and very dif
ficult to obtain.
This is what the author, who was an eyewitness, says
of these epidemics:
" It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the plague or
to find a remedy for this terrible disease. During the
past centuries learned men have left us many treatises on
this subject, but all their experiments and researches have
only led to theories and contradictory conclusions. These
epidemics, which in former times devastated all Europe,
have, in our day, apparently, become localised in the
East. Constantinople and Cairo are now their favourite
haunts, and the inhabitants of these cities suffer the most
severe epidemics. In the plan of this book does not enter,

yo LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
an examination of the influence that the diet and filth of
this city have upon the spreading of the scourge; nor the
effect of the damp atmosphere of Egypt, which is aggra
vated by the miasma emanating from the decaying vege
tation in the stagnant marshes that are formed by the
yearly overflow of the Nile. All our historical knowl
edge bears witness to the fact that the Greeks knew of the
origin of this disease no more than we. They called it
the sacred disease, owing to the powerlessness of human
help or knowledge, and they appealed to their gods, offer
ing them sacrifices.
" The Mohammedans, also crushed by their impotence
against the scourge and also knowing no more of its ori
gin or treatment, depended upon supernatural help,
bringing sacrifices, giving alms and offering public
prayers. Convinced that these epidemics were Heaven
sent on account of their sins, they considered all precau
tionary measures, such as were suggested by the example
and teaching of their European neighbours, to be sinful.
"The results of the study of this scourge during so
many centuries is confined to only learning its symptoms
and fatal results. Vomiting, headache, inflamed eyes,
hemorrhage, fainting, hoarseness, severe fever, buboes,
carbuncles, these are the characteristic symptoms of this
disease. There are, however, many cases that, owing to
individual idiosyncrasies or the degree of acuteness of the
seizure, present so many contradictory symptoms as to
puzzle and even lead astray the most experienced physi
cians. "Garlic, vinegar, opium, laudanum, perfumery, and,
according to some authorities, wine and liquors, are the
prophylactic remedies to be employed. Gruel, tonics,
treatment for softening the chest, these are the commonly
resorted to medical treatment. Bouillons are harmful
and blood-letting almost always fatal. The strength of

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 71
the illness is such and the poison thereof so severe that
persons seized are generally carried off on the third to
fourth day, and of one hundred cases seldom as many as
eight or ten survive.
" Buboes, the most characteristic symptom of the
plague, generally appear as swelling in the arm-pits, in
the groins or in the neck. Sometimes they are found on
the face or even in the eyes. Some unhappy ones have
as many as three, four or five, or even seven at a time.
Those who, thanks to a strong constitution, recover, have
the appearance of horrid skeletons and must follow a rig
orous regime to avoid a relapse of the illness, which is al
ways fatal. The fortunate ones who pull through are
not, however, guaranteed against a second attack, and
there have been known those who have had the plague
several times and have at last succumbed to it. Such is
generally; the fate of the leeches, Mohammedans and
Jews, who devote themselves to the plague-stricken.
" It is worthy of note that all thQse who have had the
disease are warned of a new outbreak or epidemic in the
towns where they live by pain in the scars of the carbun
cles and buboes. Children and young people are more
susceptible to the plague than those of maturer age, and
as observation has proved, especially in the capital, for
eigners, travellers and all recent arrivals are more likely
to be victims than are the natives. Another not less in
teresting observation shows what might be termed the
caprices of infection. Having been exposed a hundred
times with impunity, one may contract the disease when
apparently least exposed. Hundreds of people who visit
plague-infected houses, kiss their friends who are in death
agony, inherit their property, wear their clothes, even
furs, without any harm; while in other cases or in later
years a chance letter from distant parts may bring the
plague miasma that proves fatal.

72 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
"In Cairo, and particularly in Constantinople, this
awful disease reigns all summer, beginning generally
towards the latter part of April and ending only in No
vember. The temperature serves as a thermometer,
showing the rise and fall of the epidemic, which, gaining,
reaches its highest culminating point during the greatest
heat, and declines as cold weather approaches, especially
if the winter is not an extreme one in its cold nor too soft,
in either of which cases, as close observation has proved,
the epidemic again takes on new force.
"The secondary towns, as Adrianople, Brusa, Smyrna,
Salonica, Alexandria, Aleppo, Damascus, Bagdad, Bus-
reh and others, are visited by the plague at greater inter
vals, but on the other hand the epidemics are of greater
intensity in these cities and in the adjoining villages and
hamlets. The reasons for periodical outbursts of the
plague are unknown.
" It is impossible to picture or describe a town invaded
by this contagion. There are years when in six months
over sixty thousand are carried off in Constantinople
alone. Whole families are wiped out in from ten to fif
teen days. Devastation goes from house to house; the
weeping and mourning of one household, the constant
fear of others, the funeral processions filling the streets,
pale bluish faces met with at every step, the dying whom
one cannot always avoid, in narrow, dark and crowded
streets, stagnation in commerce and all business, the im
perative heritage processes that are daily made1 more
complicated by ever-occurring additional deaths, — all
these poison the existence of even those who cling the
closest to the dogma of fatality.
" The more intelligent of the inhabitants feel the need
of prophylactic measures, but they are powerless to fight
against the superstition of the majority and they have not
the courage to carry out such precautions. If some avoid

EPIDEMICS IN BAGDAD 73
contact with the actual patients they yet freely see the
other members of the household, those who care for the
patient, and even sleep in the same room with him. Thos(
who flee from an infected house to that of a friend or rela
tive take with them their clothing and bedding in a blind,
fatal carelessness. If one dies or recovers of the plague
there is no thought of destroying the bedding or linen nor
of cleaning the house. The greatest danger is that when
a person is seized with the disease, the belief in fatalism
keeps the relatives close by the bedside of the sufferer, by
their example teaching him to bow to the rod."
This is a picture that, alas, has changed little during
the epidemics of our day, and unfortunately not in Tur
key alone.

CHAPTER V
SUNNITES AND SHIITES, AND THE RELICS OF THE
PROPHET
Division of Moslem World into Two Factions — The Koran the Foun
dation of Islamism — Views Regarding Paradise and Hell — Chief
Factors towards Obtaining Paradise: Prayers, Fasts, Pilgrimages to
Holy Places, Alms, Sacred Wars; — Teachings Regarding Pure and
Impure — Ablutions — Daily and Special Prayers — Fasts — What are
Sunnites and Shiites? — Original Cause of the Division — Twelve
Shiite Imams — Imam Mehdi — Mudjtaheids — Their Importance
among the Shiites — Shiite Hatred of Abu-Bekr, Omar and Osman —
Result of Split in the Mohammedan Religion — Religious Wars —
Letter of Selim I. to Shah Ismael — The Passing of the Moslem
Holy Places from Shiites to Sunnites — The Persian Sacred Banner
— The Sacred Banner of the Kor — The Origin of the Prophet's
Sacred Banner — Its Passing into the Possession of the Turkish Sul
tan — The Significance of Sacred Banners — Sacred Garments and
Their Origin — Ceremony of 15 Ramadan — Two Holy Teeth — Holy
Beard — Mysterious Appearance in Various Parts of the Mohamme
dan World of Hair — Significance of These Relics — Inferior Relics.
The one hundred and sixty million followers of the Mo
hammedan religion are divided into two principal sects,
those of the Sunnites and Shiites, of which the former are
the dominant element in Turkey, Egypt, and Africa, and
the latter, in Persia, the Caucasus, Bokhara and India.
While based on the same fundamental doctrines, these
two factions differ in details that have given rise to un-
reconcilable disagreements causing enmity, not only reli
gious, but even political.
The basis of the Mohammedan religion — " Islam " —
74

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 75
is the Koran, which is composed of moral, religious and
political laws, given in blank verse and often expressed
in mystic form. Here one finds a mixture of Christian
and Hebraic influence. The Biblical patriarchs and
prophets are accepted, among them being Christ. " We
believe," says Mohammed in one of the chapters of the
Koran, " in God, and in him whom He sent to us, in him
whom He revealed to Abraham, Ishmael and Jacob and
the twelve tribes. We believe in the holy books that
Moses, Jesus and the prophets received from Heaven.
We make no distinction between them. We are the
mouthpiece of God."
The Koran is remarkable for its disconnected, frag
mentary form and absence of any system in its composi
tion. It is full of obscure passages giving rise to much
discussion among modern commentators. Of himself
Mohammed speaks only as of an intermediate between
God and man, which explains the fact that when Mos
lems quote the Koran, they do not say merely " Moham
med says," but " God sa>s." The Koran accepts the one
God without the Trinity. Angels as God's messengers
are: Gabriel, the inspirer of Mohammed, and the in-
scriber of the divine commands; Michael, the warrior
who guides the wars for the faith; Azrael, the angel of
death ; and Israfil, who will sound the trumpet to call forth
the dead at the day of judgment. Aside from the above
mentioned, the Moslems believe that two guardian angels
are given to each person — one to watch over his right
hand and to inscribe his good deeds, and the one on the
left who notes the evil. Angels are mortal. They must
have some time died, in order to rise on the day of the last
judgment. This day will be foreshadowed by many
signs and wonders in heaven and on earth. The last
warning will be three blasts of the trumpet by the angel
Israfil. After the third call the entire space between

76 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
heaven and earth will be filled with the souls of the dead,
that, being united with their bodies, will appear at the
judgment in a state of nakedness. The angel Gabriel
holds the scales and weighs the deeds, placing the good
on one side and the evil on the other. If one has injured
his neighbour, a corresponding amount of his good deeds
will be taken from him and placed to the credit of the
one injured. If he has no good deeds to give, then a
part of the evil deeds of the one he injured will be placed
on his scales. After this judgment comes the trial of the
bridge. All will follow Mohammed over the bridge
" El-Serab " that crosses the abyss of hell and is as narrow
as the edge of a sword. The faithful are led by a light
cross safely into Paradise, the unbelievers fall into Ge
henna or Hell. Between Paradise and Hell is a neutral
space, " El-Araf," a country deprived of rest and joy, and
is reserved for children and idiots, or such as have done
neither good nor evil, or such as whose evil and good are
of equal weight.
Hell is not represented as a place of everlasting tor
ment. By the grace of God it is possible to leave it
through the intercessory prayers of the holy or by the ful
filment of certain religious rites by them in the name of
the dead; as pilgrimages to Mecca.
Paradise is represented as a place gratifying every sen
sual instinct of man. In describing this Paradise, Mo
hammed, who was brought up in the arid desert, dwells
much upon descriptions of flowing water, and of green
gardens inhabited by women who never grow old.
When the true believer has passed through the various
trials and judgment and become purified of his sins, he
refreshes himself at the pond of the Prophet or the lake
of sweet-smelling water into which flows the river of
Paradise, the " El-Kansir." When the believer has
drunk of this water the angel Rizvan will open to him

SUNNITES AND SHIITES y7
the doors of " El-Djenet," or the garden of Paradise, the
ground of which is formed of wheaten flour perfumed
and scattered with pearls and hyacinths. Rivers of pure
water, wine, milk and honey flow between banks covered
with flowers and musk. In Paradise is also to be found
the tree " tuba," the branches of which are loaded with
fruits that bend themselves to the hand of those wishing
to gather them. The garments of the faithful sparkle
with precious stones.
Each possesses hundreds of servants who offer food and
drink of which one can partake without ever being sati
ated. Every true believer here finds, aside from his
earthly wives, seventy " hour-el-ayoun " — houris.
The interpretation of the Koran has given rise to an
enormous amount of literature, and its commentators are
the subject of not only theological but legal learning.
The Koran itself is written in Arabic, as are all prayers,
commentaries and judicial interpretations of the same.
The Koran is divided into chapters — "suras" — and the
chapters into verses. According to the teaching of the
Koran the principal factors towards gaining admission to
Paradise are prayers, fasts, almsgiving, pilgrimages to
sacred places and sacred wars — djakads.
Prayer can be offered only when in a state of purity in
the sense of physical cleanliness. Prayers otherwise of
fered are not only unanswered, but are considered as sin
ful. From this rises the necessity of ablutions which are
either general, " el-vezu," or partial, " el-husel." In the
absence of water, sand is permitted as a medium for clean
liness, " el-taeamul."
The teachings concerning water suitable for these ab
lutions occupy many pages of theological writings, as
well as the method of washing, from the shoulder to the
wrist or the reverse, and of the quantity of water to be
used.

78 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
From this basis rises the dogma of all existing matter
being divided into pure and impure, which occupies a
special place in theological teaching and in which are de
tailed all pure and impure objects, as well as certain
physiological functions and conditions after the perform
ance of which one is rendered impure. Among the in
disputably impure are human excrements, certain ani
mals, as dogs, swine, scaleless fish, bodies of the dead,
carcasses of all animals dying a natural death, unbelievers
— that is, those of other than the Moslem faith (Chris
tians, Jews), idolaters — intoxicating drinks and all that is
fermented. Touching any of these objects, or certain physiological
conditions also render a person impure. Clothing touch
ing an impure object, especially if the object be wet, be
comes defiled. In this case the garments must be washed
several times. This explains the reason of Mohamme
dans so carefully avoiding contact with Christians on a
rainy day. Our Christian servants always dreaded going
to the bazaars in bad weather, where they were avoided
as lepers. In many parts of the East one may notice the
lips of a Mohammedan moving when shaking hands with
a European. He is repeating the prayer for purifica
tion after touching your hand! This also explains the
fact that in former times all Christian or other than Mo
hammedan subjects were obliged by their Moslem ruler
to wear clothes distinguishing them, so that the true be
liever might avoid defilement. In Persia this custom ex
isted in the past century, and in Bokhara is now enforced
in regard to Jews.
And so having performed his ablutions, the Mohamme
dan begins his prayer. Prayers are divided into those
for every day, feast days, and prayers for special seasons,
for danger, earthquakes, etc.
Daily prayers must be performed five times a day at

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 79
stated hours, and are therefore divided into morning or
" Selat-ess-subh," which is performed just before the
dawn; " Selat-ess-zuhr," noon-time pra)-er; " Selat-el-
asr," the prayer two hours before sunset; " Selat-el-Ma-
grif,-" after sundown; " Selat-el-asha," between sunset
and midnight.
As the hour for prayer approaches Mohammedan
towns ring with the sound of the " muezzin " called from
the minarets in Sunnite countries and from the roofs of
mosques in Shiite lands. As the time for prayer ap
proaches even,- one goes to prepare for it; often in the
middle of a conversation, as the cry of the muezzin is
heard, a Mohammedan will break a half-finished sen
tence, saying apologeticalty, " It is the time of Namaz,"
and hasten off to perform his ablutions, returning to say
his prayer where he happened to be when the call came.
Wherever the hour of prayer finds him, the Mohamme
dan prays — in the shop, in the fields; without hesitation
he prays even in the street. During prayers the face
must be turned towards Mecca, called " Kebleh" or the
"centre." Most Mohammedans carry a little compass
to be exact in finding the point. During the prayer there
are prescribed numbers of genuflections and prostrations
when the forehead must touch the ground. For this the
Shiites use a "mohr" or "torba," a small clay tablet
about the size of a silver dollar, made of earth taken from
the tomb of some Imam. This tablet is placed on the
ground in front of the prayer, who during prostrations
touches it wTith his forehead. On the foreheads of some
Moslems, from frequent and vigorous prostrations, a dark
blue mark is formed, the unmistakable sign of a religious
fanatic. Most Mohammedans have prayer rugs that they carry
with them when on a journey. During prayers it is un
lawful to wear anything made of leather or of pure silk.

80 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
An exception to this rule is made for women. Also gold
may not be worn and gold rings or watches must be re
moved. For this reason true Moslems generally prefer
silver rings and watches, and one usually sees in Persia
the most precious stones in silver settings.
As to fasts, Mohammedans observe the entire month of
Ramadan, during which time they neither eat nor drink
from sunrise to sunset.
Pilgrimages to Mecca are obligatory on all Moham
medans, and aside from this, Shiites visit the tombs of
imams buried in Persia and Turkey. Almsgiving is
also obligatory on all believers. This is commanded in
the Koran in the form of benevolent donations and indi
vidual help. Secret benevolence is preferred to that
done in public. Aside from this, in the 12th verse of the
8th Sura, Mohammed ordains that one-fifth of all prop
erty is to go to the Prophet and to the poor. In the early
days of Islamism this one-fifth offering, " Humz," went
into a common treasury, " beyt-ul-mae," that was con
trolled by the people. There is also a certain sum paid
by every Mohammedan for benevolent objects. A cer
tain day, too, is set aside upon which almsgiving is or
dained. Finally, the last condition for obtaining Paradise is
" sacred war," which, during the first years of the propa
gation of Islamism, played an important role in the
spread of the faith of Mohammed. Formerly, at least
twice a year, sacred warfare was considered obligatory,
but in course of time naturally they became less frequent.
Holy war, or " djahad," can be proclaimed only by the
caliph, as the sultan, and by raising the sacred banner of
the Prophet. In the past century, however, djahad was
proclaimed several times without the sacred banner. In
Persia during the first half of the last century the sacred
war was carried on in a most original way. Each year

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 81
a fanatical mob attacked the Christian houses, breaking
the wine jars, and in passing did not neglect the oppor
tunity of robbing and pillaging the houses.
The above-mentioned religious requirements are com
mon to the Sunnites and Shiites.
The split in the Mohammedan world took place in the
first century of the hegira. The distinction between the
two sects is set forth in the definition of their names.
Sunnite signifies habits — rules of life. The Sunnites call
themselves thus as they accept the traditions handed down
by disciples of Mohammed, as to the sayings and teach
ings of the Prophet in regard to various points of cere
monials and religious laws which are not directly touched
upon in the Koran. The Shiahs or Shiites, on the other
hand, do not accept any traditions except those given by
the imams, i.e., Mohammed's son-in-law, Ali, and his
eleven successors ; and therefore they call them " sieh,"
or protestors, in favour of the truth.
The immediate cause of the disagreement was, however,
political. Mohammed died, not having appointed a
successor, though, as the Shiites affirm, he more than once
mentioned his cousin and son-in-law Ali as his chosen suc
cessor. Ali was, however, younger than his rival can
didates and did not possess such influence as they did.
While he was busy arranging for the burial of Moham
med, Abu-Bekr was chosen as caliph. Ali himself ac
cepted this nomination as he did those of the following
caliphs, Omar and Osman; following them Ali was
chosen caliph, but fell soon after at the hands of an
assassin. The followers of Ali(> however, look upon Abu-Bekr,
Omar and Osman as usurpers, and consider Ali to be the
only rightful successor, bringing as arguments his near
relationship to the Prophet and the fact of Mohammed's
having repeatedly in the hearing of the people named Ali

82 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
as his successor. This is the origin of the Shiite venera
tion of Ali and his eleven successors.
To this, too, can be traced the change in the formula
of their faith by the addition of the name of Ali to the
Shiite's creed. The Sunnite profession of faith, " There
is but one God, and his prophet Mohammed," becomes in
the Shiite mouth, " There is but one God, and Moham
med his prophet, and Ali his viceroy." This is the chief
distinction between the two beliefs.
In addition to this follows the Shiite veneration of the
twelve imams, whose fate was for the most part tragical,
as the greater number of them met with violent deaths;
Ali himself, becoming caliph in 660 A.D., was killed
five years later when praying in a mosque. He is buried
in Nedjef in the mosque called Meshedi Ali. His son
and heir, the second Caliph Hassan, was, at the instiga
tion of the rival political faction, poisoned by his own
wife; he is buried in Medina. His brother Hussein,
counted as the third caliph, fell in 681 in an unequal
fight at Kerbela, together with all of his sons except one,
Imam Ali, known as Zein-el-Abdeen, who was also sub
sequently poisoned. His tomb is in Medina. The same
fate was that of the imams following him: Mohammed-
el-Bager and Imam Jaffar, or Djaffar, buried in Medina.
Imam Musa-el-Kazema is buried in Kazmain near Bag
dad. The eighth imam, Ali-el-Riza, died a natural
death and is buried in the Persian city of Meshed. Imam
Mohammed-el-Djerad is buried in Kazmain. The tenth,
Ali-el-Hadi, is buried in Samara, near Bagdad; the elev
enth, Hassan-al-Askeri, is buried in Kazmain; and the
last, Mehdi, is buried also in Samara.
In the person of the Mehdi, the last direct descendant
of Ali, the line ended. B"ut the Shiites could not be rec
onciled to this fact. They sincerely believe that Imam
Mehdi is still alive, and with his life is connected the very

PONTOON BRIDGE ACROSS TIGRIS AT BAGDAD

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 83
existence of the world, before the end of which he will
again make his appearance, to convert all unbelievers to
the Shiite faith. His appearance will immediately pre
cede that of Jesus Christ and His struggle with the Anti-
Christ, "Dedjalem." For this reason Imam Mehdi is
called " Kaim" or " Imam akherie zeman," i.e., the Lat
ter-day Imam. From this belief rises the Shiite dogma
of Imamism, or the spiritual succession of the imams in
the persons of Mudjtaheids.
The Imam Mehdi, continuing his invisible existence,
makes known his will through the medium of certain
Mudjtaheids whose holy life and learning have made
them worthy of being the intermediary between the imam
and the people, giving to them the commands of the
imam. In this way each Mudjtaheid may be regarded
as an independent interpreter of the Koran. Each one
writes for his followers or " Mukabeids " rules to guide
their belief. The popularity of a Mudjtaheid is estimated
by the number of his followers, and in the history of Per
sia individual Mudjtaheids having over a million follow
ers are not rare. This, of course, leads to disagreements,
and to new sects that are so frequently formed among
Shiites. For instance, in the first half of the past century
the Mudjtaheid of Kazveen Mullah Mohammed Ali
publicly denied the existence of the impure in nature.
All the clergy rose against this doctrine, but they were
unable to do anything as he was a Mudjtaheid. Later
Mullah Mohammed joined the sect of Babis.
Mudjtaheids have always occupied a very important
place in the history of Shiite Persia. Being the direct in
terpreters of the Koran and God's will, they held and
are holding all the justice of the land in their hands, as
all Moslem law is based on the Koran. Hence the legal
and religious life of the people is entirely governed by
the clergy. As the interpreters of the Koran, the Mudj-

84 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
taheids are considered infallible, and their decision is not
questioned. In Persia formerly all legal power was in the hands of
the Mudjtaheids, the civil authorities acting only to fulfil
their decision. In criminal cases the sentence was car
ried out immediately, and frequently by the Mudjtaheids
themselves. In the eighteenth century the Ispahan Mudjtaheid,
Aga Seyid Bager, frequently fulfilled personally the of
fice of executioner, and often the condemned, knowing
that a repeal was impossible, begged for the privilege of
dying by the holy hands of the Mudjtaheid rather than by
those of the ordinary headsman. When the Kadjar dy
nasty came to the throne of Persia, these rulers gradually
took to themselves jurisdictory power in many indisput
able cases of civil law and crimes against public order.
At the present time the clergy are the judges exclusively
in cases pertaining to family life — marriage, divorce, and
crimes against the faith; in all disputed judicial cases
capable of being settled on oaths ; and finally such crimes
as are punishable by death, excepting those that are di
rected against public security, the punishment of which
is meted out by the civil authorities.
As a part of their veneration of the twelve imams, the
Shiites naturally introduced their hatred of the usurpers,
Abu-Bekr, Omar and Osman; against Omar, because he
was the first to dispute the rights of Ali. The abhorrence
in which he is held is shown by the fact that when his
name is mentioned a Shiite will always add, " May his
name be cursed." The day of his, death is feted through
out all Persia, his effigy subjected to all sorts of indignity
and finally burned, and his murderer, Abu Luhi, has a
monument erected to his memory in Kashan.
It can be easily understood, therefore, how the hatred
between these two sects continues, and that this division
has been a misfortune to the Moslem East, causing a series

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 85
of bloody wars ; persecutions of Shiites in Turkey and of
Sunnites in Persia; and sowing such enmity between the
too people as continues to the present time. This feeling
is fanned by the fact of most of the Shiite holy places be
ing in Turkey, which thus possesses the keys to three
great religions — Christian, Hebrew and Mohammedan.
During the wars between Persia and Turkey the Sun
nite ulemas issued special orders or "fetwas" in which
was promulgated the idea that the killing of one Shiite
was more meritorious than the death of seventy Chris
tians or any other enemies of Islam. On the other hand the
Shiites put their Sunnite prisoners to a lingering death
of torment. For this reason all peaceful contracts signed
by the sultan and shah begin with a clause annulling the
anathema against the first three caliphs and an agree
ment for freedom of religion for all Sunnites living in
Persia. The Shiites have been the ruling power in Persia only
since the reign of Shah Ismael Ardabeli, in the sixteenth
century, who anathematised Ayesha, the favourite wife of
the Prophet, as well as the first three caliphs. He tore
down all Sunnite tombs and places of worship and cruelly
persecuted such of his subjects as belonged to the Sunnite
sect Such an attitude toward Sunnites could not fail to ex
cite the indignation of Sultan Selim I,1 who in 15 14 de
clared war against Shah Ismael. This declaration was
in a letter sent by special messenger and is one of the most
curious historical documents existing, showing as it does
the Sunnite estimation of Shiites as heretics and rene
gades. This document is also interesting as a specimen
of the flowery style of the time, and the primitive rela
tions existing between the potentates of the East The
following is a translation of parts of this remarkable
episde.
1 Reigning from 15 12 to 1520.

86 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
" The Supreme Being, who is the sovereign arbiter of
the destiny of man, says in his writings1 that the truth is
only to be found in the Moslem religion, and all those
who seek salvation by any other means will be condemned
at the day of the last judgment. This God of truth also
declares that his decree is unchangeable and that all the
actions of men must be guided by him, and that all devi
ation from his path will be punished by fire and ever
lasting torment. Count us, Lord, among the true believers
who walk in the paths of salvation and who turn carefully
from the temptation of the infidels and the damned. May
the blessings of the pure and holy be upon Mohammed UI
Mustapha,2 Prince of two worlds, the Chief among
prophets, and upon all his disciples and descendants.
" The Ottoman monarch, the master of the heroes of the
age, equal with Feridun3 in force and might; of Alex
ander the Great in majesty and glory, and of King
Khvasrew in justice and mercy; the exterminator of the
unbelievers and idolaters, the destroyer of the enemies of
the orthodox faith ; the terror of tyrants and the Pharaoh
of the age, who breaks the sceptres and crowns of the
greatest Potentates of the world — the glorious Sultan
Selim Khan, son of Sultan Bayazid Khan, son of Sultan
Mohammed Khan, son of Sultan Murod Khan, gra
ciously addresses a word to thee, Emir Ismael, ruler of
Persia, the Sipchralar, or Commander in chief of the
royal forces, the Zohak* of the Orient, the Efrassiab5 of
the century, the Dara" of our days. To thee we write to
1 The Koran.
2 The title of the prophets.
3 The sixth king of the Persian dynasty of Pishadies.
4 The fifth king of the Pishdadian dynasty, a usurper and noted for his
cruelty. B The ninth king of the same dynasty, as unfortunate as he was cruel.
6 The last king of the same dynasty, Darius Codomannus, overthrown by
Alexander the Great.

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 87
make known to thee that the works of the hand of the
Most High are not the frail productions of caprice or de-
ris'on but contain an infinity of mysteries which are not
to be penetrated by human understanding. God himself
says in his holy book,1 'We have created heaven and
earth for a play.' "
Then follows a long resume of the perfection of man
— God's image and likeness upon earth — who is capable
of receiving Godlike knowledge from the holy book, that
is the Koran. Further on he shows that it is only by
closely following these teachings and keeping them pure
that everlasting happiness can be had in a future life.
After this Selim addresses Ismael Shah personally in the
following terms :
"But Emir Ismael, such bliss shall never be thine; for
thou hast turned thy face from the divine laws; because
thou hast left the path of salvation and the holy com
mandments; because thou hast broken the purity of the
Moslem dogmas; dishonoured, destroyed, the true cult
of God, and usurped the domains of the Orient unjustly
and tyrannically. For thou, rising from the dust, hast ele
vated thyself in an odious manner to a position of great
ness and magnificence; because thou hast opened to the
Moslem the door of tyranny and oppression; because
thou in thy unbelief hast joined iniquity, infidelity, and
the blasphemy of an impious sect; because, protected by
the mouth of lies and hypocrisy, thou hast sowed on
every side trouble and sedition ; because thou hast raised
the standard of godlessness and heresy; because finally
thou givest rein to thy caprices and passions, thy infamous
lawlessness; thou hast the sin of having unloosed the
sacred ties of the Mohammedan laws, in permitting the
profanation of virgins; the massacre of many virtuous
and respectable persons; the destruction of temples and
1 Verse of the Koran.

88 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
of sacred edifices; the demolition of the tombs of many
faithful and pure souls; despising ulemas, the doctors
and emirs, the issue of the Prophet's blood; and hast
anathematised the legitimate and venerable caliphs
Omar and Osman."
Further on he says that, as it is the duty of every Mo
hammedan to stand up in defence of his profaned reli
gion, he, Selim, has resolved,
" To exchange our Imperial ornaments for cuirass and
coat of mail, to unfurl our ever-victorious banner, to call
forth our invincible army, to draw our glorious arms from
the furnace of our anger and our indignation, and march
our troops, whose swords spare none, whose lances deal
mortal blows, and whose arrows pierce the enemy even
to the constellation of Sagittarius.
" In consequence of this noble and firm resolution we
have started on our campaign. We have crossed the
straits of Constantinople and are proceeding under the
shadow of the protection of the Most High. We hope
with his help soon to break the arms of evil and tyranny;
remove from thy head the smoke of greatness and heroism
which cause thee such dizziness; release the feeble and
oppressed from the weight of the cruel yoke of thy do
minion; and finally to suffocate thee in that turbulent
flame and smoke that are vomited forth from thy seditious
and demoralised deeds, and in this way verify upon thine
own self the proverb, ' He who sows thorns can only
harvest affliction and bitterness.' However, to conform
ourselves to the spirit of the law of our holy Prophet, we
would, before resorting to arms, present to thee, instead
of the sword, the sacred Koran, and to exhort thee to em
brace the orthodox faith : this is why we write thee this
Imperial letter.
" Every man has his own individual nature, and the

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 89
human race is as mines of gold and of silver. There are
people in whom the perverse character is as second na
ture and renders them incorrigible. Such are negroes,
who in vain try to whiten their skin. There are others
who correct themselves and rise above their errors, as in
them the evil is not deeply rooted, and by# attentive self-
restraint they mortify their senses, and suppress the
vicious inclinations of their natures."
He then calls upon Shah Ismael to repent and renounce
his religious errors, as well as the land that formerly be
longed to the Ottoman Empire. In conclusion he says:
"This resolution thou must at once take in view of
thine own self-preservation and felicity. But if, to thy
sorrow, thou continuest in thine errors, and carried away
by the idea of thy greatness, thy power and thy foolish
daring, if thou art obstinate in thy blind, iniquitous, and
perverse conduct, thou wilt soon see these vast plains that
are now in thy tyrannical and usurping hands, all adorned
with our tents and our brilliant ensigns, and all covered
with our victorious armies. And then will be fulfilled
what is decreed in the secret councils of the Most High,
who is the God of armies and the sovereign judge of all
human actions. Peace be to him who follows in the path
of peace."
This letter is to be found in the chronicles of Sayed-ed-
deen Effendi, the official historian of the seventeenth cen
tury. The wars that followed led to the Turkish occupation
of the then very considerable provinces of Diarbekir and
Kurdistan. Later the victorious expeditions against the
Egyptian Mamelukes brought under Selim's sway Egypt,
Syria, the Hedjaz, Mecca and Medina — the Mohamme
dan Palestine — together with the silver key of the Kaaba
given to the conqueror by the sheikh of Mecca. This

90 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
key is in the coverings that envelop the sacred banner
of the Prophet, that also passed into Selim's hands to
gether with other relics that are now in Constantinople.
These relics are the following:
The sacred banner of the Prophet, or Ukab-es-Sherif,
which was considered the most holy oriflamme of the
Prophet, as he possessed several, black and white. I will
notice in passing that in the pagan pre-Mohammedan
times, the tribe of Kureish, who guarded the Kaaba, also
possessed a banner called the " Eukab," from the name of
a legendary bird whose flight was swifter than that of all
other birds. But this banner is even more ancient. It is
traced to the period of the ancient Parsis, to the time of
the mythical King Zohak, fifth of the Pejdad dynasty, of
whom I had occasion to speak above. Zohak was, ac
cording to tradition, a tyrant of unrivalled cruelty, as each
day two human beings were put to death by his orders
and their brains used as a salve for sores that he had on
his shoulders. This continued until a blacksmith of Ispa
han named Kiab, whose two sons were killed by the shah,
raised a rebellion. In his grief he nailed his mantle to a
stick and raising it addressed a fiery speech to the people.
Zohak fled to Mount Damavand and the people offered
the throne to Kiab. The latter refused the honour and
proposed Feridun, Jamshid's grandson. This took
place at the period of the autumnal equinox, and from
that time the people commemorate the day as a " bairam "
or "Mehredjan." Becoming shah, Feridun, in grati
tude to Kiab, raised him to one of the most important
positions in the kingdom, decorating his mantle with
precious stones and making it the royal banner, calling it
" Derefshi Kiabenie," the standard of Kiab. From that
time the Persian royal standard has borne that name. This
standard was taken in 636 during the time of Omar in
the battle of Rodesi that ended fatally for Jazdedjir III.

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 91
The same position occupied by the standard of Kiab
among the Persians was in Mecca occupied by their
standard called the " Eukab," which they venerated.
Mohammed, therefore, had a clear understanding of
the importance in the eyes of the people, of standards, and
took one with him on all his expeditions. Of the origin
of the sacred Turkish standard the Turkish historian
Ahmed Effendi gives the following account:
" During his flight from Mecca to Medina, Moham
med, with two of his followers, performed many mira
cles. When his enemies overtook him, with one word he
dispersed some, and others he turned into his followers.
Among the latter was one named Sekhmi, who, from a
bitter enemy, was by a miracle (as in case of the New
Testament Saul) turned into a fervent follower of Mo
hammed. On the way, in a burst of religious fervour,
Sekhmi unwound his turban and fixing it to his lance,
presented it as a banner to Mohammed. This was Mo
hammed's first standard, and since then all Turkish stand"
ards have, in commemoration of the man, been called
" Sekhmi," making it a common noun. The standard
accompanied Mohammed in such battles as he took
part in personally, and it was with him when he occupied
Mecca." "After the death of Mohammed," continues the same
historian, "Abu-Bekr himself first gave the example of
deep veneration of this sacred relic. The honour of carry
ing the banner was given to the commander in chief and
it was entitled Eukab, or Sanjak-es-Sherif, the sacred
standard. Then the standard passed successively to the
caliphs of the Ommiads, in Damascus, then to the Abbas-
side of Bagdad, and finally to Cairo, and with the con
quest of Egypt by Selim I. was by him brought to the
Ottoman capital. This standard is covered by other
banners belonging to the Caliph Omar, then in forty cov-

92 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
erings of taffeta, and all of these are enveloped in green
cloth coverings. Perhaps this latter circumstance has
given rise to the universal belief that the colour of the
standard itself is green, whereas it is in fact of black wool.
Within these coverings is also laid a small Koran, writ
ten, as it is supposed, by the hand of Omar; also the sil
ver key of the Kaaba which was given in token of sub
mission to the same Selim I. The flagstaff of this ban
ner is mounted with a square knob in which is preserved
another Koran, written by the hand of the Caliph Osman.
When the standard first came into the possession of the
Turks it was kept in Damascus, the governor or pasha of
which, in his capacity of Emir ul Haj,1 took it with him
when he accompanied the yearly sacred caravan to
Mecca. But in 1595, during the reign of Murad III.,
the sacred standard was sent to Hungary as a stimulant
and encouragement to the army and people, and its ap
pearance among the Turkish forces did in fact have a
tremendous moral effect. During the next expedition
the grand vizier himself considered it the greatest privi
lege to carry it out of Constantinople. The entire court
and population of the city accompanied this relic as far
as the outskirts of the town. In the autumn it was again
returned to Constantinople, and the following spring Mo
hammed III., leading the army in person, took with him
the sacred banner, confiding it to the care of 300 emirs,
at the head of which was the chief " Kakeb-el-Eshrif."
From this period, following precedents set by Moham
med III., the standard was taken only when the sultan
himself or the grand vizier led the troops. A special
and luxurious tent was carried along for the housing of
the sacred relic. When the troops went into winter
1 The title of the person- to whom is confided the leadership of the " sacred
caravan " sent to Mecca with the sultan's yearly gift at the fete of Kurban
Bairam.

MOSQUE OF IMAM HUSSEIN

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 93
quarters the banner was removed from the staff and
packed away as it generally was in times of peace, in a
special box, during which ceremony prayers and incense
were offered. As this most sacred banner accompanies
the troops only under exceptional circumstances (during
the last war in the nineteenth century it was not taken
out), its presence acts magically upon both the army and
populace, exciting them to fanaticism. The standard has
not been used in any ceremonials since 1769. In this
year, March 27th, its being taken out for a certain cere
monial had the result of causing a massacre of Christians
in Constantinople, as the fanaticism of the public resented
its being seen by the eyes of any but Moslems.
The second relic is the mantle of the Prophet, " Kherki
Sherif." This is of black camelot, and was worn by Mo
hammed himself, who presented it in 630 H. to the famous
Arab poet Kiab-ibu-Zakhir as a reward for a poem writ
ten by the latter in praise of God and his prophet. The
Caliph Unavia I. bought this garment from the descend
ants of Kiab and it then passed from the Ommiads to the
Abbassides, was preserved in Cairo and together with the
holy standard passed to the Turks under Selim I. This
holy garment is preserved in forty bags of rich material.
It is opened once a year, the 15th of Ramadan, and the
ceremony is a very solemn and gorgeous one, at which
the sultan himself is present standing, and all his minis
ters and commanders.
The keeper of the imperial seal stands close to the
sacred garments, and next to him one of the chief digni
taries of the court, who holds a pile of muslin towels.
One after another in order of rank all those present go
forward and kiss the sacred garments ; the keeper of the
seal immediately wipes the spot kissed with a towel, which
he then presents to the one who has just had the privilege
of kissing the holy relic.

94 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
After this ceremony is over, certain of the mufti and
Hakeb-el-Eshrif wash in a large silver basin that part
of the garment that has been subjected to the kissing.
The water in which it was washed is poured into flacons
and sent to different members of the court and persons
of high standing. During the remaining fifteen days
of the fast — Ramadan — a few drops of this precious water
is added to the water with which they break the fast, for,
as is known, the Mohammedan fast comprises absolute
abstinence from all drink, as well as food, from sunrise to
sunset. But of this full details will be given in another
chapter. This mantle is not the only one remaining after the
Prophet's death. There is another which, according to
tradition, was bequeathed by Mohammed before his
death to one of his followers, Uveis-el-Apemie. The de
scendants of Uveis treasure this mantle of coarse woollen
stuff, and it is passed down to the eldest in each genera
tion. This family has lived for nearly 400 years in Con
stantinople. The owners of the mantle bear the title of
Kirkai Sherif, or the Sheikh of the Holy Mantle. This
garment is also exposed during the last fifteen days of
Ramadan for the veneration of the faithful who bring
their offerings. The edge of this mantle is also kissed
and again holy water is given out. The multitude press
ing to see this relic are the more numerous from the fact
of the populace not being admitted to the relics kept in
the Seraglio.
The third relic, " Seen-esh-Sherif," are two of the four
teeth that the Prophet lost during the battle of Ukhurdi.
One of these teeth is in the Seraglio, the other in the
mausoleum where is the tomb of Mohammed II. These
relics are shown to the people the holy night — Leilet-ul-
Kadr — the 27th of Ramadan.
Finally, the fourth relic is the " Lekheri Sherif," or

SUNNITES AND SHIITES 95
holy beard, more correctly a portion of the beard belong
ing, as is affirmed, to the Prophet. Mohammedans do not
like to speak of this relic, partly from a disinclination to
profane it by talking of it with one who is not a Moslem,
others from their inability to prove its authenticity.
However it may be, I know of three cases where pilgrims
returning from Mecca while in Constantinople were al
leged to have in some mysterious way become possessed
of one of the sacred hairs. One of these hairs was
brought to Tabriz in Persia when I was there, another
to Meshed, in both cases causing an enormous sensation
among the people. These hairs were placed in rich cas
kets and the people thronged in crowds to see them. The
third case was of interest in another way. In 1904 an in
habitant of Osh, in the province of Fergana, an ex-kadi
(judge) bought in Constantinople of an old woman one
hair of the beard of the Prophet. He intended going
from Batoum to Fergana, through the steppes of western
Siberia, to the province of Semiryetchensk, planning to
make a good profit from the easily duped people; but as
the casket that contained the hair was of very delicate and
rare workmanship the customs officials, detained it, de
manding a payment of 80 rupees1 duty. Unfortunately
the further fate of this particular hair is not known to
me. To the appearance of such evidently false relics the
local authorities seem quite indifferent, perhaps from the
fear of disturbances that might arise amono- the fanatic
people if they were declared false.
The historian quoted above, Ahmed Effendi, tells how
once when the Caliph Muhamed I. was presented with
a sandal which was said to have belonged to the Prophet,
he reverently kissed it and raised it to his eyes, ordered
the bringer to be rewarded, and told those about him
that, as he had no faith personally in the genuineness of
i$40.

96 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the sandal, he bought it only to prevent its getting into
the hands of those who would make an unprincipled use
of it.
I must state that none of these relics are the objects of
idolatry, nor are miracles attributed to them. They are
only objects of deep veneration, capable, especially in the
case of the holy standard, of raising a burst of wildest
fanaticism throughout the Mohammedan world.
Aside from these relics there are many others that are
with more or less justice considered to have belonged to
the Prophet. Among them are the armour and vessels
kept in the Seraglio at Constantinople, and the ancient
adornments of the Kaaba. These last were brought to
Constantinople in 1613 by a certain Hussan Bey whom
the Sultan Ahmed I. had sent to make repairs about the
Kaaba. He brought back with him also a golden plate
with pearls, rubies and emeralds which had adorned the
grave of the Prophet in Medina. In the place of this plate
diamonds of great value were sent. Then there are minor
relics, carpet, Sedjade, of the Caliph Abu-Bekr, the
arms of the companions of the Prophet, and the turban
of the Caliph Omar. In olden times all of these treas
ures were kept in the throne room, "takh odassi," and
finally were placed in a special mausoleum known as the
" Kherkai Sherif odassi," or the room of the sacred
mantle. In speaking of relics, notice should be made in con
clusion of the sacred footmark — " Kademi Sherif." This
stone, with a human footprint upon it, which is supposed
to have been the impress of the Prophet's foot, the Sultan
Mahmoud I. ordered to be placed in the mausoleum over
the tomb of Eyoub at the head of the Golden Horn.

CHAPTER VI
PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING OF BODIES TO THE
HOLY PLACES OF THE SHIITES IN TURKEY
Pilgrimages Obligatory to Moslems — Places of Worship Common to
both Sunnites and Shiites, — Titles of Meshedi, Kerbeli and Hadji
— The Mohammedan Calendar — Lunar and Solar Years — Names
of Lunar Months and Their Derivations — Formula for Transposing
Moslem arid Christian Eras — Pilgrimages of Caucasians and Per
sians to Holy Places found in Turkey — Unexpected Discovery made
by a Physician — Contraband Caravanserai — Suburb of Kerbela
— Ancient Canals — City of Kerbela, Population and Professions —
Torbas — Revenues — Treasures of Kerbela Nedjef — Mudjtaheids —
Occupation of Inhabitants — Cities of Cufa and Samara — Hadji
Mirza Hassan, Most Popular Persian Mudjtaheid — His Part in the
Abolishment of the Tobacco Monopoly in Persia.
PILGRIMAGES occupy a prominent place in the life of
Mohammedans in general, but particularly so among the
Shiite sect. Most of the sacred cities of the Moslems are
to be found in Turkey, and in this way the Turks hold the
keys to the sacred cities of three great religions — the
Christian, Jewish and Mohammedan.
The sacred cities of the Shiites in Turkish Arabia are
the following: Kazmain, Kerbela, Nedjef and Samara.
The one hundred and sixty million Mohammedans are
divided into two great sects, the Sunnites and Shiites. The
former are believers in the " Suni," or the traditional
teachings of Mohammed, to which they attach equal im
portance with the Koran, and which are not accepted by
the Shiites. On the other hand, the Shiites consider Ali,
97

98 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the Prophet's son-in-law, to be his rightful successor, and
the first caliphs recognised by the Sunnites, Abu-Bekr,
Osman and Omar, to be usurpers.
The Shiites hold as sacred twelve imams. The first of
the line was Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, who was
caliph from 660 A.D., but after five years was murdered
in the city Cufa when on his way to the mosque to pray.
He is buried in Nedjef, in the mosque of Meshedi Ali.
His son and successor, Hassan, was poisoned by his own
wife, instigated by the rival political faction. He is
buried in Medina. His brother, Hussein, the third
imam, fell in an unequal fight, together with all his sons
excepting one, Imam Ali, known as Zein-el-Abdeen. Tt
is the tragic death of Hussein that is mourned by the
Shiite world during the month of Muharram.
His son, the only survivor, Imam Ali, was also a victim
to poisoning and was buried in Medina. The same fate
fell to his two successors, Imam Mohammed, known as
El Bager, buried in Medina, and Imam Jaffar, called El
Sadiff, whose tomb is also in the same sacred city.
Imam Musa, or El Kadim, is buried in Kazmain and
his mosque has been described in a former chapter. The
eighth imam, Ali-el-Riga, died a natural death in the chief
town of Khorasan, Meshed, in Eastern Persia, where he
is buried. Imam Mohammed-el-Djerad, buried in Kaz
main, was the ninth imam. His successor, Ali-el-Hadi,
is buried in Samara, near Bagdad. Then follows Imam
Hassan-el-Askeri, buried in Kazmain, and finally
Imam Mehdi, the twelfth in number and buried in Sa
mara. He is called the imam of the last days, as the
Shiites believe that he will appear together with Jesus
Christ at the day of judgment.
From the time of Imam Ali began the split in the Mos
lem world, forming the Sunnite sect and that of the
Shiite, the followers of the imams. The tragic end of

PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING BODIES 99
many of the imams increased the bitter feeling which ex
ists down to the present day and which is fanned by the
fact of so many of the sacred places of the Shiites being
found in Turkey, a Sunnite empire. The geographical
division of these two sects may be given in general terms
as follows :
The Shiites form the majority in Persia, the Caucasus
and India, while the Sunnites predominate in Turkey, the
Crimea, Central Asia, Western China and Africa.
Pilgrimages are obligatory in the Moslem religion,
and those undertaking them are sure of an easy entrance
into Paradise. Mecca and Medina are the chief places
for both sects equally, but in addition the Shiites have
the following: Meshed, in northeastern Persia, where
Imam Riza is buried, and the cities of Kazmain,
Samara, Kerbela and Nedjef, in Turkish Arabia. Cer
tain places of pilgrimage give titles to those visiting
them. These in order of consequence and rising order of
importance are the right of prefixing to the name of one
having been to Meshed " Meshedi " ; " Kerbeli " to one
who has been in Kerbela; and finally " Hadji," the high
est reward for the pilgrimage to Mecca. In this way an
Ahmed may, during a long lifetime, be known succes
sively as Meshedi Ahmed, then Kerbeli Ahmed, and
finally, to the end of his days, as Hadji Ahmed. The
last title is the most respected, and when the caravan of
pilgrims return to their native lands the inhabitants of
towns and villages flock out to kiss the hands, and even
the clothing of those who have been worthy of making
the Hadj pilgrimage.
The Persian and Caucasian pilgrims go on horseback,
in caravans of from two hundred to three hundred each,
and march with banners flying and as they approach vil
lages chanting their sacred hymns. Their journey is from
five to six months' duration or more. Going to Kerbela

ioo LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
they cross the Turkish frontier at Khanakin, and avoid
ing Bagdad go direct to Kazmain to pray at the tomb of
Imam Musa and several of his successors buried there.
From Kazmain to Kerbela, fifty-seven miles from Bag
dad, and then to Nedjef, forty-six miles farther on. From
Nedjef a part may go on by camel through the desert to
Mecca. Others who have not the means return home as
Kerbelis. The long journey between Nedjef and Mecca is one
of great fatigue and hardships and as such is considered
the most pleasing to God, while those who fall by the
way, as so many do in each caravan, are blessed beyond
their fellows, as for them the door of Paradise stands more
than ajar. This hope makes the pilgrim face the terrors
of this march with a light heart in spite of epidemics,
fatigues, and other dangers of the desert route. Many
feeling that the end of their days is drawing near move
to Kazmain, Kerbela, Nedjef, Meshed and Mecca, that
the angel of death may find them already on sacred soil.
Pilgrimages are undertaken in stated months of the
Mohammedan lunar year; such months are Redjeb, Sha-
ban, Ramadan, Zelhadjie, Muharram and Safar.
When the caravans reach Turkish Arabia they gener
ally march at night to avoid the heat of day, and during
our wanderings in the desert we would often be roused
out of a sleep at night by the dong, dong of the camel
bells and the weird chanting of the pilgrims that rang
out afar in the deathlike stillness of the desert, and we
knew it was a caravan of pilgrims passing our camp.
But aside from the necessity of performing these pil
grimages, the Shiites have another belief, based on the
scholastic interpretation of their sacred writings. To ob
tain that Paradise which they hold not in a spiritual,
but material sense, it is sufficient if the body of one who
during his lifetime has not been able to make the pilgrim-

BAGDAD TYPE

PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING BODIES 101
age, be carried for burial in sacred soil. From this arises
the most pernicious custom of taking bodies for burial
to Meshed, Kerbela or Mecca, according to the means
of the individual. During the cool months, particularly,
one may meet long caravans going to Kerbela, the animals
laden with long narrow boxes, four to each horse. The
usual rule is to exhume the bodies for transport five to
six years after death, but very frequently this rule is not
carried out, and the bodies are taken but a short time
after death, or again many years later. Sometimes a
grandson will take the bones of his father and grand
father at the same time. The Turkish Government has
laid customs duties on these bodies and the revenue thus
obtained is considerable, for as many as ten thousand and
upwards are brought into Turkey annually. The Per
sians are so accustomed to this strange tariff law that they
look upon it as a matter of course.
To illustrate the peculiar morals of the rite I will cite
an incident told me by a European physician who had
been sent to study the pilgrimage routes from a sanitary
point of view. Entering Persia by Tabriz he engaged
two highly recommended servants, Persians, and started
down by the usual caravan route into Turkey. At Khan-
akin, on the frontier, where there is a sanitary post, the
usual customs examination took place in the presence of
the local .sanitary physicians. While the two colleagues,
Turkish and European, exchanged views unanimously
denouncing the dangerous practice of carrying so many
bodies through the populated countries, the customs of
ficials were busy with the doctor's baggage. With un
moved faces they began to take from the various places
human bones in view of determining how many bodies
were brought. The doctor was speechless with amaze
ment and horror as he saw bone after bone drawn out,
not only from his valises, but from the bags containing

102 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
his provisions for the road — flour, rice, et cetera — his
servants coolly greeting each new discovery with " That's
a part of my father," or grandmother, as the case might
be. It seems that the men had profited by what they con
sidered a good opportunity of smuggling the bones of
some of their relatives across the frontier, as they did
not expect the physician's belongings would be subjected
to examination.
In passing it may be of interest to note that the smug
glers of saffron take advantage of this Shiite custom.
Saffron is grown in the district of Kaen and a few other
places in Persia and the Caucasus. In Kaen saffron has
a standard value and is often used as a means of exchange
instead of money. Being extremely light it is priced at
a little less than its weight in gold and is subject to a very
heavy entrance duty in Turkey. To avoid this I have
known of cases where it was smuggled through the cus
toms houses in the long yellow bones of bodies brought
for burial! This process was continued until the sharp-
eyed customs officials discerned this novel form of con
traband. From Bagdad to Kerbela caravanserais are built in
the desert for the convenience of pilgrims. Everywhere
in Persia and Turkey these caravanserais are built on
one and the same general plan. They present a huge,
square building. A large gateway leads into a spacious
court where the camels and horses are unloaded. Around
this court are buildings, a part of which serve as stables,
and a part, the latter generally two-storied, as rooms for
travellers. These are small, cell-like apartments, each
with door and window opening onto the court, and are
occupied by from three to four persons, according to the
size of the caravanserai. Women are roomed separately.
Some of these caravanserais have as many as eighty
rooms, and a correspondingly large accommodation for
horses. These caravanserais are generally hired out to

PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING BODIES 103
some one who makes his profit on the food and fodder he
sells, as the rooms are nominally free, the traveller on
leaving being supposed to give a fee according to his
means. Caravans carrying bodies stop at these caravan
serais also, the coffins being piled up in the court as the
horses are unloaded just as if they were bales of mer
chandise. Once in going to Kerbela I had just stopped
in a caravanserai, tired with a long march, and had made
myself comfortable for a night's rest, when at dusk one
of these caravans came in. The result was that in spite
of our fatigue we had to leave, as the stench at such close
quarters was intolerable.
Kerbela is surrounded on all sides by the remains of
ancient irrigating canals, serving now only as receptacles
for stagnant rain water that form marshes, a hotbed of
epidemic-breeding miasms. The town of Kerbela is on
the right side of the Euphrates, about eighteen miles from
the river and some sixty from Bagdad. Of the sixty- five
thousand inhabitants fully fifty-four thousand are Shiites.
The city itself is on the site where Hussein fell, which
gives to this town and its surroundings special sanctity
in the eyes of the Shiites. This explains the fact that up
to the nineteenth century the Shiites, as represented by
the Persians, made every attempt to get this, to them, holy
place out of the hands of their religious enemies, the
Turks. Profiting by the strength and independence of
their position the Persian Shiites have frequently risen
and tried to throw off the hated Turkish yoke. The last
such rebellion was crushed by Sultan Abdul Medjed in
1842. From this date the discontent of the Shiites has
expressed itself only in disorders that have broken out
from time to time without having, however, any serious
consequences. Irrigation is carried on by means of water obtained in
the most primitive way from wells, but in spite of this
difficulty palm groves abound, and the city itself is sur-

104 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
rounded by a belt of gardens. The inhabitants are almost
entirely Persian and Indian Shiites, who have gathered
here, drawn partly by religious sentiment, and partly by
commerce, which is entirely in their hands. The city
grows constantly, and at present the population is esti
mated at eight thousand houses, or about forty-five thou
sand souls. During the pilgrim season the city is not able
to house the multitudes; many of the pilgrims therefore
live in their camps. From money contributed by the
pilgrims schools are supported, which form the seat of
theological learning. Of these schools are three grades,
lower, middle and high. In Kerbela live sayids, the
highest ecclesiastics, who consider themselves to be direct
descendants of Mohammed and whose outward mark is
the green turban and belt of the same colour.
Since Kerbela serves as one of the great burying places
of the bodies brought to Turkey, certain professions con
nected with it flourish — as grave-diggers, stone-cutters
and men who prepare little mud or square earthen tablets
called torbas. This last profession needs a few words
of explanation. While performing their devotions the
Shiites generally use these torbas made from the sacred
earth of Kerbela, Nedjef or Mecca, and when, as is pre
scribed, they bend forward they touch their foreheads to
these tablets instead of to the ground, so that they can
always feel as if they were actually praying on sacred
soil. Every pilgrim takes not only one or more of these
torbas for his own use, but carries home a good number
to give as most highly prized relics to his home friends.
In this way the Kerbela merchants dispose of an enormous
number yearly. The inhabitants of Kerbela and Nedjef,
as in fact of every sacred city, of whatever sect or religion,
get their living from the pilgrims, whom they fleece in
a most heartless manner.
But aside from these gains, contributions flow into

PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING BODIES 105
Kerbela from all over the Shiite world. These offerings
are of two kinds: in the form of gold and silver and pre
cious stones, or as real estate given to one or another
mosque,^ the revenue from which goes to the support of
schools, or to other benevolent objects. The most gener
ous gifts come from India. For instance, the monthly
contribution for the support of poor sayids amounts
to $12,000. Land belonging to these mosques is to be
found not only in Turkey but all over Persia, India and
China. Special buildings are put up for storing the rich
gifts brought to the shrines. These are under the special
guardianship of an officer known as the kelled-dar, or
key keeper, who generally amasses a very considerable
fortune. The property of some kelled-dars has been es
timated as high as $2,500,000. It is true that each pil
grim is supposed to give the kelled-dar something, but
this is not obligatory, nor can it be the only source of such
riches. Since the visit of Naser-ed-Deen in the seventies of the
nineteenth century the kelled-dars have been obliged to
inscribe in a special book all gifts exceeding one hundred
and fifty dollars ; up to that time even this was not done.
To form some idea of the vastness of these contributions
it is enough to mention one fact. During the visit of
Naser-ed-Deen Shah he obtained permission of the then
reigning sultan, Abdul Aziz, to open the vaults in which
the treasures were stored. From these were taken out
seventy-seven tons weight of valuable ornaments, vessels,
etc., that were sold, but the most rare and precious articles
were kept, as a lamp made from one enormous emerald,
a carpet of pearls, golden candlesticks set with rubies,
ancient armour encrusted with precious stones, the gifts
of sultans and Indian Nabobs. There were many other
articles of great value, among which may be mentioned
a dagger priced at twenty thousand Turkish pounds.

106 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The treasures of the shrines of Kerbela and Nedjef
have been estimated at thirty million Turkish pounds,
not including capital and real estate that are to be found
scattered in various parts of the world, the income of
which goes, as has been said, to the support of schools
and other benevolent objects.
As a greater part of these offerings come from India,
the English consul at Bagdad has succeeded in getting
the right, to a certain extent, of the control over the ex
penditure of these sums. The chief control is, however,
in the hands of Mudjtaheids, who play so important a
role in the life of the Shiites. The Sunnites do not accept
them, but the most popular of the Persian Mudjtaheids
have always lived in Turkey, in the towns of Kerbela,
Nedjef, Kazmain and Samara. Living thus abroad and
in a foreign and to them religiously opposed country has
never prevented these ecclesiastics from exerting a power
ful influence upon their co-religionists in Persia and else
where. The chief mosque of Kerbela is where Imam Hussein
is buried, the dome and six minarets of which, are covered
with gold-leaf valued at 100,000 Turkish pounds. Inside
of this mosque there is a separate division for Sunnites,
who, however, have their own mosque as well.
The second mosque of the city is over the grave of
Imam Abbas, which, though fine, is in many ways inferior
to the first. With the exception of these two mosques
there is nothing worthy of interest in the city, unless it be
the cemetery, the vastness of which is striking. In fact the
entire city and its immediate surroundings may be counted
as one huge burying ground. Fulfilling the rites pre
scribed to the pilgrims in Kerbela, they go on to Nedjef,
lying fifty miles to the south on the edge of the Syrian
desert called the Shamieh.
Nedjef is the administrative centre of the province of

PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING BODIES 107
the same name, with a population of ten thousand, of
which nine thousand three hundred are Shiites and only
seven hundred Sunnites, and they belong for the most
part to the Turkish administration. This is explained
by the reluctance of the Shiites to having their religious
enemies, the Sunnites, living in their most sacred cities.
The city of Nedjef itself is on a lake called the Sea of
Nedjef, the waters of which are so salty that the inhabi
tants are obliged to get their drinking water from the
city of Cuf a, three miles distant on the old Hindieh canal.
This state of things continued until a lady pilgrim from
India took pity on the inhabitants of the sacred city and
at an expense of 20,000 Turkish pounds brought water
from the Hindieh canal into the city of Nedjef.
The mosque where lies Ali is the only remarkable
building, and by its size and commanding position is ex
ceedingly imposing. Its dome and four minarets are cov
ered with pure gold, the gift of Nadir Shah, that cost him
more than one and a half million dollars. Though the city
is surrounded by walls that conceal the building inside,
the gold-covered domes and minarets tower above them
and are to be seen at a great distance by the approaching
caravan of pilgrims, who are filled with reverent awe at
the sight. This city, too, is one vast burying ground that
overflows beyond the walls.
Cufa, or Kufa, the city once known in Mohammedan
history, was founded in 639 A.D. It was formerly the
centre of Moslem culture, the home of artists and writers.
Here originated the famous Cufic characters seen and
admired on so many ancient inscriptions. At the present
time Cufa is a miserable little hamlet avoided by pilgrims
as the cursed spot where Ali fell.
Finally there is to be mentioned Samara, above Bagdad,
on the left bank of the Tigris. This, too, is a small town
having a population of not more than two thousand and

108 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
seventy-five souls, and attracts pilgrims only as here is to
be found the tomb of Imam Mehdi, the last imam, who
is to come at the end of the world. Here, too, bodies are
brought for burial.
All of these places represent in fact burying grounds,
where the living are in constant contact with the dead,
where the houses are built over graves and are not in
frequently parts of sepulchres where the very soil is
formed of decayed human bodies. All of these conditions
make it easy to understand that the plague and cholera
often break out first in one and then another oart of Turk
ish Arabia.
The Samara mosque is much inferior in richness to
that of Kerbela and Nedjef, but notwithstanding this fact
when we were in Bagdad all pilgrims passing that way
visited Samara. They were not attracted there so much
by desire to worship at the shrine as to see the most popu
lar Mudjtaheid, Hadji Mirza Hassan Shirazi, so called
as he was born in Shiraz, though then living in Samara.
This Mudjtaheid was a most striking personality, that
will go down as a marked figure in Persian history, as
being the most popular and powerful leader that the
Shiite world ever possessed.
I knew him when he was over seventy years of age,
when his feeble steps were obliged to be supported as he
went daily to the mosque, where much of his time was
spent. His devotees flocked from all points of the Moslem
world — Russia, Persia, India and Bokhara. There were
days when many thousands^ lined the streets through
which he passed on his way to the mosque, and those who
succeeded in kissing his hand considered themselves as
blessed — the majority when they had failed to even touch
his garments were content to kiss the threshold of the
mosque over which he had passed.
Hadji Mirza Hassan was a man not of this world. Re-

MOSQUE OF IMAM, MUSA, KAZMAIN (Front View)

PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING BODIES 109
ceiving thousands of dollars in voluntary offerings, he
gave all to the poor, living in the most simple manner,
and no one ever went away from him without receiving
counsel and material aid. While being a zealous Mo
hammedan and the best theologian of his time, he was no
fanatic, and had a broad tolerance of other faiths. At one
time I had a correspondence with him upon a point in
teresting us both. As I was a Christian, he could not
address me in the terms usually employed in Mohamme
dan correspondence, but his letters to me always began
with the words, " Peace be upon all those who follow in
the paths of God."
These letters were always modest, and the style clear
and simple, free from any of the flowery extravagance of
phraseology so much adopted by Oriental writers.
Aside from his sermons and teaching in the mosque he
carried on an enormous correspondence with his col
leagues in Persia, who recognised him as an authority to
whom they turned in all doubtful questions in Moham
medan justice, and theological controversies. Although
being of equal clerical rank, every Mudjtaheid in Persia
recognised Hadji Mirza Hassan's superiority, based on
nothing other than his personality — his competence in
judging all judicial and religious points, his perfect fair
ness and impartiality, and his unapproachable private life.
It is not too much to say that while living in Turkey he
guided all the Mudjtaheids of Persia, who bowed to his
decision without question.
Placing above all else the interest of his colleagues in
Persia he many times fearlessly stood forth in their de
fence, unhesitatingly speaking the truth to the shah him
self, and pointing out his mistakes. His influence upon the
inhabitants of Persia was very strikingly shown in connec
tion with the tobacco monopoly, when every one in Per
sia at his command refrained from smoking for seven

no LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
weeks. It is to be noted that nowhere is smoking more uni
versal than in Persia, where, without exception, all men
and women are given to the habit. Two kinds of tobacco
are cultivated in Persia, the ordinary sorts used for cig
arettes and a particular kind called tambacu, and used
only in the kalian, or water pipe. This latter is famous
throughout the Mohammedan world, and is one of Per
sia's chief articles of export. The kalian plays an impor
tant role in Persian life. In making a call a Persian takes,
or more correctly has carried after him, his pipe, and no
call, friendly or on business, no official or social gather
ing, passes without the ever-present kalian. This is true of
all classes of society. During Ramadan, the month of
fasting, when from sunrise to sunset nothing can pass the
lips of the faithful, the Persian invariably breaks his fast
with a puff at the kalian. On the march every rich per
son has a special man mounted on a horse carrying the
kalian with its appendages, water filled from the wayside
reservoirs, and live coals hanging from the saddle in wire
baskets, ready at any moment for lighting the pipe. In
a word, it is impossible to conceive of a Persian, rich or
poor, without his kalian.
And suddenly in March, 1890, a treaty was signed by
the Persian Government giving the tobacco and tambacu
to a foreign monopoly. When the first rumour of this
reached the people there was a repressed wave of dis
content. They realised that the effect of the monopoly
upon the agricultural class would be disastrous, while at
the same time the price of tobacco, which the Persian re
gards as a product of the first importance, would be raised.
In March of the following year, 1891, Persia was in
vaded by a perfect army of employees of the new mo
nopoly who were placed in various cities to establish the
monopoly and control the sale of tobacco. The arrival
of the foreigners inflamed the already prevailing dis-

PILGRIMAGES AND CARRYING BODIES ui
content. At first anonymous letters were addressed to the
shah and members of his council, the tone of which be
came more and more menacing as time went on. These
letters pointed out to the government, and not without
reason, that they were selling the interests of their coun
try. In newspapers published in Constantinople and
Egypt began to appear cutting articles directed against
the monopoly. In spite of attempts made in the post to
confiscate such papers they filtered into the country.
Many arrests were made, but without decreasing the
feeling that grew and grew in tenseness. Then the
clergy appeared upon the scene, taking on themselves the
defence of the people's interest. Under the influence of
the agitation aroused by them, disorders broke out in
Shiraz which were crushed by armed force. Tabriz fol
lowed the example of Shiraz, where the disturbance as
sumed more serious proportions, and the popular local
Mudjtaheid, Hadji Mirza Djavad Aga, in his sermons
began to denounce the action of the government in ceding
the interest of Persia to foreigners. The excited popu
lace mobbed the house of the agent of the company, and
the Christian colony began to be in danger. The up
rising became so great that it was decided to make an ex
ception in fovour of the province of Azerbaijan, exempt
ing it from having a monopoly instituted there. But
this did not help matters, as the disorders had already
spread into the provinces of Mazanderan and Kho-
rasan. Finally, November 21, 1891, the Samara Mudjtaheid,
Hadji Mirza Hassan, interfered, sending by telegraph his
instructions to all parts of Persia, ordering everyone to re
frain from smoking until the monopoly should be entirely
abolished throughout the land. And all Persia, not ex
cluding the army and the shah's own harem, stopped
smoking. The Mudjtaheid based his order on the fact

H2 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
that all monopolies are contrary to the spirit of the teach
ings of the Koran and therefore the products of monop
olies must be impure, and as such forbidden.
From this moment the condition of affairs became dan
gerous. Persia was threatened with a revolution. In
December the government made a fresh concession to the
effect that the monopoly would be confined to the ex
ported article and not touch the internal sales of tobacco.
But this half measure was not accepted. Uprisings con
tinued and on the 23d of December in Teheran itself the
shah's palace was surrounded, the mob being dispersed
only by force of arms, during which several were killed
and wounded. A revolution was imminent. A special
council of the ministers was assembled, in which it was
decided to appeal to the Mudjtaheids for help in quieting
the country. The latter absolutely refused to help the
government. Discontent spread into the palace and even
to the shah's own harem. Meeting with no backing from
any quarter, the government was finally obliged to give
in, and in the beginning of June, 1892, in every town of
Persia proclamations were issued announcing the abso
lute and unconditional abolishment of the monopoly.
Definite information to the same effect was sent to the
Samara Mudjtaheid. Only when entirely convinced of
the sincerity of these promises, did Hadji Mirza Hassan
remove his ban and give permission to smoke, which was
received with great joy by all Persia after seven weeks'
abstinence. The government, too, breathed freely after
the severe strain of so many months, that had been caused
by their false step and which had also involved them in
grave financial losses. They were obliged to pay an in
demnity of the very considerable amount of 500,000 Eng
lish pounds to the foreign monopoly, that had, however,
expended but 194,000 pounds, of which 139,000 had gone
as " presents,"

CHAPTER VII
ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES
The Camel and its Significance in the Life of the Bedouin— Arabia
Geographically — Bible Life as seen at the Present Time — Limits of
Territory occupied by Nomadic Arabs— Hadramuth— The Great
Desert— Oman, AI Hassa, Nejd and the Nefuds — Cause of Isola
tion of Nejd— Character of Nefuds— Red Locusts and Samkh as
Principal Diet of the Bedouin and His Hbrse — Travellers who have
visited Nejd — Wahabees and Wahabeeism — The Wahabee Kingdom
— Occupation of the Hedjaz, Mecca, arid Medina by Wahabees —
Pillaging the Kerbela Mosque — Raids on Damascus — Expedition of
Mehmed Ali Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha — Occupation of Nejd by
Egyptian Forces — Fall of Wahabeeism — Struggle for Supremacy —
Ibn-al-Rashid — His Popularity — Hkyil — Abuse of Pilgrims — Cli
mate of Nejd — Slavery — Nejd the Cradle of the Arabs — Mesopota
mia — El Jezira — El Irak — Shamiya — Suffering in Years of Drought
— Importance of the Camel in the Bedouin's Life — Pacing Camels
— One-Humped and Two-Humped Camels — Examples of Endurance
— Shortcomings of Camels — Examples of Camels' Vengeance.
To form a correct estimate of Bedouins, it is not enough
to have an acquaintance with the Arabs in Mesopotamia
nor those migrating in the desert lying west of the Eu
phrates. It is necessary to touch upon that part of the
Asiatic continent included between the Red Sea to the
west, the Indian Ocean to the south, the Persian Gulf to
the south and southeast, and the Tigris River up as far
as its source to the east and north.
All this huge tract is inhabited by Arabs, a people
of Semitic race, once playing a brilliant role in history,
but now represented by only half-savage, nomadic people
113

ii4 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
preserving to the present day many of the customs and
characteristics of the time of Abraham, who is held by
them to be the founder of their race. To understand the
Bible pictures it is enough to travel in Arabia, and there
we have before us the living pictures in brightest colours
of the stories told in that great book. How many times
when passing Arab camps, or at the wells where the
flocks and herds were being watered, did we witness the
scenes that are given with such epic simplicity in the
Bible! The same " black tents of Kedar," the same types,
and probably the same dress as then. Wonderfully little
has changed in the life of these people. And how absurd
to us then seem the Bible pictures we are accustomed to
see from childhood; for instance, Abraham seated on a
bench or chair in front of his house, receiving the three
strangers, and Sarah listening behind a door!
The nomadic Arabs occupy a large area of the Arabian
peninsula and a portion of the continent of Asia running
up to the Iran plateau. The boundary of their country
may be roughly traced as follows : To the west, towards
the shores of the Red Sea, the eastern extremity of the
Turkish provinces of the Hedjaz and the Yemen.
Farther to the south of Aden, touching the Indian Ocean,
is a place known as Hadramuth, which merges into deserts
that are yet unexplored, and that are known to the Arabs
as " AI Dahma," and which occupy almost one-third of
the Arabian peninsula. Farther, beyond the Hadramuth
along the shores washed by the Indian Ocean and Persian
Gulf, from Merbaga to the peninsula of Katara, are the
domains of the sultan, or imam, of Oman. Then follows
another narrow strip on the sea front, the Turkish prov
ince of Al-Hassa, a flowering oasis occupied by the
Turks only since 1870. It is therefore clear that the
tract inhabited by the Arabs touches on its western
frontier the Turkish provinces of the Hedjaz and the

ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES 115
Yemen; on the south and southeast the Hadramuth, the
country of the Sultan of Oman, and from the east Al-
Hassa. Farther north than the Persian Gulf, the fron
tier can be said in general to be the Shaat-el-Arab, and
then the Iran plateau, to the mountains of Tekrit, from
where it follows the Tigris river almost to its source, on
the north. Finally Syria and Palestine on the west
towards the Mediterranean Sea. Along the Red Sea,
Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf run a chain of mountains
rising in places to several thousand feet, and these shut
off the Arabian peninsula proper from the sea. Inside
of the barrier formed by the mountains and then the des
ert, is a mountainous plateau known as Nejd or " high
lands," the cradle of the Arab race. Nejd is surrounded
on all sides by the Nefuds, arms of the great desert
" Dahna," running like gigantic fingers around Nejd.
Nejd is thus guarded, as the waterless Nefuds make ac
cess to it so difficult as to explain the reason of this spot
being so little known. The soil of the Nefuds is fine red
sand, forming wave-like undulations that follow the di
rection of the prevailing winds. The huge petrified bil
lows, as it were, sometimes have a height of 350 feet.
This place reminds one of the sand dunes of Kara-Kum
in Central Asia between the Amu-Dara and Bokhara,
now crossed by the railway. The only difference is that
the latter are on a far smaller scale.
Under the burning rays of the sun these red sand waves
seem to the weary eyes of the traveller like a bloody sea,
and not even every Arab will dare, during the hottest
months, to cross the dreadful Nefuds even on a swift
dromedary. The extent of the danger can be judged by
a fact well known in Bagdad, of a daring Bedouin who
crossed these burning plains in the summer on horseback.
On arriving in Bagdad, his horse's hocks were burned
and cracked as if seared with a hot iron, and the scars

u6 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
thus left were afterwards covered by white hair. It is a
mistake, however, to picture the Nefuds as being at all
seasons of the year barren deserts. In the springtime,
after the rainy season, they are covered luxuriantly with a
particularly juicy nourishing grass, and the Nejd Bed
ouins send their mares there to pasture, accompanied by
she-camels. As no water is to be found in the Nefuds,
the mares, as well as the herdsmen, drink camel's milk,
the camels themselves, owing to the exceedingly juicy
grass, being able to do without water during the two to
two and one-half months that they annually spend there.
To each mare is usually allowed the milk of one camel.
During the winter on account of its altitude and sandy
soil it often freezes, the thermometer dropping as low as .
five below the freezing point R. at night, and rising to
twenty above by day.. Occasionally, though rarely, snow
falls. Aside from reptiles, lizards, etc., the Nefud fauna in
cludes a special form of humped antelope, called by the
Arabs " bakkar vanash " or wild cow, of which the Arab
poets of the golden age sang; also ostriches, hares and
gazelles, which latter, according to Arab belief, never
need water. But in spite of this superstition, these grace
ful creatures when tormented by thirst often find their
death in wells, causing despair to the traveller who,
parched with thirst, is obliged to drink of the contami
nated water. We had several gazelles in Bagdad as pets.
The females become tame very quickly 'and are gentle
and affectionate, but the males are often very fierce, at
tacking from behind and overthrowing a grown person.
One of these wounded one of my horses by running his
sharp horn deeply into the animal's side.
In the Nefuds are to be found red locusts. Whereas
the locust brings dread to the heart of the farmer, here,
in the Nefuds, the Bedouins bless their appearance. As

ma
3ocq<ai<

ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES 117
soon as a flight of locusts is seen all the inhabitants of the
desert, men, women and children, go out to catch them.
Removing the wings, they dry them and make a sort of
flour, laying in supplies for a year or more. This flour
is one of the mainstays of the Bedouin in this part of
Arabia, as well as of his horse. The Bedouins say that
the locust flour is twice as nourishing to their horses as
the same quantity of barley would be.
In other parts of Arabia a plant called samkh is one
of the principal articles of diet. The seed of this plant
is ground in hand mills and the flour baked. Dates are
also one of the great dependences of the nomads.
Camel's meat and mutton, the Bedouins eat very seldom,
and then on such special occasions as when guests arrive,
or some other ceremonial.
Nejd and indeed much of Central Arabia are very
little known, owing to their isolated position and the
hardships to be endured by the traveller who braves the
journey, and therefore Europeans who have done so are
easily numbered. During the past century one of the
earliest was an Englishman, Captain Sadler, who was sent
by the British Government in 1819 to congratulate Ibra
him Pasha after his victory over the Wahabees. He
crossed the peninsula through the desert from east to
west from the port of Katiff on the Persian Gulf to
Yambo on the Red Sea. His account of this difficult
journey was printed in a report that had a limited circu
lation and was therefore unavailable to the general read
ers, and only fragmentary quotations are to be found in a
book by General Tweedie, formerly British consul gen
eral in Bagdad.
In 1862-63 Palgrave crossed the Nefuds from the port
of Gaza on the Mediterranean to Katiff on the Persian
Gulf. In 1864 an Italian horse dealer, the Levantine
Gvarman, went from Palestine to Nejd, and a year later

118 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
an English officer, Pelly, made the journey from Quete,
on the Persian Gulf, to Riad, the capital of Nejd, from
which point he descended to the Gulf of Bahrein.
In 1876-78 Doughty, an Englishman, crossed and re
crossed all the central and western part of the peninsula.
His daring journeyings, and above all, the conditions
under which he undertook them, are little known to the
public, but deserve to be classed among the most remark
able and difficult expeditions of the nineteenth century.
In 1878-79 the English traveller Lady Anne Blunt
(the granddaughter of Lord Byron), accompanied by her
husband, passed through the desert from Beyrout to
Hayil and Bagdad, cutting in this way clear through the
peninsula. Finally, in 1892, a Russian traveller, Baron Nolde,
whose adventurous life had a most tragic end, visited
Nejd. He passed from Beyrout to Damascus, Khaf,
Djof, Hayil, and returned by way of Nedjef, Kerbela and
Bagdad. Thanks to its isolated and inaccessible position, Nejd
has been able to preserve, up to the present time, its in
dependence. Not only that, but in the beginning of the
last century it startled the entire Mohammedan world
when the ruler of Nejd seized Mecca and Medina, con
tinued his expedition through Syria as far as Damascus,
menacing the integrity of Turkey, and founded, under
the influence of religious fanaticism, the Wahabee king
dom. We can compare the Wahabee sect, in its attitude to
wards Moslemism, to the Protestants among Christians.
The name was derived from the founder of the sect, Mo
hammed Ibn Abdul Wahaba, who began his teachings in
the second half of the eighteenth century. It was
founded on a desire to re-establish the Koran teachings in
their original simplicity and purity and to clear away

ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES 119
the mass that had been formed by commentators and leg
ends, as Wahaba considered these as only perverting the
real doctrine taught by the great Prophet. Starting
from this point Mohammed Ibn Abdul Wahaba consid
ered both Shiites and Sunnites, or, in other words, the
whole of the Mohammedan world, as " enemies of Islam,"
and as such declared against them relentless warfare.
In defending their position the Wahabees cite a long
series of divergencies from the Koran, which the Mos
lems have admitted. They in particular denounce
"tekkes" of Mohammedan dervishes, circumcision,
mosques, protest against luxury, the use of rich garments,
against tobacco, and consider a priesthood unnecessary,
etc. These doctrines found ready hearers among the sim
ple Bedouins unused to luxury, and still more so among
the weaker tribes, which, as soon as their allegiance was
promised,, Mohammed Ibn Abdul Wahaba protected,
and so gradually all the Bedouins of Nejd became his
followers. The sect gained in strength, particularly after the pow
erful ruler of the province of Derej, Mohammed Ibn
Sau'd, declared himself as the first Wahabee emir, and his
successors, Abdul Aziz and Sau'd, brought under their
sway the whole of Cenral Arabia. Gradually the sacred
cities — the Palestine of Islam — Mecca and Medina fell
into their hands, and pilgrims found access to them only
after obtaining the permission of the Wahabees.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century the actual
power of the Wahabees extended far beyond the limits of
Nejd. They sacked the famous mosque of Kerbela, mas
sacred the inhabitants, insulted the tomb of the Imam
Hussein, so deeply venerated by Shiites, and then, entirely
controlling the Kaaba, caused a thrill of horror to pass
through the Islamic world. They continued their inva
sions into Irak and Syria, forcing Damascus topayatrib-

120 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
ute. Matters were growing serious, but the Porte, occu
pied with European complications, could only depute the
Egyptian viceroy, Mohammed Ali Pasha, to fit out an
expedition to occupy the Hedjaz.
In 1811 the energetic viceroy raised an army of ten
thousand men, which he sent under the command of his
son, Tusun Pasha. At that time the ruler of Nejd, Sau'd,
was contemplating descent upon Bagdad, but on learning
of the movements of Tusun Pasha he abandoned his in
tentions. The Wahabees proved to be obstinate in their defence,
and Mohammed Ali Pasha was obliged to take command
of a new force that marched to his son's aid. But even
this reinforcement was not sufficient, and finally in 1816
a fresh army was sent under Ibrahim Pasha. This last
army, after many defeats and hardships, succeeded in
entering Nejd and in taking several minor cities and lay
ing siege to Derei, the then capital of Nejd. At this date
the ruler was Abdullah, the son of Sau'd. Derei held out
against the siege for six months, but was finally taken
through the personal bravery of Ibrahim Pasha. Abdul
lah was obliged to surrender and forced to return the
spoils he had taken from mosques. Derei was razed to
the ground and in 1818 Abdullah was executed in Con
stantinople. From that time the fall of the Wahabee
kingdom began, but the Egyptian army continued to oc
cupy Riad up to 1842. From the time of the withdrawal
of the Egyptian forces a series of struggles began among
rival pretenders to the emirship, until finally Moham
med Ibn-al-Rashid, the ruler of Hayil, better known as
Ibn Rashid, succeeded in 1872 in making himself the
sole ruler of all Nejd.
Ibn Rashid reached the height of his power only after
stepping over the dead bodies of all his near relatives.
He was a typical Oriental usurper, but a person of strik-

ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES jar
ing historical interest, reminding one in his political views
of the late Abdurrahman Khan, emir of Afganistan.
When we went to Bagdad Ibn Rashid was at the height
of his power and enjoyed great popularity, not only
among the peninsular Arabs but among those of Meso
potamia and the Syrian desert as well. He had removed
his capital from Riad to Hayil, a small town of only ten
thousand inhabitants in the southeast part of Nejd. Ibn
Rashid resided there only during the four hottest
months, living the rest of the year as a Bedouin in the
desert or fighting with unruly tribes, and from such raids
he always returned victorious and with rich spoils.
The city of Hayil is surrounded by mud walls and the
"palace" itself is strongly fortified. Ibn Rashid's pal
ace is a huge pile of buildings composed of numberless
small rooms opening into long corridors that surround
courtyards. Adjoining the palace is a garden in which
there are many fine gazelles. The water for irrigating
this garden as well as for the extremely small plots of
ground planted with date palms, barley and wheat, is ob
tained from wells by animal power. As the cultivation
is so limitedj grain is brought to Hayil from Bagdad and
Bassorah. In this palace Ibn Rashid personally sits in judgment
and the humblest of his subjects has free access to him.
Here, too, he has an enormous kitchen in which he takes
great pride. Food is prepared not only for Ibn Ra
shid's family, servants and retinue, but for the numerous
Bedouins that come in from the distant parts of the des
ert. In all as many as two hundred are thus fed daily, and
for this large family seven camels or forty sheep are
slaughtered each day. The kitchen is built to meet such
demands, with kettles so vast that in each one the meat of
three camels can be boiled !
Another pride of Ibn Rashid is his stud, in which

122 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
many thoroughbred mares of great value are to be found.
Many of the mares he buys of desert sheikhs, whom he
forces to sell at his own price; it is not to be wondered
at, therefore, that owners of blood mares take every pains
to conceal them from Ibn Rashid. The rest of his mares
are the results of his victorious raids or " ghazus."
His annual revenue is very considerable, being, it is
said, three hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars
above his expenditures. The source of his income is de
rived largely from war spoils, from considerable taxes
levied on subjugated tribes, and a goodly sum from pil
grims to Mecca and Medina who pass through Hayil.
This last is obtained by hiring camels for them from the
Bedouins. For instance, from Hayil to Nedjef, twenty
days' hard march through a waterless waste, he pays the
Bedouin ten medjidiehs for each camel, but charges the
pilgrim twice that price! As these caravans are often
made up of from four to five thousand camels yearly, it
is easy to conceive that the revenue thus received is very
considerable. With each caravan Ibn Rashid sends a
trustworthy man known as the Emir-al-Hadj, or the
leader of the caravan, who settles the marching and halt
ing places, etc., etc. These Emir-al-Hadjs in turn also
fleece the poor pilgrims, as in stopping where there are
no wells and refusing to move the camp until a sum of
money is laid down. So difficult is the twenty days'
march through the burning desert with scanty water that
fifteen per cent, of the camels usually die, when the pil
grims are obliged to walk and to carry their goods as well.
Many human lives, too, are lost in the terrible Nefuds,
and such unfortunate ones find a hastily dug and nameless
grave in the desert. During the reign of Ibn Rashid's
predecessor, Tallal, entire caravans were, with his con
nivance, left by their guides to perish of thirst, the be
longings of which were afterwards brought to Tallal.

ARABIA NEID AND THE WAHABEES 123
This is no longer practised, Ibn Rashid guaranteeing
the safety of the caravans he guides. It is necessary here
to notice that before the opening of the Suez Canal the
number of pilgrims following this route was very much
greater than at the present time.
The climate of Nejd is very healthy ; here and there are to
be found inhabited oases, as, for instance, those of Riad,
Monfug and Harag. Throughout Nejd slavery is to be
met with. The slaves are black, and, as is almost univer
sal in the East, are well treated by their masters.
If I have dwelt so long on Nejd, it is because every
Arab, be he a wanderer in Mesopotamia or Syria, always
keeps in touch with Nejd and in tracing his ancestors is
sure to run up against one who left Nejd. A wandering
Nejddian will always find himself treated with a certain
consideration by other tribes who have long left the com
mon cradle of their race. The Arab prizes his geneal
ogy, but not in the sense known to Europeans. Family
aristocracy or nobility is not known, nor can they under
stand the raison d'etre of our titles. Every Bedouin is in
himself an aristocrat; this he sees in the pureness of his
blood traced through a long line of ancestors who mar
ried maidens of the same tribe, or of another equally pure
Bedouin tribe. As a rule Bedouins prefer to marry
among near relatives, an act which is permitted by their
religion and encouraged by the tradition of the Prophet
Mohammed's having charged the Arabs to preserve the
pureness of their blood. This is evidently a relic of Ju
daism, reminding us of Sarah, who was the half sister of
Abraham. Let us now turn to glance at that part of the Asiatic
continent peopled by Arabs, known as Mesopotamia, and
to the tracts lying west of the Euphrates. The entire
northern part of Mesopotamia, forming a triangle with
Bagdad and Mossoul at the base, and Aleppo at the point,

124 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
is called by the Arabs " El Jezira," or cut off, or island.
I was never able to understand the derivation of the name
nor how in the flat desert with few landmarks the Arabs
could always define its boundaries. " We are now enter
ing Jezira," our guides would say; one looks about and
only sees as far as the horizon a flat tamarisk-covered des
ert without sign of life.
South of El Jezira the rest of Mesopotamia, down to
the juncture of the Tigris and Euphrates, is known to the
Arabs as El Irak. On the other side the wide tract
stretching west of the Euphrates to the confines of Pales
tine and Syria and to the mountains of Jeb-el-Shama to
the south is called Shamiya or desert. Between the
Shamiya and the mountains of Jeb-el-Shamiya are to be
found the Nefuds. Throughout all this vast space are
nomadic Arabs of various tribes who migrate according
to the seasons of the year from one 'part to another, from
their winter to their summer camping grounds. The
physical conditions of the Shamiya are nearly the same
as those to be found in the Arabian peninsula, with this
difference, that in the Shamiya Bedouins camp nearer to
inhabited places and more often find water. The last
named difference gives, of course, a great advantage,
especially during the rainless season of the year, when
many wells go dry. At such times the Shamiya Bedouins
follow the course of the Euphrates, for those of the Ara
bian peninsula often perish in large numbers, losing first
their horses and finally the camels, without which exist
ence is impossible. Indeed, the life of the Arab is closely
dependent on that of the camel. It is not surprising,
therefore, that the Arabian poets of the Golden Age dedi
cated entire poems to the camel, and that in every literary
work of that time, whatever its subject, references were
made to the she-camel. Whether Arabia be the original
home of the camel, scholars have not decided, but cer-

GROUP OF ARABS SHOWING THE "KAFIYAH" OR HEAD-DRESS

ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES 125
tainly there is no creature so well adapted to the condi
tions of that inhospitable land. Oman and Nejd are
specially famed for their camels, and each district of these
countries has its particular breed noted for one or another
quality. For instance, there are pack camels, pacing
dromedaries of dhalul, that run with so smooth a gait
that it is possible to sleep while riding, and they are there
fore called naami (sleep).
Particular in preserving the pureness of their own
blood, Arabs are equally careful in their camel and horse
breeding. The camel is held as almost sacred by the
Arabs. From its back the Prophet delivered eloquent
sermons, on its back he fled from Medina, even the very
name of his favourite she-camel has come down to us,
El-Kaswa.1 The camel has a part in the religious ceremonies con
nected with the payment of " the price of blood," where
a murderer is obliged to give a certain number of camels
as the price of the man he has killed. In enumerating
certain objects or animals an Arab will say " so many
head " or " so many," but in speaking of camels he will
say " so many persons (nefer) " in a herd. In this way a
herd of ten horses can be described as " ten head," but a
herd of camels as " ten persons." Finally the camel is
the absolutely necessary factor in the life of both the Bed
ouin and his horse. The happiest events in the life of a
Bedouin are the births of a she-camel, of a son and of a
she-foal. The young camels are cared for as children, and
the nearer on the social ladder the Arab stands to the real
Bedouin, the higher rises his love for the camel. Every
part of this animal is of use to man. From the hair the
*It is interesting to note that the Mohammedans have preserved many
details of the intimate life of their great Prophet. We know not only the
name of Mohammed's barber, whose grave serves as an object of pilgrim
age, but also the name of his favourite mule, Dul Dul, and of his ass, Urfa.

126 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Bedouin makes his mantle and his tent; the camel's milk
forms a large part of both his own food and that of his
horse — in some cases, indeed, it is the only nourishment
they have. Thanks to the camel the Bedouin can travel
in waterless places, and on its back are made the raids, or
" ghazus." Horses are used only in actual battle. The
hard excrement of the camel serves as fuel, and the liquid
in waterless places for ablutions. The flesh is also used
as food and that of the young camel is regarded as a lux
ury. Above all other animals it is considered clean, in
the Oriental sense of the word. The doctrine of pure
and impure objects and creatures forms, as is well known,
one of the prominent features in the tenets of Mohamme
danism. For instance, in accordance with this teaching,
Christians, and particularly wet Christians (that is, whose
clothes happen to be wet) , and scaleless fishes are counted
as unclean. Finally, the camel often saves, at the expense
of its own, the life of its master. I do not include here
only those who perish from being overridden or of thirst.
That is of frequent occurrence. But occasionally the Bed
ouin kills his camel for the liquid found in its stomach.
Or as happened in the following well-known case that
took place in Shamiya a number of years ago, and which
I will relate. During the winter months there is often a
peculiarly cold wind, and although the temperature sel
dom falls at such times to more than one or two degrees
below the freezing point, the Arabs, overtaken by such
winds, or " gehan," as they are called, frequently freeze
to death. This is explained by the fact of their being
little prepared physically to endure cold, nor is their
clothing sufficient. Such a wind overtook a raiding party
of Arabs, and all perished, with the exception of one in
genious Bedouin who, cutting open his camel's belly,
crawled into the warm cavity and thus saved himself.
The Bedouin camels are all branded, the brand of each

ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES 127
owner being registered in a very original way. Near the
city of Ana, on the Euphrates, the boundary of Shamiya,
are the ruins of a bridge that once spanned what is now a
dry river bed. On the stones forming these ruins each
Arab registers his own camel's mark for all to get. Just
here an interesting parallel may be mentioned. While
travelling in the Pamirs where the Kirghizes migrate
from the Alai to the Pamirs, we saw on the rocky face of
a cliff the register of their horses' brands. These rocks
had evidently been used for the same purpose during a
long period of time, for the marks showed the gradual
progress of civilisation and of art, so to speak — from
primitive straight lines to more complicated curves and
circles. This parallel proves once more how the same
circumstances give rise to identical customs which can in
no way be traced to imitation.
From all that has been said it is easy to conceive that
the camels and Bedouins are so intimately connected that
one can hardly exist without the other. Full of signifi
cance, therefore, is the Arab proverb "God created the
camel for the Arab and the Arab for the camel."
The best camels come from Oman on the Arabian shore
of the Persian Gulf, then follow those of Nejd. The lat
ter are mostly white and grey, those of the Shammar
tribes being reddish brown. Black camels are rare. The
Arabs consider the one-humped camel to be a native of
Arabia and the two-humped as coming from Persia, and
they call the latter Bactrian camels. The one-humped
camels are more enduring, though they cannot carry as
heavy loads as do the two-humped variety. In times of
drought a one-humped camel can go as long as five times
twenty-four hours without water, whereas the two-
humped camels cannot exist for more than three days
without drink. This is the cause of the Arabs calling the
latter Djemal mai, or water camels.

i28 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The Syrian two-humped camel is the greatest weight
carrier, being able on long journeys to make as many as
seventy miles in twenty-four hours with a load of from
four hundred and thirty to five hundred and forty pounds.
The Mesopotamian camels are weaker in this respect,
carrying under equal circumstances not more than three
hundred and sixty pounds. The carefully bred pacing
dromedaries are raised in Central Arabia. These animals
can make eighty miles in twenty-four hours and as much
as ninety miles in thirty hours. In journeys of long dis
tances, seven days or more, they are able to keep up an
average of sixty miles in the twenty-four hours. For in
stance, the messengers of Ibn-al-Rashid, who are sent
from Hayil to Bassorah, make this distance, about 500
miles, in six days and nights, but to develop such a breed
requires not only skill but love of the beast. Nowhere
in the East are camels so well cared for as in Arabia.
All those who have had experience with these " ships
of the desert " must, however, admit that they have very
serious defects. They are stupid in the extreme, sullen
and revengeful. When made to kneel, the camel grum
bles loudly ; when being mounted, he turns his long neck,
showing his teeth, and would bite if he dared. During
the march if the rider drowses or is careless the camel will
get off the track, browsing on such bushes as he may find
and forgetting that a rider or a road exists, quite ready to
go on thus for the remainder of his natural days. He
will never find the road nor keep to it if left to himself.
Not even will he find his way home, and he seems to have
no attachment to place nor master. In time of danger
if he is pressed to greater speed than he considers just, he
will grumble audibly and finally lie down. If he once
falls, no power will persuade him to make an effort to
rise until his load is removed. Camels are frequently
given to stampeding and will then run miles in their
fright.

ARABIA, NEJD AND THE WAHABEES, 129
The ill temper of camels, especially at certain times of
the year, is something frightful. I shall cite two instan
ces as examples of a camel's vengeance and ill temper.
Once I went from Tabriz, the chief city of Azerbaijan, to
Urumiah on post horses. Early in the morning, cantering
along the plain near the village of Gavalan, I noticed
camels grazing not far from the road. One attracted my
attention. He was lying near a large rock with out
stretched neck and making what seemed to me unusual
motions. Several days later, on my return journey, I
heard the explanation of the scene. According to the
tale of a boy, who had witnessed it from a distance, the
camel man had struck the beast, a large male, who turned
fiercely upon his master. The man ran for his life
towards some large rocks and began to climb, hoping to
get out of reach, but the camel overtook him. Raising
its long neck the infuriated animal got hold of its vic
tim's leg and pulled him down. Then began a sickening
scene. The camel bit and mauled the man and then
rolled on him until there was only a flattened mangled
mass. All day the camel kept watch over the body, from
time to time leaving its grazing to return to crush and
roll what was left of his victim. No one dared to ap
proach, for when an attempt was made to drive the camel
away, it attacked so fiercely that finally it had to be shot.
Another case was in Meshed. A string of camels was
passing along one of the principal streets when a small
boy struck one of them with a stick. The camel turned
and, seizing the boy, inflicted serious injuries before help
could arrive.

CHAPTER VIII
BEDOUINS
What are Bedouins, Hidkaris and Fellaheen — Gradations between
their Tribes, Sub-tribes and Families — Care in Preserving Pureness
of Blood — Sheikhs, their Significance, Powers and Duties — Customs
— Religion — Abstinence of Bedouins and its Cause — Early Hard
ships—Marriage — Polygamy — Divorce — On What Bedouins Exist—
Hunting with Hounds and Falcons — Sheep Raising — Raids— Sheep
Lifting — Ghazus — Blood Feuds — The Bedouin in Poetry and in
Reality — Explanation of Hospitality of Bedouins — Their Idea con
cerning Muscovites — Four Seasons of the Bedouin Year — Spring-
Migration or " Rahla " — Order of March — Camping — Dry Milk as
One of the Chief Items of Bedouins' Diet — Their Period of Hunger
— Bedouin's Day — What They Eat during Famine Period — Lack of
Water — Diseases — Sacrifices or " Kurban " — Arrival of Guests-
Justice — Position of Women.
THE word Bedouin is derived from " badia," desert; The
nomadic Arabs thus style themselves, as distinguishing
between them and the sedentary or semi-sedentary Arabs,
who are given the general term of Hidkari. Arabs who
till the land are known as fellaheen. But between these
two extremes — the real nomadic desert Bedouin and the
farmer fellah — there are many connecting degrees.
These may be traced by various outward signs, as the pos
session of certain domestic animals. The true Bedouin
keeps but three of these animals : camels, horses and grey
hounds. The richer Bedouins also keep hawks. They
do not engage in sheep breeding. When sheep are found
among Bedouins it is the exception, not the rule. The
next degree is the addition of the ass. The true Bedouin
13°

BEDOUINS 131
regards it as a disgrace to ride an ass and looks down upon
the Arab who lowers himself by employing this humble
beast. Further, if the tribe takes up regular sheep breed
ing and the greyhound is replaced by the sheep dog, it
shows a decided advance towards the industrial state.
Finally, the appearance of cattle stamps the tribe as no
longer nomadic, but as settled fellaheen. The Bedouins
say: "El hall lil bela,
El djemmel lil hela,
Bal beger,
Lei fakir."
That is, the horse for the gentleman, the camel for the
desert, and the bullock for the poor.
The Bedouins are divided into tribes, the tribes into
sub-tribes, and the latter into families, and each division
has its significance. But however numerous the members
of these families may be, they never lose their connection
with the original branches and tribe. This connection
is kept up by intermarriages, thus preserving the pureness
of the blood. Marriages between near relations, such as
cousins, are so common as to give rise to the expression
"bint'amm," "uncle's daughter," being considered as
synonymous with " wife." It is to be noticed that though
in all the tongues spoken by Moslems there is a word cor
responding to our term wife, it is not considered the
proper thing to use it, and all sorts of expressions are em
ployed to evade it. For instance, the polite Persian will
speak of the " mother of his son," or the " mother of the
light of my eyes" (nuri cheshim), and the Arab, of "my
uncle's daughter."
The Bedouins migrating between Aleppo and Nejd
are divided into two large and powerful tribes, the Aeni-
zeh and the Shammar. These two main tribes are broken

132 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
up into many distinct sub-tribes, but all claim one com
mon origin. The dividing up of large tribes into smaller
fractions arises from the necessity of seeking fresh pasture
when the increasing number of the tribe makes it neces
sary. Another cause is sometimes differences of opinion
in matters concerning the internal economy of the tribal
life — quarrels over pasturages (as of Abraham and Lot
of old) , choice of sheikhs, etc. In this way we often meet
with sub-tribes or families who camp hundreds of miles
from each other, but the fact does not prevent them from
continuing the intimate family connection. It is impos
sible to identify a given tribe with any definite locality,
for they range over hundreds of miles, according to the
season of the year, moving, for instance, from about Nejd
up as far as Damascus, some 600 miles in a straight line.
The Shammars and Aenizeh have been enemies from of
old. This fact gives rise at times to curious complica
tions. If, for instance, a feud arises between two sub-
tribes of the Shammars, the weaker of the two will take
refuge with the Aenizeh. In this way the Shammar sub-
tribe, Saie, went over to the Aenizeh, while several
branches of the latter have, in the same way, joined the
Shammars. Besides these great tribes, there are many small ones,
as, for example, the Hubeisen, found in the Nefuds, and
the Solibah, an unknown tribe. Some travellers have
suggested that the latter may be a remnant of a Christian
people, from tracing the name of the tribe, Solibah, to
" saleb," cross. This is, as yet, open to question. It is,
however, a fact that this tribe lives in isolation, never
mixing with the Mussulman Arabs, who speak of them as
" Kelabn-l'Kala," wild dogs. This tribe is found along
a vast extent of territory lying between Nejd and Syria.
They possess only asses and live by hunting — so that
Arabs say that all the game of the desert belongs to this

BEDOUINS 133
tribe. Even their tents are not of the camel's-hair cloth
of the Arab, but are made of skins, mostly of the gazelle.
They also act as doctors for man and beast, carpenters or
what passes for such in the desert, as well as blacksmiths.
So the Bedouins are independent upon them in these
ways. The Arabs are able to identify by his appearance a
stranger whom they may meet as belonging to this or that
tribe. As, for instance, the Shammars by their abnormal
height, Sobkars by their short stature and the long spears
they carry. The Ruwalas, on the contrary, have short
spears ; other tribes are recognised by the colour of their
burnooses, by their horses, camels, etc.
Each of the tribes and sub-tribes has its own sheikn,
chosen by the tribe for special merits, or the position may
be hereditary. The sheikh is the chief and remains as
such as long as the people will it. He is generally
richer than the other members of the tribe, and on
him, therefore, rests the burden of hospitality, and his
guest tent is always open. He is the judge, the president
of the council of elders and of an arbitration court. His
decisions are based upon tradition and usage and as such
are generally accepted without protest. The sheikh
holds court daily in his tent, listens to complaints and
quarrels, often of the most intimate family nature, and his
decisions are of necessity just, or otherwise they could not
be carried out. A sheikh must be not only an impartial
judge, but brave in warfare and on ghazus, or raids. Oc
casionally, however, a ghazu is led, not by the sheikh in
person, but by his permission some noted warrior of the
tribe who may take his place. In such cases this leader, or
" akid," as he is called, lays the plans and carries out the
raid. A sheikh who succeeds, by his justice and skill, in
settling disputes, and by upholding the rights of his peo
ple, is sure of his position and that of his family. A

134 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
sheikh must be "open handed," that is, generous. Not
only hospitable, but ready to help any member of the
tribe who may be in trouble, having lost a horse in a
ghazu, or a camel by sickness.
The Bedouin's religion is not complicated. He con
tents himself with acknowledging in a vague general way
Allah as a supreme being, and Mohammed his prophet.
The future life, Paradise, is to the Bedouin, as to all Mo
hammedans, a place of material pleasures. He has no
inclination for deeper theological questions, and if you
try to find out his views, he will invariably refer you to
the sheikh, " who knows all things." The Bedouin's mor
als are the ethics that govern the desert, according to
which theft, unfaithfulness to a trust and inhospitality,
are universally denounced. These principles, however,
do not hinder raids, for the Arabs consider them to be
lawful as directed against a hostile tribe. An unbeliever,
or non-Moslem, is, however, outside these moral obliga
tions. To rob and murder an unbeliever, or to betray
him is not considered a crime by the Bedouins. It is
true that he will not kill or betray an unbeliever who has
partaken of his hospitality in his guest tent, but does not
hesitate to do so, once the stranger has left his camp.
Mullahs or any ecclesiastics are rarely to be found among
the Bedouins, except occasionally as an appendage to a
rich sheikh. This absence of clergy gives rise to the
Turkish definition of the Arabs as a " people who have
no religion, whose women wear no drawers, whose sad
dles lack stirrups and whose bridles have no bits," and
this is true. As to education, there is nothing to be said.
Bedouins are very suspicious of the art of reading and
writing. They say a man who can write risks ruining
his whole life by a single stroke of his pen.
A Bedouin is most abstemious ; this is one of his chief
characteristics and is the result of hunger and hardship

BEDOUINS 135
begun in infancy and lasting throughout his life, and
there is reason for the Bedouin calling himself " the son
of patience." His whole life is one series of privations.
A large number of Arabs first see the light, not under a
tent, but on the march, by the roadside, and this is a fit
ting beginning of a life of direst poverty. It is said that
Bedouins are strong physically, enduring and healthy.
That is true, but only on the principle of the " survival of
the fittest." The struggle is too hard for the weak. A
delicate person has no place in the Bedouins' life. Such
generally die as children, and few Bedouins live to an
old age. The birth of a son is an occasion for rejoicing
and feasting, according to the means of the parent: the
unlucky child, however, meets with a Spartan treatment
that is intended to make a man of him if he survives. The
newly-born infant is laid, quite naked, in the sand all
night, and throughout the day he is exposed to the burn
ing sun. A " baby must be cooked," the Arabs say, if he
is ever to be a man. And this is done, not only among
nomad tribes, but even among peasant and sometimes city
Arabs. As soon as the child can creep, the mother leaves
it pretty much to its own devices, and when it can walk, it
is allowed to do whatever it has courage for. Up to
seven years of age the Bedouin children are as naked as
the day they were born. After that age they have a shirt
that is worn until it drops off. At the age of five the boys
are taught to ride, and at seven years old boys are quite
capable of riding the horses to pasture. The children's
games are generally imitation of the lives of their elders,
raids, sheep lifting, camping, etc., and so from tenderest
youth Bedouins learn patiently to endure hunger, thirst,
cold and heat. When the cold makes them shiver, the
children are comforted by being told that the rainy sea
son will bring grass and plenty of fresh camel's milk;
when they languish with heat the prospect of the sweet

136 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
dates that can ripen only under such a sun is held out to
them. Boys of ten and twelve take part in hunting expeditions
and even raids. Sixteen or seventeen is not considered
too young for a boy to be married, and girls are often
mothers at the age of thirteen. Accustomed in this way
to a life of simplicity and hardship, the Arab looks for
nothing better. When told of the glories of civilised
Europe, his first question is of the quality and price of
dates, and when he finds that they do not grow there, he
takes no further interest in Europe or civilisation. But
what a Bedouin does appreciate and cling to is personal
liberty. His home is the boundless desert. When he
finds himself in a city he becomes bewildered and both he
and his horse and camel are timid and suspicious. On
approaching a town with its close evil smells, the Bedouin
begins his preparations by stuffing his nostrils with grass.
His camel stops short and obstinately refuses to enter the
great city gate, while his horse shies at every open door
way, and the Bedouin hurries to finish his business and
hie him back to his native desert.
Polygamy is rarer among Bedouins than among indus
trial Arabs ; on account of the poverty of the former such
a luxury is only within the means of the rich, and the
sheikhs have generally several wives. Each tent has a
portion partitioned off for the women, while each wife
of the richer Arab has a tent to herself. Divorces are
frequent and given on the grounds generally admitted by
Mohammedans. The husband has almost unlimited lib
erty of divorcing his wife at will, while it is almost im
possible for a woman to obtain a divorce owing to the con
ditions laid' down. The husband is obliged to pay the
sum that was named in the marriage contract, and this
being done, he is quite free from any ill feeling or re
prisal on the part of her family. Unfaithfulness to her

BEDOUINS 137
marriage vows on the part of the wife gives the husband
the right of punishment. He may even kill his wife
without any fear of legal consequences, though the rela
tives of his wife may take up the blood feud.
How does the Bedouin exist? Mostly on what is
yielded by the camel, or, more properly, the she-camel,
who has fed him from childhood. She gives him food,
drink, clothing and all the necessities of his simple house
keeping, tents, string, ropes, made from camel's hair, and
even fuel. Only thanks to the she-camel can the Bedouin
keep horses, for the mares and colts could not survive
without her milk. Thanks to them only can the Bedouin
make his long journey through waterless wastes, carry
out raids and hunting expeditions, and thanks to. them he
may even become comparatively rich. Further, the Bed
ouin lives on what the meagre desert gives him, locusts,
" samkh " and " meza'a " that grow in the desert. Hunt
ing with greyhounds and hawks also helps to fill the
Arab's pot, but this, of course, is only for the rich. The
poorer Arabs snare the animals at their drinking places.
In this way they get wild cows, gazelles., and, in mountain
ous places, wild sheep. Ostriches are to be found in the
Nefuds, and in Irak and Shamiya " duradji" (a kind of
partridge). Also a bird somewhat like it, called in Per
sia " bagrikara," black-breast, that is to be found in great
abundance in Arabia during the winter months. The
Arabian greyhounds are fair specimens of their race.
They resemble those kept by the Turkomans in Trans
caspia, being, however, somewhat smaller. The hawks
are of various breeds. With the larger variety gazelles
are chased, while the smaller ones are used for birds.
Among the semi-nomadic tribes sheep are a great sup
port. They too can go long without water. In the
spring, when the grass is juicy, they are only watered once
in several days. During the hot season they can, in ex-

138 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
treme cases, go forty-eight hours without drink. This
characteristic is also possessed by the sheep in Shakhse-
wan, in Persia, which winter in the Mugan steppe. An
other source of income is the occasional sale of a three-
year-old colt to Persians or Arabs who come to the camp
for this purpose. The price of colts is high and a Bedouin
who has one or more to sell makes enough to carry him
through the year. A lucky raid may also enrich an Arab.
This last is a risky means of livelihood, depending upon
his own skill and the swiftness of his horse, and in cases
of failure the Bedouin may lose his all and his life into
the bargain. Among hostile tribes sheep lifting is also
practised. A band generally creeps up to the flock and
falls upon the shepherd, whom they either kill or leave
tied up. Then the flock is broken up into several small
bunches and driven off in different directions to make pur
suit difficult. Another method of sheep lifting is based
on the well-known stupidity of sheep, that can be made to
follow the object that has frightened them. Several
horsemen charge a flock, that immediately bunches to
gether. One of the riders then forces his way into the
midst of them, fires his gun into the air and then dashes
out and sets off over the plain, all the sheep after him.
The other horsemen follow in the rear and on the flanks.
When the excitement of the stampede subsides and the
sheep begin to weaken in their awkward gallop, the same
maneuvre is repeated, and again the sheep run with re
newed energy. In this way they can be forced to run
many miles at a gait seemingly incredible for sheep. The
very same trick is employed by the Turkomans and by
the Beluchis, who wander with their flocks up into Kho-
rasan in Persia. But, aside from such comparatively
easy ways of driving off flocks, the Bedouins engage in
more serious raids, " ghazus," where they have battles on
a small scale, which battles are generally remarkable for

A BEDOUIN TENT

BEDOUINS 139
the small amount of blood spilled, in spite of much noise.
The more serious ghazus are usually brought about by
some wrong that has been done by a hostile tribe — the
stealing of horses or camels, robbing a night traveller or
perhaps carrying off a maiden. In such cases there is an
effort made at first to come to a peaceable settlement of
the quarrel. An envoy is sent, chosen from the most elo
quent and prudent of the tribe. In case of his failure a
council is held. The strength of the enemy is considered
and weighed against their own fighting contingent. The
chances of allied tribes joining to help them is noted.
The messengers are sent to such tribes asking for their
aid. In the meantime provisions are laid in, arms and
saddles are overhauled and horses trained. As has been
said, only thoroughbreds are taken, the best mares of the
tribe, for as the proverb runs, " Poor horses will in the
day of battle ruin their masters." Horses are used only
during the actual fighting, the journey being made on
camels, the horses being led until the enemy is in sight.
Generally only the men go on the ghazu, but occasionally
the whole encampment moves. At such times the loaded
camels, women and children follow in the rear, protected
by riders who also serve as reserves.
Women ride, one or more on a camel, and the richer
have "howdahs" or sort of palanquin on the camel's
back. This is formed by four upright poles being fas
tened for an awning to the saddle. These poles and the
top are adorned as gaily as possible, and such howdahs
are the dream of every desert girl.
But the enemy, too, is not napping. By means of
spies and runners they follow each step of the prepara
tions of the opposite party and are seldom caught unpre
pared. Finally the two opposing parties set out on the
march. Scouts ride ahead, then the chief fighting body
and finally the women, children and camp, if such accom-

140 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
pany the ghazu. As soon as the enemies come in sight
of each other, every warrior seizes his lance and, mount
ing his fresh mare, the parties meet, but the attack does
not begin at once. First there is a sort of exhibition of
horsemanship, galloping and curveting about, while a
steady string of insults to the enemy and praise of his own
tribe, heroes and mares, is kept up. Sometimes war
songs are sung. This ends by the two groups drawing
nearer, and attempts are made, as they pass each other,
to unseat the enemy, in which case, by the law of the
desert, the riderless horse becomes the property of the
victor. The unseating of the first man serves as a signal for the
general attack to begin. The excitement grows as the
heat of battle increases. At first the blunt point of the
lance is used, the object being to unseat or stun the oppo
nent, but gradually the sharp point comes into play and
finally firearms are resorted to. The wounded are car
ried to the rear, where the women dress the wounds and
encourage them to return to the fray. In olden times the
fairest maiden in the tribe led the fighting party, seated
in a brightly adorned howdah, chanting a battle song.
The person of these maidens was always considered in
violable. At the present time this custom has ceased to
be followed. Finally, when one of the two parties gives
in, or night ends the fight, both sides withdraw to their
base. Here the wounded and dead are counted, and the
loss of the enemy considered and a balance struck. The
side whose loss is heaviest cannot be contented unless the
loss is made even, or the enemy consents to pay the differ
ence in " blood money." In the former case a blood feud
begins. The family of those killed lie in wait for mem
bers of the hostile tribe. Each fresh man killed leads to
more bloodshed. If the allied tribes had losses in the
original fray, they, too, take part in the blood feud. In

BEDOUINS

141

this way an impassable barrier of blood is raised between
the tribes that may last for generations. No member of
one tribe can pass through the territory occupied by the
other without taking his life in his hands, and in this way
travelling in the desert is very complicated. It is almost
impossible to find a guide who has not a blood feud with
some tribe or other, and whose choice of routes must con
sequently be limited. Often elders of neutral tribes take
upon themselves the task of arbitrators. Parleyings be
gin, that drag through months. All the losses from the
beginning are counted. The price of blood, as based on
the teachings of the Koran, is estimated, payable in camels
or other animals. The sum is approximately $1,500,
an enormous sum for a Bedouin to raise. In practice, to
make this possible it is the custom to set a much higher
nominal price on each animal than the real worth, so that
with the sacrifice of fewer camels, the sum named in Holy
Tradition may be obtained. Then begins the bargaining
and a struggle takes place between the passions of revenge
and cupidity. Occasionally, at the last moment, the
family exclaims, " We will not drink our brother's blood,"
and all discussion is at an end and the blood feud goes on.
But more often, in the end, the arbitrators succeed in a
peaceful termination of the feud and the price of blood is
handed over. Generally all the relations and often the
entire tribe of the man killed are present at the ceremony
of the paying of the blood money. A peace contract is
made out and usually vows of friendship are exchanged
between the hitherto hostile tribes. " Your enemies shall
be our enemies and your friends our friends," is the base
of this alliance. To cement still further the friendship,
a marriage is arranged between the two tribes. Through
out the Moslem East intermarrying is considered the sur
est means of uniting two tribes or families after a blood
feud. Often the sister of the victim will marry her

142 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
brother's slayer. Occasionally, but rarely, the feeling of
revenge gets the upper hand at the last moment and the
tragedy continues.
European literature has idealised the Bedouin. The
poetic subject of the chivalrous, free-born son of the des
ert is an enticing one. In actual fact the Bedouins stand
on a very low plane of culture. What else can be ex
pected of a man whose whole life is passed in the desert,
who has almost no religious ideas or beliefs, whose ideals
and ambitions rise no higher than the camel and horse?
The poets sing of the hospitality of the Bedouin. But
this hospitality is the direct result of life in the desert and
is reciprocal. If the Bedouin were not hospitable and
refused to entertain the stranger, many travellers would
certainly perish of hunger and thirst. To each Bedouin
there comes a time when he is the traveller and stranger.
Hospitality is a custom and its limits are definitely de
fined. A guest may consider himself in absolute safety
so long as he is under the tent of his host, but no longer.
And the number of days that a guest has the right to de
mand hospitality is definitely limited. During this time
the guest must put up with the most unceremonious ques
tioning and examination. I have happened to be in
camps where for the first time the Arabs saw Musco
vites, as they call us. Evidently their idea of Muscovites
was as of some mythical being, judging from the surprise
evinced when they found that we had two eyes and one
nose, in a word, were human beings.
It would be hard to find a people whose life is a series
of greater hardships and hunger than the Bedouin. They
divide their year into four periods of three months each.
Of these, three periods are more or less famine months,
and only the one spring period, the " er-rabia," presents
to the Arabs a comparatively bearable existence. At this
time the desert is covered with juicy grass and the she-

BEDOUINS 143
camels, following the plentiful pasture independent of
wells, are in milk. Various edible herbs, too, are to be
found at this time that break the monotony of the very lim
ited Bedouin menu. The locusts, too, can be expected at
this season and the Bedouin eagerly welcomes them,
roasting on coals the wings and hind legs. They also lay
in large stores of dried locusts for the famine months.
Now the Bedouin is, indeed, the lord of the desert, for,
owing to the grass, he can roam at will, sure of pasture.
It is at this time possible for the Bedouin to move his
camp every three or four days, according as the camels
need fresh pasture. The time and distance of the march
are settled by common consent by the sheikh. The tents
or"beyt" (houses) are quickly taken down and loaded
on to the camels, this work being done exclusively by the
women, it being considered beneath the dignity of the
lord of the desert to stoop to such menial labour. The
process of moving the camp is called " rahla." The
order on the march is invariably the same: the sheikh
leads, with the men of the tribe, followed by camels laden
with all the simple household goods, on top of which are
perched the women and children. Most of the women
have boxes, but few own a box with a lock, and those for
tunate women who do possess such an article hang the
key among the other ornaments that are attached to her
head-dress and hang down her back. Sometimes to these
ornaments, of which they are very proud, are added a
thimble and small pincers which are used to extract
thorns from the barefooted family. While on the march
the women of various families often mingle and chat as
they ride along side by side. This custom is not, however,
encouraged by the men folk, who wish the women to save
their strength for the hard work of setting up the camp
on arriving, and besides, they say that " anyway women
cannot talk of anything sensible." During marches made

144 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
in the hot season Bedouins always refrain from conver
sation, as it encourages thirst.
Very young camels and colts are carried in large saddle
bags, only the heads and necks sticking out and swaying
with the long swinging strides of the camels. The young
puppies of greyhounds, which are greatly prized, are
carried in the same way. If on the march anyone falls
behind, or loses the way, even if it is a child, no one but
the immediately interested persons will pay any attention
or stop to hunt for the missing one. The sick are carried
on a sort of bed arranged on the top of a flat load. Chil
dren dying on the march are at once buried by the road
side, the shallow graves often being dug in the sand with
tent poles. When an adult dies the body is wrapped
in felt and if possible carried to the common burial
ground, often at a great distance. Animals falling sick
are never killed, as Mohammedans consider this a sin.
They are left by the roadside to die miserably of thirst.
Occasionally the wretched creatures drag after the cara
van as far as the next camping ground, but there the
Bedouins do not give them drink, leaving them to suffer
until the end mercifully comes. If on a march an oasis
is passed or a settlement of fellaheen, a supply of dates is
bought for winter use. To avoid extra weight these stores
are buried in the sand to be taken up when the tribe re
turns the same way in the autumn. Such stores are con
sidered as inviolate and no one dreams of stealing them.
Sometimes, when pressed, clothing is left on the ground
and the owner is reasonably sure of finding it later on.
The choice of a camping ground lies with the sheikh.
When he finds a spot that satisfies him he sticks his long
spear in the ground, and the head of each family does the
same on the spot chosen for his tent. Here the duty of
the men ceases. As the caravan comes up, each woman
finding her husband's spear, sets to work with the chil-

BEDOUINS 145
dren and other women of the family, and in a wonder
fully short time the new camp is erected, and life goes on
as usual until the new " rahla."
The tents of the Bedouins are woven of camel's hair or
of sheep's wool and are exceedingly durable, becoming
stronger and lighter with time and lasting for more than
a generation. All the wool produced by the Bedouin
goes for his own use and is not an item of export. The
men's part of the tent has its shady side open, and any
one is at liberty to enter. The women's half is partitioned
off, but the richer families have separate tents for the
harem. All the household furnishings of the Bedouin, except
the most necessary metal utensils, are home-made. Even
their dyes are made by themselves.^ The bright purple,
a very durable dye, is prepared from a certain fungus
boiled in camel's urine.
During the spring months when milk is plentiful the
women lay in a supply of dried milk, which is one of the
staple articles of diet and indeed sometimes the only food
during the " hunger months." This dried milk is called
"merinie" and under another name is found in Persia,
even in towns and villages, for winter use. It is made
from curdled milk which is strained, pressed and made
into small balls and then dried in the sun. These keep
through the months that the camels are not in milk. The
dry balls are crushed and stirred in water, thus furnish
ing a sort of sour milk which is used alone or in cooking
any flour or grain they may have.
The close of the spring season marks the end of any
thing like a bearable existence. The summer, " el-hayt,"
autumn, " esesf er," and winter, " esh-sheta," may be called
famine months, for the Bedouin is never satisfied during
this long period. His hardships increase as the dry sea
son advances, until the last months are, as the Arabs say,

146 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
" mysil-el-maat," " like unto death." At this season even
the rich Bedouin is half hungry, and that the poor survive
at all is due to their extraordinary power of endurance.
The Bedouin now draws his belt tight, and lying on his
stomach to ease the pangs of hunger, sleeps all day wait
ing for his meagre supper, his one meal at the worsi
period. The inhabitants of the desert rise early, before the sun.
The women at once prepare their simple breakfast, con
sisting of milk or curds in the springtime and the rest of
the year of dried milk or locusts, or a handful of pressed
dates rubbed up in water. Most of the day is spent by the
women in sleeping or in sitting in the sheikh's tent, which
serves as a kind of club. Here the latest desert news is
discussed, quarrels are settled, the various interests of the
tribe discussed, etc. To each person half a tiny cup of
sugarless coffee is served, two swallows, not more. This
coffee is in fact the chief magnet drawing people to the
sheikh's tent. In this way the morning is passed until
midday, when all scatter for their afternoon nap, to rise
an hour before sunset, as it is considered injurious to sleep
near sundown. After this siesta the men again betake
themselves to the sheikh's tent for the one homeopathic
portion of coffee. However poor, the Bedouin has a
small provision at least of unburned coffee. Coffee is
freshly browned just before using, pounded in a wooden
mortar and cooked over the coals. A very small amount
of coffee is used, the beans being counted, and the grounds
that remain are added to the fresh brew next time. Just
before sunset the she-camels are driven in and after giving
them an hour's rest the women milk them. Camels are in
milk eleven months, but of course the quantity given de
creases progressively with the dry season. The mares
are tied to the women's tents and the desert rings with the
whinnying of boh mares and colts in expectation of milk

BEDOUINS 147
as the camels are driven up. The camels are milked into
large wooden bowls and the mares and colts get their por
tion first, then the children are fed (from the same un
washed bowl, of course) and the rest goes to the simple
supper of the adults and for making curds. As soon as
the darkness sets in the men light fires, as the nights are
chilly on the Arabian plateau, often 3,000 feet above the
sea. The fires are made from brushwood gathered dur
ing the day by the women. In getting the fuel the women
are careful not to touch anything that the camels can eat.
Around these fires the Bedouins sprawl with their heads
towards the fire, flat on their stomachs, as said before, to
alleviate the ever-present pangs of hunger. Now begins
the endless talk of the desert life, stories of ghazus, of
ghosts and mysterious unseen inhabitants of the desert.
An hour or two is spent in this way, and then each goes
to his tent, where the same meagre supper as his morn
ing's breakfast awaits him, and the Bedouin day is over.
At night the Bedouin sleeps little and very lightly, being
always on the watch for a night attack. The quiet of the
night is only broken by the occasional barking of the
hounds if wolves are prowling about. If a sheep is car
ried off by these marauders, severe as the loss is to the
poor Bedouin, he takes it with wonderful philosophy,
comforting himself that it was " kismet."
If, as seen above, the male portion of the inhabitants of
the desert is hungry, the women fare even worse. The
men at least have a few swallows of coffee during the day
in the sheikh's tent, or being far away from the camp,
sometimes according to desert custom go up to the herds
and get a drop of milk. During the famine months the
Bedouin eats anything that can possibly be eaten; birds
of prey that live on carrion, lizards, foxes' and wolves'
flesh. "What we cannot ourselves eat we give to the
harem — the harem can eat everything," say the Arabs.

148 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
To the suffering that habitually comes to the Bedouin
from hunger, taking as he does nourishment in quantities
barely sufficient to keep body and soul together, must
often be added thirst. During the dry season they depend
upon what water there is remaining in wells or hollows.
In these places they water their cattle and in spite of the
remonstrances of the sheikh perform the ablutions de
manded before prayer. The water in the pools becomes
therefore so foul that linen washed in it becomes brown.
But the Bedouin is thankful for even such water, using it
with the greatest economy and refraining from one un
necessary swallow.
They are equally economical in watering their beasts.
In the hot season the camels are watered once in three
days, sheep and asses every other day and only the horses
get two drinks daily. In the autumn and winter months
camels are watered once in five days, while sheep and
donkeys get water every two days. During the spring
months the camels are not watered at all, the juicy pas
turage being sufficient. Such training naturally results
in the camels being as enduring as their masters, capable
of sustaining great fatigue and thirst. A pacing drome
dary in good condition can on short distances run 130
versts1 in twenty-four hours. On journeys of a week it
can keep up an average of 90 versts, and for a two weeks'
march it has been known to make 80 versts in the
twenty-four hours. It is wonderful how the camels
can keep up their speed getting only such food as the
desert provides during the short hours of rest and re
ceiving water but once in three to four days. During
such long marches the hump becomes small and flabby,
and there is no doubt that the camel depends on the fat
of his hump to give it nourishment.
Considering the life of the Bedouins it is not surprising
1 1 verst equals f of a mile.

-

GROUP OF BEDOUIN MEN, WOMEN AND CHILDREN

BEDOUINS 149
that there is a great deal of disease of the digestive organs
to be found among them. Smallpox and other kindred
epidemics create a panic among the simple desert folk
so great as to cause them occasionally to abandon their
sick. Vaccination is known among the Bedouins and
gladly resorted to when opportunity affords. Cholera also
often carries off many victims. Although eye diseases
are very prevalent, the eyesight of the Bedouin is gener
ally remarkable. " I see Zal," a Bedouin will say, mean
ing a formless something in the distance, whether bush,
rider or beast he cannot yet say, and which a European
will only just perceive after half an hour's camel walk.
And even then what to the foreigner is a formless object
can by the Arab be distinguished as a certain animal, the
very colour of which he can give.
The women generally play the part of physician, and
strange are the remedies often employed by them. Amu
lets and charms fill an important place in their pharma
copoeia. Actual cautery is the main remedy, and it is
freely used for every imaginable pain or ache, and hardly
an Arab can be found who does not bear its marks. The
" evil eye " and witchcraft, too, are believed in. When
an Arab is dying his friend or near relation begins to sing
in a loud voice to frighten away death. If possible the
funeral takes place the same day that death occurs.
Owing to the absence of spades graves are dug with tent
pegs and are therefore very shallow. The day after the
funeral a sacrifice, " kurban," is offered. A sheep or a
camel, according to the means of the family, is killed and
the whole tribe invited to take part in the " kurban "
feast. This, however, is not done in the case of a wo
man's death.
Sacrifices of this kind have a large place in the life of
the Bedouins from the rare red-letter days on which they
get a full meal. These sacrifices or general feasts take

150 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
place on the occasion of the birth of a son, circumcision,
or after the successful return from a " ghazu," a marriage,
recovery from severe illness, or the arrival of a guest.
When a stranger arrives in camp and enters a tent the host
asks no questions until he has fed the guest with whatever
God has given him, even if it is the last he has.
This is a sacredly observed custom. The Bedouins say,
" In this world we are all strangers and travellers, Allah's
guests, and if we are not hospitable to others Allah will
refuse us his hospitality." This idea is the mainspring
of the practical form that hospitality takes in the desert.
Camel's milk is first offered to the weary guest and is
called " kheyr Allah," God's gift. In passing I will men
tion that camel's milk is easily assimilated in the stomach,
but gives colic to those unaccustomed to it if taken in con
siderable quantities. Coffee follows, prepared by the host
himself if there is water to be had in the camp. Only
half a cup is offered, as it is not considered polite to fill
the cup, which would be a hint to the guest that after
drinking it he might depart. If the guest arrives in the
morning he gets the usual breakfast of sour milk with
perhaps the addition of dates in water. When the meal
is served the host says, " Eat, and may Allah give you
life." The real Bedouin will not rise until all have
finished. The guest at the end of the repast generally
says, "Umnaat Allah aleika ia myateb" ("May God's
blessing rest upon thee, oh my host"). The supper consists
of the same food as the breakfast, and if the guest is to
leave the next day it is not the custom to feed him in the
morning. Sometimes the hostess may give the departing
guest just a handful of dates for the road. Hospitality
is obligatory for three days. Sometimes a passing stran
ger may leave some of his belongings with his host, and
on his return he is sure of finding everything as he left it.
When an honoured guest arrives his entertainment is
the duty of the sheikh, who invites the entire tribe to take

BEDOUINS 151
part in the evening's feast, a camel or sheep being slaugh
tered for the occasion. As soon as the beast is killed and
skinned the meat is cut up roughly and thrown into a huge
cauldron of water, where it boils without any seasoning.
When the meat is sufficiently cooked it is turned out onto
large wooden trays and carried into the tent, where all
those invited are already assembled. The host makes the
guest move with the word " Taf addaln " (welcome) ; all
sit around and dig into the huge pile, using their fingers
instead of knives and forks. In a short time little remains
but half-cleaned bones. Women are not present at these
feasts and have to content themselves with what is left.
Aside from the duties of hospitality, those of judge lie
upon the sheikh. Most crimes are punished by the pay
ment of a certain number of animals. Anyone failing to
consent to the decision of the sheikh is expelled from the
tribe. Sometimes a case is settled by means of an oath.
The most sacred oath is taken over a circle drawn in the
ashes of a fire. Inside this circle is drawn a cross. After
this oath the case is considered settled.
The Arab women, as in all Mohammedan communities,
occupy an inferior position. The number of girls born,
so far as can be judged, exceeds that of boys. The birth
of a son is an occasion for rejoicing and congratulation.
The birth of a girl is not even a subject to be mentioned.
The women of the tribe visit the mother and condole with
her on such an event, comforting her with the assurance
that it is Allah's will and she must bow to the rod of " kis
met." A girl is looked upon as a burden, an extra mouth
to feed until she can be married off. No wonder then
that in the prehistoric days Arabs killed the extra female
babies. If a woman bear only girls, or is childless, the
husband if poor divorces her, or keeps her if he has
means, while adding another wife. A divorced wife leads
a miserable life until she marries some inferior person.
In case of harsh treatment a wife takes refuge with heii

,152 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
parents or friends and the husband has no right to touch
her. The case then has to be settled by emissaries, the
guest or a friend being chosen as mediator. Women
have even less idea of religion than men and very seldom
pray. The low condition of women in the Islamic countries
was based upon what was found in Arabia before the Mo
hammedan conquest.
The Arabs' estimate of women is clearly to be found
in the terms used to describe the sex. Among them are
words that later became used in other Eastern tongues
spoken by those adopting the Mohammedan religion,
As for instance, " saif ," weak, " nisa," the forgetful, and
for an elderly woman, " a'djuss," characterless, strength-
less, incapable. Further, in the very names of women the
same idea may be traced. Names are chosen for girls
from the vegetable kingdom, qualities or even incidents,
as " Selma," peace, " Hamdie," praise, " Kotra," born in
the green month, "Vateyna," born in rain, "Yabera,"
patience, " Umm-es-suf," month of wool, " Fuddja,"
pleasant, " Howsha," scold.
In all my travels in the Moslem East, among the moun
tains of Kurdistan, the plains of Persia, along the Afghan
frontier, in the steppes of Central Asia, among the Alai
Kirghizes, nowhere have I found such a depth of poverty,
misery and hardships as I saw among the Bedouins. And
yet to them the desert is as dear as are the smiling gardens
of Persia to the Persian, or the glorious mountains of
Kurdistan and Central Asia to the Kurds and Kirghizes.
I have even known cases where the Bedouins had the op
portunity of living in easy circumstances in the towns but
to whom the " call of the desert " was louder than any
bodily comfort, and they returned to their state of chronic
hunger and thirst. But they had the priceless gifts of
freedom and space.

CHAPTER IX
THE ARAB HORSE IN; ITS NATIVE LAND
Horses of Arab Descent in Europe and Asia — Why Arabia Produces
The Finest Horses in the World — The Horse's Power of Adapting
Itself to its Food — Points of a Bedouin's Horse — Limitation — Im
possibility of Buying Thoroughbred Mares — Proverbs — Mares
Owned in Shares — The Natural Conditions of a Horse's Life — The
Origin of the Arab Horse — Are there Many Thoroughbred Arab
Horses in Arabia? — Subdivisions of Breeds — Examples of the Bed
ouin's Estimation of his Horse's Genealogy — " Shammarie," the
Pearl of the Desert — Hunting the Wild Ass — Our Wild Ass in
Meshed — Endurance of the Arab Horse — The Bedouin as a Rider —
Colour of Horses — Points — Defects — Length of Horse Life — Bed
ouins' Treatment of the Horse — Our Arab Horses in Bagdad —
Hamdanie, Seglawie and Rishan — Personal Observations.
IF Arabia may not be termed the home of the Arab horse
in the sense of its being the place where the animal lived
in its wild state, still it is an undisputed fact that the best
races of trotting horses in Europe are of Arabian descent.
How the Arab horse came into Europe and how various
breeds were developed from it there, is well known to all
who are interested in horse breeding. But more than this,
the best horses of the East can boast the same origin,
thanks to Shah Abbas, who reigned in Persia from 1585 to
1628. By his orders Arab horses were distributed as fol
lows throughout his kingdom, which then extended from
the Tigris to India: One stud was established in Kurdis
tan, one in Shiraz and one in Karabagh, then a Per
sian province. A fourth was placed in what is at present
known as Transcaspia. From these Arabs descended the
153

154 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
breeds now known as Kurdistan, Shiraz, Karabagh and
Turkoman. The natural question that presents itself to one's mind
is, Why did Arabia give the best horse to the world? Is
it because the climate and other local conditions devel
oped them, or is there some other explanation? The first
question has to be answered negatively, as the first con
ditions of successful horse breeding, good pasture and
abundance of water, are lacking in Arabia. Good pasture
is to be found in the Yemen and in parts of Arabia occa
sionally, and then only during the rainy season, which lasts
two or three months. During the remaining months of
the year the desolate wastes of Arabia are covered with
little but the cactus and tamarisks. Of water, except in
the regions bordering the Tigris and Euphrates, there is
even less to be said. Further, the Arab horse is unac
quainted with barley, their universal food in other parts
of the East. Camel's milk in the earlier days of their
lives, dried locusts, and in the regions bordering the sea,
dried fish ; a handful of stoned dates now and then, — these
represent the main articles of food for the Bedouin and
his horse. In the Nefuds, as we have seen, the mares are
turned loose in the spring, each colt receiving in addition
to its mother's milk that of one she-camel. If the pasture
land is not too far distant the mares are driven to the
camp in the evening. The camels are then milked and
first the colts and afterwards the mares and children are
given a drink. If a horse can exist at all under such con
ditions it is owing to great care and then to its wonderful
adaptability to all sorts of diet, including animal food.
Before the conquest of Transcaspia the Turkomans on
their raids were in the habit of taking with them a supply
of mutton fat, which from time to time they gave in small
quantities to their horses, on which they made as many as
ioo versts in twenty-four hours.

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 155
It is just these conditions, seemingly so unsuitable, that
created the Arab horse. Forcing the Bedouin to care for
his steed above himself, it is the result of careful bringing
up, training and skilful selection.
As soon as a colt is born it is turned over to the care of
the women, its ears are tied to make them stand as close
together as possible, a mark of beauty according to the
Arab idea. Horses bought of Bedouins always have a
fine scar at the root of the ears — the trace of the cord
tied there when a colt. These scars are often artificially
made by the " Jambazes " or horse dealers buying animals
for export to India, so as to sell city-bred horses as having
been bought of Bedouins.
During the heat of the day the colt is allowed the cool
est spot in the tents, where he lies down among the chil
dren, thus from earliest days becoming accustomed to
human beings, recognising them as his best friends and
learning to trust them. It is undoubtedly the foundation
of the wonderful docility and gentleness of the Arab
breed. When the foal is a month old it is weaned and
brought up on camel's milk with occasionally a handful
of dates if they are to be had. In the autumn the colts
are turned out to get their own food, and to prevent them
from straying they are hobbled with iron or rope hobbles ;
the scars they make, lasting through life, are regarded by
the buying public as proofs of a horse's being desert born.
The "Jambazes" have a most cruel way of imitating
these marks by binding a fresh sheep's intestine round one
or both legs just above the hock joint, so that as it dries
it shall cut into the flesh. The wound thus made is al
lowed to heal, leaving a scar covered with white hair that
cannot be distinguished from that caused by the hobbles.
Not only Indian buyers but even town people in Turkish
Arabia are often taken in by the " Jambazes " in this way.
When the colt is two years old he is ridden by children,

156 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
and in his third year he is mounted regularly. If the colt
does not promise much by the fourth year he is sold, ac
cording to the Arab proverb :
" If in the fourth year he does not please, sell him with
out hesitation."
Thoroughbred mares are never sold under any con
dition, and instances have been known when five and even
ten thousand pounds have been refused. Even such mares
as are too old for riding are still kept for breeding pur
poses. The Arab's regard for his mare is often expressed in
sayings that are short but very much to the point, as for
instance :
" The foundation of wealth is a mare : bring forth a
mare." " The greatest blessings are a wise wife and a fruitful
mare." In olden times stealing a mare was punishable by death.
Sheikhs own one or more pure-bred mares according to
their position and means, but it is often the case that
among the less well-to-do people a mare is owned by sev
eral, the shares being clearly defined and the division of
colts made according to detailed and often complicated
laws. Sometimes one family owns "one leg," while a
richer man claims " two legs," etc.
This system of owning a mare in shares is found even
among sedentary Arabs in Turkish Arabia and sometimes
in the city of Bagdad itself, if any one is fortunate enough
to get hold of a half-bred mare.
The Arab, who is exceedingly particular as to the pur
ity of his own genealogical tree, is exceedingly careful to
hold to the same principle in regard to his horse breed
ing. As the Arabs themselves are divided into tribes and
sub-tribes, the same system is adopted in regard to the
strain of their horses' breed. In fact, the breeding is car-

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 157
ried on in the same manner as laid down in the Koran
for Mohammedan marriages. This is one of the chief
factors in giving rise to the high quality of the pure-bred
Arab horse.
Finally, the third condition towards the development
of the peculiar qualities of the Arabian horses is their
life under the open sky, during the hot summer day, dur
ing the rainy season, and during winter's icy winds.
These natural conditions are exceedingly important
to the well being of the Arab horse. While travelling
on the Pamirs we noticed how the stall-fed horses, in
spite of the best food, did not pick up as rapidly after the
fatigues of the long march as did the Kirgie horses left
to shift for themselves on the scant pasturage, often
obliged to paw away the snow to get at their food. Stables
are the enemy of the Arab horse, and once inside them he
quickly loses much of his former qualities, falls an easy
prey to colds and skin diseases, and his endurance also
becomes in a great measure weakened.
The Bedouin tells the following legend of the creation
of the horse :
Before the creation of man Allah created a mare.
Causing the south wind to condense he formed from it
a bay mare with a white star on her forehead. To this
day bay horses with white stars are the most prized in
Arabia and in the Sahara.
The Bedouin says that Allah has three great gifts to
mankind, " a good horse, a good wife and a good blade."
It is a great mistake, however, to assume that every horse
found among the Bedouins is pure bred. A thoroughbred
horse is not easy to find in Arabia, the more so that horses
are not as plentiful in that country as is generally sup
posed. The traveller Burckhardt estimated that there
were not more than 6,000 to be found in the whole of the
Syrian desert. Between Mecca and Medina, a distance

158 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
of some 300 miles, the same writer counts not more than
200 horses, while in Nejd he considers that the number
would not be above 20,000.
These figures are, of course, very roughly estimated
and serve merely as a general basis proving the above
statement. In addition to this must be taken into consideration the
fact that far from every Bedouin has a thoroughbred
horse. Such are to be found only in the possession of
sheikhs and rich Arabs.
Further, not all thoroughbred horses as found among
the various tribes are of equal value. Each tribe has its
special strain. For instance, in the oasis of El-Hasaareto
be found undoubtedly pure-bred horses, but they are far
inferior to those bred in Nejd or among the Aenizeh or
Shammar tribes. The cause for this is supposed to be
the difference in the bringing up of the El-Hasa horses.
Here we find fine pasture, but the absence of raids, which
develop the endurance of horses, leads to the production
of a weak race. From this we can draw the general con
clusion that the greater the hardships to which the horse
is subjected, making him more dependent on man's help,
the better the result. As proving the correctness of this
theory we find the best horses come from Nedj, then from
the Aenizeh and finally from the Shammar tribe. For
this reason if a horse dealer gets an animal from the
Shammars he tries, to pass it off as an Aenizeh horse,
whereas if he gets hold of an Aenizeh-bred horse he calls
it Nedj.
Sometimes, however, a first-class animal is found where
least expected, and the secret is a lucky ghazu or raid.
Sometimes an inferior tribe becomes in this way possessed
of a first-class mare, and thus improves the strain of its
own horses.
The Arabs trace their pure-blood horses to five mares

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 159
owned by the Prophet Mohammed. But there is no
doubt that in Mohammed's time these five strains al
ready existed. They are known under the general name
of " al hamsa," " the five." From the names of these five
mares come the names of the five chief strains of Arab
horses, Kehilan, Seglawie, Abeyan, Hamdanie and Had-
ban, but each of these strains in course of time has given
rise to sub-divisions. For instance, the Kehilan has sixty
sub-strains, Seglawie nine, Abeyan twelve, Hamdanie two
and the Hadban four, and each of these sub-divisions has
its own name, probably from a famous mare, the founder
of the line.
Here it should be mentioned that the Arabs attach more
importance to the mother's side in tracing a pedigree than
to that of the sire.
The Arabs estimate so highly the purity of their horses'
breed that in this one respect their word can be invariably
relied upon. As an instance of this can be cited the case
of an Arab who, mortally wounded in a ghazu, called to
the victorious party to come back and hear before he
died the genealogy of his mare that they had taken.
Moreover, when, after a successful ghazu, blood mares
have been seized the winning party send an envoy, whose
person is scrupulously respected, to ask the original
owners to give the pedigree of the mares taken, and this
is always most conscientiously done. An instance is told
of an Arab who succeeded in stealing a valuable mare
at night. The master, aroused, sprang upon another mare
and gave chase. The race continued all night and at day
break the owner overtook the thief to such a degree that he
could just touch him with the end of his spear, with the
sharp point of which he steadily prodded the thief's back,
unable, however, to draw near enough to inflict a serious
wound or overpower him. This continued for some time,
the unlucky horse thief in the meantime getting more than

i6o LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
one score of good pricks, when suddenly he found himself
upon the precipitous banks of a deep dry stream. The
horse thief gave an encouraging shout and the gallant
mare rose like a bird and cleared the obstacle, whereas
the inferior mare on which the owner was giving chase
i stopped short. Seeing that the game was up he called to
the thief to turn and hear the pedigree of the " pearl of
the desert " that he had won !
There are mares whose fame has spread throughout
the entire desert, who are the pride and wealth of the
tribe and for whom the Bedouin would sacrifice himself,
his wives and children. There was one such owned by the
sheikh of the Shammar tribe, named in honour of the tribe
" Shammarie." Of her beauty, swiftness and endurance
the whole desert rang. They positively declared that she
could alone run down a wild ass. To understand the
weight of this statement one must be acquainted with the
manner of hunting these animals, whose fleetness and great
endurance are proverbial. The wild ass is to be found
in Irak, in the Senjar mountains, and along the Perso-Af-
ghan frontier, and I am acquainted with this sport. When
a herd of these animals is found a number of horsemen,
ten to fifteen, on the best horses to be had, are stationed at
certain intervals along the line of retreat that the herd
is expected to take. When the drive begins the first
horseman follows at full speed to the point where the
second man is posted with a fresh horse. In this way
often ten or more horses are worn out before one of the
young or a mother who will not forsake her colt is run
down. In passing I would touch upon these beautiful creatures.
During our sojourn in Meshed a four-months-old wild
ass was caught in the above detailed manner and was
brought to us. He was kept in the stables with several
horses, but all attempts to tame him were useless. He

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ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 161
kicked and bit those who fed him. In the summer we
tiedhimwith a long rope on the lawn, hoping to accustom
Kim to us, but as soon as anyone came within range he
dashed forward, showing his teeth and, wheeling with the
rapidity of lightning, began a volley of kicks that were
too fast to be counted. When old enough all efforts were
made to mount him, but no one was found who could stick
on his back for more than a few seconds. Though this
animal is known in Persia as a wild ass, it was found in
the Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg, where our speci
men is now to be seen stuffed, that they are erroneously
so termed, being in fact wild horses. These so-called
wild asses are sometimes kept in the gardens of Meshed as
watch dogs, and well do they perform their duties. The
she-asses are more gentle and are often taught to bear
handling and even sometimes the saddle. The flesh of the
young asses resembles venison and it is considered a
dainty by the Bedouins.
If, then, that famous mare "Shammarie" alone ran
down a wild ass no more need be said.
The first consideration in training a horse is to develop
the powers of endurance, and with this in view the Bed
ouins take their three-year-old colts on hunting expedi
tions. Instances have been known when Bedouins have
made as many as four hundred miles on their mares in
five days and nights, with scant food and drink. The
real Bedouin takes his horses only on ghazus or the chase.
All journeyings are done exclusively on camels. In rid
ing the Bedouin never spares himself nor his steed, quot
ing the saying that " the horseman's grave is ever open."
The next care is to develop a fast walk. This achieved,
all the rest, they say, will follow. Quickness in turning,
which is so necessary when on ghazus, is highly valued.
The Bedouin has a loose seat and leans forward. He
rides on a sort of pad, without stirrups, and the girth is

1 62 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
never tightly strapped. Bits and bridles are very seldom
used, the Bedouin preferring a halter, generally with a
single rope on one side of the neck only, and guides his
horse with a short stick or wand called "meshab" or
"mikdjan" and which he always has with him. The
horse is guided by gently touching him on one side of the
neck or the other with this stick. Sometimes one meets
with spurs strapped on to the bare foot. With the excep
tion of the months when the horses are turned out to pas
ture one never sees them without a saddle or pad on their
back, as is the case with the Turkoman horses in Trans
caspia; the difference being that over the saddle the
Turkomans cover the horse from shoulder to tail with a
heavy felt, however hot the sun may be.
Loving and prizing the horse as the Arab does, a
special terminology more rich than in any other language
has been developed to describe them.
It is sufficient to cite such instances as a special name
for a horse having a star, or for one having a star and one
white fetlock or two white legs, etc. Great attention is
paid to the colour and even shading of a horse, certain
qualities being claimed as depending upon colour. For
instance, a bay is considered the most enduring; chestnut,
light in movements ; white, the royal colour but impatient
of the sun's rays. Various shades of grey are not bad, black
not to be depended upon on stony ground, and cream
and especially parti-coloured are despised. According
to these theories such selections are made in breeding that
black horses are very seldom met with, dun and cream-
coloured still more rarely, and as for a parti-coloured
horse, I never saw one in Turkish Arabia. Markings are
divided into lucky and unlucky. A star on the forehead,
for instance, is deemed lucky, the same with a white
face if regular in outline. If a horse has three white fet
locks, and one of the right legs front or back is normal.

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 163
it is considered a good sign, whereas if only the two fore
legs are white or the one right leg, it is looked upon as
unlucky. If, on the other hand, the right fore and left
back legs are white it is again a good sign. All four white
legs are disliked.
Whorls or curly places in the hair are considered lucky
or unlucky according to the part of the body upon which
they are found. If on the breast, between the ears or on
the hips, they are said to be lucky, whereas if the curly
spots are over the eyes, on the cheeks or near the tail they
are considered unlucky.
The Arabs consider as defects in a horse a narrow
chest, over-large ears, and a low setting of the tail. As
to age, the Arab divides his horse's lif e into three periods,
which he characterises thus :
" Seba'-li-kruya,
Seba'-au-liza, Seba'-li-adviza."
Roughly translated, seven years for my brother (to
ride), seven years for myself, seven years for my enemies.
Bedouins are always gentle and patient with their horses
and never treat them roughly or beat them. This is
proved by the absolutely fearless, confiding manner in
which the Arab horses allow man to approach them. As
their proverb says, " The rider trains his horse as a hus
band does his wife." The first care of a Bedouin, even
before his own ease, is his horse, and there is a saying in
the desert that " work that does not belittle a man is for
his horse, for his brother and for his guest." In return
the horse serves his Bedouin master with his whole heart,
though spirited always docile, ready to work as long as
there is any strength left in him, loving his master and
recognising him out of many.

164 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
In passing I will notice that the Arab views in regard
to the colour and marking of horses have passed into
Persia. Black horses are considered inferior and the
same views are held in regard to white markings. In
respect to the latter there is a strange theory. Such horses
the Persian avoids, saying they bring misfortune in fam
ily life in the form of unfaithfulness in the wife.
From Arabia horses have for many years been trans
ported into India and Egypt. This lucrative profession
is in the hands of Arabs or Persians of the Gulf. In
selecting horses for the Indian market the Jambazes, as
the dealers are called, pay little attention to breed or
qualities, counting on every " Gulf Arab " bringing them
from 90 to 100 pounds sterling.
Many are the tricks to which they resort trying to pass
their horses off as thoroughbreds. The horse market in
Bombay during the season when horses are brought down
the Gulf is an interesting spectacle, and it is seldom that
any valuable piece of horse flesh is found, but if any such
is to be had exorbitant prices are asked.
In spite of their often inferior quality these Arabs have
secured a reputation among horse owners, and one meets
them everywhere as riding horses and polo ponies. Only
of late years are horses being brought from Australia to
dispute the field with the Arabs.
The principal ports from which Arab horses are ex
ported are Bagdad, Koweyt and Bassorah. Koweyt is the
chief port for the central Arabian market, as from there
Nedj is only nine days' march through the desert. Bagdad
is the point for Irak and Shammar horses. The horses
are taken down the Gulf on "British India" steamers.
They are placed in rows on deck, standing very closely
together so that in rough weather they keep each other
up, and for many days at a time they are not allowed to
lie down. The owner constantly walks up and down the

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 165
ranks stick in hand to see that none of the unfortunate
animals lie down in rough weather. Their suffering is
often very great, and I myself have seen groups of horses
in the Bombay market fresh from the steamer with all
four legs swollen to a shapeless mass. The buyers, accus
tomed to this, do not seem to pay any attention to the tem
porary disfigurement. In this way as many as 3,000 horses
are shipped annually from the Persian Gulf ports. The
export of mares is forbidden by the Turkish Government.
In conclusion I will speak of my own observations of
Arab horses.
During our stay at Bagdad we had three Arab stallions,
one dappled grey, about thirteen hands, a Seglawie. This
was a strong, high-spirited, gentle horse bought of a town
Arab for $25o.1 There is nothing special to be said about
him. He was always a conscientious worker, courageous
as a hunter, and during long marches never showed signs
of weariness. The second, Hamdanie, my wife's horse,
was remarkable for his size, being over fourteen hands,
which is rare among Arab horses. He was a dark golden
chestnut that in the rays of the sun reflected all the colours
of a pigeon's breast. By an unusual stroke of luck I
bought him as a four-year-old from a pasha's widow for
$400, and, by the way, five years later sold him for a little
over that sum. Though so young he was thoroughly
broken. His former master obtained him during an ex
pedition in the desert and at the roots of his ears remained
the marks of the string with which as a colt they had been
tied and on his feet were the scars of the Arab hobbles.
While being a remarkably spirited animal he was docile
and obedient to the degree of being sensitive to the
slightest motion of his rider, with whom he seemed to
be one, whose wishes he would seem to anticipate. See-
1 From the date of which I am speaking the price of horses has risen
35 to 40 per cent.

1 66 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
ing him snort and prance with raised flowing tail and di
lated pink nostrils it would seem that he would be a dan
gerous or a difficult horse to ride. But without a mo
ment's hesitation I should have allowed a six-year-old
child to mount him, being certain that not only would
Hamdanie never throw the child but would at once mod
ify his paces. He understood perfectly his rider. Once I
allowed one of my men, a heavy 200-pound Turk who
assured me he was a fine rider, to mount Hamdanie. All
went well until we were outside the town — in the desert
I heard a heavy thud behind me and on looking around I
saw the Turk lying on the ground while Hamdanie stood
snuffing him with astonishment. The crestfallen man
arose, brushed off the dust, muttering something about
" kismet," and tried not to see the ill-suppressed smiles of
all around him.
Hamdanie's tail and mane were thin but as soft as silk.
When in motion he held his tail high and every hair
seemed to spread out, giving the impression of a heavy
flowing tail. This he held so high that often in flourish
ing his tail it lightly struck the rider's back. His head
was thin, with long, beautifully pointed ears set closely
together. His eyes were very large and full, the hair
under them being so thin that the black skin could be
seen. His legs and hoofs were faultless and his skin so
fine that every vein could be seen through the satin-like
coat. His walk was unusually fast, and on the march
when riding at the head of the caravan — for Hamdanie
would never be second — I was constantly obliged to check
him, as none of the others, not excepting Seglawie, could
keep up unless by trotting. During all the years we had
him I struck him but once, and then I repented. He im
mediately seemed to shrink together, his head and tail,
that he always carried so high, dropped, and he showed
such clear evidence of hurt pride that I was filled with

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 167
sorrow for him and shame for myself. He always kept
in touch with his rider, as one could see by his holding
one ear slightly back, especially if going fast, to catch the
faintest movement of his rider. I shall give the following
illustrations of his intelligence.
I was once going out shooting in February. The Tigris
was at full flood, its muddy waters fairly foaming and
boiling as they swept along with a speed of fully eight
miles an hour. We had to cross the pontoon bridge of
which I have spoken before. The part of the bridge that
opened to permit of vessels passing was arranged in the
most primitive manner. Two broad boards were thrown
across the two separate halves of the bridge, and bolted
in place. When a high-masted boat passed these bolts
were withdrawn, the boards removed and the bridge was
open. I was accompanied by a number of men and was riding
as usual in the front of the company on Hamdanie, who
under the influence of the spring was even more full of
life than usual, prancing from one side of the road to the
other, snorting and spreading out his tail. Every party of
Arabs that we passed, horse lovers that they are, followed
him with admiring eyes, exclaiming, "Mash Allah!"
As we began to cross the bridge and came to the dividing
part I noticed that the bolts were not in place, the boards
lying loosely and not even closely together, but some five
or six inches apart. My impulse was to stop and have the
boards properly fastened, but a false sense of shame at
expressing what would seem like timidity kept me silent.
Just at that moment a guffa passed rapidly under the
bridge and someone in it shouted, startling Hamdanie, who
started slightly, and before I realised what had happened
one foot and then the whole body went down between the
boards. In a second almost unconsciously the instinct
of self-preservation caused me to give a desperate bound

168 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
over the horse's head and on to the main part of the bridge,
while poor Hamdanie stuck between the boards, that for
tunately were kept by a little unevenness from separating
further, while he was held up by the flaps of my
English military saddle, with his legs hanging over the
foaming torrent. Had he struggled he surely would have
fallen through. In less time than it takes to tell a crowd
had gathered, and, as is usual with a crowd, each one was
shouting advice and instructions, but doing nothing. My
own men were on the other side and feared to cross over.
Some one gave me a rope and at considerable risk I got
over to where the poor beast was, and fastening it firmly
round his neck again crossed over to the main bridge,
not knowing what to do next. Had it been later in the
season the simplest way would have been to remove the
boards and let the horse drop into the water, trusting to
his swimming safely to shore, but with such a flood it was
out of the question. In the meantime the shouting crowd
increased, my own men had disappeared, and I was left
holding the rope, and a few feet from me Hamdanie hang
ing, never moving a muscle but with his eyes fixed on me
with what seemed to me an imploring look. At last I saw
my men floating down in a guffa, carrying long poles in
their hands. Everyone at once understood their idea.
Several hands seized hold of the rope I had fastened
round Hamdanie's neck, and others ventured to get hold
of the flaps of the saddle, and all pulled together as the
men from below pushed the horse upwards with their
poles. At the risk of strangling him all pulled and finally
got the miserable creature half over one of the boards.
Even here had he struggled we should have lost him, but
in spite of what must have been excruciating pain the in
telligent animal never moved. As soon as he was pushed
well on to the boards he carefully rose and with a whinny
shook himself; but what a sight our beautiful horse was I

EUROPEAN CHILDREN RIDING IN BOXES ON
DONKEY BACK IN PERSIA

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 169
The torn and lacerated flesh hung in strips and streams
of blood trickled down his legs. The tender, shining
coat was nearly scraped off his belly and the under sides
of his legs by the cruel poles with which they had hoisted
him from below. A hasty examination, however, con
vinced us that he was not otherwise seriously injured, and
we led him home. He was laid up for a long time and
was so swollen and stiff that he could not lie down and we
had to arrange to sling him. During this time he was as
patient and as thankful for treatment and kindness as a
human being could be, and when in great pain would seem
to be consoled with his beautiful head laid on his mis
tress's shoulder while she soothed and patted him.
Another time when he showed an almost human under
standing my wife was riding him.
. Returning from a ride one evening as we entered the
town we had to pass through an archway and then turn
sharply into a narrow lane. Just as we entered the arch,
my wife leading the party, a large band of children came
racing down the lane, and one after the other on turning
the corner ran into Hamdanie, who was cantering and as
usual prancing. I turned cold with horror as I foresaw
the awful accident that seemed unavoidable. The wise
creature understood the danger as well as I did, and in
a second stopped short and threw himself back, sit
ting literally like a dog on his haunches with forelegs
well spread, receiving one after another the children, who
ran full into his arms as it were. Hard as the position
was for horse and rider, he kept it up until the last child
had run round the corner into him. The little ones picked
themselves up, quite unconscious of the fate the horse's
kindness had spared them. Hamdanie was the universal
favourite. No one who knew him could pass the stables
without stopping to pat him or feed him with dates, of
which he was very; fond. It was a pretty sight to watch

170 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
him tease his groom when the man was cleaning the
stables. With his teeth he would slyly undo the man's
belt, extract his handkerchief from the capacious Arab
pocket or take off his groom's hat, holding it in his teeth
high up almost out of reach.
I remember the horror and indignation of our groom
when one day, crossing the Euphrates, I thoughtlessly
handed Hamdanie's bridle to an Arab who happened to
be there and offered his services. Like a lion the groom
pounced upon the unoffending Arab and snatched away
the bridle. "One cannot give such a horse to the care
of a stranger," he panted, looking at me with flashing eyes.
" He might spring onto his back and then the wind even
would never catch Hamdanie."
My third pure-blooded horse was a Rishan, eight years
old, not quite thirteen hands high, grey with pinkish
dapples, which is much admired by the Arabs.
The history of how he came into my possession and of
how I worked to get rid of him is worth telling.
Among my acquaintances was a pasha of Circassian
origin whose official duties often caused him to make ex
peditions into the desert, when he was occasionally able
in one way or another to get hold of thoroughbred horses.
Among these horses was Rishan. We often met the pasha
in our rides, on Rishan, when he generally joined our
party. Being a fine rider, the pasha often rode Rishan
in the Arab way without a bit, guiding him with one rope
and his " meshab." This made the greater impression as
Rishan was an uncommonly hot-headed horse, and the
onlookers always felt that the pasha was risking his life
riding that way in a city. I have never before nor since
seen such a typically graceful and beautiful horse. His
small lean head, full eyes, small pointed ears, silken tail
flowing when the horse was in motion, delicate dark skin
through which every vein and muscle could be traced,

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 171
clean, fine legs — all spoke of blood. Several months
passed, when I learned through a mutual friend that the
pasha would not be averse to selling Rishan for $450.
But as he was a proud Circassian pasha, he considered it
beneath his dignity to go through the sordid details of
bargaining and selling, and I had to play a comedy in
which there were two leading figures.
The comedy was as follows : One day while calling on
the pasha, Rishan was led into the courtyard, and on my
warmly expressing my admiration, the pasha, as soon as I
left, ordered him to be sent to my house.
Two days later I called again with a little silk bag in
which were £90. During the call I asked to see his
son, a bright little fellow of seven, to whom as a present I
gave the bag containing the price of Rishan.
I confess that the first time I mounted Rishan I was not
sure of myself. Two grooms held him and he impa
tiently pawed the ground with his tiny hoofs, but the
moment I was fairly in the saddle he was all gentleness
and obedience; an imperceptible motion of the reins was
all he needed, though he was snorting and fuming and
covering me with flecks of foam. The more I rode him
the more I liked him.
It is true I had no occasion of trying him on the march,
but for pleasure rides I could not wish for anything bet
ter. All my friends congratulated me and I was very
proud of my new possession until one, to me, memorable
day, when a number of us went for a ride in the desert.
Some one asked me to show off his paces, and all coming
to a halt I turned to go off the beaten track. To my sur
prise the gentle Rishan gave an ugly toss of his head and
began to gnaw the bit. I touched him lightly with the
spur and the next moment he was standing straight up
on his hind legs and stayed there so long that it seemed
as if he must fall backwards. I slipped off his croup to

172 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the ground, still holding the bridle, and he then came
down to his normal four legs. One of my men, an Arab,
mounted Rishan, and on attempting to turn him aside from
the company the horse repeated the same performance.
We had to give in, and remounting Rishan, and keeping
with the other horses, he was the same gentle animal we
had known. My man, no less mystified than I with this
new freak, undertook next day to come to an understand
ing with the horse, and he soon found the secret of his
gentleness came in keeping with the party or letting him
take the lead. The moment he was crossed or turned away
from his fellows he became another being. A Bedouin
horse breaker was then sent for, who at the first sight of
Rishan recognised him and flatly refused to ride him.
The man told us Rishan's pedigree and said that he had
killed two owners and was well known for his vice. He
added that had it not been for this defect the horse would
have been priceless. We decided to get rid of such an
animal. It was autumn and the horse dealers from India
were then buying up horses, and we easily found a man
who consented to sign a paper saying that he bought the
horse for half the price I had paid for him, as he was fully
aware of Rishan's dangerous qualities. My only stipu
lation was that the Jambaz himself should take Rishan
out of the stable, for since we had ceased riding him he
had become very ugly, biting and kicking even his groom,
so that finally food and water had to be pushed towards
him. We all went out to see Rishan the day he was taken
away. Several men with difficulty had run him out for
the Jambaz to mount. Once out of our gate a difference
of opinion as to the direction to be taken arose between
Rishan and his rider. The Jambaz insisted upon going
where he wished, but Rishan had his revenge, for he
went prancing along so close to the walls that he literally
skinned the thinly clad Arab's side!

ARAB HORSE IN ITS NATIVE LAND 173
Just before they sailed I went to see my Rishan and
hardly recognised him in the thin, half-starved horse
they showed me. It seemed that to tame him for the long
voyage the Jambaz had given him just enough food and
drink to keep him alive. When I asked the new owner
if he thought the poor fellow would survive such treat
ment he replied, " In-sha'allah, " if it be God's will." Of
Rishan's further fate I only know that he was sold to an
Englishman in India for 400 pounds sterling, and for
years whenever we read in the Indian paper of an acci
dent in which a grey horse figured we wondered if it were
not our Rishan.
In justice to Arab horses I must say that such vicious
specimens are very rare, and during my five years' stay
in Turkish Arabia I never even heard of another Arab
that possessed such vice, and I always attributed Rishan's
temper to some harshness he must have met with in his
youth.

CHAPTER X
FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH
" Califah " — Bagdad Filters and Water Coolers— Ruins of Ctesiphon
and Seleucia — Suleiman Pak — Kut-el-Amara — The Shatt-el-Hai
Canal — Lions in Mesopotamia and Persia — How Persians and Arabs
Meet Lions — An Unexpected Lion Hunt — Sand Storms — Kurna —
Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil — Tomb of Ezra — Palm
Groves — Importance of Palm Tree — Palm Cultivation — Artificial
Fertilisation — Varieties of Dates.
We were on the little river steamer " Califah" belonging
to the English Company Lynch on our way down to Bas
sorah. From the latter place we intended taking an ocean
liner to Muscat.
The " Califah" was a comfortable little steamer built
for a shallow stream and having its sides not more than
a foot and a half from the water. There were several
roomy, comfortable cabins for first-class passengers, and
the stout, good-natured English captain did all he could
for the comfort and entertainment of his passengers.
There were only a few in the first class, and these were
of various nationalities — two Englishmen, a German, a
Frenchman, my wife and I. All these passengers were ac
quaintances, and, having on board our Goanese Mendoza
and Fernando, we felt quite at home. As the time was
October, low water, the 500 miles as the crow flies could
hardly be made under four days, whereas at the season of
full water it takes not more than tweny-four hours to go
down to Bassorah. Most of the day was spent on deck
174

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 175
under the awning, as even in October the cabins were
too warm. Near us on the deck stood two huge native
filters, and water coolers, in one. Better filters than these
I have never seen ; they are primitive in the extreme and
are to be found in every house, however poor. They are
large egg-shaped jars made of porous clay and stand in a
wooden four-legged frame in such a way as to have the
bottom a foot off the floor. The water filters through the
thick porous bottom into another receptacle placed be
neath. The water in the Tigris river is a cafe au lait col
our, yet when it comes out of these filters it is the most
delicious sparkling drink, as clear as the best spring
water. From the same clay as the filters water jars are
made, that are to be found all over the East and are the
greatest boons in these hot lands. On the hottest day a
water jug of this kind placed in a draught becomes so
cool as to seem cold, and on our steamer these filters were
placed where they could catch the wind.
Owing to the low water the steamer glided between
high banks as if at the bottom of a huge canal. In the
bow an Arab stood, monotonously calling the depth of
the water, as they do on the Volga steamers at the same
season. In the springtime the sail down the river is quite
different. Then the Tigris overflows its banks and some
times it seems as if we were in a lake. Only by the
colour of the water and the swiftness of the current can
the actual river stream be followed. Then, too, it is more
interesting, as we can see over the vast flat plain covered
with grass and flocks and herds and sometimes tents.
In general the scenery is monotonous : a strip of palm
groves where a village is approached; at other times
flat plain, with grass or low bushes, and in the early
spring Arab encampments.
The flooding of the Tigris brings down magnificent
fertilisation to the soil along the river's edge, but irriga-

176 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tion is needed to save it from becoming the desert that
surrounds us.
From a historical point of view the trip from Bagdad
to Bassorah is full of interest, taking us, as it does, through
scenes of the most remote antiquity. The mounds, ap
parently small natural hills, that one sees at every turn,
are all silent witnesses of flourishing cities that once rose
there. Thirty- five miles from Bagdad we passed the mouth of
a small tributary of the Tigris, the Diala, along which are
fertile gardens. Almost hidden by the trees is the town
of Bacuba, the administrative centre of the district of the
same name, and near by are yet unexplored ruins of an
cient Bagdad.
Diala is a small district of only about 200,000 inhabit
ants, but owing to the rivers and well-organised irrigation
it is noted for its productiveness. Two crops are raised
annually: the autumn one of wheat, oats and other
grain, and the summer crop of cotton, rice, tobacco, etc.
The date palms are also plentiful.
As we advance, the Tigris becomes more and more
winding. In some places the stream makes long turns
around a point, like a bow, and one can often walk across
in half an hour to a point that it will take two or three
hours for the steamer to reach. In such a position are to
be found the ruins of Ctesiphon. My wife and I wish
ing to visit this famous ruin, the captain kindly stopped
the steamer and let us off. The ground was covered with
a low undergrowth of bushes, and in the open places the
soil was cracked from the sun in deep fissures of fantastic
shape, as if it were one of the sawed puzzles for children.
In the spring the shooting here is of wonderful variety.
Once in going along a similar neck of land in the spring
without a dog, we raised over twenty duradji in less than
an hour's time, saw a hyena, a wild cat, and in the deep

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 177
bushes my wife stumbled over an object which proved to
be a wild boar, very much disconcerted at having his nap
disturbed. His feelings were still more upset by the tick
ling of a discharge of shot that I sent after him, all I had,
as we had not expected anything larger than duradji. Of
all the animals of the desert the hyena is the most repul
sive. Everything about it inspires disgust: its ungainly
gait, its coarse bristly hair, its colour, its voice, reminding
one of the wild laugh of the insane, and finally the fact of
its feeding mostly on the carcasses of the dead. Stories
of hyenas disturbing graves are authentic. In Persia I
have seen graves torn up by these monsters, who often turn
over large stones that are placed as protections against the
hyenas. In many parts of Persia a fire is kept burning
several nights after a burial, to frighten them off, for
some unclean instinct teaches the hyena when a fresh
corpse is laid in the ground. It is not often that a grave
is disturbed after the first few days or weeks.
But to return to the ruins of Ctesiphon, the ancient cap
ital of the Parthian kings. Of the city nothing remains
but a cluster of mounds, but there is one object that dis
tinguishes this ruin from the monotony of the mounds
that are all one generally sees. This is the arch of the
famous Audience Hall of Chosroes- the last of the Sassa-
nian kings.
This gigantic arch rises 80 feet in height and leads into
the remains of the throne hall, which is even now 148
feet in depth. On either side of this huge chamber are
the remains of many smaller rooms. The walls are of
brick strengthened from time to time by layers of wood,
of cedar brought from Lebanon. It was our good for
tune to secure a detached bit of this cedar over a foot long,
that time had rendered almost as hard as iron and that
bears no sign of decay. The facade of all that remains
of the building is 270 feet long. The width of the arch

178 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
itself is 76 feet, and the thickness of the walls of the facade
of the building is 18 feet. When Ctesiphon fell into the
hands of the Arab conquerors, they found the great
throne of Chosroes, the great Sassanian king, whose valour
is chanted so beautifully by Firdusi in his immortal
" Shah-Namah " — also, it is said, his belt and banner.
There is no other arch known that can compare with
that of Ctesiphon in its vastness, boldness of conception
and its strength. In spite of the ravages of time and vari
ous acts of vandalism it stands yet, a silent but mighty wit
ness of a vanished people and civilisation, that have ful
filled their mission and given way to those of other ages
that must in turn meet with the same fate.
Ctesiphon did not escape the miseries that came to all
the cities of what is now known as Irak. Founded in
32 B.C. as the capital of the Parthian kings, it was in
1 16 A.D. taken by the Roman Emperor Trajan. In 1 19 it
was taken by the Emperor Septimius Severus, and in 263
Odenathus, the husband of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra,
laid siege to it. Later, during the reign of the Sassanian
kings, in 362, the Emperor Julian defeated the Persians
under its walls. Finally, the last of the Sassanian dynasty,
Yezdigerd, surrendered Ctesiphon to the Arabs in 637.
Opposite to Ctesiphon, on the left bank of the Tigris,
is a shapeless mass of mounds marking the site of another
once famous city. Seleucia, built between B.C. 312 and
302, was named for its founder Seleucus, the Syrian king.
The fate of this city was even sadder than that of Ctesi
phon. Both fell into the hands of Trajan at the same
time, but Seleucia was burned to the ground by its con
queror, owing to its having revolted.
Ten years later, having voluntarily surrendered to the
Romans, it was burned by Aridius Cassius on a charge of
treachery. It was retaken by Severus in 198 A.D. and
again by Carus in 283, and when Julian invaded Mesopo-

TIGRIS- ENGLISH STEAMERS RUNNING BETWEEN BAGDAD
AND BASSORAH

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 179
tamia, all he found of Seleucia was a heap of ruins. It
is not surprising, therefore, that there is nothing to be
found here except shapeless mounds. Lower down along
the banks of the Tigris are many other groups of mounds
where once were flourishing cities, but these become rarer
as we go farther south.
After dinner we all sat in our deck chairs under the
bright stars, listening to the captain's reminiscences of
the twenty-odd years he had plied up and down the Ti
gris. Looking at the flat, monotonous banks of the river,
one would not think there would be much of interest to
tell of the years spent there, and yet, though I made the
trip several times, I myself can testify to some interesting
episode on each voyage. This very day, for instance, a
most curious incident had broken the monotony and given
food for much discussion as we sat together in the even
ing. Passing a long sandy point of land we had, from a
distance, noticed a silvery object flapping and jumping
about. As we drew near we could see that it was a large
fish stranded on the shore. A boat was at once lowered,
manned and sent off to investigate. It soon returned,
bringing the fish, and to our amazement we saw sticking
out of its mouth another half-swallowed fish, naturally of
very much smaller size. Evidently this cannibal fish, in
its endeavours to swallow its victim, had found the mor
sel too big and in its frantic efforts to get its prey either
up or down, had thrown itself bodily out of the water,
thereby getting itself into fresh trouble. Both fish were
prepared for dinner, the smaller of the two being, by
common consent, pronounced to be the better, proving the
good taste of the cannibal.
The same day we passed the tomb of " Suleiman
Pak" (Solomon the Pure), the barber of the Prophet,
of whom many legends are told. This tomb is an object
of pilgrimage for all sects of Mohammedans, and many

180 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
are the stories of miraculous cures that you may hear told
by the deck passengers on the steamer. The days passed
peacefully and pleasantly on this little journey, as each
found something of interest to do and the captain had
quite a library of English fiction.
We passed Kut-el-Amara, founded in i860 as a termi
nus for the caravans from the interior. From here be
gins the Shatt-el-Hai canal, all along the banks of which
are rich date-palm groves and strips of cultivated ground.
On this canal, but nearer the Euphrates, are the remains
of several ancient cities of Chaldea, among them that of
Tel Lokh (Sirtella), brought to light by the excavations
of the former French consul De Sarce. At Kut-el-Amara
we let fly the first of three carrier pigeons given to the
captain by the English consul as an experiment.
It is nearly certain that the home of the carrier pigeon
is Mesopotamia, where this means of communication was
known in the most ancient times ; indeed, it is only since
the establishment of telegraph lines that the custom has
been given up by merchants. Caravans starting from
Damascus or Aleppo would have several of these birds
given to the caravan bashi, who would let them loose at
various stages to give news of the progress and finally of
the safe arrival of the caravan. Even now one can see
flocks of pigeons of this breed in a wild state, but with
the homing instinct strongly developed, as proved by such
experiments as our captain made. These pigeons are
called " Hamam-el-batak," and they made the distance
between Bagdad and Bassorah in a few hours.
The captain told us the details of a most extraordi
nary lion hunt, of which we had heard a great deal from
other witnesses of the same almost incredible scene. In
passing I must mention that right up to 25 years previous
to the date of my story, lions had been abundant in Meso
potamia; the last years, however, they had been exceed-

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 181
ingly scarce. In all my journeying I had never had the
good fortune of seeing one. Only once, before daybreak,
I heard the roars of this king of beasts. I shall never for
get the thrill caused by that mighty sound breaking the
silence of the desert. My colleague, the United States con
sul, had the luck while we were in Bagdad, when riding
early one morning, to see a lion sitting quietly in the des
ert, at no great distance. Man and beast gazed at each
other with mutual curiosity and probably awe, and then
each peacefully continued his own way. In the last years of
the eighteenth century lions were very numerous along the
lower part of the Euphrates basin, occupied by the Arab
tribe of Muntifek. It is said that the daughters of the
sheikhs of this tribe never smiled upon their suitors un
til one had killed his lion. The means employed were
primitive though often successful. The lion hunter
armed himself with only a sharp curved dagger, an iron
peg sharpened at both ends and a long strip of undressed
leather. The leather he carefully bound about the left
arm from wrist to shoulder, and carried the peg in the
same hand, while in the right he held the dagger. On
finding the lion he proceeded to tease and excite the
beast, until the enraged lion made his rush with open
mouth, which the Arab braced himself to meet. Putting
forward the left arm he fearlessly ran it down the great
open mouth and with the two-pointed iron tore and cut
the throat while with the dagger he ripped open the
creature's belly. This method of hunting lions is to be
found portrayed on many bas-reliefs. Even to this day
a half-naked Arab will fearlessly face a lion in the same
way, pouring out a torrent of abuse and shouting, " Who
art thou, thou night thief, thou bastard who knows not
the name of thy father, how darest thou to defile with thy
touch, me, the son of so and so [giving his genealogy], of
such and such a famous tribe!"

1 82 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The Persians have another method of attacking lions.
In the province of Shiraz and near Shustan and Dezful,
not far from the region where Daniel was thrown into
the lions' den, these beasts are still to be found occasion
ally. According to Persian belief the lion is the only animal
who accepts Allah and Ali, the greatest of the Shiite
imams. Even in the roaring of the lion they claim that
the name of Ali can be distinguished in the sound " iea-
Ali." Therefore on meeting a lion the Persian, fully
aware of his danger, begins to flatter his adversary, say
ing in his most conciliatory tone, " O king of beasts, thou
art a true believer like me. Do not touch me, for the
sake of Allah and of Ali ; for the sake of my children and
thy children let me go in peace," etc., etc. The result of
the hunt is the same in each case, but the method is sig
nificant of the characteristics of the two nations.
And so we asked the captain to tell us how he was an
unwilling participator in a lion hunt on board his own
steamer in 1887. "Well, gentlemen," he said, "it was
such an unheard-of experience that were it not well known
to all in Bagdad I should hesitate to tell it. We were
making our usual trip to Bassorah. It was in March and
full water. That year the over-flooding of the Tigris
was greater than usual, the water spreading on both sides
of the bank often as far as we could see. In this sea of
muddy water only occasional islands were to be seen,
formed by mounds or long crests marking the thrown-up
sides of old canals. The current was so strong that with
full steam I worked my way up very slowly, hugging the
banks to keep out of the main current. Suddenly from
the deck came the cry of ' Lions I' and going up I saw in
front of us on one of those small 'islands' two lion cubs.
We always have on board a small supply of firearms and
ammunition. These were quickly taken out and a lively

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 183
firing began from the deck of the steamer, and both cubs
were soon killed. A boat was lowered to secure our
prizes. I was on the upper deck and in full view of
what followed. As I said, the current was strong, and the
boat with our sportsmen and their rifles had tough work
getting up to the island. Just as the boat was about to
touch the shore a lioness appeared above the crest on the
mainland, and she was also shot by someone in the boat.
In another instant the head of a huge lion appeared, and
to our consternation he dashed into the water and struck
out for the boat. For a few seconds disorder reigned, for
the last shot had been fired at the lioness, but the next
moment, recovering their presence of mind, the men bent
to their oars, pulling back to the steamer as fast as they
couldj with the current now in their favour — but also in
favour of the lion! From the steamer as many shots
were fired as could be without risk of hitting the boat.
In the meantime there was an awful panic on board. The
steamer, as you see, sits so low in the water that it would
be nothing for the lion to scramble on board. The cabin
room is very limited and the deck passengers as usual
numbered many score. Women and children began to
wail and the calmer ones attempted to build barricades
and arm themselves with iron pots and other utensils that
they had with them. I slowed down and steered towards
the boat as it came alongside. We had just time to pull
all the men on board when the lion too came up along
side! The panic by this time was indescribable. While
we were busy getting the men and their rifles in from the
boat the lion succeeded in getting his paws onto the
steamer, and kept his hold, although I had at once ordered
full speed. The ammunition was quite exhausted, and
until more could be brought up from the stores below
the firearms were useless ; and how it might have ended
I do not like to think, had not the Arab pilot secured

184 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
an axe with which he chopped off the lion's paws! The
huge beast dropped into the river, where he was soon shot
by those who had by this time loaded their rifles. The
steamer was then stopped and the boat again went out
to bring in our trophies, and the skin of the lion was pre
sented to me by the passengers. You have seen it at my
house." This thrilling story gave rise to others, and I
remembered the experience of an acquaintance of mine,
an Englishman, Colonel S.  , inspector of the Indo-
European Telegraph Company in Persia. It was in the
early seventies. One morning two marches, out from
Shiraz the colonel was riding slowly along in the rear of
his caravan. Without other warning he suddenly felt
his horse sink on its haunches as if under a great weight.
On turning he saw over his shoulder the head of a lion,
whose teeth and claws were buried in the horse's croup!
Not losing his presence of mind, the colonel seized a re
volver from its holster and planting it against the lion's
ear killed it on the spot.
One of the most common scenes that enliven the voyage
are the numerous herds of wild boar that gallop along
the bank of the river parallel with the steamer as if en
joying the sport of racing us. Often they are so near that
a shot from the steamer would be easy enough, but as the
deck passengers are mostly Mohammedans, to whom
bringing on board the unclean swine would be obnoxious,
the captain forbids all such sport. One day we saw a
very unusual sight. One of the pigs, tired, possibly, of the
tame sport of running along the bank, suddenly plunged
into the river and swam across right in front of the bow
of our steamer and so close that a shot would have been
sure. These awkward creatures seem ill fitted for swim
ming, but this fellow held his course in spite of the strong
current and swam across without any apparent diffi
culty. Living in Mohammedan countries one does

<

<

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 185
well to respect the prejudices and feelings of the
people, and we could not but recognise the fairness of the
captain's attitude in forbidding the killing of pigs, while
regretting being deprived of the sport. Many misunder
standings and dangers would be avoided if Europeans
who live or travel in Eastern countries would have more
consideration for customs and beliefs that differ from
their own.
We arrived at Bassorah without further incident than
occasionally grounding on a sand-bar, but it is not always
that the trip is made without unpleasant accidents.
I remember once in May we were overtaken by a sand
storm. The day was unusually sultry, and the captain,
who had been watching the barometer by night, predicted
something out of the ordinary. We retired as usual to
our beds on the upper deck, for at that season sleep in the
hot cabins is out of the question. It was a bright moon
light night, not a cloud in the sky when we went to sleep.
Suddenly we were awakened by a blast of burning hot
wind. It was pitch dark, the air was so thick with sand
as to be suffocating, and not even the lights hanging, as
we knew, close to us could be seen. It seemed as if we
would be swept off the deck by the violence of the blast,
and with one arm around my wife I clung to the railing
with the other, and there we stood, literally gasping and
choking. We dared not let go to try to reach the ladder
to get down to the lower deck and cabin. Above the
roaring of the wind we could hear the shrieks of the deck
passengers, whose bedding and even baggage and metal
pots were swept overboard. Our steamer was like a toy
at the mercy of the winds and seemed to us to be spinning
round like a top. Suddenly, close to my ear I heard the
voice of our faithful Mendoza, who by a miracle had
got over to us, saying, " Hold on, sir, hold on," and he, too,
clung to us and the railing. Taking advantage of a mo-

1 86 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
mentary lull the three of us worked our way to the ladder
and got down to the lower deck, which we found covered
with water, and finally we reached our cabin. Gradually
the wind dropped, leaving only the air filled with sand
that slowly settled, the light began to break, and soon the
clear sky and calm moon above made it seem as if we
had just waked up from a nightmare. When it became
light enough to see, the captain discovered that we were
going down stream instead of up towards Bagdad, as we
should have been. The steamer had been turned com
pletely round without his perceiving it, and we had for
some time been going back towards Bassorah. These
hot sand-storms are among the most dreaded of all the
evils that overtake the traveller in Arabia, and they are
often the cause of whole caravans perishing.
At the spot where the Tigris and Euphrates join to
form the mighty Shatt-el-Arab is the town of Kurna.
This place was established in the beginning of the nine
teenth century as a barrier between the Persians on one
side and the Arabs on the other. There are only about
five hundred houses, customs, telegraph and residence
of a governor. There is a Turkish gunboat guarding
the entrance to the Tigris and Euphrates. The district
of Kurna has a population of about 5,000, and its specialty
is the making of abas (burnooses) and a special kind of
cheese. The cultivation of date plantations is the chief
agricultural industry. Kurna is, according to tradition,
the site of the Garden of Eden, and an ancient tree is
pointed out as the original tree of the " knowledge of
good and evil." The branches of this tree are covered
with fluttering rags hung on as thank-offerings for prayers
answered, or by those who perhaps have come from a
long distance to ask for the fulfilment of some desire.
Though at this point the rivers join it is interesting to
note how for some distance one can distinguish the two

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 187
streams by the cloudy water of the Tigris and the blue,
clear water of the Euphrates. Near this spot is the tomb
of Ezra, over which is a small mausoleum, built in
the time of Shah Abbas. To this tomb pilgrims of Mo
hammedan sects come as well as Christians and Jews.
From Kurna begin magnificent date groves that run
along both sides of the mighty river as far as Bassorah,
a distance of ninety miles. Before leaving Turkish
Arabia I must say a few words about the date, which is as
much a part of the life of the country as the camel. Dates
form one of the chief items of export as well as the food
of not only this part of Arabia but of many places along
the Persian Gulf. To enumerate all the uses of the date
palm is to catalogue almost the needs of the everyday
life of the people. From dates a kind of vinegar is made
and an alcohol called " mastik." From the pits and ref
use is made a mixture that is used as food for cattle, from
the date juice a syrup or molasses is obtained, and from
the fibre ropes and strings are manufactured. The palm
wood is used for nearly every purpose, beginning with
the wooden beds or " takhts " and ending with boats and
frames for the " agul " to be used as window screens.
Finally, the pith or heart of the tree is considered a table
dainty resembling nuts in taste. As the export of dates
increases annually the area occupied by the date palms
grows each year.
The cultivation of the date palm demands constant
care. The soil is fertile but needs irrigation where — as
in most cases — the banks of the Tigris are high ; the water
has to be drawn up in skins by a primitive but ingenious
contrivance worked by animal power. The depth of the
gardens running along the banks of the river corresponds
to the distance that the water thus obtained may be made
to run. Where the banks are low another system is em
ployed, that of a series of canals. Palms are set out at a

i88 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
certain distance from each other, about one hundred be
ing planted to the "djereba" (a little over an acre),
while to each djereba is allotted one "male" tree, all
the others being " female." The male tree bears no fruit,
but the pollen is taken to fertilise the female tree, that
otherwise would bear little or no fruit, and that of an
inferior quality. The Arab fellaheen can at once recog
nise the kind of date by the tree.
In April or May the artificial fertilisation is made.
Each year two rows of leaves are added to the palm tree,
while the lower rows begin to dry and are cut off in the
autumn. This causes the characteristic knotty appear
ance of the palm tree trunk. In the autumn the young
shoots of the female tree are transplanted, and in seven or
eight years' time they bear fruit. The palm trees do not
reach their maturity until the age of eighteen years, when
a good tree is capable of bearing from sixty to three hun
dred pounds of dates, according to the variety of the tree.
There are as many as seventy distinct varieties, each bear
ing its special name. The most delicate varieties are un
fortunately unknown to the European market, as they do
not bear handling^; some lose their aroma and decay
within two days after picking. Palm trees flourish for
from sixty to seventy years, and often reach a height of
1 20 to 140 feet. The fruit grows in huge grape-like
clusters, some bunches weighing twenty pounds or even
more. In the springtime the gardeners are careful to
leave only as many clusters as can mature without injury
to the tree, the rest being cut out. As the bunches are
very large and thick the dates cannot all ripen at once, but
as fast as the outer ones are ripe they are removed and
then the others come on, etc. As the fruit grows in the
crown of the high trees the gardeners have to climb to
the very summit for the fertilisation and subsequent work.
It is exceedingly interesting to watch them climb up,

FROM BAGDAD TO BASSORAH 189
using the uneven bumps left by the leaves as steps.1 A
broad bit of leather or basket work is arranged as a seat,
to the ends of which a rope is attached. This rope he
passes around the tree and himself, having the seat to
sit against or to support himself. Grasping the rope on
each side and placing one foot on one of the bumps, he
leans forward and throws the rope forward, and up the
tree onto the next unevenness. He then braces himself
back upon the seat, so holding himself by his own weight.
Drawing up the other foot he again throws the rope and
makes another step, in this way climbing to the top. Long
practice makes these fellaheen very skilful, and to watch
the rapid and seemingly easy way in which they climb
up and down a tree one would think it the easiest matter
in the world. But when any of us tried to do it the re
sult was disastrous.
*A good story is told in Bagdad of a vali, or governor, who was sent
from Constantinople. His Excellency, transplanted from the delightful
shores of the Bosphorus, suffered greatly from the climate of Bagdad. One
day complaining bitterly of the heat, he was told that the intense heat
was necessary to ripen the dates. " Then have every date palm cut down,"
ordered the exasperated vali. It took some skill the story adds, to pacify
his Excellency and to get him to countermand the order.

CHAPTER XI
FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT
The Date Harvest — Cherdaks — Dates as an Item of Export — Sabiehs
or Sabians, Followers of John the Baptist — New and Old Bassorah
— S.S. "Kilwa" — Mohammerah — Karun Behmishahr — On the Bar
— Somali Fight — Bushire Shark Fishing — Bender-Abbas — Hardships
of the Persian Gulf — Dominions of the Sultan of Oman — Muscat
— Occupations of the Inhabitants of Muscat — English Gunboats —
Commerce — Climate — Muscat Lion.
We arrived at Bassorah just at the period of date gather
ing, when ocean-going steamers, usually English, fill the
harbour waiting to carry their freight of dates to Eng
land, Trieste, Egypt and America. At this season the
usually quiet gardens are animated. During nearly three
months continual work is carried on, under booths or
" cherdaks " set up for the purpose. "Here dates are sorted
and packed in cardboard boxes which are then put in
large wooden ones. The former are brought from Ger
many and Austria and the latter from Norway and Amer
ica. Both kinds of boxes are brought to Bassorah in
sections and put together on the spot. The sorting and
packing of the fruit is mostly done by women, who come
in hundreds for the date season, bringing their babies
and household goods and settling down in huts made of
palm or reed matting built by them in the date gardens.
While working all these people are fed on dates, the
stones of which are carefully collected for a most un
usual purpose, as was explained to us on the spot. They
are sent to Karachi, in India, where they are cut in two,
190

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 191
each piece taking the form of a coffee berry and easily
passing as such. They are then used to adulterate coffee ;
at least a harmless form of adulteration.
Along the Shatt-el-Arab is an Arab tribe known as
the Muntifek, who live by farming and fishing. The
fishermen pass almost as much of their time in the water
as do the fish they catch. During flood-time one often
sees a fisherman's camp on a small bit of island only a
few yards square. The fish caught are kept alive in a
sort of wooden cage sunk in the water. In this part of
the country is another very interesting people of whom
but little is known. They call themselves Sabians and are
followers of John the Baptist, whom they call "Nebi
Yahya" (the prophet John). Their language is Syrian.
They live quite apart from the surrounding tribes and
perform all their rites in secret, avoiding questions as to
their beliefs, which accounts for their being so little
known. All that is known definitely of them is that they
consider the act of cleansing in running water to be a
purification for sin, a christening that they perform sev
eral times a year. Water is considered as sacred and
cleansing, and every act of life is performed, if possible,
in it. The doctrine of " clean and unclean " seems to be
the basis of their belief. They do not eat beef, holding
cattle to be " unclean." Mutton they eat, but only when
the sheep have been killed according to certain forms and
in water. All food has to pass through water before being
prepared. Among what is considered unclean are wo
men and dead bodies. Their fear of polluting themselves
by contact with the dead is so great that while yet alive
a sick person is carried and laid beside the already pre
pared grave. The relatives and friends then sit around
waiting, and hardly has the last breath left the dying per
son when the body is rolled into the grave and hastily
covered.

192 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
They believe in a future life, and for forty days after
a death pray for the departed soul. They have a priest
hood called mullahs, who are under higher ecclesiastics
known as sheikhs. The priests dress in white and wear
green wreaths on their brows. Most of the Sabians are
artisans, silversmiths doing work much like that found in
the Caucasus. In the province of Bassorah it is esti
mated that there are about 3,000 of this sect, in Amara
1,000, and about as many among the Muntifeks. They
are very devoted to their religion, resisting all at
tempts made by Mohammedans to convert them by force.
Little has been done among them so far by Christian
missionaries, and the results have have been still less, I
believe. We are finally in Basrah, or Bassorah, a modern city
of the seventeenth century. The ruins of the ancient city
are to be found near the small town of Zobeir. When
Bagdad was a world-renowned city old Bassorah was the
most flourishing port in the East. Finally the old city
followed the fate of its sister cities, and nothing remains
but a heap of ruins among which rise two old mosques and
a bit of the decayed wall. The modern Bassorah is a
little over a mile from the western bank of the Shatt-el-
Arab, built on canals that are filled with water during
the hours of full tide. The ebb of the tide leaves these
canals empty, exposing the black bottom, that emits a
fearful stench in the hot season. Communication is made
by means of boats that are punted, and one's plans for
visiting and going about have to be made with regard
to the tide. Most of the European residences as well as
business places are built along the river front and form
a connecting link between the Shatt-el-Arab and the city
proper. In the eighth century the. population of Bassorah was
as numerous as 160,000, but plague, floods and wars

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 193
have reduced it and now there are hardly more than
20,000 inhabitants.
The climate of Bassorah is unhealthful and unpleasant.
The dampness makes the heat, though less in degree, more
unbearable than that of Bagdad. In addition there are
no serdabs, as a cellar of three feet in depth reaches water.
The inhabitants dine and sleep on the roof as in Bagdad,
but it is impossible to do so without an awning. The dew
is so heavy as to soak clothing that may happen to be
set outside the roof-like awning placed over the beds.
The climate of Bassorah can be judged from the fact that
natives of means go to, Bagdad as a relief during the hot
season !
Bassorah is the port for ocean steamers, as boats drawing
twenty-one feet can go up the entire length of the Shatt-
el-Arab. The difficulty to navigation is found farther
down in the bar formed at the entrance to the Persian
Gulf by the immense quantities of sand carried down by
'the Shatt-el-Arab. Steamers therefore are obliged to
take only a part of their cargoes at Bassorah, the rest
being sent down to the bar in native sailing boats.
Here we take leave of the good captain of the " Cali
fah "and go on board the "Kilwa," a steamer of some
9,000 tons, once a mail-boat, now carrying cargo, mostly
dates. We find ourselves with the entire first-class ac
commodation at our disposal, as there are no other pas
sengers. A little below Bassorah, at a small place called
Feleh, the Shatt-el-Arab forms the dividing line between
two empires, Turkey and Persia. On the right or Turk
ish bank is an unbroken line of date palms and gardens,
whereas on the Persian side only occasional clusters of
palms or cultivated spots are to be seen. At Moham
merah the river Karun, remarkable as being the only
navigable river in Persia, enters the Shatt-el-Arab. In
ancient times the Karun had its own navigable outlet,

194 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the Bamishir, that flowed into the Persian Gulf, running
parallel with the Shatt-el-Arab. This stream is now ac
cessible only to small native craft, but could easily be
made deep enough for navigation. The Karun river,
formed by the Susian and Laristan watersheds, is navi
gable as far as the town of Ahwaz, a distance of about sixty
miles. Here high cliffs form waterfalls making a barrier
to ships. Remains are to be found of a complicated
system of irrigating canals. The Karun river is infested
with sharks that find their way up from the Persian Gulf.
Here is Fao, with a Turkish fortification just at the
mouth of the Shatt-el-Arab. An hour and a half more
and the flat palm-fringed shores disappear and we cross
the bar, where we cast anchor, waiting for the boats to
bring down the remainder of our cargo.
For some reason they are late and only by the next
morning they begin to flock around. They cleverly come
alongside, and the loading begins on the lee side of the
ship, the boats lying up in order as they arrive, one after
the other, in such a way that as one is emptied it slips
out and the next in turn takes its place. On each boat
are from ten to twelve Arabs, many of them Somalis,
strong, muscular fellows without an ounce of extra flesh,
and many of them quite six feet tall. Their clothing con
sists of a loin-cloth, and in spite of the burning rays of
the sun their heads are uncovered. Perhaps " uncovered "
is hardly the word, for the thick, woolly hair must form
a good protection to what we afterwards had proof of
being an extraordinarily thick skull.
All went well, the Arabs working fast with jokes and
songs, until suddenly the wind changed. The captain
then gave orders to continue loading from the other and
now sheltered side of the ship. In making the change
the boats that had been the last in the waiting row now
slipped in first. The men in the boats that had arrived

MOSQUE OF SHEIKH MAARONF KER RHIE
On the Tigris, opposite Bagdad

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 195
the earliest and had the right to be unloaded first natu
rally protested. The protests were at first verbal and given
with a volubility possible only to an excited Oriental.
From words, however, they soon came to blows, and there
followed a fight such as I have never seen before nor since.
The Arabs threw themselves into the water and swam to
the offending boats, which they boarded, and then began
a hand-to-hand tussle. They at first used only the weapons
nature had given them — they struck, kicked, bit and tore
each other's hair. Then they got hold of anything they
could find, oars, poles, and we saw these splintered to
bits over the unprotected heads and bodies of the Arabs.
Blood flowed so freely as to make the decks slippery, but
we saw none of the serious consequences one would ex
pect from the violence of the blows and the thickness of
the sticks. Occasionally a man feeling he was getting the
worst of the fight would dive overboard, a pink spot
marking the place where he disappeared. He would
come up and take refuge on a friendly boat, where he
would examine his wounds and after regaining his breath
he would, if fit, go back to the fray. Sometimes the
fight would go on between two or more in the water, where
they would try to drown each other. Soon oars and poles
came to an end and they tore down bits of the rigging, and
finally our Lascar sailors, who were watching with the
greatest excitement and were in sympathy with one of
the sides, began to throw down into their boats anything
that they could find that would serve as weapons.
Matters began to be very serious and the sight was a
sickening one. The excitement was spreading among our
sailors and our captain felt he must interfere. He there
fore ordered the hose to be brought out and directed a
stream of water impartially on the fighting mass. Though
the force of water was very great and would often stagger
a man, it did not have the expected result, and the fight

196 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
went on until it stopped of itself, when both parties were
exhausted and no one left who was able to continue. As
soon as the blows ceased the captain sent down and had
the more seriously wounded brought up on our deck.
There was no doctor with us, but the first mate had a sup
ply of medicine and a rough knowledge of surgery com
bined with a delight at having someone on whom to
practise it. And this time he had patients to his heart's
content! Most of the wounds were bruises and cuts in
the head. To everybody's astonishment not a bone was
found to be broken, though I myself saw poles as large
around as my arm broken in two over the head, shoulders
or uplifted arm of the Arabs. They themselves paid no
attention to any wounds except severe ones on the head,
only trying to stop violent bleeding with the bandages
furnished by the captain. Those with cuts in the head,
a dozen or more men, gathered around the mate in front
of the latter's cabin. The amateur surgeon seated himself
on his camp-stool, steadying between his knees the head
of his patient, who squatted on the deck. We watched with
interest and wonder the proceedings. On shaving the
hair the skin of the scalp was found to be of such enor
mous thickness that no ordinary needle would pierce it.
Nothing daunted, the mate produced a huge curved needle
used in sewing sacks and sails. This we saw him stick
into the skin and then push it with as much force as if he
were mending a shoe! The patient in the meantime
never blinking, but blissfully pulling at a cigarette fur
nished him by the interested bystanders. Not a groan
did we once hear from any of the patients, though some
of the rough operations must have been exceedingly pain
ful if the men possessed nerves. The nearest they ever
came to complaint was to ask " if he would soon finish."
Only one man was very badly hurt, an old greybeard,
who lay for hours unconscious in the bow of his boat, and

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 197
even when we left we were not sure that he had regained
consciousness. The Arabs did not seem inclined to have
our would-be doctor examine him and he was left to
nature. After a rest and wash the work began again,
nearly all the wounded taking part, and soon jokes and
laughter were heard as if nothing had happened to dis
turb their good relations.
By evening we had finished, and the next day we spent
anchored before Bushire. From Karachi up to Bushire
there is not one good harbour. In most places the ships
are obliged to anchor in the open sea some miles from
shore, where, if windy, boats are unable to come out with
cargo, and often several days' delay is thus caused and
great discomfort, for nothing is so trying to even a moder
ately good sailor as the tossing of a ship at anchor. Bu
shire is no exception. There are two harbours, the first
five miles from shore, the second two miles, where the
ships anchor according to the weather or their draught.
Bushire is a contraction of "Abu-Shahr" (father of
cities), so named by its founder, Nadir Shah, who built it
in the first half of the eighteenth century, intending it
as the base for Persian exports in the Gulf. Bushire has
never been a strategic base, but it has been and still is an
important port, giving an outlet to the products of the
interior of Persia. It carries on a lively commerce with
China, England, India and the ports of the Gulf, receiv
ing sugar, manufactured goods, flour, timber, tea, coffee,
steel and iron goods; while sending out tobacco, dates,
opium, cheese and carpets.
The city lies along a narrow sandy strip separated from
the mainland by marshy land and having in the back
ground a range of mountains. The water is very shallow
all along the shore. North of Bushire from the mountain
pass of Kazeroun begins the mountain plateau of Iran,
through which passes the caravan road to Shiraz.

198 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The population of Bushire is estimated to be from
15,000 to 18,000. The climate is hot and can hardly be
considered as healthful. There are no serdabs as in Bag
dad, but every house has its ventilating shaft, or" badgir,"
which to some degree cools the rooms.
As we had before been in Bushire and there was noth
ing of interest to see, we did not go ashore.
All about the steamer we could see sharks swimming
in the clear water, watching for what might be thrown
out by the cooks. It occurred to us to try our luck at
catching them, and one of the ship's officers set to work.
He brought a large thick hook, fastened it to a strong
tarred line and put on as bait a three-pound fish. For
fully an hour we patiently waited, watching the sharks
swimming about the tempting but suspicious-looking
bait. Finally one made a dart and seized it. We began
to draw in our line, but the monster pulled and struggled
so that he bent the hook, strong as it was, slipped off it and
disappeared. This failure did not discourage us. The
mate found a larger hook quite as thick as one's finger, and
this time we soon saw a shark bite. Just as success seemed
ours he got off, hook and all. Our blacksmith then
turned out a third hook, to which a stronger line was at
tached, and we at last succeeded in catching a small shark
about four and a half feet long. It was weird to see with
what intense hatred the Lascars pounced upon this, the
enemy and dread of all seamen. They began to beat and
cut the fish, and the captain had sternly to stop their tor
turing the living fish and ordered its head chopped off and
then thrown into the sea.
There is a curious fact connected with sharks. Euro
peans hesitate to bathe in many places infested by sharks
that have been known to attack them, whereas Arabs of
the Somali type and Negroes are untouched. At the
island of Bahrein, where pearl-fishing is carried on, the

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 199
natives dive freely for pearls, and the times when they are
molested are very rare. About Aden the same thing has
been noticed, and I have heard, as an explanation of this
fact, the theory given that it is the smell of the vegetable
oils with which the natives so freely anoint themselves
that keeps the fish off. Sharks have been known to go
up the river Tigris as far as Bagdad.
Speaking of sharks reminds me of a curious event that
took place in 1906 when we were in Constantinople. A
shark became entangled in a large fishing net in the Bos-
phorus and was brought ashore and exhibited for several
days for a small sum. This shark was fifteen feet long.
After taking in our cargo and two first-class passengers
we left for the next Persian port, Bender- Abbas (port
of Abbas) .
In the olden times this was a well-known port under
the name Camrun or Camroon, and received its present
name only from the time of the Persian Shah Abbas.
Owing to the shorter caravan routes through Bushire
and the river communication from the Tigris to Bushire
the importance of Bender-Abbas has given way to that
of Bushire. At the present time only the Yezd and Ker-
man caravans use Bender- Abbas as their terminus. Here
are brought sugar, manufactured goods, metal and glass
ware, and from Bender-Abbas are exported the famous
Kerman carpets, shawls, silk goods, dates, fish and cheese.
As a harbour Bender-Abbas affords little shelter, as the
long island of Kishm does not afford protection from the
prevailing winds, and owing to the shallowness of the
water ships are obliged to anchor two or three miles off
the shore. The city is miserable and dirty and the cli
mate very trying, especially during the hot season. All
who have means to do so go out during the summer
months to a small village some ten miles back from the
city among the mountains. The only drinking water

200 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
is what is gathered in cisterns during the rainy season.
Throughout the town are several huge cisterns for com
mon use, and most houses have their own private ones be
sides. During the dry hot months this water naturally
becomes unfit for use, having a disagreeable taste and
odour, and is probably one of the chief causes of the sick
ness that gives Bender-Abbas the reputation of being one
of the most unhealthful places in the gulf.
Some sixty miles east of Bender- Abbas lies the fertile
oasis of Menab. Thanks to plentiful springs of water
some of the best date palms are found here, as well as
other fruit trees peculiar to such a climate.
During a previous voyage we had visited Bender-
Abbas under conditions almost costing us our lives. We
were on one of the British India mail steamers that stop
at various ports. The second mate always went ashore
in one of the ship's boats with the mails, even if there were
no other business, and he invariably invited my wife and
me to accompany him. This we did, glad to see a little
of some of these rarely visited spots. It was in June, a
hot, absolutely cloudless day. The captain tried to per
suade us to give up our trip, as the steamer was anchored
nearly four miles from the shore and the barometer
showed the near approach of a violent change of weather.
Our curiosity to see the place and belief in our own
powers of weather prophecy were, however, greater than
our prudence or faith in the captain, so we started.
Arriving at the miserable little town we took the mail
bag to the post office close by. Though we were inside
the building but a few minutes, on coming out we were
amazed to see what a change had taken place in the
weather. The sky was black, and in an instant so violent
a wind-storm came up that our waiting boat was cast
upon the beach.
Deafening peals of thunder followed, and the heavens

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 201
opened to such a torrent of rain as only falls in these
tropical lands. In a few seconds we had not a dry thread
on us.
Over and over again our little boat was launched ; the
sailors pulled bravely, but it was again thrown upon the
sand. Finally, with the help of the crowd that in spite of
the storm had gathered about us, we succeeded in getting
off. The waves rose like mountains before us, the rain
continued to pour, and it almost seemed as if we were
going to certain destruction. Our steamer could not be
seen, and though our men worked hard we made but little
headway. On rising to the crest of a wave we would
look eagerly for the steamer, but in the darkness she was
not to be seen, though we could hear the whistles that were
given to guide us. The mate with set teeth sat at the rud
der, while my wife and I bailed out the water, that was
above our ankles, and as an hour, and then two, passed we
began to fear that the steamer had given us up at last
and gone on. We could not keep from thinking of an
incident of this kind which the captain told us took place
not long since at Bender-Abbas. How after waiting a
long time and steaming about he had gone on and the
boat had never been heard of. Every time our boat
paused, as it seemed an eternity, on the crest of a wave
before plunging down into the yawning valley, it seemed
to us that she could never survive. Finally a shout was
raised, we saw the steamer, and, thus encouraged, our men
pulled with renewed vigour and we were soon alongside.
It was impossible to get up the gangway, so it was not
even lowered for us, but we were pulled up, boat and all,
and landed on deck, a streaming, soaked party. The cap
tain could not refrain from saying " I told you so," but
was very kind and active in getting us below, and had a
hot punch made for us and doses of quinine served out
to the boat's crew. A wetting in these climes is far more

202 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
dangerous than in colder countries, and it is apt to cause
fever. We, however, were none the worse for our ex
perience. I cannot omit saying a few words of the bad name the
Persian Gulf very justly has. September is trying, to say
nothing of the hot months, when even in India the voy
age is looked upon as dangerous, in spite of double awn
ings, punkahs, and so on. The temperature remains about
90 degrees, even in the night, while by day it rises to
above 100 degrees. If during the great heat the wind is
with the ship the suffering is very great, even among the
Lascar sailors, and often orders are given to turn about
and steam back for an hour against the wind to give a
little relief. Cases of death by heat apoplexy even at
night take place during the hot months. No help is to be
had from cold baths, for the water is warmer than the
temperature of the body.
Muscat, our next stopping place, is the capital of Oman,
the land of the Sultan or Imam, as the natives call him,
of Oman. About 2,000 is considered to be the population
of Oman, as nearly as can be estimated. In the sixteenth
century the Portuguese occupied the port for a time, but
were driven out in 1648. In the eighteenth century
Oman came under the power of Nadir Shah, who forced
the Imam of Oman to pay him a yearly tribute. After
the death of Nadir Shah the Arabs of Oman regained
their liberty under Ahmed ben Said, the founder of the
present dynasty of sultans.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century the Oman
fleet was the most powerful in the Persian Gulf. At
that time the inhabitants of the littoral of Oman lived
almost entirely by piracy. This was carried on to such
an extent that the East India Company made three
armed expeditions against the Oman pirates, in 1809,
1 8 19, and 1821, when the English finally captured two

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ARCH OF CTESIPHON

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 203
hundred pirates and forced the sultan to sell his frigates
and corvettes. At that period the Sultan of Oman ruled
over the eastern coast of the Arabian peninsula and down
to Zanzibar, but after the death of Ben Said the kingdom
was divided, the elder son receiving Oman and the
younger Zanzibar. Owing to the fact that their com
mercial interests depended upon the safety of ships in
the Persian Gulf the English were justified in establishing
their control over Oman. The East India Company
therefore made a treaty with Sultan Said according to
which piracy and slave trade were abolished and the
sultan received a subsidy from the Company, which is
continued by the present English Government. There
is an English political agent at Muscat, who is the ad
visor to the sultan, and the power of the latter to a certain
degree is but nominal.
Oman is not the poor country that a glance at the map
would lead one to suppose. Back of the bare volcanic
range of mountains that border the sea are fertile valleys,
and with irrigation the country would yield great riches.
Corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, coffee and indigo are exported,
and in the interior are large date plantations. Cattle also
are raised and sheep, while the Oman asses are famous
throughout Arabia. A commerce is carried on in horses,
that are obtained from the Bedouin of the Nedj, the
cradle of the Arab and of the Arab horse. Mines of cop
per and, it is said, of gold are to be found in the moun
tains. There are in some towns of Oman skilled artisans
who make gold and silver filigree work. All the chief
towns are on the coast, wherever convenient harbours
are to be found. A few miles from the capital, Muscat,
which has a population of 30,000, is the town and port
of Matra, estimated to have a population of 20,000. Aside
from these principal ports are some secondary commer
cial seaside towns, Kur, Fanal, Inaz, Sokhar and others.

204 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The inhabitants of these sea ports are born seamen and
fishermen. Salt fish is one of the chief articles of export,
being taken in large quantities to India and even to Aus
tralia. They have their own home-made boats, in which
they fearlessly go out for long distances, venturing even
as far as Bombay, though many are the fatal voyages.
The date export trade is large and almost exclusively
with America. Also reed mats and cheese are exported.
In exchange Oman receives from abroad manufactured
goods, tea and sugar. The climate of Oman is one of the
hottest in the world, and, at least that along the seacoast,
the most trying. There are only two seasons, the hot
and cool. We were to enter Muscat before sunrise, and
we were all on deck betimes. As we approached the
seemingly unbroken mountain range there was no sign
of Muscat, and it was only when quite near that we saw
a narrow passage that led us into the awful, almost land
locked harbour. The hills on every side rose black and
bare, reflecting so strongly the heat they had absorbed
during the day that as we stood on deck it was hard to be
lieve we were not under the rays of a hot sun — though
it was before sunrise! As we looked around it seemed
as if we were in a pond with almost perpendicular walls
of steep black rocks rising three to seven hundred feet,
the city itself being along a narrow strip of sand between
the sea and the hills that rise straight up behind it. At
the entrance of the port and at various places perched
high on the rock are remains of watch towers and forts
built by the Portuguese when they were masters of the
Persian Gulf. The flat-roofed houses are small, with the
exception of the " palace " of the sultan and the house of
the English resident. We cast anchor close to the shore,
where we had a full view of the tiny place, and what
at once arrested our attention was a most unusual sight.
A large house, that of the British resident, they told us,

FROM BASSORAH TO MUSCAT 205
had only three sides! The entire sea front was open like a
doll's house. From the deck of the steamer we could there
fore see the inside of every room of the house, and even
the poor consul himself as he sat at his table. It seemed
that a few days previously the entire sea wall of the badly
built house had slid down, leaving the consul to lead this
exposed life! The harbour was quite lively, a number
of craft of various kinds being there and an English
gunboat that is stationed at Muscat constantly. Though
the sailors are all Indians and the gunboat is changed
every six months, yet so unhealthf ul and trying is the heat
that nearly every voyage there are cases of suicide, insan
ity or heat apoplexy, we were told.
At the invitation of the United States consul we went to
lunch with him on shore and have a look at the town.
Though accustomed to Eastern cities, Muscat proved un
like anything we had yet seen. Owing to the small space
between the mountains and the sea upon which to build
the town, the streets are so narrow that while sitting at
the open window of the American consulate we could
with a cane touch the wall on the opposite side of the
street. No horses are kept in the city and few donkeys,
the stables of the sultan and rich people being in a valley
back of the town. The filth and heat in the streets, owing
to their narrowness, surpass that of most Oriental towns.
The people met in the streets are of the most varied types.
One sees Indians, Negroes, Arabs, Persians and Turks,
but no Europeans. When we were in Muscat there were
but two Europeans living there, the British resident and
the United States consul, who was a Scotchman.
Muscat left a very unpleasant impression upon us, and
the stories told of the heat by the two unfortunate Euro
peans whom we met made us realise that there were
worse places than Bagdad to live in. There are no ser
dabs, no gardens to give refreshing green, and the heat

206 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
of the day has to be passed in the closed rooms. At sun
set when the inhabitants of the city go up on the roof
there is not much relief, for the radiation of the heat
from the sun-baked rock all around makes it almost un
bearable. We were assured that what we had taken as
a legend of the Gulf was a fact, namely, that many peo
ple have their servants sprinkle them, bed and all, several
times during the night with watering pots!
The Oman Government is on a most patriarchal sys
tem, the decisions being made in disputed cases by the
imam according to the tenets of the Koran. We were
in Muscat when the imam had established a most original
form of punishment. In a strong room he had a lion
chained in such a way that the beast could almost reach
the opposite wall. When a prisoner considered as de
serving of such punishment was brought before the
imam, the lion was starved for a couple of days, and then
the unfortunate man was chained in the one corner of the
room that the lion could not quite reach. With roars of
rage the hungry lion would spring at the man, who by
flattening himself against the wall only just escaped the
claws and open mouth of the huge beast. This torture
was continued, according to the gravity of the crime,
from a few hours to a couple of days, and instances were
given of the wretched prisoner going mad. Later, owing
to the influence of the British resident, this cruel punish
ment was abolished.
We left Muscat with feelings of relief, and were once
more impressed with the truth often forced upon us dur
ing our five years in these hot lands, that human beings
are able to adapt themselves to almost every condition,
even to those that are seemingly impossible.

CHAPTER XII
BOMBAY, CASTES, AND THE TOWERS OF SILENCE
Bombay, its Significance — Variety of Nationalities — From the "Sla-
vansky Bazaar " to Watson's Hotel — History and Development of
Caste — Laws of Manu — Principle of Preserving Race of the Con
querors Distinct — Marriages — Caste as Seen To-day, and its Effect
on Daily Life — English Feeling of Caste towards Natives — History
of Bombay — Parsis — Similarity of Russian and Indian Styles of Ar
chitecture — Personal Reminiscences — Tower of Silence — My Ac
quaintance with Parsis — Baku and the Eternal Fire — Zoroaster,
his Teaching — Zend Avesta — Traces of Zoroastrianism in the Per
sian Religion — Gabars, their Former and Present State in Persia —
" Mobeds," " Andjuman " — Rites and Ceremonials— Shah Abdul
Azim near Teheran — Ruins of Rei arid Tower of Silence.
Our steamer approaches Bombay, the second city of im
portance in India after Calcutta. The harbour is the
finest on the Indian coast. Here are brought the riches
of the entire world, from Europe, America, Egypt,
Turkey, Arabia and Persia. The harbour is full of
steamers and craft of all sizes and descriptions, that fly
the flags of nearly every nation. As soon as the anchor
is dropped the usual bustle and hurry begins, passengers
leave, and we soon find ourselves in the custom-house
A more motley crowd or greater babel of tongues it would
be hard to imagine. One's eye has scarcely time to take
in one picture before another is presented; and the ear
hardly finds time for conscious hearing of the various
tongues: familiar European words mingle with guttural
Arabic or liquid Persian, and then sounds of languages
quite unfamiliar to my modest linguistic powers. This
207

208 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
babel is not surprising if one takes the trouble to remem
ber that the people of India speak 150 dialects, derived
from twenty languages that are divided into three main
groups: the Ario-Indian, spoken by 221,000,000 (Hin
dus, Bengalis, Marethas, etc.), Dravidian, the dialects
of which are spoken by 56,500,000, and finally the Tibeto-
Burman, spoken by 9,500,000.
Here we see an Englishman talking with a Brahmin,
there an excitable Frenchman gesticulating and trying
to explain something in broken English to a dignified
Parsi; yonder a Brahmin, calmly smoking a cigar, is lis
tening to a turbaned individual. Not far from us, perched
on a post, is an almost naked Indian, squatting with his
knees drawn up to his chin, clasping them by long sinewy
arms. He looks just like an ape, as indeed for some
seconds we take him to be. All this changing crowd and
babel of tongues begins to go to one's head, and we gladly
finished the customs formalities and found ourselves
driving to Watson's Hotel, situated in the European part
of the town. In the vestibule of the hotel my wife and
I happened to exchange a word in Russian and were
startled to hear our tongue spoken by a gentleman ad
dressing us in Russian. He proved to be one of the hotel
men, whom the tide of fortune had thrown upon these
far-away shores — from the Moscow "Slavansky Bazaar"
to Watson's Hotel, Bombay!
Our rooms opened out onto a veranda commanding
a view of the University Square and an imposing clock
tower, the latter being the gift of a rich Parsi to the city.
At the period of which I write Watson's Hotel was
the best in Bombay, but in many ways it seemed primitive
enough. Owing to the Anglo-Indian custom of having
servants travel with one they did not keep a sufficient
staff of waiters, and had we not our own faithful men
we should have joined those who complained of the lack

BOMBAY, CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 209
of service. Yet there seemed to be any number of
servants, but as each one could only do a certain class of
work there was no making anything out of the chaos.
One would bring water, a second sweep the rooms, a
third make the beds, etc. This was our first experience
with caste as seen in everyday life, this evil wh;ch has
struck such deep roots all over India as to have even
touched the English themselves, though they are uncon
scious of it. Of the 274,000,000 inhabitants of India,
207,000,000 are Hindus, caste-observing people, 62,500-
000 are Mohammedans, 9,500,000 Buddhists, aboriginals
8,500,000, Christians 2,000,000, and the remainder are
Parsis, Jews and other smaller sects.
If we add to the Hindus the Buddhists also observing
castes, though under a different definition, on the prin
ciple of "good and evil" spirits, we have over 218,000,-
000 of the inhabitants under this heavy yoke.
The caste principle dates back 3,000 years, and had its
origin in Brahminism, and Brahma is the central figure
of its system. It grew originally out of the racial dis
tinctions when the earliest Aryan emigrants, settled in
India. The pure Aryan issuing from the Creator's mouth
is the Brahmin. The fighting caste, or Kshatriyas,
sprang from the arms of Brahma, the Creator. Vaisya,
the agriculturist issuing from the loins of Brahma, form
the third caste, while the lowest in the social scale, the
degraded Sudra, are regarded as coming from the Crea
tor's feet. This last and lowest caste is by far the most
numerous one.
The full development of the rules regarding caste was
given much later in the Code of Manu, supposed to have
been written five hundred years before Christ by the
mythical Brahmin sage of that name.
Manu took the ground that the only measure by which
the handful of conquerors could be kept from being as-

210 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
similated by the preponderating masses was by raising
rigid and immovable barriers to separate them. Inter
marriage between persons of different castes was for
bidden. The breaking of this law was punishable by
social ostracism, loss of all rights and property. Those
thus excluded from their caste became pariahs and
formed a mixed caste. The code of Manu gave, however,
in some instances, more liberal interpretation of this law
— for instance, in cases where a Hindu took to himself a
wife of a lower caste. In such circumstances only the
children of such a wife belonged to the lower caste. If,
however, a woman married into a lower caste she was
forever excluded and remained a pariah.
The next law in the code of Manu provides for the
complete isolation of the castes in everyday life. This
is brought about by the law forbidding one caste to eat
with those of another, or to touch anything belonging to
them. The most degraded of the pariah caste were
obliged to live apart from all others and to have a special
sign by which they could be recognised and avoided.
They were only allowed to keep dogs and donkeys, no
other domestic animals, and dressed in clothing obtained
from corpses. Fourteen per cent, of the inhabitants of
India at present are said to belong to these lower castes.
As a special privilege polygamy is permitted to the
highest castes, while the Sudras are not allowed more
than one wife. The number of wives permitted is also
according to the caste. Brahmins may have four wives,
Kshatriyas three and Vaisyas two. The marriage cere
mony also differs in pomp according to the caste. Suttee,
or self-immolation of widows at the cremation of their
husbands, was practised mostly among the Brahmin caste.
The English Government met with great difficulty in
abolishing this custom, and in spite of severe laws occa
sional instances are still met with at the present time.

TOWN OF BASSORAH ON THE CREEK

BOMBAY, CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 211
But in spite of barriers and castes the, laws of nature
would have their course, and mixed marriages have dur
ing the centuries taken place often enough to influence
in some degree the types. As time went on other changes
took place in the law governing castes, giving rise to many
smaller castes. Such were formed with each new pro
fession or occupation, so that one could almost define
castes as being corporations. Other shadings in the caste
life are based on religious beliefs forming sects, etc.
In spite of all these changes and modifications caste is
to-day a great institution with which the British Govern
ment has to deal. It complicates every branch of admin
istration. On the march the commissariat department has
to have it in view — railway carriages must be furnished
for the various castes. In times of famine and epidemic,
particularly, the obstacles of food and isolation raised by
the caste rules are hard to overcome.
The Anglo-Indian has to keep a large number of serv
ants, thanks to caste. For no money will the butler be
hind your chair sweep your room. The cook will not
carry water nor the coachman groom the horse nor cut
its grass. The caste spirit has even had some influence
on other religions in India, even upon the Mohamme
dan and Christian. It is an interesting fact that the so-
called Syrian Christians, who adopted Christianity in
the sixth century, belong to the highest caste, while the
rest of the native Christians are considered as belonging
to the lower castes.
In their attitude towards natives the English have,
probably quite unconsciously, adopted the caste feeling.
Anglo-Indian society holds itself as distinct from the
natives as if a wall of caste surrounded them. A native
may rise to the rank of officer, but the European officers'
mess is closed to him, and with few exceptions he will not
be invited to dine.

2i2 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
As to intermarriage with the natives, the Code of
Manu could be no stricter, and the "half-castes," or
"Eurasians," as the offspring of such marriages are
called, are pariahs to English society. Possibly because
of their social position, or from hereditary causes, but the
fact remains that these descendants of European and In
dian parents are generally of a low type of intellect, and
are failures in life, being without patriotism, principles
or traditions.
The isolation of the European from native society is
further accentuated by the European part of the cities
being generally apart from the native. The natives also
travel separately from the English by railway, to their
mutual satisfaction. A significant fact in connection
with the relation of the English to the natives is that few
Englishmen take the trouble to know the names of their
native servants. The general name " boy " for men
servants or " ayah " for the maids is sufficient, and our
Mendoza and Fernando spoke often of this difference
when they lived with us and were treated on more
friendly terms.
Bombay came into the possession of the English
crown, together with Tangiers and £300,000, as the
dowry of Catherine of Braganza, when she married
King Charles II. in 1662. King Charles handed the ad
ministration of Bombay over to the famous East India
Company. In 1690 Bombay was taken by the Mongols,
but was soon retaken by the English, and from that pe
riod the population increased and flourished.
The majority of the inhabitants of Bombay to-day are
Hindus, Mohammedans and Parsis. The latter are fire
worshippers, the descendants of the ancient Persians who
settled here some 1,200 years ago, when Islamism began
to take root in Persia. It is estimated that there are
about 100,000 Parsis in India, of which number some

BOMBAY, CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 213
84,000 are to be found in Bombay. The Parsis are the
chief bankers and commercial people of India. Reli
gious differences and rivalry between them and the Mo
hammedans led to frequent outbreaks, one of the most
serious being caused by the Parsis printing a translation
of Washington Irving's " Life of Mohammed," when it
needed the interference of the English troops to restore
order. One cannot but admire the liberal and prudent
attitude of the English in all religious questions touch
ing the many conflicting races brought under their rule
in India.
The present Bombay, with a population of some 800,-
000, is divided into the native town, or old city, and the
European, or new. All the business and commerce is
to be found in the European part or the " fort." The
streets here are broad, clean and well built. As I looked
about at the magnificent public buildings, the University,
the Post Office, the Victoria Terminus, costing many
millions, I could not but exclaim, " Can this be India?"
There was with all its strangeness and novelty something
familiar, something that made me feel I had seen it be
fore. Suddenly it came to me: it is our white-stoned
Mother Moscow! The architecture has so much in
common with it that I cannot but think there must be a
close connection between the Indian and ancient Russian
architecture. But I am wandering from the limits of my
competency. Bombay has a University with over a thousand stu
dents, many benevolent institutions, schools and hospi
tals, among which is one for lepers. Back of the city
are the Malabar hills, covered with terraces and beauti
ful private residences. The view from here of the city
and surrounding islands is very fine.
There was something fairy-like in our first impression
of India, and the longer we remained the more the en-

2i4 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
chantment grew. A tropical night comes back to my
memory. We were driving among the gardens of Mal
abar hill to a dinner. My wife's modern evening dress
and my dress suit seemed to me strangely out of place
under the shadow of the stately pines and the fragrance
of the hot Eastern night. I can see the lights of the luxu
rious bungalow, the bright dinner table, the soft-footed
native servants in picturesque dress and snowy turbans;
the broad veranda1 leading into the garden enticingly
lighted with coloured lanterns, which, however, lost all
charm when the hostess's voice was heard cautioning some
one to keep to the well-lighted paths, as a cobra had just
been seen there — all this comes back to me to-day as if it
were but yesterday, and with a charm that the Orient can
never lose for those who have once known it. I remem
ber another dinner in a circle of hospitable Scotchmen.
The same Eastern atmosphere, native servants, but dur
ing the dinner a Scotchman in kilts walked around the
table discoursing sweet music (to the Scotchmen at
least) on the national bagpipe. The English have to a
very remarkable degree succeeded in blending the com
forts and order of the English home with the charm of
the Orient, both in the style of buildings and in their life.
The day after we arrived we were reminded that
European civilisation had permeated here, under the
form of a cabman's strike! The discontented procession
massed in the square in front of our hotel, but they were
orderly and absolutely silent. We saw a police, or gov
ernment agent of some kind, ride up, towering above the
crowd from the back of a camel. He addressed a few
words to the people, waving the short stick he carried,
and in a few moments the crowd melted away as silently
as it had formed, and before an hour had passed, the
cabmen were at their posts as if nothing had happened.
One afternoon was spent in the horse market, where

BOMBAY, CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 215
are to be found the horses brought down the Gulf from
Arabia, as well as others from Australia and England,
and where sportsmen from all over India gather.
Among the many interesting features of Bombay is the
great " Tower of Silence," where the Parsis expose their
dead to be eaten by vultures. In driving there we
passed the Christian, Mohammedan and Hindu ceme
teries, in the latter of which we saw signs of a cremation
just being completed.
The Tower of Silence is outside the town and is a huge
round stone building. There is but one entrance to the
tower, and that is opened only when the priests carry in
a corpse. On the top of the tower were perched large
numbers of the huge repulsive birds, some of which, on
seeing our party approach the grounds, slowly sailed
about over our heads, anticipating probably that we had
brought them a feast! We, of course, were not allowed
to enter the grounds, nor did we ask to do so ; it was suffi
ciently gruesome seeing these birds.
The Parsis have always had for me a special interest,
being, as they are, the remnants of one of the oldest reli
gions ; and I have happened to come in contact with them
both in Russia and Persia, as well as India.
My first acquaintance with Parsis was in Baku, in the
early seventies, when our petroleum industry first began.
At that time travellers visiting Baku were not drawn so
much by the interest of seeing the petroleum works, as
in visiting the source of the " eternal fire " and the tem
ple of the fire worshippers. This temple was a small
square building surmounted by a dome and having small
towers at the corners. It was built just over the spot
where the gas brought through one of the towers seem
ingly issued from the earth, and burned in several
flames. There was a sort of altar on which stood plates
with bits of sugar, and here, too, were the lights that were

216 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
never extinguished. Two priests, or Mobeds, sent from
Bombay, served in the temple. For a small sum they
would sing and chant and then give each visitor a piece
of sugar. Owing to the belief in the miraculous origin
of the fire, Baku was considered to be the most sacred
place of the Parsis, and was called by them the "City
of the Rose."
My second acquaintance with these people was in
Teheran. A certain Manukchi Lemdji Sahib, a Parsi
gentleman, who has done much for his coreligionists in
Persia, gave me much information concerning the teach
ings of Zoroaster, or Zardusht, and of the customs and
rites of the Parsis. Finally, while living in Meshed,
in 1 89 1, I succeeded, after much difficulty, in obtaining
for the Parsi merchants of Kerman the right, hitherto
denied them, of passing through the sacred Mohamme
dan city of Meshed on their way to Transcaspia in view
of establishing direct commercial relations. As a token
of their appreciation of my efforts in their behalf the
council of Parsi elders, living in Kerman, sent me at the
Persian New Year, " No-ruz," an illuminated manuscript
addressed in Persian.
As the Parsis may not be known to all those into whose
hands this book may fall, I think that my readers may
not object if I share with them some of my notes and
reminiscences concerning these most interesting people.
Zoroaster, Zardusht, or Zoradusche, was born about
800 years before Christ, as many scholars think, in or near
Urumiah in the northwest part of Persia. iVery little is
¦known of his life. His religion came as a protest against
paganism. The basis of his teaching was a pure mono
theism, a belief in one supreme, formless, all-powerful,
merciful and just Being, worthy of all adoration. His
teaching was further founded on the worship of this Be
ing, good deeds, and eschewing evil.

BOMBAY, CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 217
Zoroaster, however, introduced the dual powers of
good (creating) and evil (or destroying), under the
names of Ormuzd and Ahriman. Fire and light are
the attributes of the former and darkness of the latter.
Zoroaster's teaching further includes the doctrine that
all that happens to man is for the best. The chief duties
of man are love to his neighbour, goodness, and hospi
tality. His teachings are found in the Zend Avesta and
consist of small parts, the most important being the " Ven-
didad" and "Yasna." The former is composed of the
revelations of Zoroaster and the second of prayers. In
the Avesta are also to be found treatises on philosophy,
astronomy, medicine, etc.
In the sixth century before Christ all Persia professed
the religion of Zoroaster, which was at its height during
the Sassanian dynasty from 227 to 636 A.D., but after
this time it began to be crushed out by the new religion,
that of Mohammed, that came to conquer by the sword.
Many find the idea of sun worship in the present cus
tom observed in most large' Persian cities, of the daily
music in the "Nehareh Khana," or music houses. These
are built on a high roof, and as the sun is sinking, and
until the last rays have faded, weird music is discoursed.
The musicians, with drums and long trumpets, such as
we see in pictures illustrating the fall of the walls of
Jericho, solemnly march round the roof as they play.
The same is done at sunrise. The custom of counting
their new year, or "No-ruz," at the time of the vernal
equinox, is perhaps also to be traced to the same source.
The followers of Zoroaster remained true to their
faith during the Greek conquest under Alexander the
Great, but they were unable to withstand the fanatical
spirit of Mohammedanism. The majority of the few
who remained faithful to the old faith removed to In
dia, and particularly to Bombay. Here we find them as

218 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Parsis, a prosperous, intelligent class, in whose hands is
found most of the banking and commercial business of
Bombay. Many of the Parsis have had English college
education and have achieved success in science. They
are justly proud of the fact that among their people are
neither paupers nor prostitutes. Many benevolent and
educational institutions in Bombay testify to the public
spirit of the Parsis, and they are loyal subjects to the
British crown.
Quite different is the fate of their coreligionists in
Persia, where they are generally known as "Gabers,"
and I shall use this term, though in Persia it is one of in
dignity, as signifying "unfaithful." The Parsis call
themselves " Zardusht," or Farsis, and Parsis. There are
not over 11,000 of these people now to be found in Per
sia. The largest colony of about 8,000 is in Yezd, 2,000
in Kerman and only 300 in Teheran, while a few are
scattered in Shiraz, Kashan and Kum.
One cannot but feel a strong admiration for this hand
ful of ancient people, who, amidst adverse circumstances,
have kept pure their faith, though living among the
fanatical Moslem Persians. The time when the murder
of a Parsi passed unpunished hardly belongs to ancient
history, and the forcible abduction of Parsi girls into a
harem was of common occurrence. Until the middle of
the nineteenth century the Parsis were greatly restricted
in their rights. In the bazaars they were not allowed to
touch anything, as the touch of an " unfaithful " was pol
lution; they were not allowed to build two-storied houses,
and were forced to wear a dress that distinguished them
from Mohammedans, so that the latter could avoid inad
vertently touching these unclean beings.
A special tax was imposed upon them in common with
other non-Moslem Persian subjects. They could not
ride horses, only donkeys, and even then were obliged

HBBBHS^H^HH^^HB

HBtHH

GROUP OF BOMBAY PARSEES

BOMBAY. CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 219
to dismount when meeting a Mullah or Moslem of any
distinction. In more ancient times their limitations were
even greater. It was only in the latter half of the past
century that the position of the Parsis began to improve.
This change was due to the efforts of their coreligionists,
in Bombay, among whom were many rich Parsi gentle
men who did not hesitate to sacrifice large sums in pres
ents to Persian officials. Thanks to their efforts and also
to the English representatives in Persia in the eighties of
the last century, the Gabers were exempted from their ex
tra taxes and were given religious freedom. Some ten
years later they obtained the right of dressing in all col
ours except green, which is regarded as the sacred colour
of the Mohammedans. Owing to these new privileges
they were able to follow their commercial instincts with
more freedom. Their shrewd practical business capacity
and their honesty enabled them to profit by this freedom,
and one already meets with rich merchants, although
even now they are not permitted entrance to cities con
taining Mohammedan shrines of importance. As I
mentioned above, it was with the greatest difficulty that,
in 1901, I obtained permission for a few of these mer
chants to pass through Meshed on their way to Russia.
During the past thirty-five years other concessions have
been made; they are permitted to have a representative
at Teheran and to establish their own schools, the first they
have had during the Persian dominion.
How purely and intelligently the teachings of Zo
roaster are observed by the Gabers in Persia, I am unable
to say. It is very possible, that living for 1,200 years
among a Moslem people has not failed to affect their
religious observances.
Their religious teachers are called Mobeds, but they
do not seem to possess sufficient influence to uphold their
authority, and in attempting to do so they are hampered

220 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
by the fact that any one not wishing to submit to them
can easily join the Mohammedans. The Andjuman, the
members of which are chosen by the colony, has consid
erable power in matters concerning civil laws.
The doctrine of pure and impure has a large place in
the teachings of Zoroaster, and most complicated ablu
tions are enjoined in case of pollution from contact with
what is " impure." These are divided into " great" and
" small " purifications. The lesser purification is de-i
manded for the many smaller pollutions, which in every
day life cannot be avoided. The "great" purification
is only needed in exceptional cases, as, for example, after
contact with a corpse. It is, however, considered advis
able to perform the greater purification at least once in
a lifetime. This is performed by the Mobed in a build
ing set apart for the purpose, and the ceremony continues
nine days, during which time the individual going
through the rite cannot leave the premises, and all food is
brought to him by the Mobeds. During the purifica
tions, instead of water the urine of bulls is used.
At the birth of an infant astrologers are called in to
cast the horoscope of the new-born babe. Between the
ages of seven and fifteen a ceremony answering to that
of confirmation takes place, when the boy or girl is ini
tiated into the religious community. Marriages, as is
common in the East, take place at a very early age. It
is not unusual to see married boys of fifteen and girls of
twelve. The marriage ceremony resembles that of the
Mohammedans in .that the bride herself does not take
part. Her substitute performs the necessary formalities,
and though the contract is drawn up in the presence of
the Mobeds, it is more civil in character than religious.
The Mobed reads aloud the obligations to be undertaken
by both parties, in which wifely obedience has a large
part, and then invokes the blessing of Heaven, afterwhich

BOMBAY, CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 221
sugar and sweets are passed around and the ceremony is
at an end. Polygamy, owing probably to Moslem in
fluence, is occasionally met with, but not often. The re
mains of the fire temples are to be found in various parts
of Persia, as in Takhti Suleyman, Nakshi Rustem, and
mounds of ashes about the plain of Urumiah. At pres
ent their worship is held in some modern buildings where
the perpetual fire, believed to have been handed down
from the time of Zoroaster, is carefully tended. During
the ceremony verses from the Avestas are chanted.
As to the " Towers of Silence," I have only once had
occasion to see them in Persia. Some six miles southeast
of Teheran is one of the numerous Moslem Shiite shrines,
that of Shah Abdul Azim. To this place on Fridays a
motley crowd of Persians may be seen flocking, some to
pray, others for a sort of picnic. At the present time
there is a railroad over the short distance, the first and
only one in Persia. Near this place is a miraculous
spring that owes its origin to Ali, and is therefore known
as the "Cheshme Ali," or "Spring of Ali." On the
rocks near this spring is a sculpture representing Fehti
Ali Shah seated on a throne and surrounded by courtiers.
A rock also is shown bearing the impress of Ali's foot.
Thanks to the modern popularity of this spot the ruin of
" Rei " or " Rei Tower " is kept in mind. This was the
ancient Median capital, and is one of the several cities
that claim to be the birthplace of Zoroaster. It was
known in Biblical times as " Ragha."
At the present time the ruins are represented only by
a heap of brick and mortar, where one can pick up bits
of broken pottery and sometimes even choice pieces giv
ing the reflet metallique so much prized by connois
seurs of porcelain. The tower that forms part of what
was the citadel was restored in the latter half of the
nineteenth century. Near the tower, also on the face of the

222 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
rocks, is abas-relief representing Fehti Ali Shah on Horse
back, slaying a lion. Unfortunately this sculpture was
carved on an older one representing a Sassanian king.
Fehti Ali Shah had this obliterated to make room for his
own picture, but fortunately pictures of the former
sculpture are preserved to us by older travellers.
On the hills to the east of the ruins of Rei is to be
found the tower of silence of the Gabers, probably one
of the most ancient in existence. It resembles the one I
saw later in Bombay in that it is a round whitish tower,
but, unlike the latter, possesses no door, as the Gabers fear
Mohammedan desecration. The corpse is therefore
lifted over by means of ladders and ropes. By climbing
the hill one can get a good look down into the interior of
the tower. The place where the dead bodies are exposed
is divided into equal squares, about seven feet each way,
as far as one could judge at that distance. As the touch
of a corpse is pollution, special persons are set apart for
the duty of receiving and undressing the corpses. After
each burial, if it can be so called, they are obliged to pur
ify themselves, and in cases when one of them leaves the
profession, he has to go through the nine days' purifica
tion. The body, having been undressed, is laid upon the
receptacle for the corpses, and left there to the vultures
that, during the ceremony, wheel about in anticipation
of their horrid feast. In ancient times the corpses were
given to wild beasts and dogs, the latter even now taking
a prominent part in the ceremony connected with the
dead. In Persia, where dogs are looked upon as un
clean, it is difficult to get a Gaber to talk about this cus
tom of introducing dogs to exorcise the evil spirit.
When a Parsi is about to die, the Mobeds read prayers
of repentance of sins, and the ceremony of extreme unc
tion consists in wetting the lips with consecrated bulls'
urine. After the body has been washed (also in bulls'

BOMBAY, CASTES, TOWERS OF SILENCE 223
urine) by the " corpse washer " the ancient rite of " Sag-
did" (glance of a dog) is observed even in our time. As
the eye of the dog is believed to frighten away the evil
spirits that may hover about, a dog is induced to approach
and look at the corpse. Bits of bread are to this end
scattered in the room, and some placed on the breast of
the body, and a common hungry street dog being called
in, he eagerly eats it.
Of the Christian missionary work among the Gabers, I
am unable to give information. Even in India the Par
sis are more apt to make proselytes, as in the case of inter
marriages with Hindus, than to adopt another religion.
Instances of Parsis becoming Moslems are very rare, and
are usually brought about by force rather than by convic
tion.

CHAPTER XIII
THUGS IN INDIA
India Past and Present — Secret Sects — Mutual Relations of the Con
querors and Conquered — Hockley, Hutton and Colonel Meadows-
Taylor — Two Opinions Concerning Thugs — Condition of India in
First Half of Nineteenth Century — Period of Disorder and Oppres
sion — Trials by Ordeals — Formation of Bands of Robbers — Pinda
rees — Gussoons — Methods of Travelling — Thugs as Companions on
the March — Doctrine of Thugs — Brahma, Vishnu and Siva — God
desses — Bhowanee, or Kali — Initiation of Thugs, their Duties —
Thank-Offerings — Divisions of Work among Bands — Inveiglers,
Stranglers, Grave-Diggers — Thug Methods of Working — First Inti
mation of Thugs in 1810 — Trial of 18 12 — Expedition against Thugs
— Commission Formed in 1830 to Investigate Accusations Brought
against Thugs — Conclusion of Commission and Result of its Work—
From Bombay to Jiddah — Perim — Circumstances Connected with
Annexation of Perim — Aden.
INDIA is one of the most interesting countries of the
world, and presents an inexhaustible field of exploration
for the historian, ethnographer, philologist and artist.
The peculiar political formation of this country also has
its interest. Here we see alongside of the English prov
inces, with their two hundred and twenty-one millions of
inhabitants, many small " native states " comprising alto
gether a population of some seventy-three millions.
These native states retain in various degrees their inde
pendence so far as their internal government goes. The
sovereign power of such states is, however, limited.
These limitations are generally formed by some of the
following conditions : Limitations as to the size of the
224

THUGS IN INDIA -225
standing army they are allowed to keep; obligations as
to joining their forces with those of the English in time
of need ; obligations in regard to ceding territory for rail
ways; deprivation of the right of carrying on independ
ent diplomatic relations with foreign Powers ; obligations
of rulers to appear at durbars, or the formal political re
ceptions which are held yearly with great pomp by the
viceroy. The ceremonies connected with these durbars are
strictly carried out, and the reception of each ruler corre
sponds to his rank, rajah, maharajah, nizam, etc.,
each having his own salute of a certain number of guns
according to his rank. These native rulers are obliged
to permit the appointment of a special English repre
sentative styled resident. The powers of these residents
are greater or less in different states, and go so far as giv
ing the right of interfering at times in the question of
succession to the throne.
The present state exists in India only since the Mutiny
of 1857, which ended the existence of the East India
Company, which had governed for over two and a half
centuries. From 1858, when the control of India came
under the British crown, the English have appointed
viceroys, under whom active reforms have been made.
They set to work to establish the finances of the country
on a firm basis, organise civil and criminal jurisdiction,
limit the autocratic powers of the native rulers with their
attendant misrule and cruel practices. Commercial and
strategical railways were built, and gradually, but stead
ily, India developed into its present condition. -
The building of a system of railways made communi
cation easy and facilitated better acquaintance with a
land which hitherto had been shrouded with so much
that was mysterious and secret. But in spite of the ease
with which we can become acquainted with the India of

226 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
to-day, with its railways, electric lights and other attri
butes of civilisation — or perhaps on account of it — one is
more drawn to study the old India with its fakirs, its
secret religious sects and customs. Of these times and
peoples, one particular sect, that of the Thugs, has al
ways had a peculiar interest for me, from what I could
learn of them through books that are now seldom seen.
In these old records we have the account of persons who
at least remembered those who had taken such an active
part in the suppression of this most horrible sect. I
should like to share with my readers some of the infor
mation thus obtained. In India, as in all conquered
lands, a peculiar historical fact is repeated. The con
quering race stands far from the conquered. The one
and the other fail to understand or to know each other.
The conquerors come with different views, feelings and
ideals. They set about carrying out practical schemes
for developing and raising the country, and no doubt do
a very great deal towards that end; but they do little
towards penetrating into that complicated organism that
represents India with its heterogeneous population, with
its various religions, superstitions and castes. The Eng
lish did not have Gil Bias in India, such as was their
countryman Morier in Persia, the creator of the immor
tal " Hajji Baba." In this wonderful book the gifted
writer portrayed Persian life and customs with a fidelity
and understanding that places his work higher than any
thing that has ever been written on Persia.
The official world of the conqueror gets its information
from two sources — the upper sphere in its diplomatic
relations, official receptions, durbars in India and " Des-
tar-Khanas" in Central Asia; the lower sphere becomes
acquainted as administrators and judges. In the first
case the impression received is generally optimistic — in
the second pessimistic. Two extremes are arrived at,

THUGS IN INDIA 227
there is no middle, unless some talented person appears
who gives himself to the work of studying the soul of the
people. The results of this lack of understanding the
people always culminate in events which fall upon the
conquerors with the unexpectedness of a thunderclap.
It is enough to remember the Indian mutiny, and in later
years the Andijan massacre in our Central Asian prov
inces. Such also was the exposure of the Thugs. The
same parallel can be carried out in regard to the mutual
relations of a higher civilisation and race when brought
in contact with those living on a lower plane of culture.
This may be illustrated by the Armenian massacres in
Turkey and the Boxer uprising in China.
The literature open to the student of Indian life is very
limited. One of the first to fill this want was an obscure
member of the Civil Service in Bombay, Hockley, the
author of " Pandurang Hari " and " Tales of the Zenana."
Then followed Hutton, in 1857, with "Thugs and Da-
coits," and Colonel Meadows-Taylor, who wrote "A
Noble Queen," " Seeta," " Tippoo Sultan," " Tara " and
the "Confessions of a Thug" (1879). Of late years
many writers have been added to the list, among whom
none are more widely known than the talented author of
"Kim," who has revealed a deep insight into the heart
of the natives. As to Hockley and Meadows-Taylor,
their works are forgotten and are now only to be found
on the shelves of old book dealers. Of these works the
" Confessions of a Thug " gives more material than any
other similar production — except dry official accounts
— for acquaintance with this sect, that, thanks to the Eng
lish, has ceased to exist in India.
The popular impression regarding Thugs is that it is
a society or band living by robbery and murder; that
they were forbidden to shed blood and therefore stran
gled their victims, cleansing their sin by offering sacri-

228 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
fices. A Thug who spilled even one drop of blood was
despised by his kind.
Others supposed them to be simple highway robbers,
whose object was plunder, and that the particular form
of killing was adopted as the most simple and noiseless,
when falling upon a sleeping party of travellers.
To understand how this sect of stranglers came to be
so widely spread, it is necessary to glance at India as it
was in the first half of the last century.
At that period the entire country was broken up into
many small, independent principalities under despotic
rulers who waged constant warfare with each other.
Anyone committing a crime in one district could always
escape justice by crossing over into the next territory.
Regular criminal codes there were none. Crimes were
summarily punished, or, if the criminal had sufficient
means to pay well, he might evade punishment altogether.
rajahs, maharajahs, etc., although styled the "fountains
of justice," fell short of being such in fact. They
themselves often organised robbing expeditions, put to
death or torture innocent persons, or for some reason in
convenient, and, on the other hand, gave refuge to mur
derers and criminals.
In the absence of regular civilised courts there was a
system of trial by ordeal, or " God's trial." This was to
be found under many forms: the trial by weighing, by
fire, by water, poison, rice, boiling oil, etc., etc. The
trial by weighing consisted in weighing the accused, who
then performed his ablutions and prayers, and the act of
condemnation being fastened to his forehead, he was again
weighed. If the weight then proved greater than at
first, he was considered guilty and punished accordingly.
If the weight was less, the man was innocent. In case
each time the weight was the same, they kept on weigh
ing until a difference was found !

THUGS IN INDIA 229
The trial by fire was performed by having the accused
run barefooted over a bed of hot coals ; if the feet were
not burned, the accused was set free. The ordeal by
water consisted in giving water to the accused in which
an idol had been washed. If during fourteen days an
illness was not the result, he was declared innocent. The
poison trial was in two forms; the first being by the prep
aration in fat of seven small pills in one of which was
some kind of poison, generally arsenic. The accused had
to choose and swallow one, and if he did not die, he was
supposed to be innocent. The second form was in plac
ing a ring and a live cobra in a narrow-necked jug. The
accused was made to pass his hand in and get the ring; if
he did so without being bitten by the snake, he was de
clared innocent. The ordeals by hot iron and boiling
oil were on the same principle, as well as many other
such forms of trial.
The various rulers and princes lived with great pomp
and splendour, spending vast sums on the maintenance of
their palaces, harems, dancing girls and elephants. The
last named were fed at the expense of the people and were
a great burden to them. It was in vain that grocers'
shops were quickly closed at the approach of one of the
rajah's elephants. The mahout would drive the ele
phant up to the door and give the command " Tor dallo,"
"Break to splinters," and the mighty beast would soon
have the shutters down, and the owner, found hidden be
hind his bags of rice, would gladly come forward and
give what the elephant needed if only to escape further
destruction. Under such conditions of misrule and the frequent
famine years, it was natural that many of the people,
pushed to extremes, joined bands of professional robbers.
The constant state of war between the various states and
the absence of regular troops, gave occupation to an en-

23o LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tire class of different nationalities known under. the name
of "Pindarees," men who, being well armed and mounted,
sought their fortunes by means of their swords and who
entered the paid army of one or another of the rajahs.
On their tough little ponies these bands could cover al
most incredible distances in the twenty-four hours, keep
ing up their horses' strength in extreme cases by large
doses of opium. These Pindarees, in the shape of hired
cavalry, were noted for their unrivalled cruelty. They
would ruthlessly plunder, murder and torture the peace
ful citizens of the countries against which they were
fighting. In times of peace, from lack of occupation,
these Pindarees formed bands of highway robbers.
Aside from these were also bands of Gussoons, or Gus-
seins, who lived exclusively by plunder.
About 1816 the number and strength of the Pindaree
bands became so great that their raids extended to Mad
ras and Bombay. One of the most famous chiefs of these
bands was one Ameer Khan, who had under his com
mand as many as 20,000 horse and foot.
As the Pindarees were nearly always on good terms
with the native rulers, the English were obliged to fit
out an army of 120,000 men to subjugate them. Ameer
Khan disbanded his men and settled down to a respect
able life, for which he received a small principality.
During the sway of the Pindarees the agricultural
class suffered as well as the merchants and travellers.
They were obliged, while working in the fields, to keep
a watch set and to drive their cattle at night into a pro
tected place in the middle of the villages. Sometimes
they were forced to buy their safety by the payment of
yearly sums to bands of Pindarees who undertook to pro
tect them from others of the same class.
Travelling was very dangerous, as there were few
highways and the East India Company was only just be-

THUGS IN INDIA 231
ginning to build some strategic cart roads. The rest of
the country had nothing but foot-paths over which loaded
animals could pass. These roads led over steep mountain
passes, through thick jungles or along river beds with
overhanging precipitous sides; in a word, they formed
ideal hiding places for robbers and refugees from pur
suit. Travellers, therefore, joined in bands, for mutual
safety, riding on horses, mules and donkeys. These ani
mals were usually hired and the owner accompanied them
on foot. From twenty to thirty miles were made in the
twenty- four hours, the caravan for economy's sake avoid
ing camping in large towns, choosing in preference vil
lages or some spot off the road. These circumstances
were seized upon by the Thugs, who joined such caravans
as porters, won the confidence of its members and, when
opportunity offered, strangled and robbed them, after
wards dividing the spoils. The disappearance in this
way of even entire caravans was not soon known owing to
the slow means of communication and absence of posts.
The fact of the caravans avoiding towns made it difficult
to trace them, and the relatives of the missing ones sub
mitted to their loss, attributing it to the troubled times,
Pindarees, etc. The fact of the country being divided
among so many rulers, the existence of various tongues,
nationalities and castes, all facilitated the task of the
Thugs and made it possible for them to carry on their
organisation unpunished and unknown and to increase
their horrid profession. The plunder that they obtained
was very great. Owing to the absence of banks and posts
money and valuables had to be carried with one or sent
by trusty messengers, who often, in the disguise of a poor
man, joined the caravan. The assembling of such a
party seldom escaped, however, the sharp eyes of the
Thugs in spite of the disguises.
The name Thug is derived from the verb " tukhna,"

232 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
"to deceive." This was the name the natives gave to
the sect that owed its existence to deception in various
forms. The Thugs, however, called themselves " Buhot-
tees," or " stranglers."
The origin of this sect was by a perversion of the doc
trine of the trinity, " Trimurti."
This trinity proceeded from the one great Brahma,
that is one and yet three; Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
preserver and Siva the destroyer. Brahma is therefore
generally represented as having three heads, one in the
middle and one on each side, facing the right and left.
Although the doctrine of one great God as represented
by Brahma is accepted, it does not interfere with the
popular adoration of one individual member of this
triune God; this is especially observed by the humbler
caste9. Siva is by them worshipped as the most dreaded of the
three, and a God whose anger is to be appeased by con
tinual sacrifices and offerings. But these gods paved the
way for a series of goddesses, as Sarasvati, the goddess
of eloquence and of learning ; the wife of Vishnu, Laksh-
mi, the goddess of beauty and of happiness, and of Siva,
Kalee or Bhowanee, the goddess of blood, death and de
struction. It is this goddess whom the Thugs worshipped
and regarded as their protector.
The conception of Kali, as expressed in the worship
was extremely repulsive ; she was the goddess of cholera,
plague and other epidemics, and to appease her wrath
sacrifices were offered of animals in modern times, but
formerly even human sacrifices were deemed necessary.
These human sacrifices, which were pleasing to Kali,
did not conflict with the will of Brahma the Creator, as
death itself was the precursor of a new life.
The Thugs themselves give the following explanation
of their origin:

THUGS IN INDIA 233
The principles of creation and destruction worked in
harmony, though having contradictory aims. The pow
ers of creation, however, became greater than those of
destruction and the earth soon became too populous. In
order to establish an equilibrium in the growth and de
crease of the population, Kali permitted her followers
to use all means possible to this end. Departing from her
role as destroyer, she, for the first and only time, created
a being to which she gave life. Then, gathering together
her followers, she explained to them a certain manner of
causing death, illustrating her design by strangling in
their presence the being that she had created. As a re
ward for thus helping to check the undesirable increase
of the population of the world, she allowed her followers
to enjoy the property of their victims. To show her ap
proval, she gave special facility and skill to her disciples
and took upon herself the task of making the bodies of the
victims vanish. This convenient state of things existed
until some inquisitive Thugs, moved by an overpowering
desire to know what became of the bodies, decided to try
to discover where they disappeared. The all-seeing
goddess, reading their designs, in token of her displeas
ure announced that in future they would have to look
out for themelves in the hiding of all bodies. She, how
ever, continued to protect them and promised that all
murders committed in her name should remain undis
covered. Certain rites had to be performed in connec
tion with each killing, and when anything went wrong
or they were discovered, the cause was traced to some
carelessness in observing omens, or the overlooking of
some rite, thereby drawing upon themselves the anger of
their goddess, who had, in consequence, withheld her
blessing and aid.
Owing to their secret organisation and the deftness
with which their work was carried out, the Thugs were

234 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
very seldom caught in the old lawless days. When such
a thing happened, however, death was the sentence, and
the execution of a Thug was usually performed in a cer
tain manner. The man was bound to the feet of an ele
phant, who was driven through the principal streets of
the town, trampling the bound Thug under his huge feet
at every step.
The Thugs were, of necessity, very careful whom they
admitted to their sect. Fathers generally had their sons
follow the same calling, initiating them only when grown
up, and if the boy showed himself to be a promising can
didate. Otherwise the families of Thugs seldom, if
ever, shared the secret or suspected the real profession of
their fathers or husbands. It was much easier in those
days to keep the secret than it would seem at first glance.
The Thugs belonged to members of various social classes,
professions and castes and even religions, but both Mo
hammedans and Hindus joined in the common worship
of Kali. In the cool season, when people travel with
greater ease, they, too, under one pretext or another,
would go off and be absent for two or three months on
" business " or for pleasure, as seemed the easiest explana
tion, and then return as any other honest citizen would do.
In spite of the horrible profession they carried on, the
Thugs were remarkably tender in their family ties. The
British Government was aware of this and profited by it
in the campaign they eventually carried on against this
sect. When a recognised Thug escaped, they simply
kept watch on his house, sure that sooner or later the
Thug would be drawn to his home in spite of the danger
awaiting him. When under sentence of death, which
they met calmly, their one desire was to take leave of
those near and dear to them, and very touching scenes are
reported as taking place between these men of blood and
their families.

BIRDS-EYE VIEW OF KERBELA

THUGS IN INDIA 235
The ceremony of initiation into the community of
Thugs was as follows : The candidate was first carefully
instructed as to the duties and beliefs of the sect and
sworn to the most profound secrecy. After performing
certain ablutions and dressing in clean garments he was
led to a secret place where a party of Thugs, with a reli
gious leader, or Guroo, awaited him. On a white cloth
was laid a spade, the symbol of the Thugs. Here the
candidate was questioned as to his voluntary entrance into
their band, and on receiving an affirmative reply, all rose,
and the Guroo, lifting his hands, made the following
prayer: "Oh, Bhowanee, mother of the world! We,
thy faithful followers, pray thee to receive this thy serv
ant and give to him a sign of thy blessing and to us a sign
to confirm it." Then followed certain rites in which
they hoped to find an omen to prove to them that the ini
tiation had met with the approval of their goddess.
These omens were of the greatest importance in the life
of the Thugs. They were mostly sought in the signs of
the jungle about them, and throughout the right side was
considered lucky and the left unlucky, as, for instance,
the cry of one and the same bird or beast, or first glimpse
of the moon, could be interpreted as being propitious or
otherwise to the undertaking according as heard or seen
on the right or left side. After the approving omen had
been obtained, the sacred spade was brought to the candi
date, who, taking it in his hand, raised it towards the sky
and pronounced his solemn oath. The oath included ab
solute secrecy and devotion to the band, and the promise
to seek the life of every lawful being to bring as a sacri
fice to his deity. A bit of sugar called gur was then
given to him and he was pronounced to be a Thug. He
was then handed over to one of the most skilful stran
gles for lessons in the art of strangling, and before his
first killing a special ceremony was again performed, dur-

236 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
ing which he first underwent a five days' fast, then, after
an approving omen had been obtained, he was given the
fateful handkerchief and spade, and after his first suc
cessful case he was called a Buhottee or strangler.
Naturally secrecy was the fundamental condition of
membership. The betrayal of the oath was followed
not only by the death of the unfaithful Thug, but all
those to whom information had been imparted were, if
possible, also strangled.
But the Thugs had not permission to kill all classes of
people. The exceptions were washermen (the laundry
work in India is done exclusively by men), sweepers, car
penters, fakirs, sellers of vegetables, dancers, lepers and
finally Sikhs. The latter are the fighting clan of India
par excellence, and as such were considered as in a way
pursuing the same aims as those of the Thugs. They are
the dominating people in the Punjab and most faithful to
the British Government. There are at present a number
of battalions formed entirely of Sikhs, and other mixed
battalions in the composition of which they form a large
majority. Women were never killed if it was possible to avoid it,
the deity of the sect being herself a woman. The excep
tions were when women were witnesses to the killing of
the men of their party, or if a wife or sister of a Thug
had suspicions as to his profession.
With what coldbloodedness these murders were per
formed was strongly brought out by the testimony of the
Thugs who were brought for trial by the English. I
shall quote the account as given by one of these prisoners.
"On our way to Dorego we met three Brahmins together
with a fakir who was mounted on a miserable horse.
The latter was all smeared with sugar to attract the flies,
that were swarming all over him. We drove off the fakir
and killed the Brahmins. Coming out of Dorego we

THUGS IN INDIA 237
again met the fakir, who joined our party. On the way
we met seven travellers who were going from Bombay
to Nagpur. We drove the fakir off with stones and
killed the seven. The next morning we again met the
fakir and again let him go. Later we met two Kachins
and a Sepoy, and on inveigling them to the place where
we had intended killing them, we again found our fakir!
Losing our patience at last, we paid one of our number
five rupees to kill him, taking the sin upon ourselves.
We strangled the three and with them the fakir, upon
whom we found 30 pounds of coral and 350 strings of
small and 15 of large pearls, also a gold necklace."
After each successful enterprise a service of thanks
giving to Bhowanee was held. All sat on the ground
with their faces towards the west. The presiding Guroo
dug a small hole and near it spread a handkerchief, on
which were placed the sacred spade, sugar and a silver
coin. The Guroo then pronounced the following prayer:
"Almighty Ruler, thou who dost protect thy followers
and givest them one lak and 60,000 rupees, we pray thee
to continue thy protection and to fulfil our desires."
The spade was then sprinkled with water and the hole
also filled with the same fluid. In deep silence all pres
ent then ate the sugar and drunk the water from the hole.
The duties of the various members of the band were
strictly defined. The captain bore the title djemadar —
colonel. Then came the Suttaes, or decoyers. Those
were chosen from among the most eloquent and plausible
of the band, and their duty was to go about seeking for
desirable victims and then to decoy them into the com
pany of the Thugs, generally under the pretext of travel
ling together for greater safety. Great skill and tact was
needed to persuade them, without exciting suspicion, into
joining the company. Another division was that of grave-
diggers, who prepared the common grave in which all

238 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the victims were buried; and the third were the stran
gles. This operation was performed in the way first
taught the Thugs by Bhowanee or Kali herself. A
large strong handkerchief was taken and into one corner
of it a coin, generally a rupee, was tied. The corner with
the money was taken in the left hand and the right hand
grasped the handkerchief at a distance from the left hand
corresponding to the approximate size of the neck. The
handkerchief was thrown from behind and drawn to
gether in such a way that the rupee came at the back of
the neck just over the spinal cord. One twist of the skil
ful hands and death was instantaneous, the victim never
having time to utter a cry.
The order of proceedings was generally as follows:
The decoyers having done their work, and the victims
being already in the caravan of the Thugs, the grave-dig
gers went ahead to find a suitable spot for safely conceal
ing the bodies. When the chosen place was reached, at
a given signal from the djemadar, each Buhottee, who
had already contrived to be near the victim allotted to
him, threw his handkerchief and the terrible deed was
done. The grave-diggers then quickly took up the bodies
and carried them to the already prepared grave. These
were generally in the depths of a jungle or in an impassa
ble ravine, or sometimes in the spot where the camp was
to be, the tents were pitched over the newly-smoothed
graves and the Thugs calmly slept over the victims who
had been their confiding fellow travellers. A deep gash
was made in the abdomen of each body to prevent the
swelling that might disturb the form of the grave, and
strong stakes were driven through them, pinning them to
the earth. This was done so that in case, after all
other precautions, wild beasts should open the graves,
they would not be able to drag the bodies out into view.
The grave was then carefully filled and made to look as

THUGS IN INDIA 239
natural as possible and all tracks leading to it concealed.
Or if such a place was not to be found, the camp was
made to stand over the graves, and the traces of a camp
were all that were left to mark the spot. If, during the
work, anyone happened to pass by, his fate was the same,
no mercy being then shown to the unhappy witness of
the deed, be it woman, child or member of the castes
whose death was prohibited.
In later years, when the English were actively pursu
ing Thugs, graves were discovered in which forty or
more bodies were found, forming a sight so terrible that
the strongest nerves were shaken.
It would take pages to tell of all the ingenious devices
and disguises adopted by the Thugs in carrying out their
designs. They passed themselves off sometimes as mer
chants, or as travellers returning to their home ; as soldiers
in the employ of one or another rajah. Sometimes they
killed according to well-laid plans, making their victims
rise at an earlier hour than usual in order to reach the
spot chosen at a convenient time. To do this they prof
ited by the customs of the people with whom they trav
elled. In the absence of watches, caravans often made
their move in the morning when the birds first began to
twitter. The Thugs, therefore, would either imitate
these sounds, or, creeping up a tree, would shake the
branches and excite the birds to chirp and twitter before
the hour, thus making these innocent birds, who are cre
ated to charm and please, the unconscious messengers of
death to the sleeping travellers. At other times they
took advantage of the confusion caused by climbing a
steep narrow ravine, or in fording a stream : or again un
expectedly, if a favourable moment presented itself, the
dejemadar would give his sinister signal.
The Thugs had a secret jargon of their own by which
they could recognise members of their own sect, give in-

240 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
structions or warnings, while seemingly carrying on an
ordinary conversation.
For many long years the Thugs carried on their in
fernal trade, unpunished with very few exceptions, and
undiscovered. In 1810, however, the attention of the English was
called to the mysterious disappearance of a number of
native soldiers. The investigations made, though with
out leading to any practical results, awakened a strong
suspicion that the men had fallen into the hands of
Thugs. Secret instructions were given throughout the army
and police force for vigilance in this direction. In 1812
the disappearance of an officer brought about a more
active campaign, which resulted in the discovery of the
workings of several bands of Thugs. It was found that
this sect had for many years paid a tribute to the rulers
of Sind to obtain their protection, or, at least, non-inter
ference. It was also discovered that the men of whole
villages were in some instances of this cult. Expeditions
were formed, and the Thugs became scattered all over
India. After this disbanding, the British .Government
took no further steps between 18 16 and 1830. In the
latter year, however, organised bands were again found
to be working in the districts of Malwee and Bundelkund,
and then the English decided to crush them once for all.
A special department in the administration was
formed to study the secret organisations of the Thugs.
At the head of this department was an energetic English
officer with seven aides. His report was published in
Calcutta in 1840, showing that he had succeeded in ar
resting one of the chief leaders of the Thugs, a Hindu,
Ferengi by name, who betrayed all his companions and
even showed the graves of their victims. Two hundred
and seventy-four burying places were found, in one enor-

THUGS IN INDIA 241
mous grave 100 bodies being counted. These 274 bury
ing places were along a roadside for a distance of 1,400
miles, and were to be found on an average five miles from
each other.
After such information many Thugs were caught and
all were sentenced to be hanged. Commutation of the
death sentence to that of imprisonment for life was made
in cases where a Thug gave evidence that would lead
to the arrest of other bands.
Little by little, before the horrified eyes of the Eng
lish, the terrible picture was unfolded, betraying in all
its details the naked facts connected with the crimes that
had been committed unknown in their very midst. As
the trials went on, fresh arrests were constantly made and
new graves opened to prove the truth of the testimony
given. From all parts of India word came of existing
bands, and in the end it was found that there was not a
province in the land that had escaped this scourge.
Among those bands were found people of every profes
sion and social condition. The governor general of
India, Lord William Bentinck, and his council then
took the matter up. Native rulers were made to deliver
over all Thugs known to them and to undertake to cease
protecting them in future. Along all the principal high
ways guards were placed at intervals as deemed neces
sary. Owing to these measures, we find in the report of
Colonel Meadows-Taylor that between the year 183 1 and
1837, inclusively, 3,266 Thugs were arrested, and almost
all met the fate they so well deserved. Aside from the
above number there were 1,800 Thugs known by name.
but whom the government was unable to catch.
What colossal figures represent the numbers who per
ished at the hands of these bands is shown by the confes
sions of one of the Thugs, a Mohammedan, Fetti Khan,
who in twenty years himself strangled 508 persons. An-

242 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
other Thug during his forty years' career as a Thug
killed 931. In one " season" a band of six Thugs stran
gled 210 victims!
It further came to light that the Thugs operated all
along the Ganges, where they acted as boatmen for ferry
ing pilgrims across to sacred spots.
In conclusion the question presents itself as to which
of the theories mentioned at the beginning of the chapter
as to the origin of the Thugs is the most correct. Were
they a religious sect, strictly working according to a reli
gious belief; or were they a band of highwaymen carry
ing on their nefarious trade under the banner of a reli
gious sect? My own opinion is that the sect was origi
nally started on a strictly religious basis, but that gradu
ally the immense material gain drew followers who were
attracted by the loot to be gained, and that finally the ma
jority of Thugs were little influenced by religious impulse.
As a proof of this theory is the fact that among the
Thugs in later years many Moslems were to be found to
whom taking of life is strictly forbidden. Another view
brought out was that it was a kind of sport. One of the
Thugs under examination cynically remarked, "You
English are devoted to a sport, you risk your lives in
hunting tigers, panthers and buffaloes, and yet our pro
fession is higher than yours; we hunt a nobler game,
man!" The measures taken by the English in improving
means of communication, ensuring order and safety, and
the changes wrought in the elevation of the morals and
views of the people, all helped to bring about the desired
result. In the sixties the Thugs were suppressed, and
now the tales of their dark deeds remain only as things of
the past.
Unfortunately our stay in India was short and came
to an end just as we felt we were beginning to appreciate

THUGS IN INDIA 243
the nameless charm of that unrivalled land. " Shall we
ever revisit this interesting country?" was the thought
that came to us as we went on board the steamer bound
for Egypt, that would stop at only two places of interest
to the Moslem world, Jiddah, the port for the pilgrim to
Mecca, and Yambu, for those bound to Medina.
We found ourselves again in the Indian Ocean, and the
familiar ship life began, with its usual recreations, dis
cussions as to the state of the barometer and the day's
run, and the interest aroused by every ship met. And as
the long, uneventful days went by we welcomed the excite
ment of passing Perim, a small island of some fourteen
square miles, in the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, which,
though small, possess considerable strategic interest.
Coming abreast of the island the steamer dipped her flag,
as all English ships do, and among the passengers was to
be heard the singing of some couplets commemorating an
English political officer who for years sent his reports
and was supposed to live on this dreary spot while in fact
enjoying the delights of England, from which place his
reports were sent to be remailed from Perim.
At least so the ditty, that in duty bound was at that
time always chanted on the decks of passing steamers,
affirmed. Here, too, we heard the details of the occupa
tion of the island by the British. As far back as 1799
the British had kept an eye on the strategical advantages
of this little bit of land, but they did not formally possess
themselves of it then.
More than half a century passed when the French
Government, looking about for a coaling station, had its
attention drawn to this convenient island. With secret
orders a man-of-war was sent in 1857 t0 occupy Perim
and raise the French flag. But the English were not
easily taken in. When the French ships entered Aden
the English governor gave a dinner in honour of the

244 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
French officers. Owing to the indiscretion of a young
French ensign in talking with an English lady, the secret
leaked out, with the result that when, on the next day,
the French arrived at Perim, they found to their chagrin
ithe English jack already flying there.
We anchored off Aden, the southern key to the Red Sea,
lying 1,650 miles from Bombay and 1,300 from Suez.
The city is on an oval-shaped peninsula that is connected
with the main land by a narrow neck. The city lies just
opposite to the fortified island of Sirah and is, together
with the island of Perim, under the government of
Bombay. Aden was known to the ancients, but its im
portance varied with the successive periods. As the port
for the commerce of all the Arabian peninsula the Ro
mans occupying Egypt regarded it as a rival to their mo
nopoly of the Indian trade, and therefore demolished it.
But, owing to its geographical position, Aden again rose
in the eleventh century, and in the sixteenth century we
find it the chief connecting link between Eastern and
Western trade. In 15 13 Albuquerque made an ineffect
ual attempt to take Aden, but in 1537 it fell into the
hands of Sultan Solyman II.
With the opening of the Cape route as a channel for
commercial communication the importance of Aden rap
idly fell, and in the nineteenth century it could not claim
more than 800 inhabitants. Chance led to the English
occupying this important point. In 1863 the crew of a
ship wrecked near Aden were robbed by the Coast Arabs.
The English demanded compensation, but as their nego
tiations led to no result, they occupied Aden by force on
the 19th January, 1869. From this time Aden became
not only a point of strategical value, but, with the open
ing of the Suez Canal, its old commercial importance re
vived, and the addition of Perim gave the English the
key to the Red Sea.

THUGS IN INDIA 2tf
At the present time the population of Aden is about
40,000, made up of many nationalities. Its imports
amount to as much as three million pounds sterling
yearly, and its exports, coffee, gum, ivory, pearls and
ostrich feathers, to two and a half million pounds.
Although it was October, the heat was considerable.
The city, notwithstanding the many improvements intro
duced by the English, is dreary and unattractive. We,
however, wasted little time there, for as soon as we had
taken in the coal we needed, and swallowed at the same
time the usual amount of dust, we proceeded on our way
to Jiddah.

CHAPTER XIV
MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE
Pilgrimages and their Significance — The Supremacy of Mecca as a Sa
cred Spot — Christian Travellers who Have Visited Mecca — Ancient
Cult of the Kaaba — Cause of Accepting Such a Cult — Mohammed's
View of Pilgrimages to Mecca — Foundation of Mecca and the Kaaba
— Stone of Abraham — Divine Origin of the " Black Stone " — Spring
of " Zem Zem " — Golden Water Trough — Sacred Places Situated
near the Kaaba — Conditions under which Pilgrimages May be Made
— Pilgrimages of Women and by Proxy — Appearance of Hadj —
" Ihram " — Day of Doubt, Day of Knowledge, Day of Sacrifice —
Rites Connected with these Days — Mena, Arafat — Stoning the Devil
— Fete of Kurban Bairam — Day of Drying Meat in the Sun — Why
Mohammedans are Advised to Leave Mecca upon the Completion of
their Obligatory Rites — Population of Mecca — Causes of Mortality
among Pilgrims — Sanitary Condition of Mecca during the Hadj of
1907 — Prevalent Diseases and their Causes — Unfavourable Condi
tions for Carrying Bodies by Sea — Quarantines.
A PILGRIMAGE to Mecca is the highest aspiration of every
Mohammedan, and it is therefore necessary to dwell with
some detail on this phase of Moslem life. To under
stand the principles underlying the idea of pilgrimage
we must glance at the origin of Mecca, the reason for
worshipping the Kaaba and the black stone, as well as
define the connection between the ancient idolaters and
Mohammedans. One must also understand why Mecca
obtained the predominant position as a sacred city, re
ceiving the palm of pre-eminence even above Medina,
although the Prophet had lived in the latter place and it
became the first seat of the caliphs.
The epithets used by Mohammedans in describing
246

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 247
Mecca show the importance this place has in their eyes.
There is a list of these epithets, forming quite a book.
The titles most used are " Mukadass," " sacred," " Mu-
kerremeh," "holy," " Belad-ul-Emin," "metropolis."
The sacredness of the city is so great that the Mohamme
dans claim that no bird except the dove, which is held to
be sacred, dares to alight on the roof of the chief mosque.
Not only Mecca itself but the land about for three days'
march is held to be sacred, and no unbeliever to the pres
ent time is allowed, under pain of death, to defile with
his presence this holy ground. The restriction is of very
early date, originating with the Caliph Omar, who drove
out of Mecca and Medina all Christians, Jews and idola
ters. For this reason there can be no consuls at any of
these places, and it was only in the seventies of the past
century that consuls were sent to Jiddah, the port of
Mecca, and even then an attempt was made by fanatics
to massacre these European representatives. The Chris
tians, who in one disguise or another have visited Mecca,
are very few. The first on record was Ludovico de Var-
thema, in 1503, then Joseph Pitts, who, becoming a slave,
went there with his master, in 1680. In the nineteenth
century the number of Christians who succeeded in reach
ing the sacred city includes Fenatti, a deserter, who, in
1805, passed in under the name of Mohammed. Two years
later Badia, a Spaniard, obtained entrance; in 1809,
Seetzen; in 1811, Burckhardt; Rosh in 1812; and Burton,
who, in 1853, made his most interesting pilgrimage.
The reason for giving Mecca the predominance over
Medina is to be found in the fact that while Mohammed
preached a new religion, he was obliged to have regard
for the beliefs and political conditions of the time.
Among these was the cult of the Kaaba, supposed to be
of divine origin, the black stone and the spring of " Zem
Zem," as well as other holy places of ancient days.

248 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
In Mohammed's time the Arabian peninsula presented
something like a federation of republics. Each tribe
was almost independent in its internal government, unit
ing only in matters of common interest, such as the dec
laration of war, etc. But even at this time Mecca had a
predominant position, owing to the possession of the
Kaaba, the black stone, and the well of Zem Zem, which
was revered by all. The government of Mecca was in
the hands of a kind of Council of Six and later of Ten
members of the Koreish tribe. The members of this
council were called Shereefs, nobles, princes, and at the
death of a member his place was occupied by the next
in age in the tribe.
Mohammed's eloquent teachings soon drew to him fol
lowers, and depending upon these the Prophet undertook
to spread his religion by the sword. After his flight
from Mecca Mohammed settled in Medina, and only
after eight years, when he had a sufficiently strong force,
did he march with 10,000 followers in the eighth year of
the hegira upon Mecca, the key of Arabia.
Being divided by internal differences Mecca was un
able to make a stand, and Mohammed occupied the city
with little difficulty, entering it more as a protector and
well-wisher than as a conqueror. Having received the
key and the sacred Kaaba on January 22d, 630 of our
era, he mounted his camel and rode seven times around
the Kaaba and the black stone, before which, with his
" mekdjin," or sceptre, in his hand, he bowed in worship.
Then, entering the Kaaba, he threw down all the idols
contained therein, including one dedicated to Abraham,
and to which was ascribed a divine origin. That day the
Kaaba was dedicated to the One God, and as a memorial,
but only as such, to the patriarchs Adam, Noah, Abra
ham, Isaac and others.
The following year we find Mohammed ordaining pil-

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 249
grimages as obligatory to his followers. He ordered all
the inhabitants of Medina to perform a Hadj, and sent
Abu-Bekr, with the title of " Emir-el-Hadj," at the head
of an immense caravan. This title was given later on by
the sultans of Turkey to the leader of the so-called " sa
cred caravan " carrying each year the gifts of the sultan
to Mecca.
Finally, again in 632 Mohammed, himself at the head
of 114,000 pilgrims, set out for Mecca, taking with him
his wives and relatives. Here he fulfilled all the ancient
ceremonies and then added others, to which he gave his
explanations. At this time he settled the period for the
great Hadj, or Hajj, so as to coincide with the fete of
Kurban Bairam, the 10th Zelhadjie. Soon after his return
from the pilgrimage the Great Prophet died in Medina.
And so we see that while founding a new religion Mo
hammed took into consideration the traditions and reli
gions of those about him, heathen, Christian and Jewish,
and gave them his own interpretation. More than this,
he made it obligatory for his followers to make pilgrim
ages to places long considered sacred by idolaters, com
manding all true believers who have the means to do so
to visit Mecca. In the 22d Sura it says, " And proclaim
unto the people a solemn pilgrimage, let them come unto
thee on foot, and on every lean camel arriving from every
distant road; that they may be witnesses of the advan
tages which accrue to them from the visiting this holy
place." Every true Moslem makes it his aim to make
at least once in his life the pilgrimage to Mecca, and in
passing, but only in passing, to worship also in Medina.
Those who cannot go themselves and have the means,
hire someone to perform the Hadj for them. As the
distances travelled by Moslems in performing their pil
grimages are very great, coming as they do from India,
China and Kazan, and the expense being correspondingly

250 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
heavy, one might infer that only the rich would be able
to accomplish it. As a matter of fact, however, even the
poor are found among the pilgrims spending the last cent
that they have for years hoarded up for this purpose.
Others get the means for making the pilgrimage in dis
honest ways, hoping the sin will be forgiven in view of
the motive. I have personally known of several cases
when pilgrimages were performed in this way on money
stolen for the purpose, and two cases when the murder of
unbelievers furnished the means. Killing an unbeliever
is not considered to be as heavy a crime as the murder of
a Mohammedan, as we shall see in the chapter on the
price of blood.
The above brief survey of the history of pilgrimages
explains the great flood of Mohammedans that annually
pours into Mecca from every part of the Moslem world.
According to tradition the number of pilgrims gathered
in Mecca for the Kurban Bairam cannot be less than 70,-
000 each year, as that is the number ordained by Heaven.
In fact, however, there are years when the number
mounts to 300,000, especially in the years when the Bai
ram falls on a Friday, when according to Mohammedan
belief based on the Koran, this one Hadj equals seventy
ordinary pilgrimages.
In earlier days, before the cutting of the Suez Canal,
the pilgrim routes were five: first, through the Sinai
peninsula ; secondly, by way of Damascus, the route now
followed by the " sacred caravan " ; thirdly, by way of
the Yemen; fourthly, through Muscat; and fifthly,
through Mesopotamia. Since the opening of the Suez
route the Mohammedans prefer the sea voyage, and only
those who wish to include Kerbela and Nedjef in their
pilgrimage follow the old route through Nejd. Pil
grims from India go in English steamers, and the same
means are often chosen by those coming from the south

COURT OF MOSQUE OF SHEIKH ABDUL KADIR

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 251
of Persia and from the eastern part of our Central Asiatic
Provinces. A very large number of pilgrims from Rus
sia, Tartars, Sarts, Kirghiz, Bukhariots, Turkomans,
Ocetines and some Persians go by way of the Black Sea.
Of these, two-thirds return from Jiddah, the port of
Mecca, and one-third from Yambu, the port of Medina,
according to which of the sacred cities they visited last.
The Mohammedan traditions give the following ex
planation of the origin of the Kaaba and of Mecca :
Abraham, fearing the persecutions of Nimrod, fled, to
gether with his wife, Sarah, who was also his half-sister,
to Egypt. The reigning Pharaoh, on seeing Sarah, who
was exceedingly fair, became enamoured of her, but the
instant he touched her his hand became withered and an
invisible power threw him to the ground. Taking pity
on the king's entreaties, Sarah prayed God for his for
giveness, and her prayers being answered, Pharaoh's
hand became as before. As a thank-offering for her in
tercession, he presented Sarah with a very beautiful slave,
Hagar. Sarah, having no children, gave this slave to
her husband, praying at the same time that they might
have children. This prayer was heard, and Hagar bore
a son whom they named Ishmael. Soon after, jealousy
arose between Hagar and Sarah, to whom in the mean
time a son had also been born, and Abraham, losing pa
tience, took Hagar and her son into the desert of Arabia
and left them on the very spot where the city of Mecca
was afterwards built. Their water giving out, Hagar
and Ishmael wandered a long time in the desert search
ing in vain for a well. When nearly exhausted, the
angel Gabriel appeared and alighted on the spot where
is to-day the well of Zem Zem. He waved his wings and
a spring of water immediately appeared, which is to-day
one of the chief objects of veneration in Mecca. Drawn
by the water, birds began to flock about the well, and the

252 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
inhabitants of Yemen, noticing it, came to seek the cause.
Finding that there was water, they, with the consent of
Hagar, settled there. Eventually Ishmael married the
daughter of Megas-ibn-Amr, who was the chief of that
tribe and the founder of Mecca.
In later years Abraham came to see his son. Here he
was welcomed by his former wife and settled down with
them there, and built in Mecca the Kaaba as a temple for
the worship of the One God. Working on the Kaaba,
Abraham employed, instead of a ladder, a stone called
the " happy stone." This stone is pointed out to-day on
the spot called " Makaami Ibrahim," and is visited by
all pilgrims. The Kaaba, as built by Abraham, was,
however, according to Mohammedan tradition, the
fourth. The first Kaaba was created by God before the
creation of the world, the second was built by Adam, the
third by Seth. Then after Abraham the Kaaba was re
built by Amalek, the descendant of Shem; the sixth time
it was built in the beginning of the Christian era by the
tribe of Beni Djugash; the seventh time by Kucalmbin-
Kullab, the great-great-grandfather of Mohammed, but
this Kaaba was destroyed by fire and in its place an eighth
temple was erected when the Prophet was twenty-four
years old. This Kaaba was also injured by fire, and,
therefore, in the 64th year of the hegira a ninth building
was raised by Hadjad-bin-Yousif. In the year 1005 of
the hegira a part of the building was destroyed by flood,
and again work was begun which continued ten years,
completing the Kaaba as we now see it, leaving, how
ever, a part of the old building of 64 H. This, at
least, is the most popular account of the origin of the
Kaaba. With regard to the " black stone " the same Moham
medan sources give the following details :
One day when Abraham was walking through the

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 253
Wady Nauman, the site of the present Mecca, the angel
Gabriel touched him on the shoulder and stopped him.
At the touch a legion of formless beings sprang from the
body of the patriarch ; these were his future descendants,
the whole of posterity. The spirits divided themselves
into two groups, on the right and left sides of Abraham.
The first group formed those who were to be Mohamme
dans, the second those of various other religions. Then
God appeared in a cloud and asked the spirits if they ac
cepted him as the one God, to which, as one voice, came
the answer, " Labbayka Allahouma," " I am here, ready
to serve Thee, my God." This exclamation forms the
subject for the prayer called " Telbiet," one of the most
important of those repeated by the pilgrims. Basing
their belief on this tradition, the Mohammedans claim
that every human being is born a Moslem, and after
wards may or may not become the follower of some
other faith.
After this God gave his commandments in a secret
writing inscribed upon a black stone, that Adam had
taken with him when driven out of Eden. This stone
was taken by the Almighty to the mountain of Djabel-
abi-Kubeiess, and later on given, through his angel Ga
briel, to Abraham while the latter was building the
Kaaba, commanding him to place it in the southwest cor
ner of the Kaaba, to indicate the spot from which pil
grims were to begin their ceremonies.
This is the explanation given for the deep veneration
with which this stone is regarded by all true believers..
Their consternation and woe may therefore be under
stood when in the tenth century, during a civil war, this
sacred stone was carried off by the tribe of Karamat, who
were at war with the Mohammedan tribes. It was only
after a lapse of twenty-two years that the stone was re
turned to its place.

254 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
In 1023 A.D. the Mohammedan world was again
thrown into excitement, this time by a case of unheard-of
blasphemy. As a religious procession passed around the Kaaba to
kiss this stone a fanatic sprang out from the crowd and
struck the sacred relic three times with an iron weapon
that he carried, crying, " How long will this black stone,
Mohammed, and Ali, be the objects of our worship?
Let us pull down the temple and under its ruins bury
Mohammedanism!" The infuriated multitude fell
upon the blasphemer and literally tore him to pieces and
burned his remains. A stringent search was made, but
in spite of tortures and executions, the identity of the un
known person was never discovered. The heavy blows
had cracked the stone and the injury is now repaired by
a band of silver.
To the sacred places in Mecca must be added the well
of Zem Zem, above mentioned.
Finally, a fourth object of worship must be noted,
namely, the Myzab, or water spout, said to be of pure
gold, made to carry off the rain from the flat roof of the
Kaaba. This water is considered as holy, and during the
rains the inhabitants of the town rush to wash in it and to
collect a supply. When the pilgrimages take place in
the rainy season, this spout is the cause of many fatal
accidents, as the pilgrims, numbering sometimes over
200,000, in their frantic attempts to get a few drops of
this sacred water, crowd and throw each other down, so
that the successful ones often get to their object over the
bodies of their fellow pilgrims.
The Kaaba is situated almost in the centre of a large
court or square that is 250 by 210 paces in size. The court
is surrounded by a gallery of four rows of columns, of
which every four columns are capped by a dome ; in this
way the gallery is formed by four rows of columns con
nected and covered by domes to the number of 150. This

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 255
gallery, built by Selim II., forms a mosque known as the
Mosque of the Shereefs. Raised paved paths lead from
this gallery to the Kaaba. The Kaaba itself is a massive
building 18 paces long by 14 wide, and rises to a height
of 40 feet. As the roof is flat the edifice presents the
form of a cube. The only door, which is studded with
silver, is on the north side, and is about seven feet from
the ground, so that a ladder has to be placed to enter it
when the door is opened, which is done but two or three
times each year. The entrance is lighted at night by wax
candles, and censers of sweet-smelling incense are placed
there. Over the entire building is thrown a black silk
covering, the gift of the sultan, the honour of sending
which was long the object of contention between the rul
ers of the East. At the northeast corner of the Kaaba
is the black stone, an irregular oval, about seven inches
in diameter. It appears to be composed of small stones
of various sizes set in cement and kept together by a sil
ver band. The surface of the stone is smoothly polished
by the kisses of the millions of pilgrims, and is of a dark
brown, almost black colour. The Mohammedans say it
was originally white, but became black from the kisses of
sinful pilgrims.
Near the Kaaba is a small hollow, lined with marble,
where Abraham and his son Ishmael mixed the cement
for the building of the Kaaba, and here also it is consid
ered meritorious to pray. Among other special places of
veneration are the tombs of Ishmael and his mother,
Hagar. The idea of covering the Kaaba, which dates from pre-
Moslem times, possibly arose from the metaphors often
used in ancient times in describing it as " the bride," as
is found in Arab poetry. The same comparison is traced
in the fact of eunuchs being chosen as its guardians. The
covering is called the " Kesvieh-Shereef," sacred cover
ing. In the early years of the Mohammedan era this

256 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
covering was changed once a year and later on twice—'
on the ioth of Muharram and the 8th of Zelhadjie— a
day before the eve of Kurban Bairam. Under the Abbas-
sides the covering was changed three times a year.
For a long time the privilege of furnishing the cover
ing was contested between the rulers of the Yemen and
Egypt, until in 1283 A.D. the then sultan of Egypt,
Melek Kalavun, obtained the right. The desire to have
this privilege was so great that the Eastern potentates
were ready to obtain it by arms if necessary. The son of
Timur, Shahruk, for instance, on receiving a refusal
from the sultan of Egypt, to whom he appealed for per
mission to send a covering, sent an officer to Mecca who
bribed the Shereef to allow him to cover the Kaaba in
the name of his master. This led to an open rupture,
and the Egyptians prepared for war, sending a special
envoy to Murad II. asking for his aid. The death of the
Egyptian ruler and the consequent internal troubles, how
ever, prevented ^ war, and Shahruk carried out his de
termination and the Kaaba was covered with his gift.
This rivalry was stopped, finally, by Selim I., who, after
conquering Egypt, assumed the privilege of sending the
covering for the Kaaba as his exclusive right, and this
has continued down to our time, when the starting of the
sacred caravan from Scutari has long been one of the in
teresting sights of Constantinople.
The covering is still made in Egypt, by the family of
Beit-u-Sazdu. It is made of a stuff woven for the pur
pose with a border of verses from the Koran and the
name of the reigning sultan written in very distinct char
acters, known as the "Tumar." On the arrival of the
new covering, the old one is removed and cut into bits
and sold at a great price to pilgrims. The larger pieces
are purchased by mosques, to be used in the covering of
the tomb of some celebrated person who may be buried

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 257
within its walls. The smaller pieces are bought by indi
viduals and cherished as most sacred heirlooms. When
the Kurban Bairam falls on a Friday, as it does every
seventh year, the year of the "great" Hadj, or " Hadj-el-
Akbar," the old covering of the Kaaba is sent to the
sultan. Near the Kaaba are four pavilions for the four chief
Sunnite sects, the Shafey, Hanefy, Hanbaly and Maleky,
where the respective religious leaders or imams teach the
pilgrims the rites and ceremonies which must accompany
their devotions. There is also a pavilion over the well
Zem Zem in the form of an arch called " Babu-s-Salam."
There are many smaller " stations," at each of which the
pilgrims halt and repeat special prayers.
The expression pilgrimage, or " Hadj," as given in the
Arabic, includes in its origin the conception of the de
sire or intention of performing an act the performance
of which gives the right of entrance into Paradise. The
very expression indicates that man is a passing traveller
here and that his aim should be for something that would
lead him on to something better, and the chief means of
obtaining this is by visiting God's house in Mecca.
Much has been written by Mohammedan theologians
as to the aims and obligations of pilgrimages, and while
there are many conflicting opinions as to details, there
are four principles upon which all agree:
1. Islam, being a Moslem.
2. Adolescence. If a pilgrimage be made by a minor,
the act does not count and the pilgrimage must be re
peated on reaching manhood.
3. A state of freedom. If, therefore, a slave, when
accompanying his master, performs a pilgrimage and
afterwards obtains freedom, the Hadj performed while
in bondage is null and void.
4. Mental sanity.

258 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
To these four principles, acknowledged by all, some
schools add the following four :
i. Possession of sufficient means to perform the jour
ney after having paid all debts and left enough to sup
port the family. This condition is very rarely observed..
Many go into debt to obtain the money, or, as mentioned,
resort to still more objectionable means ; others make the
entire Hadj on charity.
2. The possession of a beast of burden if the pilgrim
lives at a greater distance than two days' march from
Mecca. 3.^ Safety of the route. This condition is never ob
served, owing to the popular belief that the greater the
dangers and hardships encountered, the greater will be
the merit.
4. Possession of sufficient physical strength to walk
two marches in case a riding beast is not owned.
Many other details, have been the subject of hot discus
sions among theologians, as, for instance, if a Hadj is
obligatory for the blind or maimed. Such controversies,
as might be expected, end in an evasive decision.
As. to women, they may perform a pilgrimage only
when they are accompanied by husband or near relation,
and this person is called " mahrem." He must be a per
son of reliable character and mature age. The journey
expenses of such " mahrem " are borne by the lady.
Some theologians consider the consent of the husband as
indispensable; others hold that a woman may undertake
it even in opposition to his wishes.
All commentators agree in considering pilgrimages
performed by proxy as acceptable to God as regards the
one who sends his representative, but it is not regarded as
a Hadj for the person actually performing it. Pilgrim
ages by proxy are, however, only admissible to those un
able to perform, personally, the journey, such as to one

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 259
who is an invalid. One undertaking a pilgrimage for
another is known as " Mahmyr-be-l'-Hadj." Such a
pilgrimage may be performed only at the expense of the
one represented. A pilgrimage in the name of the dead
is also admitted. If, on dying, special sums are not
named for this object, it is possible for a son or friend to
make the pilgrimage for the dead at his own expense.
Pilgrimages by proxy are very common, and under
various pretexts are often resorted to by those having the
means to hire another to go in his stead.
Every aid given to pilgrims is set down as a merit to
the giver. For this reason the sultan gives steamers for
the transport of pilgrims. In such ways do Oriental
padishahs endeavour to make up for the failure on their
part in complying with one of the most positive com
mands of the Prophet.
The Moslem religion distinguishes pilgrimages as
being of three categories:
1. Umra, the lesser pilgrimage undertaken at any time
of the year.
2. Hadj, that can be performed only at stated months
and days of the Mohammedan calendar.
3. " Hadj-el-Akbar," the Great Hadj, when the day
of Arafat falls on a Friday. For our purposes it will be
sufficient to become acquainted with but one of: these
three forms.
The Hadj must take place in the month of Zelhadjie,
the ceremony continuing for three days, the 8th, 9th and
10th, on which latter day is the " Eidu-P-Kurban," the
feast of sacrifices. Then follow three days, the nth, 12th
and 13th, known as the " Ayyum-el-Tashrik," or "the
days of drying flesh in the sun," when the pilgrims dry
mutton to serve as food on their return journey.
The details connected with the pilgrimages and rites
to be performed at each station are very complicated and

260 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
exacting, the failure to observe which would mean the
invalidation of the whole Hadj. To help the pilgrims,
the majority of whom may be illiterate persons, who have
perhaps spent their all on the pilgrimage, an offering is
permitted of a sheep or camel, according to the gravity
of the omission or mistake committed. The flesh of the
sacrifice is divided among the poor. To render the pil
grimage effective the following forms must be observed:
First of all, on approaching Mecca the pilgrim must
halt at a certain spot, according to the route taken, the
common name for such a station being " mekat."
At the mekat the pilgrim, after prescribed prayers,
cuts his nails, shaves his head and puts on the "ihram,"
or white attire, which is thrown over the shoulder and
knotted on one side. The head is bare and no under-
linen is worn. From this time he is forbidden to cut his
nails or to kill any living creature, not even the parasites,
which, in passing, it may be said, accompany the Hadj in
generous numbers. After this toilette the pilgrims re
peat prayers, that of the Telbiet Labbaya being most fre
quently repeated in the following words :
" Here I am! O Allah, here am I —
No partner hast thou, here am I ;
Verily the praise and the beneficence are thine, and the
kingdom —
No partner hast thou, here am I!"
Many pilgrims time their journey so as to be at the
"mekat" (appointed spot) the ist of the lunar month of
Zilkade, and then the pilgrim wears the ihram nearly
forty days, namely, until the ioth of the following month,
Zelhadjie. The majority, however, in order to econo
mise time, arrive some ten days before Kurban Bairam.
The three days of pilgrimage commemorate Abra
ham's sacrifice of his son Ishmael (not Isaac, as the Bible
states)'.

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 261
On the 8th of Zelhadjie, according to the Moslem be
lief, Abraham first heard the voice from heaven com
manding him to sacrifice his dearest.
All that day (bearing in mind that Mohammedan days
begin at sunset) Abraham was in doubt as to the voice
being that of God or of an evil spirit. This day is there
fore known as " Yaum-t-Tarwiyah," or day of doubt.
On the following day the voice being again heard, Abra
ham knew it was God's command, and this day, the 9th,
is therefore known as " Yaum Araf aat," day of knowl
edge. Though convinced, Abraham waited one day
more, and on the command being repeated, definitely de
cided to sacrifice Ishmael on the 10th day, called Eidu-
1-Kurban," or feast of sacrifice.
Omitting the minor details of the devotions prescribed
at the Kaaba and black stone, I shall pass to a general de
scription of the ceremonials on the sacred days.
The day before the great 8th day the mullahs explain
to the congregated pilgrims the sacredness and signifi
cance of the following days.
At sunrise on the morning of the 8th, after prayer, the
pilgrims leave Mecca for Mina, a village about three
miles from Mecca. This little village is of very great
importance in the pilgrimage. The immense multitude,
often of 200,000/ flows in a turbulent stream towards
Mina. All are bareheaded, barefooted and clad only
in the white ihram. Here one sees the richer Bedouins
on camels or horseback, some pilgrims on mules or asses,
others on foot; each tries to push ahead of his fellows, and
the crowding is terrible. Often many of the old and in
firm who have survived the fatigues and dangers of the
1In 1907, at the time of the Hadj, the pilgrim's in Mecca were estimated
to be 290,000, divided intoi the following groups: from Turkey, 113,000;
Beluchistan, 12,000; India, 45,000; Russia, 16,000; Persia, 15,000; Sudan,
13,000; Morocco, 17,000; Algiers and Tunis, 45,000, and from Afghanistan,
10,000.

262 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
long journey give out at last, unable to continue, and lie
down by the roadside to die, comforting themselves at
the last moment that their hour struck when they were
on sacred ground. No one pays any attention to them,
each being busy with his own religious duties.
From Mina to the mountain of Arafat, which the pil
grims must reach the same day, is about nine miles. Soon
after leaving Mina, a place is passed called " Batu-el-
Muhassir," the basin of the tempter, for here the devil
tempted Adam, Abraham, and Ishmael. From this
place the road leads to a mosque, " Muzdalef ah," the
place dedicated to religious ceremonials. Here the noon
day prayer is made, and then they continue their march
to Arafat. Here tradition says that Adam found Eve,
from whom he had been separated after their expulsion
from the garden of Eden.
After devotions the pilgrims camp on the mountain
side, tents are put up, improvised shops opened, and as
far as one can see the ravine and slopes are covered with
the multitude. As in the disorderly march many compan
ions or members of the same family lose each other, they
may be seen searching among the tents and calling with
a loud voice to their fellows. One hears many women's
names called, though it is not a Moslem custom to do so
in public. "Oh, Fatima," "Oh, Zobeeda," "Oh,
Zeinab," ring through the camp, and yet it is not a search
for strayed women. It seems that women who are unable
to make the pilgrimage often hire some one to call out
their name on this great day, hoping thus to gain some
merit. The confusion, unavoidable with such great crowds,
gives opportunities for crimes that are committed in spite
of the sacredness of the time and place. Bedouins often
come here seeking the life of the object of an old blood
feud, hoping to find the moment for giving the final blow.

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 263
It is easy to imagine the unsanitary condition of the
camp formed of so many thousands who take absolutely
no steps to ensure cleanliness, and even those accustomed
to the filth of many Eastern cities find the stench hard to
bear. Early in the morning of the 9th of Zelhadjie the
pilgrims are awakened by the firing of a cannon, and after
the usual morning prayer they visit all the designated
places found on the mountain, where mullahs preach to
them. At three o'clock a solemn procession is formed with the
Shereef of Mecca at its head. Here the crowding be
comes frightful. On the top of the mountain the chief
imam preaches a sermon that lasts three hours, almost to
sundown, and the pilgrims listen to it standing. At the
close of the sermon sobbings and lamentations are heard.
Many go into a religious frenzy and hysterics. Loud
cries of " Labbayak! ¦" ring from all sides, and then begins
the most dangerous and fatiguing part of the ceremony,
that of " El-Daf u-min-Araf aat," or the "hurry from
Arafat." As this begins about sunset in a land where there is no
twilight to speak of, darkness soon sets in upon the horde
of jostling, pushing camels, horses, mules and asses, among
which the foot travellers are crushed and crowded. Par
ties lose each other, husbands their wives, parents their
children. Blows are given and received, sometimes even
a dagger prick to force an opening, and screams and cries
mix with the " Labbayaks." In this bedlam the only
idea of each one is to push forward. In this order or dis
order the retreat is made until a place is reached called
" Muzdalefah," where the weary pilgrims camp for the
night. Here each one is obliged to pick up several peb
bles about the size of a bean for the next day's ceremony
of stoning the devil.
At daybreak on the 10th of Zelhadjie, namely, on the

264 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
day of Kurban Bairam, the cannon again awakes the mul
titude, who hurry on to Mina. Near the entrance of this
village is the " Sheitan-el-Kebir," the " Great Devil," a
small buttress about eight feet high. Against this each
of the pilgrims is obliged to throw, in a certain manner,
one by one his seven stones, exclaiming: " In the name
of Allah!" and "Allah is mighty!" "I do this in ha
tred of the Fiend and to his shame! "
Here the ihram is removed, barbers are ready to shave
the heads, trim beards, and bring the pilgrims back to
their normal condition.
The return from Mina to Mecca, where again the
black stone is worshipped, is called "the flight." On
their arrival at Mecca, those who have not done so be
fore " stoning the Devil " now offer their sacrifices.
Every pilgrim, however poor, tries to buy a sheep.
Others richer buy several of them. From every part of
the province flocks are driven to Mecca for this great
event. The sheep are killed in the Mohammedan way,
being laid on the ground with heads turned towards the
Kaaba, the butcher exclaiming, " Bismillahie Allahu
Akbaru!" The sheep are slain where most convenient,
in front of the tents, anywhere, and the ground becomes
literally soaked with blood, that in the heat soon decom
poses, the stench being so great that residents at Jiddah
have assured me that with a favourable wind it reaches
that port, a distance of over fifty miles.
After the Kurban Bairam begin the three days, namely,
the nth, 1 2th and 13th of the month, known as the days
of drying flesh. The pilgrims spend this time in Mina
and have daily obligations to perform, and at the expira
tion of the three days return again to Mecca, once more
to pray at the Kaaba. This done, pilgrims are advised
to leave, on the ground that any sin committed on this
sacred spot is particularly heinous. This has the double

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MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 265
advantage of relieving Mecca from the presence of such
multitudes, and secondly, having them scatter before the
inevitable reaction which follows the religious excite
ment. The inhabitants of Mecca live exclusively on what the
pilgrims bring them. At the head is found the large
staff of the Kaaba under the control of the Shereef . The
greater part of the inhabitants are in one way or another
connected with the Kaaba and receive salaries. Others
occupy themselves by exploiting the pilgrims in different
ways, and they are noted for their arrogance, considering
themselves a privileged people.
The city itself is small, situated in a valley, or wady,
which carries off the water from the neighbouring hills,
and Mecca is therefore often visited by floods.
The aspiration to perform pilgrimages is to be found
in every religion, but it seems to me quite safe to state
(that in no other are they accompanied by such compli
cated and exhausting rites as is the pilgrimage to Mecca.
From the moment when the pilgrim dons the ihram to
the time he is free to remove it again, a period of about a
month, he does not belong to himself. All this time he is
in a state of nervous tension, religious excitement on the
one hand, and on the other the constant fear of some act
of omission or commission that may annul the merit of
his devotions. It is sufficient to say that he is obliged to
refrain even from the act of scratching himself! He is
surrounded by thousands of half-frenzied religious fa
natics whose excitement is contagious. His clothing all
these days consists of two strips of white cloth. In spite
of the burning sun, his head is uncovered and his bare
feet must tread the hot earth. He is constantly afraid of
being late, or crowded back from reaching some sacred
spot by the struggling egotistical mass. To this add the
most exorbitant prices for the most simple necessaries of

266 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
life, even drinking water; the absence of the most primi
tive sanitary conveniences, and after the sacrifice the days
spent in the horrible atmosphere caused by the decompos
ing of the offal and blood of the thousands of animals
slain. The absence of medical assistance increases the
mortality, always great at this time.
Interesting statistics are given of the sanitary condition
of Mecca during the Hadj of 1907, which was considered
a healthful one. This report was made out by Drs. Rifat
and Esad, of the Turkish Sanitary Administration, and
was presented to the International Sanitary Commission
of Constantinople.1 This report cannot raise any suspicion
of exaggeration ; it would naturally, being drawn up by
the Turkish authorities, seek to underestimate the evils
of pilgrimages. From this report we see that in spite
of its being a favourable year, the mortality among the
pilgrims at Mecca was enormous, from sixty to one hun
dred dying each day, and sometimes more. The great
est number of deaths (16.4%) was caused by pneumonia;
then followed dysentery (15.9%), of which disease no
patients recovered; of other stomach and bowel troubles
12.3% died. The unsanitary condition is increased by
the difficulty of obtaining anything like proper lodgings,
the absence of sufficient good water, owing to all the
springs being contaminated by the multitudes, and by
their being churned into a muddy evil-tasting fluid. The
water sold by the water carriers is so much worse that only
sheer necessity forces the pilgrims to buy it. Even on
Mount Arafat the springs of pure water were unfit for
use, as no power could keep the pilgrims from performing
their ablutions in the same basins and hollows used for
drinking. The poor quality of food found in the bazaars is another
1 Rapport sur le voyage de retour de la caravane sacree en l'annee 1324
de l'hegire. (1907-)

MECCA, THE MOSLEM'S PALESTINE 267
cause of disease, as is the fact of all these thousands per
forming their natural needs by the roadside, under the
walls, often close to the spot where food is sold, and where
swarms of flies are hovering. The large percentage of
lung troubles is easily explained by the great contrast be
tween the heat of the day and the chill of the nights, and
especially to pilgrims from India and the Sudan; the ex
posure, lightly dressed as they are, brings on sickness that
carries them off by the hundred.
Aside from these diseases, the pilgrims naturally bring
to Mecca many illnesses peculiar to their own countries,
which often spread, and thus, from all these causes com
bined, Mecca may be looked upon as a hotbed of disease
that is carried back and sown along the caravan routes of
the returning pilgrims.
The conditions of the land journey followed by the
Hadj will be touched upon in another chapter. The
sea voyage is a comparatively easy and comfortable means
of travelling, and yet here we find that the mortality is
considerable owing to the crowding of the steamers.
I personally knew of one shipload returning from the
Hadj of 1907, when of 1,700 pilgrims on board, fifteen
died. The conveying of pilgrims is undertaken by ships
of various nationalities, who care more about getting a
large number of passengers than about the comfort of
the same. In Constantinople the International Sanitary
Commission draw up rules regulating the number to be
carried on each ship, but these laws are often evaded and
the pilgrims subjected to most unhealthful and uncom
fortable crowding.
These ship are obliged to undergo quarantine in the
Turkish port of El Tor on the Sinai peninsula and the
Russian port of Theodosia. On the steamers the poor
pilgrims are made to pay a great deal for their board,
but while in quarantine the prices are exorbitant.

268 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
In 1906 they were charged ten cents for a pound of
bread in El Tor, twenty-five cents for meat and five cents
a pound for charcoal, which was quite three times the
normal price. The quarantines established by the Turk
ish Sanitary Administration, though nominally under the
control of the International Council, are far below what
they should be, and during epidemic years do more harm
than good, the mismanagement increasing with the dis
tance from the central organisation in Constantinople.

CHAPTER XV
PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA
Boundary of Holy Land — Tribes of Medina— Water Supply — Date
Palms — Last Years of Mohammed's Life — His Pilgrimage to Mecca
—Sermon from Mount Arafat — Return to Medina — Rivals — Ill
ness—Last Testament — Last Attendance at the Mosque — Absence of
Direct Male Heirs — Favourite Wives — Their Influence — Property
Left by Mohammed — The Sword of the Prophet and its History —
Tomb of the Prophet — Abu-Bekr, Omar and Others — Muzzawir —
Mosque of Kuba — Cemetery of El Bakia — Other Mosques — Forced
Worship at Omar's Tomb — Staff of the Mosque — Eunuchs — Slave
Trade — Inhabitants of Medina — Shereefs and Sayids — The Damas
cus Caravan — Its Historical Origin — Surrie Emini — Ceremony of
Start from Constantinople — Sacred Camel — Mahmal — Gathering of
Pilgrims in Damascus — General Character of Route — Akiam, Sak-
kas, Muhafez — Stages — Sanitary Conditions — Order of March —
Tent Pitching — Appearance of Camp, Food of Pilgrims — Water —
Martyrs or Shahudies — Caravan During Epidemics — Robberies by
Bedouins and their Causes — Road between Mecca and Medina —
Mutual Relations of Bedouins — Kharbi — The Hedjaz Railway and
its Importance.
MEDINA is situated about 130 miles from its port, Yambu,
on the Red Sea. This distance is generally accomplished
in four caravan days, but on swift dromedaries may be
done in less than half that time. Here, as in Mecca, the
land for three days' march from Medina, on every side, is
considered as sacred and forbidden under pain of death
to all unbelievers. The boundary of the sacred soil on
the Yambu route is Zul Caliphah. Being considered a
sacred city, Medina has about 100 titles, used in its praise.
269

270 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The most familiar are " Mukadess," sacred, " Arz Al
lah," God's earth, " Beit-ul-Ressoul," the house of the
Ambassador or the Prophet. They also call Medina the
Pure, Blessed, Beautiful, etc. The city itself is not large,
and consists of three parts, the fort, the city and the sub
urbs. In the city are to be found not more than 8,000
Turks. As is the case of most Eastern towns, the city itself
is surrounded by a wall, and has four gates. The streets
are narrow and filthy. The water supply was brought
through underground channels by Solyman the Magnifi
cent; each house, however, has, in addition, its own well,
as water is reached at a depth of not over twenty feet.
Owing to the plentiful water supply palm gardens
abound, bearing dates that are renowned throughout
Arabia, and it is said that there are as many as 139
varieties. We must notice, from the beginning, that pilgrimages
to Medina are not obligatory. They are simply merito
rious acts, but still every Mohommedan considers it his
duty to visit the tomb of the Prophet.
The mosque in which the grave itself is found is called
" El Nebavi." It stands over the spot where Moham
med's celebrated she-camel, El Kaswa, lay down with
him during the flight from Mecca. Here he lived with
his family, and here are found the tombs of the Prophet
himself and those nearest to him, among others, that of
Ayesha, his favourite wife. She is held by the Sunnites
to be the highest and purest type of womanhood. After
the death of the Prophet, it was through Ayesha that the
views of the great teacher were made known on many
subjects, which, at her dictation, his disciples noted, and
which were afterwards included in the writings of the
Mohammedan theologians. Thanks to Ayesha, too, we
learn much of the intimate house life, as, for instance, her
jealousy of the other wives, fifteen in number, and espe
cially of her feelings towards one, a Copt, named Miriam.

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 271
All of these wives are buried here, excepting Kadija,
whose tomb is in Mecca. There is a tradition that
Ayesha once dreamed that three standards were set up
in their house, and Mohammed interpreted it as meaning
that three graves would be on that spot, his own, Abu-
Bekr's and Osman's. It may be that this dream is the
outcome of popular imagination, arising after the facts
had taken place, but the Mohammedans believe it im
plicitly. We have a good many reliable details concerning the
last days of Mohammed. His teachings spread faster
than perhaps the Prophet himself had expected. By the
10th year of the hegira, or 631 A.D., it had become firmly
established throughout the greater part of the Arabian
peninsula, and the formula, " There is but one God and
Mohammed the ambassador of God," had become the
creed of the new Moslem faith, and thereby defined Mo
hammed's position. Wishing probably still further to
establish his personal influence, Mohammed undertook,
when sixty-four years old, what proved to be his last
journey to Mecca at the head of 100,000 of his followers.
In spite of his age and the weakness that was to lead
him to the grave, he fulfilled all the trying and compli
cated rites of the worship at the Kaaba, preached a pow
erful sermon on Mount Arafat, and with his own hand
slaughtered as sacrifices sixty-three camels and liberated
sixty-three slaves, one to represent each year of his life.
In his sermon on Arafaat he alluded to this as his last
visit to Mecca, and his prophecy came to pass, for soon
after his return to Medina his health became so much
worse that he took to his bed_, though even there he con
tinued to work, even going so far as to organise an expedi
tion against some rivals who also claimed divine missions
and offered to divide their authority with Mohammed.
Feeling that he was failing, he ordered himself to be car
ried to Ayesha's apartments, where he gave his last com-

272 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
mands, ordering his body to be washed after his death
and laid by the side of the grave that was to be dug in
the same room where he lay. He further requested that
his body should be left for some time alone in case the
angel Gabriel and the hosts of heaven should desire to
come and pray by it. After giving these commands, in
spite of his extreme weakness Mohammed went to the
mosque which was adjoining his room, mounted the
" mimbar," or pulpit, and addressed the congregation in
the following words: "O Mussulmans, if in my life
I have struck any man, here is my back, let him smite me;
if I have injured any one, the way of the injured is to re
turn the injury ; if I have taken from any man his prop
erty, let him fearlessly claim it, not dreading my venge
ance." When, at the close of his address, someone spoke up
claiming three drachmas, Mohammed returned the
money, with the words, " Better shame in this world than
in the world to come."
A few days later, gathering his last forces he again
went to the mosque, and in a clear voice entreated his
hearers to follow the teachings of the Koran as an infalli
ble book, the star to guide the true believer in all the
temptations that were in store for the Mohammedan
world. He then retired to his room, and in a few hours,
on the 8th of June, 632 A.D., he died with his head on
Ayesha's knee.
Mohammed died without appointing a successor. Al
though he had fifteen wives, only two of them bore him
children: Kadija, his first wife, a widow in whose employ
he had been before his marriage, had four sons and four
daughters; the Copt, Miriam, also had one son; but all
these boys died before their father. Nine wives sur
vived the Prophet, and they all remained widows, as the
Prophet in one of the chapters of the Koran forbade

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 273
"believers" to marry them. The explanation of Mo
hammed's possessing fifteen wives, in contradiction to his
limiting his followers to four wives, is explained by the
Sunnites as an exception due to the exalted state of the
Prophet. The Shiites follow Mohammed's example and
permit, under one form or another, an unlimited number.
Of the wives of Mohammed, the Moslems hold as the
most important the following: Kadija, his first wife, who
was much older than the Prophet; Ayesha, his best loved
wife; Hafza, the daughter of Omar-Umm Habiba; Safia,
a Jewess ; and Zeinab.
The first confidant of the Prophet's revelations was
his wife Kadija, to whom he owed much, but afterwards
rather neglected for Ayesha. There is no doubt that
Mohammed learned much of the other religions of his
age during his journeys while in the employ of Kadija,
but that his wives also added to his knowledge one cannot
doubt, for one of them was a Copt and another a Jewess.
Although Mohammed always reserved for himself one
fifth of all the war spoils, on his death his property con
sisted only of 22 horses, 2 asses, Ufar and Yafur, 5 mules,
among which was a white one called Dul-Dul, 24 camels,
including the celebrated El Kaswa, 100 sheep, arms, a
mantle, 2 banners and a green turban. The absence of
further wealth is explained partly by the Prophet's known
generosity to the poor, and partly to the expenses of so
numerous a harem.
Over the tomb of the Prophet is built a mosque bearing
the same name as the principal mosque of Mecca, " Med-
jid-esh-Shereef," which it resembles also in its architect
ure. The Medina mosque was built by the Caliph Walid
I. in 707 of our era. In order to make room for this
mosque the caliph ordered all the surrounding houses to
be removed, among them the house of Ayesha, then partly
in ruins. This act created a good deal of discontent in

274 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Medina, and to propitiate those whose houses Had been
destroyed, the caliph made a pilgrimage in person the
following year to the Prophet's tomb, which he covered
with a precious covering. This was the origin of the
custom still continued, and the covering received the
name of " astaresh-Shereef," " the sacred covering," and
it is generally sewn in the sultan's harem. In former
times this covering was only changed at the beginning
of each reign, and later on in every seven years. The old
coverings are used for the tombs of sultans and imperial
princes. The grave itself is all hung about and concealed
by hangings of great price, as the popular belief is that
no one could look at it without losing his eyesight. The
same tradition states that Mohammed lies in the grave on
his right side, facing Mecca, and with his cheek resting
on the palm of his right hand. Behind the tomb and
facing it, lie Abu-Bekr, then Omar, and next an empty
grave destined for Jesus Christ. According to the Mos
lem teaching, another was crucified in the place of Christ,
and this grave awaits his second coming. In the mosque,
but at one side, are the tombs of Ayesha and Fatima, the
daughter of the Prophet.
In visiting these places there are none of the ceremo
nies observed in Mecca. Even kneeling at the tombs is
considered to be a sin, as during his lifetime Mohammed
repeatedly expressed the desire that his remains should
receive no honour nor worship, which belongs to God
alone. The pilgrims who visit Medina, therefore, simply
recite prayers or supplications composed for the various
stations appointed. As the order of " ziarat," or visita
tion of the various sacred spots, is strictly laid down, pil
grims are obliged to have guides, called muzzawir, by
whom the pilgrim is known as " zair." The prayers said
at each station are rather invocations, and as they are all
similar, it will be sufficient to cite the one repeated at

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 275
Fatima's tomb. " Peace be with thee, daughter of the
messenger of Allah! Peace be with the daughter of the
Prophet of Allah! Peace be with the daughter of Mus
tafa ['Chosen,' one of the titles of Mohammed]. Peace
with thee, thou mother of the Shurafa! Peace with thee,
0 lady amongst women ! Peace with thee, O fifth of the
Ahl-el-Kisa! Peace with thee, O spouse of our lord Ali!
Peace be with thee, O mother of Hassan and Hussein, the
two moons of light, the two pearls, the two princes of the
youths of heaven and gladness of the eyes of true believ
ers!" and so on.
Aside from the burial places of those already men
tioned, there are about a hundred other stations or places
of "ziarat" in and about Medina, venerated for some
event celebrated by el Islam and to which the pilgrims
go with their guides. Among such places the mosque of
Kuba is worth mentioning, situated some three miles to
the Southeast of Medina in a valley of the same name.
This mosque was founded by Mohammed, who personally
laid the first stone on ground owned by one Abu Ayub,
whose descendants still claim the privilege of keeping
the keys.
The cemetery of El Bakia is also of interest. Here
are buried, according to tradition, 100,000 followers of
the Prophet. On the last day it is believed that Moham
med will rise first and then Abraham and Omar, after
whom all those who are buried at El Bakia. Whatever
tombstones there were in this cemetery were destroyed
by the Wahabees during the time of their occupation of
Mecca. Here, too, is repeated a prayer or benediction,
"Peace be with ye, O people of El Bakia! Peace be
with ye, O, admitted to the presence of the Most High! "
The mosques, in which are buried Hussein, the son of
Ali, Imam Zein-el-Abdeen, Mohammed-el-Bakir and
Imam Djafar, the grandson and great-grandsons of the

276 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Prophet, are particularly venerated by the Shiites, who
on visiting them, give full vent to their religious emo
tions, weeping and wailing. Their sentiments are quite
different when visiting the graves of Abu-Bekr and in
particular that of Omar, the anniversary of whose death,
as mentioned in another chapter, is celebrated with joy
in Persia even at the present time, and whom the Shiites
regard as responsible for all the misfortunes that came
to the family of Ali.
The Sunnites watch the Shiites narrowly as they reach
this station, and being in the minority in a hostile land,
the poor Shiites are forced to repeat the prescribed form
ula, with sometimes ill-concealed hatred in their hearts,
but repeat the prayers they must, or risk being instantly
put to death. Some, however, in doing so, console them
selves by inaudibly changing the name of Omar into
"Humar," "ass!"
A spring where Mohammed quenched his thirst and a
cave where he hid are among the many other places of
" ziarat." The staff of officers and servants in the mosques of Me
dina is very great; the chief control being in the hands of
eunuchs, who are preferred on the following grounds:
1. Having no family ties they are more apt to give all
their attention to the care of the sacred buildings. 2.
As they have to come in contact with women unknown to
them. 3. The holy places are sacred, cut off, "harems,"
therefore eunuchs are most appropriate as guardians. ^ In
olden times the governor of Medina was at the same time
guardian of the mosque and bore the title of " Sheikhul-
Harem," and was appointed from the chief eunuchs, or
" Kizler Aghassi," of the sultans, whose ambition it was
to get this post as the crowning of their difficult and
sometimes dangerous career. ^ # #
In passing I shall say a few words about the institution

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 277
of eunuchs and slaves, without which the most superficial
study of Moslem life would be incomplete.
The custom of having eunuch attendants is of very an
cient date. Babylonian inscriptions tell of the office of
" Papsares," minister in the court, who also had charge of
the portion of the palace occupied by the women. This
was one of the most important of the court functions and
was always performed by the " Great Eunuch."
Mohammed, permitting polygamy and advocating the
seclusion of women, naturally opened the way to the fur
ther establishment of this institution, which, to the dis
grace of the twentieth century, be it said, still continues.
Formerly the eunuchs were of those taken captive in
wars, but later on African slaves furnished the majority
of this class, and a lucrative trade sprang up of slaves,
both male and female. As late as fifty years ago there
was no important Mohammedan city without its slave
market. Nor were Negroes the only ones sold here. The
most prized were Circassian and Georgian girls brought
from the Caucasus. At that time every rich Mohamme
dan aspired to have Circassians in his harem, which ac
counts for the frequency pf the Caucasian type found
among Turks. Palgrave, who visited Arabia in the fifties
of the past century, writes that in spite of the treaty be
tween England and the Sultan of Muscat abolishing the
slave trade, 6,000 slaves were yearly brought to the ports
of Muscat, Jiddah and Suez. Palgrave gives the prices
they brought as £9 for a healthy boy and a little
more for a girl. A girl of above nine years was
sold for £22. Abyssinians brought the best price
among the black slaves, but the Circassians were the most
prized; even at that date a girl brought from £90 to
£350. Most of these became the favourites of sultans,
or men of rank, and eventually succeeded in getting their
fathers or brothers into important positions, which led to

278 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
so many Circassians being found in military arid adminis
trative posts.
In the last half of the past century a convention was
drawn up abolishing the slave trade, which was a blow to
this disgraceful traffic, but did not quite crush it, the
difference being that it was carried on secretly. When
we were in Bagdad, by means of certain agents slaves of
both sexes could be easily bought, but at prices far higher
than in the time of Palgrave.
Pilgrims possessing sufficient means seldom return from
Mecca without adding to their household one or more
slaves bought there, and so the supply of eunuchs, which1
are found in all wealthy Mohammedan houses, is in this
way maintained.
Moslems justify slavery by maintaining that the slaves
are well treated by them. The Koran preaches kindness
towards slaves, and cases of cruelty to slaves kept by Mos
lems are certainly the great exception.
I personally had the good fortune while in Bagdad to
be able to set three slaves free, and this was obtained
rather by personal relations with the authorities than by
basing my demands on the convention. To the honour
of the young Constitutional Government I must note that
one of the first acts of Parliament was the abolition of
slavery throughout the Turkish Empire. So, officially,
at least, the right stand is taken ; time will show how ef
fectually. The need of eunuchs is so closely connected with Mo
hammedan life and customs, that there is little hope of
this outrageous practice being stopped until public opin
ion becomes sufficiently raised to understand the depths of
this depravity.
But to return to the Medina mosque. The chief guard
ian is a pasha sent from Constantinople, but his aides,
secretaries, servants and eunuchs number over a hundred.

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 279
The lower class of attendants is divided into three orders:
first, porters; secondly, eunuchs, whose duty it is to
cleanse the inside of the shrine itself ; and thirdly, water
carriers. Then there is of course a large number of guides
and others, all from the local inhabitants, and claim
ing the right of keeping the privilege of these services on
the following grounds. The majority of the inhabitants
of Medina consists of descendants of Mohammed and of
his apostles. The descendants of the Prophet who trace
their genealogy from Hassan are called by the Turks She-
reefs, and these, arguing the sanctity of their lineage,
claim the right of occupying all posts in any way con
nected with the worship of their great ancestor. These
Shereefs not only are free from all taxes in Medina, but
occupy positions about the shrine, drawing pay partly
from the sultan and partly from the revenue of the
mosque. The funds for the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina
are received through a special agent living in Constanti
nople and known as the " Vekil-ul-Haramein," the repre
sentative of the sacred places. The Shereefs as a whole
are called " Evladi paigambar," or children of the
Prophet. An analogical position to that of the Shereefs
is occupied in Persia by the Sayids, where they, too, have
the general name of " Evladi paigambar," and as indi
viduals that of Sayid. In Persia, as well as in India, the
term Shereef denotes offspring of the daughter of a Sayid
married with a man not of the same extraction.
The remainder of the population of Medina, the de
scendants of the apostles of Mohammed, are divided into
four tribes: 1. Beit-el-Ansar, holding the keys of the
mosque of Kuba. 2. Beit- Abu Djud, who serve as imams
and muezzins in the mosques. 3. Beit-esh-Shaab, occu
pying minor posts in the mosques. 4. Beit-el-Karrash,
the majority of whom are shopkeepers. There are also

280 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
some Turks, Kurds, Syrians, Indians, Caucasians, Tartars,
Bukhariotes, Persians and Afghans settled here, in order
to devote themelves to religious exercises and die on holy
ground. Each year what is known as the sacred caravan is sent
to Mecca through Damascus and Medina, carrying the
covering of the Kaaba and other rich gifts from the sul
tan, who, not making a pilgrimage himself, sends instead
by special officers these gifts. The sending of this cara
van is closely connected with Turkish history, and is one
of the sultan's prerogatives as caliph of the Moslem
world. After the establishment of Mohammedanism in Egypt
the reigning caliph, Omar Ben Ketaba, sent the first
sacred caravan from there, and this custom is continued,
the Egyptian caravan being distinguished from the Da
mascus caravan, and is known as the " Mahmal Missiri."
Since the reign of Selim I. the Turkish sultans have
also sent an annual caravan under the leadership of the
" Surrei Emini," that starts with great pomp from Con
stantinople. It is known, however, as the Damascus car
avan, for it is there that the pilgrims congregate, often to
the number of 100,000, and from which spot the caravan as
such begins its weary desert march. Since the opening
of the Suez Canal the Damascus caravan has lost much of
its former significance and it is not so numerous, number
ing not over 10,000 to 15,000, as the sea route is far easier
and less expensive.
The ceremony of leaving Constantinople is on the 12th
of the lunar month of Redjeb, or five months before the
feast of Kurban Bairam. The actual handing over of the
gifts of the sultan to those who are to carry them to
Mecca is performed at the palace. The covering des
tined for the Kaaba is placed on a richly caparisoned
camel, and the other gifts on similarly decorated mules.

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PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 281
From Constantinople the caravan crosses the Bospho-
rus to Scutari, on the Asiatic shore, where the gifts of His
Majesty are placed on other camels and mules, the origi
nal animals with their trappings returning to Con
stantinople. The covering of the Kaaba is placed in a
mahmal or sort of litter attached to the camel's saddle,
such as the Prophet himself used to travel in, and from
which on his camel's back, as from a raised pulpit, many
of his most fiery sermons were delivered. The mahmal
camels kept in Constantinople are said to be the de
scendants of the Prophet's own camel, and never accom
pany the caravan for fear of accident, but are kept in the
imperial stables, and great attention is paid to preserving
the purity of the breed. The camels bearing the mah
mal are therefore called manfil or mahmal, the latter
meaning a seat or throne, and the former, a beast of bur
den. The long caravan route is made on camels from
Damascus, which are also by tradition descended from
one belonging to the Prophet.
At the time of the starting of the sacred caravan the
usually quiet city of Damascus becomes animated. Pil
grims flock here from every quarter of El Islam ; owners
of mules and camels drive them here in great numbers ;
saddle shops carry on a lively trade in saddles and fixings
for the march ; the saddles bought being adjusted to the
camels' backs, and seldom, if ever, removed on the way.
iWater skins, too, are bought, and provisions of dried meat
and other edibles supplied.
The gathering point for the caravan is the lake of Muz-
zareb, two days' march from the city of Damascus, twenty-
eight marches from Medina and forty-two from Mecca.
This distance is over an almost waterless tract of land,
(there being but twelve wells between Damascus and Me
dina. To protect these precious wells from hostile no-
madSj small forts were constructed by the Turks with a

282 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
garrison of ten to twelve on paper, but in fact six to seven
soldiers are to be found in each " kala."
On account of the scarcity of water the caravan is
obliged to make forced marches of not less than two hours
a day, and there are some days on which eighteen to twenty
hours have to be made. The difficulty of the road de
pends largely upon the season of the year in which the
Hadj is made. In the dry season the dangers are in
creased, as some of the wells then go dry. Before the
starting of the caravan the governor of Damascus in
forms himself as to the quantity of water to be depended
upon, and the length of the marches is arranged according
to the result of these inquiries. Occasionally it is found
necessary to send as many as 1,500 water skins to meet the
caravan at certain stages. The difficulties attending the
march of 10,000 to 13,000 people under such circum
stances are easily understood, as well as the necessity of
strict order and discipline in the caravan.
As already stated, the camels are furnished by special
men in Damascus, some contractors presenting as many
as 200 to 300 beasts. These are given in charge of akiam,
or camel men, who lead the animals and in camp serve
the pilgrims for a certain additional sum. Aside from
these men are grooms who care for the camels, and
sakkas or water carriers who supply the pilgrims with
water, also at a given price. There are others whose duty
is the pitching of tents and packing up the same in the
morning ready for loading. The tents are of all varieties,
from the simple umbrella-shaped ones with one pole and
sides reaching to the ground, to the complicated richly
embroidered tents of the opulent that are divided into
rooms. The tent pitchers become very adept in their
work, and in an incredibly short time they pitch or strike
a camp. They load the tents onto the camels and start off
before the caravan proper, pressing on in order to reach

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 283
the halting place in time to have the tents up before the
arrival of the main body. The order of the camp is the
same during the entire journey, so that the pilgrims ar
riving in the camp have no trouble in finding their own
quarters. The tents belong to the owners of the camels
and are hired with them.
The halting place is chosen by the chief leader of the
caravan, or " muhaf ez," who gives his instructions to his
aides, they to the camel men, who in turn instruct those
under them. Throughout the march the muhafez has
unlimited power of control, and of deciding all questions
connected with the well-being of the caravan, as well as
acting as judge in cases of differences.
To protect the caravan from the Bedouins who con
stantly hover in its vicinity is a strong body of soldiers
with one or two mountain guns carried on camels or mules.
Each morning two hours before the start a cannon is
fired as a signal for breaking the camp. The second sig
nal is for the move, and it is done in such order that all
the camels of each owner go together. In the front of
the caravan are the tent pitchers with the tents ; they are
followed by the water carriers with their camels loaded
with water skins ; then an armed band of Bedouins hired
to protect the caravan from their hostile countrymen;
then comes the advance guard of the caravan itself, con
sisting of fifty cavalry men mounted on mules riding in
double rows; they are followed by two guns, ammu
nition, and the baggage of the leader of the cara
van and other official persons. The pilgrims come
next, always in the same order and in groups under
the leadership of the camel-owners. In the middle of
the caravan is the mahmal in which is the covering
of the Kaaba. The caravan marches in two lines, and
often strings out to a length of some six miles.
Some three or four miles in the rear of the caravan is a

284 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
body of police two hundred strong, mounted on camels,
to pick up stragglers. On arriving at the halting place
the camp is formed in perfect order. In the centre is the
tent of the Surrie Emini, on the right is that of the leader
of the caravan, and on the left is the commander of the
military escort and those of other officials. The tents of
pilgrims from Mesopotamia and Irak are on the south
side of the camp, while the Persians are on the north.
The military escort surrounds the camp and a sentinel
is placed every sixty paces. When the camp is settled it
presents the appearance of a town, with streets, cafes and
bazaars where provisions may be bought, at very high
prices, to be sure, and of poor quality, to boot.
About sunset two guns are fired, after which no one is
allowed to pass in or out of the camp, and the sentries see
that this rule is carried out.
The life of the camp is by this time in full swing. The
cafes and bazaars are crowded, grooms busily clean and
attend to the horses, the servants of the richer pilgrims
set to work to prepare the inevitable pilaw, desert Arabs
sell milk and cheese, and butchers' shops offer meat at an
exorbitant rate. The crowd is made up of the most
varied costumes and types, speaking in many tongues arid
representing as many nationalities, but the common tie
is the same. When the hour of prayer approaches every
face is turned towards Mecca, and in unison the great
multitude prostrates itself in prayer.
In spite of the order observed in the ways described,
no sanitary measures are adopted, and even after one night
the ground becomes infested with filth and the air pol
luted, which adds to the danger in case of epidemics.
The health of the Hadj is also affected by the food eaten
during the long and fatiguing journey. A large majority
exist on what they take with them from Damascus, dried
meat, cheese and dried bread. As to water, the case is

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 285
more serious still. It must not be forgotten that water
is not to be had at every halting place and that a supply
sometimes for two or three days has to be carried. The
water carriers fill all the skins taken with them at Damas
cus, loading four or eight on each camel, according to
their size. The full skins weigh usually from 400 to
480 pounds.
As the water is drawn from wells each sakka has a long
rope and leathern bucket, also a three-legged contrivance
over which he fixes a sort of pulley for drawing the water.
As soon as a well is reached the sakkas surround it, quickly
filling their skins, and always in prescribed order, first the
carriers of the Surrie Emini, then the leader of the cara
van, the officers and men of the guard, and then the water
carriers of the pilgrims have their turn. The water has
to be so economically given out that it is only used for
drinking and cooking, none for washing purposes, the
poor pilgrims being deprived during the dry season of a
wash throughout the journey. The ablutions prescribed
before prayer are performed with sand, as is permitted
by the Koran. Such ablutions are termed " teyammun."
The water in some of the wells is bitterish to the taste,
in others brackish and often muddy.
After the water carriers have filled their skins the
camels are led up to the wells to drink, the spilled water
forming liquid mud which runs back into the wells, mak
ing the water so troubled that it takes days to settle.
All these hardships taken together make the Hadj
journey even under the best conditions one of great hard
ship, and on an average the caravan has one death per day.
iWe must remember that among the pilgrims are numbers
who go on foot, many of whom are unable to endure the
long marches of eighteen to twenty hours, especially as
these poorer pilgrims are generally half starved. When
they become too exhausted to continue they leave the ranks

286 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
and lie down by the roadside to die. No attention is paid
to them; each one is thinking of himself and trying to
keep his own place in the caravan. Those who thus fall by
the way are called " shahud," or martyrs, and according
to popular belief go direct to Paradise. Those to whom
death does not come at once are often killed for their poor
rags by the Bedouins, who like vultures hover about the
rear of the caravan. More unfortunate ones who linger
on are surrounded by jackals, hyenas and birds of prey.
There are litters to be hired for about $5.00 a day for
those who are too weak to ride or walk, but these are of
course possible only for the rich pilgrim. During epi
demics the Hadj is a fearful sight. The English traveller
Doughty in his wonderful book, " Arabia Deserta," tells
of joining the Damascus caravan during a cholera year.
He says that they lost as many as a hundred a day. The
dead were carried off to one side, shallow graves scooped
out with a stick and sand thrown over the corpses. One
such, who was buried as dead in a very shallow grave of
warm sand, came to life and, crawling out, managed to
drag himself to some Arab tents, and when strong enough
drifted from one encampment to another, and only after
two years turned up in Damascus, to the astonishment of
all his family, who had already divided up his property,
and took a good deal of convincing to accept him as alive
and the owner of his own estate !
Nowhere is more heartless selfishness found than on the
Hadj. The very struggle for existence that the entire
journey represents makes each one look out for himself
and pay no attention to the suffering of others., and
this callousness leaves its impress for life on the char
acter. The Syrian proverb is very apt in illustrating this : " Be
ware of your neighbour if he is a Hadji. If he has twice
performed the Hadj, lock your door; if he has made it

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 287
three times, brick up your door and make another on the
opposite side of your house."
Aside from all these other miseries the Hadj caravans
are often subjected to robberies. The Turkish Govern
ment employs two measures with more or less success
against this evil. First in sending an armed escort, arid
secondly in sending gifts to the sheikhs of the Hedjaz and
Yemen, hiring camels from them and also in employing
their men as hired escorts for the caravan. In spite of
these means the Bedouins occasionally succeed in robbing
the caravan, and sometimes in holding it up for a consider
able time, until a ransom is sent. The military escort is
unable to cope with a united force of Bedouins, as the
caravan is strung out to so great a length, and if the attack
be at night the panic is generally so great that the Bed
ouins can easily take advantage of the confusion and cut
off a part of the caravan. Not farther back than the
nineties of the past century the following incident oc
curred. The military escort succeeded during an attack
in gathering the pilgrims in the centre and beating off
the Bedouins. The latter, however, surrounded the whole
caravan, laying siege to it, as it were. The caravan held
out for two months, when reinforcements came, but not
before many of the soldiers and pilgrims had succumbed
for want of water and food.
The most dangerous portion of the entire journey is
the part between Medina and Mecca, where there is the
choice between three routes : the first, called the " Darb-
esh-Sharkie," eastern route, runs almost parallel to the
Red Sea and at a distance from it of from some one hun
dred to one hundred and forty miles. This is the shortest,
but it is extremely difficult for beasts of burden and there
fore only Bedouins and light caravans can profit by it.
The second route, farther inland, called " Darb-es-Sul-
tan," was the route followed by the sacred caravan up to

288 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
about fifteen years ago, when a third road was chosen, the
" Darb-ul-feri," which branches off from the sultan's
road, making a shorter cut. But all these roads are in
fested with Bedouin robbers who look upon the caravans
as a rightful source of their yearly income.
This view is not surprising when we consider the Bed
ouin's life and his viewing the desert as his own. The
mutual relation between the tribes of the Hedjaz is
a complicated threefold one, "Askhab," comrades,
namely, an offensive and defensive alliance between
tribes ; " Kaum," hostile tribes between whom is constant
war ; and " Akhwan," brotherhood, an alliance for defend
ing their land from all outsiders, in a manner forbidding
all others from passing through or profiting by their ter
ritory in any way without paying a toll. As the pilgrims
passing in great caravans break this law when not paying
the Bedouins a certain tribute, the latter consider they
have a perfect right to take it by force in the way of rob
bery. In spite of large sums spent by the Turkish Gov
ernment as toll money to many Bedouin tribes, it is im
possible for them to make their authority felt in the water
less desert, where the Bedouin is at home and holds the
caravan with its scanty water supply at his mercy.
The most powerful tribe in the Hedjaz is the Beni
Kharb, who are able to put 19,000 armed horsemen in the
field. This tribe is divided into two main branches, the
Beni Salem and Masrukh, which in turn have numerous
subdivisions. The robbery of pilgrim caravans takes place almost
annually, and I have personally seen hundreds of pilgrims
who, having been robbed, managed in some way to get
back as far as Constantinople.
The completion of the Hedjaz railway to Mecca via
Medina will of course change the entire form of the
Hadj, and will have an enormous influence on the whole

PILGRIMAGES TO MEDINA 289
Moslem world. It will draw the pilgrims back to the
historical Damascus route, but railway cars and locomo
tives will replace tents and camels.
The cheapness of this route will make it preferable to
that of the Suez Canal, as it is intended to make the en
tire cost of the ticket from Damascus to Mecca and back
but £3, or less than $15.
In 1910 the Hedjaz railway reached Medina, and soon
the description of the Hadj as given in this chapter will
be past history.

CHAPTER XVI
IN THE LAND OF THE " LION AND THE SUN "
Climate of Persia — Forms of Irrigation — Three Types of Villages —
Cultivation of the Soil — Sheep-raising — Haying — Gardens and Or
chards^ — Three Enemies of the Farmer — The Agricultural Class —
Persian Cities — Baths — Instances of Burying Alive — Squares — Street
Dogs.
" IRAN has seven climates," every Persian will tell you
with pride if the conversation turns on the climate of his
native land. And he is not far from right, for though
Persia occupies an area of about six hundred and
fifty thousand square miles, it presents the greatest
variety of climatic conditions. Not only do we find the
differences natural in the extreme northern and southern
parts of the country — as the cool plateaus of Azerbaijan
and Khorasan as compared with the almost tropical heat
of the districts bordering on the Persian Gulf — but there
is a great difference also to be found in the climate of one
and the same district owing to the nearness of mountains.
As, for instance, in the cities of Tabriz, Teheran and
Meshed, the summers are very hot, but a few hours' ride
up into the surrounding hills will at once bring one into
a cool and delightful atmosphere. The possibility, there
fore, of changing quickly and within a few miles the con
ditions of life, the very climate and nature, is one of the
most characteristic features of Persia.
The Iran plateau is surrounded on nearly every side
by mountain barriers that have connecting chains. Such
topographical peculiarities naturally influence the cli
mate. The moist air brought by the winds from the sea
290

LAND OF THE " LION AND THE SUN " 291
becomes cooler as it rises to the higher altitudes, where
finally, freed from vapour, it reaches the centre of the
plateau in the form of dry air. While, therefore, we find
that the regions lying along the Caspian are damp, and
the shores of the Persian Gulf are moist and very hot, the
central provinces have a continental climate with little
rain and very dry atmosphere. The greater part of Persia
has almost no rain in the summer, and in the autumn rains
set in that become snow on the mountains. In the spring
the melting snow feeds the mountain streams that irrigate
the plains below.
Owing to such a formation of the country there are no
navigable rivers in Persia, with the exception of the
Karun, that flows into the Shatt-el-Arab and is navigable
only in its lower part. All other rivers are turbulent moun
tain streams, unnavigable even in the springtime, and
partly or entirely drying up in the autumn. But even such
rivers are few, the Aras (Araxes), Atrek, and the Sefid-
Rud in the Caspian basin, and the Mand and Jerrahi in
that of the Persian Gulf. The remaining rivers, having
no outlet to the sea, fall into salt lakes or are lost in
swamps or sand.
Owing to the absence of rains in the central part of the
country artificial irrigation has to be employed. Water
in Persia is life. In the Shariat, land is considered as
belonging to the one who " gives it life " — that is, irri
gates it. Wherever there is a natural or artificial water
course, the desert immediately blooms, and in such places
Persia is really the garden described by poets. A failure
in the water supply necessitates the desertion of the place
and explains the barren ruins that mark once fertile spots.
Nowhere is water so prized and so a part of the very life
as in Persia. Describing the climate of a place the Per
sian says, " Ab hawasie khob est " — its water and air are
good. The highest praise of a place is " ab ziad dorcd "
—it is well watered,

292 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The most universal means of obtaining water is a very
ingenious one. In some fold of the mountain where the
presence of water is indicated a well is dug of about a
yard in diameter and sometimes as deep as 150 to 200 feet.
If water is found, another well is dug, some 70 or 90 feet
from the first, and then a third, and so on in a straight
line, and these wells are all connected underground by a
tunnel, 2 J or 3 feet high. Such a line of wells often extends
for miles, the wells of course decreasing in depth as lower
ground is reached, until the last one may not be over four
feet deep, and then the water in one united stream is car
ried off by the irrigating canals. Such streams are called
Rud Khaneh. Rud means river, but as rivers are so scarce
in most parts of Persia, these artificial canals are all that
the people can understand by the term. The quantity of
water in their canals is measured by the seng — stone.
They will tell you that "this river has four stones of
water." A stone is a quantity of water capable of turning
a small millstone — that is, a stream of water of from four
to five inches in diameter. Anyone owning a " stone " of
water may be considered to be in opulent circum
stances. The quantity of water given to each cultivator is esti
mated by so many hours a week. A gardener will tell
you " he has two hours of water," meaning that for two
hours every week throughout the season the water is
turned into his plot of ground. The owners of the wells,
or " kanats," sell water by the hour, or one can obtain a
partnership in a kanat. It is impossible to state the aver
age price of water by the hour, for it varies in different
parts and depends upon the quantity of water in the kanat,
the situation of the village and the number of kanats it
may possess. Near Teheran ten years ago, a " seng" of
water once a week cost about one hundred dollars for the
tyear. According to this estimate, a kanat that is sold for

TYPE OF ARAB PHYSICIAN

LAND OF THE " LION AND THE SUN " 293
every hour of the twenty-four will give an annual income
of two thousand four hundred and eighty dollars.
The digging and preservation of these kanats is a very
costly undertaking. The men making it their profession
are called " muganni," and are wonderfully clever in dis
covering water and in choosing the direction for their
wells. They are very secretive and jealously guard the
principles that guide them. There is always a risk of
making a mistake, and then the owner of the kanat loses
large sums, but this seldom happens. Oftener a rich
source of water is found, bringing a large premium on the
capital expended.
The work of digging the wells is laborious arid slow.
Small spades are used, and a wheel is rigged up at the
mouth of the well by means of which the earth is brought
up in leather buckets and emptied around the well, so that
in the end each well is surrounded by a circular pile of
earth arid is as in a crater. So long as the earth thus piled
up keeps its shape, the position of the wells is well de
fined, and long lines of such mounds running in all direc
tions and often many lines parallel is one of the most
'characteristic features of the landscape. But when with
time and the action of rains these guarding ramparts be
come obliterated, the kanats form a serious danger to the
belated or unwary traveller, and many are the accidents
caused by them.
The actual digging of the well is the easiest part of the
work. The most painful is the connecting gallery or
tunnel, where, owing to its lowness, the work has to be
done kneeling and bent nearly double, often in a consid
erable depth of cold water.
The Shariat gives precise instructions as to the distance
from each other at which parallel lines of kanats belong
ing to different parties may be carried out without affect
ing each other's water supply.

294 LTFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
A second means of irrigation is employed where there
are rivers or mountain streams, and consists in drawing
the water from them into canals. In such a way the rice
plantations near the Caspian in Azerbaijan and Khorasan
are watered.
The third system is that of making reservoirs or dams
where mountain streams are formed in the springtime by
the melting snows and rains. These dams are called
" derbends," and the many villages bearing that name
and situated where such irrigation could easily be had,
but is not resorted to now, proves that in older times this
simple means demanding only foresight was more univer
sal than it is at the present time.
Viewed from a distance Persian villages form dots, like
green oases on the plains. On approaching one finds
cultivation and trees only where the irrigating canals run.
Many villages, like the towns, are surrounded by high mud
walls, giving them a dreary aspect. And there is no street
life or gaiety after dark. The chief feature of each village
is its " Rud Khaneh," or stream of water that runs through
the village and then out into the fields. On either side
of these streams willow trees are planted, and the branches
that are cut off each year serve as fuel. The chief fuel
is, however, made by the women in the form of cakes of
manure mixed in water, and sometimes with a little
chopped straw added. These are dried in the sun and
then stacked in cone-shaped piles on the flat roofs or
about the village streets.
In the poorer villages the houses consist of one room,
which serves as sleeping and living room for the family,
but generally there are two separate apartments, one for
the men and the other for the women. The stables for
greater safety are generally situated in the innermost part
of the closely packed village, so that often the cattle pass
through the living room to reach them. The roofs are

LAND OF THE " LION AND THE SUN " 295
flat, with a hole to let out the smoke. If there are other
windows than that hole, oil paper frequently takes the
place of glass.
More picturesque are the villages built on the steep
mountain slope, where the houses rise in terraces, the roof
of one forming the yard of the one next above. Large
villages have small shops, mosques, and often a common
bath. The villages are surrounded by fields arid gardens.
The great problem the farmer has to face is to carry out
the system of irrigating canals in such a way as to water
every part of his fields evenly. In solving this problem,
the Persians have attained a skill that is little short of per
fection, and one may sometimes see a stream running up
hill! In passing I must say a few words in regard to Persian
agriculture. In most places it is carried on in a very
primitive way, the land receiving no attention other than
a superficial turning over with a wooden plough and then
watered. In some places, fertilisation of ashes or guano
is used. In the plain of Urumiah the numerous ash
heaps, remains of the fire worshipper's epoch, serve in this
way, and in other districts, as about Tabriz, Ispahan and in
Khorasan, pigeons are kept for furnishing guano. Dotted
about among the fields rise mud towers of thirty to forty
feet in height and some twenty-five to thirty feet in diam
eter, whose thick walls are pierced with holes giving
access to the nests built inside the entire surface of the
inner wall. Each tower has a door through which the
guano can be carried out. On opening the door one is
nearly deafened by the sound of hundreds of birds that
take flight. Each tower, it is estimated, gives in guano
about eight per cent, annually of the sums expended in its
construction. The grain ripens in many places as early as May.

296 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
When harvested by hand, it is placed on huge two-
wheeled carts drawn by oxen or buffaloes, or it is loaded
onto donkeys and carried to the common threshing floor
of the village. Here the bundles are spread out and first
threshed by driving over them several oxen hitched
abreast. Then an instrument known as "charkh" is
used. A seat is arranged over a number of wooden rollers
that turn as the charkh is drawn. Into these rollers are
sunk sharp teeth or knives. The driver, seated on the
stool, drives around and around over the grain, chopping
the straw into fine bits, the grain having mostly been
tramped out already and dropped to the ground. After
this process is finished, the winnowing is done by throwing
up the mass with broad shovels. This is mostly done by
night, when there is more chance of wind, and the straw
as it is tossed up is carried to one side, the grain falling
in a heap. The chopped straw is used for feeding horses
and cattle, and the grain is sifted and thus prepared for
. milling. One great advantage enjoyed by the Persian farmer
over his Western brother is that he is not pressed for time
nor obliged to profit by fair weather. He sows his grain,
waits patiently for it to ripen, harvests it at his ease, know
ing that the threshing and winnowing too will be done
in good weather. The cereals mostly cultivated are wheat
and barley, the latter taking the place of oats as horse
feed. Both of these are sown according to circumstances
as summer or winter crops, the only difference being that
grain sown in the fall ripens earlier and is more apt to
give a good yield.
Aside from the large flocks of sheep kept by most moun
tain villages, each peasant on the plains generally owns
a few sheep to furnish him with wool, cheese and milk.
The sheep found in Persia are of the bigtail variety,
(Ovis laticandate tartar). The tail sometimes attains an

LAND OF THE " LION AND THE SUN " 297
incredible size, and, like the hump of the camel, undoubt
edly furnishes nourishment in times of need to the sheep,
enabling them to exist seven to eight days without food.
At such times, although the tail becomes small and flabby,
there is no permanent bad result to the health of the ani
mal. Sheep are easier to feed than any of the other milk-
giving domestic animals, and are a great help and source
of wealth to the peasants. In some parts of Persia sheep
often bear young twice a year.
Another domestic animal very often met with is the
long-suffering ass, without which one cannot imagine
Persia as existing. They are hardy, easily satisfied as to
food, living on straw and thistles if they cannot get better.
They are used as beasts of burden and often for drawing
the plough and threshing instruments.
I remember a poor man in Meshed whose entire wealth
seemed to consist of a wife, ass and a baby — named in
order of usefulness. On our rides we used to pass his little
plot of rented land. In the spring we would see the wife
and ass together drawing the plough, which was guided
by the husband, the baby toddling behind or asleep in the
rough booth they had rigged up for the season. When
the grain ripened the man and woman laboriously reaped
it, while the ass browsed by them, glad of his season of
respite. And so we watched the work carried on in all
its stages by the three, until, completed, the little donkey
carried home on his back first the grain, then the straw.
and lastly the booth, household belongings and baby.
In the absence of sufficient grass land, the Persians are
obliged to sow grass for hay. The variety most univer
sally cultivated is lucerne, "ynja" (Medicago sativa).
It is harvested three times a year, and, once sown, can be
continued on the same place fifteen years. Then, too, is
to be found esparset (epobrychis), that grows well and
that is used in medicine for rheumatism. In some moun-

298 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tain regions, grain is sown in fields that are not artificially
watered nor fertilised. Under such conditions, a field
that yields three to four fold is considered poor. If his
craft brings in five fold, a Persian will tell you that it is
not bad — " bed neest." In the most fertile regions, as, for
instance, the valley of Beramen near Teheran, where the
fields receive artificial irrigation and fertilisation, the
yield is from ten to twenty fold under favourable circum
stances. The vegetable and fruit gardens are carefully
cultivated, as are the vineyards. Booths are built for watch
men, scarecrows put up and a horse's skull fastened to
a pole to keep off the evil eye. In case the watchman's
vigilance be not sufficient, a paper is stuck up on which is
written the punishment awaiting the thief in the next
world according to the Koran, as well as a personal curse
that the stealer of other people's good things may expect.
There are three formidable foes to be faced by the Per
sian agriculturist: a snowless winter in the mountains,
locusts, and the injustice and rapacity of his landlord.
Experience has taught the inhabitants of each district how
the snow lines on the mountains predict a dry summer;
and if in the spring a sufficient fall of snow has not been
marked, the price of grain goes up, whereas, on the con
trary, if a good fall of snow comes the prices of all eat
ables drop.
Each village has its ketkhuda, who sees to the collecting
of taxes and general order. Also a mirab, who over
sees the fair distribution of water. The duties of the latter
are by no means light. For the most frequent and vio
lent quarrels, often ending in bloodshed, are traced to
water. When one considers the high price on every
" hour " it is easy to conceive how great is the temptation
of landowners during the hot, dry season to steal a little
water from his hour by the simple stroke of a spade or

TYPE OF DERVISH

LAND OF THE " LION AND THE SUN " 299
by clearing away a few inches of earth and thus turning
the stream into his own field. When we lived in Meshed
we had large gardens about our city house and had the
right of water all of Mondays. The stream that flowed
through our garden had to come to us after passing
through the gardens above us. Every little while our
gardener would find his water supply cut off, and we
would have to send to our neighbours, one after the other,
until we traced the failure in the water supply to its cause.
Hot words would be exchanged between our gardener
and the offending persons, and the water would be turned
on again, but hardly had our man resumed his work be
fore the stream would again cease or dwindle to half the
amount due us. As a failure to get our supply meant
leaving the garden unwatered for a whole week, it was a
serious matter, and Mondays were exciting days. If in
spite of constant fighting we did not get our full share of
water, our gardener the next day was sure to steal a little
of the water as it passed through our grounds to our
next neighbour, thereby bringing down upon us the angry
visits of the neighbour below us. And this was only for
pleasure gardens; but when it comes to rice and wheat
fields, the year's food of the people, the fight for water
rights is naturally a bitter one.
Persian cities, like all those of the East, are now too well
known to the general reader to need a detailed descrip
tion of the narrow, dirty streets inside the walled city or
of the bazaars and cafes. In Persia, however, unlike Tur
key, in spite of the unattractive appearance of the street
there is much that is pleasant within the inhospitable-
looking iron-studded door that is all that breaks the
monotony of the walls. Once within, gardens of fruit and
shade trees, roses and flower beds, watered by the running
streams, are sure to be found. Poor indeed must be the

300 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
house that has not a few trees or bushes in the little court
yard. As a result Persian cities seem lost in a mass of
green. While overlooking the bazaars and other familiar
Oriental scenes, I would dwell a little on the public baths,
that have so important a place in every Persian town. They
are generally large rambling buildings below the level of
the street, with dome-shaped roofs studded with glass, so
that the light falls from above. The entrance to a bath
may always be recognised first by the long string of loin
cloths hung outside to dry, and second by the remarkable
painting that adorns the niche above the door. This is
always either a scene from the life of Rustam, or a very
fierce soldier painted in the brightest colours, who has a
very big moustache and in every case is wall-eyed or
cross-eyed. The bath is divided into several rooms, and one apart
ment is set aside for the operation of dyeing the hair. All
Persians of both sexes dye the hair a bright black from the
cradle. This is the explanation of the phenomenon no
ticed by so many travellers, namely, the absence of grey-
haired people in Persia. This operation is performed at
stated times once in four to six weeks, and is considered
beneficent to the hair, a safeguard against undesirable
inhabitants, and at the same time ornamental. If the
time for dyeing the hair is allowed to pass, Persians affirm
that headache and eye trouble result and that the habit
once formed cannot be dropped.
The dye is prepared from the leaves of the Lawsonia
inermis, and is known in Persia as henna. This plant
is grown in the south of Persia. A paste is made of the
powdered dried leaves of the Lawsonia and of warm
water. This paste is well plastered over the hair, beard
and such parts of the body as are to be dyed — the finger
nails, palms of the hands, soles of the feet and toe nails.

LAND OF THE "LION AND THE SUN" 301
The paste must remain on for two or three hours, during
which time it is kept moist. At the expiration of the two
hours the paste is carefully washed off, leaving a bright
orange colour. The hands and feet are allowed to remain
thus, but on the hair and beard another paste is applied
made in the same manner but of the leaves of the Indigo-
fera, a plant cultivated in Kerman. This paste is allowed
to remain for another two hours, and when washed off the
hair is found to be a beautiful shining black.
Some do not apply the second dye, leaving the beard
an orange red, which one often sees in Persia. White
sheep are occasionally dyed with henna ; also the tails of
all the shah's horses. Chestnut-coloured horses, even
when owned by private individuals, generally have their
tails dyed, but for horses of all other colours this privi
lege belongs only to those owned by the shah.
As the entire operation of dyeing the hair occupies five
or six hours, the part of the bath used for this purpose is
a regular club, as the Persians lunch here, tea and pipes
are brought and the news of the day exchanged. This
room is also a barber's shop, for before the dyeing the
head is shaved and the beard trimmed. The ordinary
Persian shaves a strip of about four fingers broad from
the forehead right through to the neck. Mullahs, sayids
and in general those wearing turbans shave the entire
head. Only dancers and dervishes wear long hair, while
Europeanised Persians do not shave the head at all.
The poorer classes have their barber's work done in the
street wherever they may meet a perambulating barber,
who is also a dentist.
Special hours are set apart each day for the women,
and this is announced by the bathkeeper, who goes onto
the roof and blows most dismally on a long horn.
In Persia no unbelievers are permitted to visit a Mos
lem bath, and I succeeded in doing so in a small town only

302 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
after much arguing with the bathkeeper. After a long
time, and the exchange from my pocket to his of certain
coins of the realm, he permitted me to do so, but under
one condition — that I ride on the back of one of the stal
wart bath boys, so as not to pollute the bath by my touch.
In the same humiliating manner I was enabled to visit
the mosque of Ardabil and to see the now famous carpet,
parts of which are, I believe, in the Kensington Museum.
I was struck then by its beauty, but had I foreseen the
fabulous price it brought years later, tattered as it was, I
should have made an effort to raise the money for buying
it, although I was then young and my pay but small.
Another characteristic of the Persian cities that should
not be overlooked are the cemeteries. These are found
where one would least expect them, namely, in the centre
of the towns. They are not surrounded by fence or wall.
They are a sort of open square over which to make
short cuts when you walk or ride. They are the
playgrounds of the poor children and the homes of
packs of street dogs that often dig open the shallow
graves. During the rainy season the water occasionally
washes away the ground, forming hollows and holes
through which the badly-made coffin, if there is one, or
the swathed corpse, may be seen. It is unnecessary to say
that the quarters of the city that surround these numerous
cemeteries are the seat of much disease. In many of these
graveyards something like temporary mausoleums are
made to receive bodies that are eventually to be carried to
Kerbela, Meshed, or some other sacred spot. To the same
end many go so far as to bury their dead in their own gar
den or cellars until they can be removed. Foreign lega
tions and consuls have much difficulty in persuading the
authorities to prohibit this dangerous practice.
If possible the dead are always buried on the same day,
and often within a very few hours after death has taken
place. In a land where in many cases one room has to

LAND OF THE " LION AND THE SUN " 303
serve as living and sleeping room for the whole family,
this custom may have its advantages. But it also has its
horrible side, for many cases have been known where the
person was not really dead when buried. In the absence
of skilled physicians this may easily happen, but little at
tention is paid to it and no measures of precaution are
taken. Once the person ceases to breathe and becomes
cold, the soul is supposed to have left the body, and can
return only on the day of the last judgment. Therefore
the possibility of a lethargy is not admitted.
I was told by reliable persons of a case that occurred in
Ardabil sixty years ago. One evening a Persian passing
through a cemetery distinctly heard cries issuing from a
grave. At first he was so frightened that he started to run,
but on second thought he called Allah to his aid and, ap
proaching a grave, heard clearly calls for help issuing
from it. As the grave was very shallow, he was able to
dig it open with his hands and stick, and soon came to the
coffin, from which he helped out a woman. He led her to
her home, but her people refused to receive her. The
unfortunate creature passed the night in the street, and on
the following morning a large crowd escorted her to a
Mudjtaheid, who read verses from the Koran proving that
the dead do not rise until the last day and commanded her
to be put to death and be buried again ! Such facts could
not take place now, of course, but that many instances oc
curred where persons supposed to have been dead were
not so when buried, I can vouch for.
Maidans, or squares, are also inseparable from the
Persian cities. They are generally situated in front of
the governor's palace or artillery barracks. They serve
for parades and executions and also in passing as a gen
eral rubbish heap, and here, as everywhere, are the mis
erable street dogs, whose lot is even worse than that of
their brethren, the world-famed dogs of Constantinople.

CHAPTER XVII
THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN THE MOSLEM WORLD,
ACCORDING TO THE TEACHINGS OF THE KORAN
Woman as a Creature Distinguished by her Love of Ornaments and
Disputing without Reason — Woman as the Property of her Husband
— Principle of Control over Woman as Found in the Koran — Are
Women Admitted to Paradise? — Harems and their Exclusiveness —
The Koran's View as to the Benefits of Marriage — Polygamy — Prin
ciple of Equality among Wives — Easiness of Divorce One of the
Curses of Islamism — Property Rights of Women.
ONE may live years in the Moslem East without really
getting at the life of the women. This is owing to their
isolation, and to the tendency on the part of the men to
hide their family life from all outside gaze. But there is
a means other than personal observation by which the cur
tain may be drawn from the mysterious harem life, and by
which a light may be thrown that at once brings out in
bold relief the position of the women. This is the Koran,
with its teachings concerning marriage, divorce laws, and
the property rights of women. According to these laws
the life of the Mohammmedan woman is regulated — be it
in the deserts of Arabia, in the palaces of the Bosphorus,
in the " urtas " of the Turkoman and Kirghiz, or in the
villages of Kazan and Orinburgh provinces. There may
be in these various places certain exceptions, or differ
ences in the details as to the number of wives, laws govern
ing divorce, etc., but these exceptions do not in the main
change the position of woman as it is clearly defined in
all Mohammedan countries. 3°4

THE POSITION OF WOMEN 305
First of all we see that the Koran looks upon woman as
an imperfect, weak creature, standing on a lower plane
than that occupied by man ; as beings that are " brought
up among ornaments and are contentious without cause "
(Sura 43, verse 17) . The same idea, as elaborated in an
other chapter, can be traced in the names of women and
in the adjectives used to describe the sex.
Beginning from this view of woman and the statement
that " the men ought to have a superiority over them "
(Sura 2, verse 228), the Koran regards a woman as her
husband's property, to be treated as he wills. "Your
wives are your tillage ; go in therefore to your tillage in
what manner soever ye will." (Sura 22, verse 223.)
Further in the 38th verse of the 4th Sura we find, " Men
shall have the pre-eminence above women, because of
those advantages wherein God hath caused the one of them
to excel the other ; and for that which they expend of their
substance in maintaining their wives. The honest women
are obedient, careful in the absence of their husbands, for
that God preserveth them by committing them to the care
and protection of the men. But those whose perverseness
ye shall be apprehensive of rebuke; and remove them into
separate apartments and chastise them. But if they shall
be obedient unto you, seek not an occasion of quarrel
against them; for God is high and great."
Once acknowledging in principle that " man is higher
than woman," the logical sequence is that the Moslem law
regards a woman as but half of a man. In the 2d
Sura of the Koran we read, " And called to witness two
witnesses of your neighbouring men : but, if there not be
two men, let there be a man and two women of those whom
ye shall choose for witnesses ; if one of these women should
mistake, the other of them will cause her to remember."
If the witnesses be only women, however many, their tes
timony is not admitted.

306 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Further, in the laws concerning the price of blood, just
half the sum named for the murder of a man is given as
the price of a woman's blood. In following out the idea
of a woman's standing on a lower plane than a man we
find that women do not as a rule share the titles of their
husbands. Are women admitted to Paradise? is a question that is
often asked, and answered by most Europeans in the neg
ative. We find, however, more than one passage in the
Koran that distinctly speaks of a future life in Paradise
for women. The most often quoted is the one promising
the Faithful that he will meet in Paradise besides his own
earthly wives seventy-two houris — not an attractive pros
pect for the poor women, who have suffered enough in
this life from the humiliations of polygamy! But in the
4th Sura we find the following more definite statement:
" But whoso doeth good works, whether he be male or
female, and is a true believer, they shall be admitted into
Paradise, and shall not in the least be unjustly dealt with."
The isolation and veiling of women was undoubtedly
borrowed by Mohammed, as were so many other of his
ideas, from the customs about him and the age in which
he lived. The veiling of women and separate apartments
for them are to be found both in Asia and in ancient
Greece and Rome in times that date back to days long
before Mohammed's teachings, or the Christian era. But
that this idea found rich soil in the jealous and sensuous
character of the Prophet is to be easily conceived. Al
though there is no absolute command about covering the
face, the spirit of the teachings that lead to the veiling
and isolation of women is found running through the
Koran and the traditions of the sayings of Mohammed.
For instance, we read in the 33d Sura, "And when ye ask
of the Prophet's wives what ye may have occasion for, ask
it of them from behind a curtain." And again, "0

THE POSITION OF WOMEN 307
Prophet, speak unto thy wives and thy daughters and the
wives of the true believers that they cast their outer gar
ments1 over them when they walk abroad; this will be
more proper, that they may be known to be matrons of
reputation, and may not be affronted by unseemly words
or actions. God is gracious and merciful." (Sura 33,
verse 59.) In the 55th verse of the 23d Sura we read,
" And speak unto the believing women that they restrain
their eyes and preserve their modesty and discover not
their ornaments except what necessarily appeareth
thereof ; and let them throw their veils over their bosoms)
and not show their ornaments except to their husbands,
or their fathers, or their husband's fathers, or their sons,
or their husband's sons, or their brothers, or their broth
er's sons, or their sister's sons, or their women, or the cap
tives which their right hands shall possess, or unto such
men as attend them and have no need of women ; or unto
children that distinguish not the nakedness of women."
Undoubtedly to such teachings must be laid the fact
that to the present time in every country where Islamism
is professed with any degree of strictness the veiling of
women and their isolation are as much a part of their
religion and life as are polygamy or pilgrimages. The
movement among enlightened women of to-day which
endeavors to prove that the Koran does not advocate the
veiling of women is no doubt based more on the letter
than on the spirit of Mohammedanism. Although
there may be many worthy exceptions this attempt
will raise strong opposers who cling to polygamy
and to the isolation of women. My own opinion is that
in spite of the brave stand that women are taking in try-
1The original word properly signifies the large wrappers, usually of
white linen, with which the women in the East cover themselves from head
to foot when they go abroad." — Footnote to Sales' translation of the Koran
which is the one I have followed in the foregoing quotations.

308 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
ing to prove that they can have liberty and progress
within the Islamic walls, they are mistaken. The rights
of polygamy and its humiliating companions, the veiling
and isolation of women, will always be found to go hand
in hand with strict Mohammedanism.
Not only do Mohammedans, and the Persians in par
ticular, demand that their women's faces be closely veiled,
but they consider that even the accidental gaze of an out
sider is a sin. Moreover, the husband never speaks of
his wife to his acquaintances. If obliged to mention her
it is by some other term than wife, as " mother of my son,"
or " my house." She must not exist for anyone but her
husband, and from all others she must be hidden — non-
existing. For this reason, when the harems of governors
or very high personages pass through the streets of Persia,
the men whom they meet either turn their backs or
slip down a by-street or into some convenient door
way. On the ground, then, of the interpretation of the spirit
if not the letter of the Koran and its commentators, we
find that in every country where the Mohammedans are
scattered, isolation of women and their position as infe
rior beings are the chief features of their social organi
sations. Not one of the more definite commands of the
Koran is as rigidly fulfilled as this. The harem is in
every sense of the word the holy of holies of the Moslem
world, that no individual or government can violate with
impunity. If a police investigation is carried out, or a
criminal sought, this is done so far as the doors of the
harem, but farther than that they dare not go. The ex
ceptional cases where this has been done have always been
followed by more or less serious consequences.
The Shiites, more fanatical than the Sunnites in their
dislike of having the yards of their harems overlooked

THE POSITION OF WOMEN 309
from higher roofs, object to minarets.1 This picturesque
addition to Turkish villages and cities is therefore never
seen in Persia, the call for prayer being made from the
flat roofs of the mosques.
Having admitted the principle of polygamy, the Koran
has a good deal to say on the benefits of the married state.
In the 32d verse of the 24th Sura we find the following
injunction: "Marry those who are single among you and
such as are honest of your men servants and your maid
servants: if they be poor, God will enrich them of his
abundance: for God is bounteous and wise." In another
place the Koran enjoins all to marry and found families,
and adds that bachelors are the worst of mankind.
With this view of marriage we find Mohammedans
marrying their young people as early in life as possible,
with no regard as to whether they have the means to do
so, basing their claim for God's aid upon the above
quoted verses about God's enriching the poor.
In justifying polygamy they turn to the words found in
the 4th Sura and 3d verse: "And if ye fear that ye shall
not act with equity towards orphans of the female sex,
take in marriage of such other women as please you, two,
or three or four, and not more. But if ye fear that ye
cannot act equitably toward so many, marry one only or
the slaves that ye have acquired."
The above also shows us that more than four wives
are forbidden from the fear of unequal treatment of so
many; but if this fear does not exist one can infer the
lawfulness of adding to this number. The Prophet him
self set the example by taking a greater number, though
some theologians regard that as a privilege granted to
him alone. The four wives do not include the slave
1 In the rare instances where minarets are found in Persia, they are gen
erally for ornament, and not for the muezzin to ascend.

3io LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
women, and the Shiites in particular have many means
of evading the limitation by resorting to different forms
or degrees of marriage, which will be enlarged upon in
another chapter.
Mohammed clearly enjoins equality in the treatment of
the various wives without showing partiality to any one.
That he realises, however — probably from his own sad
experience — the difficulty of carrying out this principle
we find from the words given in the 128th verse of the
4th Sura : " Ye can by no means carry yourselves equally
between women in all respects, although ye study to do
so; therefore turn not from a wife with all manner of
aversion, nor leave her like one in suspense; if ye agree
and fear to abuse your wives, God is gracious and merci
ful ; but if they separate God will satisfy them both of his
abundance." Although, therefore, all Moslem husbands try to fur
nish their wives with equal surroundings, servants, cloth
ing, etc., exceptions must arise. The human failings lead
to favouritism ; wives of different rank demand different
treatment, and the obligation of the husband towards a
wife of another religion is regarded as a half of what he
owes to his Mohammedan wives. The Mohammedan
men are forbidden to force their non-Mohammedan
wives to fulfil the rites of the Mohammedan religion, but
they have the right to demand that such wives shall
abstain from acts that are forbidden by the Mohamme
dan religion, as drinking wine, frequenting a church or
synagogue, or going out unveiled. The husband can al
ways enforce his authority in these respects by simply
keeping the wife locked at home.
The Koran and all theological teachers regard divorce
very lightly, on the ground that the divorced parties can
soon find themselves other partners. In the case of divorc
ing a wife it is forbidden to take from her what has been

PERSIAN WOMAN DRAWING ON THE OUT-DOOR TROUSERS

THE POSITION OF WOMEN 311
given to her. In the 24th verse of the 4th Sura we read:
" If ye be desirous to exchange a wife for another wife,
and ye have already given one of them a talent, take not
away anything therefrom; will ye take it by slandering
her and doing her manifest injustice?" Once admitting
the legality of divorce for trifling reasons, the theologians,
or Moslem commentators, have carried this license much
further. A study of the laws governing divorce cannot but con
vince one that all the arguments given are to support two
conditions, namely, facilitation of divorce for men, and
difficulties of obtaining the same for women; and sec
ondly, protection of the husband from any attempt on the
part of the wife to get him to support a child about his
being the father of which there might be doubt. In view
of this last clause a certain " period of proof " is appointed
for a divorced woman before she may marry again. All
the laws concerning divorce fall with greatest weight on
the women. It is not only polygamy that is the curse of
Mohammedan countries, but the facility with which a
husband may even at a caprice divorce his wife.
In regard to a woman's being unfaithful to her marriage
vows, the Moslem law is more severe than the Koran,
though the latter is sufficiently cruel, as we find in the 4th
Sura, 19th verse: " If any of your women be guilty of
whoredom, produce four witnesses from among you
against them, and if they bear witness against them im
prison them in separate apartments until death release
them, or God afford them a way to escape." In the 2d
verse of the 24th Sura we read: " The whore arid whore
monger shall ye scourge with an hundred stripes, and let
not compassion towards them prevent you from executing
the judgment of God if ye believe in God and the last day."
The laws laid down by theologians, being stricter than
those of the Koran, ordained that the four witnesses hav-

312 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
ing testified to the unchastity of a married woman she is
to be stoned to death. Even the details are described. The
woman is to be buried in the ground up to the waist. If
her guilt has been proved by the testimony of witnesses
they are to throw the first stones. If she herself has con
fessed, the judge who pronounces the sentence casts the
first stone. For the same offence in an unmarried woman
the first misdeed is punished by one hundred stripes, the
second by two hundred stripes and the third by death.
Time has of course softened these punishments. We
do not hear of stoning an adulteress, but the spirit remains,
and many punishments are meted out within the walls of
the harems that get outside only in whispers, and society
and the authorities " look through their fingers."
As recently as some fifty years ago women were thrown
from the citadel of Tabriz as punishment for immorality.
In Shiraz, within five hundred paces of the tomb of one of
Persia's most popular classical poets, Saadi, is a well into
which women used to be thrown. The depth of this well,
according to a European physician living in Shiraz, is
so great that one can count fifteen before a stone dropped
down touches the first irregularity in the side of the well.
There is at the present day a tower in Bokhara that is
shown to travellers as the place from which women were
thrown before the Russian occupation of Transcaspia.
Such are some of the dumb witnesses of women's lot
in Mohammedan lands, and though time and advancing
civilisation have made such public executions impossi
ble, it does not follow that all these punishments have been
abolished. What stories could the Bosphorus tell, and
other places affording convenient and natural means of
concealing the secrets of the harem, without the trouble
of building towers or digging wells !
The property rights of women are stated in the 12th,
13th, 14th, 15th and 175th verses of the 4th Sura. I shall

THE POSITION OF WOMEN 313
quote them in their entirety, as these form the basis of the
laws concerning heredity, a more detailed examination
of which would occupy too much space.
Verse 12. " God hath thus commanded you concern
ing your children. A male shall have as much as the
share of two females ; but if they be females only and above
two in number they shall have two-thirds parts of what
the deceased shall leave; and if there be but one she shall
have the half. And the parents of the deceased shall each
have a sixth part of what he shall leave, if he have a child,
but if he have no child and his parents be his heirs, then
the mother shall have the third part. And if he have
brethren, his mother shall have a sixth part, after the lega
cies which he shall bequeath and his debts be paid. Ye
know not whether your parents or your children be of
greater use unto you. This is an ordinance of God, and
God is knowing and wise."
Verse 13. "Moreover, you may claim half of what
your wives shall leave if they have no issue ; but if they
have issue then ye shall have the fourth part of what they
shall leave, after the legacies which they shall bequeath
arid the debts shall be paid."
Verse 14. "They also shall have the fourth part of
what you shall leave in case you have no issue ; but if you
have issue then they shall have the eighth part of what
ye shall leave after the legacies which ye shall bequeath
and the debts be paid."
Verse 15. "And if a man or woman's substance be
inherited by a distant relation, and he or she have a
brother or sister, each of them too shall have a sixth part
of the estate. But if there be more than this number they
shall be equal sharers in a third part, after payment of
the legacies which shall be bequeathed and the debts
without prejudice to the heirs."
Verse 175. " But if there be two sisters they shall have

314 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
between them two-thirds parts of what he shall leave;
and if there be several, both sisters and brothers, a male
shall have as much as the portion of two females. God
declareth unto you these precepts, lest ye err: and God
knoweth all things."

CHAPTER XVIII
THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA
Costumes of City and Village Women — Beroun and Enderoun — Harem
Servants — Occupation of Women — Superstitions — Excursions — Vis
iting Shrines — Education of Women — Betrothals — Weddings — Vari
ous Forms of Marriage — A Wife Agde and Sege — Monogamy and
the Reason for its Preponderance — Marriage with Slaves — Marriage
— Marriages with Christians — Position of Christian Wives in Har
ems — Marriage of Mohammedan Women with non-Mohammedans
Forbidden — Divorce the Husband's Privilege — Uncertain Position
of the Woman in her Husband's House — Harem Intrigues — Powers
of Persians as Husbarids and Fathers.
On entering a Persian city, the European is first of all
struck with the sight of figures swathed in dark blue with
veils over their faces, and below the blue mantle glimpses
of broad sharwars and short high-heeled slippers that
flap with each step, and cause a swaying, tottering gait.
These figures are Persian women.
It is difficult to imagine a more uncomfortable costume
than that of the Persian woman, both indoors and in the
street. The house dress consists of short and very full
skirts hardly reaching the knee. The fuller the skirts are
and the greater number of them worn, the more " chic "
the wearer is considered. Sometimes under these skirts
tight-fitting drawers are worn that reach to the ankle.
More often, especially in summer, the legs are bare down
to the short socks. A loose blouse-like shirt is worn very
short, and often of almost transparent material. Over this
is a short jacket, open in front, having long tight sleeves.
This jacket lends itself to great decoration among the rich,
31s

3i6 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the material generally being of velvet or silk lavishly
braided, embroidered or trimmed with seed pearls. On
the head is a simple kerchief adorned with fancy aigrettes
or not, according to the social position of the woman. A
light veil of muslin, cambric or silk is generally thrown
over all, even in the house. The hair is parted smoothly,
drawn back and braided in many fine braids and left
hanging down the back. Of ornaments, earrings, brace
lets on the arms and ankles, necklaces, nose-rings and fin
ger-rings are worn, also jewels are mounted in buckles for
belts. Turquoise and carnelians are the most commonly
worn, as they are considered lucky stones, though many
harems can boast of magnificent emeralds, rubies and
pearls. In the winter a long, frocked coat of cloth or
" shawl " is worn in the house. The Persian shawl mate
rial is greatly prized, and fine specimens are handed down
in a family as " heirlooms."
The street costume consists of three articles worn over
the house dress. The full skirts are first tucked into long
full trousers, to each leg of which a sock of the same
material is sewn. Over the head and falling to the feet is
worn the " chadir," or veil or mantle, of dark blue. Over
this about the forehead is fastened a long narrow strip
of cotton about the breadth of a towel, that falls over the
face rfearly to the ground. Just over the eyes is a bit of
drawn open-work. In the hot weather this costume is
stifling and uncomfortable, and at the best of times the
poor women can see little through the embroideries.
The slippers are high-heeled leather ones, turned up
af the toes, and so short that they barely reach beyond the
middle of the foot, and the effort made to keep them on
makes the woman's gait more of a shuffle than a walk.
In this costume the disguise of a woman is so perfect
that her own husband can hardly recognise her. A man
will rarely be seen in the street with his wife, being con-

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 317
trary to Moslem etiquette, and if he does happen to ac
company her he will never walk by her side, but either
in advance or behind her.
On passing a European, if sure that none of her co
religionists see her, a woman, particularly if she be young
and good-looking, will often raise her veil, from under
which a pair of dark eyes follow the stranger with a
curious gaze.
Women of the lower class wear longer skirts, long
trousers, and a bit of muslin or calico thrown over their
head as veils.
Powder arid rouge are much used, and the eyes arid
eyebrows blackened, the latter very heavily, and are
made to meet over the nose. In former years most women
tattooed, but this practice has gone out of use.
The Persian, be he poor or rich, settled or nomadic, has
his women folk more or less isolated and his dwelling
divided into the men's and women's quarters.
In the women's part of the house, the servants are all
female, with the exception of the eunuchs, and possibly
dwarfs. The eunuchs, aside from acting as guards and
escorts in the streets, are the settlers of disputes, and act
as messengers between the women and the husband when
he is in the men's apartments.
In the harem are often to be found pages of from
eleven to fifteen years of age, " gulaf-bacha " boys, often
of very good families, who are placed in influential Per
sian houses. These boys often serve the master in another
capacity, and even sometimes the ladies also, which leads
to stories of the darkest and most scandalous part of the
harem life.
Each wife according to the law is entitled to a separate
house and household. This is not, however, always found
to be so in practice. Occasionally when means permit the
several wives have quite separate residences. Again, one

3i8 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
finds separate small houses in one large courtyard, or
different apartments in the same house.
The occupation of the women depends upon the social
position of the husband. In the poorer families the
women do the household work and attend to the milking
and dairy work generally. The field work is done en
tirely by the men. To be just, one must give the Persians
the credit of being logical. Acknowledging the woman to
be the weaker vessel, they never put the hard physical
work upon her, and so the women of the lower classes
have their family and house to look after, while those
of the upper classes have their toilet, visiting, light
needlework, and, in rare cases, reading, to occupy them.
The latter kill time by giving their attention to the adorn
ment of their persons, smoking, eating sweets, listening
to story tellers and musicians, making calls and going to
the bath. The baths are the nearest approach to clubs
that they have, and here they spend hours, dyeing their
hair with henna, which takes hours, and in the meantime
gossiping with their acquaintances.
When making calls the rich ladies go in carriages or
horseback, riding astride, accompanied by eunuchs, maids,
and men servants. The poorer classes go alone. They
have considerable liberty in going out for calls or to the
bazaar, and, during Muharram, to attend the " tazie," or
mystery plays. They are very fond also of visiting shrines
or holy places, that are to be found near all large cities.
It is said, but I have no proof of it, that these religious
visits are often masks for love intrigues. Near the shrines
are always to be found rooms that can be engaged for a
day, or longer or shorter time, arid it is quite possible that
Persian ladies sometimes take advantage of these places,
the more so that once on the street the Persian woman
runs little risk of being recognised even by her own hus
band, They also love to go to physicians to talk at length

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 319
of their ills, and beg for love potions or some beautifying
elixir. The education of the Persian woman rarely rises to any
thing higher than the arts of reading and writing, ac
quaintance with the prayers arid poets and in elegant con
versation and deportment. Singing, dancing and music
are not taught, as these are not approved of by the Koran
nor by etiquette, and special professional dancers and
musicians are for hire.
The chief characteristic of the Persian woman is super
stition, which is quite comprehensible in a people whose
calendar possesses lucky and unlucky days. They all firmly
believe in charms and the effects of the " good " or " evil
eye," especially in love affairs. To keep the love of their
husbands they often resort to wearing strange amulets,
as, for instance, the claws of hyenas, or an amulet fastened
about the arm just below the shoulder that contains some
written verses from the Koran. Jealousy often leads one
wife to give to another wife remedies that, according to
their belief, will render her childless.
Maidens wishing to get married visit the tomb of some
sacred woman, usually the sister of one of the imams.
There are many such tombs, and most of them are con
sidered as the patrons of virgins. Marriages are con
tracted very early. The rich may marry their sons at the
age of fifteen or sixteen to temporary wives, " sege," and
at the age of nineteen to twenty to permanent wives or
"agde." Sometimes, owing to family reasons, one hears
of a youth of fifteen or sixteen married to a girl much
older. The marriageable age for a girl is fixed at nine.
It is not infrequent to meet in Persia, particularly in
the southern parts, women of twenty-eight or thirty who
are grandmothers. Of love there can be, of course, no
thought. The more so that love as a lofty moral senti
ment as we understand it is unknown to the Persians.

320 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Love as sung by the poets of the golden age is a sensuous
passion, and one not always inspired by women.
The marriage contract is always made out in Arabic
according to a set form, and for which the consent of both
parties is obligatory. An auspicious day is chosen — for
during the month of Muharram, during fasts, and when
the moon is in the sign of the scorpion, no marriages can
be performed. Two witnesses are demanded, but their
absence does not hinder the ceremony, providing all the
other formalities are observed. If one or both of the con
tracting parties be minors, the contract is signed for them
by the father, brother, or guardian. Such contracts are
as binding as if made out between persons who are of age,
and they cannot be annulled when the parties reach their
majority on the ground of its having been made out when
they were minors.
Slaves may marry a slave, or a free woman, but always
with the consent of their masters.
Although the Shariat regards as legal only such mar
riages as are contracted by the free will of both parties,
the consent of parents and guardians is sufficient in the
case of very early marriages. This is made the more
binding that the influence of parents over their children
is enormous. They can even sell their children into
slavery, which frequently happens among nomadic tribes
without being considered disgraceful. If often happens
that parents betroth children who are yet in the cradle.
Sweetmeats are eaten — " Sheerenie huran " — correspond
ing to our betrothal ceremony, and the given promise is
sacredly carried out when the children grow up.
Marriages are generally arranged in the following
way: A man, becoming enamoured of the beauty of a
damsel as described to him by a sister or other female
friend, obtains, through women again, the consent of the
girl's father. The latter if favourably inclined towards

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 321.
the match will, in most cases, give the love-sick suitor the
chance of seeing the lady's face. Then follow the con
ditions of the marriage contract, the sum to be paid to the
bride's mother by the suitor — " Sherie bega " — trosseau,
etc. Then friends are invited to eat sweets and the com
ing marriage is announced.
On the appointed day, the groom and his friends re
pair to the bride's house — the men in the beroun, the
women in the enderoun — and the marriage contract is
drawn up, with the bride's representative to answer for
her. Occasionally she, herself veiled, stands behind a
curtain, and the mullah in repeating the formula turns
in the direction where he has been told she is, but without
seeing her. Then a prayer is read, and a few words said
as to the sacredness and obligations of the marriage vows,
and in about ten minutes all is over.
Then begin the entertainments, lasting from two to ten
days, according to the wealth and position of the parties.
All this time the young people do not see each other and
the bride remains in her father's house. The bride's
trousseau is taken in great pomp with music to the bride
groom's house. Long lines of men with trays on their
heads carry such articles as crystal, lamps, etc. Horses
and mules are loaded with boxes containing the remainder
of the trousseau, and all is brought into the enderoun and
shown to the assembled guests. The taking of the bride
groom's presents to the bride's house is accompanied by
the same ceremonies. On the last day of the celebrations,
the bride is escorted at night with music arid torches to
her husband's house, where, as on the day of signing the
contract, various rites not enjoined by the Shariat are ob
served. According to the Shariat there are two forms of mar
riage, either the permanent one, when a wife is known
as an " agde," or a temporary arrangement with the

322 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
length of time from an hour to ninety-nine years indi
cated. Such wives are termed seges, and the number of
such wives that a man may have is unlimited. As both
forms of marriage are considered equally binding, the
children of both have equal rights. By establishing the
institution of " sege " the Shariat gets around the limita
tions of four wives, for the " sege " who is contracted for
ninety-nine years passes from the sege du jure to the
agde de facto. In entering upon the permanent marriage
with one who was a temporary wife the man is obliged
only to pay the woman the sum named in the contract as
due her after the end of the term. The sum to be paid
is decided by common consent, as the Shariat says nothing
of the minimum or maximum amount to be given. If
the " sege " wife leaves her husband beforfe the time
named in the contract, she forfeits all right to payment.
Frequently the poor women are obliged to do this owing
to the cruel treatment of the husbands, who take this
means of avoiding payment.
Availing themselves of this privilege, Persians who
spend some time in distant cities, where they have business
or where they have gone on a pilgrimage, enter into tem
porary matrimony. In cities like Meshed, where many
thousand pilgrims congregate, a flourishing business is
carried on by mullahs, who have a large number of wo
men living in their houses ready to be married. The
mullah on finding a candidate for his protege's hand gets
paid for the marriage contract as well as for her board
while she lived in his house. At the end of the term, and
having received from her husband the promised sum, the
woman returns to the house of her spiritual benefactor
and impatiently awaits the expiration of the four months
that must pass before a new contract can be concluded.
This term is, however, not always as strictly observed as
it should be. The Shariat permits a woman's marrying

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 323
only three times, but the obliging mullahs are always
ready to overlook such a small matter.
Polygamy cannot be said to be the universal custom
in Persia. The majority have but one wife, and as living
becomes more expensive, the number of those able to sup
port more than one family decreases. The nomads, repre
senting about one-quarter of the inhabitants of Persia, the
agricultural class, small shopkeepers and the poorer peo
ple generally content themselves with one wife. The
higher nobility also give many examples of monogamy,
as in many cases they are married to princesses and there
fore do not dare to take other wives. A man who volun
tarily or by order of the shah marries a princess, divorces
all his former wives. As to the khans, princes, land
owners, sons of semi-independent chiefs, and rich mer
chants, these are nearly all polygamists.
The laws governing the treatment of the various wives,
as given in the 128th verse of the 4th Sura and quoted
above, have done much to decrease polgamy. Those wish
ing to live according to the Shariat are obliged to keep
up separate households for each wife and to have in every
way the material conditions of all the wives equal. In
many old Persian harems this is carried out with pedantic
exactness, but with the extravagance of the Persian
ladies, such households can only be maintained by the
very rich.
Aside from the wives agde and sege, who may also be
taken from among the slaves, it is permissible to have
simple concubines to any number. This is done in follow
ing the example of Mohammed, who limited himself
to nine wives, but added concubines. This is to be under
stood from 33d Sura : " O Prophet, we have allowed thee
thy wives unto whom thou hast given their dower, and
also the slaves which thy right hand possesseth of the booty
which God had granted thee, and the daughters of thy

324 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
uncles, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's
side and on thy mother's side, who have fled with thee to
Mecca, and any other believing woman if she give herself
unto the Prophet, in case the Prophet desireth to take her
to wife. This is a peculiar privilege granted unto thee
above the rest of the true believers."
A marriage with slaves may be also as a permanent
wife agde or as a sege, and is in every detail similar to con
tracts made with free women, with the one condition that
if the man already has a wife who is a free woman her
consent is necessary; to the new marriage. A slave woman
on marrying her master still remains in bondage unless the
marriage contract contains a clause that declares her free.
Otherwise, she can only hope to obtain her freedom after
her husband's death, and in case she has a son, on whom
lies the obligation of buying his mother's freedom from
his inheritance. If he be unable to raise the whole of the
necessary sum, the mother tries to earn the balance. If
the child born to the slave woman dies during her
husband's lifetime she remains a slave and can be
sold. There remains one other form of marriage existing
that is not given either in the Koran or the Shariat and yet
is practised in Persia. This is a contract between bache
lors and women who are deprived of the hope of becom
ing mothers, "yaese" — hopeless. In this case the reli
gious ceremony performed by a mullah is unnecessary.
A certain formula is simply repeated by both, naming the
sum decided by mutual consent and the duration of the
term of marriage — from hours or days, to months — upon
which they have agreed. At the end of the term, the
couple separate and the " yaese " is again free to marry
in the same way. Such partnerships are looked upon as
being quite honourable.
As to marriages between persons professing different
religions^ the men are permitted to marry wives pf any

PERSIAN LADY RAISING HER VEIL

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 325
faith except idolaters. This is based on the 7th verse of
the 5th Sura: "And ye are also allowed to marry free
women that are believers, and also free women of those
who have received the scriptures before you."
The Mohammedan women, however, are forbidden on
pain of death to marry anybody but Mohammedans. In
stances where Moslems have married Christian women
are far from being rare. Taking advantage of the ignor
ance prevailing in Europe regarding the real life in Per
sia, many have succeeded in persuading European girls to
marry them. The fate of a Christian woman getting in this
way into the Persian harem is almost without any excep
tion insufferable. She is treated with contempt and dislike
by all the other women, and she is obliged to take her posi
tion as the wife of a Mohammedan : that is, to go out in the
street veiled from head to foot, and to give up all the
freedom she has been accustomed to enjoy. I have known
of more than one such unfortunate being, who has suc
ceeded in escaping to the protection of a foreign legation
or consulate, or at least in giving information of their
condition. In the latter case it is almost hopeless to at
tempt to help such women to escape, for it is impossible
to gain access into the " holy of holies " of the Moslem
world, the enderoun. preat skill, patience and diplo
macy sometimes lead to success. Two Armenian girls
were in this way rescued from harems in Tabriz; but
generally the women tire of the conflict, and end by em
bracing Islamism and are forever lost to their homes.
One European woman who became a Moslem won for
herself a certain position in Teheran society. She was
a French flower girl from the Quartier Latin in Paris
and found her way to Teheran in the twenties of the last
century. Here she married, became Mohammedan, and
finally as a widow received a considerable pension and
was known as " Hadji Abbas Hanum " (Madame Hadji
Abbas) . She died in Teheran in 1 881 at a very great age.

326 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The Persians keep a jealous watch on their women, that
there should be no chance of their breaking the command
ment by marrying unbelievers. When such cases do occur,
both parties are in danger of death. Not many years ago,
a fanatical crowd killed an Armenian who had married
a Mohammedan girl, and his body lay a long time un
buried in the street. The woman was stoned to death.
The only way of escape is by promising to espouse
Islamism, and the promise has to be kept. Renegades of
this kind are often to be found in Persia, and they are
most frequently Russian subjects. Some of these men
manage to return in time to their own country, others
remain Persians for life. The fear of such marriages
makes Persians very unwilling to have their women work
in Christian families, and it is only in a few places where
there are many Europeans, and the people have become
less fanatical, that it is possible to induce Mohammedan
women to work in Christian houses.
The fact of polygamy being comparatively uncommon
in Persia does not, however, make the woman's lot any
easier, owing to the facility with which her husband can
divorce her. This " Damocles sword " is forever hanging
over the head of the poor woman. Anyone living in Per
sia is struck by the frequency with which men change
wives. That is to say, they divorce one wife and marry
another, often simply because the years had begun to tell
on their former life's companion. " While I was young
and my husband was poor, I was good in his eyes, now
I am growing old, and I have no sons, only daughters,
and my husband has become rich, he does not need me
any more." This is the bitter plaint that I have heard
from more than one poor woman. With some variations
in the details this is indeed an oft-repeated tale. A poor
man marries a poor girl. He gets on in life and arrives
at a position where he could make a better match. His

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 327
means, however, do not yet permit of his keeping up two
households, so he divorces the humble wife who was
good enough for his poor days and marries one fitting
his present condition.
The forms of divorce, "tellyak," are various (tellyak-
el-baien, tellyak-el-redji, tellyak-el uddet, etc.), and
differ in their results and in the formalities with which
they are accompanied. For instance, under the form
known as " telly ak-el-baien " the husband cannot remarry
the divorced wife. In the form known as " redji " he
reserves to himself this right. In the case of the divorce
"uddet" he can also take advantage of this right, but
only after a certain lapse of time. Not going into the
details governing each of these forms, I will merely men
tion the cases where divorce can be obtained.
1. The divorce that follows the termination of the
marriage contract with a sege wife.
2. Divorce by mutual consent.
3. Divorce by the desire of one of the parties, based
on the same grounds as those that govern divorce in Euro
pean countries, with this exception, that it is far more
difficult for the woman to get a divorce than for the man.
4. Divorce as claimed on account of one of the parties
adopting another religion, or if the marriage was based
upon deceit, as if, for instance, a slave had given himself
out as being a free man and had married a free-born
woman. 5. Divorce by desire of the husband. This is the form
most often resorted to, and is exceedingly easy to obtain.
6. Divorce given to the wife by the husband, under
which condition he pays her a certain sum.
A woman may obtain a divorce against her husband's
will only in very exceptional circumstances. The husband
can, on the other hand, at any moment free himself of his
wife, even against her will, on condition of his paying her

328 LIFE IN. THE MOSLEM EAST
a certain sum, and taking charge of the children that
belong to him after the second year. The divorced pair
may remarry as many as three times, after which in order
to marry for the fourth time the woman must first marry
another man, and only on being divorced from him can she
marry her former husband again. Sometimes the literal
fulfilment of this law is evaded by appealing to a friend,
who consents to go through the form of marriage cere
mony in the presence of the mullah, and then without
leaving the room he declares that he divorces his newly
wedded wife. After a certain period she is considered
free to marry her own husband!
The children of all wives, be they agde, sege, or slaves,
have equal rights. The child of a sege is regarded as
legitimate if born not later than ten months after the ex
piration of the term of her marriage. The laws governing
the parentage of children born of a slave are given in
great detail. In difficult cases, where owing to the change
of owners it is impossible to determine the father of the
child, the question is settled by drawing lots.
I once had the opportunity of becoming acquainted
with the sad lot of the Persian women. A Mohammedan
woman who came under the jurisdiction of a foreign
power appealed to her legation. This was probably the
first case that a Persian woman appealed before a Euro
pean court. She entered wrapped in her "chadir," or
veil, and seated herself on the floor. Near her were seated
women who had been summoned as witnesses from both
sides. At first she was evidently embarrassed and spoke
in so low a voice as to be scarcely heard. As she became
accustomed to h'er surroundings, her courage rose, and
finally throwing back her veil she spoke freely and with
a logic and eloquence that astonished us all. She seemed
to be not more than sixteen or seventeen years old, but no

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 329
European woman in her position and of more than her age
could have defended her case better than she did. Quite
unconsciously to herself, she laid before us the whole dark
drama of a Persian woman's existence. All that she
pleaded for was that her husband grant her a divorce
without any payment or further support. The husband,
a fanatical old Persian, was determined not to give up his
rights, and as her claims could not be supported by the
Shariat, there was no help for her. What her final fate
was, I never knew.
Although polygamy, as shown above, is almost oftener
the exception than the rule, the condition of women, owing
to the ease with which their husbands may divorce them,
and the difficulty with which they can obtain freedom, is
none the better. They are always in fear of divorce, or of
a rival that will lead to it. Of course, in Persia as else
where, there are cases where the man isi "under the
slipper" of his wife, but I doubt if such cases are not
oftener due to outside influence, as family or money pres
sure, rather than to personal predominance. The hus
band's attitude toward his wife or wives is de jure and
de facto that of lord and master — " aga."
In the first place the husband holds over his wife the
fear of divorce ; in the second, according to the teaching
of the Shariat and Oriental etiquette, the husband regards
his wife not as his life companion, the sharer of all his
joys and sorrows, but as his property, something belong
ing to him. The wife knows this very well. So long as
she is young and good-looking, she can hold her husband's
affection, but in Persia women age early. At thirty she
has passed her prime, and she realises the uncertainty of
her tenure. From these circumstances arise the two pas
sions of the Persian woman : to keep her beauty, and to
prepare for a " rainy day." The first leads her to buy

330 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
cosmetics and to seek for talismans, etc.; the second to
coax her husband to buy her shawls, ornaments, and also
to hoard all money that comes her way.
The condition of the several wives is of course even
worse. It is impossible for Europeans to wholly enter
into a knowledge of their intimate relations, but we know
enough of the jealousy and heart-burn that lead to some
of the darkest pages in the sad drama of harem life. Al
though the Koran decrees absolute equality in the hus
band's treatment of his several wives, this is totally im
possible, as even Mohammed himself confesses. One of
the greatest sources of trouble is the absence of children
or the birth of only daughters. The birth of a son may at
once change the position of the humblest wife and make
her the favourite. The head wife generally keeps the
others in subjection, and influences the husband's attitude
towards them. It often happens that when the chief wife
feels that her power over her husband is passing with her
youth, she continues her influence over him by selecting
other wives for him and thus by presenting them to him
maintains her position while making a bonne mine a
mauvais jeu.
It is evident, therefore, that there must be constant
jealousy, distrust and suspicion among the wives, who keep
watch over each other, arid especially over their children.
This latter precaution is not caused by imaginary fears— •¦
dark stories could be told of crimes committed by barren
wives towards other wives expecting to become mothers
or towards the sons born to these rivals. Poison is often
resorted to in the harems, and advantage is taken of chol
era, when the symptoms caused by arsenic and other
poisons may easily pass for that disease. Owing to the
inaccessibility of the harems, suspicion can never be fol
lowed up by investigations.
Once a young woman came to me Jo complain of her

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 331
husband, who had taken a third young wife and had
driven her, the first, into the street. During the exami
nation that followed I endeavoured to get the husband
to at least pay his wife the sum of money to which she
had the legal right. The husband was a very respect
able man, and in answer to my arguments he suddenly
exclaimed, "Don't try to defend her, Sahib, she is not
worth it; she has poisoned both the children of my other
wives!" The power of the men as husbands arid fathers is enor
mous. The Koran gives them the right to administer
corporal punishment to their wives, and the Shariat con
firms it and even upholds him guiltless in certain cases
of the murder of his wife.
De jure of course the husband has no right, except in
the one instance, to take his wife's life, and any Persian
with whom you may speak will hotly contest what I have
said. But facts are to the contrary: not only the husband
but often the eldest of the family will take the life of wife,
or sister, if he considers she deserves it.
Nothing is so humiliating to a Persian, arid so excites
him, as the slightest sign of not only actual indiscretion on
the part of the women of his household, but even an at
tempt on their part to deviate from the strict barriers that
surround them. The sense of duty, morality and patriot
ism is foreign to the Persian's character, but where the
reputation of his womenkind is concerned, the Persian is
very sensitive. This becomes a point of honour, not only
to the husband or male relatives of the women in ques
tion, but to every man, as each true believer for some rea
son seems to regard himself as the guardian of female
chastity. To prove my point, I can cite one or two in
stances that came within my personal observation.
The summer resort of the Russian legation is situated
some six miles outside of the city of Teheran in the village

332 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
of Zergende. In the year 1880 an inhabitant of that vil
lage shot his sister, whom he suspected of improper con
duct. Everyone knew of this murder, but no one had the
right to interfere nor even to inform the authorities of
what, in the eyes of public opinion, was a deed that the
brother was justified in committing. In the same year
a similar case occurred in the small village of Naamat-
Abad, where Europeans and Persians go in the summer
months. A Persian khan became acquainted with one
of the village women, who from time time went secretly
to his house. One day a man in no way related to her
discovered their secret. "Lying in wait at the khan's
door, he stabbed the woman to death when she came out.
In this case they went so far as to arrest the man, but he
was permitted to " escape " and continued to live unmo
lested. I knew of another case where a Persian woman was
brought to the house of a man in a bag in which straw is
usually carried, and on its being known, she too was
killed by a Persian who was a stranger to her.
Instances of this kind are very frequent. In spite of
such dangers, in spite of the Shariat, and the thick walls
of the harem, women often manage to betray their hus
bands. In moriients of frankness and through satirical
folk-stories, one cato see that this is the case owing to the
absence of anything like a sense of honour, or apprecia
tion of the sacred duties of the marriage bond. But
rather than condemn, one wonders, in view of the low
plane on which the Koran and Shariat place women, that
there should be so many instances of true love and fidelity
on the part of Persian women towards their husbands.
And such instances also are very many. I will cite one
case that took place in 1861 and is given by Brugsch in
his "Reise nach Persien." Passing through the streets
of Teheran one day, a young Persan caught a glimpse of

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 333
the face of a woman who in arranging her draperies lifted
her veil for a moment. The beauty of the face was such
that the young man fell violently in love, or to use the Per
sian expression, "his heart turned into a kebab" (roast
meat) . He followed the destroyer of his peace and dis
covered that she was the wife of a rich merchant. With
the help of money, he got an old woman to entice the lady
— who had no suspicion of the passion she had aroused —
to her house. Once there, the poor creature could
neither leave nor let her husband know of the treachery
to which she had been subjected.
Rather than submit to the caresses of the stranger, she
poisoned herself with opium, a drug that many Persians,
being in the habit of taking daily in small doses, carry with
them. The husband succeeded in tracing his wife, but
found only her corpse. The author of the tragedy was
arrested and sentenced to execution by beheading. The
sentence was to be carried out in one of the most populous
squares of Teheran. When the executioner began his
preparations, he hesitated, whether from a feeling of pity
or because he was a novice, no one knows. However that
may be, his hesitation was noticed by a "lootie " (huli-
gan, loose character) in the crowd, who offered his serv
ices as executioner for the sum of one kran, about ten
cents! He cut off the man's head, and three day later
he himself was sentenced to having his right hand cut off
for taking upon himself the office of executioner. The
old woman who was the accomplice in the crime was
thrown down from a high tower.
The power of a man is great not only as a husband, but
as a father as well. During his lifetime the property of
his son is considered his. Among the higher classes, sons
treat their fathers with great veneration, not even daring
to seat themselves nor to smoke in their presence without
permission.

334 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
The women have little influence as mothers, especially
over the sons. Among the lower classes, the mothers
nurse their children until the age of two or more years.
Among the higher classes, a wet nurse is at once taken,
for the mothers prefer being free to bear children rather
than to nurse them, as the mother of sons has the most
hope of holding her husband's affections. When a wet
nurse is taken, she is honoured almost as a mother by her
foster-child. Even the Koran admits the obligations of
this tie by forbidding marriage between foster-brother
and sister. The children are brought up in a primitive
way, without any regular moral or physical training.
They live mostly out of doors, and the mothers take their
children with them everywhere, to the bath, in making
calls, or to the bazaars. If she goes on horseback, the
baby is in front of her in the saddle. As a rule the chil
dren have a bright, healthy look, but the mortality among
infants is very great, owing to lack of medical help and
proper care. Small-pox and bowel troubles are respon
sible for most of the deaths.
Up to the age of seven the boys live in the harem,
petted and spoiled by all, from the mother to the last
slave. In the eighth year he enters the beroun, or men's
quarters, though naturally he has the run of the whole
house. At this age, among the higher classes, the boys are
placed under the care of a tutor, who teaches them read
ing, writing, prayers, and deportment. The boys are
taught to be polite and reserved in the presence of their
elders, not to break into the conversation nor to ask ques
tions. A small boy of good family will conduct himself
with a formality and regard to etiquette that few grown
persons in the West can imitate. Occasionally at the
death of his father one may see an eight-year-old boy who
is the head of the family. He will sit in the place of
honour, receive guests, lead the conversation with dignity,

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 335
order coffee and the pipe — in a wora, conduct himself as
an old man. The noisy rollicking fun of a European
child of this age is never permitted in Persia, and all
abrupt and undignified motions are prohibited. If the
boys are not taught at home by a private tutor, they are
sent to a public school. At the age of fifteen or sixteen
the boy is married, and if his mother is a widow she usu
ally rules his harem.
The position of women among the nomadic tribes is a
little different, as the conditions of their life make the
seclusion of harems impossible to the degree that one finds
it among settled people. While the boys take part in
the life of the men, the girls from the age of seven or eight
help in household work, the care of the younger children
and in weaving carpets — the employment of all the no
mads in Persia. Girls are a good investment among no
mads, for on getting married the husband pays the parents
a certain sum known as " sherie-bega," or "kalima."
These girls are married very young, often at ten years or
less. Before our occupation of Transcaspia the Turkomans
in their raids into Persia often carried off girls and
women, whom they made slaves. The lot of these women
was a sorry one. On the one hand her captor had the right
of placing the girl in his harem without the ceremony
of a marriage, and on the other hand she excited the jeal
ousy of the legal wife or wives, who treated these rivals
as simple slaves. In the presence of the husband the jeal
ousy remained to a degree hidden, but during his frequent
absences on long raids they gave full play to their ha
tred arid jealousy. The poor Persian slaves were often
chained, whipped, and fed only enough to keep life in
them. The fate of the Persian men carried into captivity,
on the contrary, changed for the better during the absence
of the husband. At such times the Turkoman ladies

336 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
treated them with favour and frequently helped them to
gain their freedom. I personally knew of two such in
stances, as related to me by the escaped captives them
selves. One would think that, handicapped as they are in every
way, secluded in harems, and enveloped in veils, the Per
sian women could not take any part in the social or politi
cal life of the country. Facts prove the contrary, how
ever. In 1848, for instance, after the death of Mehmed
Shah, a woman ruled Persia for some time, and she did
it with great tact, energy and dignity.
Another, Hurrie-ul-Eyen, was at the head of the dis
ciples of Babism. A third, the wife of the famous Hadji
Kevvam, Hadji Bebi Hanum, enjoyed a great popularity,
and at the time of an insurrection in Shiras, in the middle
of the last century, she, with her own hands, gave out the
guns to the insurgents.
Furthermore, there have been times when women have
governed some of the semi-independent provinces to be
found in Persia. In 1880 the ruler of the province of
Hergira, lying north of Azerbaijan, was a woman. I
once had the honour of receiving her in my house. She
seemed to be at that time between thirty-five and forty
years of age. On taking leave of me she said, " If at any
time you have need of Tuti Hanum [her name] send me
word. I have not many horsemen, perhaps some three
hundred or four hundred, but each one can make himself
felt. In case of trouble you write me and it is for me to
act." This woman's influence reached beyond her own
people to the neighbouring semi-independent tribes.
Everyone living in Persia can give instances where
women have been the means, by their tact or energy, in
saving their husbands in troubled days even from death.
There are times, too, when, men being powerless and un
able to take a responsibility, the women have saved the

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POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 337
day. From many such instances I shall cite but a few
that have taken place in comparatively recent times.
In 1 861 there was a famine in Persia. If such years
bring suffering to well-administered European countries
where quick means of communication exist, and the gov
ernment and society make every effort to relieve suffer
ing, what must a famine mean in Persia, where communi
cation is slow and at some periods of the year closes,
where those in authority buy up grain and sell it at their
own prices, becoming rich at the expense of the people,
where society and government do nothing to relieve the
misery? In Europe it is impossible to realise how the
prices can rise in Persia when the crops fail. Bread is
sold at eight, ten and twelve times its normal price. In
addition to this, bakers having but little flour sell their
bread to their acquaintances or to people of position, and
others cannot get it even for money. This fact wast
proved by the beggars refusing money arid only pleading
for " bread, bread." Along the streets lay the bodies of
those who had died from starvation. At this time a mob
of several thousand women driven to desperation in Te
heran went out to meet the shah on his return from a
shooting expedition. The women surrounded his majesty
so closely that he could not escape from them, and he had
to listen to the story of their wrongs and to promise them
to cause an investigation to be made. The result was that
the chief of police and several others paid for their ava
rice with their lives, and the price of bread that day
dropped one-half !
In 1880 the inhabitants of Tabriz had a tax laid by the
governor general upon all provisions brought into the
markets. The result of this tax was a rise in the price
of the most common necessaries of life. The deep-re
pressed discontent rose to murmurs, and finally to an out
break of the women, who, meeting the governor in the

338 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
street, surrounded him. His escort decamped, leaving
the unfortunate official to the mercy of the mob of angry
women. He was obliged to pledge his word that the ob
noxious tax would be removed, and he kept his promise.
The governor general of Ispahan, too, was once unfor
tunate enough to give orders that caused discontent
among the people. The women seized upon a day that
he had gone out shooting and gathered at a place that he
had to pass on his return home. When he arrived the
women closed in upon him, throwing their babes on the
ground tinder the feet of the horses of the governor and
his suite. The procession halted, and the governor was
obliged to pacify the women by yielding to their de
mands. Such instances are by no means rare in any part
of Persia.
But what is the view of the Europeanised Persians on
the woman question? Do their views change under the
influence of European life and European education?
Unfortunately the reply is definite and in the negative.
From many years' experience in Persia, and close acquain
tance with the people, I am persuaded that neither long
years passed in Europe nor education received there can
change the views held for one thousand three hundred
years in the Islamic world in regard to woman. In con
versation with casual acquaintances such Persians will
always take the popqlar ground, criticising the uncivilised
view of their countrymen, but they are not sincere. With
an intimate European friend, or after the cup has been
freely passed, they will show their real belief that the
freedom of women in Europe is a great curse ; that owing
to it, women are frequently the " apple of discord," the
cause of duels even between friends; that women invented
fashions and made their husbands slaves to it also; and
finally, that owing to this freedom there are in Europe
more unhappy marriages than in Persia. But more con-

POSITION OF WOMEN IN PERSIA 339
vincing than words are deeds. These " Europeanised "
Persians, in returning to settle down in their native land,
will keep their harems with a strictness seldom to be found
in modern times by the most old-fashioned of the natives.
In summing up, nothing can better show the view Per
sians take of woman's equality in the home than the popu
lar lines of the poet Saadi, which, roughly translated, run:
" No happiness comes to the house of him
Whose hen hath crowed like a cock."

CHAPTER XIX
PERSIAN DAYS OF MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS
Characteristics of Shiite Fetes — Friday — The Sacred Month of Muhar-
ram and its First Ten Days — Historical Origin of these Cele
brations — Religious Processions — Mystery Plays — Tekke Actors —
Birthdays of Mohamme'd and Ali — Fasting during Ramadan — Anni
versary of Ali's Death — Night of el-Kadr — First Month of Shaw-
wal — Omar-Kushan — Kurban Bairam — The Persian New Year —
Its Origin and Significance in the Life of Persians — Calls — Solar
Year — The Calendar in the Persian's Life — Divisions of Summer
arid Winter into Periods — Divisions of the Twenty-four Hours.
PERSIAN fetes may be divided, according to their histori
cal origin, into three categories: first, such as are com
mon to all the Moslem world, whether Sunnites or
Shiites; second, days of mourning, observed only by
Shiites, who form the majority of the population of Per
sia; and thirdly, the civil fete day of No-ruz, or New
Year, which dates from pre-Islamic days. The religious
celebrations of the Shiites are mostly of a sad character,
being for the greater part the anniversaries of the death
or martyrdom of their saints, or imams.
The Moslem day corresponding to the Christian Sun
day or to the Jewish Sabbath is Friday— Djuma.
"Djum" means a gathering, or congregation; hence
Djuma, a day for gathering together for service. This is
the only religious signification that Djuma has in Persia,
and we do not find much difference in the outer life of
the people on that day.
The first month of the solar year is Muharram, which
34°

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 341
is considered by the Shiites to be sacred, especially its first
ten days, and is throughout Persia a month of mourning.
The first ten days are devoted to the commemoration of
the tragic death of the grandson of Mohammed, Hussein,
and that of his family. To one who is unacquainted with
the historical significance of this event, the street scenes
make a peculiar impression. All ordinary movement is
suspended, shops closed, cafes empty, and all work
stopped. Processions pass, among which are people tor
turing themselves in the most cruel manner, and on every
side one hears the cries of " Hussein! Hassan! "
To understand a description of these celebrations it is
necessary to glance back to the early days of the Islamic
world. Ali, as is well known, actually became caliph
only after Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Osman, although having
been designated, according to the Shiites, by the Prophet
as his immediate successor. During the party strifes that
followed, Ali was slain in a mosque at Cufa and was suc
ceeded by Yezid. Hassan, the son of Ali, who married
a daughter of the Persian shah, lived in Medina with his
brother Hussein. Here Hassan was poisoned by his own
wife at the instigation of Yezid, whom she afterwards
married. A sister also lived with Hussein as well as
nephews, these being the only descendants of the Prophet.
Shortly after the murder of Ali the inhabitants of Cufa
invited his surviving son, Hussein, to return to Cufa,
where he was promised assistance in establishing his
rights to the caliphate. While on his way to Cufa with
his entire family, sister, nephews and servants — in all sev
enty-two souls — he was surrounded in the plain of Ker
bela by a host of 4,000 sent by his rival, Yezid.
The Arabian historians, Abul Feda, Tabarie, and others,
give us descriptions of the unequal tragic battle fought
between the descendants of the Prophet and the warriors
of the caliph.

342 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
On the 9th Muharram in the 61st year of the hegira
(680 A.D.) Yezid's army of 4,000 met Hussein's little
band. The latter entrenched themselVes as best they
could on low mounds by the Euphrates, where they re
ceived the emissaries of the caliph. The proposals made
were rejected by Hussein, who resolved to give his life
in the unequal conflict. He passed the night in prepara
tions for the fight and in prayer. Wearied, he threw
himself down and fell into a light sleep towards morn
ing, when the Prophet appeared to him and said, " Have
patience a little longer: soon thou shalt be with us." On
awaking he recounted the vision to his sister, Zeinab,
who exclaimed, "O God, why hast thou permitted me
to live to see this day? Our father, Ali, is killed; our
brother Hassan poisoned, and must I survive Hussein?"
At daybreak the brave handful prepared for certain
death. They put on their best clothes, cleaned their arms
and arrayed themselves to receive battle. So great was
still the power of the Prophet's grandson that thirty of
the followers of Yezid went over to him, and among the
remainder a decided wavering was evident. The leader of
the cavalry, fearing that the disaffection would increase,
at once ordered the charge. In spite of the great inequal
ity of numbers, the small band bravely repulsed the
charge and kept up the fight during the entire day. Piti
ful are the accounts given by the mullahs to the weeping
congregations that surround them the 10th Muharram,
the anniversary of the day of the suffering endured by
that heroic little band. Their being cut off from the
river increased their miseries, and many brave men per
ished in trying to dash down the hill to get water for the
little ones who were crying with thirst.
In the evening of the 10th the end came. One by one
his followers fell, and Hussein, wounded, took his small
son in his arms, when a well-directed blow spattered the

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 343
father with his son's blood, and soon after Hussein re
ceived his mortal wound.
It is the anniversary of these events that is commemo
rated during the first ten days of the month of Muharram,
and for these martyrs the entire country is in mourning
throughout the month. Those who can afford to do so
dress entirely in black, or the men in sign of mourning
leave the top buttons of their shirts unbuttoned, and
women who have no black garments wear what they have
wrong side out! No marriages are celebrated, nor din
ners given nor formal calls made during this time, and
music is not heard except such as accompanies the reli
gious processions. Although the mourning is usually
limited to the month of Muharram, some devout persons
continue it for two weeks longer.
The first few days only small processions go through
the streets chanting and beating their naked breasts to the
refrain of "Hassan! Hussein!" On the eighth and ninth
days the processions become larger and more elaborate,
culminating on the tenth day. In these processions are to
be seen strings of camels on whose backs are women rep
resenting those who were taken captive and small children
seated on horses spattered with blood. These children
are often the daughters of the highest families in the city.
The body of Hussein, covered with a bloody cloth and
accompanied by his led horse, usually follows. In the
front of the procession are hundreds of men and boys,
some beating their naked breasts with their hands, others,
stripped to the waist, lashing their backs with chains in
time to the music and chanting. The swish of the chains
on the bruised and bloody backs, and sharp slaps on the
breasts can be heard from a distance above the din of the
drums. Others, also stripped to the waist, shuffle pain
fully along, having their backs, arms and breasts hung
with padlocks, daggers, horseshoes, etc., that are fastened

344 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
into the flesh. I have seen men who carried as much as
twenty to thirty pounds weight in this way, actually hang
ing from the quivering flesh !
The " bloody processions " march by themselves, as they
go single file sideways, with a peculiar swaying, sidling
step. They are dressed in white slips, and are bare
headed, the middle of the head being shaved. The left
hand of each man is slipped into his neighbour's belt, arid
in the right hand is carried a sword with which, in time
to the music, each cuts his forehead and head, the blood
pouring down over the white slips. Streets through
which the " bloody processions " pass become wet and
slippery with blood. Friends walk behind them to ward
off the blows and to pick up and carry off to the baths
those who fall from loss of blood. Persians will tell you
that none of these men ever die, but they do frequently
succumb, and then their friends consider that their souls
have at once attained Paradise. These deaths are gener
ally kept quiet, as the population is taught to believe that
the Prophet sends healing to all those who wound them
selves in this way.
One often sees small children being coaxed by their
parents to cut themselves. I remember once watching
from our roof a man whom we knew had buried many
children and now had but one dearly loved child, a boy
of some two years of age. Hoping to please God and se
cure the life of this child the father carried him in his
arms in that dreadful procession, feeding the baby with
sweets to console him, and every little while guiding the
tiny hand that grasped a dagger to cut his own baby fore
head. When the same procession, after visiting the pre
scribed mosques, repassed our house hours later, we saw
the man carrying his now unconscious child, white from
loss of blood, lying apparently lifeless in the father's
arms. The poor man was happy in the hope that the tor-

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 345
ture had been pleasing in God's sight and that this child
might be suffered to grow up !
Each city, town and village has its processions, but they
differ in the degree of fanaticism. In the large cities
of Meshed and Tabriz people come from the Caucasus,
where bloody processions are not permitted. In the same
city many different processions form, and, singularly
enough, if they meet each other neither procession will
make way and a bloody fight ensues. The police there
fore carefully arrange a program for the route that each
procession is to take, and in such a way as to avoid meet
ings ; their efforts, however, are seldom wholly successful,
and nearly every year collisions occur, with fatal results.
The most fanatical and the most capable of enduring
pain are the inhabitants of Azerbaijan, the northwestern
province of Persia, as well as those who come over from
the Caucasus. When in Meshed we had a coachman from
the Caucasus who would each year ask permission to
" go and cut his head," and he always did it so conscien
tiously that we had the pleasure of driving behind a
bandaged coachman for weeks after.
The processions halt at the various mosques, where
special rites are prescribed, and also at the gates of the
governor or other high dignitaries. These have food
and cooling drinks prepared in great quantities to give
to the people. All through these days men may be seen
as water carriers, or with large jugs of sherbet or iced
water, which they offer to the people in the processions,
who, parched with loss of blood or the constant shouting
and singing, gladly drink. Men of high rank often act
in this way as water carriers, in memory of the sufferings
of that small band who over a thousand years ago were
cut off from water on the little hill in the hot Mesopo
tamian desert. The processions often go to the govern
or's house and demand the release of certain prisoners.

346 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
This leads to many abuses, rich criminals having a better
chance of interesting the processions than have the poor.
In Russia and India the processions are accompanied
by the police to keep order. In Turkey the position of
the Shiites is rather delicate, as this celebration is some
thing of a manifestation against the Sunnites. Street pro
cessions are therefore impossible, but the Turks permit
the Persians to hold their celebrations inside of some
caravanserai, or in the courtyard of a Persian house.
Throughout the month of Muharram religious plays
are given, called Taazie, from the Arabic word meaning
grief. These are something resembling the mediaeval
mystery plays, and they have for subjects the historical
events just described. Properly speaking, these repre
sentations should take place the first ten days or at the
most during the month of Muharram only, but for want
of sufficient actors they often run over into the month of
Safar. In the Taazies held for the shah, princes, or
persons of consequence, the plays continue day by day
in historical sequence, but they are all varied by prologues
that are in no way connected, either according to contem
poraneous history or exactness of fact. For instance,
the eighth representation of the Taazie opens with the
appearance on the stage of Tamerlane (Timur) and his
vizier, who decide to place themselves at the head of
an army and to conquer the world. The scene next shifts
to Damascus. Here the governor surrenders the keys to
Timur, and during the interview Timur recognises the
governor as being a descendant of Shamir, the slayer of
Hussein. Timur reproaches the governor, proving that
he reached his present position thanks to an awful crime
that hung over the heads of his ancestors. Then Timur
orders the daughter of the mayor of Damascus to be
brought before him. The damsel appears in full dress,
and is also reproached for the martyrdom arid suffering

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 347
of Hussein and his family. After which Timur orders
the city of Damascus to be sacked. Timur is so over
powered by the emotions raised by his own speech that
at the advice of his vizier he decides to attend a Taazie.
This he does by joining the audience as a spectator of
what follows !
In the tenth representation of the Taazie is the story
of Jacob and Joseph as given in the Koran. The part
ing of Jacob from his beloved son is represented in the
first scene, the lowering of Joseph into a well, the selling
to Egyptians, and finally the grief of Jacob at the sup
posed death of his son. The angel Gabriel here appears
to Jacob, reproaching him for his weakness and telling
him that there have been more unhappy fathers than he,
in proof of which he cites the sufferings of Hussein and
his family. The Taazie then takes up the story and con
tinues. In the seventh scene we see Hussein having an inter
view with the commander of the opposing forces. In this
interview a European ambassador appears who attempts
to persuade Yezid to accept the terms of peace dictated
by Hussein. When Yezid definitely refuses all his in
tercessions, the foreign ambassador himself embraces Is
lamism. These plays are generally held in some large courtyard,
the windows of the house furnishing boxes, or boxes are
raised along the wall. This temporary theatre is called
a tekke. The tekke of the shah is a circular building
with a canvas dome, capable of seating some two thousand
spectators. The stage is in the centre of the arena and
the women sit on the floor all about it. Around the walls
are three rows of boxes, some of which are open, for
men, and others are enclosed by latticework, for the court
ladies, and also for Europeans who may be present but
had better not be seen by the fanatical multitude. The

348 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
boxes are lined with carpets, and during the representa
tions pipes, tea, coffee and sherbet are served. The walls
from floor to ceiling present a sea of light, as every avail
able space is covered with candles, hanging lamps, lan
terns, reflectors, mirrors, etc., which are most original
in their effect. Of course only a few tekkes are so luxu
rious. In most cities and small places the Taazies are held,
according to the season of the year, in courtyards, under
the open sky, or in tents, that during this month spring
up like mushrooms in every town and hamlet. The Per
sians of all classes are generous in contributing all that
is necessary to maintain the Taazies. The actors are
formed in companies under a manager, who is at once
owner and stage manager. The principal parts are those
of the Imam Hussein and his children, the actors for
these parts being carefully selected. Children who can
act are well paid, some getting for the ten days from three
hundred to five hundred dollars.
The same company plays in different parts of the city,
representations thus going on from eight in the morning
until midnight, and on the close of one Taazie the actors
may be seen hurrying to another tekke.
Women's parts are taken by boys dressed in women's
clothes. There is no decoration. In one corner of the
stage Hussein may be seen singing, and at the other side
is Yezid, although they are not supposed to see each other,
being in fact represented as miles apart! Umbrellas
are placed open on the stage as tents ; the foreign ambas
sador comes on in clothes borrowed from some European,
generally with a top hat, and his daughter has always
worn hoops and green gloves in the tekkes where I have
been. Horses, camels and sometimes entire caravans pass
across the stage and the street processions join the spec
tators. Owing to the talent of the actors and the vivid
representation of a subject so well known and so close to

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 349
the heart of all in the tekke, the scene is moving in the
extreme. When Hussein takes his last farewell of his
children and sister the sobs of the spectators drown the
words of the actors. The thousands present sob as one
person ; the women seated on the ground sob, the sentinels
standing at the entrance, gun in hand, sob, and even the
actors themselves break down and weep, while we
outsiders and "unbelievers" find ourselves deeply
moved. The actors who take the part of Yezid and Shamir, the
murderer of Hussein, are not to be envied. In Ardabil
the man who played the part of Yezid was, in the sixties,
killed by the multitude, whose fanaticism had been raised
to the highest pitch by his fine interpretation of the role.
Even in modern times the unfortunate actors who take
these parts try to disappear unnoticed.
The clergy and some strict Moslems disapprove of the
Taazies, looking upon them as blasphemous, but these
are isolated voices " crying in the wilderness." Aside
from the Taazies, in every mosque the mullahs read from
day to day the moving account of the suffering of the
martyrs. In riding through the streets during Muharram
it is a common sight to catch glimpses through open doors
and windows of the interior of a mosque or school, or
perhaps of a room engaged for the purpose. The mullah
is seated on the floor in front of his little book rest, read
ing, or rather chanting, and swaying his body back and
forth as he does so. The floor is covered with seated peo
ple, veiled women being in the majority, and all are
shaken with sobs and loud weeping.
On the 1 2th of Rebi-ul-Ewel the entire Mussulman
world celebrates the birthday of the Prophet by firing
of cannon and by fireworks at night. The 13th of Redjeb
the Shiites commemorate the birthday of Ali, but without
any special pomp. In Teheran the shah holds a recep-

35o LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tion, selam, arid the evening before a display of fireworks
is all that marks the day.
The month of Ramadan changes, for the time being,
the entire course of social and business life, and has a very
injurious effect upon the economic condition of the popu
lace. This fast observed throughout the "Mahi mu-
barek," or blessed month, was appointed by Mohammed
himself, probably in imitation of Jewish and Christian
fasts. The teachings in regard to the fast are to be found
most particularly in the 181st and 183d verses of the
2d Sura, and are as follows : " The month of Ramadan
shall ye fast, in which the Koran was sent down from
Heaven, direction unto men, and declarations of direction,
and the distinction between good and evil. Therefore
let him among you who shall be present in this month
fast the same month, but he who shall be sick or on a
journey shall fast the like number of other days." Fur
ther, in the 183d verse permission is given to "eat and
drink until you can plainly distinguish a white thread
from a black thread by the daybreak. Then keep the
fast until night."
The observance of the fast in all its strictness, as is the
duty of every true believer (the omission of which may
land him straight in Gehenna), is exceedingly burden
some. For a whole month he may not eat, nor drink, nor
smoke, nor "even swallow his spittle," from sunrise to
sunset. This is particularly trying when Ramadan falls
in the summer months, when during the long days of
from fourteen to fifteen hours the poor people may not
even wet their parched lips. The day labourer and poor
classes suffer intensely, and yet it is just these classes that
have to work for their daily bread in spite of hunger and,
what is still worse, thirst, that are the most faithful in
carrying out the commands. The rich sleep all day to

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 351
make up for tne night of feasting. The poor, unable to
do this, drag through the day, only half doing their tasks,
so that work of every kind is almost at a standstill during
this month. All official calls have to be done after the
evening meal, and one has to therefore make up one's
mind to getting very little done. The fast includes the
abstinence from food, drink, and certain other necessaries.
Conditions are laid down under which even the dust that
enters the body through the mouth may annul the entire
fast. Women are forbidden to plunge into water, smok
ing is likewise prohibited, and taking snuff or smelling
of aromatic herbs or perfumery, as is also the bath, from
sunrise to sunset.
According to the Shariat the following persons are
exempt from fasting : boys under fourteen and girls under
nine years of age, travellers, the sick, and women at cer
tain periods — this last privilege is granted not in view of
preserving health but as coming under one of the heads
of the doctrine " clean and unclean." Pregnant women,
or those suckling their babes, are not freed from this obli
gation except in cases where the health of the child
plainly demands it. The effects of the fast on the little
ones is often pitiful.
The rich sleep from the early morning cannon or until
midday or later. In the afternoon they pretend to do a
couple of hours' work, but they are irritable and weak, as
we always find when forced to make an official call. From
three to four they go to the mosque, and later, to forget
their hunger and thirst, they usually take a ride, or wait
impatiently the evening cannon announcing the sunset
and end of a long day of fasting. This is the hour most
eagerly longed for by all alike, rich and poor, old and
young. Everyone looks longingly at the shadows or at
their watches, that during this month at least are care
fully regulated. The bazaars are mostly closed and the

352 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
streets are nearly empty. The few one meets are pale and
weary-looking, and they pass carefully closing mouth and
nose from dust. On every side one hears the monotonous
chanting sound of the reading of the Koran. Every true
Mohammedan should read the Koran through during
this month, for which purpose it is divided into thirty
equal parts, one for each day. More religious people
read the Koran through in three days, so as to get it read
ten times in the month.
It is interesting to look down from our flat roofs into
the yards of our neighbours on a summ'er evening of
Ramadan. A carpet is spread by the running stream,
the supper is laid out on a tray, ice water and sherbets
are close at hand, and the kalian, or water-pipe, is lighted.
The host and his friends are seated with their stockinged
feet tucked under them, while their shoes are placed
neatly in pairs at the edge of the carpet. Each one is
leaning forward, waiting breathlessly, and the instant
the gun is fired the pipes are passed, one or two puffs,
then a long drink, and with a sigh of bliss all fall to in
silence. The whole city now seems to awake from sleep. After
the evening meal the streets are animated, bazaars open,
cafe fill, and the sounds of music and revel are heard,
everyone in his own way trying to make up for the priva
tions he has endured. All night the life of the city con
tinues. Some two hours before sunrise a gun is fired as
the signal for preparing the last meal. This is served,
a last pipe smoked and a last pinch of opium taken (the
origin of the muezzin's cry of " Ab-u-teriak," water and
opium), and with. another cannon's boom the day of fast
begins. Our Mohammedan servants would get a nap between
this cannon and the time when they had to begin their
work, but all housekeepers learn to look leniently upon

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 353
a house half cared for during this month. The first
week, they say, is the most painful, and we found it to be
so, for our men would be hardly recognisable, growing
pale, weak, and utterly indifferent to their work. Later
they seemed to get into training and would pull them
selves together and get on much better.
According to the Shariat, the breaking of the fast is
punishable with stripes for the first offence, with a greater
number of blows for the second, and death for the third.
There are, however, means by which one can evade the
fast without laying one's self open to punishment. But
this privilege, a journey, is possible only for the rich.
Travellers are freed from fasting if they go more than
four farsaks, about fifteen miles, and if they do not stop
anywhere for more than a certain time. Ramadan, there
fore, is the favourite time for leisurely caravan journeys
to visit relatives in a neighbouring city, or to go on a pro
longed shooting expedition, or more frequently on a
pilgrimage to some shrine.
The second means of evading the painful fast is illness.
The would-be invalid finds an accommodating Mudjta
heid who gives him a " fetwa," or written certificate, and
he is free.
Many Persians, too, keep the fast outwardly but eat in
secret, only in strict secret, however, as they fear the con
sequences of its being known. In 1891 two men who were
caught in the act of eating during Ramadan were nailed
by the ears to the wall, in which position they stood for
hours, while passers-by spat in their faces.
Even friends on meeting will complain and mutually
condole with each other on the hardships of the fast,
though each may have the best reason for knowing that
his friend has not kept the fast any better than he himself
has done.
The exact days which mark the beginning and end of

354 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the fast are always occasions for public excitement. Ac
cording to the Koran it is necessary in both cases to see
the new moon. On the expected days the flat roofs are
black with people studying the sky. It sometimes hap
pens that in one city the moon is seen, whereas in another,
owing to clouds, it may not be visible. Now the telegraph
exists, in many places the news can be sent from city to
city, but if off the telegraph line the people wait another
day, as they will not believe the calendar. So often the
inhabitants of one place begin or end the fast before those
of another!
The 19th, 20th, and 21st of Ramadan are by the Shiites
consecrated to the memory of the events connected with
the death of Ali. On the 19th he was stabbed with a
poisoned dagger while praying in a mosque, and two days
later, the 21st, he died. During these three days every
one is in mourning, the men go about with unbuttoned
shirts, bazaars are closed, and often one cannot get any
provisions. During this blessed month of Ramadan is the holy
" night of power," el-kadr, celebrated throughout the
Moslem world under the name of " Leilut-el-kadr."
This is the night, according to Mohammed, when God
revealed to him the Koran as a whole, and it is also the
night when divine decrees for the ensuing year are fixed
annually arid given to the angels to execute. Commenta
tors, however, are disagreed as to the date of the celebra
tion. After much discussion it was decided that it must
be on the 21st, 22d or 23d of Ramadan. To be sure of
not overlooking the correct date the Shiites hold all three!
The Sunnites, however, celebrate the 27th of Ramadan.
In Constantinople the sultan goes to the mosque of
Santa Sophia, which is brilliantly illuminated that night,
the ceremony being one of the most unique and impres
sive that foreigners are ever permitted to witness.

MUHARRAM " BLOODY PROCESSION '

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 355
The 98th chapter of the Koran, on which the celebra
tion is based, is suggestive of the last mystic chapters, and
as it consists of but a few verses I will quote it entire.
Verse 1. "Verily we sent down the Koran on the
night of el-kadr.
Verse 2. " And what shall make thee understand how
excellent the night of el-kadr is? "
Verse 3. " The night of el-kadr is better than a thou
sand months."
Verse 4. "Therein do the angels; descend and the
spirit Gabriel also, by the permission of their Lord, with
his decrees concerning every matter."
Verse 5. " It is peace until the rising of the morn."
The first day of the following month, that of Shawwal,
as the end of the fast, is also celebrated as a fete day by
all Moslems. On this day the sovereigns of Mohamme
dan lands hold official receptions, the poor are fed and the
graves of those who have died during the year are visited.
On the 9th of Rebi-ul-Ewel in all Shiite lands the anni
versary of the murder of the Caliph Omar is observed
as " Omar Kushan." In most cities on that day an effigy
of Omar is made and p'ut up in a public place, where it
is exposed to the insults of the passers-by all day. Firing
is heard from every part of the city. " They are killing
Omar," you will be told. In the evening the effigy is
beheaded and burned in the presence of a large crowd,
to the great horror of any Sunnites living in the place,
who, however, take good care to keep in the house that
day. In 1893 the Turkish consul general in Tabriz
(a Sunnite) had the imprudence to drive out on one of
the anniversaries of Omar's death. As he passed through
the streets a fanatical Shiite shot one of the carriage horses
of the hated Sunnite.
The 10th of Zilhidji all Mohammedans, Sunnites and
Shiites alike, celebrate the Kurban Bairam, or feast of

356 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
sacrifice, commemorating, as elsewhere described, the sac
rifice by Abraham of his son Ishmael, and not Isaac, as
told in the Bible. On that day there is not a house where
sheep are not sacrificed. A few days before this fete,
flocks of sheep are driven into every city. In Teheran
the shah holds a salaam, or reception, with set ceremo
nials. A camel is sacrificed, and in the olden times the
shah himself slaughtered the beast and then had the
meat sent to his favourites.
When we were in Meshed, several weeks before the
Kurban Bairam a camel was daily led through the
streets draped in white and hung all over with little mir
rors and bits of bright ribbons. A drum and fife pre
ceded this camel, that was led by one of the town execu
tioners dressed in red. This was the "shah's camel,"
sent to be sacrificed in the city of Meshed in his name.
For several days the camel was led through the bazaars
and streets to collect money, the sum going to the execu
tioners. On the morning of the Kurban Bairam the camel (in
reality a broken-down one, not the original) was taken
with music at the head of an immense procession outside
the town, where it was most barbarously sacrificed. The
crowd with knives in their hands rushed and pushed to
get a chance of cutting off a bit of flesh, and the poor
beast was literally hacked to pieces before the butcher
could do his work.
The 1 8th of the same month is in Persia observed as
the anniversary of the day when by the murder of the
Caliph Osman in 35 Hegira, or 656 A.D., Ali's succession
to the caliphate was secured. This day is therefore re
garded by the Shiites as a day of reconciliation and
friendship. Anyone wishing to form a life friendship
goes on this day to a mullah and tells him of his inten
tion, the mullah solemnly ratifying the friendship.

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 357
Aside from these days the anniversary of the death of
every imam is held by the Persians to be a day of mourn
ing, but this is in practice seldom observed.
The gayest of all the fete days in Persia is that of
No-ruz, or the New Year, which is also celebrated by the
Armenians as Nobasart, as well as by the Jews. This
festival dates back, according to Persian traditions, to the
time of the fourth mythical king, Jamshid, who lived
before the Deluge and whose reign — according to the
same source — lasted for seven hundred years. He es
tablished the solar year, founded Persepolis, and was the
inventor of the plough and other useful implements.
To evade the accusation made by the Sunnites that in
celebrating No-ruz they are observing a heathen festival,
the Persians claim that they do so in commemoration of
Ali's succession to the caliphate.
However that may be, the fact remains that No-ruz
is the brightest and gayest of all their festivals. It is
celebrated on the 23d of March, when the sun enters the
sign of Aries at the vernal equinox. It is truly the most
rational of all times dating the beginning of a new year.
All nature is entering upon a new life. The trees are
budding, the nightingale begins its song, and the blue
iris — that with the crocus are the first wild flowers to come
up fairly from under the snow — is called No-ruz-gul,
new year's flower.
Strange to say, in the north of Persia the storks that
summer there may be expected almost without fail on
that day, at least the male .bird. He always arrives a
few days ahead of his mate and seems to do a little house
cleaning and repairing on his own responsibility before
his weary spouse of other years comes to join him. On
arriving she often drops down into their old nest as if
worn out with her long flight, and we have often watched
the male bird bring her food until she felt strong enough

358 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
to forage for herself. Many years' observation of a
family of storks that lived in a high plane tree in our back
yard revealed most interesting habits of these wise birds,
that are held as sacred in Persia and have no cause to fear
man. As eagerly as spring was looked for, so eagerly
did old and young watch for the coming of the storks,
and the picture of their summer life rewarded us for their
study. But this chapter is already too long, and we must
return to our No-ruz.
For several weeks before the new year, preparations
are begun. All kinds of sweets appear in the shops, cages
with bulbuls are hung up, flowers and greens forced,
house cleaning done, and, above all things, new clothes
prepared. Not only does every member of the family
have at least one new garment, but it is the time when,
from the shah down, each one gives to the one lower than
himself. The governor general awaits with impatience
the arrival of the shah's "khalat," or robe of honour.
This gift assures him that he has the shah's favour, that
his offering has been accepted, and that unless something
untoward happens he may regard the office as his for an
other year. The governor general in the same way sends
khalats to the governors and others under him, and this
continues down the social ladder, where each householder
gives a new garment to his servants, and even they do the
same with the little maid-of-all-work who helps their
wives at home.
Dervishes at this time take advantage of the spirit of
giving to pitch their tent in front of some great man's
door, where they remain until they get their "puli-
khalat," or money for a robe, their new year's present.
This habit of giving presents has a deeper significance
than meets the eye. This is the absence in most cases
of fixed wages. Most Persians feed their servants and
" give them presents " in lieu of stated pay. A Persian

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 359
servant considers himself injured if he does not receive
presents, and prefers a situation with little or no pay but
with "anams " to one where the pay in the end will reach
a higher total but where there are no " anams."
Presents in Persia demand return presents, according
to rank and means — from more than the money value of
the first present to a lamb or a bunch of flowers.
The first day of No-ruz is celebrated with great joy.
Everywhere there is movement and life. All are dressed
in new clothes, and most have a flower to offer the friend
as they give the greeting, " Aydi-mobarak," may your
feast be blessed. Men may be seen carrying on their heads
huge wooden trays of sweets covered with rich cloths.
We always received from our Persian friends trays of
sweets varying in number according to the rank of the
sender, and the servants who brought them received from
us an " anam " amounting quite to the price of what their
masters had sent.
The festivities are kept up for thirteen days, during
which time calls are made. The highest officials are
called on the first day, and you then regulate your list for
the following days according to rank. In every house
you are sure to find large, round metal trays on which
barley, or pepper-grass, canary seed, etc., is sown on a
thick wet felt. The sowing is so timed that by No-ruz
day the green is one or two inches high, and these har
bingers of spring are among the pleasantest memories of
No-ruz, as the laurel and mistletoe are to us in connec
tion with Christmas.
The last, or thirteenth day, is looked upon as an un
lucky day, upon which some misfortune will happen to
anyone staying at home, as, for instance, an earthquake,
and all therefore endeavour to leave their houses. This
gives an excuse for a national picnic, that is so dear to
the heart of a Persian. No idea of " kaif " is so perfect

360 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
to his mind as the picture of carpets spread on a green
under the shade of trees that grow by a running stream.
The kalian, the samovar, a little fire where kabob and
pilau are cooked fill him with bliss. From the elaborate
hot picnic lunch down to the bread and cheese and fruit of
the poor the Persians love to eat it in this way under the
blue sky, and the passing stranger gets many a hospitable
invitation to alight and " eat bread."
With No-ruz begins the Persian solar year, which is
regarded only in astronomical calculations, etc. The
names of these months are derived from the names of the
angel who was, according to the ancient Persians, the
patron of each month. Each month had its special privi
leges according to the functions of its guardian angel;
as, for instance, " Esfendermuz," the angel of submission,
to whom was given the task of watching over the earth
and caring for benevolent women. The fifth day of his
month was called " Merd-heran," i.e., marrying. On
that one day husbands were obliged to submit themselves
absolutely to the wishes, however fantastical, of their
wives. Maidens, too, had the privilege on this day of
choosing for a husband any one they wished from among
the bachelors. Each month had some such distinguish
ing feature.
The solar year was termed " Djelal," from Djelal-ed-
deen Malek Shah, the third of the Seldjuk dynasty.
About 470 of the hegira this shah made a change in the
form of the calendar used up to that date and established
the solar year.
The nomads also observe the lunar months, but they
name them differently. They simply begin from No-ruz
and give each month its number, " birenji," " ekeinji," etc.
This method of counting adopted by the nomads, or
Turks, as the Persians call them because of their Tartar

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 361
origin, is therefore known in Persia as " the Turkish sys
tem." It is interesting to note that the solar years are grouped
into a cycle of twelve years, each year of the twelve hav
ing a distinct name, and at the end of the twelve years the
rotation is recommenced. These names also are of Turk
ish derivation, as, "Sichan-eel" (mouse year) ;" Ad-eel"
(ox year) ; " Pars-eel "(leopard) ; " Tuschan-eel "(hare) ;
"Lui-eel" (crocodile); "Elan-eel" (serpent); " Unt-
eel" (horse); " Kuie-eel " (sheep); "Bechin-eel"
'(ape); "Dakuk-eel" (hen) ; " Eet-eel" (dog); and
"Tonguz-eel" (boar).
In all official documents, contracts, etc., the date is
given according to the hegira and the name of the solar
year is added. As, for instance, " given in the year 1277,
the year of the ape," or, " 1278, the year of the hen," etc.
In conclusion, it is necessary to touch upon the calen
dar that is so important in the Persian's life. This gener
ally appears just before No-ruz and is called Takvim.
It is drawn up by astronomers and astrologers, who con
tinue to be held in respect by the shah and his ministers,
to say nothing of the populace. The calendar begins with
the 23d of March, according to the solar year, and
parallel to it are carried on the lunar (Turkish) Tartar,
and the new and old European styles. In a separate
column opposite each day is the horoscope for that date,
indicating the lucky and unlucky days: what days, for
instance, are auspicious ones for starting on a journey;
for the purchase of a horse ; for the cutting of a new gar
ment; for marrying; sending children to school; dis
patching couriers, etc. Even the hour for these under
takings is specified.
Each Persian believes implicitly in these days, and
will in no wise begin anything of importance without

362 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
consulting the calendar. Wednesdays are considered
especially unlucky days, and above all the last Wednes
day of the year.
Each day and every hour of the day is dedicated to a
special planet. This is of the most ancient origin, and
it is interesting to note that from whatever day the various
peoples begin their week the order of the names of the
planets remains the same.
The manner of thus naming the days may be traced
through the ages down to European countries, especially
to those of Latin origin. Monday is the day of the moon
— Lunae dies, Lundi, Lunedi, Monday, Montag, etc.
Tuesday, dedicated to Mars — Martes dies, Martedi,
Mardi, etc. Wednesday (Mercury) — Mercurii dies,
Mercoledi, Mercredi, etc. Thursday (Jupiter) — Jovis
dies, Jovedi, Jeudi, etc. In the same way Friday is dedi
cated to Venus, Saturday to Saturn and Sunday to the
sun. The sun is considered the most auspicious of all the
planets. Jupiter presides over deeds1 of benevolence,
property owners and property; opposed to him is Saturn.
The moon is of good omen as the representative of the
sun, and is therefore the patroness of ambassadors, dep
uties, emissaries, etc. Opposed to her is Mars. Venus
brings little happiness in marriages and love affairs; Mars
is opposed to her also. Jupiter insures success in all mat
ters concerning the Shariat, laws, learning and all enter
prises for the bettering of social conditions. Jupiter's
opposite is Saturn. Saturn brings great misfortune,
though he gives success in building and agricultural
operations, as well as victory over enemies. Mars brings
little evil, but is propitious in wars against unbelievers,
and for bloodletting, which latter is regularly practised
by all classes in Persia. The moon is opposed to Mars.
Mercury is mixed, having good and evil powers. His

MOURNING, FASTS AND FEASTS 363
influence is for good in commercial affairs, accounts and
for sending children to school.
Another interesting division of the calendar which is
popularly observed, is into periods of forty days, or
"chilleh." Both winter and summer have two periods
each of forty days. The first forty days of each season
are known as the great forties, or chilleh-bu-zurk, as the
greatest cold and greatest heat may then be expected.
The second forties of each season are known as the small
forties, or chilleh-kuchik, when the cold and heat are
modified. The great forty of the winter season begins
the 24th of December arid lasts until the 2d of February,
while the small forty begins with the 3d of February and
also lasts forty days. The summer great and small forties
begin respectively with June 23d and August 4th.
The hours of the day are also divided, according to
our ideas, in a very inconvenient manner. The day begins
at sunset, which is the form of reckoning used in all
Moslem countries. According to this system Sunday
evening after sunset is the beginning of Monday, and the
hours are counted from that time. The Persian will
say two or three hours after sunset. Twelve hours after
sunset is called " desteh," and then the count begins again
as so many hours after desteh. Then follow two or three
hours " before sunset." This is a most complicated sys
tem, for the hour being indicated gives you no exact idea
of the time until you look in the calendar for the hour
of sunset at that season. The timepieces also have to be
changed daily so as to be set at twelve as the sun sets. To
be exact in this is impossible in the majority of cases, and
therefore to be late at an appointment is not considered
to be a shame by Persians.

CHAPTER XX
SHIITE PILGRIMAGES TO THEIR SACRED PLACES IN
PERSIA
Reason of Meshed's being formerly Inaccessible to Europeans — His
tory of Meshed — City of Tus — Sanabad — Meshed at the Present
Time — Sacred Rights of Refuge, or " Bast " — Causes Giving Rise to
this Privilege — The Shrine of Imam Riza as a " Bast " — Muteveli
Bashi, Rezavi and Tulabi — Abuse of " Bast " — Ways of Entering
the " Bast " — Conversion of Christians to Mohammedanism — Sani
Kuhneh — The Tomb of the Imam — Mosque of Gauhar Shad — Sani
Nouv — Libraries — Income and Expenses of the Shrine — Miracles —
Stones as Pilgrims — Kum — Mosque of Fatima — Grave of the Shahs.
ASIDE from their sacred places in Turkey the Shiites
have their shrines in Persia as well, to which they go in
large numbers every year. Among such is one in
Meshed, the administrative centre of Khorasan, where
in the ninth century of our era Imam Riza, the eighth
Shiite imam, was buried.
We lived for five years in Meshed, and during that time
had occasion to become somewhat acquainted with the
small world by itself, as formed by the large staff admin
istrating the religious, educational and financial side to
this great shrine, that possesses real estate designated as
"wakuf," or wakuf property. Meshed, the capital of
Khorasan, the northeast province of Persia, has only
been open to Europeans since the Russian occupation of
Transcaspia and the establishment of European con
sulates. Up to that time Meshed was only visited by
occasional travellers, who met with many unpleasantnesses
caused by the extreme fanaticism of the population, who
364

PILGRIMAGES TO SACRED PLACES 365
considered the mere presence of Christians as polluting
the sacred city. The European powers had great diffi
culty in obtaining the consent of Persia to establish con
sulates in that place.
The signification of the word Meshed is literally wit
ness bearer, or, to translate broadly, place of martyrdom.
Though it is more than probable that Imam Riza died
a natural death, the popular phantasy attributes to him
the crown of martyrdom, to which legend the Persian
historians have yielded; attributing his death to the son
of Haroun-al-Rashid, the Caliph Mamoun, who lived
at that time in his capital Merv, and who according to
this story killed Imam Riza in the city of Tus. This
place, once a large city, is now a heap of ruins on which
is built a small hamlet, of interest to us only on account
of its being the burial place of the immortal creator of
the Persian epic, Firdusi.
Imam Riza was buried in the small town of Sanabad,
fifteen miles from Tus, and gradually pilgrims began to
be attracted to this shrine, their numbers yearly increas
ing. The Spanish ambassador, Rui Gouzalaz di Kla-
vecho, sent to the court of Timur at Samarcand in the
year 1404, found on the site of Sanabad a city and
mosque visited by many pilgrims. Gauhar Shad, the wife
of Timur's son, Shah Rukh, built over the tomb of the
imam a magnificent mosque, which is still standing. Dur
ing the sixteenth century the little hamlet of Sanabad
grew into the large city of the present Meshed. The
rulers of Persia, being Shiites, vied with each other in
adorning the holy place and offering rich gifts to the
shrine. How much they were influenced in doing this
by a desire to attract pilgrims here rather than to sacred
places in Turkey, it is difficult to say. I am, however,
of the opinion that there was more of a religious than a
political motive governing their deeds.

366 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
At the present time Meshed is a busy commercial cen
tre, carrying on large trading operations, principally with
Russia. Its fixed population is about fifty thousand, but
the one hundred thousand pilgrims' annually visiting
Meshed play an enormous part in the life and trade of
the city. They not only bring large sums of money to
the " astaneh," or shrine, but to the city at large. Every
one regards the pilgrims as fair booty, beginning from
the highest ecclesiastic in the astaneh down to the small
est shopkeeper. As in all other places of pilgrims, pro
fessions peculiar to their needs spring up, as grave-digger
and stone-cutters for marking the monuments, made from
stone brought from the mountains near the town. The
bodies carried here for burial bring a considerable in
come to the astaneh, as the plots are sold at prices
varying according to the means of the individual and the
distance of the grave from the imam's tomb. The prices
range from several hundred dollars down to five or even
less. Meshed, as most Persian cities, is surrounded by walls
and towers protected on the outside by a moat across
which in five places bridges lead to the city gates. Once
inside one finds dirty streets filled with rubbish, decaying
vegetables thrown out, an occasional body of some ani
mal left to its fate — all this, with the great crowding dur
ing the pilgrim season and the extensive cemeteries to
be found inside of the city proper, would seem to be
enough to render the town very unhealthful. That this
is not the case must be attributed to the remarkable cli
mate, as Meshed has an altitude of over 3,000 feet, with
cold winters and clear skies.
The chief street of the city passing through the holy
place, called the "bast," is known as the Khiaband, or
avenue, and is worthy of its name. It is exceedingly wide,
with a broad stream carrying the city water supply flow-

PILGRIMAGES TO SACRED PLACES 367
ing through the middle, on both sides of which trees are
planted. This avenue and the stream of water are filthy
in the extreme, but the pictures that unfold themselves
on every side seem to beg to be placed on canvas, so full
are they of picturesque details that would delight an
artist. It was with never-ceasing interest that I passed
through the streets, so full of life and movement and local
colouring. To understand the peculiar conditions in th'e city it is
necessary to acquaint the reader with the Persian recog
nition of the sacred rights of refuge, or " bast." In the
Bible we read of the cities of refuge and the privileges
pertaining to them. In defining the word bast we can
take it as indicating a place in which a person who has
committed crimes, even murder, may remain unmolested
by the law or by his enemies. This ancient custom arose
probably owing to the fact that in the despotic countries
many were punished without trial and in a moment of
anger, and therefore these basts have undoubtedly been
the means of saving many innocent lives.
During the many years I spent in Persia my house
often served as a place of refuge, and often I have been
called upon to act as intercessor and to save those who
had cast themselves under my protection. I shall relate
one such instance. One morning while living in Meshed
we were aroused by violent firing, apparently in our large
garden. Hurriedly dressing, I went out, to find all the
servants gathered at a respectful distance about a well-
dressed man, who had, as most Persians, a dagger at his
belt and a revolver in his hand. He was standing with
his back to a wall ; his face was pale, his eyes wild and he
breathed heavily, looking like a wild animal at bay. I
went up to him and demanded his dagger and revolver,
which he immediately gave up. He was unable to speak,
and I ordered him removed to a room where he could rest

368 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
arid a cup of tea was given him. Later on from his story
it appeared that he had been accused, quite unjustly as it
was afterwards proved, of an intrigue against the life of
the governor general, who had ordered him arrested
and brought dead or alive to his presence. He had es
caped over the flat roofs of the city, followed by the
firing of the men sent to take him. Running and jumping
from roof to roof, scaling ladders, dashing through court
yards and gardens and again on to roofs, closely followed
by the now infuriated servants of the governor, he had
at last reached the roof of our stables, from which, under
a shower of shots, he had made his way into our garden.
Here was bast, he was quite safe. The crowd held back,
and though looking in at the open gates, not one of the
governor general's men would enter and violate the
bast. I at once sent to the governor general, and only
after receiving his assurance that the case would be
fairly tried and the life of the man who had sought my
protection spared did he leave my house. To be just I
must add that the Persian official kept his word ; not only
was the case justly tried, but on the innocence of the
young man, being proved he was given an appointment
in the administration to recompense him for the false
accusation. But if the bast has its good side, there is a reverse to
the medal, and it becomes an abuse in the hands of crim
inals, thieves and debtors, and when, as in Meshed, the
bast is a small town in itself it becomes a nest of evildoers.
In former years, up to the fifties of the past century,
basts were sown broadcast over Persia. Every little
mausoleum, over the tomb of a more or less doubtful
descendant of an imam (Imam Zadi), served as a bast.
And such mausoleums cover all Persia. It was enough
to discover somewhere human bones, or, as it occasionally
happened, bones that the ignorant supposed were such,

PILGRIMAGES TO SACRED PLACES 369
while in reality being of some beast, that the people
should consider them as the remains of some holy man,
miracle-working powers attributed to them, and a mosque
was built. Such a great number of refuges gave rise to
abuse and the total impossibility of crime receiving its
just punishment.
The minister of the predecessor of Nasr-ed-Deen Shah,
Mohammed Shah, began to fight against this condition
of things, and after great opposition succeeded in limiting
the number of refuges. Still, down to the present time
the following places in Persia have the right of affording
bast: first, the chief mosques in Meshed, Kum and the
mosque of Shah Abdul Azem near Teheran; second,
the premises of the foreign ministers and consuls ; third,
certain institutions, as, for instance, telegraph stations and
artillery barracks; fourth, stables. The last two are
recognised as places of refuge owing to the popular be
lief that horses belonging to a man who has failed to
respect the sacred right of bast will bring his owner
misfortune. ( From this belief arise instances that we
have experienced, when men escaping from the hands
of justice haVe taken refuge under the shadow of one
of our horses on the march or in camp.
In Meshed the bast is all of that part of the city sur
rounding the mosque that is erected over tKe tomb of
Imam Riza. This is a huge pile of buildings, including
within itself schools, a theological seminary that draws
young men from all parts of Central Asia, quarters for
pilgrims and for the large staff that administer the
shrine and their servants, public baths, hospital, free
dispensary, bazaars, caravanserais, etc., and the whole
of this great area is considered bast and is under the
absolute government of the guardian of the shrine, or
mutaveli bashi, who jealously guards all the rights and
privileges of the bast. In this he is upheld by the clergy,

370 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
mullahs, and theological students, or tulabs, and the many
Rezavi descendants of the imam, or those who consider
themselves as such. They are the most lawless and disso
lute of the inhabitants of the city, parasites of the shrine
at the expense of which they live. Taking advantage of
their immunity from punishment, as the descendants of
the imam, they allow themselves all sorts of license, which
is generally forgiven them. With such strong backing
the mutaveli bashi is a great power in the life of the
city, and the bast becomes the refuge of criminals and
evildoers, and of debtors who live year after year quietly
in this small town within itself until, losing patience, the
creditors generally come to some understanding with
them, preferring to receive a small part of what is due
than none at all.
I remember an amusing incident in this connection.
It was during one of our trips up the Volga at the season
of the Nijni Novgorod fair. A large Russian merchant
happened to be on the steamer with us, and learning that
we were from Persia came to me for advice. It seems
that one of his clients, having taken goods to the tune of
several thousand dollars, was living in Meshed and re
fused all payment. " I have an agent there," continued
the merchant, " but he writes that he can do nothing, as
my man lives in a place he calls bast. What do I care
where he lives! Let him live in Paris, if he wishes, so
long as he pays my debt." And great was the surprise
and then dismay of my fellow traveller when I explained
to him the full significance of the bast.
The entire part of the city which is regarded as bast
is held to be sacred, and no one of another religion may
enter there without paying dearly for his rashness. Dur
ing my time in Meshed a European who attempted to
enter was severely beaten by the excited crowd., If a
stranger unwittingly passes a barrier he is sure to be soon

FLAT ROOFS FROM TOP OF MILITARY QUARTERS, BAGDAD

PILGRIMAGES TO SACRED PLACES 371
recognised, and is at first warned politely, but if he per
sists he is forcibly turned out. Christians can obtain
entrance in two equally risky ways. First, in disguise,
with the help of a trusty Mohammedan companion ; but
it is necessary to know one of the languages of the Shiites
and the order of prayers and ablutions, to which whole
volumes of Mohammedan theological works are devoted,
and the casual and theoretical acquaintance of which is
not sufficient. The second way, to express the desire of
embracing the Moslem religion, is dangerous, as such
would-be proselytes would be unable to escape the
clutches of the mullahs, to whom is given the task of not
only teaching him the tenets of the new religion, but to
see that the candidate does not leave the confines of the
bast for a certain period.
I knew a newpaper correspondent who in the inter
ests of his paper entered the bast and announced the
desire of embracing the Mohammedan religion. All
went well until in the confirmation the point was reached
of his being made a Moslem in fact — a ceremony that
Mohammedans generally have performed in childhood.
That night the frightened correspondent succeeded in
avoiding the vigilance of his monitors and made his way
to us. His escape was the more serious as the next day
was the first of the month of Muharram, when all Shiites
are electrified with fanaticism, and if the whereabouts of
the unlucky correspondent were discovered, not only he
but all the few Christians in Meshed would be in great
danger. Immediate action was necessary. Another
complication in the case was the fact of the city gates be
ing locked at sunset. Fortunately I succ'eeded in getting
the gates opened, horses hired, and before morning the
correspondent, more dead than alive, was being swiftly
driven on the road to Teheran, rather than to Askhabad,
the nearest European city, and to which we knew he

372 LIFE IN' THE MOSLEM EAST
would be suspected of fleeing. All this was carried out
in perfect secrecy, and the next morning I listened with
unmoved face to the most fantastic account of the mys
terious disappearance of a European from the bast.
Cases of Christians espousing the Moslem religion are
not as rare as one might suppose. All those who lived in
Teheran about fifteen years ago will remember the case
of a whole family of the European colony going over to
Mohammedanism, an incident that caused much talk at
the time. On the whole it is probably correct to say that
more Christians turn Mohammedan than the reverse. Of
course these conversions are generally due to influences
having nothing in common with religious convictions.
Some living in Persia take the step owing to a love affair
that, if discovered, would be fatal to both parties; oth
ers owing to pecuniary inducements, but in such cases
their hopes are cruelly disappointed, as the Persian always
promises a great deal and fulfils nothing under such cir
cumstances. A third cause leading foreigners to embrace
Mohammedanism is to escape the punishment of a crime
committed in their native land, and this conversion with
its escape from justice, to their shame be it said, sanc
tioned by the European countries represented. The rene
gades gerierally have a sad fate. The Mohammedans
naturally mistrust them, and they end their days strangers
to both Christians arid Mohammedans.
And so the bast is closed to Europeans. In spite of ob
stacles, however, a number of travellers have succeeded
in getting inside. Among such were Fraser, in 1822, and
O'Donovan, in 1880. But the interest does not justify
the risks — especially now that we have photographs of
the interior arid full descriptions of the place and cere
monies. We can, therefore, not only picture to ourselves
this holy of holies, but, what is still more interesting, the
types of worshippers, Chinese, Indian, Turkoman and
Circassian, who congregate there. It is said that the scene

PILGRIMAGES TO SACRED PLACES m
in the mosque in which repose the remains of the imam
is particularly effective when the lights of thousands of
lamps and candles, and on Fridays electricity, fall upon
the congregation formed of so many types and hues.
The bast is in the form of a parallelogram entered from
the large avenue, or Khiaband. Through covered ba
zaars one turns into the second court, " Sani Kuhneh," the
ancient court. This court is about 1,365 feet long and 630
feet wide, entirely paVed with slabs covering the graves
of persons rich enough to have paid for the privilege of
being buried here. The court is surrounded by a two-
storied building with porticos, while in the centre of the
court is a fountain in the form of a kiosk with gilded
dome, the water of which serves for the obligatory ablu
tions. The entire facade is adorned with enamelled
bricks. In the centre of each wall is a most imposing
arched gateway, surmounted with inscriptions from the
Koran. Over the eastern portal is a legend stating that
it was erected by Shah Abbas II., in 1059 of the hegira.
The southern portal leads to the holy place where is
found the tomb. An inscription over the gateway states
that in 1085 H. Sultan Hussein built the portal, which
was gilded by Nadir Shah with gold brought from a vic
torious expedition into India. Two gilded minarets are
here. The shrine itself is in a large chamber paved with
glass and spread with rich rugs. The walls are hung with
precious armour, bracelets and gold ornaments of all
kinds. Three doors lead into this shrine, one overlaid
with gold, one with silver, and the third a wooden door,
over which is hung a rug of pearls. The tomb is imme
diately under the dome, seventy-seven feet high, gilded
on the outside and surrounded by three railings. The
first is of steel and bears no inscription, but its door is
covered with precious stones. Between the first and second
gratings is a gilded screen made to protect the jewel-
covered door of the second railing, which is also of steel,

374 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
and at its four corners are large emeralds set in gold
plates. The third railing is again of steel, with a whole
chapter of the Koran inscribed upon it. The space be
tween the railings and the tomb proper is about one and
a half feet wide and is paved with glass.
In the same mosque is the tomb of Haroun-al-Rashid
and many Persian princes and high personages.
Adjoining is the library, containing over 3,500 volumes
and 852 manuscripts, among which it is said are some of
great value.
The second mosque in the bast is called Gauhar. Shad,
which also has a large court, surrounded by buildings
of the same type as those of the other courts. Finally,
there is a third court, called the Sani Nouv, or new court,
upon which opens the school, "medrasseh," built by
Mirza Jaffar, a wealthy Shiite from India and whose
name it bears. Sixty mullahs also receive an allowance
from sums bequeathed by him.
Within the precincts of the bast are to be found other
schools, public baths and dining halls where the pilgrims
are fed free of charge for three days. It is estimated that
about six hundred of them are fed daily in this way. The
staff of officers and servants number about two thousand
souls. The yearly revenue of the shrine amounts to $100,-
000, and aside from this an enormous quantity of grain
and other produce is received from the land owned by
the shrine and which is scattered throughout the country.
The income of the shrine, large as it is, would be much
greater if it were not for various forms of abuse. The
land is leased to various descendants of the imam, to
sayids, or favourites of the guardian of the shrine, for
far less than its real value. The sums received are spent
on the maintenance of the enormous staff of the shrine.
The mutaveli bashi has assistants called simply muta-
velis, and after them a long string of diminishing rank,
as in a court. Of the $20,000 annual revenue ten per cent.

PILGRIMAGES TO SACRED PLACES 375
goes to the mutaveli bashi, fifty per cent, to the remain
der of the staff, lighting arid repairs take ten per cent.,
for destitute pilgrims seven per cent, boarding the staff
eight per cent., feeding the pilgrims seven per cent., and
the balance is spent on various unforeseen expenses. The
accounts are kept in the most primitive fashion, and it is
not astonishing that a yearly deficit is the result. It
would be difficult to find a place where there is greater
corruption, intrigue, or more immorality.
Each year there are several miraculous cures reported,
blind receive their sight, deaf hear or the dumb speak.
While we were in Meshed one of those strange cases
occurred, corroborated by " eye witnesses " and believed
by all the town, though the imposture must have been
known. A loaded camel fell in the street, breaking its
leg. The owner immediately released the beast of its load
and drove it painfully hobbling on three legs, intending
to sell it to the nearest butcher for meat. They had to
pass the entrance to the bast, and here the camel quickly
turned and, escaping his master, entered the sacred pre
cincts, and his faith was rewarded by the broken leg
being immediately restored. The animal's life was re
spected, and when we left Meshed the pampered camel
was still living a life of ease, fed with all sorts of delica
cies and venerated by the pilgrims.
On the way from Askhabad to Meshed, if your driver
is a Moslem, he is sure to tell you of stone pilgrims in the
form of rocks weighing two hundred pounds or more,
and will even point to such lying by the roadside and
affirm that on his last trip those identical stones were
several miles farther from Meshed than now. If asked
whether he himself has seen them in actual motion, he
will reply that the stones travel only by night, or that it is
not permitted to everyone to see them move, or some such
evasive answer. He will go on seriously to tell you that
in the bast are many such stones that have elected to re-

376 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
main there ; others after a short rest become uneasy, and
the gate being open they begin their weary homeward
journey, often hundreds of miles. And in fact a large
collection of such stones is shown to the believers in the
bast, and we ourselves often saw stones that had no busi
ness there in the middle of the busy Khiaband, and were
told that they were pilgrims just arriving or returning
to their mountain home. Once when I expressed some
incredulity I was silenced by the words, " Is anything too
great for God to accomplish, and cannot He make even
the stones to bear witness to Him? "
There are several other mosques in Meshed, but they
do not merit particular attention, most of them being
built in the seventeenth century.
Aside from Meshed there are several other places in
Persia that attract pilgrims, as, for instance, the city of
Kum, some two hundred miles southwest of Teheran,
where the sister of Imam Riza, Fatima, called Macum
the virgin, is buried. Many of the kings of Persia are
buried here: of the Safied dynasty, Shah Sefi I., Shah
Abbas II. and Shah Solyman, while of the reigning house
of Kajars the tomb of Fethei Ali Shah is found here. The
grave of Fatima is in a light and very beautiful mosque
surmounted by a gilded dome and flanked by four min
arets. This mosque, being a royal burying place, is under
the special protection of the shah. Here, as in Meshed,
is a numerous staff connected with the shrine, that devours
almost the entire revenue received from the offerings of
the faithful.

CHAPTER XXI
LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA, RETALIATION, AND
TEACHINGS CONCERNING THE "PRICE OF
BLOOD" AND PUNISHMENTS
iUnchangeableness of Persian Social Life — The Koran's Principle of
an " Eye for an Eye " — Who Can, According to the Shariat, be Ap
pointed as Judge — Shariat and Urf — Ministry of Justice — Civil Law
Proceedings — Mohassels — Box of Justice — Criminal Laws Accord
ing to the Koran — Punishments Laid Down by the Shariat for Theft,
Murder, etc. — Punishments According to Urf for the Same Crimes
— Home-made Punishments for Theft — Punishment for Spreading
False Reports, for Robbery and Physical Injuries — Fatalism — Why a
Dull Knife is Used in Beheading — Three Forms of Murder as Ad
mitted by the Shariat — Price of Blood for Man, Woman, Slave, and
Unbeliever — Price for Physical Injuries — Right of Retaliation and
Blood Feuds — Right of Refuge — Instances of Blood Feuds — Blood
Feuds among Nomads and in High Life — Chief Points of Difference
in Moslem Laws and those Recognised by Europeans.
The social life of the Persians is to-day what it was ages
ago; it is as if the customs had congealed in their old
forms, and if some changes have been made they are but
superficial ones. The old spirit of the Koran, which
governs to the smallest details the principles of life and
is as unchangeable as the Koran itself, one letter of which,
according to Moslem belief, never can be changed, still
remains. This explains the fact that what amazed the
traveller in Persia during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries still causes astonishment in our day. We are
astonished by the absence of law, which is replaced by
arbitrariness; we are astonished at the universal bribery,
the cruel punishments, etc. How many times within the
377

378 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
last ten years have I seen headless bodies lying in the
public squares of the large cities, or heads hanging over
city gates, or in riding through the bazaars seen a man
nailed by the ear, or the executioner leading a criminal
whose cut-off hand lay in the hat in which he collected
money, or leading a thief by a string passed through the
nostrils! I remember one day when my wife came in
great excitement to my study and told me of a murderer
who was the next day to be split in two in the public
square near us. She urged me to interfere and have the
form of execution changed for a less brutal one. To save
the man's life would be impossible, as he was a notorious
criminal, having, it was said, the blood of thirteen persons
on his hands. Although having no right, except of that
of humanity, to interfere in local affairs, I went to the
governor general, who was the brother of the then reign
ing shah. My interview with him was not without in
terest. For a long time he stoutly defended his position,
arguing that it was not just to give the same punishment
to a man who had committed but one murder as to a man
who had killed many; that if the first deserved a com
paratively painless death the second surely should fare
worse. He also argued in favour of the good moral re
sult on the lawless part of the population so terrible an
execution would have. After listening to my arguments
the only one that seemed to impress his highness was the
bad effect I assured him such a deed would have on all
European countries, whose newspapers would certainly
get hold of this fact. This, more than any humane mo
tive, finally decided him to cede to my prayer and to
order the execution made by the cannon, which is con
sidered the most quick and painless form.
But the poor criminal was certainly unlucky, or, as
the people said, deserved to die hard, for my intercession
did not turn out as well as we had hoped. According
to custom the condemned man is placed on a bench high

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 379
enough to bring the middle of his body on a level with
the mouth of a cannon. He is then firmly strapped in
place facing the cannon, and with unbound eyes watches
the awful preparations. Death is of course instantaneous
and probably painless, the pieces flying in the air and
dropping for miles about, as we ourselves had the ill-luck
of seeing when out riding one day, a ghastly bit falling
almost on our heads! Well, this poor man was probably
badly fastened, for, as he saw the torch applied, he gave
a desperate wrench and threw himself to one side, so that
only a part of his arm was blown off. The executioner,
probably too lazy to reload the cannon, threw him down
and cut off his head!
In Urumiah I remember not many years ago several
highwaymen were walled up and then buried alive in
soft lime.
It would be a mistake if we attributed all of these cases
to the personal cruelty of this or that governor. The cause
lies deeper hidden in the fundamental principles of the
Koran that find expression in the laws of an " eye for an
eye and a tooth for a tooth " ; in the laws of retaliation as
the means of cowering evildoers.
As the only written laws of the Persians are to be
found in the Shariat, which are founded upon the Koran,
as interpreted by the theological and legal commentators,
judges can only therefore be persons who haVe made a
specialty of theological studies. These are found in the
class of the clergy known as " Mudjtaheids," whose de
cisions, according to Shiite belief, cannot be disputed.
They are regarded as infallible on whom rests the in
spiration of the imams. This, at least, was formerly the
case, but in process of time the civil powers gradually
assumed certain rights. So we find alongside of the law
according to the Shariat the law as interpreted by the
civil powers. This last is generally in the hands of indi
vidual persons or administrators, whose powers are prac-

380 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tically unlimited. This latter form of legal administra
tion, known as Urf, is not accepted by the Mudjtaheids,
who admit of no interpretation of the law other than their
own. The law proceedings of the Urf are also based on the
Koran, but with this difference, that, being unwritten, it
is more elastic and capable of a more merciful interpre
tation of the merciless decrees of the Shariat — or the con
trary, according to the circumstances. The laws of the
Shariat being clear arid precise admit of no change, as
any deviation is held to be a sin. In this respect the Urf
presents the possibility of softening punishments, or
changing the form of its administration. On the other
hand, the Urf is at times the cause of great abuse and
cruelty. The need of fixed and just laws led to the forma
tion in the latter half of the last century of a special port
folio, that of Minister of Justice, who could act as the
highest appeal in deciding civil and criminal cases. But
neither the minister nor his aids have the right of being
judges, as they have not the authority of the Shariat for
acting in this capacity, nor are they competent in cases
of jurisprudence, not having received a theological train
ing. So we return to the same problem, and we find
attached as jurisconsuls to the ministry members of the
clergy who interpret the laws as of old according to the
Shariat. In this way the law in Persia is in a charmed
circle out of which it cannot break.
In some cities the Ministry of Justice has its repre
sentatives, known as " divan begs." In other places all
the power in criminal or civil cases alike is in the hands
of the administrative power, whatever it may be, gov
ernor, chief of district, etc. Above them is the shah,
but if we in Russia have the old saying, " Heaven is high
and to the Tsar is far," how much truer is this in Persia,
and how much the fate of the people depends upon the
personality of the rulers !

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 381
To give some idea of the details of legal proceedings
in Persia I shall take a case to be met with daily and shall
follow it through its devious courses.
Let us take a Kerbelai Ali Mehmed who has had a
controversy with Meshedi Hussein. Being certain of the
legality of his cause, Kerbelai Ali Mehmed addresses
himself to a Mudjtaheid, lays the case before him and
presents his proofs and witnesses. It is by no means
always the case that the accused be present. The Mudjta
heid gives his conclusion in a writ that admits the justice
of Kerbelai Ali's case. The plaintiff, after many thanks
and kissing the robe of the holy man, starts out for the
house of the person possessing the necessary administrative
power of carrying out the writ. Before, however,
reaching this person our friend has to run the gauntlet
of a whole bodyguard in the persons of servants, valets,
mohassels, and secretaries, all of whom take an active in
terest in his case and are rewarded accordingly. The pres
ence of the administrative official being at last reached,
with a considerably lightened pocket Kerbelai presents
thewrit. The official respectfully receives the paper and
first presses reverently to his forehead the seal of the
Mudjtaheid. Then reading the document he orders that
a mohassel be sent to the house of the accused. Mohassel
signifies literally " achiever." It is a name of policemen
who are in the service of any official having control of
an administrative department. These men are sent to
make arrests, or to search a house, or confiscate property,
or collect taxes. Mohassels are generally selected from
among the cleverest of the f erashis, such men as in Persia
are called " ziring," smart, quick. Arriving at the house
of the accused Meshedi Hussein, the mohassel without
any hesitation lays hands on all that he finds.
If he sees a lamb in the garden, or a hen, he catches
them and locks them in some convenient storeroom for fu
ture use. On entering a house, if a fine rug or brass uten-

382 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
sil meet his eye, they, too, follow the lamb and hen. In a
word, Meshedi Hussein for the time being at least ceases
to be the owner of his own property. Under the circum
stances all that remains for him to do is to endeavour to
"soften" the mohassel. He begins by professions of love
and fidelity to the mohassel in particular and to the mas
ter and chief of the latter. He uses flattering titles, as "ex
cellency " and " most high excellency." But the mohas
sel remains cold. Then Meshedi Hussein begins to en
large upon the baseness of Kerbelai Ali and upon his
own innate honesty and nobility of character. From this
subject he passes on to that of the hard times and his own
poverty; but this also leaves the mohassel untouched.
Finally, Meshedi Hussein comes to the point and offers
a present to the mohassel, according to the price of the
case in hand, the present varying from a sheep to a horse
or a sum of money. The hitherto firm principles of the
mohassel show evident signs of wavering, but he " saves ,
his face " by hinting that a " peshkesh," present, might
be acceptable to his patron. Then begins a conversation
that ends in fitting presents to those who can influence
his cause. The mohassel leaves, and often this is the end
of the case. Occasionally, however, the defendant brings
a counter-accusation showing the injustice of the accusa
tion brought against him. Having paid to open the doors
he, too, gets a Mudjtaheid to give him a writ, and the
whole process is reversed. This is in the end the worst
turn for both parties. The mohassel is sent to both places,
both parties are dissatisfied, and finally the case, passing
through many expensive stages, goes to the Ministry of
Justice. Here begins an endless dragging through with
peshkeshes, that ruin both sides. If one or the other of
the parties has the luck to interest a very influential per
son on his side there is hope of the process being brought
to an end, though not necessarily the rightful end. In

RUSSIAN CONSULATE MESHED

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 383
every case if the plaintiff be a person of weight the proc
ess is sure to be decided reasonably soon and in his
favour. In order to in some degree neutralise such evils, in the
latter part of the last century a " box of justice," Sunduki
adalate, was established. These boxes, resembling our
letter boxes, were set up in every town with a notice call
ing upon all who had a complaint to make of unjust
punishment or injustice of any kind to drop in this box
his written complaint. These complaints were to be sent
to Teheran for consideration. The boxes did not, how
ever, achieve the hoped for results. In many places men
were placed near the boxes, nominally for their pro
tection, but in reality to arrest anyone attempting to post
a petition. Or such complaints that did reach Teheran
were either decided in the old way, or, if they met with
impartial treatment, the judgment when sent back was
evaded in some way or other. And so this reform
dropped out of use of itself, swallowed by the old routine.
All criminal cases, except such as are against the faith
or public peace and order, are prosecuted only if the
victim or his friends bring plaint. The criminal laws
given in the Koran are clear and short and always
founded on the old Hebraic principle of an " eye for an
eye." The punishment for theft is given in the 42d verse
of the 5th Sura thus : " If a man or woman steal, cut off
their hands, in retribution for that which they have com
mitted: this is an exemplary punishment appointed by
God: and God is mighty and wise."
The 94th verse of the 4th Sura gives the punishment
for accidental murder. " It is not lawful for a believer
to kill a believer unless it happens by mistake: and whoso
killeth a believer by mistake, the penalty shall be the
freeing of a believer from slavery, and a fine to be paid

384 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
to the family of the deceased, unless they remit it as alms :
and if the slain person be of a people at enmity with you,
and be a true believer, the penalty shall be the freeing
of a believer : but, if he be of a people in confederacy with
you, a fine to be paid to his family, and the freeing of a
believer. And he who findeth not wherewith to do
this, shall fast two months consecutively, as a pen
ance enjoined from God: and God is knowing and
wise." The principle of the price of blood is included in the
173d verse of the 2d Sura: "O true believers, the law
of retaliation is ordained you for the slain : the free shall
die for the free, the servant for the servant, and a woman
for a woman : but he whom his brother shall forgive may
be prosecuted, and be obliged to make satisfaction accord
ing to what is just, and a fine shall be set on him with
humanity. This is indulgence from your Lord, and
mercy. And he who shall transgress after this by killing
the murderer shall suffer a grievous punishment."
On this ground the law permits of a murderer escaping
punishment if the relatives accept money recompense.
From the above quotation also the inference is drawn by
theologians that as a man is punished for the murder of
a man, a slave for a slave, etc., a true believer cannot
be punished for the murder of a Christian.
The punishment for crimes against public peace and
order we find mentioned in the 37th verse of the 5th Sura:
" But the recompense of those who fight against God and
His Apostle and study to act corruptly in the earth, shall
be, that they shall be slain or crucified, or have their hands
and their feet cut off on the opposite sides, or be banished
the land. This shall be their disgrace in this world: and
in the next world they shall suffer a grievous punishment,
except those who shall repent before ye prevail upon
them, for know that God is inclined to forgive and be
merciful." The verses I have quoted are the basis of the

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 385
teachings of the Shariat and present the regulating note
of the Persian codex of to-day.
Theft. According to the Shariat every theft, so long
as it be not accompanied by robbery, is punishable only
on the complaint of the victim. Otherwise a thief, though
caught in the act, goes unpunished. Again, theft is distin
guished as simple or as burglary. The former is never
punishable by the cutting off of a hand. The hand is cut
off only in cases where burglary represents a money loss
of one-fourth of a drachm of gold. The Shariat clearly
defines what forms of theft come under the head of bur
glary, even when there is nothing like burglary or house
breaking proper. For instance, a pickpocket removing
a purse from the pocket of an overcoat is punished as for
simple theft; but if he extracted it from the pocket of
an inner garment, it is regarded as burglary. Equally,
if a theft is committed in a house or room when the owners
are awake it is regarded as burglary, whereas if com
mitted while the owners sleep the crime is punishable as
a simple theft.
Cattle stealing from the pasture, or fruit from trees,
are held as simple thefts. In case several commit a bur
glary together the one who actually committed the deed
is alone punished, or the one who instigated a minor to
commit a burglary. Stealing food in famine years is pun
ishable only as a simple theft, even though burglary were
clearly proved. To condemn a Moslem for burglary the
testimony of two reliable men is needed, or of one man and
two women. The testimony of only women, however
numerous, is not admitted.
The first commission of a burglary is by the Shariat
punished by the amputation of the four fingers of the
right hand, leaving only the thumb. We thus see that the
Shariat deals very strictly with stealing. But as a process
may be begun only at the instance of the one whose prop
erty has been stolen, the thief generally succeeds in com-

386 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST,
ing to terms by the payment of a certain sum of money
or by returning what he has taken, and the case does not
go to court.
If the case once gets into the hands of the Mudjtaheid,
who pronounces sentence, the criminal cannot escape
punishment even though the plaintiff be ready to with
draw his accusation. If, on the other hand, the plaintiff
had under the same circumstances addressed himself to
the civil law, the thief might have been condemned as in
the former case according to the Shariat, or simply to the
bastinado. When a man accuses another of stealing, the former
is made to swear that his accusation is just ; if he refuses,
the oath is then administered to the accused. Persians
seldom refuse to swear to anything, consoling themselves
with the popular belief that a false oath is not perjury
if during the process of taking it one thinks of something,
else to which one could truthfuly swear. If a man of
position suspects someone of stealing, confession is often
forced by resorting to torture.
Small thefts are sometimes punished by passing a cord
through the nostrils of the prisoner, and the executioner
thus leads him through the streets and bazaars all day, and
in the evening conducts him outside of the city gates,
which he is forbidden to enter again.
Daring burglaries are very seldom heard of in Persia;
minor thefts of charcoal or provisions from a storehouse
seem to satisfy the thieves. There are a number of curi
ous customs in vogue in making these house thieves give
up their spoils. When a servant is suspected the master
gathers all his household and after delivering a lecture
on the dire punishment that will follow detection and
safety that will be gained if the goods are returned, he
proceeds to pour a basket of earth on to the floor of an
empty room. Each servant is told to secretly do the
same. If the articles be actually taken by one of the

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 387
household they are certain to be found in this pile of
earth. Or another arid more dreaded means is resorted to.
A mullah is called in, who assembles all the household,
whom he makes sit in a circle on the floor. In the centre
he places a bowl of water and by it a boy, who is told to
look intently into it. The mullah begins to chant certain
incantations calling on Solomon, the patron of all spirits.
These are supposed to be kept by Solomon under lock
and key and are only let out by him when he is invoked
by certain words. The spirits are expected to come up
through the bowl of water and to identify the thief. Such
a terrible determination is, however, never reached, as
the thief, frightened nearly to death by the mere thought
of such a possibility, generally manages at the last moment
to drop the stolen articles where they are found. In
both cases, once the property is restored, the matter
is forgotten and no attempt is made to identify the
thief. On the whole burglary and even petty thefts are exceed
ingly rare in Persia, excepting in famine years or during
the change of governors or at some moment of political
disturbance. Arid one must bear in mind that with the
exception of Teheran there is not one city with anything
resembling an organised police service, nor are any meas
ures taken for the preservation of public safety, other
than severe punishment meted out to any criminal caught.
The safety of the cities, therefore, depends upon the repu
tation for severity of the governor.
Although, as we have seen, the law as administered by
Urf softens those of the Shariat, still in extraordinary
cases the former, too, are carried out with all the severity
of the latter. Such are repeated offences, disorders that
threaten public safety, false rumours circulated in view
of increasing discontent, etc. For these cases the law
is interpreted in all its severity, tongues that circulated

388 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the reports are cut out, and ears that hear them are cut
off, etc.
The Urf avoids the penalty of amputating a hand when
the accused is a woman, but it admits of a punishment
even more cruel. The hand is placed on the sill of a
window, the heavy sash of which is suddenly let fall, often
crushing the bones. If a woman is condemned to stripes
she is put in a bag and beaten. This latter punishment
is only administered by the law according to the Urf.
The Shariat recommends the executioners to hold the
amputated part in boiling oil, which is invariably done.
Theft accompanied by murder is judged by the civil
authorities according to the Urf. The punishment ac
cording to the Shariat in such cases is exceedingly severe,
including amputation of extremities, beheading and
crucifixion. In cases of relapse, or fresh offence, the
successive punishments are given, first amputation, then
crucifixion for the second offence. The latter punishment
has, however, since the eighteenth century, been abol
ished in favour of walling up the prisoner in lime.
During the Kurdish invasion of Urumiah of 1880 in
stances of crucifixion were, however, seen. Such mediae
val punishments are meted out to highway robbers, armed
insurgents, etc. When Turkomans were caught in raiding
on Persian territory and carrying off women, which was
of frequent occurrence before our occupation of Trans
caspia, they were fired from cannons, hacked in pieces,
or crucified. The brave sons of the steppes met their
death calmly, expressing loudly up to the last moment
their hatred of their torturers and their scorn of the death
awaiting them.
It must not be supposed, however, that these extreme
punishments are carried out in all cases justifying them
by the law. Abuse is the more prevalent as the legal and
administrative functions are to be found in one and the

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 389
same person, the governor. Bribery and influence eacK
has its turn, and many are the crimes that remain
unpunished and the criminals who succeed in " escap-
ing." There are few prisons, as we understand them, in Per
sia. Each governor, noble, or individual of influence
has a room or rooms or stables in which he confines his
prisoners. To make escape more difficult these are gen
erally chained in a long string to each other. Thick
rings are soldered about the neck and a heavy chain con
nects each man to his companion, or they are chained to
the wall. There are no rations regularly given out, but
the prisoners are fed by their friends, or they only get
whatever the one by whose order they are arrested chooses
to send them. Sometimes men are kept for a year or more
in these filthy places, but long imprisonments are usually
avoided. If the prisoner has means it is comparatively
easy to escape.
When in Meshed we often passed the square in front of
the residence of the governor general, where there was
a large basin of water. Summer afternoons we frequently
saw a string of chained prisoners led out to bathe in that
public place. They had rags wound around the rings to
keep them from chafing the neck, and as they walked each
painfully held up the chain to ease the great weight about
the neck. As only a few could get into the basin at a
time, and there were perhaps a dozen or more chained to
gether, those not in the water had to kneel or almost lie
down on the edge of the basin to give enough length of
chain for their companion to get down into the water.
The poor wretches, with a sickly prison pallor, some of
ithem old and others mere boys, always begged pitifully as
we passed for money to buy bread. We had little satisfac
tion in giving, however, for we were never sure that they
were allowed to keep the money. The firmness with

390 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
which many meet a painful death is largely explained
by their deep belief in fate — kismet. All Moslems be
lieve that we cannot avoid our fate, and they therefore
stoically accept whatever comes. " The fate of every man
have we bound about his neck," we read in the 17th Sura
of the Koran. Among other grounds for this belief we
find in the 3d Sura and 139th verse of the Koran the
following words: "No soul can die except by the per
mission of God, according to what is written in the book
containing the determination of things." Also in the
14th Sura the 4th verse, " for God causeth to err whom he
pleaseth, and directeth whom he pleaseth, arid He is the
Mighty and Wise."
On the eve of execution the condemned are well fed
with " pilaw " and when led to the spot they often ask
permission to smoke a pipe, and after repeating what to
them corresponds to our creed turn to the executioner,
saying, "Bismillah"1 — in God's name. In passing I
must mention a popular superstition to the effect that the
knife used in beheading will find itself victims until it
becomes dull. Hence dull knives are always used, hoping
thereby to lessen the number of executions I
Murder. The Shariat recognises three degrees: pre
meditated, unpremeditated, and quasi-premeditated, or
" katli-ehaseh." The definition of the first two corre
sponds to those given by European laws. Under the
head of quasi-premeditated are included cases where a
man is killed by some act which was not, however, com
mitted with the intention of killing. For instance, if in
condemning a man to a punishment that others had suf
fered without fatal consequences the man should die
while undergoing said punishment, or in consequence of
it, the one ordering the punishment could be condemned
for " quasi-premeditated murder."
Premeditated murder may be direct, by a weapon, poi
soning, strangling, and so forth, or indirect, when death

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 391
was brought about by a conscious plan of action, as in
digging a well in a spot where the victim was expected
to pass, and the fall caused death.
All three forms of murder, if they are not accompanied
by robbery or theft, are punishable only at the complaint
of the family or heirs of the person killed. These may
demand the punishment of the murderer either according
to the law of retaliation or by payment of blood money.
If by the law of retaliation, it is done literally on the
principle of an " eye for an eye," but always must be sub
ject to three conditions: first, the murdered man must
belong to the same religion as the murderer; second, both
must belong to the same social class, i.e., free or bond
men; third, if the murdered man is not the son of the
murderer. From this it follows that by killing a man of another
religion a Moslem can by no means, according to the
Shariat, suffer the death penalty any more than a free
man can be so punished for killing a slave. It is natural,
therefore, that the masses in Persia regard the killing of
an unbeliever to be a light matter. The higher authori
ties are supposed to consider it differently, but my ex
perience of many years of criminal cases in Persia is that
all local authorities, in the shape of governors, etc., do
regard it lightly and always try to avoid punishing a
Moslem for the death of a non-Moslem. It is always
easy for them to invent extenuating circumstances for the
murder. According to the Shariat the murder of an un
believer is justifiable if by the testimony of two Moham
medan witnesses he is proved to have insulted the true
faith. Such witnesses are easy to obtain, for according
to the popular belief it is no sin to bear false witness
against unbelievers. To obtain justice for the murder of
a non-Moslem in Persia is therefore always a very dif
ficult matter.
In case of physical injuries the Shariat permits the

392 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
laws of retaliation, subject to the same conditions as for
murder. In judging these cases special attention is given
to the results of the wounds. If, for instance, a finger is
cut off and inflammation that follows causes the loss of
the whole hand, the law permits the sufferer to demand
the entire hand of the one who wounded him.
As the law of retaliation, based on an " eye for an eye,"
could be carried to extremes, it has been found expedient
in practice to replace it by that of the " price of blood,"
which is resorted to with the consent of the plaintiff, or,
in murder, that of the relatives or heirs of the man killed.
In the teachings concerning the " price of blood " we find
the principle of retaliation is followed, and the price de
manded is nearly as possible according to the amount of
injury received as defined by the Shariat. For instance,
the price of blood for the murder of a woman is half that
demanded for killing a man. On this principle, if the
relatives of a woman do not consent to receiving the price
of her blood, but insist on the execution of the murderer,
they must pay to the murderer's heirs half the sum of the
price of a man's blood. Otherwise the crime of murder
ing a woman would have been punished equally with that
of the murder of a man!
A case illustrating this principle took place in Tabriz
some thirty years ago. During the absence of a Persian
official from his home his steward courted the master's
wife. The woman, refusing his advances, threatened the
steward that she would complain to her husband on the
latter's return. The steward then killed his master's wife.
When the husband returned he was able to prove the
guilt of his servant, whose execution he demanded. This,
being the extreme penalty for the murder of a man, could
not be carried out in strict observation of the law of
retaliation. The husband therefore paid to the heirs of
his steward half the money price of a man's blood and

PERSIAN KURSIE

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 393
then the civil powers condemned the steward to death,
which sentence was carried out. From this principle it
follows that a man who has killed two women can be
condemned to death, as in this case equality is not in
fringed. If the murder of a woman be committed by several
men, the friends can demand the death of but one of the
murderers, and always by paying the difference in the
price of blood, and the amount must be paid before the
death sentence can be carried out.
On the same ground, if two women murder a man the
death of both can be demanded; or if the relatives con
sent to blood money, each woman is to pay half of the
price of a man's blood.
The same principle is carried out regarding injuries.
The sufferer may instead of demanding satisfaction ac
cording to the law of retaliation consent to the price of
blood, under conditions similar to those laid down for
murder. In the latter case the part of the body paid for
is considered as the property of the one who has paid
the money. If, for example, A cuts off a part of the ear
of B and pays the sum of money demanded. In the
meantime B has had the bit of ear sewed on arid the
wound has healed. In this case A has a right to demand
that the money paid be returned to him or that the bit
of ear be removed !
The sum demanded as the price of blood is decided
according to the category of murder under which the
case is judged, that is, premeditated, unpremeditated, or
quasi-premeditated. The price of blood for the premeditated murder of a
free Moslem is given by the Shariat as 100 camels of not
less than five years of age each; or 200 cows; or 100 suits
of clothes made of the Yemen stuff; or 1,000 dinars in
money, equal to about $1,500.

394 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
For a quasi-premeditated murder the price is a little
less: 33 she-camels of three years of age and 34 of five
years, or $1,050 in money, and the payment is allowed to
be made during a period of two years.
For unpremeditated murder the price is 20 yearling
she-camels, 20 she-camels two years old, 30 she-camels
three years old, and 30 camels two years old, or in money
about $600. The peculiarity in this case is that the price
of blood for unpremeditated murder is not paid by the
person whose act caused the murder but by the latter's
male relatives or his future heirs. The Shariat does
not consider itself justified in laying a penalty on a man
whom it does not hold guilty, while admitting the
right of the relatives of the dead man to demand dam
ages. In all the above mentioned cases the price of a woman's
blood remains half that of a man. The price of the blood
of a Jew, Christian, or Gaber is according to some legal
authorities fixed as one-thirteenth of the price of a free
Moslem, according to others, one-eighth.
The price of the blood of a slave is not clearly defined,
but must in no case more than equal that of a free man of
the same religion.
The money paid for the price of blood is to be divided
among the heirs according to the usual laws of inherit
ance. In cases where the murder was premeditated, the
female heirs get their share of the money, but when the
murder was unpremeditated, women do not share in the
payment of the blood of the man killed by their relative.
The price of blood in case of physical injuries is also
very strictly laid down in the Shariat, and on the same
principle, but without going into detail, the following
is the general price.
For depriving a man of both eyes, nose, ears, lips, teeth,
tongue, extremities, breaking the jaw and backbone, the
accused is sentenced to suffer the same according to

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 395
the law of retaliation or to the price of blood as for
murder. For depriving a man of one eye, ear, lips and beard,
half the price of a man's blood.
For the loss of one finger or toe, one-tenth of the price
of blood may be demanded.
For the loss of parts of the extremities, the price differs
according to the part lost, as the loss of half a finger is
fixed as worth one-twentieth of the entire price of blood.
Breaking a part of one of the extremities, one-fifth the
price. Wounds, according to severity, from one-half to
one-tenth of the price of the entire member. A blow
in the face not followed by blood, one dinar and a
half. There are also detailed laws for damages caused by
carelessness. For example, a horseman is responsible
while on his horse's back for any injury the horse may
do with his head or fore legs. He is not, however, re
sponsible for injuries the horse's hind legs may cause,
unless at that moment he is walking and leading his horse.
The owner of a wall that falls down and crushes a man
is responsible only in the case of the wall not being built
on his own land.
In actual life we find the price of blood less than that
fixed by the Koran and subject to the consent of the
parties interested; while the letter of the Koran is ful
filled by the following means : A kills B. According to
the Koran, A is obliged to pay the sum of $1,500, whereas
his entire property consists of a pair of oxen, a few sheep,
a hovel and miserable household furniture. If a mutual
agreement be made an assessor is called in, who values
his property at $1,500, though it is clearly worth much
less, and in this way the letter of the law is fulfilled. An
other factor in bringing about peaceful conclusions is
the sacred right of refuge, which has been treated in de
tail in another chapter. The criminal, sure of safety, re-

396 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
mains if need be a year or more while negotiations are
being carried out, and when they are terminated and the
price paid the murderer can leave his refuge in freedom.
If a criminal escapes into refuge leaving property, it
is at once arrested or simply seized by the heirs of the
murdered man. If others were implicated in the mur
der, their goods also are seized. This leads to the result
that a murder sometimes causes a village to be almost
deserted. Once in the eighties I was in the small village
of Arvanie-keif, near Teheran, consisting of some five
hundred houses. On approaching, it seemed as if a pesti
lence had swept through it. There were not over fifteen
or twenty male villagers left, and these were old or infirm.
The houses were empty, doors open and streets lifeless.
Inquiries showed that a month before my arrival, two of
the villagers were killed in a fight. All those in any way
directly concerned in the affair fled to refuge. The
relatives of those killed demanded the arrest of the prop
erty of the murderers. The latter, knowing of the com
plaint, had fled with such property as they could carry
with them. In this way a village of some five hundred
houses was almost deserted.
But therQ are other instances. A man remains in
refuge a year, perhaps two or more, without the relatives
of his victim consenting to a settlement. He then seizes
a convenient moment and escapes, going to some distant
city, perhaps Meshed, a large portion of which is regarded
as " bast," refuge. But he can never consider himself
as safe, and often falls at the hands of a revengeful rela
tive of his victim twenty or more years after the crime
was committed.
Brugsch in his " Reise nach Persien " gives an instance
of such revenge which was told him by an eye witness.
A Persian of a small village near Teheran killed a man
belonging to the same village. Fearing punishment, the
murderer managed to escape, and under an assumed name

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 397
lived in various parts of Persia. Finally he came to
Shiraz, where he got employment in the service of the
governor, Prince Tohmansn Mirza. Thirty years had
passed from the time of the murder and he considered
himself as quite safe. Once he was sent by the prince
with a drove of horses to Bendar Bushire. On the way
he camped one night in the small hamlet of Kesht. Fear
ing for the safety of the horses confided to him, he took
advantage of the presence of a company of two " tufang-
chis" (armed guards) who happened to be also camping
there and asked them to help him watch the horses. To
keep himself awake, one of the guards sang as he sat by
the campfire, and the servant of the prince, recognising
the song as one of those of his far-off native village, had
the imprudence to ask the singer if he was not from such
a village, naming his birthplace. On receiving an affirm
ative reply, questions followed. One of the other men,
hearing the conversation, asked how long the prince's
man had been away from home. " For many years, fully
thirty," he replied. The questioner happened to be a
son of the man murdered by the prince's servant! Other
carefully put questions brought replies that confirmed
his suspicions, and though the name given was different,
he was convinced that his father's murderer was before
him. Waiting until the unsuspicious murderer was
asleep, the young man softly approached and placing
his rifle almost against the sleeper's head fired, in this
way avenging his father's death after thirty years.
Another blood feud came under my own observation.
In the eighties I happened to be spending some time in a
very isolated part of Persia, in a town inhabited exclu
sively by Moslems and where I was the only European.
Among my new acquaintances was a khan, one of the
largest local landowners, a young man of about twenty-
five and a great lover of sport, with whom I often went
shooting. One evening I was invited to dine with this

398 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
young man, who promised me that there should be Persian
music and dancers. After dinner, about nine o'clock the
guests were seated in the large " telar," drawing room,
brightly lighted by a row of candles and lamps standing
on the floor. In one corner the musicians sat on the floor,
and at the opposite end of the room, facing the windows,
were the guests. Most were seated on cushions on the
floor, but a chair was placed for me as a European and
my host occupied another, while a small table stood in
front of us. The evening passed as all Persian evenings
do — music, the kalian, tea and sherbets. The bubble of
the pipes was drowned by the sound of the musicians and
the clashing of the castanets of the dancing boys, that al
ways had a depressing influence on me. From the great
open window occupying the entire front of the room the
soft summer air came in, heavy with the fragrance of the
roses that filled the garden. Looking out from the
lighted room, the garden seemed dark and mysterious.
The khan and I were conversing in low tones, laying out
plans for a bear hunt in the mountains the following day.
The soloist was singing a popular song recounting the
death of Nassir-ed-Deen Shah's mother during his
Majesty's absence in Europe. Suddenly the music was
brought to a stop by the sound of a shot that seemed
almost to have been fired in the room. In the startled
silence that followed, I remembered noticing how my
companion, the khan, dropped the cigarette that he
was holding to his lips, and then to my horror I saw him
slowly settle, and slip down out of his chair, while a
crimson stream trickled from a small hole in his temple!
And so our pleasant evening came to a tragic end.
It was afterwards proved that the death of the khan
was brought about by a blood feud that had existed in his
family for three generations, and that his was the eighth
death it had involved. The murderer had evidently been
able to creep up quite unnoticed in the darkness, and take
his station among the rose bushes in the garden, from

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 399
which place he had a good view of the brightly-lighted
room and of my hospitable host sitting by me, unconscious
of the fate awaiting him.
In 1897 during an epidemic of the plague in India a
strict quarantine was established by the Russians on the
Perso-Afghan frontier. Several Afghans insisting on
crossing the frontier were fired at, three of whom were
killed. Two years passed, and one day a Russian official
in Askhabad, going to his office in uniform, stepped into
a shop to buy cigarettes. As he stood waiting for change
an Afghan, who had been following him unnoticed,
slipped up and plunged a dagger between the Russian's
shoulders. The Afghan was arrested and stated that he
was the brother of one of those who had been shot by the
Russian military guard on the frontier. He had come on
foot from the southern part of Afghanistan all the way
to Askhabad with the intention of having the life of a Rus
sian officer in revenge for his brother's death. Seeing
the civilian, whose uniform he mistook for that of a mili
tary officer, the Afghan chose this wholly innocent oer-
son as his victim.
These instances give some idea of the deep root that
the system of blood feuds and price of blood has in
Persia, both among the town people arid among the no
mads, though more particularly so among the latter.
It is very often that relatives refuse blood payment and
insist on the death of the murderer. This is invariably
the case with women, especially if the woman has lost
her son. " I shall not drink the blood of the light of my
eyes, I demand the blood of his murderer," they say.
This is interpreted literally. I can testify to cases where
mothers have gone cup in hand to the execution of their
son's murderer, and holding the cup to the stream that
flowed from the cut throat, drank the warm blood. Such
cases are found not only among the masses, but even in
the higher circles.
When Agha Mohammed Shah was killed in 1798, his

4oo LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
murderer was given over to the princes, whose small
children, hardly able to hold a dagger, hacked arid cut
the poor wretch until their elders completed what they
were not able to do. In the same way the murderer of
Nadir Shah was, in 1747, given to his wives in the harem
to be done to death by them.
In demanding damages for physical injuries, the law
of retaliation is an exceedingly difficult one to apply lit
erally. Only one such case has come under my personal
knowledge. During a quarrel a Persian slashed off a
small bit of his opponent's ear. The younger brother
of the latter, while wishing to avenge his brother liter
ally, miscalculated his blow, and instead of taking off an
equal amount of ear, removed the entire member 1
Thereupon the first offender demanded the rest of the
ear of his victim. This the second man naturally refused
to consent to, and referred the first man to his younger
brother, who had made the unlucky operation. The dis
cussion that followed turned to blows, and finally the
younger brother was killed. The elder brother then fell
upon his former opponent, now the murderer of his
brother, killing him on the spot. The result of all this
bloodshed was that the relatives of the second murdered
man simply paid the price of the half ear originally lost
by the elder brother!
In conclusion it may be of interest to draw attention
to the points of greatest difference between the Persian
laws and laws common to European countries. In the
first place, the possession of property does not give the
possessor the right of absolute ownership. On this
ground a person considering himself theoretically the
owner of property actually held by another, has the right
of taking it by force. Second, oaths are administered
both in civil and criminal cases, first to the plaintiff, or
the injured person, and then to the defendant, or accused.
In criminal cases, under certain circumstances, more

LAW PROCEEDINGS IN PERSIA 401
than one oath is administered. For example, when sev
eral persons are under suspicion for murder they are
obliged to take the oath from twenty-five to thirty times,
according to the category of their suspected crime. In
this case the number of oaths is divided equally among
them. If there are five persons, each takes the oath five
times. If there are three, two will have it administered
eight times and the other nine times. Such oaths are ad
ministered to the inmates of a house where a murdered
man may be found. Third, voluntary confession of a
crime does not act as extenuating circumstance, and the
oath is administered just the same. Fourth, the accus
ers are never examined under oath, as information ob
tained in this way is considered a sin.
The testimony of witnesses who are unbelievers is ac
cepted, according to most authorities, only when their tes
timony is in favour of a Moslem. The testimony of wo
men is accepted only in cases that do not involve death
sentence, and even then, only when there are men also as
witnesses of the fact. The testimony of women alone is
void. Fifth, the conclusion given by a Mudjtaheid is
considered as final. The civil powers may sometimes
manage to evade its fulfilment, but they never venture to
dispute its correctness.
Sixth, post-mortem examinations in the interest of
legal justice are forbidden by the Shariat. This is nat
urally the cause of many cases of poisoning going unpun
ished. By the orders of our Transcaspian authorities an
examination was made of the body of a Mohammedan
herdsman who was murdered on the frontier. This be
ing known in Meshed, the chief city of the adjoining
Persian province of Khorasan raised a great tumult
among the lower classes, which threatened to end in a
massacre of the small colony of Christians in that place.

CHAPTER XXII
THE PERSIAN AT HOME
Manner of Building his House — Enderoun and Beroun — Cellars —
Water-Reservoris — Kursie — Summer-Resorts — Absence of Fashions
— Daily Occupations — Presents — Food, Lawful and Unlawful —
Wine Forbidden — Persian Table — Sweets — Gez — Wine-Making
— Hashish and Opium Serious Menaces to Persia — Edible Varieties
of Earth — Amusements — Tamashas — Dinners — Sport — Falconry —
Training of Falcons — Special Forms of Sport — Races — Jugglers and
Gymnastics.
In building his house the Persian is guided by custom
and religion. His first thought is for privacy, and he
therefore surrounds his dwelling with a high wall. The
need of running water for the ablutions prescribed by
his religion leads to his turning the common water sup
ply through his grounds. Basins or small tanks are made
both in the yard and in the house for the water supply.
Further, the two sexes must be separated, and his
women so situated that no strange masculine eye can fall
upon them, so the Persian constructs two distinct sets of
apartments, the enderoun for his women and the beroun
for the men. In the absence of timber the houses are
built of mud in the poor places, or with sun-baked or
burnt bricks as can be afforded by the well-to-do. The
roofs, being flat, form sleeping places in the summer
and dry, sunny walks in the winter.
The Persians are excellent masons, and are prized as
such in the Caucasus, where many go yearly for work.
In building a house no scaffolding is put up, the walls
being so thick that the mason stands on them, rising with
402

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 403
the wall he builds. As he lays the bricks he sings a
pleasing but monotonous song to the men below, who
toss up bricks or mortar as he calls for them in rhyme.
The earth needed for the building is taken from the spot
where the house is built, and from the ground about it.
This explains the reason why every Persian house and
garden are found to be below the level of the street. The
ground is laid out with straight paths and rows of poplar
and fruit trees that follow the water courses. So uni
form are the Persian houses that the description of one
will do for all. There are no windows overlooking the
street, only more or less elaborate arched gateways with
heavy iron-studded doors and iron knockers. On enter
ing the door and descending a few steps one finds the
stables and the servants' quarters to the right and left. A
corridor leads into the garden with its large basin of
water and flowers that Persians love. The main build
ing, most probably one-storied, faces the entrance, the
large reception room occupying the greater part of the
facade, with small living rooms at the end and the back.
The "telyar," or large reception room, is the princi
pal feature of the men's portion, and by its furnishings
the means and position of the owner may be judged. The
front wall is almost entirely taken up by a large window
of small, many-coloured glass panes, the sashes of which
are raised, and before these open windows the Persian
passes most of the summer days. Of furniture in our
sense of the word there is none in a typical Persian
house, but in those whose owners have intercourse with
Europeans, a table or two and a few stiff chairs are
found. The floor, being of brick or mortar, is first covered with
reed mats, over which are spread the carpets that form
the wealth of so many families. Around the sides of the
room, in alcoves and by the windows, are laid mattresses
covered with velvet or silk, on which are long, round

404 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
cushions neatly piled up against the wall, thus forming
comfortable lounging places. The niches that line every
room in the thick walls are filled with bits of chinaware,
glass candlesticks that delight the Persian's heart, Per
sian and Japanese pottery, clocks, etc.
In summer, in the richer houses, the walls and ceilings
of the reception rooms are studded with bits of gloss that
are so cut that as they catch the rays of light the effect
is dazzling. Often a little greenhouse or orangery
opens from this room. The women's quarters are a repe
tition of the men's room, but are more luxurious, that is
to say, have more of carpets and cushions and china.
The entrance to the enderoun, or ladies' quarters, is
generally through a covered corridor, and the longer
and more winding it is, the better. A heavy canvas cur
tain covers the entrance leading into the garden. Here
we find generally that the garden is larger and that there
are more flowers than in the grounds of the beroun.
The wealthy class have a bath connected with the en
deroun. The roofs of the houses are flat everywhere,
except in some of the cities along the Caspian coast,
where timber is to be found.
As in the summer time the roofs are the sleeping
rooms, they too are surrounded by walls to prevent their
being overlooked by neighbours.
Under the houses are cellars, used in some parts of
Persia only for provisions, but in others as a cool resort
during the hot hours of the day. In such cases they are
fitted up very luxuriantly, with a fountain playing in the
middle, and raised lounging places along the sides.
Many houses also have a reservoir for water, called the
" abambar." It is hardly necessary to say that anything like apart
ment houses cannot exist in Persia, and it is an exception
to find even the very poor living two or more families in
the same house.

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 405
Persians do not like to rent their houses to Christians,
as the presence of the latter pollutes them, and in cities
where Europeans go for the first time it is often almost
impossible to get a house. In places where the Persians
are accustomed to them it is easier to obtain houses, but
even then only at a far higher rent than Mohammedans
would pay.
Moreover, their fanaticism extends even to workmen.
The Nestorian masons of Urumiah often find difficulty,
good workmen as they are, in finding sufficient employ
ment, as Persians do not wish to live in a house built by
Christians. This prejudice is, however, dying out.
In most houses small narrow fire-places are to be
found, but they are less used than the " kursie." This is
a brazier of coals placed on the floor, over which is set a
stool often from three to four feet square and a couple
of feet high. Over this is thrown a large wadded quilt,
and often handsome silks or shawls are spread over all.
Mattresses and pillows are placed around it on the floor,
and here the family sits, putting the feet under the quilt
for warmth. Kursies are to be found in more or less
primitive form in the houses of both rich and poor, and
as the doors and windows are badly fitted and the rooms
are cold and drafty, many sleep at night around the cosy
"kursie." With the hot season, when the close, filthy streets make
town-life intolerable, those who can do so move to sum
mer resorts. Owing to hills surrounding so many of the
cities of Persia one is generally able at a distance of a
very few miles to reach a considerable rise in altitude
with a corresponding change in the temperature. The
shah has summer houses built at different altitudes,
thanks to which, as the season advances, the court can
move to higher and cooler resorts.
One of the first things a Persian will do as his wealth
increases, is to buy himself a summer place. This gen-

406 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
erally takes the form of a house with orchard or vineyard
attached, the whole being surrounded by a high wall.
Persian gardeners have very different views from those
of Europe. Lawns, ornamental lakes, rustic bridges and
winding paths are unknown to them. A cord is drawn
from the gateway and a broad alley marked out, and
others cross it, cutting the entire plot into squares. Chi-
nar, or plane trees, follow these alleys, the branches be
ing trimmed off so that they reach a great height, casting
little shade. Between them, as well as on the plots laid
out, are planted low-growing rose bushes, fruit trees or
grape vines. Everywhere streams of water are carried,
without which nothing can be made to grow. The foun
tains are in the shape of round or oblong basins of ce
ment sunk in the ground and throwing up a jet of water,
or simply supplied from the running surface streams.
About the fountains the noble " nervin " of the Persians,
or " kara-agach," as it is called in Turkish, a species of
elm (Ulmus campestris), is planted. This is one of the
most beautiful of all the trees cultivated in Persia.
Weeping willows, ash (Fraxinus excelsior) , called by the
Persians "bird's tongues," owing to the shape of the
leaves, acacia and a variety of the silver willow, the
Elasagnus angustifolia, are all easily cultivated. The last
mentioned tree blossoms in May, giving a tiny yellow
bell-shaped flower, with so strong and yet delicate an
odour that the air is perfumed for a long distance from
the tree. The fruit, that ripens in the autumn, resembles
somewhat a date in form and stone but is of a flowery,
insipid substance.
Roses, lilacs and jasmines abound, and nearly every
house in the town has also at least a few fruit trees,
peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, nectarines or pears.
Although a flower-loving people, the Persians have no
skill in cultivating them, and only the most simple, old-

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 407
fashioned flowers, as four-o'clocks, marigolds, pinks, as
ters and phlox, are to be seen. Finer plants are culti
vated only in the shah's gardens or in the gardens of the
Europeans. Well-watered gardens grow with a luxuri
ance and rapidity that would well pay the scientific gar
dener. Trees attain in from fifteen to twenty years the
size that in Russia could not be reached in less than
from thirty to forty years.
The clothing of the Persians is ordered by custom and
religion, and the word fashion does not exist in the Per
sian vocabulary. The dress of the people has changed
little during the years. The hat that marks the Persian
subject, of whatever religion he may be, is the small
black lamb's-wool or cloth head-dress called " kulyag."
In form it is something like a fez, but without the tassel.
As it has no rim, the Persians fasten around it a visor, to
shade the eyes in travelling. This hat never leaves the
Persian's head by day, and sometimes, even, it is kept on
at night, or if then removed, a small skull cap is worn.
Thirty or forty years ago in many parts of Persia this hat
was high and peaked in shape, but now the low ones are
exclusively used, though Naser-ed-deen Shah found a
good deal of difficulty in introducing them among his
conservative subjects.
Skull caps of felt are mostly worn by the working
classes, and the clergy wear white turbans, the sayids, or
descendants of the Prophet, green turbans, arid Kurds
wind many-coloured handkerchiefs around their felt
caps. As it is forbidden to pray when wearing silk cloth or
gold ornaments, the men's garments are seldom of that
material, but rather of cotton or cloth, while their rings
are set in silver and gold watches are seldom carried.
The beard is almost never shaved, and a big beard is
considered as the sign of intelligence. In praising a

408 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
man they will say, " He has a big beard," and will add,
" He is clever, wise," or, as he expresses it, " His words are
cooked." Oaths are taken on the beard, and instead of saying that
one was laughed at, thtey will say, " I laughed at his
beard." According to the Shariat, shaving of the beard
is looked upon as a humiliating punishment. The Ori
ental habit of removing the shoes on entering a room is
observed, and in making calls the Europeans always
wear overshoes which they take off. This custom has its
practical reason for existing, as in the absence of other
furniture the carpets are used to sit on, and dusty and
muddy shoes would render them unfit for seats.
The Persians are very fond of arms of all kinds, and
daggers are commonly worn. In a moment of anger
these are sometimes used, but generally they serve as or
nament. The routine of the day is also guided by religious cus
toms. The necessity of performing his ablutions and re
peating prayers before sunrise causes the Persian to be an
early riser. Having said his prayer, or "namaz," he
drinks his tea or coffee, smokes a pipe and begins his day
— the merchant goes to the bazaar, the workman to his
field and the official to his place of service. If he be a
"mirza," or scribe, he goes to the house of his patron
before sunrise, sure of finding that the latter has already
left the enderoun and is seated in the beroun. As there
are no special administrative offices, each government
official carries on his work in his own house, seated on his
cushion with his secretaries seated on the floor about him.
The archives, if very numerous, may be kept in boxes or
a valise, and the documents necessary for reference are
kept conveniently slipped under the mattresses, whence
they are easily drawn out when needed. The en
tire work is done in this simple reception room — tele-
jgrams written, important documents drawn up, instruc-

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 409
tions given, cases tried, judged, and even sentences car
ried into effect on the spot, it not being unusual to have
bastinado or other punishment inflicted under the open
window by which the official is seated. Here, too, in an
equally open way, are given and taken the " peshkesh,"
or presents, without which no important business can be
completed, and the amount of which must govern the
decisions made.
The custom of giving peshkesh has obtained for itself
the right of citizenship in Persia. The peshkesh may
take any form, from a flower or cucumber to horses and
gold or jewels. It may be given with' the innocent, even
if hardly laudable, hope of receiving an " anam " or
gift of equal or greater value in return, as a gardener
presenting to his master the first fruits of his garden, or
it may be given with the less innocent and still less laud
able intention of influencing the course of justice.
The shameless way in which these peshkesh are given
and accepted is familiar to all living in Persia. I will
give one instance, the parties to which transaction we
knew well. A new governor arriving in a certain prov
ince, the chiefs of each department hasten to bring him
presents, hoping thereby to conciliate the great man and
to keep their situations. One officer, the chief of the ar
tillery, had reason to fear that his chances were rather
low, and he therefore prepared as fine a present as he
could afford. When he went to pay his respects to his
new chief a pair of very handsome Russian carriage
horses were led under the window where the governor
was seated. The governor glanced at them and then,
turning to the anxious officer, said he was much obliged
for the little gift, but that he found the horses rather
thin and would advise the owner to take them home and
feed them up. The unlucky general bowed low and
took his leave, followed by his men leading the horses.
At considerable inconvenience he raised money to buy

4ro LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
a second pair, riding horses this time. A few days later
he presented himself with all four horses. The gov
ernor, seated with his water pipe on his cushions by the
window, gravely looked the horses over and pronounced
them to be in better condition, but added " that there was
yet room for improvement."
Our friend left, and this time was obliged to sell his
summer place to get money, and the comedy was repeated
until eight valuable horses were pronounced sufficiently
" well fed " to be accepted.
But to return to our official's office. During business
hours he finds time to receive callers and to drink with
them glasses of tea and small cups of coffee. About
eleven or twelve o'clock the host, feeling hunger, orders
lunch. There is no special dining room nor set hours for
meals. He eats when and wherever he feels like it.
The food is brought in upon trays, and a silk or cotton
cloth being spread on the carpet in front of the host, the
tray is placed upon it. All that remains is for him to
draw closer, saying, " Bismillahi rahmanie rahim," and
invite his callers to do the same. Thin sheets of bread
take the place of forks, and fingers and spoons dipped in
the common dish furnish the rest of the table service.
The Persian cooking is delicious and varied. Rice
cooked in many ways, mutton, chickens and vegetables
form the base of the different dishes. The more im
portant of the aides of the officials will be invited to par
take with him ; those of inferior rank will have a tray in
the lower corner of the room or in an adjoining cham
ber. Many governors or officials of high rank in this
way feed as many as fifty retainers outside of their im
mediate family.
After eating, a nap of an hour or two is taken, often
here in the same place after the tray has been removed.
The bedroom furniture is as uncomplicated as is that of

TYPE OF PALACE IN TEHERAN

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 411
the dining room: a mattress, " dushek," a long round
pillow filled with cotton or wool, and a wadded quilt.
The whole, when not in use, is rolled up and tied in a
large square of cotton or wool stuff, according to the
means, and put up against the side of the room to serve
as a cushion to lean against by day.
After his nap the Persian again begins his work2 stop
ping to perform his devotions at the prescribed hour,
this also being done where he has been carrying on all the
other details of the day's work.
Sometimes the afternoon is spent in making calls,
which he does accompanied by a number of servants, the
size of the retinue depending upon his rank. No formal
calls are made without first sending to ascertain if the
hour intended be convenient to the one on whom the call
is made. If it is not convenient, another day and hour is
fixed, and our custom of calling and leaving cards appears
to the Persian as rude and ridiculous.
The love of outward pomp is never more shown than
in the number and character of the escort that all Per
sians of any rank will aspire to. We had an amusing
illustration of this national characteristic when we lived
in Meshed. Our coachman, who in his own estimation
was quite an important personage, sighed for the pomp
that his means did not permit. Occasionally, however,
he would allow himself a great treat. Collecting twenty
or more idle fellows he would hire them for a few cents
to accompany him as escorts on a walk. Putting on his
best clothes, he would set out from our stables, pacing
along with the slow measured step of the great, preceded
and followed by his servants of the hour. As he walked
down the great avenue of Meshed small shopkeepers
and the many loungers would rise on seeing so important
a cortege pass and would ask each other in audible whis
pers who the great man was. The satisfaction he re-

412 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
ceived from this innocent childish exhibition more than
repaid him for the money spent, and he would return to
his horses with a heart at peace andl full of satisfied
vanity. At sundown the streets begin to empty, as there is very
little movement after dark. Those who do go out carry
lanterns, as few cities in Persia are lighted. The lantern
shows by its size the rank of the Persian passing. The
simple house owner will go out with a small paper lan
tern of a few inches in diameter, whereas the servants
of the governor general precede him carrying lanterns
of the same pattern, but of two feet in diameter.
The Persians are very temperate in their habits and
particular that the choice of food be in accordance with
the tenets of their religion. The Koran itself says very
little as to what is pure, lawful, " halal," or impure, for
bidden, "haram." It only forbids pork in every form,
the flesh of animals that have died a natural death, and
the use of wine. These instructions are found in the 6th
Sura and 146th verse :
" Say, I find not in that which hath been revealed unto
me, anything forbidden unto the eater, that he eat it not,
except it be that which dieth of itself, or blood poured
forth, or swine's flesh, for this is an abomination."
A similar command is found in Sura 16, verse 116:
" Eat of what God has given you for food, that which
is lawful and good; and be thankful for the favours of
God if ye serve him. He hath forbidden you that which
dieth of itself, and blood, and swine's flesh, and that
which hath been slain in the name of any besides God.
But unto him who shall be compelled by necessity to
eat of these things, not lusting, nor wilfully transgressing,
God will surely be gracious and merciful."
In regard to wine, we find in the 216th verse of the
2d Sura the following words : " They will ask thee con-

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 413
cerning wine and lots.1 Answer, in both there is great
sin, and also some things of use unto men; but their sin
fulness is greater than their use."
These are all the commands to be found in the Koran,
but on this basis the Shariat has worked out a long
formula of what is forbidden and the manner of slaugh
tering animals to make the flesh admissible for food.
According to the Shariat, the absolutely forbidden ani
mals are reptiles, crustaceans, fish without scales, as eels,
etc., beasts of prey, rodents, hares, etc., birds of prey and
those not possessing crops. On the latter ground, the
Persians refrain from eating snipe of all varieties. The
eggs of birds and fish, caviar, also the milk of animals
whose flesh is forbidden, are not eaten.
The doctrines guiding the choice of food is, however,
open to dispute, many theologians permitting the flesh
of an animal that others forbid. The flesh of a lawful
animal may become unlawful, " haram," if it is not
slaughtered according to the rites laid down. Aside
from alcohol and wine, all fermented drinks are strictly
forbidden. The Shariat enjoins ablutions which should be per
formed before and after eating, and during the washing
God's name should be pronounced.
The Persians have a limited choice of meats, but these
they prepare in so many different ways that their table
is one of the most varied and delicious. Rice, vegetables,
fruit and every green that is not poisonous enter into their
menu. In some parts of Persia, as in Mazandaran, rice
almost entirely replaces bread, and the poorer sort is used
for horses' food. Beef is very little eaten and is of poor
quality. The pasture lands being more suitable for
sheep, cattle are kept only as needed for beasts of burden,
ploughing and for milk. They are therefore butchered
1 Or. as other translators have it, gambling.

414 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
only when past being of use in such ways, and naturally
they are then poor eating. Mutton is therefore the staple
article of meat diet and is used when freshly killed.
Owing to the climate and the absence of convenience for
preserving meat the Persians never smoke nor salt it.
The only method of preparing meat for storing is cook
ing it and then packing away in earthen jars with alter
nate layers of meat and melted mutton fat
Sweet drinks are very much used — simple sugar and
water or various fruit syrups or sherbets.
It is impossible to touch even as lightly as I am doing
upon Persian life without mentioning the important part
that sweets of various kinds fulfil. No family, no social
event is complete without them. A friend arrives, you
send him a tray of "shereenie," sweets. A birth, wed
ding and even funeral calls for them.
In speaking of sweets I must mention one variety pe
culiar to this country, called "gez," or " gez-angebin,"
which is made of " manna," a saccharine exudation of
certain bushes. Even among the Persians there is a
common legend that the manna falls from heaven, which
is easily believed by a people who love all that is super
natural, and also as proof of their conviction that " Iran
khub meleket est," Persia is a good country, where even
food falls from heaven. The bushes known in Persia
as giving manna are of seven varieties, some of which are
used only for medicinal purposes. Of these is one grow
ing about Tabriz, Khorasan, Kum and Bendar Bushire,
the Hedysarum alhagi. The manna used for gez is ob
tained from the Tamarisk ( Tamarix mannifera) , probably
the manna of the children of Israel. The tamarisk is
found in nearly all parts of Persia, but the manna-bearing
kind is only met with in the small district of Hunsar,
lying about one hundred miles northwest of Ispahan.
The reason of the manna being found only in this place

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 415
is supposed to be due to the presence of an insect, Coccus
manniferus, whose sting sets the sap flowing. The gez
made from this manna is considered to be one of the
greatest dainties. It is made by pounding the grains of
manna to a flour, from which a dough is made, and often
pistachios or other nuts are added, with cardamom as a
flavour. The dough is worked into little flat cakes,
sprinkled with flour and packed in small boxes for sale.
The Persians are extremely simple and abstemious in
the matter of food. One often wonders at the strength of
the men, who will do heavy work or go long distances on a
little bread with a small bit of cheese, a bunch of grapes,
or dry fruit. Although wine is forbidden, the Persian
often finds the temptation to indulge in it greater than his
religious scruples. He does not drink wine as we do, for
the pleasure of the flavour, but rather for the pleasure
of intoxication, and the sooner that state is reached, the
better is considered the quality of the wine. It is, how
ever, considered a disgrace to be seen in a state of in
toxication, and the shameful scenes common in many
parts of Europe and especially in Russia rarely offend
the eye in Persia.
Respect for his host will prevent a well-bred man from
drinking too much in company, and drinking orgies are
generally carried on in private or in the company of
boon companions who do not leave the house until the
effects have passed off. It is therefore as much public
opinion as religious belief that keeps Persians from
drinking, or at least from drinking too much, unless occa
sionally in private. The wine is usually made by Chris
tians, and is prepared in so primitive a manner that it
cannot be kept for export. In time, with the magnificent
vineyards, the wine industry will probably form one of
the chief items of Persian export.
But worse than drunkenness is the curse of opium. In

4i 6 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
Khorasan we found it exceedingly difficult to find ser
vants free from this vice, the physical effects of which are
even more serious than that of alcoholism. Two forms
of the drug are used, hashish and opium, although the
former is strictly forbidden by the Shariat. In spite of
this and the bastinado, which is frequently administered
to hashish smokers, particularly to soldiers, this danger
ous custom is undoubtedly on the increase, more especially
among the lower classes and villagers. Hashish is pre
pared from the flower tops of the Indian hemp (Cannobis
Indices) , that grows freely in almost all parts of central
Asia. Its preparation is vers- simple. The flowers of the
Indian hemp are pulled while in full bloom, and then
rubbed for a long time on a rough carpet. This produces
a sticky mass of pulp, that is scraped up with a knife and
rolled into small pills. In this form it is known as hash
ish, or "chers" in Persian.
Chers is smoked in pipes, generally mixed with to
bacco. Hashish smokers can readily be detected by their
sallow complexion, uncertain gait and wandering eyes.
Beginning with small doses, the hashish smoker is forced
to increase the quantity, and he goes slowly but surely to
a miserable end.
Another preparation is made from the same plant,
called "rayhani bend" in Persian. This is made by
boiling the hemp blossoms in butter or almond oil. The
preparation when mixed with food in the proper propor
tion throws the eater into a deep sleep for from twenty-
four to seventy hours. Rayhani bend is used in Persia
for criminal purposes. By means of it women are often
abducted, but such cases seldom get out of the harem
walls, except in trie form of vague rumours. Not being
sure of facts, I shall therefore not dwell upon this side of
the subject, but will give one instance that took place in
the seventies of the last century, a fact well authenticated

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 417
and reported by Dr. Schlemmer in a lecture before the
" Dar ul fenund " in Teheran.1
In the latter part of the last century a Persian occupying
an important position was suspected of treason and there
fore thrown into prison. By special orders he was strictly
surrounded by a picked guard under the command of a
trusted " gulambashi " in the employ of one of the min
isters. As a man of high position, the prisoner was per
mitted to have his meals brought to him from home.
This was done in large trays and in quantities sufficient
not only for himself, but for the entire guard, from the
gulambashi down. This continued for some time. One
day as usual the evening meal was brought, and in the
morning when the guard was changed it was found that
they were all in a deep sleep. The gulambashi was car
ried to his house, and Dr. Schlemmer succeeded in
restoring him to consciousness only after seventeen hours.
The prisoner in the meantime was safely in "bast" at
Sha-Abdul-Azim, some five miles from Teheran, a ref
uge from which the civil powers could not remove him.
Here he remained in safety until his case was tried, and
his innocence being proved he was set at liberty.
Many Persians begin from a certain age to take
"teriak," opium, which they constantly carry on their
persons in the form of pills. It is safe to state that
half of the Persians from the age of thirty-five to
forty take this narcotic daily. The general theory is
that taking teriak in this form refreshes the brain and
invigorates the organism as an antidote to old age. The
usual dose is from one to two grains a day, and in the
moist provinces about the Caspian Sea from three to four
grains is the quantity often taken. Dr. Pollock knew a
dervish who took seven grains of opium at a time, a suffi-
1 ScHetnmer, " Terminologie medico-pharmaceutique et antrologique Fran-
jaise-Persane, Teheran."

418 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
cient quantity to poison several persons not accustomed
to the drug. According to this physician, opium taken
regularly in small doses does not have any injurious con-
sequences ; on the contrary, he cites cases of people who
lived to a great age though given to this habit. Opium
is often administered to children, with terrible results
if carried to extremes. This is commonly found among
the poor when the mothers are obliged to work. We
had a Persian washerwoman who worked all day, while
her baby, slung in a home-made hammock in a comer
of the wash-house, was the wonder of everyone, for it
was never heard to cry. We found on inquiry that the
poor little creature had a rag with teriak and sugar tied
in it, and this was stuck in its mouth to suck whenever it
awoke arid became restless.
Of course, in such cases the dose has to be increased,
and if the child survives, it is a pale, miserable creature.
Persian nurses have to be carefully watched or they will
manage to give their charges teriak or hashish.
Opium smoking has a different effect, although quite
as fatal to the sysiem as hashish smoking. It is generally
smoked pure without being mixed with tobacco.
It may be of interest also to note certain kinds of earth
that are eaten as delicacies in some places, and in famine
years if not as food at least as a means of calming the
pangs of hunger. These kinds of clay are called, accord
ing to the variety, " gelie-ormenie," or " gelie-kum," as
the latter is found near the city of Kum. This is a sticky
clay with an unpleasant taste. Another variety is " nad-
zir," or "bezoart stone," used by the native doctors as
an antidote for poison, as well as a dainty that is con
sidered beneficial to pregnant women. The bezoart
stones are of two kinds, vegetable and animal, and have
a pleasant pungent taste.
The Persian's life is not rich in entertainments, as the

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 419
only forms of public amusements or sights are fireworks
and races organised by the shah or nobles, and the re
ligious processions and plays in the month of Muharram.
Therefore any object or incident, however insignificant
it may be, is sufficient to excite interest and to draw a'
crowd to see the " tamasha," or sight. If the drum and
fife are heard that accompany a bridal procession or a
bride's trousseau, the streets and roofs are immediately
crowded with people to see the tamasha. If Europeans
pass through the village, a crowd follows, exchanging
remarks that are not always complimentary to the stran
gers. The lower classes find great pleasure in spending
hours in the cafes, listening to professional story-tellers
or singers.
The bath, too, forms something like a club. Occasion
ally a bear or monkey is led through the village to the
beating of tambourines, or a lizard fully a yard long that
is to be found in some parts of Persia.
Ram and cock fighting is popular, and during the
Easter week, in some Nestorian villages, buffalo fights
are arranged. Two crowds gather, bets are made and
the entire village turns out for the sport. This is the
sum total of popular entertainments in Persia. It is
evident, therefore, that each one according to his means
tries to supply in his own house this want. This gives
rise to the Persian's love of dinners, "mehmani." Among
the court circles and higher nobility these entertainments
are made in the European style, the dinner being served
at tables. Among the middle and poor classes and in the
provinces, the dinner is served as it was centuries ago.
The menu differs only in quality and number of dishes,
according to the position of the host. The ever-present
pilaw, for instance, in the richer houses is made of a fine
sort of rice that is carefully picked over by the women

420 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
in the harem, grain by grain. Fruit, so plentiful and
luxuriant in Persia, is eaten by all classes, forming to
gether with bread the staple diet of the poor. In typical
Persian houses the dinner is served on the floor without
knives or forks, fingers and thin sheets of bread taking
their place. Slightly rolling up their right sleeve and
leaning forward, the Persian skilfully manipulates the
rice between his fingers, eating it neatly and cleverly. The
meal is always eaten in silence, and at the close water is
brought to wash the hands. After the dinner the conver
sation becomes general and the current topics are dis
cussed, first and foremost in interest the " amount eaten," 1
or about to be eaten, by such and such an official. When
this favourite subject is exhausted, they begin what the
Persians love to call " philosophical discussions." These
are based on some quite improbable theory, and it is some
times difficult to repress a smile on seeing the seriousness
with which it is treated. For instance, the ball will be
started by suggesting what might be if the Caspian Sea
should turn into a Sahara, or if people had wings. In
the debate that follows, if a good point is made, the ap
proval of the company is manifested by exclamations of
"Philosoph est, paderi Eflatoon!" (He is a philosopher,
the father of Plato.) Or they will say, "Plato in com
parison with you is but as a dog."
Sometimes the conversation is of magic and witch
craft; of the doings and sayings of the prophets Moham
med and Ali. During this time the merry hubble bubble
of the water pipes is the invariable accompaniment.
Sometimes musicians and dancing boys are called in, and
at the close of two or three hours the guests take their
leave, followed by the good wishes of their host that
" their shadow may never grow less," and thanks for the
" trouble they drew " in favouring him with their com
pany. aThat is the Persian expression for taking bribes.

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THE PERSIAN AT HOME 421
The Persians are exceedingly hospitable, and no one
who comes to the house is allowed to leave without din
ner or some refreshment. I have often been present
when a dervish has entered and after a general salutation
has taken his seat at the tray without any invitation.
Persians are very fond of sport, that is indulged in by
the rich for amusements and by the poor as a means of
existence. It is doubtful whether in any other country of
the same size a greater variety of game can be found than
in Persia. Beginning with the lion and tiger, one
passes to our northern wolves, bears, squirrels, pan
thers, leopards, foxes, hare, jackals, wild sheep and
goats, pigs, porcupines and wild asses. The feathered
tribes, too, offer a large variety, among them being pheas
ants, several species of partridge, duck during the winter
migration, bustards, quail, swan and snipe that winter
in southern Persia. The nobles and rich Persians do not
care for sport with gun and dogs, that demands tramping
and fatigue. They wish a certain comfort and " tashak-
huss," pomp. They never go alone, but are accompanied
by numbers of servants. The shah often took four hun
dred to five hundred men with him on his hunting ex
peditions. A rich Persian takes as many as twenty to
forty followers or more. They go with dogs or falcons,
or with beaters and dogs.
The spring and late autumn are the best time for
shooting, as at these seasons the game descends from the
mountains into the more accessible valleys and plains,
where they can find food when the mountains are yet
covered with snow. At such seasons the Persians often
camp out, occasionally accompanied by the harem. The
shah has special preserves where he often goes for ten
days or more.
There are several varieties of hounds, " taze," in Per
sia, the most valuable being the so-called Arabian bred,
with fine short hair and small pointed ears covered with

422 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
tufts of long hair, as is the tail, something like those of a
setter. Next to these in the eastern part of Persia are
esteemed the Turkoman hounds. After the taking of
Geog Tepe a number of hounds of this breed were
brought into Russia by our officers.
Falcon hunting begins in the spring when the young
birds are large enough. The sportsmen go out on horse
back, the hooded falcons being carried on the wrist of the
keepers, who wear gloves, while others lead the dogs, and
the dogs being loosed the hoods are removed from the
birds. As soon as the dogs raise a bird a falcon is let
fly, the horseman following its flight as closely as possible
to take the game from the clawrs of the falcon. The
largest falcons or hawks are used for hunting the wild
goats, whose eyes the bird tries at once to destroy. Hares
are also hunted with birds.
The training of falcons is quite an art, requiring aside
from knowledge great pains and patience. The greatest
difficulty is to teach the bird not to fly away when once it
has reached its prize, but to wait to be caught by its mas
ter. The bird is snared when young and is at first kept
chained to a perch, the head covered with a hood that is
only removed to feed it with raw meat. During the
feeding the bird is taught its master's voice by repeating
to it over and over the same word. The next step in the
training is letting it fly within the limits of its chain onto
a small bird or animal that is also tied within the circle.
All this time the same word is being repeated. When the
hawk seizes its prey the trainer catches it, still talking to
it, and gives it as a reward a part of its victim. As soon as
the hawk does this without showing any attempt to es
cape, it is considered ready to take on a real hunt.
Falcon-keeping is the most expensive form of sport,
as each bird has its own keeper and horse. As they soon
lose their health and spirit if confined in one place the
hawks are constantly taken on " walks," and it is a com-

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 423
mon sight to see a man sauntering through the bazaars
and streets with a bird perched on his hand, that in its
solemn way seems to take an interest in all the street sights.
Although a strong bird and one enduring great fatigue
in flight, the hawk is very delicate when in confinement
and needs the most careful and experienced care to keep
it alive arid in good spirits.
In some parts of Persia tigers used to abound, and
sometimes daring sportsmen would watch their chance
of stealing the young. I knew one man who had suc
ceeded in getting away from the den unnoticed with
a cub in his hands. The tigress, however, got on his
track, and he saved his life only by throwing the young
one down, which the mother at once picked up, as a cat
would her kitten, and bounded off with it. The fright
ened hunter climbed the nearest tree, where he stayed all
night, not daring to resume his way for fear the mother
might follow and take revenge.
I shall notice in passing two forms of sport that are
interesting in their originality. One is employed in fol
lowing the mountain partridge that is found on the slopes
of rocky hills. The hunter makes a shield-like frame
almost his own height. This he covers with a white cloth
on which are stuck bits of bright-coloured rags. Two
holes are made at the right height for his eyes, and hold
ing the shield before him the sportsman goes towards the
birds. The partridge, being of an exceedingly inquisitive
turn of mind, at once stops to have a good look at the
strange object, stretching out its neck and cocking its
head with every sign of interest. In this way the sports
man can often get within fifteen to twenty paces of the
birds. I must confess, however, that my own attempts
with this form of shooting were failures, possibly from
want of practice in managing the shield.
Another method is adopted by which quails are taken
alive. In the springtime, as the fields become green with

424 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
the sprouting grain and the lucerne is in leaf, the quails
come down to the plain in great numbers. The sports
man then arms himself with a net, a long-necked empty
gourd, and a framework that is attached to his shoulders
and rises as a sort of winged hood high over his head.
The shape of this framework is such that the shadow cast
resembles that of a huge bird of prey on the wing. Walk
ing slowly through the fields with the sun behind him,
the shadow falling in front, deceives the quails, and they,
taking it for a bird on watch for them, crouch down on
the ground quite heedless of the approaching steps. Thus
it is easy to cast the net and to put the bird alive into the
gourd, that has little holes in its sides for air. In this
way quails are regularly brought for sale to the bazaars
alive in gourds.
Shooting over the hills is very fatiguing to one unac
customed to mountain climbing, especially as dogs are
of little use, the birds not allowing them to get within
shot. In many of the reedy and wooded parts of Persia are
large droves of wild pigs. Mohammedans do not kill
them except in self-defence, and they are sometimes
obliged to organise a hunt on droves that damage the
crops. In such cases the animals are killed, but left un
touched on the spot.
In conclusion I must mention one other sport that forms
at the same time one of the few popular entertainments
or, more properly, sights, and these are the races. They
are held in Teheran and sometimes in some other large
cities where there are princes or nobles addicted to the
sport. I shall here describe the races held in Teheran
during the celebration of No-ruz festival, that generally
takes place the ist of April.
Two or three months in advance the princes, nobles
and private individuals who have horses to enter, begin

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 425
to train them in a way peculiar to that country. The
horses are completely covered with thick felts, only their
feet and head showing, and every day in this garb they
are taken out at a slow walk. Each day the distance is
increased, until finally they are kept going all day. Dur
ing this time the horses are fed little and allowed to lie
down but two hours out of the twenty-four. Under this
regime they are in a constant lather of sweat, and become
so thin that when the time for running arrives they are
little more than bones, muscles and skin. The races are
held just outside of the city on an elliptical race course
giving a little less than two miles' run. On the north
side is thrown up a building in the shape of a two-storied
house with open rooms facing the track. These form
boxes for the shah, ministers and diplomatic corps.
The hippodrome is surrounded by two parallel walls,
between which is the race course, a road about eighty-four
feet wide. Often from eighty to a hundred horses are
entered for the race, which are divided according to their
prowess into four groups. There are no rules regulating
the size, age nor breed of the horses, nor are there any
governing the weight of the jockeys. The latter are,
however, generally boys dressed in different coloured
shirts. As sometimes the boys are unable to stick on in
the swiftness of the race, they are not unfrequently
strapped to the saddle! This, of course, is usually fol
lowed with fatal results if the horse falls.
The first group of horses makes the round of the course
six times, or about ten miles. During the races of 1883
the first horse arrived at the post in thirty-one minutes
and some seconds, and another was one head behind, while
several others came up a few seconds later. The remain
ing ten or twelve horses were several rods behind. The
first group made the best speed. The second lot of horses
ran five rounds in twenty-two minutes; the third, four

426 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
rounds in fifteen minutes; and the fourth, three rounds in
ten minutes. The first prize for the first group of horses
was one hundred tomans, about one hundred and seventy
dollars according to the rate of exchange at that time.
The first prize for the second group was seventy- five
tomans, the third and fourth fifty tomans each.
Of course such small sums can in no way compensate
the owner for his expenses, the more so that the horses
entered are generally of valuable Arab or Turkoman
breed. A Turkoman horse while running looks exactly
like a fine hound, but in spite of the great length of their
stride the prizes were more often won by the small Arab
horses. The day of the races in Teheran is a great event. At
nine o'clock in the morning a cannon shot is heard an
nouncing the departure of the shah, and all Teheran
pours out to the hippodrome or onto such of the flat
roofs that may overlook the race course, or at least the
streets through which the shah and the troops are to
pass, for a parade follows the races. The streets are
filled with people on foot, on horseback and in carriages
of all styles and periods, from the most old-fashioned
chariots to the elegant landau of the day. Mixed with
the horses are seen the " Camel artillery " — cannon car
ried on camels' backs. These go out to the parade
ground, and the cannon are placed in position, the camels
lying in a row behind them. Other cannon, or mountain
guns, are carried on mules. The cavalry, in Cossack
form, and finally the infantry in uniforms imitating those
of Austrian regiments — all this forms a bright, many-col
oured picture moving under the blue sky.
Opposite to the shah's box are two bands, one of Euro
pean music directed by a European, and the other of
native music, with dancing boys dressed in women's
clothes. Close by stands an elephant with a small pavil-

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 427
ion on his back solemnly swaying his great trunk. One
by one the horses that are to take part in the race are led
before the shah, the master of ceremonies giving the
name of its owner and the name, age and qualities of the
horse. Then, at a given signal, the jockeys, often boys
not over ten to cloven years of age, mount the horses,
that, scenting the race, are beginning to get excited. The
relatives of the jockeys run at the last moment to tic
amulets on their left arms to bring them luck. Some
times the same boys will ride in the several successive
groups without seeming to get overtired.
Water carriers with skins and carrying large jugs in
their hands pour cold water freely over the heads and
croups of the horses. The horses get into line, and at the
signal the twenty or perhaps more steeds break into a
run and are soon lost to view by the high inner wall of
the hippodrome. Sometimes a horse that has run before
in a three-round race and is now entered for four or more
rounds will, on completing the three rounds, break for
the exit, and the time taken to turn and stop him loses him
his place in the race. The race is carried on in an utterly
illegal and unsportsmanlike manner from our point of
view. Sometimes when a horse belonging to a private
individual of little consequence is seen to be in front,
sand is thrown in its eyes! The winner of the prize, re
ceiving his money in a bag, places it on his head and goes
to one side, followed by congratulations. The horse is
at once unbitted, his girths loosed, and he is led about to
cool. After the races are completed the troops pass in review
before the shah, and then in the same order march back
to the city.
This is all I can tell of Persian entertainments arid
amusements. Not many nor varied. Of amusements
that satisfy the artistic sense there are none. Nor does

428 LIFE IN THE MOSLEM EAST
[the Persian in his present state of development demand
Ithem. He is above all a materialist. Poets delighting
to describe roses, nightingales, brooks and streams, do
so as appreciating them as accessories to " caif." The
Persian loves to sit on the shady bank of a stream with
his pipe and tea, or a picnic lunch cooked on the spot,
but he is untouched by the majesty of the scenery about
him and the real beauties that nature unfolds. He loves
dancing, yet does not seek for the graceful but the sensual
in the motions; he loves story-tellers that lull him to
sleep ; he loves poetry, but not so much for the thoughts
or inspirations suggested as for the musical sound that
caresses his ear by its rhythm. It is true he loves a " tama
sha" for all it will give him, but further than this he
does not go, and to spend money as we do to go to places
of amusement? is beyond his comprehension. Several
years ago a circus arrived in Persia. It was supposed
that a people that loved horses as they do would eagerly
go to it, but the attendance was so small that the enter
prise was given up with considerable loss.
Jugglers have more success, as they are very popular,
but even they when invited to perform have trouble in
obtaining their money. In the absence of theatres or
public places of amusement, Persians of means hire
jugglers, dancers, or actors to their houses, promising
them a certain sum. It, however, generally ends in a long
bargaining, when finally only half of the promised sum
is paid and sometimes none at all.
Persians seldom take walks, and in the case of those
of any position the cause of their not doing so is easily
explained:' to go alone is contrary to etiquette; to walk
about followed by a crowd of servants absurd. Riding
for pleasure is also less indulged in than one would think
natural, as it is against the all-powerful " custom " for
one of any social position to go off a walk, and it is dull

THE PERSIAN AT HOME 429
amusement riding at such a slow gait surrounded by a
body of horsemen. The only diversion on their rides
is caused by some of the attendants occasionally breaking
from the party and racing their horses in a ploughed
field, making curves and sharp turns that they love.
Riding is more frequently indulged in during the feast
of Ramadan as one of the means of killing time and for
getting hunger.
The middle classes frequent a sort of gymnastic organi
sation where "pehlawans," wrestlers, give lessons in
gymnastic exercises to those whose physicians have or
dered such treatment. But few attend from a mere love
of exercise or sport.