YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 06563 7671 YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA. MORRISON AND GIBB, EDINBURGH, PRINTERS TO HEK MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. The Imperial Gazetteer of India. W. W. HUNTER, C.S.I., CLE, LL.D, ) t i DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF STATISTICS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. VOLUME XI. PALI TO RATIA. SECOND EDITION. TRUBNER & CO., LONDON, 1886. Eef £ << cr -> ¦;.,! — 36 ».,, **S^BaMh/ "Emuu .9 I *ii^aBe&fl&J 3? 28 - — - - -— " .^m&tj^i- wm 5 / *?VmhA w*: & 24 p u „„.i «Wo, TV ... _ i Tt, ^V?>Wij-ft,,„ . /"iT* -— ^(V'5'7 tu*W- ^.'APT *Li«ainur Ratnngarh. mm 9S&' "' ¦ Prepared far DT W. "W Hunter's IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA Scale 265 miles — to lmch. 100 200 300 400 P*CS- "S*, 20 vlvs^ ..._ .. r..„ lifial Mi *28 ¦ y-'i Wj^I1^™! i&nfco.*'-- "V Ipuiw O Monti i %.£X(y. ^PiUuvbL, Pullati, 6. 1MADIU.M feJMrSO] Lacoadive * Islands «* tf £ UTfetlft -^^-'"MstLSt^ m Car- ***- ^>0, RKFBItHNCfiS British Territory colored, . TlinA *f° ¦¦;,./., i t)La principal pUtoee, chief rfaera &c, in, India,. ;;1 Photo Atol (Mflfo-DBu-ij^fou ^^^ Maldivo ^d Jo lands eCO^ < '"llMnllllf. e L I'. 1. 1., ( r, J.,.:- "• a v,-.,,ir,,i.„r,^ J*' hflnwr* I" f.ili,,-.-!,. o Long. E. of 8 BAY O 1 LJmJiJ^.11^ B J K GA Gulf fStsrSabM »JTori«>nA'm^| E Greeitwieli iryieobar1* .JM- mooi>ipi»i<«ifl»^\ * IMPERIAL GAZETTEER INDIA. VOLUME XI. P<£li. — Town in Jodhpur State, Rajputana; situated in lat. 25°46' N., and long. 730 25' 15" e., on the route from Nasirabad (Nusseerabad) to Di'sa (Deesa), 108 miles south-west of the former cantonment. An ancient place, acquired by the Rahtors of Kanauj in 1156 a.d. It is the chief mart of Western Rajputana, being placed at the intersection of the great commercial road from Mandavi in Cutch to the Northern States, and from Malwa to Bahawalpur and Sind. It was formerly surrounded by a wall ; 'and in consequence,' writes Thornton, 'its possession was frequently contested by conflicting parties during the civil wars of Jodhpur, until, at the desire of the inhabitants, the defences were demolished; and their ruins now give the place an air of desolation, at variance with its actual prosperity.' Pali was visited and described by Colonel James Tod (Annals of Rdjdsthdn) in 181 9, by whom its commercial revenues were computed at ^7500 per annum ; they now amount to about ,£10,000. In 1836, Pali was visited by a disease locally known as the Pali plague, which closely resembled the Levan tine plague. In June 1882, Pali was connected by a branch line with the Rajputana-Malwa State Railway, starting from Bitiira station. Water-supply abundant. Pali. — Pargana in Sh^hab^d iahsil, Hardoi District, Oudh. Bounded on the north by pargana Pachhoha ; on the east by the Garra river, separating it from pargands ShahaMd and Saromannagar ; on the south by Barwan ; and on the west and south-west by the Sendha river. The villages skirting the Garra, though light of soil, are the best in the pargand. In some of them the lands remain moist, by percolation from the river, till March or April, so that irrigation is scarcely required. VOL. XI. A 2 PALI TO WN—PALIA. In others? where the river runs between higher banks and with a narrower flood-basin, fine crops of opium, tobacco, and vegetables are raised along the river bank, owing to the ease with which a never- failing supply of water is drawn from it. West of these villages, a belt of high, dry, uneven, unproductive bhur, with an average breadth of about 3 miles, runs parallel with the Garra. All the villages in this tract have been rated in the third or fourth class. Here rents are low and wells are few. In some of the villages there is no irrigation at all. To the west of this tract, and up to the boundary stream of the Sendha, breadths of dhdk jungle intersected by narrow marshy jhils, along whose edges cultivation is gradually extending, alternate with treeless ridges of thinly cropped bhur. Many of the jungle villages are fairly productive, with average soil and good water-supply ; but in some the soil is cold, stiff, and unproductive, and in almost all, cultivators are still few, rents are low, and much mischief is done by wild animals. In the extreme west of the pargand, as in the east along the Garra, a narrow strip of moderately good land fringes the Sendha. There is not a mile of metalled road in the pargand. Cart-tracks wind deviously from village to village. Area, 73 square miles, of which 46 are under cultivation. Population (1881) 25,962, namely, 24,100 Hindus and 1862 Muhammadans. The staple products are bdjra and barley, which occupy three-fifths of the cultivated area. Wheat, arhar, rice, and gram, make up the greater portion of the remainder. Government land revenue, ^3704, falling at the rate of 2s. 6d. per cultivated acre, or is. 7d. per acre of total area. Of the 92 villages comprising the pargand, 50 are held by Sombansi Rajputs, and 22 by Brahmans Tdlukddri tenure prevails in 19 villages, 56 are zaminddri, and 17 imperfect pattiddri. Pali. — Town in Shahabad tahsil, Hardoi District, Oudh, and head quarters of Pali pargand ; situated on the right bank of the Garra, 20 miles north-west of Hardoi town. Lat. 27° 31' 45" n., long. 79° 53' 20" E. A flourishing town under native rule, but somewhat decayed of late years, especially in the Muhammadan quarters. Population (1881) 3562. Two mosques and a Hindu temple ; Government school. Market twice a week. Manufacture of coarse cotton cloth. Palia. — Pargand in Lakhimpur tahsil, Kheri District, Oudh ; lying between the Suhel and Sarda rivers, which respectively border it on the north and south ; the eastern boundary is formed by Shahjahanpur District of the North - Western Provinces; and the western by Nighasan pargand. Area, 139 square miles, of which 37 are under cultivation, the remainder being chiefly taken up by Government forest- reserves. A jungle pargand of the same character as Khairigarh, the Rajd of which is also its proprietor. Population (1881) 18,277, namely, 15,770 Hindus, 2495 Muhammadans, and 12 'others.' PALIA TOWN—PALITANA. 3 Land revenue, ,£1052. Game abounds in the forests. The pargand is unhealthy, malarious fevers being very prevalent. Principal products, rice and turmeric. Palia. — Town in Lakhimpur tahsil, Kheri District, Oudh, and head quarters of Palia pargand ; situated 2 miles north of the Chauka river, in lat. 28° 26' n., and long. 80° 37' e. Population (1881) 3802, namely, Hindus 2984, and Muhammadans 818. Two Hindu temples; bi weekly market. Paliganj. — Small town in Patna District, Bengal ; situated near the Son (Soane) river, and about 25 miles from Bankipur. Police station. Palitana. — Native State in the Gohelwar division of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency; lying between 21° 23' 30" and 21° 42' 30" n. lat, and between 71" 31' and 72° o' 30" e. long. Area, 288 square miles. Population (1872) 51,476; (1881) 49,271, namely, 25,702 males and 23>5^>9 females, dwelling in 1 town and 86 villages, and occupying 10,483 houses. Hindus number 42,955 ; Muhammadans, 3581 ; and 'others,' 2735. Except in the hills, where the air is pleasant, the climate is hot ; and fever is prevalent. The principal agricultural pro- • ducts are grain, sugar-cane, and cotton. Palitana ranks as a ' second-class ' State in Kathiawar ; the ruler executed the usual engagements in 1807. The present (1881-82) chief, Thakur Sdhib Sursinghjf, is thirty-nine years old. He is descended from Sarangji, second son of Sejakji, as the Bhaunagar Thakur is from the eldest son, and Ldthi from the third. The present chief of Palitana has been engaged in a long contest to reassert his rights over his own Bhayad or brethren on the one hand, and over the Sarawaks or Jain traders who are interested in the- holy mountain of Satrunjaya on the other. This hill, which rises above the town of Palitana, is covered with Jain temples, and is the resort of innumerable pilgrims. Centuries before the Gohel chiefs established themselves in Surashtra, the Jains worshipped in Satrunjaya. They produce an imposing array of deeds from Mughal emperors and viceroys, ending with one from Prince Murad Baksh (1650), which confers the whole District of Palitana on Santi Dis, the jeweller, and his heirs. The firm of Santi Dis supplied Muracl Baksh with money for the war when he went with Aurangzeb (1658) to fight Dara at Agra and assume the throne. But the Mughal power has long passed away from Kathiawar, and, on its downfall, the jurisdiction of Palitana fell into the hands of the Gohel chief, a tributary of the Gaekwar. While, therefore, the whole mountain is rightly regarded as a religious trust, it is under the jurisdiction of the chief, for whose protection the Sarawaks have long paid a yearly subsidy. Under a decision of Major Keatinge in 1863, the representatives of the Jain community had to pay a lump sum of Rs. 10,000 (^1000) per annum for ten years to 4 PALITANA TOWN. the chief, in lieu of his levying a direct tax of 4s. a head on all pilgrims visiting the shrines, with the proviso that a scrutiny lasting two years, or longer if necessary, might be demanded by either side at the termina tion of that period, with a view of ascertaining whether the yearly sum of Rs. 10,000 was more or less than the right amount. The chief demanded such a scrutiny in 1879, and due arrangements having been made, the count of pilgrims commenced on the 23rd April 1880. The result of the collections derived from the pilgrims during the year 1882-83 showed that the sum formerly paid by the Jain community to the chief in lieu of all demands was not sufficient, and justified the procedure ordered by the Government. No final decision, however, to the future amount to be paid by the Jain priests to the Palitana chief had been arrived at up to 1883. A decision of the British Government, given in March 1877, while it upholds the chief's legitimate authority, secures to the sect its long-established possessions, and maintains the sacred isolation of the hill. The chief does not hold a sanad authorizing adoption ; in matters of succession the rule of primogeniture is followed. The chief is a Hindu of the Gohel clan of Rajputs ; he administers the affairs of his State in person, and has power to try his own subjects only. He enjoys an estimated gross yearly revenue of ^20,000 ; pays tribute °f £lo3t>, 8s. jointly to the Gaekwar of Baroda and the Nawab of Junagarh ; and maintains a military force of 455 men. There are (1882-83) J6 schools, with 579 pupils. No transit dues are levied in the State. Palitana. — Chief town of PalMna State, Kathiawar, Bombay Pre sidency ; situated in lat. 21° 31' 10" n., and long. 71° 53' 20" e., at the eastern base of the famous Satrunjaya Hill ; distant from Ahmadabad 120 miles south-west; from Baroda 105 south-west; from Surat 70 north-west; and from Bombay 190 north-west. Population (1881) 7659, namely, 4436 Hindus, 1627 Muhammadans, and 1596 Jains. Formerly the chief town of a Mughal pargand. School, dispensary, and post-office. Connected by a good road with Songarh, the head-quarters of the Gohelwar division, 14 miles to the north. Satrunjaya Hill, to which reference has been made in the foregoing article, is sacred to Adinath, the deified priest of the Jains. It is 1977 feet above sea-level. The summit is divided into two peaks but the valley between has been partly built over by a wealthy Jain mer chant. The entire summit is covered with temples, among which the most famous are those of Adinath, Kumar Pal, Vimalasah, Sampriti Raja, and the Chaumukh. This last is the most lofty, and can be clearly distinguished at a distance of 25 miles. Satrunjaya is the most sacred of the five sacred hills of the Jains. Mr. Kinloch Forbes in the Pas Mdla describes it as the ' first of all places of pilgrimages, the bridal hall PALITANA TOWN. 5 of those who would win everlasting rest.' And adds, ' There is hardly a city in India, through its length and breadth, from the river of Sind to the sacred Ganges, from Himala's diadem of ice-peaks to the throne of his virgin daughter, Rudra's destined bride, that has not supplied at one time or other contributions of wealth to the edifices which crown the hill of PAlitana. Street after street, square after square, extend these shrines of the Jain faith with their stately enclosures, half-palace, half- fortress, raised in marble magnificence, upon the lonely and majestic mountain, and like the mansions of another world, far removed in upper air from the ordinary tread of mortals.' Owing to the special sanctity of Satrunjaya, Jains from all parts of India are anxious to construct temples on the hill ; and all members of the Jain faith feel it a duty to perform, if possible, one pilgrimage here during their life. The following description of this wonderful temple-hill is condensed from an account by Mr. Burgess : — ' At tbe foot of the ascent there are some steps with many little canopies or cells, a foot and a half to three feet square, open only in front, and each having in its floor a marble slab carved with the repre sentation of the soles of two feet (charan), very flat ones, and generally with the toes all of one length. A little behind, where the ball of the great toe ought to be, there is a diamond-shaped mark divided into four smaller figures by two cross lines, from the end of one of which a waved line is drawn to the front of the foot. Round the edges of the slab there is usually an inscription in Deva-nagari characters, and between the foot-marks an elongated figure like a head of Indian corn with the point slightly turned over. These cells are numerous all the way up the hill, and a large group of them is found on the south-west corner of it behind the temple of Adfswar Bhagwan. They are the temples erected by poorer Sarawaks or Jains, who, unable to afford the expense of a complete temple, with its hall and sanctuary enshrining a marble murti or image, manifest their devotion to their creed by erecting these miniature temples over the charana of their Jainas or Arhats. ' The path is paved with rough stones all the way up, only interrupted here and there by regular flights of steps. At frequent intervals also there are rest-houses, more pretty at a distance than convenient for actual use, but still deserving of attention. High up, we come to a small temple of the Hindu monkey - god, Hanuman, the image bedaubed with vermilion in ultra-barbaric style ; at this point the path bifurcates — to the right leading to the northern peak, and to the left to the valley between, and through it to the southern summit. A little higher up, on the former route, is the shrine of Hengar, a Musalmin pir, so that Hindu and Moslem alike contend for the representation of their creeds on this sacred hill of the Jains. 6 PALITANA TOWN. ' On reaching the summit of the mountain, the view that presents itself from the top of the walls is magnificent in extent ; a splendid setting for the unique picture — this work of human toil we have reached. To the ease, the prospect extends to the Gulf of Cambay rear Gogo and Bhaunagar; to the north, it is bounded by the granite range of SLhor iSehorei and the Chamardi peak : to the north-west and west, the plain extends as far as the eye can reach, except where broken due west by the summits of Mount Gir-ar — revered ahke by Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, the latter of whom claim it as sacred to Xeminath their twenty-second Tirthankar. From west to east, like a silver ribbon across the foreground to the south, winds the Satrunjaya river, which the eve follows until it is lost between the Talaja and Khokara Hills in the south-west. But after this digression, let us return to the scene beside us. How shall I describe it ? It is truly a city of temples — for. except a few tanks, there is nothing else within the gates, and there is a cleanliness, withal, about every square and passage, porch and hall, that is itself no mean source of pleasure. The silence, too. is striking. Now and then in the mornings you hear a bell for a few seconds, or the beating of a drum for as short a time, and on holidays chants from the larger temples meet your ear : but generally during the after-part of the day the only sounds are those of vast flocks of pigeons that rush about spasmodically from the roof of one temple to that of another, apparently as an exercise in fluttering and just to keep their wings in use. Parroquets and squirrels, doves and ringdoves abound and peacocks are occasionally met with on the outer walls. The top of the hill consists of two ridges, each about 350 yards long, with a valley between : the southern ridge is higher at the western end than the northern, but this in turn is higher at the eastern extremitv. Each of these ridges, and the two large enclosures that fill the valley, are surrounded by massive battlemented walls fitted for defence. The buildings on both ridges, again, are divided into separate enclosures. called tu£s. generally containing one principal temple, with vanini numbers of smaller ones. Each of these enclosures is protected by strong gates and walls, and all gates are carefully closed at sundown.' A description of one of these tuks must suffice here, but the reader who wishes to pursue the subject will find an account of the other temples in Mr. Burgess" N'tss of a Visit to S.itru,;/a\,i H;Y.~, pubhshed at Bombay. The tuk now to be described is that of Khartarvasi. of which the principal temple is that of the Chaumukh or ' four-faced ' Jaina occupying the centre. ' It is." says Mr. Burgess (<./. dt\ ' a fine pile of the sort, and may be considered a type of its class. It stands on a platform raised fully ; feet above the level of the court, and " feet wide by about 67 in length, but the front of the building extends some distance beyond the end of this. The body of the temple consists PALITANA TOWN. 7 of two square apartments, with a square porch or mandap to the east, from which a few steps ascend to the door of the antardla or hall, 31 feet square inside, with a vaulted roof rising from twelve pillars. Pass ing through this, we enter by a large door into the shrine or garbha griha, 23 feet square, with four columns at the corners of the altar or throne of the image. Over this rises the tower or vimana to a height of 96 feet from the level of the pavement. The shrine in Hindu temples is always dark, and entered only by the single door in front ; Jain temples, on the contrary, have very frequently several entrances. In this instance, as in that of most of the larger temples, besides the door from the antardla, three other large doors open out into porticoes on the platform — a verandah being carried round this part of the building from one door to another. The front temple has also two side doors opening upon the platform. The walls of the shrine, having to support the tower, are very thick, and contain cells or chapels opening from the verandah ; thus the doors into the shrine stand back into the wall. There are ten cells, and some of them contain little images of Tirthankars ; those at the corners open to two sides. The pillars that support the verandah deserve notice. They are of the general form everywhere prevalent here — square columns, to the sides of which we might suppose very thin pilasters of about half the breadth had been applied. They have high bases, the shafts carved with flower patterns each different from its fellow, the usual bracket capitals slanting down wards on each side and supporting gopis, on whose heads rest the abacus — or rather these figures, with a sort of canopy over the head of each, form second and larger brackets. The floors of the larger temples are of beautifully tesselated marble — black, white, and yellowish brown. The patterns are very much alike, except in details, and consist chiefly of varieties and combinations of the figure called by the Jains Nanda- varta — a sort of complicated square fret — the cognizance of the eighteenth Jaina. The shrine contains a sinhdsan or pedestal for the image ; in this temple it is of the purest white marble, fully 2 feet high and 1 2 square. Each face has a centre panel, elaborately carved, and three of less breadth on each side, the one nearer the centre always a little in advance of that outside it. ' On the throne sit four large white marble figures of Adinath, not specially well proportioned, each facing one of the doors of the shrine. These are large figures, perhaps as large as any on the hill ; they sit with their feet crossed in front, after the true Buddha style, the outer side of' each thigh joining that of his fellow, and their heads rising about 10 feet above the pedestal. The marble is from Mokhrano in Marwar, and the carriage is said to have cost an almost incredible sum. The aspect of these, and of all the images, is peculiar ; frequently on the brow and middle of the breast there is a brilliant, set in silver or 8 PALITANA TOWN. gold, and almost always the breasts are mounted with one of the precious metals, whilst there are occasionally gold plates on the shoulders, elbow, and knee-joints, and a crown on the head — that on the principal one in the Motisah being a very elegant and massive gold one. But the peculiar feature is the eyes, which seem to peer at you from every chapel like those of so many cats. They appear to be made of silver overlaid with pieces of glass, very clumsily cemented on, and in every case projecting so far, and of such a form, as to give one the idea of their all wearing spectacles with lenticular glasses over very watery eyes in diseased sockets. 'The original temple in this tuk is said to date back to a king Vikrama; but whether he of the Samvat era, 57 B.C., or Harsha Vikram- aditya, about 500 a.d., or some other, is not told. It appears to have been rebuilt in its present form about 1619 a.d., by Seva Somji of Ahmadabad, for we read thus: — "Samvat 1675, m tne t^rne °f Sultan Nrir-ud-din Jahangir, Sawai Vijaya Raja, and the princes Sultan Khushru and Khurma, on Saturday, Baisakh Sudi 13th, Devraj and his family, of which were Somji and his wife, Rajaldevi, erected the temple of the four-faced Adinath," etc. A stair on the north side leads to the upper storey of the tower. This temple is said to contain a hundred and twenty-five images.' Fergusson, in his History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, has the following remarks on the Jain temple-cities, with special reference to this, the greatest of them all : — ' The grouping together of their temples into what may be called " cities of temples," is a peculiarity which the Jains practised to a greater extent than the followers of any other religion in India. The Buddhists grouped their stupas and vihdras near and around sacred spots, as at Sanchi, Manikyala, or in Peshawar, and elsewhere ; but they were scattered, and each was supposed to have a special meaning, or to mark some sacred spot. The Hindus also grouped their temples, as at Bhuvaneswar or Benares, in great numbers ; but in all cases, so far as we know, because these were the centres of a population who believed in the gods to whom the temples were dedicated, and wanted them for the purposes of their worship. Neither of these religions, however, possesses such a group of temples, for instance, as that at Satrunjaya, or Palitana as it is usually called, in Gujarat. No survey has yet been made of it, nor have its temples been counted ; but it covers a large space of ground, and its shrines are scattered by hundreds over the summits of two extensive hills and the valley between them. The larger ones are situated in tuks, or separate enclosures, surrounded by high fortified walls ; the smaller ones line the silent streets. A few yatis or priests sleep in the temples and perform the daily services and a few attendants are constantly there to keep the place clean, which they do with the most assiduous attention, or to feed the sacred pigeons who PALITANA TOWN. 9 are the sole denizens of the spot ; but there are no human habitations, properly so called, within the walls. The pilgrim or the stranger ascends in the morning, and returns when he has performed his devotions or satisfied his curiosity. He must not eat, or at least must not cook his food, on the sacred hill, and he must not sleep there. It is a city of the gods, and meant for them only, and not intended for the use of mortals. ' Jaina temples and shrines are, of course, to be found in cities, where there are a sufficient number of votaries to support a temple, as in other religions ; but beyond this, the Jains seem, almost more than any other sect, to have realized the idea that to build a temple, and to place an image in it, was in itself a highly meritorious act, wholly irrespective of its use to any of their co-religionists. Building a temple is with them a prayer in stone, which they conceive to be eminently acceptable to the deity, and likely to secure them benefits both here and hereafter. ' It is in consequence of the Jains believing to a greater extent than the other Indian sects in the efficacy of temple-building as a means of salvation, that their architectural performances bear so much larger a proportion to their numbers than those of other religions. It may also be owing to the fact that nine out of ten, or ninety-nine in a hundred, of the Jain temples are the gifts of single wealthy individuals of the middle classes, that these buildings generally are small and deficient in that grandeur of proportion that marks the buildings undertaken by royal command or belonging to important organized communities. It may, however, be also owing to this that their buildings are more elaborately finished than those of more national importance. When a wealthy individual of the class who build these temples desires to spend his money on such an object, he is much more likely to feel pleasure in elaborate detail and exquisite finish than on great purity or grandeur of conception. ' All these peculiarities are found in a more marked degree at Palitana than at almost any other known place, and, fortunately for the student of the style, extending through all the ages during which it flourished. Some of the temples are as old as the nth century, and they are spread pretty evenly over all the intervening period down to the present century. ' But the largest number, and some of the most important, are now erecting, or were erected in the present century, or in the memory of living men. Fortunately, too, these modern examples by no means disgrace the age in which they are built. Their sculptures are inferior, and some of their details are deficient in meaning and expression ; but, on the whole, they are equal, or nearly so, to the average examples of earlier ages. It is this that makes Palitana one of the most interesting io PALIVELA—PALKONDA. places that can be nanied for the philosophical student of architectural art, inasmuch as he can there see the various processes by which cathedrals were produced in the Middle Ages, carried on on a larger scale than almost anywhere else, and in a more natural manner. It is by watching the methods still followed in designing buildings in that remote locality, that we become aware how it is that the uncultivated Hindu can rise in architecture to a degree of originality and perfection which has not been attained in Europe since the Middle Ages, but which might easily be recovered by following the same processes.' Palivela (Fullivelu). — Town in Amalapur taluk, Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 16° 41' n., long. 8i° 55' e. Population (1871) 5315, inhabiting ri56 houses; and (1881) 5561, inhabiting 1005 houses. Hindus number 5300 ; Muhammadans, 253 ; and Christians, 8. Palivela lies on the bank of the AmaMpur Canal, which connects Rajamahendri (Rajahmundry) with Amalapur. Kottapetta, the head quarters of the deputy-tahsilddr, is a hamlet of Palivela. Paliyad. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency. Area, 227 square miles, containing 17 villages, with 7 separate shareholders. Population (1881) 9662. Estimated revenue in 1881, ^"4000; tribute of ^90, 14s. is paid to the British Government, and ^30, 12s. to the Nawdb of Junagarb. Formerly (1809) the head quarters of a Kathiawar Political officer. A flourishing village called after the estate lies 8 miles west of Kundli railway station. It exports grain and cotton to Botad (10 miles) and Ranpur (11 miles) — both stations on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Population of Paliyad village (1881) 3368. Paliyaverkadu.— Town in Chengalpat (Chingleput) District, Madras Presidency. — See Pulicat. Palkhera. — Zaminddri estate in Warora tahsil, Bhandara Dis trict, Central Provinces ; traversed by the main road from Kamtha to Sakoli, and comprising 2 1 villages. Area, 39 square miles, one-fourth of which is cultivated. Population (1881) 7364. A good deal of sugar cane is grown, and the forests supply j-rf/and bijesdl timber. Until 1856, the estate was a dependency of Kamtha. The chief and most of the population are Kunbis. Palkole. — Town in Godavari District, Madras Presidency. — See Palakollu. Palkonda (or Sesdchalam: Pdl, 'milk;' Konda, 'a hill'). Range of mountains in Cuddapah District, Madras Presidency; lying between r3° 43' 3°" and 14" 27' n. lat., and between 78° 56' and 79° 28' 30" e. long. ; average elevation above the sea, about 2000 feet ; highest point Buthaid, 3060 feet. Starting from the sacred Tirupati (Tripati) Hill and running north-west for 45 miles, the range then turns nearly due west, running across the District to the frontier of Bellary. To the PALKONDA—PALK'S BA Y AND STRAITS. 1 1 first portion the name Palkonda is generally reserved, the part which crosses the District being called Seshachalam. Mr. Gribble, writing of the entire chain, says : — 'This is not only the largest and most extensive of all the Cuddapah ranges, but it also presents very marked features, and differs in appearance from the others. The Tirupati hill is 2500 feet above the sea, and the Palkonda range continues at about the same uniform height very nearly throughout the whole of its extent. There are very few prominent peaks ; and at a distance of a few miles, it presents the appearance, to any one standing on the inside portion, of a wall of unvarying height, shutting the country in as far as the eye can reach. The top of this range is more or less flat, forming a table-land of some extent. On both sides the slopes are well clothed with forests, which, near the railway, are especially valuable, and form the important Balapalli, Yerraguntakota, and Kodur reserves. A noticeable feature in this range, and especially on its south-western slopes, is the manner in which the quartzite rocks crop out at the summit. The rock suddenly rises perpendicularly out of the slope, and is wrested and contorted into various fantastic shapes, which not unfrequently give the appearance of an old ruined castle or fort. These hills were in former days a favourite resort of dakdits or gang-robbers, probably because they are not so feverish as the other hills of the main division. They are now nearly free from these pests of society. Wild beasts, however, are still to be found. Tigers are becoming annually more scarce ; of leopards there are a large number, which are also very destructive ; a few sdmbhar deer are to be found, and a few bears, but the hills have been too much marked to afford a good field for sportsmen.' The area of Balapalli (East and West), Yerraguntakota, and Kodur forest reserves in 1883-84 was 18,965 acres. The chief trees were — red sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), yeppi (Hardwickia binata), tamba (Shorea Tumbuggaia),/a/fl?-z (Shorea Talura), and teak of small size. Palkonda. — Town and Agency Tract in Vizagapatam District, Madras Presidency. — See Palakonda. Palk's Bay and Straits. — Gulf and channel between the mainland of India and the north part of Ceylon, named by the Dutch after Governor Palk. The gulf is bounded by Calimere Point and the coast of Tanjore to the northward and westward ; by Adam's Bridge and its contiguous islands to the south ; and by the north part of Ceylon, with its islands, to the east. The Dutch describe three channels between Calimere Point and the north end of Ceylon, which lead into Palk's Bay ; but the southern channel, called Palk's Strait, is probably the only one that may be considered safe for large ships. Horsburgh, from whose account in the Sailing Directions this article is condensed, supplies the following details : — ¦ 'Palk's Bay having been surveyed by the officers of the East India 12 PALL AD AM. Company, the following directions for its navigation are given by Mr. Franklin: — "There are two good entrances into Palk's Bay from the eastward — one between Point Calimere and the northern end of the middle banks, having 19 to 24 feet ; the other between the southern end of the same banks and the north coast of Ceylon, with 5^ to 6 fathoms. Sailing directions were published some years back for the northern passage, but I would strongly recommend all commanders with a vessel drawing 1 2 feet to make use of that to the southward, except with a leading wind, or with the aid of steam The following are the dangers in Palk's Bay : — " 1st. The middle banks — described by Horsburgh (pp. 553, 554). " 2nd. A long sandy spit, with from r to 2 fathoms over it, stretching east by south 13 miles from a low point above Kotepatnam, on the coast of India. It has generally a heavy swash of sea over it, and should not be approached from the eastward nearer than 6 fathomr. Captain Powell places its eastern extremity in io° 2' 30" N. lat., and 79° r9' 30" e. long., allowing Galle to be in 80° 16' e. Its bearing from Pambam (Paumbem) is n.n.e. 45 miles, and from Point Calimere s.w.^w. 29 miles. " 3rd. The foul ground off the north-west end of Ceylon to the east ward of the opening between that and Karativu, where the coast ought not to be approached nearer than 2 miles ; for although at present there are 12 to 15 feet over the knolls, the depth may decrease, as they are composed of coral. " 4th. A detached rock, about the size of a ship's boat, with only 2 feet water over it, between Purlitivu and the Devil's Point, having the following bearings : — Devil's Point, south 3 miles ; south end of Purli tivu, e.s.e. i\ miles. " Lastly. Some rocks awash, which lie about \\ mile off the north east end of Rameswaram Island, where the soundings ought not to be shoaled to less than 5 fathoms. Care should be taken in the north east monsoon not to get into the bay to the eastward of this island, as it will be found difficult to work out again." ' Mr. Nelson, author of the Madura Manual (1868), describes the Straits as abounding in 'shoals, currents, sunken rocks, and blind sand banks;' and adds, 'the passage through its entrance is full of difficulty and danger.' The fury of the north-east monsoon is particularly felt in the Straits. See also Commander Taylor's India Directory, p. 450 (Allen, 1874). Palladam. — Taluk or Sub-division of Coimbatore District, Madras Presidency. Area, 742 square miles. Population (1881) 213, 39T, namely, 103,116 males and 110,275 females, dwelling in 194 villages, and occupying 47,971 houses. Hindus number 207,895; Muham madans, 3387; Christians, 2107; and 'others,' 2. In 1883 the taluk PALLADAM HEAD-Q UARTERS—PALLA VARAM. 1 3 contained 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 8 ; regular police, 79 men. Land revenue, ^36,755. Palladam (Pulladum). — Head-quarters of Palladam taluk, Coim- batore District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 10° 59' n., long. 77° 20' e. Population (1871) 945, inhabiting 199 houses; and (1881) ri2i, inhabiting 173 houses. Two cotton presses; ruins of an old fort; post-office. Pal Lahara. — Native State of Orissa, Bengal, lying between 21° 8' 30" and 21° 40' 35" n. lat., and between 85° 3' and 850 21' 30'' e. long. Area, 452 square miles. Population (1881) 14,887. Bounded on the north by the Chutia Nagpur State of Bonai, east by Keunjhar, south by Talcher, and west by Bainra. The east and north of the State are occupied by hills. A magnificent mountain, Malayagiri (3895 feet), towers above the lesser ranges. Some of the finest sal forests in the world are found in Pal Lahara ; its agricultural products consist of the usual coarse grains and oil-seeds, but it has nothing worthy of the name of trade. Of the total population in r88i (14,887), Hindus numbered 14,002 ; Muhammadans, 8 ; and non-Hindu abori gines, 877. The real number of aborigines is, however, much greater, and in r87i they were returned at 6340. The aboriginal tribes of Pal Lahara are chiefly Gonds and Savars who have adopted some form of Hinduism, and have been returned as Hindus in the Census of 1881. The number of villages in the State was returned (r88i) at 199, and the inhabited houses at 2718. Lahara, the residence of the Raja, situated in lat. 21° 26' N., and long. 85° 13' 46" e., is the only village containing upwards of 100 houses. The Midnapur and Sambalpur high road passes through the State from east to west. Pal Lahara was formerly feudatory to Keunjhar, but was separated in consequence of quarrels arising from the fact that the Keunjhar R£ja once compelled his vassal to dance before him in woman's clothes. As the price of peace, the Pal Lahara chief was exempted from any longer paying his tribute to the Keunjhar Raji, and now pays it to the British Government direct. The money, however, is still credited in the treasury accounts to the credit of the Keunjhar State, although for all practical purposes Pal Lahara is independent of the Keunjhar Rajd, and completely disowns his authority. For services rendered at the time of the Keunjhar rebellion in 1867-68, the Pal Lahara chief received the title of Rajd Bahadur. The present chief is the thirty-fourth in descent from the original founder of the State. The estimated annual revenue is ^120; the Raja's militia consists of 67 men, and the police force of 57 men. Pallapatti. — Village in Coimbatore District, Madras Presidency. — See Arava Kurichi. Pallavaram (Palaveram). — Town in Saidapet taluk, Chengalpat 14 PALMA—PALMANER. (Chingleput) District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 12° 57' 30" n., and long. 8o° 13' e., on a wide plain, west of a range of stony hills, 3 miles south of St. Thomas' Mount, and 1 1 miles south-west of Madras. Population (1881) 3956, occupying 793 houses. Hindus number 2077; Muhammadans, 908; Christians, 970; and 'others,' r. A military cantonment and pensioners' station, with a garrison of about 650 men. Formerly it was called the ' Presidency Cantonment,' and had lines sufficient for 4 native regiments. The place is hot, but not un healthy. Elevation, about 500 feet. A station on the South Indian Railway ; cantonment magistrate's court ; post-office. Palma. — Deserted Jain settlement ; situated within a few miles of Purulia, and near the Kasai (Cossye) river, in Manbhiim District, Bengal. The following description of the ruins is given by Colonel Dalton : — ' The principal temple is on a mound covered with stone and brick, the debris of buildings, through which many fine old pipal trees have pierced, and under their spreading branches the gods of the fallen temple have found shelter. In different places are sculptures of perfectly nude male figures, standing on pedestals and under canopies, with Egyptian head-dresses, the arms hanging down straight by their sides, the hands turned in and touching the body near the knees. One of these images is larger than life. It is broken away from the slab on which it was cut, and the head, separated from the body, lies near. At the feet of each idol are two smaller figures with chauris in their hands, looking up at the principal figure. I have now seen several of these figures, and there can, I think, be no doubt that they are images of the Ti'rthankaras of the Jains, who are always thus figured, naked or ' sky-clad,' each with his representative animal or symbol. Lieutenant Money also observed a stone pillar, set up perpendicularly, standing 12 feet high by \\ foot square, with corners chamfered, making it an octagon ; and near this, four more of the Tirthankaras are found. All about this temple mound are other mounds of cut stone and bricks, showing that there must have been here, at a remote period, a numerous people, far more advanced in civilisation than the Bhumij and Bauri tribes who have succeeded them.' Palmaner (formerly called Venkatagirikota). — Taluk or Sub-division of North Arcot District, Madras Presidency. Area, 447 square miles. Population (1872) 60,211; (1881) 41,815, namely, 21,184 males and 20,631 females, dwelling in 1 town and 159 villages, and occupying 8867 houses. Hindus number 39,194; Muhammadans, 2526; and Chris tians, 95. During the famine of 1876-78 the tdluk suffered severely, and many small villages have been depopulated. The Census of 1872 returned 565 villages, and that of 1881 only 160; the population has decreased by 30-5 per cent, during the nine years. In T883 the tdluk contained 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 5 ¦ regular PALMANER STATION— PALMYRAS POINT. 15 police, 52 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 7. Land revenue, ^6843. The tdluk stands on the Mysore plateau, its general level being about 2500 feet above sea-level. It was acquired by the British on the partition which took place on the defeat and death of Tipii Sultan. Iron is worked in the region. Length of roads, 58 miles. Palmaner (Pdlamainer). — Head-quarters of the Palmaner tdluk, North Arcot District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 13° n' 30" N., and long. 78° 47' 17" e., 26 miles west of Chittiir; elevation above the sea, 2247 feet- Lies near the summit of the Magli Pass. Population (1881) 193T, inhabiting 379 houses. A healthy station, with lower temperature by about 10° F. than the rest of the District. It was at one time used as a sanitarium by the Europeans of Madras, before the route to the Nilgiris became preferable. There is a busy trade, and in the town is a rum and arrack distillery. Dispensary ; travellers' bungalow ; schools and chapels. A beautiful glen, near the town, called the valley of Gangamma, is frequently visited by excursionists. Palmyras Point. — Headland in Cuttack District, Bengal. Lat. 20° 44' 40" N., long. 87" 2' e. Landmark for vessels making for the Hdgli from the south. Commander Taylor thus treats of it in his Sailing Directory ^874) : — ' Point Palmyras (called by the natives Maipara, from the contiguous sandy island of this name) bears from False Point about north-east by north, distant 8 leagues ; but from being abreast the latter in 14 or 15 fathoms, with it bearing west-north-west, the direct course is about north-east, and the distance 10 leagues to the outer edge of the bank off Point Palmyras in the same depth, with the point bearing west-north-west. Ships must be guided by the soundings in passing between them, as the flood sets towards, and the ebb from, the shore; from 14 to 15 fathoms are good depths to preserve with a fair wind. The land on Point Palmyras is low, and clothed with Palmyra- trees, having on each side of it, at a small distance, the mouth of a river ; that on the south side is navigable by boats or small vessels. In rounding the bank off the Point, the trees on the land are just discernible in 15 fathoms water, distant about 4 leagues from the shore; ships, therefore, seldom see the Point in passing, unless the weather be clear, and the reef approached upon 14 or 15 fathoms, which ought never to be done in a large ship during thick weather, or in the night. 'A ship passing False Bay in daylight, with a westerly wind, may steer along at discretion in 10 or 12 fathoms; but if she gets into 9 fathoms, and sees Point Palmyras, she ought instantly to haul out into 12 or 14 fathoms in rounding the eastern limit of the bank. When blowing strong from south-west or south, a ship with daylight, after rounding the banks off Point Palmyras, may haul to the westward, and 1 6 PALNAD—PALNI. anchor to the northward of the banks in .10 fathoms or rather less water; where she will be sheltered by them until tl e force of the wind is abated.' Palnad. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Kistna District, Madras Presi dency. Area, 1057 square miles. Population (1881) 125,799, namely, 62,365 males and 63,434 females, dwelling in 97 villages, consisting of 24,356 houses. Hindus number 110,182; Muhammadans, 9276; and Christians, 634^ In 1883 the tdluk contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police circles (thdnds), 12; regular police, 101 men; village. watch (chaukiddrs), 19. Total revenue, ^31,675. Forest tract in the extreme west of the District. ' Palnad ' is said to mean ' milk land ' from the light cream-coloured marble that abounds ; another derivation makes Palnad mean 'the country of hamlets.' Taken over by the British in i8or. Dachepalle, the head-quarters, has a population (1881) of 2268, dwelling in 497 houses. Post-office. Palni. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Madura District, Madras Presi dency. Area, 910 square miles. Population (1881) 171,515, namely, 82,959 males and 88,556 females, dwelling in 1 town and 125 villages, and occupying 34,457 houses. Hindus number 161,857; Muham madans, 8191 ; and Christians, 1467. In 1883 the tdluk contained 2 criminal courts; police circles (thdnds), 10; regular police, 75 men. Land revenue, ^£24,00^ Palni (Palani or Pulney). — Town in Palni tdluk, Madura District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 10° 27' 20" n., and long. 77° 33' 1" e., 34 miles west of Dindigal, and 69 miles north-west of Madura. Population (1871) 12,801, inhabiting 1782 houses; (1881) 12,974, inhabiting 2074 houses. In the latter year, Hindus numbered 11,395 > Muhammadans, 1329 ; and Christians, 250. It is the head-quarters of the tdluk, and gives its name to the neighbouring range of mountains (vide infra). Post-office. Palni (Palani, Pulney; also called Varahagiri, Vadagiri, and Kannandenan). — Mountain range in Madura District, Madras Presi dency; lying between 10° and 10° 15' n. lat., and between 77" 20' and 77° 55' E- long- II extends in a north-easterly direction from the great mass of mountains known as the Western Ghats, with which it is connected by an isthmus or ridge of hills about 8 miles in width, being completely isolated on every other side. To the north are the Districts of Coimbatore and Trichinopoli ; to the east Madura and Tanjore ; to the south and west Tinnevelli and Travancore State. These mountains were surveyed more than fifty years ago by Captain Ward of the Surveyor-General's Department. He states their length, from east to west, to be 54 miles; average breadth, T5 miles; superficial area, 798^ square miles, including Anjinad, now a dependency of Travancore. Captain Ward reckons the area of the Anjinad Hills at 231 h square miles, which leaves 567 square miles for the Palm's proper. PALNI. 17 The native name of these mountains is Varahagiri or ' Pig-mountains.' The range, although nearly isolated, is part of the same system as the Anamalais, and resembles the latter in so many respects that a large portion of the article on the Anamalais may be read as referring equally to the Palm's. Anjinad may be taken as belonging to either group, and doubtless it is through the Palm's that the colonization of the western group will take place. The Palm's are divided into two groups, the higher and lower, or the west and east ranges. The mean elevation of the former is about 7000 feet ; of the latter, from 3000 to 4000 feet. Six ghats or passes lead up to the lower range, all of a rough description. The lower range is generally known to the natives under the designation of Tandigudi and Virupachi. The higher range, which has plateaux of over 100 square miles, is said to reach an elevation of 8500 feet in one of its peaks. The rocks (of gneiss with quartz and felspar) are covered with heavy black soil, and traversed by numerous streams. The only made ghat up to the higher Palm's on the south side is that from Periakulam to Kodaikamal. Six other passes also lead to the higher range. The total population of the hills is, according to the Census ofi88i, 18,633 souls; 5487 on the higher ranges, and 13,146 on the lower. The range is connected with the South Indian Railway at Amanayakaniir (40 miles distant) by a practicable pass, and other roads connect it with Travancore on the west, and Madura on the east. The wild animals met with on the Palnis are — tiger, leopard, wild cat, bear, bison, sdmbhar, ibex, spotted deer, jungle sheep, wild hog, wild dog, jackal, mongoose, marten cat, and squirrel. Of birds — the large brown, the crested and the black eagle, a great variety of falcons and hawks, pea-fowl, jungle-fowl, spur-fowl, hill-quail, blackbird, thrush, etc. Elephants are now seldom seen. The inhabitants of the hills are divided into the following tribes : — (1) Manadis, Kunuvars (mountaineers) or Koravars ; (2) Karakat Vellalars ; (3). Shettis or traders ; (4) Paliydrs. The Koravars are supposed to be a caste of lowland cultivators, who came from the plains of Coimbatore some three or four centuries ago. They are the chief landed proprietors, possess large herds of cattle, and compared with the other tribes, seem to be in easy circumstances. At the marriage of a Koravar the whole tribe is present ; and to avoid unnecessary expense, marriages are generally put off till two or more can be celebrated together, each family contributing towards the expenses. Incompati bility of temper is a sufficient ground for divorce. Polygamy prevails. The Western Koravars have the following peculiar custom : — When an estate is likely to descend to a female in default of male issue, she is forbidden to marry an adult, but goes through the ceremony of marriage with some young male child, or, in some cases, with a portion VOL. XI. B 1 8 PALNI. of her father's dwelling-house, on the understanding that she shall be allowed to cohabit with any man of her caste whom she prefers, and her issue thus begotten inherits the property, which is retained in the woman's family. Numerous disputes originate in this custom, and evidence has been adduced in courts to show that a child of three or four years was the son or daughter of a boy of ten or twelve. The religion of the Koravars is nominally Sivaite, but they pay worship mainly to the mountain god Vallapom. The Karakat Vellalars probably settled on the Palm's at a remote period. They are abstemious in their diet and are not averse to meat, but smoke and chew opium and tobacco. They anoint themselves with ghi instead of oil ; wear the same dress as the Vellalars of the plains ; abstain from the use of sandals ; and invariably ornament their ears with rings. Though Brahmans officiate as priests in the temples, yet the ceremonies of the Vellalars are performed by Pandarams. They associate freely with the Koravars, and each can eat food dressed by the other. A man, if his wife proves barren, may with her consent marry a second, but in no other case is a plurality of wives allowed. The remarriage of widows is permitted. The Shetti class, from their connection with the people of the plains, are considered aliens. Their comparative affluence has procured for them the office of mediators in all serious disputes among the other tribes, under the impression that being strangers to the hills they are likely to act impartially. They trade largely in hill produce, make advances on crops, etc., and import low country goods for sale or barter among the various tribes. The Paliyar tribe is the most numerous on the Palm's, and they are regarded as the aborigines. The Paliyars hold a degraded position, and are in some degree slaves to the Koravars. In spite of this, they possess considerable influence over the Koravars and other tribes as priests and physicians, for they alone are believed to understand the use of the various medicinal herbs, and alone can offer charms and incantations to the local deities. Their position has been ameliorated during recent years. As a body, they are mild and inoffensive. They are fond of hunting, killing tigers either by shooting or poisoning. Their religion is demon-worship, their marriage system monogamous, and their food anything. All the tribes of the Palnis are more or less addicted to indulging in a species of beer called boja made from ragi (Eleusine corocana). The native cultivation is carried on in fields, cut into terraces, on the spurs and slopes of the hills, and laid out with great skill and labour. The hill people are well acquainted with the value of manure, carefully preserving dung and using it in a liquid form. In irrigation they are also skilled ; constructing dams at the most convenient points, and PALNI. j 9 conveying the water to their fields by means of channels along the steep sides of the hills. Considerable herds of cattle are in the possession of the people, who use both oxen and buffaloes for agricultural purposes. But compared with the fine breed of Toda buffaloes in the Nilgiris, the Palni buffalo is an insignificant animal. The native products of the higher range of the Palnis are — garlic, rice, mustard, wheat, barley, vendayain (Trigonella Fcenum-graecum), thennai (Setaria italica), and a few potatoes Garlic is the staple product and the chief article of export. On the lower range of the Palm's the native products are — turmeric, ginger, cardamoms, plantains, vendayam, castor-oil seed, rice, samai (Panicum miliare), vardgu (Panicum miliaceum), thennai, ragi (Eleusine corocana), kambu (Pennisetum typhoideum), and potatoes. The chief staple of export is a peculiar species of plantain. In the jungles are found the jack, mango, orange, lime, citron, pepper, wild cinnamon, and nutmeg. On the lower Palnis coffee plantations have been formed. In 1883 the number of plantations was 2059, covering an area of 2289 acres, of which 1643 acres were under mature plants, 177 acres under immature plants, and 469 acres were taken up for planting; the approximate yield was 931,581 lbs., or an average of 567 lbs. per acre of mature plants. Several portions of the upper range are also well adapted for the growth of coffee. Considerable traffic is carried on between the plains and the Palnis. The chief article of import is salt ; cloth and other necessaries are also bartered for hill products, chiefly garlic. The whole of the traffic is in the hands of the Shettis and Labbays, who make large profits. Since 1880, on the upper Palm's 76-6 square miles, on the lower Palnis 27-2 square miles, besides some important sholas or glades, have been constituted forest reserves. The timber trees include teak, blackwood, cedar, and vengai (Pterocarpus Marsupium). The forests on the slopes are of considerable value, containing much vengai and other valuable timber. Teak, blackwood, and sandal-wood are now scarce. Much of the best forest land has been exhausted by plantain cultivation. The shingle tree (Acrocarpus fraxinifolius) grows to a great size, several trees measuring upwards of 20 feet in girth at six feet from the base. The climate is milder and of a more even temperature than that of Utakamand (Ootacamund). The rainfall is less than on the Nilgiris, but it is more equally distributed throughout the year. Mists and fogs are common. The lower range is feverish, but the higher portion is healthy. The sanitarium of Kodaikanal enjoys a growing popularity. Around Kodaikanal the soil is very productive. Nearly all English trees and vegetables grow well. 20 PALOHA—PALWAL. Paloha. — Village in Gadawara tahsil, Narsinghpur District, Central Provinces. Population (1881) 2838, namely, Hindus, 2740; Muham madans, 54; Jains, 8 ; Kabirpanthi, 1 ; and non-Hindu aborigines, 35. Palta — Village in the District of the Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal ; situated on the left bank of the Htigli, in lat. 22° 47' 30" n., and long, 88° 24' e., 2 miles above Barrackpur. In old days it was known as containing a powder magazine, and as the point where the Grand Trunk Road from Calcutta crosses the Hiigli towards the north-west. It is now more celebrated for its works supplying Calcutta, 14 miles distant, with water, the purity of which is daily tested in Calcutta by the Govern ment analyst. The works include a jetty for landing machinery, coals, and filtering media, while it protects the two large suction pipes, 30 inches in diameter, which here dip into the river, and through which the water is drawn by pumps. There is an aided vernacular school at Palta. Palupare. — Old fort in the Kiggatnad tdluk of Coorg, on the Kire river. Once the residence of former rulers of Coorg named Kole Linga and Borne Krishna; and the scene of a battle at the end of the 17th century, in which Raja Dodda Virappa completely defeated an invading army from Mysore under the command of Chikka Deva Wodeyar. Some ditches and small stone temples still mark the spot, which has now been converted into a coffee estate. Palwal. — Central eastern tahsil of Gurgaon District, Punjab ; lying between 27° 55' 30" and 28° 14' n. lat, and between 770 14' and 77° 35' E- long-, stretching along the right bank of the Jumna, and intersected by the Agra Canal and the trunk road from Delhi to Agra. The soil is generally fertile, consisting of loam and clay. The population consists principally of Jat cultivators. Area, 385 square miles, with 186 towns and villages, 13,781 houses, and 32,363 families. Total population (1881) ^2,258, namely, males 75,233, and females 67,025. Average density of the population, 369 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881— Hindus, 12^576; Muhammadans, 20,494; Jains, 172; Sikhs, 15 ; and Christian, 1. Of the 186 towns and villages, 100 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ;. 53 from five hundred to a thousand; 31 from one to five thousand; and 2 upwards of five thousand. The average area under cultivation for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82 was 246^ square miles, or 157,709 acres, the area occupied by the chief crops being as follows :— jodr, 4^366 acres ; barley, 34,480 acres ; gram, 32,730 acres; bajra, 29,749 acres; wheat, 17,650 acres. Of non-food crops, cotton is by far the most important, and was grown on an annual average of 23,541 acres for the above five years. Revenue of the tahsil, .£27,890. The tahsilddr is the only local administrative officer, and presides over 1 civil and 1 criminal court ; number of police circles PALWAL TOWN— PAMBAM PASSAGE. 21 (thdnds), 3; strength of regular police force, 84 men; rural police (chaukiddrs), 299. Palwal. — Town and municipality in Gurgaon District, Punjab, and head-quarters of Palwal tahsil. Situated in lat. 28° 8' 30" n., and long. 77° 22' 15'' E., in the open plain between the river Jumna (Jamuna) and the Mewai: hills, about 30 miles south-east of Gurgaon, on the trunk road from Delhi to Muttra. Palwal is a town dating from remote antiquity, and Hindu pandits identify it with the Apelava of the Mahdbhdrata, part of the Pandava kingdom of Indraprashtha. It is said to have been one of the cities restored by Vikramaditya, 57 b.c. The oldest part covers a high mound formed by the accumulated debris of many centuries ; but of late years, houses and streets have sprung up on the plain at the foot of the mound. Bricks of unusual dimensions are often unearthed ; and in digging a well a few years ago, remains of walls and houses were found fifty feet below the surface. The modern town of Palwal is the second largest in Gurgaon Dis trict ; but with the exception that the bazar forms a grain mart for the surrounding country, it is of no commercial importance, and has no manufactures. The population, too, has declined from 12,729 in 1868 to 10,635 in 1881. In the latter year, Hindus numbered 7107 ; Muhammadans, 3426; Jains, 97; and Sikhs, 5. Number of houses, 1293. Municipal income (T883-84), £743, or an average of is. 5d. per head. The principal streets are paved with stone or brick, and are well drained. An elegant domed tomb of red sandstone, just outside the town on the Muttra road, is said to have been built by a fakir, who levied an impost for this purpose of one slab on every cart-load of stone which passed from Agra to Delhi for the building of the fort of Salimgarh. The principal architectural feature of the town is a mosque of the early Muhammadan period. It has a flat roof, supported by square carved pillars and architraves of the style usually found in mosques built of material taken from Hindu temples. The town contains besides the usual Sub-divisional courts and offices, a post-office, rest-house, police station, school, and a large sardi or native inn. Pambai. — River in Travancore State, Madras Presidency; a rapid mountain stream, with rocky bed and high banks in its upper course from the Western Ghats. In the plains it becomes a fine navigable river; and, with the waters of the Achinkoil, which join it about 15 miles from its mouth, it enters the great backwater at Alleppi. Its whole length is about 90 miles, for 50 of which it is navigable by large boats at most seasons. Pambam Passage (Paumben; pambu, 'a snake,' said to be named from the character of the channel). — The artificial channel known as the ' Pass,' which affords the means of communication for sea-going ships between the continent of India and the island of Ceylon. It 22 PAMBAM PASSAGE. lies between the mainland of Madura District and the little island of Rameswaram, which is the first link in the chain of islets and rocks forming Adam's Bridge. Geological evidence tends to show that in early days this gap was bridged by a continuous isthmus ; and the ancient records preserved in the temple of Rameswaram relate that in the year 1480 a violent storm breached the isthmus, and that, despite efforts to restore the connection, subsequent storms rendered the breach permanent. The Passage was formerly impracticable for ships, being obstructed by two parallel ridges of rock about 140 yards apart. The more northerly of these ridges was the higher of the two, and used to appear above water at high tide. The space between was occupied by a confused mass of rocks, lying for the most part parallel to the ridges, and in horizontal strata. The formation is sandstone. The first proposal to deepen this channel for traffic was made by a certain Colonel Manuel Martinez, who brought the matter under the attention of Mr. Lushington, Collector of the Southern Provinces of India, and afterwards Governor of Fort St. George. Nothing, however, was done until 1822, when Colonel de Haviland recommended the insti tution of a regular survey, which was entrusted to Ensign (afterwards Sir Arthur) Cotton, whose name is so honourably associated with all the great engineering projects in Southern India. Cotton's opinion was favourable; but other matters diverted the attention of Government until 1828, when Major Sim was instructed to undertake experiments in blasting and removing the rocks. His report will be found at length in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (vol. iv.). The first scientific marine survey of the channel was conducted in 1837 by Lieutenants Powell and Ethersey of the Indian Navy, assisted by Lieutenants Grieve and Christopher, with Felix Jones as their draughts man. The charts made on this occasion still remain the standard authority. Finally, in 1877, a connection was established by Mr. Chapman and Lieutenant Coomb, R.N., between the marine and land surveys; and a series of valuable observations were made on the tides, etc., which have been published in the form of a Hydrographical Notice. The operations for deepening and widening the channel were com menced in 1838, and have ever since been continued. Convict labour has been employed to a considerable extent, under the supervision of the Madras Sappers and Miners. By 1844 the channel had been deepened to 8 feet of water at low spring tides, and two war steamers were able to pass through. The total expenditure up to that date was ^"^S^QS- In 1854, Lieutenant -Colonel Cotton reported that the uniform depth was \o\ feet; that the passage was navigable for keeled vessels of 200 tons; that the tonnage passing through in 1853 was nearly 160,000 tons, as compared with 17,000 tons in 1822; and that PAMBAM TOWN—PAMIDI. 23 the total expenditure had been about £32,500. Colonel Cotton pressed upon Government that the channel should be extended on such a scale as to be practicable for ocean steamers ; but this is for bidden by the shallow character of the neighbouring coast. Blasting and dredging operations have since been carried on regularly up to the present date. The main channel through the larger reefs of rocks has now been carried down to a minimum depth of 14 feet. Its length is 4232 feet, and its width 80 feet. The returns furnished for the first edition of this work showed that, in 1875-76, the total number of vessels that passed through, including several steamers, was 2657, aggregating 269,544 tons; the Government share of pilotage fees was £2313. There is a second channel to the south of the main channel, called Kilkarai Passage, which is 2100 feet long and 150 feet wide, and has been dredged through a sandbank to the depth of 12 feet. In 1875-76 this was used by 805 vessels, paying £87 in dues. Later navigation statistics are not available. The traffic passing by the Pambam Passage is mostly of a coasting nature, between Ceylon and the mainland ; though there is some emigration by this route to British Burma and the Straits. If ocean steamers are ever destined to run inside the island of Ceylon, it is stated that the best route will be a ship canal across either the peninsula of Ramnad or the island of Rameswaram. Pambam. — Town, deriving its name from the passage between the island of Rameswaram and the mainland of India, in Madura District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 9° 17' 20" N., and long. 79° I5' 31" E-i at tne western extremity of the island commanding the channel. Population in 1871 (with adjoining villages) 9407, inhabiting 1986 houses. In 1881 the population of Pambam village was 4833, and the number of houses 727. The lighthouse, rising 97 feet above high-water mark, contains a fixed catadioptric light which guides vessels making the channel from the Gulf of Manar. The channel is open to vessels of 500 tons burden. The population, chiefly Labbays, are employed as pilots, divers, and in other seafaring pursuits. Half the year, the Ceylon Government have their immigration depot fixed here ; and this, with the constant influx of pilgrims from every part of India, and the grain trade, gives the port an appearance of great activity. The average annual value of trade for the five years ending 1883-84 was £55,921 — imports £23,857, and exports £32,064. In 1883-84 the value of trade was £48,625 — imports £19,802, and exports ,£28,823. At one time the place was of importance on account of its pearl fishery, and at an early period it was used as a refuge for the Ramnad chiefs, in whose zaminddri it is still included. They had a palace in Rameswaram. Pamidi. — Town in Gooty (Griti) tdluk, Anantapur District, Madras 24 PAMPUR—PANAHAT. Presidency; situated in lat. 14° 56' 30" n., and long. 77" 39' 15" e., on the Penner river, 14 miles south of Gooty (Giiti). Population (1881) 5260, residing in 1025 houses. Hindus number 4290, and Muham madans 970. Pamidi is an unhealthy place, occupied chiefly by a community of weavers. Post-office. Pampur. — Town in Kashmir (Cashmere) State, Northern India, lying -in lat. 34° n., long. 75° 3' e., on the north bank of the river Jehlam (Jhelum), about 5 miles south-west of Srinagar, in the midst of a fertile tract, surrounded by orchards and gardens. A bridge of several arches spans the river ; bazar ; two Muhammadan shrines. The neighbouring country is chiefly devoted to growth of saffron, con sidered finer than that of Hindustan. Panabaras. — Zaminddri or chiefship in Waroral tahsil, Chanda District, Central Provinces ; situated 80 miles east - north - east of Wairagarh, within a dense belt of jungle and forest, comprising an area of 344 square miles, with 142 villages and 4058 houses. Total population (1881) 12,374; average density of population, 36 persons per square mile. The population has considerably increased of late years, owing to the opening out of Chhatisgarh, of which plateau the PanaMras zaminddri forms a part. Wild arrowroot (tikhiir) grows abundantly in the valleys; and the hills yield much wax and honey. The climate is moist and cool even in the summer months. Panabaras includes the dependent chiefship of Aundhi. The ruler ranks first of the Wairagarh chiefs. Panabaras. — Teak forest in the south-east corner of Panabaras chiefship in Chandd District, Central Provinces. Area, 25 square miles. The boundary has been cleared and marked out by the Forest Department. The population consists of Gonds, but dahya or nomad cultivation seems unknown to them. Some of the trees contain as much as 200 cubic feet of timber. This forest supplied the teak used in the Nagpur palace, the Kamfhi (Kamptee) barracks, and the Residency at Sitabaldi. PanagUT. — Town in Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) tahsil, Jabalpur District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 23" 17' n., and long. 80° 2' e., on the northern road 9 miles from Jabalpur city. Population (1881) 49i5> chiefly agricultural. Hindus number 3491; Kabirpanthis, 63; Satnamfs, 36; Jains, 417; Muhammadans, 589; and non -Hindu aborigines, 319. Iron, from the neighbouring mines, forms the chief article of trade. Sugar-cane is the principal agricultural product. Panahat (or Bah-Pandhat). — South-eastern tahsil of Agra District, North-Western Provinces. It is nearly surrounded on all sides by large rivers, and forms almost an island, cut off from the main District. For about five or six miles on the east, the tahsil is bounded by Etawah District, and in the extreme west for about nine miles by PANAMA T TO WN—PANAR. 2 5 Dholpur State. Elsewhere it is enclosed by water — on the south by the Chambal, flowing in long and sweeping curves from west to east, which separates it from Gwalior territory ; and on the north by the Utanghan and the Jumna, which form a continuous boundary line, separating the tahsil from Mainpuri and Etawah Districts. In shape, Panahat is a long irregular strip of land, narrow at either end, but widening out toward the centre. Its extreme length from east to west is about 42 miles, and its extreme breadth about 14 miles, with an average breadth of eight or nine miles. Total area of the tahsil, 341 square miles, of which 176 square miles are cultivated. A considerable portion of the land is held revenue-free, and only 283 square miles are assessed for Government revenue; of which 161 square miles are cultivated, 37 square miles cultivable, and 85 square miles barren and waste. Total popu lation (1872) 142,155; (1881) 120,529, namely, males 63,524, and females 57,005, thus showing a decrease of population in 13 years of 21,626, or i5"2 per cent. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 115,154; Muhammadans, 3491; Jains, 1880; and Christians, 4. Of 204 inhabited villages, 124 contained less than five hundred inhabitants; 52 between five hundred and a thousand; 27 between one and five thousand; and 1 upwards of five thousand. Government land revenue (1881-82), £20,867, or including local rates and cesses levied on the land, £23,698. Total rental, including rates and cesses, paid by the cultivators, £45,243. Panahat tahsil is badly off for communications, and it is only in the direction of Dholpur that there is any exit for the tahsil, except by the passage of an unbridged river. Four second-class roads afford means of internal communication. There is but little trade, and there are no merchants. Cattle-breeding is largely carried on by the landholders, and the so-called Panahat breed has more than a local reputation. In 1883 the tahsil contained 1 criminal court; number of police circles, 4; strength of regular police, 56 men; village police (chaukiddrs), 348. Panahat. — Town in Agra District, North- Western Provinces, and the head-quarters of the tahsil till 1882, when it was removed to the village of Bah. Situated in lat. 26° 52' 39" n., and long. 78° 24' 58" e., about a mile from the left bank of the Chambal, 33 miles south-east of Agra city. Population (1881) 5697, namely, Hindus, 5005; Muhammadans, 653; and Jains, 39. The town contains a police station, post-office, school, and three fine Hindu temples. The old fort commands an extensive view, and is a station of the great Trigonometrical Survey. Panapur (or Bhagwdn). — Agricultural town in Saran District, Bengal. Population (1881) 6425. Panar. — River in Purniah District, Bengal ; formed by the junction of a number of hill streams rising in Nepal. Its course is first south- 26 PANCHAMNAGAR-rPANCHET. east through Sultanpur and Haveli Purniah pargands, then southwards through Kadba and Hatanda to the Ganges. It is navigable by- boats of 250 maunds, or about 9 tons burden, in the neighbourhood of Purniah, and above that for boats of 100 maunds (about t,\ tons), almost to the Nepal frontier. The current in the upper reaches is very rapid. Panchamnagar. — Village in Damoh District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 24° 3' n., and long. 79° 13' e., 24 miles north-west of Damoh town. Population (1881) below 2000; but the place appears to have been once much larger. The paper produced at Panchamnagar bears a high repute. Police station and village school. Panchannagram ('The Fifty-five Villages'). — The name given to the suburbs of Calcutta, containing an area, according to the latest Revenue Survey Report, of 14,829 acres, or 23-17 square miles. Lat. 22° 30' to 22° 41' n., long. 88° 19' to 88° 31' e. Attached to the treaty made in 1757 with Mir Jafar, is a list of the villages then granted to the Company free of rent. This was the origin of the zaminddri of Dihi Panchannagram, of which the part enclosed within the limits of the old Marathal Ditch forms the town of Calcutta. The remainder, which is under the Collector of the Twenty-four Pargahas, yields an annual revenue of £8120, derived from 22,500 separate holdings. The lands lie all round the south-east and south of Calcutta, beginning from the Government telegraph -yard on Tolly's nald, and running up to Dum- Dum on the east. On the north the zaminddri is bounded by the Government estate of Barahanagar (Burranagore). Panchavra. — Petty State in the Gohelwar division of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village. Lies 2 miles south of Songarh station, on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway, and 1 2 miles north east of Palitana. Area, 78 square miles. Population (1881) 504. Panchet (Pdnchkot). — Large zaminddri or landed estate in Man- bhiim District, Bengal; occupying an area of 1,209,795 acres, or 1890 square miles, being five-thirteenths of the total area (4914 square miles) of the District. It contains 19 of the 45 pargands into which Manbhiim is divided, and pays to Government a revenue of £5579. The Rajas of Panchet claim that they came into Manbhiim as conquer ing Rajputs from North- Western India ; but it is more probable that they are of aboriginal descent, and it is certain that their claims to supremacy were only nominally recognised by the other chiefs of the District. The earliest mention of the estate by the Muhammadan historians is given by Mr. Blochmann in The Journal of the Asiatic Society for 1871, as follows: — 'Of Panchet, I have only found a short remark in the voluminous Pddishdh - ndmah (B. i. p. 317): "Bir Narayan, zaminddr of Panchet, a country attached to Subah Behar, was under Shah Jahan a commander of 300 horse, and died in the 6th year PANCHET HILL. 27 (a.h. 1042-43, a.d. 1632-33)." Short as the remark is, it implies that Panchet paid a fixed peshkash to Delhi.' Mr. J. Grant, in his Report to Lord Cornwallis in the last century on the Revenues of Bengal (Fifth Report, Madras edition, 1866, p. 464), describes the ' Zaminddri Raj of Panchet ' as a jungle territory of 2779 square miles, situated within the portion of country ceded to the Company, and differing little in its financial history or internal management from the adjoining District of Bishnupur. From the year 1135 to nsoof the Bengal era (1728-43 a.d.), Raja Garur Narayan was subject to an annual tribute of Rs. 18,203 f°r tne Fiscal Division of Panchet and the kismat of Shergarh. In 1743, an additional charge of Rs. 3323 was levied from the estate in the form of the dbivdb chauth Mardthd imposed by AH Vardi Khan. In n 70 (1763), the sarfi-sikkd, or impost levied by Kasim Ali to cover losses on the exchange of coins, swelled the net assessment to Rs. 23,544. Muhammad Reza Khan in 1766 raised the demand to Rs. 30,000, but only Rs. 5969 was in fact collected during that year. In 1771, a zor talab or compulsory exac tion of Rs. 144,954, including a saranjdmi or deduction for collecting charges of Rs. 17,302, was established, and the demand enforced by military authority. In the 'gross medium Settlement' of 1777 with Rdj£ Raghunith Narayan, ' the actual payment of Panchet, with the recent territorial annexation of Jhalidi,' is stated at Rs. 69,027. Yet the native surveyors had discovered sources of revenue amounting in all to Rs. 154,423, including paldtikd or revenue chargeable on lands that had been deserted by the cultivators. Finally, in 1783, the total assessment of the same territory amounted to Rs. 76,532, charged with a deduction of about Rs. 57,000 for collection expenses. This, Mr. Grant points out, gives little more to the sovereign than the original tribute, and ' leaves a recoverable defalcation exceeding 1 lakh of rupees, if we take the zor talab or compulsory exaction of 1 7 7 1 as the proper standard.' In the Permanent Settlement made with the Raja of Panchet, the Government revenue was fixed by assessing in detail every village within the zaminddri, with the exception of the rent-free grants. A list of the latter was submitted to Government by the Raja" as early as 1771, and the rent-paying villages were returned in a similar manner at the time of the Decennial Settlement. The large numbers of rent-free grants is mainly due to the desire to induce Brahmans to settle on the estate. Panchet.— Hill in Manbhiim District, Bengal; situated in lat. 23° 37' 30" n., and long. 86° 49' 15" e., half-way between Raghunathpur and the confluence of the Barakhar and Damodar rivers. It is 3 miles long, stretching from north to south in a long rounded ridge, at least 2000 feet above sea-level. The hill is covered with dense jungle, and is inaccessible to beasts of burden. 28 PANCHIPENTA— PANCH MAHALS. Panchipenta (Pdchipeta).— Hill pass or ghat in Sahir tdluk, Vizaga- patam District, Madras Presidency, by which the road crosses from Sahir to Jaipur. The crest of the pass is about 3000 feet above sea- level. Lat. 18° 28' n., long. 83" 12' e. The village of Panchipenta —containing in 188 1, 879 houses and 4385 inhabitants— is the capital of an ancient zaminddri, a feudatory of Jaipur (Jeypore), and ' Count of the Southern Marches.' The Maratha Horse of J afar Ali descended into the Chicacole Circar in 1754, by the treachery of the Panchipenta zaminddr, who was, in consequence, imprisoned. One of the family fell at the battle of Padmanabham in 1794. The estate pays a fixed revenue of £2696. Panchkot.— Large zaminddri and hill in Manbhum District, Bengal. — See Panchet. Panch Mahals (or Five Sub-divisions). — British District on the eastern frontier of Gujarat, Bombay Presidency; lying between 22° 30' and 23° 10' n. lat., and between 73° 35' and 74° 10' e. long. Area, 1613 square miles. Population in 1881, 255,479 persons, or 158 per square mile. For purposes of administration, the territory is distributed over 3 Sub-divisions, which form two main groups, divided by the lands of Baria in Rewa Kantha. The Sub-divisions are Godhra, Kalol, and Dohad. Halol is a petty Sub-division under Kalol. The south-west portion is bounded on the north by the States of Lunawara, Sunth, and Sanjeli; on the east by Baria State; on the south by Baroda State; and on the west by Baroda State, the Pandu Mehw£s and the river Mahi separating it from Kaira District. The north-east portion is bounded on the north by the States of Chilkari and Kushalgarh ; on the east by Western Malwa and the river Anas ; on the south by Western Malwa ; and on the west by the States of Sunth, Sanjeli, and Baria. On the transfer of the Panch Mahals from Sindhia in 1861, they were, in the first instance, placed under the Political Agent for Rewa Kantha. In 1864 the revenue was made payable through Kaira. In 1877 the Panch Mahals were erected into a distinct Collectorate. For purposes of general administration, they form a non-regulation District, under the charge of an officer styled the Collector and Agent to the Governor of Bombay, Panch Mahals. The administrative head quarters of the District are at Godhra. Physical Aspects. — The two sections of the District differ consider ably in appearance — that to the south-west (except a hilly portion covered with dense forest, comprising the Pawagarh Hill) is a level tract of rich soil; while the northern portion, although it contains some fertile valleys, is generally rugged, undulating, and barren, with but little cultivation. The forests lie mainly in the centre of the District. In some of the western villages, the careful tillage, the well -grown trees, the deep sandy lanes bordered by high hedges PANCH MAHALS. 29 overgown with tangled creepers, recall the wealthy tracts of Kaira. In other parts are wide stretches of woodland and forest, or bare and fantastic ridges of hills without a sign of tillage or population. In the north-east, the wide expanse of yellow corn, and the fields of many-coloured poppies, tell of the immediate neighbourhood of opium- growing Malw£ Though there are many streams and watercourses, the District has no permanent river, except the Mahi, which touches on the north-west. The Anas and Panam dry up in the hot weather. From wells and pools, however, the District is sufficiently supplied with water. There are altogether (1881) 2260 wells, 127 water-lifts, and 753 ponds in the Panch Mahals. Several of these ponds cover an extent of over 100 acres. The one near Godhra, called the Orwada lake, is said never to have been dry, and to have a pillar in the centre only visible in times of extreme drought. Pawagarh, the ' quarter hill,' in the south-west corner of the District, is the only mountain of any size. It rises 2500 feet from the plain in almost sheer precipices, and has a rugged and picturesque outline on the summit, which is strongly fortified, and was formerly a place of much consequence. Mention is made of it so far back as 1022, when the Tuars were lords of the neighbouring country and of Pawa Fort. The Chauhans next held the fort, and a Muhammadan commander attacked it in 141 8 without success. Sindhia took it between 1761 and 1770, and held it until 1803, when it was breached and seized by Colonel Woodington. In 1804, Pawagarh was handed back to Sindhia, with whom it remained until 1853, when the English took over the manage ment of the District. Pawagarh is now a sanitarium for the Europeans in Panch Mahals District and Baroda. The District contains limestone, sandstone, trap, quartz, basalt, granite, and other varieties of stone, well fitted for building purposes. The hill of Pawagarh is said to represent a mass of trap rock, which at one time reached to the Rajpipla Hills. There are hot springs 10 miles west of Godhra. When, in 1861, the District was taken over by the British Govern ment, big game of all kinds, and many varieties of deer, abounded. Wild elephants were common two centuries ago, and twenty years back, tigers were numerous. As, however, large numbers of big game have been shot annually for many years, the supply is now much reduced. Only within the last few years has any attempt been made to introduce a system of conservancy into the management of the Panch Mahal forests. So severely have they suffered from previous want of care, that, in spite of their great extent, little timber of any size is now to be found. In 1881-82, the forest revenue amounted to £4426. Besides timber-trees, the most important varieties are — the mahud 30 PANCH MAHALS. (Bassia latifolia), from whose flowers a favourite intoxicating drink is prepared; the khdkhra (Butea frondosa), whose flat, strong leaves are used, as plates by Hindus ; the mango, and the rayen (Mimusops indica). History. — The history of the Panch Mahals is the history of the city of Champaner, now a heap of ruins. During the Hindu period (350 to 1300 a.d.) Chdmpaner was a stronghold of the Anhilwara kings and of the Tuar dynasty. The Chauhans followed the Tuars, and retained posses sion of the place and surrounding country until the appearance of the Muhammadans in 1484. From this time until 1536, Champaner remained the political capital of Gujarat. In 1535, Humayiin pillaged the city, and in the following year the court and capital was transferred to Ahmadibad. The Marathis under Sindhia overran and annexed the District in the middle of the 18th century; and it was not until 1853 that the British took over the administration. In 1861, Sindhia exchanged Panch Mahals for lands near Jhansi. Since 1853, the peace has been twice disturbed — once in 1858 by an inroad of mutineers, and a second time in 1868, when the Naikdas (said to be the Muhammadan descendants of the population of Chdmpaner) rose, but were dispersed by Captain Macleod and a detachment of Poona Horse. The chief criminal, Joria, was hanged. Population. — In 1872, the Panch Mahals District had a population of 240,743 persons. The Census Returns of 1881 disclosed a total population of 255,479, residing in 3 towns and 672 villages, and occupy ing 50,970 houses. Density of the population, 158 persons per square mile; houses per square mile, 37; persons per village, 377; persons per house, 5-0. Classified according to sex, there were 131,162 males and 124,317 females; proportion of males, 51-3 per cent. Classified according to age, there were — under 15 years, males 57,041, and females 53,187; total children, 110,228, or 43-15 per cent.: 15 years and upwards, males 74,121, and females 71,130; total adults, 145,251, or 56-85 per cent. Of the total population, 159,624 were Hindus, 16,060 Musalmans, 1867 Jains, 77,840 non-Hindu aborigines, 30 Parsi's, 7 Jews, 44 Christians, and ' others,' 7. Among the Hindus were included the following castes :— Brahmans, 6086; Rajputs, 5595; Chamars, 2177; Darjfs (tailors), 780; Napits (barbers), 1858; Kunbfs, 5934; Kolis, 81,737; Kumbars (potters), 1868; Lohars (blacksmiths), 181 1; Mhars, 5023; Malis (gardeners)* 918; Banjaras (carriers), 1580; Sonars (goldsmiths), 732; Sutars (carpenters), 907 ; Telis (oilmen), 746 ; other Hindus, 41,872. The bulk of the aboriginal tribes are Bhils, who number 69,590, or 27-2 per cent, of the total population; 'other' aborigines numbered 8250, nearly all Naikdas. Until within the last few years the aboriginal tribes were turbulent, and much addicted to thieving and drunken ness ; to check these tendencies the Panch Mahals are provided, in PANCH MAHALS. 3i addition to the unarmed police, with a regiment called the Gujarat Bhil Corps, about 530 strong. The Bhils now mostly cultivate the same field continuously, although many still practise nomadic tillage on patches of forest land, which they abandon after a year or two. Formerly, as robbers they never entered a town except to plunder, but now they crowd the streets, selling grain, wood, and grass. The Naikdas are found. only in the wildest parts, and are employed as labourers and wood-cutters ; a few practise nomadic tillage. The Bhils and Naikdas do not live in villages ; each family has a separate dwelling ; and they often move from place to place. The Muhammadan population by race consists of — Shaikhs, 2601 ; Pathans, 1765; Sayyids, 332; Sindis, 65; and 'other' tribes, 11,297. According to sect, the Muhammadans were returned — Sunnis 12,597, and Shias 3463. Of the Musalman population, 5283 belong to a special class, known as Ghanchis. These men, as their name implies, are generally oil-pressers ; but in former times they were chiefly em ployed as carriers of merchandise between Malw£ and the coast. The changes that have followed the introduction of railways have in some respects reduced the prosperity of these professional carriers, and the Ghanchis complain that their trade is gone. Several of them have taken to cultivation; and they are, as a class, so intelligent, pushing, and thrifty, that there seems little reason to doubt that before long they will be able to take advantage of some opening for profitable employ ment. In respect of occupation, the Census distributes the adult population into six main groups as follows : — (1) Professional class, including State officials of every kind and members of the learned professions, 321 1; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging keepers, 1414; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 1469 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 60,097 '> (S) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 9486 ; and (6) indefinite and unproductive class, comprising general labourers, male children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 55,485. Of the 675 towns and villages in the Panch Mahals District, 322 in 1881 contained less than two hundred inhabitants; 230 from two to five hundred; 89 from five hundred to one thousand; 22 from one to two thousand ; 7 from two to three thousand ; 2 from three to five thousand ; 1 from five to ten thousand ; and 2 from ten to fifteen thousand. The three principal towns in the District are Godhra, population (188 1 ) 13,342; Dohad, 12,394; and Jhalod, 5579. Agriculture. — Agriculture supported 185,019 persons in the Panch Mahals in 188 1, or 72-42 per cent, of the entire population. Of these, 112,194 were 'workers,' giving an average of 7-5 acres of cultivable and cultivated land to each. Of the total District area of 16 13 square 32 PANCH MAHALS. miles, 1 27 1 square miles are assessed to Government revenue. Of these, 673 square miles are under cultivation, and 598 square miles are cultivable. Total amount of Government assessment, including local rates and cesses on land, £33,611, or an average of is. 2|d. per cultivated acre. , The total area of cultivable land in 1883 was 482,868 acres, of which 228,623 acres, or 47-5 per cent, were taken up for cultivation. Of this area, 27,484 acres were fallow or under grass ; of the remaining 201,139 acres (46,108 of which were twice cropped), grain crops occupied 171,093 acres; pulses, 46,893; oil-seeds, 25,134; fibres, 2765; and miscellaneous, 1362 acres. The area under wheat in 1883 was 16,667 acres ; rice, 36,865 ; maize, 49,679 ; bdjra (Pennisetum typhoideum), 30,606 ; gram, 30,000 ; tobacco, 227 ; sugar-cane, 560 ; sesamum, 23,999 ; cotton, 286. The prices current in the District in 1882-83 were for 1 rupee (2s.) as follows — wheat, 22 lbs. ; best rice, 26 lbs. ; bdjra (the staple food of the cultivators), 35 lbs. ; common rice, 31 lbs. Salt costs about fd. per lb. The agricultural stock in 1882-83 included 207,106 horned cattle, 945 horses, 1068 mares, 465 foals, 1270 donkeys, 25,837 sheep and goats ; 34,470 ploughs, and 8234 carts. The cost of labour was iojd. a day for skilled workmen, and 3§d. for unskilled workmen. The hire per day of a cart was 2s. 6d. There is not a constant demand for labour all the year round, but only in harvest time. Women work in the fields as hard as men. Considerable tracts of arable land in the Panch Mahals have not yet been brought under the plough. The opening of the Godhra branch of the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway will, it is hoped, bring both buyers of land and cultivators. During the year 1876-77 colonization was attempted by the settling near the foot of Pawagarh Hill of about 1867 families of the Talavia tribe, from the overcrowded tracts of Kaira, Broach, and Baroda ; but it proved a failure, the settlers nearly all dying out and some absconding, causing a loss to Government of about Rs. 86,000 (£8600), the total of sums advanced from time to time with a view of helping the settlers. In 1881, an attempt was made by a Parsi to reclaim land. He at first started on 1000 acres, adding to it in 1884 another 2500 acres in Halol tdluk, 7 miles from Bhodarpur, the terminus of the Baroda State Railway. In 1885 he had 1500 acres under cultivation, growing cotton and wheat (never before cultivated in the District), as well as grain with much success. There are now (1885) on the estate 450 families, 75 ploughs, 500 cattle, 125 houses. Trade, etc. — The through trade of the District was once very flourish ing, especially after the reduction of transit duties ; but the opening of the Malwa line of the Rajputana-Malwa State Railway into Central India PANCH MAHALS. 33 from Khandwa has interfered with this traffic, and tobacco and salt from Gujarat, which used to pass over the road leading from Gujarat to Malwa and Mewar, are now sent by rail. The opium traffic from Malwa has also been stopped under excise prohibition. The chief exports to Gujarat are grain, mahud flowers, timber, and oil-seeds ; the chief imports from Gujardt are tobacco, salt, cocoa-nuts, hardware, and piece-goods. Timber is the chief article of export, and most of it comes from the Baria and Sangli forests. The only industry of any importance in the District is the making of lac bracelets at Dohad. Dohad also is looked upon as a granary in time of necessity for Malwa, Mewar, and Gujarat; and it is anticipated that here a large grain trade will spring up. The recent opening of the railway to Godhra, the chief town of the District, has given a new impulse to the trade of the Panch Mahals. Administration. — When the British took over the management of the Panch Mahals in 1853, the greatest disorder prevailed, as the country had for many years been in the hands of revenue contractors, who were not interfered with so long as the revenue was paid. Some of the Rajputs and village head-men had been forced into outlawry, and the contractors in retaliation had collected mercenaries, with whom they harried the villages. The British has respected the position of the large landlords, tdlukddrs, and thdkurs, who are chiefly Kolis, and own estates varying from one to forty or fifty villages, and levy the same rent now as at the commencement of the British rule. The aliena tions of former governments have been settled on an equitable basis. A survey settlement has been effected in part of the District, and is in progress in the remainder. Special rates have been offered to colonists to take up the cultivable waste lands in Godhra Sub-division, namely, rent-free for five years, and then at 4 annas (6d.) an acre, and gradually rising until the rate equals the survey rate. The District for purposes of administration contains three Sub divisions, Godhra, Dohad, and Kalol. The revenue raised in 1881-82, from all sources, imperial, local, and municipal, amounted to £45,232, or, on a population of 255,479, an incidence per head of 3s. 6d. The land-tax forms the principal source of revenue, amounting to £27,057 ; other important items are stamps and forests. The local funds created since 1863 for works of public utility and rural education yielded a total sum of £4793 .in 1881-82. The two municipali ties, Godhra and Dohad, contain a municipal population (1882-83) of 22,159; municipal income, £1086; incidence of municipal taxa tion per head, nfd. The administration of the District in revenue matters is entrusted to a Collector, with 2 Assistants, of whom one is a covenanted civilian. For the settlement of civil disputes there are 3 courts; 11 officers administer criminal justice. On an vol. xi. c 34 PANCHPARA—PANDAI. average, each village is 10 miles distant from the nearest court The total strength of the regular police consisted in 1882-83 of 796 officers and men, giving 1 policeman to every 331 of the population, or to every 2-09 square miles of area. The total cost was £11,638, equal to £7, 4s. 3d. per square mile of area, and nearly is. per head of population. The number of persons convicted of any offence, great or small, was 970 in 1876, and 360 in 1882-83. There is one jail in the District; number of convicts (1881), 238. Education has spread rapidly of late years. In 1855-56 there were only 7 schools, attended by 327 pupils. In 1881-82 there were 67 schools, attended by 4329 pupils, or an average of 1 school for every 13 inhabited villages. There are 2 libraries. Medical Aspects. — The cold season lasts from November to February; the hot from March to the middle of June ; and the rainy from the middle of June until the end of September. October is temperate and windy. Average rainfall at Godhra for 14 years ending 1881, 42-4 inches ; the fall at Dohad in the east of the District is somewhat less. The prevailing diseases are fever, eye diseases, and cutaneous affections. In 1883, the number of deaths from cholera w-as 28; from fevers, 3974; from smallpox, 31. In 1883, the number of in-door patients treated in the two dispensaries of the District was 869 ; out-door patients, 14,663. The number of persons vaccinated in the same year was 9484. Income of the dispensaries (1883), £1537 ; expenditure, £1356. Vital statistics showed a death-rate in 1876 of 20-69 Per thousand. In 1883, the birth rate per thousand was 26; and the death-rate, i6-8. [For further in formation regarding the Panch Mahals, see vol. iii. of the Gazetteer of th Bombay Presidency, published under Government orders, and edited by Mr. J. M. Campbell, C.S. See also the Bombay Census Report for t88i ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports for the Bombay Presidency. J Panchpara. — River in Balasor District, Bengal. Formed by a number of small streams, the principal being the Bans, Jamira, and Bhairingi, which unite, bifurcate, and re-unite in the wildest confusion, until they finally enter the sea in lat. 21° 31' n., and long. 87° 9' 30" E. The tide runs up only 10 miles; and although the interlacings constantly spread out into shallow swamps, yet one of them, the Bans, is deep enough to be navigated by boats of 4 tons burden all the year round. Panchpukuria.— Village in Tipperah District, Bengal ; situated on the Gumti. Large river-borne trade in rice, jute, hides, etc. Pandai.— River in Champaran District, Bengal; rising on the north of the Sumeswar Hills, and entering the Ramnagar Raj through a pass between the Sumeswar and Churia Ghatia ranges, at the Nepal outpost of Thorf. For 6 miles below this pass its bed is stony, but the Pandai PANDARIA— PANDA W. 35 soon becomes an ordinary channel, with high clay banks. The flood discharge is considerable, the breadth of the stream being 100 yards, with a full depth of 8 or 9 feet. The course of the river is at first westerly ; but afterwards it curves to the south-east, and joins the Dhoram about 2 miles east of Singdrpur. Pandaria. — Zaminddri or chiefship in Mungeli tahsil,. Bilaspur Dis trict, Central Provinces, comprising 332 villages. Area, 486 square miles, half of which is covered with hills, while the remainder is a cultivated plain, consisting for the most part of first-class black soil, largely devoted to cotton. Population (1881) 71,110, namely, males 35,492, and females 35,618, residing in 18,965 houses; average density of the population, 146 persons per square mile. Besides cotton, wheat, gram, and other rabi crops are grown, as well as much sugar cane. The chief is a Raj-Gond, and the chiefship was conferred on his ancestor three centuries ago by the Gond Raja of Garha Mandki. Pandaria. — Village in Mungeli tahsil, Bilaspur District, Central , Provinces, and the residence of the zaminddr of Pandaria estate. Lat. 22" 14' n., long. 81° 27' e. Population (1881) 4317, namely, Hindus, 3682; Kabirpanthfs, 267; Satndmis, 65; Muhammadans, 270; and non-Hindu aborigines, 33. The village contains a well-attended dis pensary. Pandarkaiira. — Town in Wun District, Berar. Lat. 20° 1' N.,long. 78° 35' e. Population not returned in Census Report. Scene of the defeat of the Peshwa Baji Rao by the combined forces of Colonels Scott and Adams, on the 2nd April 1818. By this defeat the Peshwa's movement on Nagpur to aid Apa Sahib was finally checked. The town is now the head-quarters of the newly formed tdluk of Kehlapur, and contains a tahsilddr's court, police station, dispensary, school, and post-office. Panda Tarai. — Village in Mungeli tahsil, in Bilaspur District, Central Provinces, and within the Pandaria zaminddri ; situated in lat. 22° 12' N., and long. 81° 22' e., near the foot of the Maikal hills, 50 miles west of Bilaspur town. Population (1881) 2421, namely, Hindus, 2070; Kabirpanthis, 143; Satnamis, 4 ; Muhammadans, 69; and non- Hindu aborigines, 135. The village does a good trade in grain with carriers from Jabalpur (Jubbulpore). The weekly market is the largest in the Pandaria chiefship. Pandaul. — Village in Darbhangah District, Bengal ; situated 7 miles south of Madhubanf, on the Darbhangah road. The site of a factory of the same name, which once had the largest indigo cultivation in Tirhtit. There are also the remains of a sugar factory by the side of a large tank ascribed to Raja Seo Singh, one of the ancient princes of the country. Pan-daw.— Town in the Ye-gyi township of Bassein District, Pegu 36 PANDA W CREEK— PANDHARPUR. Division, Lower Burma. Lat. 17" 19' 30" n., long. 95° 10' e. Head quarters of the united townships of Ye-gyi, Bo-daw, and Mye-nu. Con tains a court-house, police station, and market. Population (1877) 3982; revenue, £380: and (1881) population, 2630; revenue, £391. A rapidly rising place, sometimes called Ye-gyi Pan-daw. It was here that the Taking army made its last stand against the Burmese conqueror Alaungpaya. Pan-daw. — Creek in Bassein District, Lower Burma. — See Ye-gyi. Pandhana. — Village in Khandwa tahsil, Nimar District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 21° 42' N., and long. 76° 16' e., 10 miles south-west of Khandwa town. Population (1881) 2788, namely, Hindus, 2318; Muhammadans, 452; Kabi'rpanthfs, 8; and Jains, 10. At the market held every Tuesday, a brisk trade is done in grain, forest produce, and cotton goods. Pandharpur. — Sub-division of Sholapur District, Bombay Presi dency. Situated in the centre of the District between lat. 17" 29' and 17° 56' n., and long. 75° 11' and 75° 44' e. Area, 470 square miles, containing 2 towns and 83 villages. Population (1872) 79,314; (1881) 72,212, namely, 35,843 males and 36,369 females. Hindus number 68,187 ; Muhammadans, 2864; and ' others,' 116 1. Pandhar pur is an open waving plain, almost bare of trees. The chief rivers are the Bhima and the Man. Along the river banks the soil is mostly deep black, and to the east of the Bhima it is specially fine. On the high-lying land the soil is shallow, black and gray, gravelly or barad. The climate is dry ; rainfall scanty and uncertain. At Pandharpur town, in the centre of the Sub-division, during the 10 years ending 1882 the rainfall varied from 44 inches in 1874 to 8 inches in 1876, and averaged 28 inches. Total cultivated area of Government land in 1881-82, 191,580 acres, of which 2585 acres bore two crops; the principal class of crops being — grain crops, 159,545 acres, of which 137,694 were jodr (Sorghum vulgare) ; pulses, 10,572 acres; oil-seeds, 16,827 acres; fibres, 5321 acres; and miscellaneous crops, 1900 acres. In 1883 the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 3 criminal courts; police circles (thdnds), 3 ; regular police, 48 men ; and village watch (ckaukiddrs), 179, Land revenue, £9443. Pandharpur (or The City of Pandhari Vithoba).— Chief town of the Pandharpur Sub-division of Sholapur District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 17° 40' 40" n., and long. 75° 22' 40" e., on the right or southern bank of the Bhima, a tributary of the Krishna, 84 miles east of Satara, 112 south-east of Poona (Puna), 38 west of Sholapur town, and 31 miles from the Barsi road station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. A mail pony cart plies daily along the road from Barsi station ; and other pony carts and hundreds of bullock carts are on hire at the station. The best view of Pandharpur is from the left bank of PANDHARPUR TOWN. 37 the Bhima. When the river is full, the broad winding Bhima gay with boats ; the islet temples of Vishnupad and Narad ; on the further bank the rows of domed and spired tombs ; the crowded flight of steps leading from the water ; the shady banks, and among the tree-tops the spires and pinnacles of many large temples, form a scene of much beauty and life. Population (1881) 16,910. Hindus number 15,680 ; Muhammadans, 859 J Jains, 371. Area, about 150 acres. Pandharpur is one of the most frequented places of pilgrimage in the Bombay Presidency. The debris of former buildings have somewhat raised the level of the centre of the town. In that part the houses are comparatively well built, many of them being two or more storeys high, with plinths of hewn stone. Pandharpur is highly revered by Brahmans, as containing a celebrated temple dedicated to the god Vithoba, an incarnation of Vishnu. Vithoba's temple is near the centre of the part of the town which is considered holy, and is called Pandharikshetra, or the holy spot of Pandhari. It has a length from east to west of 350 feet, and a breadth from north to south of 170 feet. In honour of this god three fairs are annually held. At the first of these, in April, the attendance varies from 20,000 to 30,000 persons ; at the second, in July, from 100,000 to 150,000 ; and at the third, in November, from 40,000 to 50,000. Every month, also, four days before the full moon, from 5000 to 10,000 devotees assemble here. Since 1865, a tax of 6d. per head has been levied on pilgrims at each 'of the three great fairs. The yield from this source, in 1882, amounted to £4383. The town is well supplied with water, and satisfactory arrangements have been made for the comfort and convenience of pilgrims. The Bhima has 11 ghats or landings, three of which were unfinished in 1884. Besides these, several stone pavements slope to the river. During the famine of 1876-78, numbers of children were left to die by their starving parents ; while the famine lasted, the children were fed in the Gopalpur relief house. When the relief house was closed, an orphanage, the only institution of its kind in the Bombay Presidency, was established from subscriptions, and the foundation stone was laid on the 10th October 1878. In connection with the orphanage a foundling home was established from £1000 subscribed in Bombay, to which a school of industry was added in November 1881. In 1659, the Bijapur general, Afzul Khan, encamped at Pandharpur on his way from Bijapur to Wai in Satara. In 1774, Pandharpur was the scene of an engagement between Raghunath Rao Peshwa and Trim- bak Rao Mama, sent by the Poona ministers to oppose him. In 181 7, an indecisive action was fought near Pandharpur between the Peshwa's horse and the British troops under General Smith, who was accompanied by Mr. Elphinstone. In 1847, the noted dakdit, Raghuji Bhangrya, was 38 PANDHURNA— PANDRINTOA. caught at Pandharpur by Lieutenant, afterwards General, Gell. During 1857 the office and the treasury of the mdmlatddr were attacked by the rebels, but successfully held by the police. In 1879, Vasudeo Balwant Phadke, a notorious dakdit leader, was on his way to Pandharpur, when he was captured. Pandharpur has a large annual export trade worth about £36,000 in buka (sweet-smelling powder), gram-pulse, incense sticks, safflower oil, kumku (red powder), maize, parched rice, and snuff. Pandharpur is a municipal town, with an annual revenue of £7369; incidence of municipal taxation, 9s. per head. Sub-judge's court, dispensary, and post-office. Number of patients treated in the dispensary, 10,406 in 1883, of whom 56 were in-door. [For a full and interesting account of Pandharpur, its temples, glials, and objects of interest, ancient and modern, the reader is referred to the Gazetteer of Bombay, vol. xx. pp. 415-485 (Bombay, 1884).] Pandhurna. — Town and municipality in Chhindwara tahsil, Chhind- wara District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 21° 36' n., and long. 78° 35' e., 54 miles south-west of Chhindward town, on the main road from Betiil to Nagpur. The municipal limits include the villages 'of Bamni and Sawargaon, and contained a total population (1881) of 7469, chiefly agriculturists. Hindus numbered 6854; Muhammadans, 500; Jains, 60 ; and non-Hindu aborigines, 55. Municipal revenue in 1882-83, £$02> °f which £197 were derived from taxation; average incidence of municipal taxation, 6|d. per head. The soil around is rich and produces much cotton. Pandhurna has a police outpost station, travellers' bungalow, sarai (native inn), and Government school, with a daily average attendance of about 120 pupils. Pandri Kalan. — Town in Unao tahsil, Unao District, Oudh; 10 miles south-east of Unao town. Population (1881) 3733, namely, 3620 Hindus and 113 Muhammadans. Market twice a week, with annual sales averaging £900. Government school. Pandrinton (Pdndrethdn). — Temple in Kashmir (Cashmere) State, Northern India ; standing in the midst of a tank, about 4 miles south east of Srinagar, the capital of the Kashmir valley. Lat. 34° 2' N., long. 74° 47' e., according to Thornton, who thus describes the building : 'It is a striking specimen of the simple, massive, and chaste style which characterizes the architectural antiquities of Kashmir. The ground plan is a square of 20 feet, and the roof pyramidal. In each of the four sides is a doorway, ornamented with pilasters right and left, and surmounted by a pediment. The whole is constructed of blocks of hewn limestone. The interior is filled with water, communicating with that without, which is about 4 feet deep ; and as the building is com pletely insulated, it can be reached only by wading or swimming. The purpose of its construction is not known, but it is generally considered PANDU— PANDUAH. 39 a Buddhist relic. It exhibits neither inscriptions nor sculptures, except the figure of a large lotus carved on the roof inside.' Pandu. — Petty State of the Pandu Mehwas in Rewa Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Area, 9^ square miles; estimated revenue, £520; tribute, of £450, 2s. is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda. There are two principal holders with several sub-shares of the property, half of which has been under British management since 1874, and the other half since 1878, owing to the extreme poverty of the proprietors and their inability to pay the amount of their heavy tribute. Panda Mehwas. — Group of 26 petty States forming a territorial division of Rewa Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Area, 147 square miles. Population (1872) 20,284; (1881) 20,312, namely, 10,785 males and 9527 females, dwelling in 36 villages, containing 4560 houses. Density of population, 138 persons per square mile. Hindus number 19,682, and Muhammadans 630. Estimated revenue, £11,000. The Pandu Mehwas group of estates stretches along the river Mihi in a narrow broken line for 58 miles. Climate healthy. Soil light, yielding millets, rice, and sugar-cane. Koh's, Bariyas, Rajputs, and Musalmans form the landowning classes. The region is, comparatively, a poor one. Panduah. — Village, municipality, and railway station in Hiigli Dis trict, Bengal. Lat. 23° 4' 28" n., long. 88° 19' 43" e. Population (1881) 3344, namely, males 1656, and females 1688. Municipal income (1883-84), £125; incidence of taxation, 8|d. per head. In ancient times, Panduah was the seat of a Hindu Rajd, and fortified by a wall and trench 5 miles in circumference. It is now only a small rural village, picturesquely surrounded by groves, orchards, and gardens. Traces of its ancient fortifications are still discernible at places; a tower (120 feet high), built to commemorate a victory gained by the Muhammadans over the Hindus in 1340 a.d., is said to be the oldest building in Bengal. It has defied the storms and rains of a tropical climate for five centuries, and has seen the rise and fall of Gaur, Sonargaon, Rajmahal, Dacca, and Murshidabad, the successive capitals of Bengal during the Muhammadan era. For the local traditions relating to the war between the Hindus and Muhammadans, see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. iii. p. 313. Up to the commencement of the present century, Panduah was the seat of a large native paper manufacture, but not a trace of this industry exists at the present day. Panduah (or as it is commonly, but less correctly, called, Paruah). — Deserted town in Maldah District, Bengal, once the Muhammadan capital of the Province ; situated 6 miles from Old Maldah, where there are extensive ruins and remains of paved roadways, showing that this was formerly the river port of Panduah, and about 20 miles from Gaur, in a north-easterly direction from both. Like those of Gaur, the ruins 4o PAND UAH TO WNt of Panduah lie buried in almost impenetrable jungle, which for long < formed the undisputed home of tigers and other wild animals, till the recent clearances of the jungle made by new settlements of Santal' colonies. Although in all respects less noteworthy than Gaur, it con tains some remarkable specimens of early Muhammadan architecture. Its comparatively small historical importance has given rise to more than one error. The maps scarcely mark the place at all, and uniformly give some one of the corrupt modes of spelling the name. Hence,; when a mention of the place is found in history, it is often confused with the better known but much less important place of the same name j in Hrigli District. To avoid this difficulty, General Cunningham has proposed that it should be known as Hazrat Panduah. The proximity of Gaur has also overshadowed Panduah, so that the antiquities of the latter place have been sometimes attributed in their entirety to the former. The fortified city of Panduah or Paruah, the suburbs of which reached to Old Maldah, extended within the ramparts for 6 miles due north along the watershed of this part of the country, some 4 miles to the east of the Mahananda river, and running nearly parallel with it. It is stated, and apparently with truth, that the Mahananda many centuries ago flowed past the high ground on which the city of Panduah was built. Old Maldah was the fortified river port south of the city at the junction of the Kalindri and the Mahananda, while the suburb of Rai Khan Dighi was a similar fortified port on the Mahananda, 10 miles north of Old Maldah. The fort of Rai Khan Dighi also guarded the bridge over the Mahananda at Pirganj on the great military road. The attractions offered by the site of Panduah appear to have been its natural elevation and commanding position on the main road to the north, and also the sport afforded by the game of all kinds which ' abounded in the neighbouring jungles. Panduah was probably originally an outpost, forming one of the many defences of the more ancient city of Gaur, guarding the road from the north from the incursions of Kochs, Palis, and Rajbansfs. It afterwards became a favourite rural retreat, and for some time was the capital of Bengal, when the Muhammadan governors found it a more desirable residence than the palace at Gaur, which was the first part of that city to experience the unhealthiness caused by malarious exhalations, as the Ganges gradually receded westward from below the palace walls in the 14th century. As Panduah increased in wealth and importance, its fortifications were extended, and it was further strengthened by an outpost at Ekdala, some 20 miles to the north, within the limits of the modern District of Dinajpur. The first appearance of Panduah in history is in the year 1353 a.d., when Ilias Khwaja Sultan, the first independent king of Bengal, is said LAND UAH TO WN. 4 1 to have temporarily transferred his capital from Gaur to Panduah. It has been supposed that this king and his successors, who with difficulty repelled the Delhi Emperor, were influenced in their desertion of Gaur by strategic reasons. Panduah was not accessible by water, and was probably then, as now, protected by almost impenetrable jungles. It is not likely that the vast Hindu community of traders and artisans also left their homes at Gaur, but merely that the court was removed. This would explain both the smaller number of ruined dwelling-houses at Panduah, as well as the superior sanctity in which this place is held by the Muhammadans. The court name for Panduah was Firozabad, which during this period regularly makes its appearance on the coins, whereas that of Lakhnauti (Gaur) disappears. The seat of Government remained here during the reigns of five successive monarchs, when it was re-transferred to Gaur. It is probable, however, that Panduah, though its name is not again mentioned in history, maintained its splendour for some time, and was a favourite country resort for royalty. The history of Panduah is short, and the topography, so far as it has been explored, is equally simple. No survey has ever been taken of the site ; and even Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton found himself unable to penetrate through the dense jungle beyond the beaten track. The following description is condensed from his account of the place, con tained in his MS. notes on the District of Dinajpur, which in his time (1807-13) included this part of Maldah, whereas Gaur then lay within the District of Purniah. A road paved with brick, from 12 to 15 feet wide, and not very straight (afterwards the high road from Maldah to Dinajpur), seems to have passed through the entire length of the town, which stretches nearly north and south, and is about 6 miles in length. From the heaps of bricks on both sides, it would appear to have been a regular street, lined with brick houses, of which the foundations and the tanks can still be traced in many places. Almost all the surviving monuments are on the borders of this road. Near the middle is a bridge of three arches, partly constructed of stone, which has been thrown over a rivulet. It is rudely built, and of no great size ; and, as is the case with all the other monuments in Panduah, the materials have mani festly come from the Hindu temples of Gaur^ as they still show sculptured figures of men and animals. At the northern end of the street are evident traces of a rampart, and the passage through is called Garhdwar, or the gate of the fortress. At the south end are many foundations, which have also probably belonged to a gate, but the forest is so impenetrable that the wall cannot be traced. Dr. Buchanan- Hamilton was of opinion that in general the town extended only a little way either east or west from the main street, but that a scattered suburb reached in a southerly direction as far as Maldah. 42 PAND YA. Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton proceeds to give a detailed description of the ruins, which is too lengthy for insertion in this work, but which will be found in the Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. vii. pp. 60-64. The principal buildings of note are the monuments of Mukhdam Shah Jalal and his grandson Kutab Shah, the two most distinguished religious personages under the early Muhammadan kings of Bengal ; the Golden Mosque (1585 a.d.), with walls of granite, and 10 domes of brick; the Eklakhi Mosque, containing, according to tradition, the graves of Ghiyas-ud-din 11., the third Muhammadan king of Bengal, and his two sons; the Adfna Masjid (14th century), by far the most celebrated building in this part of India, and characterized by Mr. Fergusson as the most remarkable example of Pathan architecture in existence ; and the Sat^sgarh ('Sixty Towers'), which is said to have been the palace of one of the kings. A Muhammadan meld, or religious gathering, takes place at Panduah every year in October or November; it is attended by 5000 or 6000 persons, and lasts for five days. Pandya (TlavSairi of Megasthenes ; Pandi Mandala of the Periplus ; Pandionis Mediterranea and Modura Regia Pandionis of Ptolemy). — One of the three great Divisions of Dravida or Southern India, the other two being Chola and Chera. The capital was first at Kolkai at the mouth of the Tambraparni, and afterwards at Madura. Kolkai is now several miles inland. An early legend runs that the three kingdoms were founded by three brothers from Kolkai, the two younger going north and west, and founding Chola and Chera. The kingdom of Pandya included Madura District and all south of it. Its early history is purely legendary ; but it is believed to have been founded in the 6th century b.c, and it is known to have been overthrown in the middle of the nth century of the Christian era, to be restored, after a period of anarchy, by the Nayaks. Bishop Caldwell says : ' The Singhalese traditions preserved in the Mahdvansa represent Vijaya, the first sovereign of Ceylon, as marrying a daughter of the Pandya king, in consequence of which his son was called Panduvamsadeva. Arjuna, one of the five Pandava brothers, is related in the Mahdbhdrata to have married a daughter of the King of the Pandyas in the course of his many wanderings. There is no certainty in these traditions, but it is certain that about the time of Pliny and the Periplus a portion of the Malabar coast was ruled over by the Pandyas, a proof that their power had con siderably extended itself from its original seats; and I regard it as nearly certain that the Indian king who sent an embassy to Augustus was not Porus, but Pandion, i.e. the King of the Pandyas, called in Tamil Pandiyan.' The Senderbandi of Marco Polo is assumed to be a corruption of Sundara Pandya, the King of Madura. [For further information the reader is referred to The Madura Country by J. H. Nelson, M.A., C.S., Madras, 1868, pp. 1-86 of Part iii.] PANHAN—PANIMAR. 43 Panhan. — Pargand in Purwa" tahsil, Unao District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Purwa pargand, on the east by Mauranwan and Rai Bareli District, on the south by the Lon river, and on the west by Purwa. The surface of the pargand is a level plain, except in the extreme south, where there is a slight inclination to the bed of the Lon. There are no jungles, and but few groves, but babul trees grow plentifully along the Lon, on a tract of saliferous land, where salt was formerly manufactured on an extensive scale. This industry has, however, disappeared as a private undertaking under British rule. Near the Rai Bareli border is a large lake or j 'hit, known as the Sudna Takb, which is well stocked with fish. Area, 19 square miles, of which 9 are cultivated. Population (1881) 7566, namely, 7362 Hindus and 204 Muhammadans. Of the 23 villages or mauzds comprising the pargand, 9 are tdlukddri and 14 mufrdd. Government land revenue demand, £1599. Ihe. pargand was formerly in the hands of the Bhars, and the ruins of an old fort are pointed out as the remains of the ancient Bhar stronghold. The Bhars were expelled many centuries ago by the Bais chieftain Abhai Chand. Panhan. — Town in Purwa tahsil, Unao District, Oudh, and head quarters of Panhan pargand ; situated 24 miles south of Unao town, on the road to Rai Bareli. Lat. 26° 25' n., long. 80° 54' e. Population (1881) 237, namely, 199 Hindus and 38 Muhammadans. Three Hindu temples. Two annual fairs are held in honour of a Muhammadan saint, each attended by about 4000 persons, at which the sales average £2400. Vernacular school, attended by 50 boys. Pan-hlaing. — Creek in Rangoon and Thun-gwa Districts, Lower Burma. Runs from the Irawadi (Irrawaddy) at Nyaung-dun to the Hlaing, just above Rangoon town. Its banks are steep and muddy, and covered with grass, trees, and plantain gardens. In the rains, river steamers can navigate this channel throughout its whole length ; but in the dry season, boats are compelled to take a circuitous route up the Pan-daing creek to Pan-daing village, and thence by a narrow passage back to the Pan-hlaing above the shoals between the villages of Kat-ti-ya and Me-za-li. Pania. — Town in Deorid. tahsil, Gorakhpur District, North- Western Provinces. — See Paina. Paniala. — Agricultural village or collection of hamlets in Dera Ismail ¦ Khan District, Punjab; situated in lat. 32° 14' 30" n., and long. 70° 55' 15" e., at the entrance to the Largi valley, 32 miles north of Dera Ismail Khan town. Population (1881) 6603. Staging bungalow, abundant supplies. Panimar. — Village in the south of Nowgong District, Assam, on the Kapilf river, where it debouches into the plains from the Jaintia Hills. In the neighbourhood, good building-stone and limestone abound. 44 PA NIP AT TAHSIL AND TOWN. Panipat.— Southern tahsil or Sub-division of Karnal District, Punjab. Area, 458 square miles, with 166 towns and villages, 26,715 houses, and 42,406 families. Total population (188 1) 186,793, namely, males 100,301, and females 86,492. Average density of the population, 408 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881— Hindus, 137,801, or 73-8 per cent; Muhammadans, 45,908, or 246 percent; Sikhs, 213; Jains, 2858; and Christians, 13. Of the 166 towns and villages, 60 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 40 from five hundred to a thousand ; 65 from one to five thousand; and 1 upwards of ten thousand inhabitants. The average area under cultivation for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82 was 229! square miles, or 146,701 acres, the area occupied by the chief crops being as follows : — Wheat, 49,710 acres ;jodr, 26,155 acres ; gram, 15,943 acres; rice, 8263 acres; barley, 7719 acres; other food-grains, consisting oi bdjra, Indian corn, and moth, 7020 acres; cotton, 12,932 acres; sugar-cane, 11,451 acres; vegetables, 763 acres; and tobacco, 426 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, £27,385. The tahsilddr is the only administrative officer, and presides over 1 civil and 1 criminal court ; number of police circles {thdnds), 4; strength of regular police, 109 men ; rural police (chaukiddrs), 306. Panipat (Paniput). ¦ — Decayed town, municipality, and famous battle-field in Karnal District, Punjab, and head - quarters of the Panipat tahsil. Situated in lat. 29° 23' n., long. 77" 1' 10" e., on the Grand Trunk Road, 53 miles north of Delhi, near the old bank of the Jumna, upon a high mound composed of the debris of centuries. Panipat town is of great antiquity, dating back to the period of the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, when it formed one of the well-known pals or prdsthas demanded by Yudishthira from Duryodhana as the price of peace. In historical times, the neighbourhood of Panipat has thrice formed the scene of decisive battles, which sealed the fate of Upper India. The great military road which runs north-west through Hindustan to the frontier, bisects the broad plain of Panipat, at a distance of about 50 miles from Delhi. Count von Noer, whose interesting Life of Akbar is shortly to be published in an English form by Mrs. Beveridge, thus describes the scenery of that wide expanse : — ' Pinipat is a far-reaching, almost illimitable level tract, broken only by insignificant undulations. Here and there, where the shallow soil is moistened from some niggardly watercourse, grow sparse grasses and stunted thorn bushes. But for the most part, the eye falls only on the uniform yellowish-grey waste of sterile earth. Everywhere empty silence reigns ; and it would almost seem as if this desert had been designed for the battle-field of nations.' In 1526, Babar with his small but veteran army met Ibrahim Lodi at the head of 100,000 troops near Panipat, and, after a battle lasting PANIPAT TOWN. 45 from sunrise to sunset, completely defeated the imperial forces. Ibrahim Lodi fell with 15,000 of his followers ; and in May 1526, Babar entered Delhi and established the so-called Mughal dynasty. Thirty years later, in 1556, his grandson, Akbar, on the same battle-field conquered Hemu, the Hindu general of the Afghan Sher Shah, whose family had temporarily driven that of Babar from the throne, thus a second time establishing the Mughal power. Finally, on 7th January 1761, Ahmad Shah Durani fought beneath the walls of Panipat the decisive battle which shattered for ever the unity of the Mardtha power, and placed the destinies of the Empire in the hands of the Afghan conqueror. The following graphic account of this great battle is taken from an article by Mr. H. G. Keene in the Calcutta Review, 1879 : — ' The Maratha troops marched in an oblique line, with their left in front, preceded by their guns small and great. The Bhao, with the Peshwa's son and the household troops, was in the centre. The left wing consisted of the gardis under Ibrahim Khan ; Holkar and Sindhia were on the extreme right. ' On the other side, the Afghans formed a somewhat similar line, their left being formed by Najib's Rohillas, and their right by two brigades of Persian troops. Their left centre was led by the two Wazirs, Shuja-ud-daula and Shah Waif. The right centre consisted of RohilMs under the well-known Hafiz Rdhmat and other chiefs of the Indian Pathans. Day broke ; but the Afghan artillery for the most part kept silence, while that of the enemy, losing range in its constant advance, threw away its ammunition over the heads of the enemy, and dropped its shot a mile to their rear. Shah Pasand Khin covered the left wing with a choice body of mailed Afghan horsemen ; and in this order the army moved forward, leaving the Shah at his usual post, which was now in rear of the line, from whence he could watch and direct the battle. ' On the other side, no great precautions seem to have been taken, except indeed by the gardis and their vigilant leader, who advanced in silence, and without firing a shot, with two battalions of infantry bent back to their left flank, to cover their advance from the attack of the Persian cavalry forming the extreme right of the enemy's line. The valiant veteran soon showed the worth of French discipline ; and another division such as his would have probably gained the day. Well mounted and armed, and carrying in his own hand the colours of his own personal command, he led his men against the Rohilkhand column with fixed bayonets ; and to so much effect, that nearly 8000 men were put hors de combat. For three hours the gardis remained in unchallenged possession of that part of the field. Shuja-ud-daula, with his small but compact force, remained stationary, neither fighting nor flying ; and the Marathas forbore to attack him. The corps between 46 PANIPA T TO WN. this and the Pathans was that of the Durani Wazir ; and it suffered severely from the shock of an attack delivered upon them by the Bhao himself, at the head of the household troops. The Pandit being sent through the dust to inform Shuja what was going on, found Shah Wall vainly trying to rally the courage of his followers, of whom many were in full retreat. "Whither would you run, friends?" cried the Wazir; " your country is far from here ! " ' Meanwhile the prudent Najib had masked his advance by a series of breastworks, under cover of which he had gradually approached the hostile line. "I have the highest stake to-day," he said, "and cannot afford to make any mistakes." The part of the enemy's force imme diately opposed to him was commanded by the head of the Sindhia house, who was Najfb's personal enemy. Till noon, Najib remained on the defensive, keeping off all close attacks upon his earthworks by continuous discharges of rockets. But so far the fortune of the day was evidently inclined towards the Marathas. The Muhammadan left still held their own under the Wazirs and Najib, but the centre was cut in two, and the right was almost destroyed ' Of the circumstances which turned the tide and gave the crisis to the Moslems, but one account necessarily exists. Hitherto we have had the guidance of Grant-Duff for the Maratha side of the affair ; but now the whole movement was to be from the other side, and we cannot do better than trust the Pandit. Dow, the only other con temporary author of importance — if we except Ghulam Husain, who wrote at a very remote place — is irremediably inaccurate and vague about all these transactions. The Pandit, then, informs us that during the earlier hours of the conflict, the Shah had watched the fortunes of the battle from his tent, guarded by the still unbroken forces on his left. But now, hearing that his right was reeling and his centre was defeated, he felt that the moment was come for a final effort. In front of him the Hindu cries of Har ! Har 1 Jai Mahddeo ! were maintaining an equal and dreadful concert with those of Allah ! Allah ! Din ! Din ! from his own side. The battle wavered to and fro, like that of Flodden, as described by Scott. The Shah saw the critical moment in the very act of passing. He therefore sent 500 of his own body-guard with orders to drive all able-bodied men out of camp, and send them to the front at any cost. Fifteen hundred more he sent to encounter those who were flying, and slay without pity any who would not return to the fight. These, with 4000 of his reserve troops, went to support the broken ranks of the Robilla Pathans on the right. The remainder of the reserve, 10,000 strong, were sent to the aid of Shah Waif,' still labouring unequally against the Bhao in the centre of the field. The Shah's orders were clear. The mailed warriors were to charge with the Wazfr in close order, and at full PANIPAT TOWN. 47 gallop. As often as they charged the enemy in front, the chief of the staff and Najib were directed to fall upon either flank. These orders were immediately carried out. ' The forward movement of the Moslems began at 1 p.m. The fight was close and obstinate, men fighting with swords, spears, axes, and even with daggers. Between 2 and 3 p.m., the Peshwa's son was wounded, and, having fallen from his horse, was placed upon an elephant. The last thing seen of the Bhao was his dismounting from the elephant, and getting on his Arab charger. Soon after, the young chief was slain. The next moment Holkar and the Gaekwar left the field. In that instant resistance ceased, and the Marathas all at once became helpless victims of butchery. Thousands were cut down, other thousands were drowned in escaping, or were slaughtered by the country people whom they had so long pillaged. The Shdh and his principal commanders then retired to camp, leaving the pursuit to be completed by subordinate officers. Forty thousand prisoners are said to have been slain.' The plain of Panfpat was selected as the arena for the manoeuvres connected with the great Indian Camp of Exercise of December 1885. The general plan of the operations comprised the advance of an invading army from the north, upon Delhi ; and the defence of that city, by the counter-movements of an opposing force. The modern town of Panipat is built upon a small promontory due south of Karnal, round which runs the old bed of the Jumna. From all sides the town slopes gently upwards towards an old fort, which is its highest point, and with low and squalid outskirts receiving the drainage of the higher portion. The town is enclosed by an old wall with 15 gates, and suburbs extend in all directions except to the east. It is intersected by two main bdzdrs crossing each other in the centre. The streets are. all well paved or metalled, but are narrow and crooked. The population in 1881 numbered 25,022, namely, males 12,431, and females 12,591. Classified according to religion, there were — Muham madans, 16,917 ; Hindus, 7334; Jains, 768; and 'others,' 3. Number of houses, 2952. Municipal income (1883-84), £2063, or an average of is. 7^d. per head of the municipal population (25,651). The muni cipal income is chiefly derived from octroi duties levied on almost all goods brought to the town for consumption. The opening of the railway on the opposite side of the Jumna has somewhat prejudiced the commercial position of Panipat, having attracted to it much of the traffic formerly passing along the Grand Trunk Road. The local manufactures consist of copper utensils for export, country cloth, blankets, cutlery, silver beads, and glass ornaments for women's dress. Panfpat was formerly the head-quarters of the District, which 48 PANJAB—PANAA. was transferred to Karnal in 1854, owing to the growing unhealthiness of the former place. The principal public buildings, apart from the ordinary Sub-divisional courts and offices, are the municipal hall, post-office, police station, school, rest-house, and large sarai or native inn. Panjab. — Province of Northern India. — See Punjab. Panjim (or New God). — The central quarter of New Goa, the present capital of Portuguese India. — See Goa. Panjnad. — Great river of the Punjab, formed by the united waters . of the Sutlej (Satlaj), Beas (Bias), Ravi, Chenab, and Jehlam (Jhelum), Commences at the confluence of the Sutlej (Satlaj) with the Trimab or Chenab, in lat. 29° 21' N., and long. 71° 3' e., and, taking a south westerly course of about 60 miles, joins the Indus nearly opposite Mithankot, in lat. 28° 57' n., and long. 70° 29' e. The Panjnad separates the British District of Muzaffargarh from the Native State of Bahawalpur. The stream, even after the junction with the Sutlej, often bears the name of the Chenib. Pan-ma-myit-ta. — Tidal creek in Bassein District, Irawadi Division, Lower Burma. It connects the Pya-ma-law and Ywe streams, and is navigable by river steamers at all times, and is the route generally followed by small vessels plying between Rangoon and Bassein. Pan-ma-wa-di. — Creek in Bassein District, Irawadi Division, Lower Burma. Under the name of the Thi-kwin, it leaves the Min- ma-naing near the village of Tan-ta-bin, in about lat. 16° 50' n., and long. 95° 13' e. After a generally westerly- course of about 60 miles, the Pan-ma-wa-di unites with the Bassein, the depth at its mouth being 10 fathoms at low-water spring-tides. River steamers can ascend at all seasons as far as the village of Thi-kwin, a distance of 48 miles, where the channel is 200 feet broad. The chief branches of the Pan- ma-wa-di are the Min-di and the Min-ma-naing. Panna (Punnah). — Native State in Bundelkhand, under the political superintendence of the Bundelkhand Agency of Central India. Bounded on the north by the British District of Banda, and by one of the outlying divisions of Charkhari State ; on the east by the States of Kothi, Suhawal, Nagode, and Ajaigarh ; on the south by Damoh and Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) Districts of the Central Provinces ; and on the west by the petty States of Chhatarpur and Ajaigarh. Estimated area, 2568 square miles. Population (1881) 227,306. Panna is for the most part situated on the table-lands above the Vindhyan Ghats, and contains much hill and jungle land. The former prosperity of the State was due to its diamond mines. The diamonds were found in several places, especially on the north-east of the town (' Panna Mines '). ' The ground on the surface and for a few feet below,' says Thornton, from whom this paragraph is condensed, PANNA. 49 ' consists of ferruginous gravel, mixed with reddish clay ; and this loose mass, when carefully washed and searched, yields diamonds, though few in number and of small size. The matrix containing in greater quantity the more valuable diamonds lies considerably lower, at a depth varying generally from 12 to 40 feet, and is a conglomerate of pebbles of quartz, jasper, hornstone, Lydian stone, etc. The fragments of this conglomerate, quarried and brought to the surface, are carefully pounded ; and after several washings, to remove the softer and more clayey parts, the residue is repeatedly searched for the diamonds. As frequently happens in such speculative pursuits, the returns often scarcely equal the outlay, and the adventurers are ruined. The business is now much less prosperous than formerly, but Jacquemont did not consider that there were in his time any symptoms of exhaustion in the adaman- tiferous deposits, and attributed the unfavourable change to the diminished value of the gem everywhere. The rejected rubbish, if examined after a lapse of some years, has been frequently found to contain valuable gems, which some suppose have in the interval been produced in the congenial matrix ; but experienced and skilful miners are generally of opinion that the diamonds escaped the former search, in consequence of incrustation by some opaque coat, and have now been rendered obvious to the sight from its removal by fracture, friction, or some other accidental cause. More extensive and important than the tract just referred to is another extending from 12 to 20 miles north east of the town of Panna, and worked in the localities of Kamariya, Brijpur, Bargari, Maira, and Etwa. Diamonds of the first water, or completely colourless, are very rare, most of those found being either pearly, greenish, yellowish, rose-coloured, black, or brown.' Pogson, who worked one of the mines on his own account, mentions that the diamonds are of four sorts — the motichal, which is clear and brilliant ; the mdnik, of greenish hue ; the panna, which is tinged with orange ; and the bauspat, which is blackish. In his time, the mines chiefly worked were at Sakariya, about 1 2 miles from Panna ; and he thus describes the operation : ' The diamonds there are found below a stratum of rock from 15 to 20 feet thick. To cut through this rock is, as the natives work, a labour of many months, and even years ; but when the undertaking is prosecuted with diligence, industry, and vigour, the process is as follows : — On the removal of the superficial soil, the rock is cut with chisels, broken with large hammers, and a fire at night is sometimes lit on the spot, which renders it more friable. Supposing the work to be commenced in October, the miners may possibly cut through the rock by March. The next four months are occupied in digging out the gravel in which diamonds are found ; this is usually a work of much labour and delay, in consequence of the necessity of frequently emptying the water from the mines. The miners vol. xt. d 50 PANNA TOWN. then await the setting in of the rainy season, to furnish them with a supply of water for the purpose of washing the gravel.' The same writer considers that 'inexhaustible strata producing diamonds exist here.' ' None of the great diamonds now known appear to be traceable to the mines in Panna, and Tieffenthaler mentions it as a general opinion that those of Golconda are superior.' During the prosperity of the mines, a tax of 25 per cent, was levied on their produce, but the tax now imposed is stated to exceed this rate. The revenue is divided in proportions between the Rajas of Panna and Charkhari. The value of the diamonds still found in the mines is estimated at £12,000 per annum. Iron is also found in the State. The chief of Panna is descended from Hardi Sail, one of the sons of the famous Maharaja" Chhatar Sal. When the British entered Bundel khand, Raji Kishor Singh was the chief of the State, which was then in a condition of complete anarchy. He was confirmed in his possessions by sanads granted in 1807 and 181 1. As a reward for services rendered during the Mutiny of 1857, the Raja received the privilege of adoption, a dress of honour of the value of £2000, and a personal salute of 13 guns. The present Maharaja, Rudra Pratap Singh, who is a Bundela Rajput, succeeded in 1870; and in 1876 he was invested with the insignia of a Knight Commander of the Star of India by His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. The population of Panna was in 1881 returned at 227,306 persons, dwelling in 1 town and 867 villages, and occupying 45,414 houses; males numbered 118,349, females 108,957. Average number of persons per square mile, 88-5. Hindus number 203,425; Muham madans, 5989; Jains, 1271 ; Christians, 9; Pdrsis, 3; aboriginal Gonds, 8886; and Kols, 7723. The land revenue is estimated at 5 lakhs of rupees (say £50,000), but much of this amount is alienated. A small and fluctuating revenue is also derived from a tax on the diamond mines. Tribute of £995 is paid on the districts of Surajpur and Ektana. A road was constructed by the late Maharaja Narpal Singli from his capital to Simariya in the Damoh direction (40 miles). The present chief has constructed another road towards the north, through Bfsram Ghat, a distance of 14 miles, at a cost of about £6500, and which for tracing and workmanship will bear comparison with any hill- road in the country. Schools have also been founded in the State. A military force is maintained of 250 cavalry and 2440 infantry, with 19 guns and 60 artillerymen. Panna. — Chief town of the Native State of Panna, Bundelkhand, Central India; situated in lat. 24° 43' 30" n., and long. 80° 13' 55" e., on the route from Banda to Jabalpur (Jubbuljjore), 62 miles south of the former and 169 miles north of the latter; distant from Kalpi 130 miles south, and from Allahabad 173 south-west. Population (1881) PANNIAR—PAN- TA-NA W. 5 1 14,676, namely, 8194 males and 6482 females. Hindus number 12,500; Muhammadans, 2028; and 'others,' 148. Elevation above sea-level, 1147 feet. Panna is a clean, well-laid-out city, built almost entirely of stone, which is found in abundance in the neighbourhood. Several large modern Hindu temples;' and an imposing-looking edifice of nondescript design has been lately completed by the chief as a temple to Baladeo (a name of Balarama, brother of Krishna). A new palace, now under construction, will, when completed, be a handsome building. On a table covered with gold cloth lies the volume of Pran Naib, in an apartment of the building consecrated to the use of the sect founded by Pran Nath, a Kshattriya, who, being versed in Muham madan as well as in Hindu learning, attempted to reconcile the two religions. The neighbouring diamond mines, which take their name from the town, are described in the article on Panna State (vide supra). Panniar (Punniar). — Town in Gwalior State, Central India; situated in lat, 26° 6' 12" n., and long. 780 2' 2" e., 12 miles south-west of Gwalior fort. 'Scene of an engagement,' writes Thornton, 'on the 29th December 1843 (the date of the victory of Maharajpur), between the British and Maratha forces. Major-General Grey, leading from Bundelkhand a British detachment to co-operate with that marching from Agra under the conduct of Sir Hugh Gough, commander-in- chief, crossed the river Sind at Chandpur, and proceeding north-west, after a march of 16 miles, was attacked by the Maratha army, strongly posted near the village of Mangor. The British army took post at Panniar, and, by a series of attacks, drove the enemy from all points of his position, capturing all his artillery, amounting to 24 pieces, and all his ammunition. The Maratha army is represented to have been about 12,000 strong, and to have suffered most severely. The British loss amounted to 35 killed and 182 wounded.' Panroti (Panrutti). — Town in Cuddalore tdluk, South Arcot District, Madras Presidency, and a station on the South Indian Railway. A large market town, being situated at the junction of several important roads. Lat. 11° 46' 40" n., and long. 79° 35' 16" e. Population (1881) 20,172, namely, 10,021 males and 10,151 females. Hindus number 18,953; Muhammadans, 1135; and Christians, 84. Pantalaori. — Petty State of the Sankheda Mehwas in Rewa. Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Area, 5 square miles. There are two chiefs, Nathu Khan and Nazir Khan. Estimated revenue, £200. Pantan. — Forest reserve in the south of Kamriip District, Assam, on the left bank of the Kulsi river ; containing valuable sal timber. Area, 12 square miles. Pan-ta-naw. — Township in Thun-gwa District, Irawadi Division, Lower Burma. Area, 489 square miles; revenue (1877), £16,482, 52 PAN-TA-NAW—PANWEL. and (1881) £36,072. It is divided into 8 revenue circles, with a total population (1881) of 40,410 persons. The greater part of the country is covered with forests. Pan-ta-naw. — Town in the Pan-ta-naw township, Thun-gwa District, Irawadi Division, Lower Burma ; situated on the river Irawadi (Irra- waddy), in lat. 16° 55' n., and long. 950 28' E. Population, 5824 in 1877, and 6174 in 1881. Head-quarters of an extra-Assistant Conir missioner. Considerable river-borne traffic in nga-pi, dried fish, piece- goods, and hardware. Panth-Piplanda. — Guaranteed chiefship (Thakdrat) under the Western Malwa Agency. Consisting of 10 villages. Population (188 1) 4086, dwelling in 903 houses. Hindus number 3989 ; Muham madans, 93 ; and non-Hindu aborigines, 4. Panwari. — South-western tahsil of Hamirpur District, North western Provinces. — See Kulpahar. Panwel. — Sub-division of Thana District, Bombay Presidency. This Sub-division includes the petty Division of Uran, and lies in the south-west of the District, having along its eastern boundary the lofty Bava Malang, Matheran, and Prabal ranges, and the Manikgarh range on the south-east. It has many natural advantages ; its seaboard and rivers give it the command of water carriage to Bombay as well as in the interior, while the Poona and Bombay road supplies excellent land communication. The climate, though damp and unhealthy for Europeans, is temperate except in the hot season, at which time the water-supply gets scanty. Area, 307 square miles, containing 2 towns and 217 villages. Population (1872) 96,714; (1881) 101,181, namely, 52,140 males and 49,041 females. Hindus number 93,816; Muham madans, 5920; and 'others,' 1445. In 1879-80, the separate holdings numbered 13,105, of an average area of 6f acres each, and paying an average assessment of £1, 8s. nd. Total area in i88r, exclusive of 91 square miles occupied by the lands of alienated villages, 216 square miles. Of the Government area, 76,691 acres were returned as cultivable, 8959 acres as uncultivable, 39,132 acres as forest land, 4021 acres as salt land, and 6926 acres occupied by village sites, etc. Total cultivated area of Government land in 1880-81, 49,466 acres, of which 364 acres were twice cropped. Principal crops — grain, 46,535 acres; pulses, 2382 acres; oil-seeds, 434 acres; fibres, 29 acres; and miscel laneous, 450 acres. Rice occupied 43,936 acres. In 1883 the Sub division contained 1 civil and 3 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 2 ; regular police, 65 men. Land revenue (1882-83), £19>6i8. Panwel.— Chief town of the Panwel Sub-division of Thana District, Bombay Presidency ; situated 20 miles south by east of Thana town, on the high road to Poona, in lat. 18° 58' 50" n., and long. 73° 9' 10" e. Population (1881) 10,351, namely, 5462 males and 4889 females. PA ONI— PA-PUN. 5 3 Hindus number 7807; Muhammadans, 2186 ; Jains, 95 ; Christians, 20 ; Parsis, 15; and 'others,' 228. Panwel is the chief of four ports con stituting the Panwel Customs Division. The average annual value of trade at Panwel port during the five years ending 1881-82 was — imports £5245, and exports £12,129. In 1881-82, the trade of Panwel port was— imports £4278, and exports £7160. The sea trade of Panwel is entirely coasting. The chief imports are grain, fish, liquor, gunny- bags, mahud flowers, cocoa-nut, timber, from Bombay, Surat, Broach, and the neighbouring ports of Thana. The chief exports — grain, ghi, fire wood, cart-wheel and axle oil, oil-seed, to Bombay, Surat, Broach, Bhau- nagar, and neighbouring ports of Thana. The chief local industry is the construction of cart-wheels, of which it is said that every cart from the Deccan carries away a pair. Brick-making on a large scale has been attempted, but the enterprise has on two occasions failed. Panwel port is mentioned as carrying on trade with Europe in 1570; and it probably rose to importance along with Bombay, as it is on the direct Bombay-Deccan route. Sub-judge's court, post-office, dispensary; four schools with 554 pupils in 1883. Paoni. — Village and administrative head-quarters of Garhwal Dis trict, North- Western Provinces. — See Pauni. Papaghni ^Sin-Destroyer'). — River of Southern India, rising in Mysore State. After entering the Madanapalli tdluk in Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras (lat. 13° 43' n., long. 78° 10' e.), it flows through the large tank, Vyasa-samudram, at Kandakiir, and thence north through the Palkonda Hills at Vempalli, where it is known as the Gandairu (' River of the Gorge '). Thence it flows through the Cuddapah tdluk into the Penner, the confluence being in lat. 14° 37' n., and long. 78° 47' E. The Papaghni is held sacred, and on its banks, in the Palinendla tdluk, is a large pagoda. A girder bridge on the north-west line of the Madras Railway, with 22 spans of 72 feet, crosses the river a short distance from Kamalapur. Papanasham (' Removal of Sin '). — Village in Ambasamudram tdluk, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 48' n., long. 77" 24' e. Noted as a place of pilgrimage, and for the falls of the Tambra- parni river. Situated about six miles west of Ambasamudram. The cataract is only 80 feet high, but the body of water is very great. The pagoda is much venerated. The fish here are fed by the Brahmans, and come up for food when called. Papikonda. — Mountain in Godavari District, Madras. — See Bison Range. Pa-pun. — Head-quarters of Salwin (Salween) District, Tenasserim Division, Lower Burma; situated on the Yunzalin river. Contains a court-house, temporary hospital, and dispensary; a strong police force is quartered in a stockade close to the village. 54 PAR AD SINGHA—PARAHAT. Parad Singha.— Village in Katol tahsil, Nagpur District, Central Provinces. Population (i 88 1) 2780, namely, Hindus, 2669; Muham madans, 55; Jains, 22; non-Hindu aborigines, 34. Parahat. — Sequestrated estate in Singhbhrim District, Bengal. Area, 79T square miles. Population (1872) 54,374, dwelling in 380 villages and 10,327 houses. Number of Hindus, 26,364; Muhammadans, 200; Christians, 484; and 'others,' 27,326. Average number of persons per square mile, 69 ; villages per square mile, 0-48 ; houses per square mile, 13; persons per house, 5-3; proportion of males in total population, 50-8. No returns of area or population of this estate are separately given in the Census Report of 188 1. Two rival legends are current concerning the origin of the chiefs of ParaMt, who were formerly called Rajas of Singhbhum. One of these, apparently an aboriginal tradition, alleges that the founder of the family was discovered as a boy in a hollow tree, which a Bhuiya forester was cutting down. This boy became the head of the Bhuiya tribe, and worshipped Pauri or Pahari Devi, a peculiarly Bhuiya divinity, corre sponding to the Thakurani Mai of the Bhuiyas in Keunjhar The Singh family themselves, however, claim to be Kshattriyas of pure blood. They assert that, many generations ago, the first of their race, a Kadam- bansi Rajput from Mdrwar, while passing through the country on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Jagannath at Purf, was chosen by the people as their Rajal. Some time afterwards, a dispute arose between the Bhuiyas of Eastern Singhbhiim and the Larka Kols of the central tract of Kolhan ; the chief's family joined the Kols, and after they had put down the Bhuiyas, claimed sovereignty over both tribes. This latter legend is no doubt open to suspicion, as arrogating to the family a distant foreign origin, and indirectly supporting their invalid claim to supremacy over the Kols ; but it is corroborated by the fact that good families admit the Rajput origin of the Parahat chief. The estate of Pardhat or Singhbhum Proper was saved by its rocky boundaries and sterile soil from conquest by the Marathas, and was thoroughly independent when, in 1818, Raja Ghansham Singh Deo tendered his allegiance to the British Government. The neighbouring estates of Saraikala and Kharsawan abutted on the frontier of the old Jungle Mahals of Western Bengal; and as early as 1793, engagements relating to fugitive rebels had been taken from their chiefs. But the Parahat estate lay farther west, and there had previously been no com munication between its chief and the British Government. The objects of the Raja in thus becoming a British feudatory were, — first, to be recognised as lord paramount over Vikram Singh, ancestor of the present Raja of Saraikala, and Babu Chaitan Singh of Kharsawan ; secondly, to regain possession of a certain tutelary image, which had fallen into the hands of Babu Vikrdm Singh of Saraikala" ; and lastly, to obtain aid PARAMBAKUDI—PARANTIJ. 55 in reducing the refractory tribe of Larka Kols or Hos. The British Government, while disallowing his claim to supremacy over his kins men of Saraikala and Kharsawan, exacted from him a nominal tribute of Rs. 101 (£10, 2s.), and declined to interfere in any way with the internal administration of the estate. An engagement embodying these conditions was taken from him on the ist of February 1820; and it was intended that similar agreements should be entered into by the chiefs of SaraikaM and Kharsawan. The matter, however, appears to have been overlooked at the time ; and those chiefs have never paid tribute, though they have frequently been called upon to furnish con tingents of armed men to aid in suppressing disturbances. In 1823, the Raja of Parahat. regained by a Government order the family idol, which he had claimed in 1818 from the Rajal of Saraikala. But he gra dually sank into poverty, and in 1837 was granted a pension of Rs. 500 (£50) as a compassionate allowance, in compensation for any losses he might have sustained in consequence of our assumption of the direct management of the Kolhan. In 1857, Arjun Singh, the last Raja of Parahdt, after delivering up to Government the Chaibasa mutineers, in a moment of caprice rebelled himself, and was sentenced to imprison ment for life at Benares. The estate of Parahat was confiscated, and is now under the direct management of Government. Parambakudi. — Town in Madura District, Madras Presidency.— See Parmagudi. Paranrakka. — Site of old town in Malabar District, Madras Presidency. — See Ferokh. Parangla. — Pass in Kangra District, Punjab, over the Western Himalayan range from Kibbar in Spiti to Rupshii in Ladakh. Lat 32° 31' n., long. 78° 1' e. Practicable for laden yaks and ponies. Elevation above sea-level, about 18,500 feet. Parantij. — Sub-division of Ahmadabad District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in the extreme north-east of Ahmadabad District. Area, 449 square miles, containing 2 towns and 159 villages. Population (1872) 106,934; (1881) 107,554, namely, 55,099 males and 52,455 females, dwelling in 24,486 houses. Hindus number 96,922; Muhammadans, 7561; and 'others,' 3071. From the north-east, lines of rocky, bare hills gradually sink west and south into a plain, at first thinly wooded and poorly tilled, then with deeper soil, finer trees, and better tillage, till in the extreme west along the banks of the Sabarmati, the surface is broken by ravines and ridges. In the east, the staple crop is maize, and in the west millet. Garden cultivation is neglected. Water abundant. The Sub-division is the healthiest and coolest part of the District. Total area, exclusive of 137 square miles occupied by the lands of alienated villages, 312 square miles. Of the Government area in 1877-78, 195,619 acres were returned as occupied land, of 56 PARAN2IJ TOWN— PAR ASGARH. which 22,669 acres were alienated land, 92,953 acres cultivable, 59,474 acres uncultivable waste, and 43,192 acres of village sites, etc. Total cultivated area of Government land in 1877-78, 72,026 acres, of which 3441 acres were twice cropped. Principal crops — grain crops, 53,205 acres, of which 29,924 were under bdjra ; pulses, 19,458 acres; oil-seeds, 2572 acres; fibres, 42 acres; and miscellaneous crops, 190 acres. In 1861-62, the year of Settlement, 10,035 holdings were recorded, with an average area of <)\ acres, and paying an average revenue of 17s. 4^d. In 1883 the Sub-division contained 3 criminal courts and 2 police circles (thdnds); regular police, 122 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 644. Land revenue, £13,830. Parantij (Parantej). — Chief town of the Parantij Sub-division, Ahmadabad District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 23° 26' 20" n., long. 72° 53' 45" e., 33 miles north-west of Ahmadabad city. Population (1881) 8353. Hindus number 5252; Muhammadans, 2165 ; Jains, 932 ; and ' others,' 4. Parantij is a prosperous town. Its special manufacture is soap ; there are six soap factories with a yearly out-turn of about 178 tons. Parantij is a municipality, with an income in 1883-84 of £378 ; incidence of taxation per head of population, 7fd. Post-office, travellers' bungalow, dispensary, and two schools with 557 pupils in 1883. Exports, ghi, grain, and leather of annual value of £1980. Parasgarh. — Sub-division of Belgium District, Bombay Presidency ; ' situated in the south-east corner of the District. A low range of sand stone hills running north-west and south-east divides Parasgarh into two nearly equal parts. South-west of the hills, whose southern face is steep and rugged, is a plain of fine black soil with many rich villages and hamlets, which suffered severely in the famine of 1876-77. The north east, which is broken by low hills, is a high waving plateau overgrown with bush and prickly pear ; the soil mostly poor and sandy. In the extreme north, the sandstone gives place to trap, and the soil is generally shallow and poor. The Malprabha, which flows north-east through the middle of the Sub-division, forms with its feeders the chief water-supply. Before the close of the hot season, almost all the small streams dry and stagnate ; and the well and pond water is scanty and unwholesome. In the north and east, the rainfall is scanty and uncertain ; but in the south and west, and in the immediate neighbour hood of the Sahyadri hills it is plentiful. Area, 640 square miles; contains 1 town and 126 villages. Population (1872) 120,691 ; (1881) 91,826, namely, 45,404 males and 46,422 females, dwelling in 17,77° houses. Hindus number 84,419; Muhammadans, 6384; and 'others,' 1023. Total area, exclusive of 100 square miles occupied by the lands of alienated villages, 540 square miles. Of the Government area, I7I>495 acres were returned in 1881 as cultivable, 1893 acres as uncul- PARA SNATH. 57 tivable, 83 acres grass, and 59,080 acres village sites, etc. In 1881-82, of 152,787 acres held for tillage, 12,535 were fallow or under grass. Total cultivated area of Government land in 1881-82, 140,252 acres, of which 13,732 acres were twice cropped. Principal crops — grain crops, 106,941 acres; pulses, 12,013 acres ; oil-seeds, 7901 acres; fibres, 26,671 acres, of which 26,608 were under cotton ; and miscellaneous crops, 458 acres. In 1883 the Sub-division contained courts — civil 1, and criminal 3 ; police circles (thdnds), 7 ; regular police, 55 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 469. Land revenue, £18,744. The head-quarters of the Sub-division is at Saundatti village. Parasnath. — Hill and place of Jain pilgrimage, in the east of Hazaribigh, and adjoining Mdnbhiim District, Bengal. Lat. 23° 57' 35" N.,long. 86° 10' 30" e. The mountain consists of a central narrow ridge, with rocky peaks, rising abruptly to 4488 feet above sea-level from the plains on the south-west, and throwing out long spurs, which extend towards the Barakhar river on the north. A spur to the south-east forms the boundary between the Districts of Hazaribagh and Mdnbhiim, and eventually subsides into an extended belt of high land with peaked hills in the latter District. Parasndth was ascended apparently for the first time by a European, Colonel Franklin, in 18 19. He climbed by a narrow steep path, through thick forest, on the northern slope. ' As you ascend,' he wrote, ' the mountain presents a stupendous appearance. At intervals you perceive the summit, appearing in bluff, jagged peaks, eight in number, and towering to the clouds. From an opening in the forest the view is inexpressibly grand, the wide extent of the jungle iardi stretching beneath your feet. The summit, emphatically termed by the Jains Asmid (more correctly, Samet) Sikhar, or " The Peak of Bliss," is composed of a table-land flanked by twenty small Jain temples on the craggy peaks.' In 1827, Parasnath was visited by a Government officer, in the course of his official tour, who describes it as ' thickly covered with magnificent trees from the plain to within a few yards of each pinnacle.' Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker ascended the hill from the Taldangd side in 1848, and was much impressed by its beauty: 'As the sun rose, Parasnath appeared against the clear grey in the form of a beauti ful broad cone, with a rugged peak of a deeper grey than the sky. It is a remarkably handsome mountain, sufficiently lofty to be imposing ; and it is surrounded by lesser hills of just sufficient elevation to set it off.' Parts of the forest have disappeared, and there is now a good pathway to the top, but the hill still retains much of its old wild beauty ; and the valleys of the Barakhar and Damodar rivers, which stretch on either side, form a striking landscape. The hill is now easily approached by the East Indian Railway to 58 PARASPUR-ATA. Giridhi station, and thence by a short journey along a metalled road, the distance being about 18 miles. In 1858, Parasnath was selected as a convalescent depot for European troops. The cool ness of its climate (averaging during the seven hot months 16° F. below that of the plains), the purity of its air, its nearness to Calcutta, and the abundant building materials on the spot, recommended the hill for this purpose. Buildings were erected ; but the water-supply proved sufficient for only from 60 to 80 men, the plateau at the summit was too confined for exercise, and the solitude and quiet exerted a depressing influence on the invalid soldiers. They conceived an intense dislike to the spot, and begged to be allowed to take their chance in hospital on the plains. This feeling seriously retarded their recovery; and it was found that, although the place was an excellent sanitarium for the robust or the very sick, it was unsuitable for convalescents, who could not take exercise beyond the cramped limits of the plateau. After much discussion, Parasnath was given up as a sanitarium in 1868. Next year the buildings had already fallen into decay, and the mountain was again abandoned to the forest and wild beasts and Jain pilgrims. The building formerly used as the officers' quarters is now utilized as a ddk bungalow. Pilgrims flock, to the number of 10,000 annually, from distant parts of India to this remote spot — the scene of Nirvana, or ' beatific annihilation' of no less than 10 of the 24 deified saints, who are the objects of Jain adoration. From the last of these, Parsva or Parsvanatha, the hill, originally called Samet Sikhar, took its better known name of Parasnath. (For a full account of the shrines and ceremonies, see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 216, 217.) Pilgrimage to Parasnath is still as popular as ever among the Jains ; and new shrines, a single one of which in white marble cost £8000, are from time to time erected. The temples lie well apart from the plateau, and the improved means of communication with Calcutta hold out a possibility of the latter being yet utilized as a small and cheaply- reached sanitarium. Paraspur- Ata. — Two adjacent villages in Gonda District, Oudh; situated 15 miles south-west of Gonda town, on the road between Nawabganj and Colonelganj. Joint population (1881) of the two villages, 4099, namely, Hindus 3412, and Muhammadans 687. Paraspur was founded about 400 years ago by Raja Paras Ram Kalhans, the only son of the Gonda Raja, whose destruction by a sudden flood of the Gogra is narrated in the article on Gonda District (q.v.). His descendant, the present Raja of Paraspur, and chief of the Kalhans of Guwarich, still resides in a large mud-house to the east of the village. The Bdbu of Ata, representative of a younger branch of the same family, enjoying a separate estate, lives in Ata, a PARAS WAR A— PARA VUR. 5 9 name accounted for by the following legend. Babu Lai Sah, the first of his branch of the family, when out hunting near Paraspur, met a. fakir eating what appeared to be carrion. The holy man pressed him to join, and his repugnance yielded to hunger and a dread of the curse which was threatened on his refusal. To his surprise, it turned out to be excellent wheat flour (ata) ; and, at the fakir's bidding, a pot full of the deceptive flesh was buried under the doorway of the fort which Lai Sah was building. On the boundary of the two villages is a flourishing school, attended by over 100 boys. Market twice a week. Paraswara.- — Village in the highland portion of Balagbat District, Central Provinces; situated in lat 22° 11' n., and long. 80° 20' e., in the centre of a well-watered plateau, and surrounded by 30 thriving villages, and excellent rice-fields. Population (1881) 692. Police station. Paratwara. — Military cantonment and civil station in Ellichpur District, Berar ; situated in lat. 21° 18' N., and long. 77° 33' 20" e., on the Bichan stream, about 2 miles from Ellichpur town. A force of all arms is stationed here. The cantonment is well laid out, but is not considered healthy, the site being low and too much under the hills. Schools, police station, civil jail, court with treasury, and a Government garden. Population (1881) 9445. Hindus number 6341 ; Muhammadans, 2876 ; Christians, 192 ; and Jains, 36 ; but the number varies with the strength of the force cantoned here. Parauna. — Tahsil and town in Gorakhpur District, North-Western Provinces. — See Padrauna. Paravanar. — River of South Arcot District, Madras ; rising in lat. 11° 31' n., and long. 79° 43' e. After a course of about 32 miles in a generally northerly direction, and parallel to the coast, it enters the sea at Cuddalore (lat n° 44' n., long. 79° 50' 30" e.). It is navigable for . 10 miles, and is connected with the Vellar by a canal, which, begun in 1856-57, and stopped at the time of the Mutiny, was re-opened as a famine work in 1878. The Paravanar is one of the three rivers of the South Arcot District, navigable for a short distance by boats of 4 tons burthen throughout the year. Paraviir. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Area, 47 square miles. Paravur tdluk contains 89 karas or villages. Population (1875) 60,156; (1881) 61,966, namely, 31,487 males and 30,479 females, occupying 11,962 houses. Hindus number 41,255; Muhammadans, 2926; Christians, 17,690; and Jews, 95. The tdluk is the most densely populated portion of Travancore State, the average density being 1318-4 persons per square mile. Paraviir (Pdriir). — Chief town of Paravur Sub-division, Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Lat. 10° 10' n., long. 76° 16' e. A busy trading place, and formerly a military station. Population (1871) 3363, 60 FARBATI—PARELL. including a number of ' White ' Jews and Christians. Not separately returned in the Census Report of 1881. At one time Paraviir town belonged to Cochin, but in 1762 it was made over to Travancore. Tipii destroyed a great part of the town. Parbati (Pdrvati). — River in Kangra District, Punjab, draining Kdlu Proper ; rises in Wazirf Riipi, on the slopes of a Mid-Himalayan peak, over 20,000 feet in height. Runs in a generally westerly direction, and falls into the Beas (Bias) below Sultanpur, in lat. 31° 53' 33" N., and long. 77° 11' e., after a total course of about 90 miles. For the first 50 miles the mountains on either side rise bare and uninhabited; but a little above Manikarn, a distance of 40 miles, the valley consists of a richly timbered forest tract, in which every available acre has been brought under the plough. This portion of the valley produces particularly fine crops, and supports a comparatively dense population. Parbati. — A long but (except in the rains) fordable tributary of the Chambal. Rises in the Vindhya hills, in lat. 22° 45' N., long. 76° 33' E., and after a northerly course of 220 miles past the Native States of Bhopal, Dhar, Rajgarh, Tonk, and Kotah, falls into the Chambal in lat. 25" 50' n., long. 76° 40' e. Pardi. — Sub-division of Surat District, Bombay Presidency. Area, 163 square miles, containing 82 villages. Population (1872) 51,749; (1881) 55,761, namely, 27,336 males and 28,425 females, occupying 9578 houses. Hindus number 28,401 ; Muhammadans, 1481 ; and 'others,' 25,879. Land revenue, £12,756. The region adjoins Portuguese territory, and is for the most part an undulating plain sloping westwards to the sea. The fields are, as a rule, unenclosed. The Sub-division is divided into an unfertile and a fertile region by the Kolak river. Average rainfall, 70 inches. The land was surveyed and settled in 1869-70 for a term of 30 years. In the year of survey there were 5532 holdings, with an average area of i4§ acres, and an average rental of £2, 4s. io|d. Total Government area, 162 square miles. Of the Government area, 91,116 acres were returned in 1881 as cultivable, 3915 acres uncultivable waste, and 6514 acres as village sites, etc. In 1873-74, of 74,096 acres held for tillage, 29,901 acres were fallow or under grass. Total cultivated area of Government land in 1873-74, 44,195 acres. Principal crops — grain crops, 32,022 acres; pulses, 7378 acres ; oil-seeds, 7428 acres ; fibres, 325 ; and miscellaneous, 809 acres. In 1883 the Sub-division contained 1 criminal court; regular police, 59 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 220. Pardi. — Head-quarters of Pardi Sub-division, Surat District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 20° 31' e., long. 72° 59' n. Population (1872) 4545- Not separately returned in the Census of 1881. Post-office ; dispensary. Parell. — Northern suburb of Bombay city ; once the favourite site for the country houses of the European merchants, and still containing FARELL. 6 1 the residence of the Governor of Bombay. Mr. J. M. Maclean, in his Guide to Bombay, gives the following account of the history of this building, the only one of any special interest in the suburb : — ' At the date of Fryer's visit to Bombay, about 200 years ago, a church and convent, belonging to the Jesuits, stood on the site of the present Government House at Parell. The principal establishment of the Society was at Bandora, at the other side of the Mahim Strait, where the present slaughter-houses have been erected. Fryer describes the college that stood there as "not inferior as to the building, nor much unlike those, of our universities." It was, moreover, defended like a fortress, with 7 cannon, besides small arms. The Superior possessed such extensive influence that his mandates were respectfully attended to in the sur rounding country. When Bombay was ceded to the English, the Bandora College claimed much land and various rights in the island. On the claim being disallowed, the Jesuits threatened a resort to arms, and went so far as to assist the adventurer Cooke in his impudent attempt to raise a force for the capture of Bombay. Their crowning act of hostility, however, was the support they gave the Si'di in his successful invasion of the island in 1689-90. They were suspected of first suggesting to him the practicability of invading Bombay, and they certainly had supplied his army with provisions. As a punishment, when the war was over, all their property on the island, including the monastery and lands at Parell, was confiscated. It would appear that it was not till 1720 that the church at Parell was alienated from its original use. In that year the Jesuits and their sympathizers were expelled from the island, and the spiritual oversight of the Roman Catholic congregations was transferred by the English governor to the Carmelites (Bombay Quarterly Review, iii. pp. 61, 62). Bishop Heber states that the building afterwards fell into the hands of a Parsf, from whom it was purchased by the English officials about the year 1765. 'The lower storey of the desecrated church forms the present Govern ment House; the upper storey has been added since the building became Government property. The outside of Parell House is plain, if not ugly ; but the interior, so far as the State rooms are concerned, is handsome, the dining-room on the ground floor, and the drawing- room above, being 80 feet long, and broad in proportion. The garden at the back is spacious, and has a fine terrace, shaded by noble trees. There used to be a willow at Parell, grown from a slip cut from the tree on Napoleon's grave at St. Helena. Mr. W. Hornby (1776) was the first governor who took up his residence at Parell. The original building was enlarged and embellished by the Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone (1819-27). In 1737, the Jesuits' College at Bandora, before referred to, was destroyed by the Portuguese to prevent its falling into the hands of the Marathas, who in that year invaded Salsette.' 62 PARENDA—PARIAR. The present European cemetery at Parell was opened as a botanical garden in 1830, and was converted into a cemetery in 1867. It lies under Flag Staff hill, sheltered by pines on either side. By Great Indian Peninsula Railway, Parell is distant 4 miles from the Bombay terminus. Parenda. — Old fortress in Naldriig District of HaidaraMd (Nizam's Dominions); situated in lat. 18° 16' 20" n., and long. 75° 30' 18" e., on the frontier of Ahmadnagar District. Parenda" is one of the many forts erected by Mahmud Khwaja Gawan, the celebrated minister of the Bahmani king, Muhammad Shah 11. After the capture of Ahmad nagar by the Mughals in 1605, the capital of the Nizam Shahi kingdom was removed to Parenda for a short period. Parenda was unsuccess fully besieged by the Emperor Shah Jahan's general, Azam Khan, in 1630, and by Prince Shah Shuja in 1633. The greater portion of the town is now in ruins, but the fortifications are in good order. Parganas, The Twenty-four. — District of Bengal.— See Twenty- four Parganas. Parghat. — Old pass or route across the Western Ghats leading from Satara District to Kolaba, Bombay Presidency. Two villages, Par Par or Par Proper and Pet Par, situated 5 miles west of Malcolm- pet and immediately south of Partabgarh, give their name to and mark the old route into the Konkan called the Parghat, which goes straight over the hill below Bombay Point, and winds up a very steep incline with so many curves that it was named by the British the Corkscrew Pass. Passing through the two Pars, the further line of the Sahyadri is descended by an equally steep path to the village of Parghat in Kolaba District. This route was maintained practicable for cattle and the artillery of the period from very early times, and chaukis or toll stations for the levy of transit duties as well as for defence were stationed at various points. Afzul Khan, the Muhammadan general of the king of Bijapur, brought his forces by this pass to the famous interview at Partabgarh, where he was murdered by Sivajf. Until the building of the Kumbhdrli road in 1864 and the Fitzgerald pass road in 1876, the Parghat was the only highway leading to the Konkan. Pariar.— Pargand in Unao tahsil, Unao District, Oudh; bounded on the north by Safipur, on the east by Unao pargand, on the south by Sikandarpur, and on the west by the Ganges, which separates it from Cawnpur District. A small pargand, with an area of 36 square miles, of which 19 are cultivated. The soil is chiefly loam and clay, and produces wheat and barley of the first quality. Watered by the Kalyani, a small tributary of the Ganges. Population (1881) 14,560, namely, 14,120 Hindus and 440 Muhammadans. The principal form of tenure is zaminddri. Government land revenue, £2857, or an average assessment of 2s. 6£d. per acre. Hindu tradition alleges that it was PAR JAR TOWN—PARIKUD. 6 o here that Sita was abandoned by Rama, after he had recovered her from Ravana ; hence the name of the pargand, corrupted from the Sanskrit into Pariar. The present pargand was formed in 1785, out of 28 villages taken from Sikandarpur and Safipur. Pariar. — Town in Unao tahsil, Unao District, Oudh, and head quarters of Pariar pargand ; situated 12 miles west of Unao town, in lat. 26° 37' 45" n., and long. 80° 21' 45" e. Population (1881) 2254, namely, 2 171 Hindus and 83 Musalmans. The town is considered sacred by the Hindus, on account of its legendary association with the events of the Rdmdyana. A great bathing fair, held on the occasion of the Kdrtik Puranmdshi, is attended by 100,000 persons. Parichhatgarh. — Ancient town in Muwana tahsil, Meerut (Merath) District, North-Western Provinces ; situated half-way between Muwana and Kithor, 14 miles from Meerut city. The fort round which the town is built lays claim to great antiquity, and tradition ascribes its construction to Parikshit, grandson of Arjun, one of the five Pandava brethren in the Mahdbhdrata, to whom is also ascribed the foundation of the town. The fort was restored by Raja" Nain Singh, on the rise of the Gujar power in the last century. It was dismantled in 1857, and is now used as a police station. Population (1881) 5182, namely, Hindus, 4339; Muhammadans, 842; and 'others,' 1. The police and conservancy arrangements of the town are met by a small house -tax. The houses are chiefly of mud, with some good brick houses and shops in the bdzdr. Large weekly market held every Monday, and numerously attended by inhabitants of neighbour ing villages. The Anupshahr branch of the Ganges canal runs close to the town. Post-office, village school, police station, and canal bungalow. Parikud. — Group of islands lying to the east of the Chilka Lake, Bengal, which have silted up from behind, and are now partially joined to the narrow ridge of land which separates the Chilka from the sea. Salt-making is largely carried on in the Parikud islands by the process of solar evaporation. The manufacture begins at the commence ment of the hot season, in the latter half of March. In the first place, a little canal is dug from the Chilka Lake, with sets of broad, shallow tanks on either side, running out at right angles from the canal in rows of four. Each tank is 75 feet square, by from 18 inches to 3 feet deep. On the first day of manufacture, the brackish water of the lake is admitted by the canal into the first tank of each of the sets of rows. Here it stands for 24 hours; and as the depth of this first series of tanks is only 18 inches, evaporation goes on very rapidly. Next morning, the brine is transferred from tank No. 1 to tank No. 2 in each of the sets of rows. Tank No. 2 is 24 inches deep ; and each successive one deepens by 6 inches until the brine reaches No. 4, 64 PARKAIL—PARLA KIMEDI. which is 3 feet deep. The water stands for a day in each, gradually thickening as it evaporates. On the fourth day it is transferred to tank No. 4 ; and on the morning of the fifth, some of the brine is ladled from that tank into an adjoining network of very shallow pools each pool being 5 feet square by only 6 inches deep. Here it stands during the intense heat of the day. By the afternoon the manufacture is complete, and the salt is raked out of the network of shallow pools The out-turn of a Parikud salt-working is about 15 tons the first week; and if the manufacture goes on without interruption for a fortnight, it may amount to as much as 80 tons for the 15 days. A shower of rain stops the whole process, and necessitates its being begun afresh. Parkail. — Mountain peak in Bashahr State, Punjab ; a summit of the ridge in Kunawar, separating the Spiti from the Sutlej (Satlaj) basin, Thornton states that it lies 6 or 7 miles north-east of the confluence of these two rivers, in lat. 31° 54' n., and long. 77° 46' e. Elevation above sea-level, 22,488 feet. Parkar. — Town in Nagar Parkar tdluk of the Thar and Parkar District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. — See Nagar Parkar. Parla Kimedi. — Ancient zaminddri (landed estate) in Ganjam District, Madras Presidency ; the largest in the District, extending over an area of 764 square miles, including 354 square miles of mdliyas or hill country. Population of lowland tract (187 1) 227,482 ; (1881) 240,980, occupying 48,097 houses and 723 villages. Hindus in 1881 numbered 240,266; Muhammadans, 497 ; Christians, 118; and 'others,' 99. The mdliya tract contains (1881) 342 villages, and a population of 39,152, namely, 20,218 males and 18,934 females, occupying 8936 houses. Hindus number 38,952, chiefly Savars ; and Muhammadans, 200. The estate pays upeshkash (fixed quit-rent) of £8782, the proprietary income being returned at £53,274, including interest on funded money. The zaminddrs claim descent from the royal house of Orissa Gaja- pattis (Gangavansa), and take precedence in the District. Eleven hill chiefs called Bissois, and 23 smaller lairds called Doras, owe feudal allegiance and pay tribute to the Rajd. The British first came into contact with the family in 1768, when Colonel Peach led a detachment against Narayan Deo, the zaminddr, and defeated him at Jalmur. In 1799, the Company temporarily assumed control of the estate for breach of engagement. Restored to the family, this difficult country was the scene of continued disturbances for many years. In 18 16 it was ravaged by Pindaris; and in 18 19 it was found necessary to send a special commissioner, Mr. Thackeray, to quell a rising. Again, in 1833, a field force was sent into Park Kimedi, under General Taylor, and it was not till 1835 that peace was restored. Until 1856-57 no further disturbance took PARLA KIMEDI TO WN—PARNER. 65 place, but in that year the employment of a small body of regulars was again necessitated to restore order. In 1830 the zaminddri was placed under the Court of Wards, owing to the imbecility of the proprietor, and has since continued under Government management. The estate is managed by the Assistant Collector, who resides at Park Kimedi. The country is hilly, with numerous fertile valleys. The chief product is rice. A Survey Settle ment has been in progress since 1880. Good roads and extended cultivation have greatly increased the value of the estate. — See Kimedi. Parla Kimedi. — Chief town of the Park Kimedi zaminddri in Ganjam District, Madras Presidency ; situated in lat. 1 8° 46' 40" n., and long. 84° 8' E. Population (1881) 10,812, namely, 5186 males and 5626 females, occupying 2189 houses. Hindus number 10,621 ; Muhammadans, 188 ; and Christians, 3. The town is composed of the two villages, Park-kasba and Chervuthiguva-kasba. A palace is being built for the zaminddr at a cost of £40,000. Parlakot. — Zaminddri or chiefship in the extreme north-west of Bastar State, Central Provinces. Comprising 67 villages; area, 500 square miles. Population (1881) 3455, dwelling in 638 houses. Chief village, Parlakot; lat. 19° 47' n., long. 80° 43' e. Parmagiidi (or Parambakudi). — Busy weaving town in Ramnad zaminddri, Madura District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 9° 31' n., and long. 78° 42' e. Population (1881) 9287, occupying 1148 houses. Hindus number 8392 ; Muhammadans, 783; and Christians, 112. Post-office. Parna. — Agricultural village in Panahat tahsil, Agra District ; situated in lat. 26° 53' n., and long. 78° 46' 32° e., on the right bank of the Jumna, 52 miles south-east from Agra city, and 10 miles west of Bah, the head-quarters of the tahsil. Population (1881) 2856. Parnasala. — A celebrated shrine in Godavari District, Madras Presidency ; situated about 20 miles from Bhadrachalam town. Parner.— Sub-division of Ahmadnagar District, Bombay Presidency. Area, 779 square miles, containing 122 villages. Population (1872) 82,422; (1881) 73,701, namely, 37,190 males and 36,511 females j Hindus number 68,442; Muhammadans, 2734; and 'others,' 2525. The surface of Parner is very irregular and hilly, consisting of a series of plateaux or table-lands of various heights. The highest is the Kanhur or central plateau formed by the widening out of the summit of one of the spurs of the Sah, which traverses the Sub-division from north-west to south-east. The average height of the central plateau is about 2800 feet above sea-level, though there are points on it three hundred feet higher. As might be expected from the diversified nature of the surface, the soil of Parner is of various kinds. On the whole, the water-supply is fairly good. Many of the smaller streams have a perennial flow VOL. XI. e 66 PARNER TO WN—PARONE. Sixteen miles of the Ahmadnagar-Poona high road lie in Parner. The Dhond-Manmad State Railway skirts the south-east corner, and has one station in the Sub-division. The manufactures are few, consisting of coarsely woven turbans, cotton cloth, and woollen blankets. Of 217,629 acres, the actual area under cultivation in 1881-82, grain crops occupied 180,472 acres, of which 109,447 were under bdjra (Pennisetum typhoideum), 58,884 under jodr (Sorghum vulgare) ; pulses, 26,704 acres; oil-seeds, 8972 acres; fibres, 191 acres, the whole under hemp (Crotakria juncea); and miscellaneous crops, 1290 acres. In 1883 the Sub - division contained 2 civil and 2 criminal courts ; 1 police circle (thdnd) ; regular police, 34 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 218. Land revenue, £15,417. Parner. — Town in Ahmadnagar District, Bombay Presidency, and head-quarters of Parner Sub-division. Lat. 19° N., long. 74° 30' e. Situated 20 miles south-west of Ahmadnagar town and 15 miles west of Sarola station on the Dhond-Manmad State Railway. Population (1881) 4058. Parner contains numerous money-lenders, chiefly Marwdris, with a bad name for greed and fraud. In 1874-75, disturbances arose between the husbandmen and the money-lenders. The villagers placed the money-lenders in a state of social outlawry, refusing to work for them, to draw water, supply necessaries, or shave them. The watch fulness of the police saved Parner from a riot. Weekly market on Sundays, and post-office. Parola. — Town in Khandesh District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 20° 56' 20" n., and long. 75° 14' 30" e., 22 miles east of Dhulia, and 22 miles west of the Mhasawar station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Population (1881) 12,354, namely, 61 14 males and 6240 females. Hindus number 9997; Muhammadans, 1743; Jains, 468; and 'others,' 146. Parola is a municipality, with an income of £387 in 1883-84 ; incidence of taxation per head, 5d. It is said to have been raised by its proprietor, Hari Sadasiva Damothar, from the position of a small village of 50 houses to that of a walled town. He is also said to have built, about 1727, the spacious fort, one of the finest architectural remains of the kind in Khandesh. It must have been at one time a very strong place; it is surrounded by a moat, and the entrance was formerly protected by a drawbridge and large flanking towers. During the Mutiny in 1857, the proprietors proved disloyal, and their estate was confiscated, the town being taken possession of by the British Government, and the fort dismantled. A considerable trade is carried on in cattle, cotton, lugdds (women's robes), and grain. Post- office ; and dispensary, which relieved 7576 patients in 1883; and 4 schools with 451 pupils in 1883-84. Parone. — Guaranteed chiefship under the Giina (Goona) Sub- Agency of Central India, and a feudatory of Gwalior. The ruling family are PARPORI—PARSHADEPUR. 67 of ancient lineage, being descended from the family of the Kachwa Ajodhya Rajputs, and were formerly Thakurs of Narvvar. Daulat Rao Sindhia deprived Madhri Singh of Narwar of his hereditary possessions, and the latter took to plundering in Sindhia's territories. In 18 18, through the mediation of the Resident at Sindhia's court, the estate of Parone and six villages were granted to Madhu Singh under British protection, on condition of his promising to protect Sindhia's territory from robbers. His successor, Raja Man Singh, joined the mutineers in 1857, but surrendered in 1859 on condition of a free pardon and a suitable maintenance. Man Singh's former possessions were consequently restored to him under guarantee. For his sub sequent services in connection with the capture of the rebel Tantia Topi, Man Singh received an annual allowance of £100, as equivalent to the value of a.jdgir of one village. The chief owns 34 villages, con taining a population in 1881 of 7328, and yielding a revenue of about £1200. Hindus number 7152 ; Muhammadans, 156; Jains, 4 ; and aborigines, 16. Man Singh died in January 1883, and will be succeeded by his son Gajandar Singh, during whose minority the affairs of the State are superintended by the Political Assistant at Guna. Parone town lies in lat. 24° 59' n., and long. 76° 57' e. It contains but a small portion of arable land, and more resembles a wilderness than the residence of a chief. The fort walls were destroyed by the British troops during the Mutiny, and have never been rebuilt. Parpori (or Parpondi). — Rich and well-cultivated zaminddri or petty chiefship attached to Driig tahsil, Raipur District, Central Provinces; comprising an area of 32 square miles, with 24 villages and 1972 houses. Total population (1881) 6950, namely, males 3457, and females 3493; average density of population, 217 persons per square mile. The chief is a Gond. Principal village, Parpori, in lat. 21° 35' N., and long. 81° 16' e. Parseoni. — Town in Rdmtek tahsil, Nagpur District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 21° 22' n., and long. 79" n' e., 18 miles from Nagpur town. Population (1881) 4039, namely, Hindus, 3688; Muhammadans, 223; Jains, 100; and non-Hindu aborigines, 28. Manufactures, coarse cloth and pottery. The weekly market supplies the hill tracts of Bheogarh. The town contains two fine temples ; and pan (betel-leaf) is largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. Parshadepur. — Pargand in Salon tahsil, Rai Bareli District, Oudh; situated north of the Sai river. Area, 54 square miles, of which 28 are under cultivation. Population (1881) 32,026, namely, 29,766 Hindus and 2260 Musalmans. Of the 60 villages comprising the pargand, 8 are held under zaminddri, 24 under tdlukddri, and 28 under pattiddri tenure. The tract originally formed part of the jdgir 68 PARSHADEPUR VILLAGE— PARTABGARH. estate of the Bahu Begam, and was constituted a separate pargand in 1783. Parshadepur (or Anhora Rdmpur). — Village in Salon tahsil, Rai Bareli District, Oudh, and head-quarters of Parshadepur pargand; situated 20 miles from Rai Bareli town, and 1 mile north of the Sai river. Population (1881) 1232, namely, 1036 Hindus and 136 Muhammadans. Five Hindu temples and 9 Muhammadan mosques. Market. Vernacular school. Partabganj. — Pargand in Nawabganj tahsil, Bara Banki District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Fatehpur tahsil, on the east by Ram Sanehi Ghat tahsil, on the south by Satrikh pargand, and on the west by Nawabganj pargand. Area, 56 square miles, or 35,751 acres, of which 24,288 acres are under cultivation. Population (1881) 33,448, namely, Hindus, 27,416; Muhammadans, 6031 ; and 'others,' 1. The 54 villages comprising the pargand are held under the following tenures : — Tdlukddri, 26; zaminddri, 15 ; and pattiddri, 13. Intersected by the metalled road to Faizabad (Fyzabad). Five schools, two police posts, and a post-office. Government land revenue, £6422, or at the rate of 5 s. 2^d. per acre. Partabgarh (Pratdpgarh). — British District in the Rai Bareli Divi sion of Oudh, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces ; situated between 25° 34' and 26° 10' 30" n. lat, and between 81° 22' and 82° 29' 45" e. long. Bounded on the north by Rai Bareli and Sultanpur Districts, and on the east, south, and west by Jaunpur and Allahabad Districts of the North-Western Provinces. The Ganges, flowing from south-west to south-east, forms the western boundary line, while the Giimti at the opposite extremity marks the eastern boundary for a few miles. The District has recently undergone considerable diminution of area, by the transfer in 1869 of Salon and Parshadepur pargands to Rai Bareli. Prior to these changes, Partdbgarh District contained an area of 1733 square miles. Present area, 1436 square miles. Population (1881) 847,047. The administrative head- quarters are at Bela, 4 miles from Partabgarh town. Physical Aspects. — The general aspect of Partabgarh is that of a richly wooded and fertile plain, here and there relieved by gentle undulations, and in the vicinity of the rivers and streams broken into ravines. The southern portion of the District in the neighbourhood of the Ganges is perhaps more densely wooded than other parts. Barren tracts of uncultivable land, impregnated with saline efflorescence (reh), are met with in places, but do not extend over any considerable area. For the most part, Partabgarh is under rich and varied cultivation, dotted with neatly built villages and hamlets, which are surrounded by fine groves of mango, mahud, or other trees. The soil is light, but PARTABGARH. 69 at the same time very fertile. The prevailing kind is that known as domdt, a mixture of clay and sand in about equal parts. Where the sand largely preponderates, the domdt degenerates into poor, sterile bhiir, found especially in the uplands near the Ganges, Sai and Giimti. The stiff and rich loamy soil styled matidr occurs chiefly in the vicinity of large swamps oxjhils. The one important river of Partabgarh, properly speaking, is the Sai, as the Ganges and Giimti nowhere enter the District, but only impinge on its western and eastern boundary respectively. The Sai rises in Hardoi, and after crossing Rai Bareli District flows through Partabgarh in an exceedingly tortuous south-easterly course, and finally falls into the Giimti in Jaunpur District. This river runs chiefly between high banks at a considerable depth below the level of the surrounding country. It is navigable during the rains, when it swells into a considerable stream ; but in the hot season it runs nearly dry. It receives several tributary rivulets, both on its north and south bank ; and in general the line of drainage is towards this river. There are many natural lakes or jhils which in the rains measure several miles in circumference. They average about 3 feet in depth, but are practically of no use for navigation. The only mineral products are salt, saltpetre, and kankar or nodular limestone. The manufacture of salt and saltpetre from the saliferous tracts is prohibited by Government. Tigers and leopards are hardly ever met with in Partabgarh ; but wolves still abound in the ravines and grass lands, and frequently commit depredations on the flocks of the shepherds. A reward is paid for their destruction, and their numbers are yearly diminishing. Nilgai, wild cattle, hog, and monkeys do much damage to the crops. Snakes are not numerous. Small game, such as hares, pea-fowl, partridges, snipe, quail, geese, and ducks, abound. Population. — The population of Partabgarh District, as at present constituted, after the transfer of pargands Salon and Parshadepur to Rai Bareli District, is returned in the Oudh Census Report for 1869 at 782,681 persons, residing in 2209 villages or towns and 156,250 houses. The Census of 1881 disclosed a population of 847,047, showing an increase of population in the twelve years from 1869 to 1881 of 64,366, or 8-2 per cent. The results arrived at by the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows : — Area of District, 1436-5 square miles, with 2214 towns and villages, and 194,308 houses. Total population, 847,047, namely, males 420,730, and females 426,317. Density of population, 589 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, 1-54; persons per village, 382; houses per square mile, 135; persons per house, 4-3. Classified according to sex and age, the popu lation consists of — under 15 years of age, boys 168,380, and girls 70 PARTABGARH. 152,876; total children, 321,256, or 37-9 per cent, of the population: 15 years of age and upwards, males 252,350, and females 273,441; total adults, 525,791, or 62-1 per cent. Religion. — Classified according to religion, the population consists of — Hindus, 763,054, or 90-1 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 83,944, or 9-9 per cent. ; Christians, 48 ; and Parsi, 1. Of the Hindu population, about 70 per cent, are cultivators, which proportion is pretty evenly maintained throughout the District. The higher castes, including Brahmans (119,096), Rajputs (57,628), Vaisyas (20,797), and Kayasths (91 13), form nearly a fourth of the total population. The Brahmans are the most numerous caste in the District. In the Manikpur and Bihar pargands there are a great many families of spurious Brah mans, whose ancestors belonged to the lower castes of Hindus, and were invested with the sacred thread by Raja Manik Chand, a brother of Jai Chand, the last Hindu king of Kanauj. Of the lower castes, Ahirs (104,897), Kurmi's (93,518), Chamars (87,803), Pasfs (51,569), Gadarias (37,091), and Kachhis (31,577) predominate. The Kurmfs and Kachhis, who are the best cultivating castes, are almost to a man agriculturists ; and in regard to the number of the former, Partab garh ranks third among the Oudh Districts. The majority of the Ahirs, Chamars, Pdsis, and Gadarias are also cultivators. There are more Lohars or blacksmiths (15,845) in Partabgarh than in any other District in Oudh, but comparatively few are engaged in agricultural pursuits. Lonias are also a numerous (12,109) caste. They are salt-makers by hereditary profession ; now that their normal occupation has gone, they have been forced to seek new employment, and are almost exclusively cultivators. The other important Hindu castes include the following — Teh's, oil-sellers, 14,682; Nais, barbers, 12,474; Kalwars, spirit-sellers and distillers, 11,030; Kariars, palanquin-bearers and domestic servants, 10,981; Kumbhars, potters, 10,513; Bhurjis, grain parchers, 9105; Dhobis, washermen, 8264; Bhats, genealogists, 5610; Mall'ahs, boat men, 5102; and Tamulis, betel-growers, 5100. The Muhammadans, who number 83,994, are chiefly found in Manik pur, Partabgarh, and Bihar pargands, and are fewest in Dhingwas and Rampur pargands ; they are nearly evenly divided between agricultural and non-agricultural, the former class slightly preponderating. The most respected classes are Shaikhs and Pathans. The Muhammadan converts or descendants of converts from higher castes of Hindus number only 225. The lower classes, who for the most part pursue some distinctive trade, include the Julaha or weaver, the Dhunia or cotton-corder, the Darzi or tailor and tent-maker, the Manihar or lac- bangle maker, and the Kunjra or fruiterer. Town and Rural Population , Occupations. — The population of Partabgarh District is entirely rural, the only place with a population PARTABGARH. 71 exceeding 5000 being the civil station of Bek or MacAndrewganj, as it is also called after a former District officer (population in 1881, 5851), which is also the sole municipality. Of the 2214 towns and villages comprising the District, 867 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 845 from two hundred to five hundred ; 369 from five hundred to a thousand; 113 from one to two thousand; 16 from two to three thousand ; 3 from three to five thousand ; and 1 upwards of five thousand. As regards occupation, the Census divides the male population into the following six classes : — (1) Professional class, in cluding Government servants of all grades, 3205; (2) domestic servants, 322; (3) commercial class, including merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 2102 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 203,978 ; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 34,265 ; and (6) indefinite andnon-productive class, comprising general labourers and male children, 176,858. Agriculture. — There are two principal harvests in the year, the rabi or spring crop and the kharif or autumn crop, the latter being sub divided into three minor harvests, known as bhadoi, kudri, and aghdni, after the months in which the several crops ripen. The principal grain crop is barley, which yields an average out-turn of about 16 maunds, or n| cwts. per acre. Wheat, both the white and red variety, is largely grown in Partabgarh. It requires abundant irrigation, and the fields are flooded at least three times during the cold season. The average out-turn of wheat from all kinds of land throughout the District is set down at 19-71 bushels per acre. Four varieties of rice are cultivated, known as kudri dhdn, jethi dhdn, sdthi dhdn, and jarhan dhdn. The principal rice-growing localties are the low-lying lands in Patti tahsil, and the neighbourhood of the large jhits and swamps in Kiinda tahsil. The yield of the different sorts of rice varies a good deal, from 9 or 10 maunds, or from 6 \ to 7§ cwts. per acre for sdthi rice, to double that out-turn for jethi rice. The other food crops are gram, peas, arhar, jodr, and bdjra, the three first being most largely cultivated. Sugar-cane cultivation has been rapidly extending of late years, and yields a greater profit than is obtained from grain crops. Poppy is cultivated under the superintendence of the Opium Department. Miscellaneous crops include tobacco of excellent quality, indigo, fibres, pan, etc. By far the greater portion of the cultivated area is do-fasli or two-crop land. The kharif crop is no sooner off the ground than preparations are at once made for sowing the rabi. A heavy kharif 'crop, like jodr or bdjra, is followed by a light spring crop, such as peas or barley. This is repeated a second year; in the third year no autumn crop is sown, but the land is well worked up, and prepared for wheat or sugar-cane. The number of ploughings the land requires for different crops varies very much. For instance, 72 PARTABGARH. wheat is held to require, on an average, 18 or 20 ploughings; tobacco, sugar-cane, peas, and barley, 15 or 16 ploughings; poppy, 12 ploughings ; cotton, 8 ; and so on. Three or four ploughings are sufficient for the autumn crop. Irrigation is extensively carried on, and manure is made use of wherever procurable. Rents have steadily increased since the introduction of British rule, and still have a tendency to rise. The average rate for all varieties of land, over an area of 100 villages, was found in 1868 to be 3s. i^d. per local bighd, equal to fths of an English acre. Rents in kind largely pre vailed prior to annexation, and were chiefly, if not entirely, levied on poor and unirrigated lands, where the produce was more or less pre carious, in the proportion of one-half. Now, however, they have been almost everywhere commuted into money rents. Skilled labourers have much improved in circumstances of late years ; but this has not been the case with the agricultural classes, who are paid in kind at about the same rates that prevailed under native rule. The average daily payment for out-door agricultural labour is 3 lbs. of grain for a man, and 2^ lbs for women or children. The District is mostly held under tdlukddri tenure, there being 1702 tdlukddri villages, against 512 held either as zaminddri, pattiddri, or bhdydchdra. Means of Communication, etc. — Partabgarh District is now well opened up by roads. Exclusive of 22 J miles of the imperial road connecting the military stations of Faizabad (Fyzabad) and Allahabad, which passes through Bek, the civil station, there are 342 miles of good second-class roads. These have been entirely bridged, save at four points, where the Sai, Sakrui, Pareya, and Bhakkhi respectively would require large and solid masonry bridges to withstand the force of the current in the rains. The four principal lines of country road are the following: — (1) From Bela to Rai Bareli town, running 44 miles through Partabgarh District; (2) from Bela to Guthni Ghat on the Ganges, 39 miles; (3) from Bela to Patti, 15J miles; (4) from Bela to Badshahpur in Jaunpur District, 21 miles, of which 20 miles lie within Partabgarh. Water communication is afforded by 64 miles of navigable rivers. No line of railway runs through the District. Four large ferries are maintained on the Ganges, and two on the Giimti. Ferries for foot- passengers across the Sai are kept up by the zaminddrs in the rainy months, the stream being easily fordable at most places during eight months of the year. Wheeled carriage is scarce and difficult to procure. Great reluctance is everywhere manifested by the owners to hiring out their carts ; and when it is known that troops are on the move, and that carriage will be impressed, the carts are frequently taken to pieces and concealed in houses, the bullocks at the same time being sent to a neighbouring village. Bullocks, buffaloes, and ponies afford the ordinary means of transport. PARTABGARH. 73 Trade and Commerce, Manufactures, etc. — Partabgarh is a great grain- exporting District. Tobacco, sugar, molasses, opium, oil, ghi, cattle, sheep, hides, and horns also form important articles of export. The imports consist mainly of salt, cotton, metals and hardware, country cloth, and dyes. English stuffs and piece-goods are also becoming every year more common in the local bazars. The exports of grain in 1872 were reported at 349,000 maunds, value £79,000, the other items making up the total value of exports to £97,700. The imports in 1872 were valued at £40,800, cotton and salt forming the principal items. In 1873, the exports amounted in value to £105,562, of which £65,517 was returned as the value of 305,671 maunds of grain ; the imports in the same year amounted in value to £40,569. Trade returns are not available for later years. The principal market towns and villages are the following: — (1) Lalganj, 4 miles south of Bihar on the Allahabad road ; a numerously attended bi-weekly market, with trade in cattle, English piece-goods, and country fabrics ; annual value of sales, about £30,000 : (2) Derwa bazar in Sabalgarh, a grain mart twice a week; annual sales, about £15,000 : (3) Jalesarganj in Dharu- pur village ; trade in English and country cloth, sweetmeats, grain, matting, etc.; annual value, £10,000: (4) MacAndrewganj, the bdzdr of the civil station, a thriving and rapidly increasing mart ; trade in grain and cloth to the extent of £6000. Other markets are Kakkankar, Gadwara, Prithwfganj, and Nawdbganj Bawan Burji. Several local fairs are held on occasions of religious festivals, at which trade is also carried on. Sugar of excellent quality is manufactured at Partdbgarh town. Glass beads, bracelets, water-bottles, etc. are made at Sawansa and a few other places in Patti tahsil. The only other manufacture is that of woollen blankets woven by shepherds from the fleece of their flocks, which are bought up by petty traders from the North-Western Provinces. Administration. — Partabgarh is administered by a Deputy Com missioner, aided by 5 or 6 Assistant and extra-Assistant Commissioners, and 4 tahsilddrs. The total revenue, imperial and local, of the District in 1871-72 was £111,110, of which the land-tax contributed £86,261. The expenditure in the same year amounted to £24,490. By 1883-84 the total revenue of Partdbgarh District had risen to £1 75,735, of which £98,219 was derived from the land-tax. The District contains 10 civil and revenue, and 11 magisterial courts. For the protection of person and property there is a regular District and municipal police of a total strength of 402 men; maintained, in 1883, at a total cost of £4355, of which £4206 was paid from provincial revenues, and £149 from other sources. There is also a village watch or rural police, numbering 2557 in 1883, and maintained by the land holders and villagers at an estimated cost of £2765. Total police 74 PARTABGARH TAHSIL. force 2959, or one policeman to every -48 square mile of District area, or one to every 286 of the population. Total estimated cost, £7120, or £4, 19s. id. for every square mile of area, or 2^d. per head of the population. The average number of prisoners in jail in 1883 was 192, of whom 16 were females. Education is afforded by a high school at the civil station, and 89 other inspected schools in the District, attended on March 31, 1884, by 3604 pupils. The Census Report of 1881 returned 3069 boys and 47 girls as under instruction ; besides 14,443 males and 215 females able to read and write, but not under instruc tion. There is a charitable dispensary at the head-quarters town. Medical Aspects. — The climate is healthy, with a mean range of temperature of 30° F. The average rainfall for the 14 years ending 1881 was 38-5 inches, the fall in the latter year being 40-3 inches. No thermometrical returns are available. Of endemic diseases, intermittent fever, skin affections, and ophthalmia are the most common. In the cold season of 1868-69, the District suffered from an epidemic of small pox, immediately followed by a severe and general outbreak of cholera. These epidemics were rendered more virulent by the distress which resulted from the total failure of the autumn harvest of 1868 and the partial failure of the spring crops of 1869. The vital statistics for 1883 show a total of 22,578 registered deaths in that year, equal to a rate of 26-65 Per thousand. The average death-rate for the previous five years was 29-31 per thousand. Fevers are the great cause of mortality, and in 1883 deaths from these diseases amounted to 21-82 per thousand, that from all other causes being only returned at 4-83 per thousand. Inter mittent fever is most prevalent at the close of the rainy season, and generally disappears with the cool weather and westerly winds of November. Though primarily caused by local malaria, this disease is intensified by exposure alternately to cold, damp, and the hot sun, aud by the poorer classes being unable to obtain sufficiently nourishing food. [For further information regarding Partabgarh, see the Gazetteer oj the Province of Oudh, published by authority (Government Press, Allahibad, 1877), vol. ii. pp. 65-148. Also the Settlement Report of Partabgarh District, by Captain W. E. Forbes (Lucknow, 1877) ; the North-Western Provinces and Oudh Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Adminis tration and Departmental Reports.] Partabgarh (Pratdpgarh).— Tahsil or Sub-division of Partabgarh District, Oudh, lying between 25° 42' 30" and 26° 10' 30" n. lat., and between 8i° 33' 15" and 82° 6' e. long. Bounded on the north by Sultanpur and Kadipur tahsils, on the east and south by Jaunpur and Allahabad Districts of the North-Western Provinces, and on the west by Patti tahsil. This tahsil comprises the two pargands of Partabgarh and Ateha. Area, 434 square miles, of which 233 were cultivated at the time of the revenue survey of the District, PARTABGARH PARGANA AND STATE. 75 Population (1869) 264,630 ; (1881) 280,685, namely, males 138,003, and females 142,682, showing an increase of population in thirteen years of 16,055, or 6-07 per cent. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 250,315; Muhammadans, 30,326; and 'others,' 44. Of the 702 villages comprising the tahsil, 537 con tain less than five hundred inhabitants; 120 from five hundred to a thousand; 44 from one to five thousand; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Total Government revenue at the time of survey, £32,246; estimated rental paid by cultivators, £64,492. In 1883, Partdbgarh tahsil contained 2 civil and 6 magisterial courts, including District head-quarters ; number of police circles (thdnds), 2 ; strength of regular police, 56 men; rural police (chaukiddrs), 660. Partabgarh (Pratdpgarh). — Pargand in Partibgarh District, Oudh ; situated in the south-east of the District, and extending for many miles along both sides of the river Sai. Area, 355 square miles, of which 192 were under cultivation at the time of survey. Population (1881) 235,533, of whom 208,041 are returned as Hindus and 27,492 as Muhammadans. Government land revenue, £26,445. Of the 634 villages comprising the pargand, 508 are held by Sombansi Rajputs, who form the dominant caste among the population. Partabgarh (Pratdpgarh). — Town in Partabgarh District, Oudh ; situated on the metalled road to Allahabad, 4 miles from Bela, the civil head-quarters of the District, 36 miles from Allahabad, and 24 from Sultanpur, in lat. 25° 53' 25" n., and long. 81° 59' 10" £. Founded in 1617-18 by Raja. Partab Singh, who named it after himself. The fort built by the Raja is still extant. It was seized by the native Govern ment about ninety years ago, but after annexation was sold to Raja Ajft Singh, a relative of the ancient owner. It was of considerable size, but its outer walls and flanking works were destroyed after the Mutiny ; an inner keep and little walled garden still remain. Population (1881) 5851, namely, Hindus, 3870; Muhammadans, 1944; Christians, 36 ; 'other,' 1. Municipal income (1883-84), £592, of which £368 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, is. 3d. per head. Six mosques and four Hindu temples. Sugar of good quality is manufactured here. Government high school and normal school. Partabgarh (Pratdpgarh). — Native State in Rajputana under the political superintendence of the Mewar Agency; lying between 23° 17' and 24° 18' n. lat, and between 74° 31' and 75° 3' e. long. Bounded on the north-west and north by Mewar (Udaipur) ; on the north-east and east by Sindhia's Districts of Nimach and Mandisor, and the States of Jaora, Piploda, and Ratlam ; and on the south-west by Banswara. Its extreme length from north to south is 67 miles, and extreme breadth from east to west 33 miles, with a total area of about 1460 square miles, and a population, as ascertained by the 76 PARTABGARH STATE. Census of 1881, of 79,568. Of the total population, 75,050 were returned as Hindus, 4243 as Muhammadans, 270 Bhils, 1 Christian, and 4 'others.' Classified according to sex, the males numbered 41,118, the females 38,180. The sex of the Bhils were not deter mined. The State contains 1 town and 568 villages. Number of houses, 18,622 ; number of persons per square mile, 54-49. The total revenue is about £60,000, of which about £25,000 is enjoyed by feudatories, and £5688 is paid as tribute to the British Government and accounted for by it to Holkar. The country is mostly open except in the north-west, which portion is wild and hilly, and inhabited almost entirely by Bhils. Here the hills attain an elevation of 1900 feet. To the south of Deolia is an old fortified hill called Junagarh, with a small tank and well at the summit Little is known about the geology of Partdbgarh, nor have any minerals been found in the State, but good stone quarries are said to have been formerly worked at Dakor, near Deolia. The climate is generally good and the temperature moderate ; the average rainfall is about 32 inches. The State possesses no particular forest tracts nor rivers of any import ance. There are a few good - sized tanks, of which one at Raipur, called Sarpatta, is the largest Water is generally found within 40 or 50 feet of the surface. Grain, opium, and country cloth are the principal articles of trade. No made roads exist in the State, but the country roads — to Nimach, 32 miles to the north; Mandesar, 19 miles to the east; and Jaora, 35 miles to the south-east through the open country- are fair of their kind. A cart-road to Banswara, through the Kangarh ghdt, or pass, has been opened out The Maharawal -of Partabgarh is a Sesodia Rajput, descended from a junior branch of the Udaipur house. From the time of the estab lishment of the Maratha power in Malwa, the Chief of Partabgarh had paid tribute to Holkar. In 1818, Partdbgarh was taken under the protection of the British Government. Under the 4th article of the Treaty of Mandesar, the British Government acquired a right to the tribute levied by Holkar from Partabgarh ; but, in considera tion of the political influence lost by Holkar under that treaty, it was resolved to account to him annually for the amount of the tribute, which is therefore paid over from the British treasury. The late chief, Dalpat Singh, who succeeded in 1844, was grandson of the former chief of Partabgarh, and had inherited the State of Dungarpur on the deposition of Jaswant Singh, by whom he had been adopted. On his succession to Partabgarh he relinquished Diingarpur. He died in 1864, and was succeeded by his son, Udai Singh, the present Maharawal, who was born about 1839. The chief of Partabgarh receives a salute of 15 guns. There are fifty jdgirddrs, large and small, in the State, possessing altogether 116 villages, with an aggregate annual income of PARTABGARH TOWN AND FORTRESS. 77 about £24,660, paying a tribute of £3230 to the Darbar. The administration of the State is carried on almost entirely under the personal supervision and direction of the chief, who has the power of life and death over his own subjects. The military force consists of 12 guns, 40 gunners, 275 cavalry, and 950 infantry. Partabgarh. — Chief town of Partabgarh State, Rajputana. Lat. 24° 22' 30" n., long. 74° 52' 15" e. Population (1881) 12,755, namely, 6556 males and 6199 females. Hindus number 10,329; Muhamma dans, 2421; and 'others,' 5. The town, situated at a height of 1660 feet above sea-level, was founded by Maharawal Partab Singh at the commencement of the 18th century, on a spot at the crest of a gorge, formerly known as Dhoderia-Khera. It lies rather in a hollow, and is defended by a loopholed wall with 8 gates built by Salam Singh, when he ascended the throne in 1758. On the south-west is a small fort in which the Maharawal's family reside. The palace stands in the centre of the town ; it is not of any size, and is generally un occupied, the present chief having built a new residence about a mile to the east of the town. There are three temples to Vishnu in the town, and three to Siva outside ; also 4 Jain temples. Par tabgarh is celebrated for its enamelled work of gold inlaid on emerald-coloured glass, and carved to represent hunting and mytho logical scenes. The art of making this jewellery, for which there is a considerable demand, is now confined to two families, the secret being zealously guarded. The old capital of the State, Deolia, now almost deserted, lies 7-5 miles due west of Partabgarh. Dispensary, school, post-office, and jail. Partabgarh {Pratdpgarh). — Ancient fortress in the Jaoli tdluk of Satalra District, Bombay Presidency. Situated in lat. 17° 56' n., and long. 73° 38' 30" e., 8 miles south-west of Mahabaleshwar, on a summit of the Western Ghats commanding the Par Ghat, and dividing one of the sources of the Savitri from the Koina, an affluent of the Kistna. The fort, 3543 feet above sea-level, looks from a distance like a round-topped hill, the walls of the lower fort forming a sort of band or crown round the brow. The western and northern sides of the fort are gigantic cliffs with an almost vertical drop in many places of seven or eight hundred feet. The towers and bastions on the south and east are often 30 to 40 feet high, while there is in most places a scarp of naked black rock not much lower. In 1656, Sivajf, the founder of the Mardtha" power, selected this almost impregnable position as one of his principal forts. Partabgarh was the scene of his treacherous murder of the Muhammadan general, Afzul Khan, who had been sent against him by the King of Bijapur. In 1659, Sivajf decoyed Afzul Khdn to a personal interview by 78 PAR UR—PAR WAN. a pretended submission, the two leaders being each attended by a single armed follower. Sivaji stabbed the Musalman general, and gave the signal to his ambushed army to attack the Muhammadan troops, who, bewildered by the loss of their chief, were utterly routed. For an interesting account of the murder of Afzul Khan, and the defeat of the Muhammadan army, the reader is referred to Grant Duffs History of the Marathas, vol. i. pp. 124-126 (Bombay, 1863). In the Maratha war of 1818, Partabgarh was surrendered to the British by private negotiation, though it was an important stronghold and was held by a large garrison. Panir. — Town in Vomdachalam tdluk, South Arcot District Madras Presidency. Lat. 12° 24' 20" n., long. 790 33' e. Population (1881) 4593, residing in 635 houses. Hindus number 4449; Muhammadans, 28; and Christians, 116. Interesting on account of the fossil beds of the ' Upper Green Sand and Gault ' formation found here, which are described in vol. iv. part 1 of the Records of th Geological Department. Pariir. — Town in Paravur Sub-division, Travancore State, Madras Presidency. — See Paravur. Parvatipur. — Town in Vizagapatam District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 18° 47' n., and long. 83° 28' 10" e. Head-quarters of the senior Assistant Agent, with magistrate's court, police and post offices. A centre of trade between the hills and the plains, being at the junction of three roads from Palkonda, Jaipur, and Vizianagaram. Population (1881) 9933, namely, 4766 males and 5167 females, dwelling in 1976 houses. Hindus number 9783, and Muhammadans 150. Parvatipur is the centre of the Belgam zaminddri. Parvatipur. — Agency tract in Vizagapatam District, Madras Presidency. Population (1881) 37,552, namely, 19,655 males and 17,897 females; all but 43 were Hindus. Number of houses, 8827,, and of villages, 260. Parwan. — River of Bhagalpur District, Bengal ; rising in the south east corner of Narfdgar pargand, not far from the source of the Dhasan. The two streams pursue different courses, about 2I or 3 miles apart, until their waters mingle at Singheswarsthan, where there is a temple built to Siva Mahadeo. This spot is considered very holy ; and several thousand Hindus resort to the shrine in February to pay their devotions, bringing with them small quantities of Ganges water, which they throw over the image of the god. At this place the Dhasan loses its own name ; and the mingled waters, under the name of the Parwan, flow on towards the south. The river, after a tortuous course of nearly 30 miles, forms the Sahsal swamp, the outlet from which assumes the name of the Katna, and flows into pargand Pharkiya, a mile and a quarter below the triple junction of that pargand with Chhaf and Nisankpur Kiira, PASGAWAN— PASRUR. 79 The Parwan is navigable for boats of 50 maunds (less than 2 tons) burthen up to the village of Manpur, a few miles south-east of the Sub-divisional head-quarters of Madahpura. In their upper courses the Parwan and Dhasan are dry during the hot months, and are only navigable during the rainy season. Below their point of junction, the Parwan is navigable by small boats all the year round. Pasgawan. — Pargand in Nighasan tahsil, Kheri District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Muhamdi pargand, on the east by the Giimti river, on the south by Hardoi District, and on the west by Shalrjahinpur District, from which it is separated by the Sukhet! river. Area, 121 square miles, of which 58 are cultivated. Population (1881) 49,775, of whom 42,099 are Hindus, 7378 Muhammadans, and 298 'others.' No towns or important bazars. Land revenue, _£6o8o. The present pargand was formed as recently as 1869, by the amalgamation of the two older pargands, Pasgawan and Barwar. After the breaking up of the great Barwar estate, the land settlement was made with small independent zaminddrs ; and of the 163 villages comprising the pargand, 142 are held by small proprietors under zaminddri tenure, while 2 1 are tdlukddri. Pa -Shin. — River in Henzada District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. — See Pa-ta-shin. Pasnir. — Central tahsil of Sialkot District, Punjab, lying between 32° 6' 15" and 32° 20' 30" n. lat, and between 74° 28' 45" and 74° 46' 45" e. long. Area, 543 square miles, with 575 towns and villages, 26,732 houses, and 67,717 families. Population (1881) 251,928, namely, males 134,180, and females 117,748. Classified accord ing to religion — Muhammadans number 181,161, or 71-9 per cent; Hindus, 57,886, or 22-9 per cent; Sikhs, 12,547, or 4-9 per cent; Jains, 406; and Christians, 18. Density of population, 464 persons per square mile. Of the 575 towns and villages, 437 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 93 from five hundred to a thousand ; 34 from one to two thousand; 10 from two thousand to five thousand; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. The average cultivated area for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82 is returned at 349 square miles, or 223,386 acres; the area under the principal crops being — wheat, 108,055 acres; barley, 35,754 acres; rice, 11,656 acres; Indian corn, 11,496 acres ; jodr, 6503 acres; gram, 4505 acres; other food- grains, 1520 acres. Of non-food crops, sugar-cane occupied 10,207 acres; cotton, 11,947 acres; and vegetables, 2247 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, £20,229. The administrative staff consists of 1 tahsilddr, 1 munsif and 2 honorary magistrates, presiding over 4 civil and 3 criminal courts. Number of police circles (thdnds), 3, namely, Pasriir, Satrah, and Kila Sobha Singh. Strength of regular police, 67 men; village watch or rural police (chaukiddrs), 471. Pasrur. — Decayed town in Sialkot District, Punjab, and head- 80 PAT A CUDDAPAH— PA TAN. quarters of Pasrur tahsil; situated in lat. 32° 16' n., long. 74° 42' 30" e., on the Amritsar road, about 18 miles south of Sialkot town. Pasriir was once a place of greater size than at present, and is said to have been founded by a Bajwa Jat in the reign of the Emperor Babar. Traces of its former prosperity remain, including a tank constructed during the reign of Jahangfr ; a canal to supply the town with water, built by Prince Dara Sheko, brother of Aurangzeb ; and a bridge erected by Shall Dauk. Many handsome houses of Sikh gentlemen and other notabilities. The shrine of Miran Barkhurdar, a Muham madan saint, is the scene of a religious gathering during the Muharram. Population (1881) 8378, namely, Muhammadans, 5954 ; Hindus, 1889; Jains, 375; Sikhs, 159; and Christian, 1. Number of houses, 1309. Municipal income (1883-84), £364, or an average of io|d. per head of the population. Pasrur is a centre of local trade, consisting prin cipally of grain, which it receives from neighbouring villages, and exports to different parts of the District. No manufactures. Besides the usual Sub - divisional courts, Pasrur contains a police station, post-office, dispensary, schools for boys and girls ; sarai or rest-house, zailghar or tavern for the use of head-men of villages ; and an encamp ing ground. A large cattle fair is held at Koreke, a village about 6 miles from Pasrrir, at the shrine of a Muhammadan saint named Gulii Shah. Pata Cuddapah.— Suburb of Cuddapah Town, Cuddapah District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 14° 29' 45" n., long. 78° 53' 30" e. Popula tion (1871) 6616, inhabiting 1822 houses; and (1881) 5364, inhabiting 1 312 houses. Divided into 4 hamlets. Hindus number 5133 ; Muham madans, 220; and Christians, 11. Patamari. — Village in Goalpara District, Assam, 9 miles south of Dhubrf on the right bank of the Brahmaputra, with considerable exports of jute. Post-office ; large weekly market. Patan. — Pargand in Purwa tahsil, Unao District, Oudh; bounded on the north by Magrayar, Purwa, and Panhan pargands, on the east by Panhan and Bihar, on the south by Bhagwantnagar, and on the west by Magrayar pargand. Area, 1 1 square miles, of which 4 are under cultivation. Population (1881) 5740, namely, 5543 Hindus and 197 Muhammadans. The pargand comprises 15 villages, of which 12 are held under tdlukddri and 3 under zaminddri tenure. The chief proprietary body are Brahmans and Bais Rajputs among the higher, and Kurmis among the lower castes. Patan. — Town in Purwa tahsil, Unao District, Oudh, and head quarters of Patan pargand ; situated on the banks of the small river Lon. Population (1881) 2238. Two annual fairs are held near the tomb of a famous Muhammadan saint, one of which, in December, is attended by as many as 300,000 persons. The holy man is supposed PA TAN SUB-DIVISIONS. 8 1 to exercise a beneficial influence over the insane ; and on the occasions of the festival these unfortunates are brought, sometimes to the number of hundreds, and tied up to trees opposite the tomb, where they are left all night. Village school. Patan. — Sub-division of Satara District, Bombay Presidency. Situated in the south-east corner of the District, Patan is hilly. The chief feature in the west is the south-running Koina valley with its lofty flanking hills. On the east the valleys of the Koina, Tarle, and Kole open into the plains of the Kistna. The soil of the eastern valleys is good, and yields both early and late crops, chiefly jodr (Sorghum vulgare) and ground nuts, and, when watered, sugar-cane. The rest of the soil is red, and except in the hollows where rice and sometimes sugar-cane are grown, is under nomadic cultivation. The Koina, the Tarle, and their feeders furnish abundance of water to the villages on and near their banks. Away from the rivers, both on the tops of the hills and in the valleys, especially during March, April, and May, water is scarce. The climate is cool and healthy in the hot weather, but the chilly damp of the rains makes it feverish. Area, 536 square miles, containing 1 town and 201 villages. Population (1872) 115,491 ; (1881) 112,414, namely, 57,235 males and 55,179 females, occupying 14,869 houses. Hindus number 110,598; Muhammadans, 1626; and 'others,' 190. In 1882-83, tne number of holdings, including alienated lands in Government villages, was 15,021, with an average area of 7-57 acres. In 1881-82, of 85,814 acres held for cultivation, 38,464 acres were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 47,350 acres, 5498 were twice cropped. Grain crops occupied 43,154 acres; pulses, 7563 acres ; oil-seeds, 505 acres ; fibres, 97 acres ; and miscel laneous crops, 1529 acres. In 1883 the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 3 criminal courts ; 1 police circle (thdnd) ; regular police, 54 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 61. Land revenue, £24,954. Patan. — Head-quarters of PaUn Sub-division, Satara District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 17° 22' n., and long. 73° 38' E. Situated at the junction of the Koina and Kerla rivers, about 25 miles south-west of Satara town. Population (1881) 3548. The town consists of two parts, the upper part containing the Sub-divisional and post offices, school, market, and the mansion of the indmddr Nagojirad Patankar, a second class sarddr and honorary magistrate, with civil jurisdiction in his villages. The other part consists of a beautifully wooded suburb called Ramapur on the left bank of the Koina. A specially fine grove of mango and jack trees lies at its south-east corner. A broad market street and a number of artisans' and traders' shops connect the two parts. Patan. — Sub-division of Baroda State (Gaekwar's territory), Gujarat. Area, 469 square miles. Population (1881) 120,830, namely, 61,914 males and 58,916 females, dwelling in 138 towns and villages. Hindus VOL. xi. f 82 PATAN TOWN AND VILLAGE. number 105,896 ; Muhammadans, 9252 ; and Jains, 5682. The number of holdings was 13,771 in 1882, each holding having an average area of nine and one-fifth acres. The region is a fairly wooded plain, with the river Saraswati running through the centre. Rainfall, 20 inches. Land revenue, £41,778. Patan (or Anhilwdra Patlan). — Chief town of the Patan Sub division, Baroda State, Gujarat; situated in lat. 23° 51' 30" n., and long. 72° 10' 30" e., on the small river Saraswatf, a tributary of the Bands. In 1871 the population was returned at 31,523; (1881) 32,712, namely, 15,540 males and 17,172 females, of whom about one-eighth are Jains, who have no fewer than 108 temples. There are also extensive Jain libraries in the city, consisting mostly of palm-leaf manuscripts, which are very jealously guarded. Many remains of considerable architectural beauty are still to be seen outside the city. Anhilwara Patan is one of the oldest and most renowned towns of Gujarat. It was the capital of successive dynasties of Rajput kings frorrr 746 to 1 194 a.d. ; and during the whole time of Musalman supremacy, it maintained a position of some importance. Swords and spears are manufactured in the town, and some pottery; and silk and cotton weav ing is carried on. The modern town is mostly of Mardthd construction, and is entirely surrounded by a wall of great thickness and considerable height. Post-office, hospital ; Anglo-vernacular, Gujarathi, and Marathf schools. Patan (Pattana, or Patan Somndth). — Ancient historic town and shrine in the Sorath Division, Junagarh State, Kathiawalr, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 22° 4' n., and long. 71" 26' e. Population (1881) 6644. Hindus number 2985; Muhammadans, 3357; and Jains, 302. — See Somnath. Patan (Keshordi Patan). — Next to the capital, the most important village of Biindi (Boondee) State, Rajputina ; situated in lat. 25° 17' n., and long. 75" 59' e., at a bend of the Chambal, 12 miles below Kotah, where the river, running in a north-easterly direction, suddenly turns almost at right angles, and, after a straight reach of 5 miles, turns back still more abruptly to its former direction. Population (1881) 3937. Keshorai Patan claims a very remote antiquity, local historians affecting to trace its traditions back to the mythological period of the Mdhdbhdrata. In the present aspect of the town, however, there is little that testifies to any great age. Two ancient inscriptions alone remain. One is in a sati temple on the Breham Ghat, which bears date Samvat 35. The other, in an adjoining temple, is dated Samvat 152. Long before these periods, however, and before the existence of any town at all, it is said that one Parasuram built a temple here sacred to Mahadeo, or Siva. This temple gradually fell into decay, but was rebuilt during the reign of Chattar Sal; to whom also is due the completion PATAN TOWN. 83 of the larger temple of Keshorai, for which the town of Patan is now famous. The foundations of this latter temple were laid during the reign of Chattar Sal's grandfather, Maharao Ratanji ; but he died before anything more than the supporting platform, which stands close to the river bank, had been constructed. On the accession of his grandson, the work was resumed, and the temple finished as it now stands. It contains an image of Keshorii, a name for Vishnu, and attracts yearly a large crowd of worshippers. The temple has an endowment of £1000 yearly from Biindi, and £300 from Kotah. The managers and attendants are hereditary, counting now about 300 persons, the descendants of one family. The temple itself, though large, does not possess any marked architectural beauties ; and it has been so incessantly covered with fresh coats of whitewash, that it now looks not unlike a huge piece of fretwork in wax or sugar, which heat or moisture had partially melted. Patan. — One of the chief towns of Nepal ; situated, approximately, in lat 27° 38' N., and long. 85" 13' e., on rising ground, a short distance from the southern bank of the Baghmati, about 2 miles south-east of Khatmandu. Paian is thus described by Dr. Wright, formerly surgeon to the British Residency in Nepal : — ' It is an older town than Khatmandu, having been built in the reign of Raja Bir Deva in the Kaligat year 3400 (299 a.d.). It is also known by the names of Yellondesi and Lalita Patan. The latter name is derived from Lalit, the founder of the city. Its general aspect is much the same as that of the capital. The streets are as narrow and dirty, the gutters as offensive, and the temples even more numerous ; but it appears much more dilapidated than Khatmandu, many of the houses and temples being in ruins. The main square, however, in the centre of the town, is very handsome. On one side is the old Darbar, with a fine brazen gateway, guardian lions, and endless carvings. In front of this are monoliths, with the usual figures on them, and behind these a row of handsome old temples of every description. The' parade-ground lies to the south-east of the town, the road to it passing through a suburb abounding in pigs. The parade-ground is extensive, and there are several large tanks to the west, while on the southern side stands a huge Buddhist temple of the most primitive description. This temple is merely a mound or dome of brickwork, covered with earth. There is a small shrine at each of the cardinal points, and on the top what looks like a wooden ladder. Many similar mound-temples or chaityas exist in and around Patan. The population of the town is said to be about 30,000.' Patan is connected with Khatmandu by a bridged road. A brigade of regular troops is quartered to the south of the town. The people are mainly Buddhists, and comprise the superior artisan classes of Nepal. 84 PA TAN CHIEFSHIP— PA TA UDI. Patan. — Tributary chiefship in Tourwati District of Jaipur State, Rajputana. This chiefship is interesting from the fact of its rulers being the direct lineal descendants of a very ancient house, the Tuar kings of Delhi, who were expelled that place some eight centuries ago, on its capture by the Ghor dynasty. The family settled at Patan, and have since ruled there undisturbed. Population (1881) of the chief town, Patan, 11,886, namely, 6430 males and 5456 females. Hindus, 11,365, and Muhammadans, 521. Patan. — Village in Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) tahsil, Jabalpur District, Central Provinces. Population (1881) 3171, namely, Hindus, 2532; Muhammadans, 383; Jains, 88; non-Hindu aborigines, 168. Small trade in grain. Government school and police outpost. Patana. — Village in Bhabua Sub-division, Shahabad District, Bengal, which, in the opinion of Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton, was once the residence of the chief ruler of the Suar or Sivira tribe. Sometimes called Sn'ram- pur, from a hamlet of that name which now occupies part of the ruins to the south-west of the village. In the immediate neighbourhood of Patana" is a linga, surrounded by a wall and some broken images, the largest of which represents Mahavira, or the warlike monkey. Many other remains are scattered about. Patan Saongi. — Town in Ramtek tahsil, Nagpur District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 21° 19' 30'' n., and long. 79° 4' E., on a fertile and elevated plain by the river Kokr, 14 miles from Nagpur city. Population (1881) 4810, namely, Hindus, 4485; Muhammadans, 258; Kabfrpanthi's, 21 ; Jains, 10 ; non-Hindu aborigines, 36. Chief products ¦ — cotton stuffs and tobacco. In 1742, during the struggle between Waif Shah and the legitimate princes, 12,000 men were massacred by the victorious party in the now ruined fort. Up to the death of the late Raja, a troop of horse was stationed in the town ; and till lately it was the head-quarters of a tahsil. It has a good market-place and sarai (native inn), with metalled roads and streets. Pa-ta-shin (Pa-shin).— River in Henzada District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. It rises in the Arakan range, and at first is known as the San-da ; after an easterly course of about 40 miles, it falls into the Irawadi. The Pa-ta-shin drains an area of 100 square miles; its principal tributaries are the Pa-daw and the A-lun. It is navigable in the rains for a distance of 30 miles. PataudL— Native State under the political superintendence of the Government of the Punjab, lying between 28° 14' and 28° 22' n. lat, and between 76° 42' and 76° 52' 30" e. long. Area, 48 square miles, with 40 villages, 2537 houses, and 4136 families. Total popula tion (1881), 17,847, namely, males 9510, and females 8337. Average density of the population, 372 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 14,473; Muhammadans, 3286; PATERA— PATHANKOI. 85 Jains, 81 ; and Christians, 7. Estimated gross revenue of the State, £10,000 per annum. Principal products — grain, cotton, sugar, and spices. The Rajputana State Railway from Delhi to Bandikui junction passes through the State about 40 miles south-west of Delhi. The present Nawab of Pataudi, Muhammad Mumtaz Husain AH Khan, a Baluchi by race, was born in 1874. The State was formed by a grant from Lord Lake in 1806 of Pataudi in perpetual jdgir to Faiztalab Khan, brother of the Jhajjar Nawab. Faiztalab Khan was severely wounded in an action with Holkar's troops, and the jdgir was granted to him in recognition of his services. The estimated military force of the State, including police, is 94 men. Patera. — Large rent-free estate in Deorf tahsi .', Sagar District, Central Provinces. — See Pitihra. Patera. — Village in Hatta tahsil, Damoh District, Central Provinces; situated 18 miles north of Damoh town. Population (1881) 2238, namely, Hindus, 1940; Muhammadans, 215; Jains, 67; Christians, 4 ; and non-Hindu aborigines, 12. Trade in grain, and manufacture of brass-work. Good market. Patgram. — Estate in Jalpalguri District, Bengal, comprising the police division of the same name. Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton, in his ms. account of Rangpur, thus described it in 1809 : — ' It belongs to the Raja of Kuch Behar, and contains 68 mauzds, or collections of villages. More than half the estate is let to large farmers, some of whom hold under leases called upanchaki, which are granted for a certain specified farm, and not according to a particular area ; their rent cannot be in creased nor their lands measured. Thirty jotddrs pay their rent directly to the Raja's collector ; the average rent paid by them is only 6|d. per Calcutta bighd. The people are very poor, shy, and indolent' Pathankot. — North-eastern tahsil of Gurdaspur District, Punjab ; lying between 32° 5' 30" and 32° 23' 30" n. lat, and between 75° 22' and 75° 44' 15" e. long., and including a hill and plain portion. Area, 357 square miles, with 412 towns and villages, 20,775 houses, and 33,616 families. Total population (1881), 140,825, namely, males 78,060, and females 62,765 ; average density of population, 394 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 92,426, or 65-7 per cent; Muhammadans, 46,630, or 33-1 per cent. ; Sikhs, 1475, or I-° Per cent. ; and Christians, 294, of whom 279 are Europeans or Eurasians. Of the 412 towns and villages, 327 con tain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 5 2 from five hundred to a thousand ; 27 from one to two thousand ; 5 from two to five thousand ; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. The average cultivated area for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82 is returned at 185 square miles, or 118,209 acres; the area under the principal crops being — rice, 35,227 acres; wheat, 32,155 acres; sugar-cane, 7184 acres ; jodr, 6938 86 PATHANKOT TO WN— PA THAR I. acres; gram, 6567 acres; barley, 6344 acres; tobacco, 2765 acres; Indian corn, 1755 acres; moth, 1461 acres; and vegetables, 1357 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, £19,875. The administrative staff consists of 1 extra Assistant Commissioner, 1 tahsilddr, 1 munsifi and 1 honorary magistrate exercising criminal powers only. These officers preside over 2 civil and 2 criminal courts. Number of police circles (thdnds), 6, namely, Pathankot, Sfkhpur, Dunera, Dalhousie, Parmanand, and Narot Number of regular police, no men; village watch or rural police (chaukiddrs), 302. Pathankot. — Town and municipality in Gurdaspur District, Punjab ; situated in lat. 32° 16' 45" n., and long. 75° 42' e., near the head of the Bari Doab, and 23 miles north-east of Gurdaspur town, at the point where the trade route from the hills of Chamb£, Niirpur, and Kangra unite and enter the plains. Pathankot is a flourishing town, increasing in commercial importance. The population, which in 1868 numbered 2818, had increased to 4344 in 1881. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Muhammadans, 2316; Hindus, 1991; Sikhs, 32; and Christians, 5. Number of houses, 852. Municipal income (1883-84), £483, derived chiefly from octroi duties; average incidence of taxation, 2s. 2^d. per head. Pathankot is the terminus of the carriage road from Amritsar to Dalhousie and Kangra, the remaining distance lying through the hills, and being performed on horseback or by dhuli. The town itself is a collection of brick-built houses, well drained, and with paved streets. It is the seat of a considerable shawl-weaving industry. Besides the usual Sub-divisional courts, the town contains a police station, post-office, two bazars, school-house, dispensary, municipal hall, ddk bungalow, sarai or native inn, and encamping ground. For an account of the antiquities of Pathankot, see General Cunningham's Reports of ihe Archceological Survey, vol. v. PP- i45-I55, and vol. xiv. pp. 115-119, and 135, 136; also his Ancient Geography of India, pp. 143, 144. Pathardi. — Town in Ahmadnagar District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 19° 10' 25" n., and long. 75° 13' 31" e., about 30 miles east of Ahmadnagar town. Population (1881) 6734. Hindus number 5968; Muhammadans, 603; Jains, 148; and 'others,' 15. The town lies picturesquely on the side of a steep hill which rises in the midst of a barren tract, skirted on the north and east by a range of hills which pass from Dongargaon into the Nizam's territory. Post-office, and two schools with 247 pupils in 1883-84. Pathari.— Native State under the Bhopal Agency of Central India, adjoining the British District of Sagar (Saugor), and lying south-west of Rahatgarh. The chief, Nawab Abdul Karfm Khan, an Afghan by race, was born about 1852. He belongs to a younger branch of the Bhopal family, being descended from its founder, Dost Muhammad. In 1807, PATHARIA—PATIALA. 87 Nawab Haidar Muhammad Khan, the father of the present chief, was deprived of his patrimony by Sindhia ; but eventually, through the mediation of the British Government, he obtained the present estate in exchange for certain villages he held in Rahatgarh. Area of Pathari, 22 square miles. Population (1875) 4330; (1881) 6393. Hindus number 5410; Muhammadans, 965; Sikhs, 10; and aborigines, 8. Revenue, about £1200. The chief town, Pathari, lies in lat. 23° 56' n., and long. 78° 15' e. Patharia. — Hill range in the south of Sylhet District, Assam. Estimated area, 47 square miles ; height above sea-level, 600 feet. In this tract, a peculiar perfume called agar attar is manufactured. It is distilled from the resinous sap of the pttdkard (Aquilaria agalocha, Roxb.), and is said to be exported via Calcutta as far as Arabia and Turkey. Patharia. — Village in Damoh tahsil, Damoh District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 23° 53' n., and long. 79° 14' e., 17 miles west of Damoh town, on the main road between Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) and Sagar (Saugor). Population (1881) 2326, namely, Hindus, 2075 ; Muhammadans, 125; Jains, 99; and Kabfrpanthis, 27. Under the Marathas, an Ami'l was stationed at Patharia, which appears to have once been a much larger place. Government school, dispensary, police station, and travellers' bungalow. Pathri. — Village in Khairagarh State, attached to Raipur District, Central Provinces. Population (1881) 2093, namely, Hindus, 1544 ; Kabfrpanthis, 322; Satnamis, 10; Muhammadans, 96; and non-Hindu aborigines, 121. Pathrot. — Town in Ellichpur District, Berar. Population (1881) 5271, of whom 4646 were Hindus, 617 Musalmans, and 8 Jains. Patiala. — Native State, under the political superintendence of the Punjab Government. Patiala belongs to the group known as the cis-Sutlej States ; and is situated between 29° 23' 15" and 30° 54' N. lat., and between 74° 40' 30" and 76° 59' 15" e. long. The State is divided into two portions, of which the larger is situated in the plain south of the Sutlej (Satlaj), while the other portion is hill country stretching up to Simla, which latter place formerly belonged to Patiala, but has been exchanged for territory in the district of Barauli. Within the confines of the State are situated a slate quarry near Simla, and a lead mine near Subathu ; the latter is worked by a company, and yields about 40 tons of ore a month, containing from 16 to 72 per cent, of lead. There are also marble quarries and copper mines in Narnaul. The usual cereals are produced in the tracts under cultivation. Area of the State, 5887 square miles, with 2601 towns and villages, 282,063 houses, and 328,668 families. Total population (1881) 1,467,433, namely, males 806,984, and females 660,449; density 88 PATLALA. of population, 249 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, the population consists of— Hindus, 734,902 ; Muhammadans, 321,354; Sikhs, 408,141; Jains, 2997; and Christians, 39. Estimated gross revenue of the State, £468,956. History.— -The ruling families of Patiala, of Jfnd (Jheend), and ot Nabha, are called ' the Phulkian houses,' because they are descended from Phul, a Chaudhari, or agricultural notable, who in the middle of the 1 7th century founded a village in the Nabha territory called after his name. The Rajas of Jind and Nabha are descended from Tiloka, the eldest son of Phul ; the Maharaja of Patiala is descended from Rama, the second son, and is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat tribe. Like most of the Jat tribes, the Sidhus claim a Rajput origin, and trace their descent from Jaisal, a Bhatti Rajput, and founder of the State and city of Jaisalmer, who was driven from his kingdom by a successful rebellion in 1180 a.d. From Jaisal descended Sidhu; from Sidhu descended Saughar, who aided Babar at the battle of Panipat, and whose son Bariam was made by the victor a Chaudhari, or head-man of a District, responsible for its revenues. Phul was descended from Bariam, and as a boy received the blessing of Guru Har Govind, the sixth Sikh gurii, who said of him, ' His name shall be a true omen, and he shall bear many blossoms.' From the Emperor Shah Jahan he obtained &farmdn granting him the chaudhriyat so long held by his ancestors. He died in 1652 a.d. From him are descended not only the chiefs of Jfnd and Nabha, but also the Laudhgharia families, and those of Bhadaur and Malod, — in all, thirteen houses ; and these were at one time equal in point of rank. Ala Singh, son of Rama and grandson of Phul, succeeded in defeating the Nawdb Sayyid Asad Ali Khan, the imperial general commanding in the Jalandhar dodb, at the battle of Barnala, and obtained many other successes over the Bhattis and other foes. He built a fort at Patiala, and, after being utterly defeated, with other Sikh leaders, at the battle of the Barnala in 1762 by Ahmad Shah Durani, he submitted to the Afghan invader, and received from him the title of Raja. After the departure of Ahmad Shah, however, Raja Ala Singh put himself at the head of his Sikhs, and boldly attacked the Afghan governor of Sir- hind, whom he defeated and killed. The city of Sirhind was never rebuilt, and is held accursed to this day by the Sikhs ; but a consider able portion of the population was removed to the rising town of Patiala. Ahmad Shah, when he again invaded India, not only forgave Ala Singh for his attack on Sirhind, but actually received him into favour, on the payment of a subsidy ; and, on the return of the Durani monarch, Ala Singh accompanied him as far as Lahore. Ala Singh died at Patiala in 1765, having firmly established the foundations of this the most important of the cis-Sutlej States. PATIALA. 89 Ala Singh's successor was Amar Singh, who obtained from Ahmad Shah Durani, in 1767, the title of Rajd-i-Rajgan Bahadur, and the insignia of a flag and a drum. About the year 1772 he was threatened with an attack of the Marathas under Janka Rao, and sent off all his treasures and family jewels to Bhatinda ; and subsequently he was in great danger from a rebellion of his brother Himmat Singh, who seized the fort of Patiala ; but he was finally successful in defending himself from all his enemies, and largely increased his power at the expense of his neighbours and of the crumbling Delhi Empire. He died in 1781 ; and for a long time afterwards the chiefship of Patkla was in feeble hands, and its importance waned before the growing power of Ranjft Singh at Lahore. The terrible and unprecedented famine of 1783 did much to cripple the power and resources of Patiala. Sir Lepel Griffin says of this famine (Punjab Rdjds, 1870, p. 57) : — 'The year previous had been dry, and the harvest deficient; but in 1783 it entirely failed. The country was depopulated, the peasants abandoning their villages, and dying in thousands of disease and want. But little revenue could be collected ; the country swarmed with bands of robbers and dakdits ; and the state of anarchy was almost inconceivable. The neighbouring chiefs began to seize for themselves the Patiala villages, and all who dared threw off Patiala authority, and declared themselves independent' The Raja of Patkla was, however, saved by the courage and energy of the Diwan, and of certain ladies of the ruling family, which has always been famous for the talents of its female members. These formed an alliance with the Marathas, and by their aid subdued all those who had attacked the Raj ; but they received little gratitude from the Raja Saliib Singh, and finally died in disgrace or exile. During the concluding years of the century, the State suffered much from the famous adventurer George Thomas ; but at last the Sikhs, with the aid of Perron and Bourquin, were able to drive him off. After the capture of Delhi by General Lake in 1803, and the sub sequent submission of the Maradias under the treaty of Sarji Anjengabn, the English became the paramount power in this part of India; and when, in 1807 and 1808, the Maharaji Ranjit Singh seemed to be entertaining designs on the cis-Sutlej country, an appeal was made to the English Governor-General for protection. This was eventually accorded ; and a treaty was made with Ranjft Singh in 1809, in which he engaged not to commit or suffer any encroachments on the possessions or rights of the cis-Sutlej chiefs. In the Nepal war of 18 15, when the Gdrkhas were expelled from the hill country above the Punjab, the Patiala chief aided the British Government with troops, and received, in recognition of his services, an accession to his territory in the hill country. Again, when the Sikh 90 PATIALA CAPITAL— PATNA. army invaded the cis-Sutlej States in 1845-46, the Maharaja of Patiala cast in his lot with the British, and obtained, for his services during the campaign, the gift of an additional portion of territory. During the Mutiny of 1857, Maharaja Narendra Singh aided the British Govern ment by furnishing an auxiliary force which proceeded to Delhi, and kept open the communication on the Grand Trunk Road. He also helped the Government with money. For these services he received from the British Government the Narnaul division of the Jhajjar territory, besides other rewards. Narendra Singh was succeeded in 1862 by his son Mahendra Singh, who died in 1876, and was succeeded by his infant son, Rajendra Singh, the present Maharaja. The Maharaja of Patiala furnishes a contingent of 100 horse for general duty. He is entitled to a salute of 17 guns. The military force consists of about 2750 cavalry, 600 infantry including police, 31 field and 78 other guns, and 238 artillerymen. Patiala.— Capital of the Patiala State, Punjab. Lat. 30° 20' n., long. 76° 25' e. Founded in 1752 by Sardar Ala Singh. Population (1881) 53,629, namely, males 30,858, and females 22,771. Hindus number 24,963; Muhammadans, 21,119; Sikhs, 7101; Jains, 435 j and Christians, n. Number of houses, 11,692. Patiali.— Ancient town in Aliganj tahsil, Etah District, North- Western Provinces, situated on the old high bank of the Ganges, 22 miles north-east of Etah town, with which it is connected by a broad unmetalled road. The present town is built on a mound of ancient debris, marking the site of the ancient city, which dates from the time of the Mahdbhdraia. A ruined fort, built by Shahab-ud-din Ghori, still stands, but the greater part of its block kankar walls have been carried away by the inhabitants as building materials for their houses, or by Government officials for the erection of bridges and public buildings. Population (1881) 4798. For the support of the police and for the conservancy and sanitation of the town, a small house-tax is raised. Patiali was a flourishing town in the days of the Rohilk power, but is now decayed into a mere village with no trade or manufactures. It was the scene of a brilliant victory over the rebels during the Mutiny of 1857-58. Patkulanda. — Ancient zaminddri or chiefship attached to Sambal- pur District, Central Provinces, 35 miles south-west of Sambalpur town. Population (1881) 1292, chiefly agricultural, residing in 6 villages; area, 10 square miles, the whole of which is cultivated, for the most part with rice. The chief is a Gcnd, belonging to a branch of the Bheran zaminddrs family, whose estate it adjoins. The chief was out lawed for having joined in the rebellion of 1858, but was afterwards amnestied and restored to his estate. Patna. — Division or Commissionership under the jurisdiction of PATNA. 91 the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, lying between 24° 17' 15" and 27° 29' 45" n. lat, and between 83° 23' and 86° 46' e. long. Area, 23,726 square miles. It comprises the Districts of Patna, Gay a, Shahabad, Darbhangah, Muzaffarpur, Saran, and Champaran, all of which see separately. The Division is bounded on the north by Nepal ; on the east by Bhagalpur and Monghyr ; on the south by Lohardagal and Hazaribagh Districts ; and on the west by the Districts of Mirzapur, Ghazipur, and Gorakhpur in the North-Western Provinces. The population of Patnd Division was returned in the Census Report of 1872 at 13,120,817. The last enumeration in 1881 disclosed a population of 15,063,944, showing a total increase of 1,943,127, or 14-8 per cent., in nine years. This increase, though largely due to natural causes, is partly fallacious, and due to under-enumeration in 1872, as is shown by subsequent Censuses of two Sub-divisions of Darbhangah District in 1874 and in 1876, both of which disclosed a very large increase of population over the Census of 1872, that could not be attributable to any natural increase. The results of the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows : — Area of the Division, 23,647 square miles, with 67 towns and 44,524 villages; number of houses, 2,241,533. Total popu lation, 15,063,944, namely, males 7,368,185, and females 7,695,759; proportion of males, 48-9 per cent. Average density of population, 637"°3 persons per square mile, varying from 450-15 per square mile in Slkhabdd to 869-71 per square mile in Saran District; number of persons per town or village, 338; inmates per house, 6-7. Classi fied according to sex and age, the Census shows — under 15 years of age, males 2,995,288, and females 2,868,095 ; total children, 5,863,383, or 38-9 per cent, of the population: 15 years and upwards, males 4,372,897, and females 4,827,664 ; total adults, 9,200,561, or6i-i per cent. Religion. — Classified according to religion, Hindus number 13,327,728, or 88-4 per cent, of the population; Muhammadans, 1,730,093, or 11-5 percent. ; Christians, 5875 ; Brahmos, 16; Jains, 22; Jews, 14; Parsf, 1 ; and 'others,' 195. Of the higher caste of Hindus, Brahmans number 865,034, and Rajputs 968,342 : intermediate castes include — Babhans, 750,304; Kayasths, 287,977; and Baniyas, 242,879. Of the lower or Sudra castes, the most important (numerically) are — Gwala, 1,844,463, the most numerous caste in the Division; Koeri, 909,084; Dosadh, 829,295; Chamar, 689,840; Kurmf, 681,860; Telf, 436,324; Kundu, 426,885; Kahar, 357,167; Mallah, 328,712; Musahar, 274,974; Dhanuk, 258,496; Nuniya, 231,124; Napit, 219,702; Lohar, 186,306; Kumbhar, 172,215 ; Barhai, 157,951 ; Tatwa, 149,941 ; Sonar, 134,664; Dhobf, 131,460; Kalwar, 126,558; Pasi, 121,356; Bind, 98,780; 92 PATNA. Garerf, 84,277; Madak, 83,241; Sunri, 78,641; Tantf, 69,207; Barui, 57,245; Dom, 56,571; Rajwar, 55,399; Keut or Kewat, 54,650; and Mali, 54,245. The non-Hindu aborigines number only 195, while the Hindus of aboriginal descent are returned at 2 1 1, 1 73, namely— Bhuinya, 103,015; Gond, 29,723; Kharwar, 12,549; and 'others,' 65,886. The Muhammadan population, divided according to sect, consists of Sunnis, 1,541,235; Shias, 31,251; Wahabfs, 27; and unspecified, 157,580. Of the 5875 Christians, Europeans number 2199; Eurasians, 541 ; natives of India, 2772 ; and all others, 363. By sect, the Chris tians include — Church of England, 1689 ; Protestants, unspecified as to sect, 686; Roman Catholics, 2641 ; Church of Scotland, 99; Baptists, 89; Lutherans, 72; and Methodists, 67; other sects or unspecified, 532- Town and Rural Population:. — The following are the thirteen principal towns in Patna Division with a population exceeding 15,000 — Patna city, 170,654; Gaya, 76,415; Darbhangah, 65,955; Chapra, 51,670; Behar, 48,968; Arrah, 42,998; Muzaffarpur, 42,460; Dinapur, 37,898; Hajipur, 25,078; Bettiah, 21,263; Dumraon, 17,429; Buxar, 16,498; and Lalganj, 16,431. Total of thirteen largest towns, 633,717. Besides the foregoing, there are 54 minor towns or municipalities, with an aggregate population of 371,789. The total urban population there fore amounts to 1,005,506, or 6-67 per cent, of the total. Patnal Division contains forty-five municipalities, with an aggregate population of 910,026 ; total municipal income (1883-84), £45,136, of which £34,309 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, 9d. per head of the municipal population. The Census Report thus classifies the 44,591 towns and villages — 23,037 villages contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 13,413 from two to five hundred; 5890 from five hundred to a thousand; 1819 from one to two thousand; 291 from two to three thousand ; 84 from three to five thousand ; 33 from five to ten thousand; 11 from ten to fifteen thousand; and 13 upwards of fifteen thousand. As regards occupation, the male population are thus returned — (1) Professional class, including all military and civil officials, 89,595 > (2) domestic class, 271,588; (3) commercial class, 215,967; (4) agri cultural and pastoral class, 2,614,109; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, 494,040 ; (6) indefinite and non - productive class, comprising general labourers and male children, 3,682,886. Administration. — The six main items of Government revenue in 1883-84 aggregated £1,404,091, made up as follows: — Land revenue, £811,607; excise, £270,748; stamps, £169,165; registration, £16,362 ; road cess, £101,900 ; and municipal taxes, £34,309. The charges for civil administration, as represented by the cost of the officials and police, amounted in 1883-84 to £213,041. The land PATNA DISTRICT. 93 revenue is derived from 49,297 estates, held by 361,399 individual registered proprietors ; average land revenue paid by each estate, £16, 9s. 4d. ; by each proprietor, £2, 4s. iod. The Division contains 49 civil and 71 criminal courts, with 80 police circles (thdnds). Strength of regular and municipal police, 4518 men, besides a rural police or village watch of 30,433 chaukiddrs. Patna. — British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, lying between 24° 58' and 25° 42' n. lat, and between 84° 44' and 86° 5' E. long. Area, 2079 square miles. Population (1881) 1,756,856. Patna forms the south central District of the Patnal Division. It is bounded on the north by the river Ganges, which separates it from Saran, Muzaffarpur, and Darbhangah; on the east by Monghyr; on the south by Gaya; and on the west by the river Son (Soane), which separates it from Shahabad District. The chief town is Patna, which adjoins on the east the administrative head-quarters at Bankipur, and is situated on the south or right bank of the Ganges. Physical Aspects. — Patna District is, throughout the greater part ofits extent, a dead level ; but towards the south the ground rises into hills. The soil is for the most part alluvial ; and the country along the bank of the Ganges is peculiarly fertile, producing the finest crops of all descrip tions. The general line of drainage is from west to east; and high ground along the south of the Ganges forces back the rivers flowing from the District of Gayd. The result is that, during the rains, nearly the whole interior of the District south of a line drawn parallel to the Ganges, and 4 or 5 miles from its bank, is flooded. There are no forests or jungles of any extent, but fine groups of trees are found in many places. In the south-east the District is, for some 30 miles, divided from Gayal by the Rajagriha Hills, which consist of two parallel ridges running south-west, with a narrow valley between, inter sected by ravines and passes. These hills, which seldom exceed 1000 feet in height, are rocky and clothed with thick low jungle. They possess a special interest for the antiquary, as containing some of the earliest memorials of Buddhism. To the north of this ridge rises an isolated hill, which, being composed of the same materials as the Rajagriha Hills, may be considered as an outlying spur of that range ; it has been identified by General Cunningham with the 'Kapotika' of Hiuen Tsiang. Hot springs are common on the Rajagriha Hills. The chief rivers of Patna are the Ganges and the Son (Soane), which form, as has been said, the northern and western boundaries of the District respectively. The total length of the Ganges along the boundary of Patna District is 93 miles. The Son first touches the Dis trict near Mahibalipur village, and flows in a northerly direction for 41 miles, till it joins the Ganges; during this part of its course it receives 94 PATNA DISTRICT. no tributaries. The Patna Canal (q.v.), one of the most important branches of the Son Canal system, passes through the west of the District. The only other river of any consequence is the Punpun, which, though described as one of the navigable rivers of Bengal, is in this District chiefly remarkable for the number of petty irrigation canals which it supplies with water. So much of the river is thus diverted, that only a small portion of its water ever reaches the Ganges. The course of the Punpun is north-easterly until it reaches Naubatpur, where it takes a bend to the east, crossing the Patnal and Gayal Railway about 9 miles from Bankipur, and joins the Ganges at Fatwa\ The total length of the Punpun in this District is stated to be 54 miles; about 9 miles from its junction with the Ganges, it is joined by the Miirhar. Great changes have from time to time taken place in the course of the Ganges, and the point at which the Son joined this river was once several miles east of its present position (see Ganges). Forests, jungles, marshes, or pasturage grounds, do not exist in Patna District, which is cultivated over almost its entire area. The mineral products consist of building stone, which may be dug from the hill at Behar; sildjit, a medicinal substance which exudes from the rock at Tapoban and Rajgir; kankar or calcareous limestone; and saline efflorescence. Large game is not abundant in Patna District, there being no jungles except on the Rajagriha Hills. Among these hills bears are found. Wolves and jackals are common, hyaenas are sometimes seen, and the small Indian fox is not unknown ; a leopard was killed near Behar town in 1876. Of smaller game, duck, quail, and ortolan are abundant; and partridges and wild geese are also found. Birds of prey are numerous, and hawking was formerly a favourite amusement among rich natives. History. — The history of Patna District is so intimately interwoven with that of Patna City that it is unnecessary to anticipate what the reader will find in the historical sections of that article. The District possesses special interest, both for the historian and the archaeologist. Patna City has been identified with Pataliputra (the Palibothra of Megasthenes), which is supposed to have been founded six hundred years before the Christian era by Raja" Ajata Satru, a contemporary of Gautama, the founder of the Buddhist religion; and in the south eastern portion of the District are found some of the earliest remains of Buddhism. Here, too, is situated the town of Behar, the early Muhammadan capital which gave its name to the Province • and throughout the District are places which were visited and have been described by the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa - Hian and Hiuen Tsiang. The name of Patna is derived from patana, literally l the PATNA DISTRICT. 95 town ' ; and Behar is simply the vernacular form of the Sanskrit vihdra, a Buddhist monastery. In the modern history of the District, two events of special interest to Englishmen stand prominently out, and demand separate notice. The one is known as the Massacre of Patna (1763), and the other is the outbreak of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. The former occurrence, which may be said to have sealed the fate of Muhammadan rule in Bengal, was the result of a quarrel between Mir Kasim, at that time Nawab of Murshidabad, and the English authorities. The Nawab, after much negotiation, had agreed to a convention which was also accepted by Mr. Vansittart, the Governor, that a transit duty of only 9 per cent, should be paid by Englishmen, which was far below the rate exacted from other traders. This Convention, however, was repudiated by the Council at Calcutta, and Mfr Kasim, in retaliation, resolved to abandon all duties whatever on the transit of goods, and to throw the trade of the country perfectly open — a measure still less agreeable to the Company's servants. In April 1763, a deputation, consisting of Messrs. Hay and Amyatt, was despatched from Calcutta to Monghyr, where the Nawab had taken up his residence ; but it was now too late for negotiation. Numerous and fierce disputes had arisen between the gumdshtds of the English and the Muhammadan officers ; and there was much hot blood on both sides. An occurrence which happened at Monghyr, while Messrs. Hay and Amyatt were there, hastened the rupture. Mfr Kasim seized and detained some boat-loads of arms which were passing up the Ganges to Patni, on the ground that the arms were destined to be used against himself. On the 24th June, Mr. Ellis, the Com pany's chief of the factory at Patna, ordered his sepoys to occupy Patna" city, which was done the following morning. In revenge, the Nawab sent a force in pursuit of Mr. Amyatt, who had been allowed to return to Calcutta, Mr. Hay having been detained as a hostage. Mr. Amyatt was overtaken and murdered near Kasimbazar. In the meantime the Company's sepoys, who had been plundering the city, were driven back to the factory by the Muhammadans at Patrk, a large number of them being killed. The remainder, only about 300 out of 2000 men, after being besieged for two days and nights, fled in their boats to the frontier of Oudh, where they ultimately kid down their arms. They were then brought back to Patna, to which place had been conveyed Mr. Hay from Monghyr, the entire staff of the Kasimbazlr factory, who had also been arrested at the first out break of hostilities, and some other prisoners. As soon as regular warfare commenced, however, Mir Kasim's successes came to an end. He was defeated in two battles by Major Adams — at Gheria on the 2nd August, and at Udba-nak on the 5th September. 96 PATNA DISTRICT. These defeats roused Mfr Kasim to exasperation, and on the 9th September he wrote to Major Adams : ' If you are resolved to proceed in this business, know for a certainty that I will cut off the heads of Mr. Ellis and the rest of your chiefs, and send them to you.' This threat he carried out, with the help of a Swiss renegade Samru (whose original name had been Walter Reinhardt), on the evening of the 6th October. Mr. Ellis and others, according to a contemporary letter, were decoyed one by one out of the room where they were drinking tea at seven o'clock, and instantly cut down. The remainder took alarm, and defended themselves as best they could with bottles and plates, their knives and forks having been already removed. About 60 Englishmen were thus murdered, their bodies being thrown into a well in the compound of the house in which they were confined. It is said that 200 Englishmen were killed at this time throughout Bengal. On the news of the massacre reaching Calcutta, a general deep mourning was ordered for the space of fourteen days, and minute- guns were fired from the fort and the fleet. A lakh of rupees (£10,000) was offered for the person of Mir Kasim, and £4000 for Samru. The subsequent war with the Wazir of Oudh, which was prolonged till May 1765, was to some extent occasioned by the refusal of the Wazir to surrender these persons, who had placed themselves under his protection. Mfr Kasim is said to have died in great indigence at Delhi. Samru took refuge with a succession of new masters, and was ulti mately presented with the jdgir of Sardhana in Meerut District ; he died at Agra in 1778, leaving as his widow and heir the notorious Begam Samru. This lady endeavoured in her old age to make amends by charities for a long life of wickedness. She died in 1834, and by her will she devoted £15,000 to the foundation of a Clergy Fund and Poor Fund; and her name now stands first in Archdeacon Pratt's ' Endowments of the Diocese of Calcutta.' The litigation connected with her property was not finally settled till more than a third of a century after her death. The other important event in the modern history of the District is the outbreak of the Mutiny at Dinapur, the military station attached to Patna city. For a full account of the events connected with the outbreak, the reader must be referred to the history of the period; only a very brief narrative can be given here. The three Sepoy regiments at Dinapur in 1857 were the 7th, 8th, and 40th Native Infantry, regarding whom General Lloyd, commanding at Dinapur, wrote expressing his confidence. They were accordingly not dis armed ; but as the excitement increased throughout Behar, and stronger measures seemed in the opinon of the Commissioner, Mr. Tayler, to PATNA DISTRICT. 97 be necessary, the General, while still apparently relying on the trust worthiness of the men, was unwilling to disregard the remonstrances of the European residents, and in July made a half-hearted attempt at disarming the Sepoys. The result was that the three regiments revolted and went off in a body, taking with them their arms and accoutrements, but not their uniforms. Some took to the Ganges, where their boats were fired into and run down by a steamer which was present, and their occupants shot or drowned. But the majority were wiser, and hastened to the river Son, crossing which they found them selves safe in Shahabad, a friendly country, with nothing to oppose them but a handful of civilians, indigo-planters, and railway engineers, with a few Sikh soldiers, who might or might not prove faithful to their employers. The story of what took place in Shahabad will be found in the article on Shahabad District. The news that the rebels, headed by Kunwar (or Kuar) Singh, the natural leader of the Rajputs of Behar, had sur rounded the Europeans at Arrah, reached Bankipur about the same time that the Commissioner was informed of the assassination of Major Holmes and his wife at Sagaulf, in Champaran, by his regiment of irregular horse, in whom he had rashly placed implicit trust. An attempt was made to rescue the Europeans at Arrah, but ill-luck attended the effort. A steamer, which was sent on the 27th up the river from Dinapur, stuck on a sandbank. Another steamer was started on the 29th ; but the expedition was grossly mismanaged. While there was abundance of food on board, the men were left fasting. They were landed at the nearest point to Arrah at about 7 p.m. ; and though the men were tired and hungry, they were pushed on till they fell into an ambuscade about midnight. The commander of the expedition, Captain Dunbar, was speedily shot down. The enemy were concealed in a mango grove, while the European troops, marching on a raised causeway, were terribly exposed. All was soon in confusion. When morning dawned, a disastrous retreat had to be commenced by the survivors of this ill-fated expedition. The enemy were all round them, the retreat became a rout, and had not the ammunition of the insurgents run short, hardly an Englishman would have escaped. As it was, out of the 400 men who had left Dinapur, fully half were left behind ; and of the survivors, only about 50 returned unwounded. But disastrous as was the retreat, it was not disgraceful. Individual acts of heroism saved the honour of the British character. Two volunteers, Mr. M'Donell and Mr. Ross Mangles, both of the Civil Service, besides doing excellent service on the march, made themselves remarkable by acts of conspicuous daring. The former, though wounded, was one of the last men to enter the boats. The insurgents had taken the oars of his boat and had lashed the rudder, so that though the VOL. xi. g 98 PATNA DISTRICT. wind was favourable for retreat, the current carried the boat back to the river bank. Thirty-five soldiers were in the boat, sheltered from fire by the usual thatch covering ; but while the rudder was fixed, the inmates remained at the mercy of the enemy. At this crisis, Mr. M'Donell stepped out from the shelter, climbed on to the roof of the boat, perched himself on the rudder and cut the lashings, amidst a storm of bullets from the contiguous bank. Strangely enough, not a ball struck him ; the rudder was loosened, the boat answered to the helm, and by Mr. M'Donell's brilliant act the crew were saved from certain destruction. Mr. Ross Mangles' conduct was equally heroic. During the retreat, a soldier was struck down near him. He stopped, lifted the man on to his back, and though he had frequently to rest on the way, he managed to carry the wounded man for 6 miles till he reached the stream. He then swam with his helpless burden to a boat, in which he deposited him in safety. Both these civilians afterwards received the Victoria Cross as a reward for their heroism. Population. — Several early estimates have been made of the popula tion of Patna District ; among them, one by Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton in 1807, which is interesting as corresponding in a remarkable degree with the results obtained by the Census of 1872. He estimated the population of nine police circles, which nearly correspond with the present area of the District, at 1,308,270 souls. In 1857 it was estimated at 1,200,000; and a later calculation reduced this figure to 900,000. The first regular Census in 1872 disclosed a total population of 1,559,638 persons. The latest enumeration in 188 1 returned the population of Patnd District at 1,756,856, showing an increase of 197,218, or 12-64 per cent, above that returned by the Census of 1872. The pressure of the population on the soil is greater in Patnal (845 per square mile) than in any District of Bengal Proper, except the metropolitan District of the Twenty-Four Pargands and the suburban District of Howrah ; and very little less than in the adjacent Behar District of Saran (869 per square mile). The results of the Census of 188 1 may be summarized as fol lows : — Area of District, 2079 square miles, with 11 towns and 5624 villages, and 319,167 houses, of which 279,455 were occupied. Total population, 1,756,856, namely, males 858,783, and females 898,073; proportion of males, 48-9 per cent. Average density of population, 845 persons per square mile ; towns or villages per square mile, 2-71 ; persons per town or village, 312, or excluding the n towns, 252; houses per square mile, 153-5; inmates per house, 6-3. Classified according to age and sex, the population consists of — under 15 years of age, boys 330,872, and girls 321,670; total children, 652,542, or 37-1 per cent, of the population: 15 years and upwards, males 527,911, and females 576,403; total adults, 1,104,314, or62'9 per cent. PATNA DISTRICT. 99 Religion. — Classified according to religion, the population consists of — Hindus, 1,541,061, or 87-71 per cent, of the total population of the District; Muhammadans, 213,141, or 12-13 Per cent; Christians, 2588; Brahmos, 16; Jains, 22; Jews, 14; Parsi, 1; and 'others,' 13. Of high-caste Hindus, there are 47,041 Brahmans and 64,332 Rajputs. Ranking next after these two castes are the Babhans, who are very numerous throughout the Patna Division, and number in this District 121,381. Their origin is much disputed. They claim in Patna to be Sarwarid Bralimans, and they are also called Bhuinhar, and zamin ddri or military Brahmans. Intermediate castes include Baniyas, 34,538 ; and Kayasths, 29,864. Among the lower or Sudra castes, the most numerous are the Goaks or Ahirs, the great herdsman class, of whom there are 217,845; and the Kurmfs, the principal agricultural caste, who number 194,222. Other Hindu castes include — Dosadh, 99,976 ; Koerf, 86,738 ; Kahar, 85,824 ; Cbamar, 56,867 ; Telf, 52,880; Pasi, 37,146; Musahar, 36,858; Dhanuk, 36,530; Kandu, 32,177; Napit, 29,165; Barhai, 26,360; Kumbhar, 24,069; Sonar, 23.3!3; Mallah, 19,099; Dhobf, 13,534; Nuniya, 12,389; Tatwa, 12,333; Madak, 10,148; Kalwar, 8749; Garark, 8355; Lohar, 8131 ; Sunri, 7899; Tanti, 7158; Mali, 5611 ; Dom, 5594; and Tambulf, 5024. The total number of Hindus in the District who do not recognise caste is 4791. The Wahabi's form the most interesting section of the Musalman community. They are a numerous body (although only 27 returned themselves as such at the time of the last Census), among whom are said to be included a few wealthy traders, though the majority belong to the lower classes. Many of them are fanatical in their opposition to both Sunnis and Shials, though Wahabi-ism is really but a branch of the Sunnf faith. Patna was first visited by Sayyid Ahmad, the leader of the Wababi movement in India, about the year 1820. The Patna Wahabfs were involved in treasonable practices in 1864-65 ; eleven persons were arrested and sentenced to transportation. For the Wahabf movement and State Trials, see the present author's Indian Musalmdns, 3rd ed. p. 105, etc. The Christians, according to the Census of 188 r, number 2588, or -15 per cent, of the total population. Europeans number 1539, including the troops at Dinapur; Eurasians, 366; natives of India, 420 ; and ' others,' 263. By sect, the Christians include — Church of England, 1265 ; Protestants, without distinction of sect, 321 ; Roman Catholics, 640; Church of Scotland, 71; Baptists, 63; Methodists, 62 ; and 'others,' 166. Town and Rural Population. — Ten municipal towns in Patna District contain a population exceeding five thousand inhabitants — Patna City, population (1881) 170,654; Behar, 48,968; Dinapur, ioo PATNA DISTRICT. 37,893 ; Barh, 14,689 ; Khagaul, 14,075 ; Mukama, 13,052 ; Fatwa, 10,919 ; Muhammadpur, 8479 • Baikunthpur, 6424; and Rasulpur- Moner, 5769. Nawada (population 3323) is also a municipality. Total urban population, 334,245, or 19 per cent, leaving 1,422,611, or 81 per cent., as the rural population of the District. Detailed accounts of the above-mentioned towns will be found under their respective names. The municipalities of the District contain a total population of 336,842 ; municipal income (1883-84), £16,913, of which £13,879 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, 9|d. per head. Patna" city, in which the whole interest and importance of the District, and, indeed, of the Division, centres, is, after Calcutta, the largest river-mart in Bengal. It forms a busy changing-station, where the piece-goods, salt, and miscellaneous manu factures of Europe which come up from Calcutta by rail are trans ferred into country boats to be distributed throughout the neighbour ing tracts, and where the agricultural produce of a wide area is collected for despatch to the seaboard. Trade, however, has decreased of late years, since the opening of the Tirhiit and Gaya lines of railway have rendered warehousing at Patna unnecessary. Reference has already been made to the historical interest of the city, and to its identification with the ancient Pataliputra. The civil station of Bankipur and the military cantonment of Dinapur are situated within a few miles of the city of Patnal proper. Among the numerous places of historic interest in the District may be mentioned : — Rajagriha or Rajgir, the site of the capital of the ancient kingdom of Magadha; the hills of the same name, with their Buddhist remains ; Giriyak, a place full of arch geological interest ; and Sherpur, the scene of a large fair, — all of which see separately. Of the 5635 towns and villages in Patna District, 3301 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 1609 from two to five hundred; 561 from five hundred to a thousand ; 129 from one to two thousand; 18 from two to three thousand; 7 from three to five thousand; 3 from five to ten thousand ; 4 from ten to fifteen thousand ; and 3 upwards of fifteen thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the Census classifies the male population of the Districts into six main divisions as follow — (1) Professional class, including all Government servants, civil and military, 16,804; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc., 49,408 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 35i585; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 233,950; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, including all artisans, 76,230; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers and male children, 446,806. Agriculture.— Rice, which forms the staple of the District, is divided PATNA DISTRICT. 101 into two great crops — the kartika or early rice, sown broadcast in June or July, and reaped in October or November ; and the aghdni or winter rice, sown after the commencement of the rains, and reaped in November or December. The boro or spring rice is also cultivated to a limited extent, being sown in November or December, and reaped in April or May. By far the most important of these is the aghdni crop, of which 46 varieties are named. This rice is sown broadcast on land which has been previously ploughed three or four times ; and after a month or six weeks, when the seedlings are about a foot high, they are generally transplanted. The crop requires irrigation. Among the other principal crops of the District are wheat and barley, Indian corn (makdi), khesdri, gram, peas, cotton, tobacco, sugar-cane, a little mustard, several other oil-producing plants, and poppy. The last- named crop is one of the most important in the District, and will be referred to in detail in another section of this article (infra). All the poppy grown in the Province of Behar is manufactured at Patnal city ; and the area cultivated with poppy in Patna District amounted in 1881-82 to 25,314 acres. The out-turn in that year was 177 tons; average produce per acre, about 10 lbs. The rent of early rice lands producing also a second crop varies from 8s. to 12s. 9d. an acre; that of late or winter rice lands, which produce in general one crop only, from 9s. 6d. to 19s. an acre. All lands are irrigated, wherever possible; rotation of crops is not practised, except in the case of sugar-cane, which is never grown on the same field in two successive years. Wages are low in Patna, as compared with Bengal generally. Day- labourers receive 3d. a day ; agricultural labourers are paid in grain, representing a money wage of about id. a day ; smiths and carpenters earn from 3|d. to 6d. a day. Prices are said to have increased during the last twenty or thirty years, but the early figures are not available. The price of the best cleaned rice in 1870-71 was 6s. lod. a cwt, and of common rice, 4s. id. In 1883-84, prices of food were higher than usual, owing to scanty crops due to unequal distribution of the rainfall. The average price of common rice throughout the year was i6Jth sers per rupee, or 6s. 6|d. per cwt; and of wheat, 19-ifth sers per rupee, or 5s. 7d. per cwt. Natural Calamities. — Patna is subject to blights, floods, and droughts. Blights occur seldom, and on a small scale. Floods are caused by the overflowing of the Ganges and the Son (Soane) ; they are of frequent occurrence, but usually cause only partial damage. In 1842 and 1869, however, inundations caused extensive loss. The District was affected by the famine of 1866, but not to any serious extent ; the maximum price of the best cleaned rice in that year was 15s. per cwt, and of common rice, 9s. 6d. Long-continued drought during the rainy season, followed by an almost total loss of rice in the 102 PATNA DISTRICT. winter harvest and absence of rain when the spring crop is being sown, should, according to an official statement made in 187 1, be con sidered as a warning of impending famine. If paddy were to sell in January or February at from 3s. 6d. to 4s. 3d. per cwt, it would be an indication of the approach of famine later in the year. There are abundant facilities for the importation of grain in case of distress. Commerce and Trade, etc. — The trade of the District centres in Patna city, which is, as has been already stated, next to Calcutta, the largest river-mart in Bengal. Its central position near the junction of three great rivers, the Son, the Gandak, and the Ganges, where the traffic of the North-Western Provinces meets that of Bengal, gives it great natural advantages. It is also conveniently situated for the purpose of transport, either by river or railway, having a river frontage during the rains of from 7 to 8 miles, and in the dry months of 4 miles. The trade statistics will be found in the article on Patna City. The total length of District and Provincial roads is 454 miles ; total annual expenditure on all roads under the Department of Public Works, £9607. The East Indian Railway traverses the whole length of the District, entering it west of Barhiyi station, and leaving it at the Son bridge, a distance of 86 miles. During the scarcity of 1873-74, siding lines were laid down at Fatwa, Barh, and Mukaina, to assist in the transport of grain. Of these the one at Barh still remains, but the others have been taken up. Three newspapers are published at Patna ; the most important is the Behar Herald, appearing weekly, and con ducted by the native pleaders of the Patna bar. Opium Manufacture.- — Patnd is one of the two places in British India where opium is manufactured by Government. The cultivation of the poppy is confined to the large central Gangetic tract, about 600 miles in length and 250 miles in breadth ; it extends on the north to the borders of Nepal, on the east to Bhagalpur, on the south to Hazarfbagh, and on the west to Bareli District in the North-Western Provinces. This tract is divided into the two agencies of Behar and Benares, the former being under the charge of an agent stationed at Bankipur, and the latter of an agent at Ghazfpur ; both agencies are under the control of the Board of Revenue in Calcutta. In the Behar Agency in 1881-82, poppy was cultivated on an area of 297,162 acres, which yielded an out-turn of 18 16 tons of opium. The Benares Agency, including the Oudh tract, into which poppy cultivation has recently been introduced, had, in 1881-82, an area of 249,049 acres under poppy, which yielded an out-turn of 1896^ tons of opium. The poppy cultivated is exclusively the white variety (Papaver somniferum album), and the crop requires great attention. The ground having been carefully prepared, the seed is sown broadcast in November ; and by February the plant is generally in full flower, having reached a height PATNA DISTRICT. 103 of from 3 to 4 feet. Towards the middle of that month the petals are stripped off; and four or five days after their removal, when the capsules have attained their utmost development, the collection of the juice commences — a process which extends from about the 20th of February to the 25th of March. A detailed account of the cultivation of the plant and the manufacture of the drug would occupy more space than can be here given, but the reader will find the subject exhaustively dealt with in The Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xi. pp. 146-154, where the processes of testing and examination, and the usual methods of adulteration, are described. The amount of produce from various lands differs considerably. Under very favourable circumstances of soil and season, the out-turn per acre may be as high as 41 lbs. of standard opium (i.e. containing 70 per cent, of pure opium and 30 per cent, of water), paid for at the rate of 5s. per lb. ; but the average is from 10 to 16 lbs. per acre. The opium is made up into cakes weigh ing about 4 lbs., and containing about 3 lbs. of standard opium. These cakes are packed in chests (40 in each), and sent to Calcutta for exportation to China. The price which they fetch varies every year; the average for the five years ending 1882 was £129, 10s. per chest, the cost as laid down in Calcutta being £35, 10s. The varia tions in price were formerly excessive, but the Government is now careful to regulate the supply according to the demand. Administration. — It is difficult to compare the revenue and expendi ture of Patna. for different years, because not only do the balance-sheets contain many items of account and transfer, but the changes which have taken place in the constitution of the District render comparison misleading or impossible. The net revenue in 1870 was ,£230,998, and the civil expenditure £72,228. In 1877-78 the revenue amounted to £253,707. In 1883-84 the six main items of Government revenue aggregated £290,758, made up as follows : — Land revenue, £146,054 ; excise, £78,854 ; stamps, £33,297; registration, £3204; road cess, £15,470; municipal taxes, £13,879. The civil expenditure of the District, as shown by the cost of officials and police, amounted in 1883-84 to £64,826. The land-tax forms by far the most important item of revenue, amounting in 1877-78 to £146,564, or 57 per cent, of the total. Sub-division of estates has been carried out to a remarkable extent. In 1790 there were 1232 separate estates on the rent-roll of Patna District as then constituted, held by 1280 registered proprietors or coparceners paying revenue direct to Government ; the total land revenue in that year amounted to £43,343. In 1800 the number of estates had already increased to 1813, the proprietors to 1976, and the land revenue to £50,280. In 1850, when the area of the District had been considerably increased, there were 4795 estates and 25,600 104 PATNA DISTRICT. registered proprietors; the land revenue amounted to £121,352, or an average payment of £25, 6s. 2d. from each estate, and of £4, 14s. 9d. from each proprietor or coparcener. In 1866, the Sub-division of Behar, containing 796 estates, was attached to Patni; and in 1869, 19 estates were transferred from Patna to Tirhiit. Including the net total of 777 new estates obtained by these changes, the number of estates on the rent-roll of the District in 1870-71 amounted to 6075 ; the number of registered proprietors had increased to 37,500, and the land revenue to £150,798, or an average payment of £24, 16s. 4d. from each estate, and of £4, os. 5d. from each proprietor. By 1883-84 the number of estates had further increased to 8318, and the regis tered proprietors to 67,287 ; total land revenue, £146,054, or an average payment of £17, us. 2d. from each estate, and £2, 3s. 5d. from each individual proprietor. Allowing for the increase in the size of the District by the addition of the Behar Sub-division, the number of estates has multiplied nearly five times since 1790; the land revenue has more than trebled ; and where there was formerly one proprietor, there are now over fifty. There is reason to believe that the increase in the value of each estate during the same period has in all cases been large, and may in some instances amount to more than fifty times the estimated rental of 1790. For police purposes, the District is divided into 18 thdnds or police circles. The regular police consisted in 1883 of 1300 men of all ranks, including 751 municipal and 44 cantonment police, maintained at a total cost to Government of £18,373. In addition, there was in that year a village watch or rural police numbering 3124 men, maintained by the villagers and landholders at an estimated cost in money or lands of £9124. The total machinery, therefore, for the protection of person and property consisted of 4424 officers and men, or 1 man to every -47 square mile of the area or to every 397 of the popula tion. The total cost of maintaining this force was estimated at £27,497, equal to a charge of £13, 4s. 7d. per square mile of area, or 3fd. per head of population. The District jail at Patna, and subordi nate prisons at Behar and Barh, contained in 1883 a daily average of 256 prisoners, of whom 14 were females. Convicts numbered 230; under-trial prisoners, 2 1 ; and civil prisoners, 5. Education has progressed rapidly in Patna. The number of Government and aided schools in the District in 1856-57 was 12, with 583 pupils; in 1860-61 the number of such schools was 10, and of pupils 515; and in 1870-71 there were 23 such schools, attended by I53° pupils. Since that year education has rapidly advanced, owing principally to Sir George Campbell's system of grants-in-aid to primary schools. In 1874-75 there were, exclusive of Patna College, 309 Government and aided schools, with 9003 pupils; and in 1877-78 PATNA DISTRICT. 105 the number of such schools was 816, attended by 16,396 pupils. By 1883-84 the total number of schools in Patna District had risen to 2027, attended by about 27,000 pupils. The lower primary schools numbered 1452, with 19,658 pupils, and the unaided schools 512, with 5065 pupils. The Patna College was founded in 1862, and is the only institution for superior instruction in the whole of Behar. The number of pupils on the rolls in 1873-74 was 92, and in 1883-84, 165. The total expenditure on the College in 1883-84 amounted to £4664, of which £3411 was paid by Government, and the remainder, viz. £1253, was contributed by fees, etc. The total cost of each student in that year was £28, 5s. 4d., of which the Government paid .£20, 13s. 5d. The Collegiate school attached to the College was attended by 639 pupils in 1883-84. Special schools comprise — a normal school, with 90 pupils in 1883-84; a law school with 53 pupils; a surveying school with 54 pupils ; and a vernacular medical school with 145 pupils. No details are available with regard to girls' schools. Of the boys of school-going age, 1 in every 4-2 was attending school in 1883-84. The Census Report of 1881 returned 24,528 boys aud 3874 girls as under instruction, besides 57,760 males and 7907 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. Medical Aspects, etc. — The climate of Patna is considered remarkably healthy. The prevailing winds are east and west, in almost equal pro portion. The average annual rainfall for a period of over 25 years is returned at 41-81 inches, the average for each month being as follows : — January, 0-71 inch; February, 0-57 inch; March, 0-37 inch; April, 0-32 inch; May, i'6o inch; June, 6-72 inches; July, 10-42 inches; August, 9-61 inches; September, 8-33 inches; October, 2-82 inches; November, 0-21 inch; and December, 0-13 inch. In 1883-84 the total rainfall at Patnd. was 39-75 inches, of which 2-78 inches fell from January to May, 36-57 inches from June to September, and 0-40 inch from October to December. The annual mean temperature of Patna is 77-8° F., the monthly mean being as follows: — January, 60-9°; February, 66#o°; March, 77-3°; April, 86'8°; May, 88-6°; June, 88-4°; July, 84-8°; August, 84-1°; September, 83-9°; October, 79-7°; November, 70-3°; and December, 62-3°. In 1883 the thermometer ranged from a maximum of 110° F. in May to a minimum of 43'5° in December. The prevailing endemic diseases of the District are cholera in and about the city of Patnal, and stone in the bladder. Small-pox and fever are also prevalent. There are 5 charitable dispensaries in the District, which in 1883 afforded medical relief to 2288 in-door and 47,205 out-door patients. The registered mortality of Patna District in 1883 was at the rate of 21-98 per thousand, the total number of recorded deaths being 38,633. [For further information regarding Patna, see The Statistical Account of 106 PATNA SUBDIVISION AND CITY. Bengal, by W. W. Hunter, vol. xi. pp. 1-222 (London, Triibner & Co., 1877); General Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India, vol. i. pp. 452-454 (London, 1871) ; the Bengal Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports of the Bengal Government from 1880 to 1884.] Patna. — Sadr or head-quarters Sub-division of Patna District, Bengal, lying between 25" 12' 30" and 25° 39' n. lat, and between 84° 44' and 85° 19' e. long. Area, 617 square miles; villages, 1714; houses, 96,028. Population (1872) 521,336; (1881) 585,887, namely, males 285,895, and females 299,992, showing an increase of 64,551, or 12-38 per cent., in nine years. Classified according to religion, the population in 1881 consisted of — Hindus, 504,061, or 86-2 per cent; Muhammadans, 81,264, or 13-7 per cent; Christians, 523; Brahmos, 12; Jains, 8; Jews, 5; Parsi, 1; non-Hindu aborigines, 13. Proportion of males in total population, 48-8 per cent. ; number of persons per square mile, 949; villages per square mile, 2-78; persons per village, 342; houses per square mile, 177-63; persons per house, 6-i. Patna Sub-division consists of the six police circles of Patna municipality, Patni, Bankipur, Naubatpur, Masaudhi, and Paliganj. In 1883 it contained 8 civil and 10 magisterial courts, including the District head-quarter courts, a general police force of 779 men, and a village watch of 998 men. Patna City (known .to the natives as Azimdbdd). — Chief city of Patna District, Bengal; situated in lat. 25° 37' 15" N., and long. 85° 12' 31" e., on the right or south bank of the Ganges; adjoining on the east Bankipur, the civil station and administrative head-quarters of the District. Area, 6184 acres. Population (1881) 170,654. Early History. — The following section on the early history of Patnal city is based upon General Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India, vol. i. pp. 452-454 (London, 1871). Patna has been identified with Pataliputra, which, in spite of Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton's opinion to the contrary, is undoubtedly the same town as Palibothra, mentioned by the Greek historian Megasthenes, who came as ambassador from Seleukos Nikator to the court of Sandracottus or Chandra Gupta, at Pataliputra, about the year 300 b.c. The foundation of the city is attributed by Diodorus to Herakles, by whom he may perhaps mean Balaram, the brother of Krishna ; but this early origin is not claimed by the native authorities. According to the Vdya Purdna, the city of Pataliputra, or Kusumapura, was founded by Rajal Udayaswa, the grandson of Ajata Satru. This Ajata Satru was the contemporary of Gautama, the founder of the Buddhist religion, who died about 543 B.C. ¦ According to Buddhist accounts, when Buddha crossed the Ganges on his last journey from Rajagriha to Vaisali, the two ministers of Ajata Satru, King of Magadha, were engaged in building a fort at the PATNA CITY. 107 village of Patali, as a check upon the ravages of the Wajjians, or the people ofVriji. At that time, Buddha predicted that the fort would become a great city. Upon this evidence, General Cunningham con cludes that the building of Patna was begun then, but finished later, in the time of Udaya, about 450 B.C. According to the Hindu chrono logies, Udaya was the thirty-seventh king of Magadha, dating from Sahadeva, who was contemporary with the great war of the Mahd- bhdrata. The thirteenth in succession from Udaya was Chandra Gupta, who was reigning at Pataliputra when Megasthenes, whose account of the city has been preserved by Arrian, visited the city. He says that the distance of Palibothra from the Indus is 10,000 stadia, that is, 1 149 miles, or only 6 miles in excess of the actual distance. He proceeds to describe Palibothra as the capital city of India, on the confines of the Prasii, near the confluence of the two great rivers Erannoboas and Ganges. The Erannoboas, he says, is reckoned the third river throughout all India, and is inferior to none but the Indus and the Ganges, into the last of w-hich it discharges its waters. Now Erannoboas is the Greek form of Hiranya-baha, which has been identi fied with the Son ; and the confluence of this river was formerly much nearer Patna than now. Megasthenes adds that the length of the city of Palibothra was 80 stadia, the breadth 15 ; that it was surrounded by a ditch 30 cubits deep; and that the walls were adorned with 570 towers and 64 gates. According to this account, the circumference of the city would be 190 stadia, or 24 miles. Strabo, Pliny, and Arrian call the people Prasii, the Greek corruption of Paksiya or Parasfyd, the men of Paksa or Parana, which is a well-known name for Magadha, derived from the palds tree (Butea frondosa). The next description that we have of Patnal is supplied by Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrim, who entered the city after his return from Nepal, about 20th February 637 a.d. At that time the kingdom of Magadha was subject to Harsha Varddhana, the great king of Kanauj. It was bounded on the north by the Ganges, on the west by Benares, on the east by Hiranya Parvata or Monghyr, and on the south by Kirana Savarna or Singhbhiim. Hiuen Tsiang informs us that the old city, called originally Kusumapura, had been deserted for a long time and was in ruins. He gives the circumference at 70 li, or 1 if miles, exclusive of the new town of Pitaliputrapura. Little is known of the mediaeval history of Patni. In the early years of Muhammadan rule, the governor of the Province resided at the city of Behar. During Sher Shah's revolt, Patna became the capital of an independent State, which was afterwards reduced to subjection by Akbar. Aurangzeb made his grandson Azim governor, and the city thus acquired the name of Azfmabad. The two events in the modern history of Patna city, namely, the massacre of 1763, and the mutiny of 108 PATNA CITY. the troops at Dinapur cantonments in 1857, have been described in the account of Patna District. Description of the City. — Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton, in his MS. account of Patna city (1810), includes the whole of that part of Patna pargand which was under the jurisdiction of a kotwdl and 15 darogahs, who were appointed to superintend the police of the 16 wards (mahdllas) into which this area was divided. Each of these, wards lay partly within the town ; but some of them also included part of the adjacent country, consisting chiefly of garden land, with some low marshy ground that intervenes. The city of Patna, taken in this sense, includes the suburb of Bankipur on the west, and Jafar Khan's garden on the east, an extent of nearly 9 miles along the bank of the Ganges. The width, from the bank of the Ganges, is on an average about 2 miles ; so that the whole circumference includes an area of about 18 square miles. The city proper within the walls is rather more than a mile and a half from east to west, and three-quarters of a mile from north to south. It is very closely built, many of the houses being of brick ; the majority, however, are composed of mud with tiled roofs, and very few are thatched. There is one fairly wide street, running from the eastern to the western gate, but it is by no means straight or regularly built. Every other passage is narrow, crooked, and irregular ; and it would be difficult to imagine a more unattractive place. Still, every native who can afford it has a house in this quarter. In the dry weather the dust is beyond belief, and in the rains every place is covered with mud, while in one quarter there is a large pond which becomes very offensive as it dries up. The old fortifications which surrounded the city had long been neglected in Buchanan - Hamilton's time, and have now entirely dis appeared. The natives believe that they were built by Azfm, the grand son of Aurangzeb; but an inscription on the gate, dated 1042 a.h., attributes the erection of the fort to Firoz Jang Khan. There are hardly any striking buildings ; and a view of the town, except from the river-side, where some European houses are scattered along the bank, is decidedly mean. Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton states that the only public works, except those dedicated to religion, were the Company's opium stores, a granary, and a few miserable brick bridges. The Roman Catholic church, in the middle of the city, was the best-looking building in the place. None of the Muhammadan mosques or Hindu temples was worthy of notice ; some of the former were let to be used as ware houses. The number of houses in the whole city, as estimated by Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton, amounted to 52,000; of which 7187 were of brick, 11,639 of two storeys, with mud walls and tiled roofs; 53 with thatched roofs; 22,188 were mud huts, covered with tiles, and the remainder were mud huts covered with thatch. The population he PATNA CITY. 109 estimated at 312,000, or nearly double the present number, on an area twice as large. One of the most curious buildings in Patna is the old Government Granary, or Gok, a high dome-shaped storehouse. This structure, con sisting of a brick building in the shape of a bee-hive, with two winding staircases on the outside, which have been ascended on horseback, was erected in 1786 as a storehouse for grain. It was intended that the grain should be poured in at the top, there being small doors at the bottom to take it out. The walls are 21 feet thick. The following inscription is on the outside: — 'No. 1. — In part of a general plan ordered by the Governor-General and Council, 20th of January 1784, for the perpetual prevention of Famine in these Provinces, this Granary was erected by Captain John Garstin, engineer. Compleated (sic) the 20th of July 1786. First filled and publickly closed by .' The storehouse never has been filled, and so the blank in the inscription still remains. During the scarcity of 1874, a good deal of grain, which if left at the railway stations might have been spoilt by the rain, was temporarily stored here. In times of famine, proposals are still made by the native press to fill the Patna Gok. But the losses from damp, rats, and insects, render such a scheme of storing grain wasteful and impracticable. The Gok is usually inspected by visitors on account of the echo, which is remarkably perfect. The Patna" College is a fine brick building, at the west end of the city. Originally built by a native for a private residence, it was pur chased by Government and converted into courts for the administration of justice. In 1857 the courts were removed to the present buildings at Bankipur; and in 1862 the College was established in its present place. Proceeding farther eastwards, for about 3 miles, we arrive at the quarter called Gulzarbagh, where the Government manufacture of opium is carried on. The opium buildings are all on the old river bank, and are separated from the city by a high brick wall. In the neighbourhood are two small temples, which appear to be of great antiquity. One is used by Muhammadans as a mosque, and the other by Hindus. Beyond Gulzarbagh lies the city proper. The western gate is, according to its inscription, 5 miles from the Gok, and 12 from Dinapur. Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton's remarks on the state of the city, with some modifications due to improved conservancy arrangements, are applicable to its present condition. South of the city, in the quarter called Sadikpur, a market has been made on the ground formerly occupied by the Wahabf rebels; but it is not much used by the inhabit ants. Nearly opposite to the Roman Catholic church is the grave where the bodies of Mfr Kasim's victims were ultimately deposited. It is no PATNA CITY. covered by a pillar, built partly of stone and partly of brick, with an inlaid tablet and inscription. The present European graveyard lies to the west of the city, just without the confines of Bankipur. The chief Muhammadan place of worship is the monument of Shah Arzani, about the middle of the western suburb. He died here in the year of the Hijra 1032, and his shrine is frequented both by Muham madans and Hindus. In the month of Zikad there is an annual fair held on the spot which lasts three days, and attracts about 5000 votaries. Adjacent to the tomb is the Karbak, where 100,000 people attend during the Muharram festival. Close by is a tank dug by the saint, where once a year crowds of people assemble, and many of them bathe. The mosque of Sher Shah is probably the oldest building in Patna, and the Madr^sa of Saif Khan the handsomest. The only other place of Muhammadan worship at all remarkable is the monument of Pir Bahor, which was built about two hundred and fifty years ago. The Sikhs have a place of worship of great repute, called the Har-mandir, which owes its celebrity to its having been the birthplace of Govind Singh, the last great teacher of the sect. In spite of the antiquity of Patna, the total absence of ancient edifices is not to be wondered at, for quite modern buildings fall into decay as soon as they are at all neglected. Chahal Satun, the palace of the Behar viceroys, which in 1760 was in perfect preservation, and occupied by Prince Ali Jahan, afterwards the Emperor Shah Alam, could in 18 12 be scarcely traced in a few detached portions retaining no marks of grandeur. In the same year, the only vestige to be found of a court of justice, which had been erected in 1728, was a stone commemorating the erection, dug up in 1807, when a police office was about to be erected on the spot. A few gardens in and about Patna are cultivated with roses, for distilling rose-water; and some of them cover a third of an acre in extent. Population, etc. — Patna city covers an area of 6184 acres, or 9§ square miles. As regards population, it ranks seventh among the cities of British India, and is second only to Calcutta among the cities of Bengal. Its population, which in 1872 was returned at 158,900, had increased by 1881 to 170,654, namely, males 83,199, and females 87,455. Hindus form the great majority, or 74-4 percent., of the population, and in 1881 numbered 127,076, namely, males 62,581, and females 64,495. Muham madans numbered 43,086, namely, males 20,456, and females 22,630; and Christians, 492, namely, males 162, and females 330. Municipal income (1883-84), £11,147, of which £9116 was derived from taxa tion ; average incidence of taxation, is. ofd. per head of municipal population (173,251). Trade. — The principal business quarters of the city, proceeding from east to west, are : — Mariifganj, Mansdrganj, the Kik, the Chauk with Mirchaiganj, Maharajganj, Sddikpur, Alabakhshpur, Gulzarbagh, and PATNA CITY. m Colonelganj. The following paragraphs are condensed from a memo randum prepared in the Bengal Secretariat : — In the District of Patna, the principal mart is Patna city, a place of considerable importance as a commercial depot Its central position at the junction of three great rivers, the Son, the Gandak, and the Ganges, where the traffic of the North-Western Provinces meets that of Bengal, and another line of trade branches off to Nepal, gives it in this respect great advantages. It is conveniently situated for the purpose of transport either by river or railway, having a river frontage during the rains of from 7 to 8 miles, and in the dry months of 4 miles. Mr. M. Rattray, the Salt Superintendent at Patna, who was deputed during the early months of 1876 to collect trade statistics of Patna city, has furnished an elaborate Report on the subject, showing the export and import trade, the places of shipment and destination, and the route taken by each kind of trade. The following paragraphs are derived from Mr. Rattray's Report, and the figures refer to 1875-76. The statistics for 1883-84 are given at the end of this article. The city proper comprises the large business quarters of (1) Maruf- ganj, (2) Mansiirganj, (3) the Kik, (4) the Chauk with Mirchaiganj, (5) Maharajganj, (6) Sadikpur, (7) Akbakhshpur, (8) Gulzarbagh, (9) Colonelganj, and other petty bazars too numerous to mention, extending westward as far as the civil station of Bankipur. The mercantile portion of the city may be said to commence at Colonelganj, which is situated a short distance west of Gulzarbagh, and is the centre of a large trade in oil-seeds and food-grains. From here the other marts run eastward as far as the Patna branch line of railway, immediately adjoining which is Marufganj, by far the most important of any of the marts in the city. The influx of goods into Marufganj, Colonelganj, Gulzarbagh, and the Kik (in respect of cotton), is from northern Behar, the North-Western Provinces, and Bengal, with which these marts possess direct and easy water communication, and thus command a far larger supply than the inland marts of Mansiirganj, Maharajganj, Sadikpur, and Akbakhsh pur, or any of the other petty bdzdrs remote from the river bank. The trade of these latter is more intimately concerned with the pro duce of the Districts of Patna, Gaya, and Shahabad, which transmit large supplies of oil -seeds and grain by means of carts and pack- bullocks. Oil-seeds are disposed of wholesale to the few large export merchants of Marufganj ; the supply of grain, which consists princi pally of rice, is sold retail in the bdzdrs for local consumption. The principal imports are cotton goods, oil-seeds, salt, saline sub stances (khdri, sdjji, etc.), sugar (refined and unrefined), wheat, pulses, gram, rice, paddy, and other cereals. 112 PATNA CITY. The import of European cotton manufactures amounts to the large total in money value of £285,537, and the import of native manufac tures to £3065. Of silk cloth.s, considering the size and wealth of the city, the value appears to be comparately small, viz. £13,040. There is a large import of gunny-bags (673,419 in number); and it is said that about two-thirds of these are re-exported with grain. Irrespective of these imports, large quantities of salt, indigo seed, and various other kinds of merchandise are imported by rail, by merchants who have no agents or business connection in the city, and are residents of some other District. These articles are loaded into boats direct from the goods-sheds, and cannot be considered as forming a part of the regular import trade of the city. In a similar manner there are considerable exports of goods which have no Connection with any of the business houses in the city, but are landed into waggons direct from boats. By far the largest importing mart is Marufganj, the merchants of which place may be said to possess a monopoly of the oil-seed trade, for their imports amount to no less than 728,237 maunds, or nearly two-thirds of the entire quantity imported into Patna. In respect to other staples also, this mart shows a large importation. The imports of refined sugar amount to 36,501 maunds. Mr. Rattray was informed by a respectable merchant of the city that, since the opening of the Jabalpur railway, a large portion of the produce of the North-Western Provinces, which used to be consigned to Patna, is now despatched by that line to Bombay. The next mart of importance is Marisurganj, lying immediately south oi" Mariifganj. Being more of an inland mart, the supplies of Mansiir ganj are drawn for the most part from Patna District and other Districts to the south. Colonelganj, a river-side mart, stands next in order, with imports brought almost wholly by boat from the Districts of North Behar and from Bengal. Other smaller marts for oil-seeds and cereals are Sadikpur and Matkrajganj. Omitting the imports into the numerous petty bdzdrs, there remains the central business quarter of the Chauk, connected with which is Mirchaiganj ; and farther east the Kik, also known as the cotton mart, for it imports 35,871 maunds of cotton out of a total of 38,271 maunds for the whole city. All these marts have a distinct trade of their own. The importance of the Chauk consists in the variety and value of its imports. The principal import is cloth, of which a considerable trade is carried on by the Marwarfs. European cotton goods, chiefly longcloth, to the value of £180,425 for the Chauk, and of £93,200 for Mirchaiganj, are said to have been imported during the year 1875-76. The whole of this came by rail. PATNA CITY. 113 Before entering into an explanation of the figures, it is necessary to explain the particular character of the import trade of the city, which alone can account for the heavy imports by river. There are scarcely twenty persons in the city to whom the term ' merchant ' can be strictly applied — that is, wholesale dealers with head-quarters in the city and agencies at out-stations, who carry on an import and export business entirely on their own account The truth is that the bulk of the so- called merchants are, properly speaking, merely commission agents ; and the general practice is for bepdris or dealers to bring merchandise to these agents, at a storehouse, termed an arat, where the grain is sold, the agent or aratddr merely receiving a certain percentage. In this manner, a considerable import trade passes through the hands of the aratddrs into those of the wholesale exporting merchants. It is said that nine-tenths of the oil-seeds and grain, when brought into the city, are deposited in some arat, where they are taken over by the aratddr on his own account at the then prevailing rates. Taking the trade as a whole, it may be laid down that most articles are passed on through the city from one mart to another. Thus, to take the important staple of oil-seeds, large quantities are landed at Colonelganj, where they are purchased by Maharajganj merchants, who in their turn sell to merchants of some other mart, and so on till the goods finally reach the hands of the exporting merchant for despatch to Calcutta. Possessing, as the city does, great advantages in the way of water communication, it is not surprising to find the imports by river much in excess of those by rail and by road. Importers of goods, to whom time is of little consequence, naturally select water carriage as being cheapest and most convenient ; and there are of course certain classes of goods, such as bamboos, large and small, timber, firewood, hay and straw, rattans, mats and golpattd, which, from their bulky nature and com paratively small value, will not admit of any other mode of conveyance. A very elaborate and interesting statement, enumerating no fewer than 86 places from which the Patna imports are derived, and giving the quantities received from each, is supplied by Mr. Rattray in the Report already referred to. A full condensation of that statement will be found in The Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xi. pp. 163-169. The export trade, with the exception of oil-seeds and salt, is com paratively small, the most important article of export being oil-seeds, of which no less than 1,146,852 maunds were exported in 1875-76. The trade in this staple is in the hands of about a dozen merchants. Two European agencies in the city exported between them more than half the above quantity. Salt to the extent of 105,329 maunds, not quite half the imports, is the next most important item. The railway has been very successful in attracting to itself the bulk of the export traffic. The total despatched by this route amounted to vol. xi. H ii4 PATNA CANAL AND STATE. 1,105,659 maunds, the larger proportion of which consisted of oil-seeds, 979,047 maunds. The total exports of such articles as are shown by weight amounted to 1,525,827 maunds for the city, or nearly half as much as the imports; of which oil-seeds account for 1,146,852 maunds, and salt 105,329 maunds. Apart from these exports, there is a sort of indirect export trade by no means inconsiderable, chiefly in cotton, spices, English piece-goods, cocoa-nuts, and tobacco, regarding which the merchants were unable to supply statistical information. By ' indirect ' exports are meant goods purchased daily in small or large quantities by the mahdjans and baniyds of the interior of Patna District and of other Districts of the Division, which unquestionably do form a part of the export trade of the city. It is impossible to state, even approximately, the quantity thus exported, but it is known to be considerable. Amongst other articles of export may be mentioned 200 maunds of tobacco despatched to Bombay, and 250 maunds to Calcutta. This is prepared tobacco for smoking, for which Patna is noted. The remaining exports from Patna are unimportant Trade in 1883-84. — The foregoing paragraphs give a general view of the trade of Patna in detail for the various marts in the city, and with particular reference to the year 1875-76. Since then, the trade, though maintaining the same general character, has very materially increased. In 1883-84, the total trade of Patna (including the civil station of Bankipur and the military station of Dinapur) amounted in value to £10,495,763, namely, imports £3,892,184, and exports £6,603,579. Patna Canal. — Canal in Patna District, Bengal, on the Son System ; branches off from the Eastern Main Canal in Gaya District, about 4 miles from the village of Barun, where the Son is crossed by an anient which diverts the water into the Eastern and Western Main Canals. The Patnd Canal is designed to irrigate the country lying east of the Son. It is 79 miles in length, of which 36 miles lie within Patna District ; and it commands an area of 780 square miles, or 449,200 acres, irrigated by water conveyed by distributaries. The course of the canal from its commencement is, in general, parallel with that of the Son ; but shortly after entering Patna District it bends to the east, following an old channel of the Son, and joins the Ganges at Di'gha, a village situated between Bankipur and Dinapur. The canal was completed and opened throughout in October 1877. Patna. — Native State attached to Sambalpur District, Central Provinces, lying between 20° 5' and 21" n. lat., and between 820 45' and 83° 40' e. long. Bounded on the north and west by the Borasambar and Khariar chiefships, on the south and east by the Feudatory States of Kakhandi and Sonpur. Area, 2399 square miles. Population (1881) 257,959. PATNA STATE. H5 The country is an undulating plain, rugged and isolated, with ridges of hills crossing it here and there, and shut in on the north by a lofty irregular range. The soil for the most part is light and sandy. The principal rivers are the Tel, Ong, Suktel, and Sundar. Patna was formerly the most important of all the Native States attached to Sambalpur, and the head of a cluster of States known as the Athdra Garhjdt — ' The Eighteen Forts.' The Maharaja traces his descent through thirty-one generations to a race of Rajput princes of Garh Sambar, near Mainpuri. Hitambar Singh, the last of that line, having offended the King of Delhi, was killed, and his family dispersed. One of his wives, however, found her way to Patna, then represented by a cluster of eight garhs or forts, and there gave birth to a boy, who was called Ramai Deva. The chief of Kokgarh adopted the child, and eventually abdicated in his favour. Until this time, the custom had been for the Raja of each garh to take it in turn to rule for a day over the whole ; but when Ramai Deva's day arrived, he put the chiefs of the other seven garhs to death, and governed the eight garhs with the title of Maharaja. He further strengthened his position by a marriage with the daughter of the ruler of Orissa. During the three centuries which elapsed between the reigns of Ramai Deva and Baijal Deva, the tenth of the line, Patna obtained considerable accessions of territory. The States of Khariar and Bindra Nawagarh to the west, Phuljhar and Sarangarh to the north, and Bamail, Gangpur, and Bamra to the north-east, were all made tributary ; while Rairakhol, with a tract of land on the left bank of the Mahanadi, was annexed. A fort was erected in the Phuljhar State ; and Chandrapur pargand on the left bank of the Mahanadi was wrested from the ruler of Ratanpur. Narsingh Deva, the twelfth Maharaja, ceded to his brother Balram Deva all his territories north of the river Ong. Balram Deva then founded Sambalpur, which soon afterwards, by the acquisition of territory in every direction, became the most powerful of all the hill States. Meanwhile, Patnal declined ; and though for some generations it continued to receive a certain allegiance from the surrounding States, it sank by degrees into insig nificance, and until recently was one of the poorest of all. Some old temples on the banks of the Tel, and others at Rani Jhiria, built, it is said, a thousand years ago by a pious Rani of the Chauhan caste, alone record the past greatness of Patna. Rice forms the staple product, but pulses, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, and cotton are also grown. For 30 miles round the town of Patnd., a vast forest extends, containing sdl, sdj, bijesdl, dhdurd, ebony, and other woods, with small clearings here and there. These jungles are infested with tigers, man-eaters being common ; wild buffaloes, bears, and 116 PATNA TOWN— PATRI. leopards are also numerous. Patna has no manufactures of importance. Iron-ore is found in many parts, but no mines are regularly worked. The only means of communication are a few bullock or pony tracks across the hills. Area of State, 2399 square miles, with 1591 villages and 50,841 houses. Total population (1881) 257,959, namely, males 131,570, and females 126,389; average density, 107-5 persons per square mile. No separate return is given in the Census Report, showing either the ethnical or religious division of the people. The most common Hindu castes are Brahmans, Mahantis, Rajputs, Agarks, and Kultas. The aboriginal tribes consist of Gonds, Kandhs, and Binjwars. Of the total area of 2399 square miles, 550 square miles are returned as under cultivation ; while of the portion lying waste, 950 square miles are said to be still available for cultivation. In 187 1, upon the death of the late Raja leaving an infant heir, the State was taken under direct Government management, and is now in a very flourishing condition. The State is still under the management of the Government Political Agent, and the minor Raja is a student at the Rajkumar College at Jabalpur. In 1876-77 the collections amounted to £4740, the expenditure to £2858, and the balance to nearly £2300, including the surplus of the previous year. The in come of the State in 1883-84 amounted to £6440, and the expenditure to £5900, with an accumulated balance in hand of £6894. The temperature is that of the plains generally, in the cold months being often as low as 45° F. at daybreak, and rising by mid-day to about 80° F. The hot season lasts from April to the middle of June, when the thermometer sometimes reaches 110° F. in the shade. Though the climate has a bad reputation, the inhabitants appear robust and healthy. Cholera frequently breaks out, especially in the larger villages. Patna. — Chief town of Patna. Tributary State, attached to Sambalpur District, Central Provinces, and residence of the Raja. Population (1881) 2053, namely, Hindus 2044, and Muhammadans 9. Patna. — A small river rising in the Bhanrer range of hills in Slee- manabad tahsil, Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) District, Central Provinces. After a northerly course of 35 miles, it falls into the right bank of the Bairmal river. For some distance the Patna marks the boundary between Pannal State and Jabalpur District. Patri. — Petty State in the Jhalawar division of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 7 villages, with 1 tribute-payer. Area, 40 square miles. Population (1881) 3877. Estimated revenue, £900; tribute of £523, 10s. is paid to the British Government. Patri. — Town in Viramgam Sub-division, Ahmadabad District, Bombay Presidency ; a station on the Bombay, Baroda, and Central PATTAPATTU—PATTIKONDA. 117 India Railway, in lat. 23° 11' n., and long. 71" 50' e., 58 miles west of Ahmadabad city. Situated in a bare plain on the border of the Rann of Cutch, surrounded by a wall and with a strong central castle. Population (1881) 6525. A town of rising importance; trade in cotton, grain, and molasses. Post-office. Pattapattu (Pettai). — Town in Tinnevelli tdluk, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 8° 43' 20" n., and long. 77" 43' 10" e. Population (1881) 7321, occupying 1575 houses. Hindus number 4283; Muhammadans, 2613; and Christians, 425. Post- office. Patti. — Agricultural town in Kasiir tahsil, Lahore District, Punjab ; situated in lat. 31° 17' n., long. 74° 54' e., 38 miles south-east of Lahore city. Population (1881) 6407, namely, Muhammadans, 3869 ; Hindus, 1943; Jains, 421; and Sikhs, 174. Number of houses, 1091. Municipal income (1883-84), £448, or an average of is. 4^d. per head. Patti is an ancient town, and is mentioned in the itinerary of Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrim of the 7th century. The town is walled, and the houses are mostly built of burnt bricks ; streets well paved, and a good bdzdr. An old fort 200 yards north east of the town contains the police station and rest-house. School. Patti forms a favourite recruiting station ; the inhabitants are noted for their fine physique, and large numbers of them are serving in the army. Patti. — Tahsil or Sub-division of Partabgarh (Pratapgarh) District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Sultanpur and Kadipur tahsils, on the east by Jaunpur District, on the south by Allahabad District, and on the west by Partabgarh tahsil. Area, 468 square miles, of which 217 are cultivated. Population (188 1) 255,697, namely, 229,751 Hindus and 25,946 Muhammadans. The most thinly populated tahsil in the District, the average pressure being 546 persons to the square mile. Number of villages or townships (mauzds), 816. This tahsil comprises the 2 pargands of Patti and Dah'ppur, which are now joined together and returned as one; of the 816 villages, 695 are held under tdluk ddri, and 120 under 7nufrdd tenure, while 1 belongs to Government. Of the 695 tdlukddri villages, 680 are held by Bachgotf Rajputs in 23 estates; the remaining 15 composing a single estate held by Dirg- bansis. In 1884 the tahsil contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; strength of regular police, 41 men ; rural police or village watch (chaukiddrs), 712. Pattikonda. — Tdluk or Sub -division of Karmil (Kurnool) Dis trict, Madras Presidency. Area, 1134 square miles. Population (1881) 105,438, namely, 54,666 males and 50,772 females, dwelling in 107 villages, containing 20,755 houses. Hindus number 97,094: Muhammadans, 8231; Christians, 100; and 'ethers,' 13. The tdluk n8 PATTIKONDA HEAD-QUARTERS— PATUR. contains 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 20 ; regular police, 142. Land revenue (1883), ,£17,042. Pattikonda. — Head-quarters of the Pattikonda tdluk, Karniil (Kurnool) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 15° 28' n., long. 77° 4' e. Population (1881) 3087, inhabiting 717 houses. Memorable as the scene of Sir Thomas Munro's death, from cholera, in July 1827. Post- office. Pattukotai. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Tanjore District, Madras Presidency. Area, 909 square miles. Population (1872) 237,423; (1881) 244,717, namely, 117,871 males and 126,846 females, dwelling in 840 villages, and occupying 47,346 houses. Hindus number 221,556; Muhammadans, 17,066; Christians, 6093; and 'others, 2. In 1883 the number of civil courts in the tdluk was 1, and of criminal courts 2; police circles (thdnds), 13; regular police, 87 men. Land revenue, £19,205. Pattukotai. — Town in Tanjore District, and head-quarters of Pattu kotai tdluk, Madras Presidency; situated 27 miles south-east of Tanjore town. Population (1881) 4677, occupying 809 houses. A sub-station of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ; a station of the Vicariate -Apostolic of Madura; police station, sub-jail, telegraphic and post offices, dispensary, and fort. The fort was built by Vijaya Raghaya (the last of the Nayak dynasty) in the 7th century. Patuakhali. — Sub-division of Bakarganj District, Bengal ; com prising the 4 police circles of Patuakhalf, Bauphal, Gulsakhalf, and " Gulachhipa. Area, 1231 square miles, with 1001 towns and villages, and 49,620 houses. Population (1872) 425,019: (1881) 426,758, namely, males 223,688, and females 203,070. Muhammadans num ber 342,112, or 8o'i per cent.; Hindus, 79,749, or 18-9 per cent; Buddhists, 4723; and Christians, 174. Proportion of males in total population, 52-4 per cent. ; average density of population, 346 persons per square mile ; persons per village, 426 ; houses per square mile, 42-2; inmates per house, 8-6. Head-quarters at the village of Patua khalf or Lankatf; lat. 22° 20' 35" n., long. 90° 22' 45" e. In 1883, Patuakhalf Sub-division contained 1 criminal and 3 civil and revenue courts, a regular police force numbering 81 men, and a village watch or rural police of 1088 chaukiddrs. Patlir (Patur Shaikh Babu). — Town in Bakpur tdluk, Akola Dis trict, Berar. Situated in lat. 20° 27' n., and long. 76° 59' E., 18 miles south of Akola town, on the high road from Akola to Basim, and under the hills up which a pass leads to the Bakghat. Population (1881) 7219, namely, Hindus, 4994; Muhammadans, 2002; Jains, 221; and ' others,' 2. A rock-hewn Buddhist monastery is situated in the hill side east of the town. Two other shrines in the vicinity, one Muham madan and the other Hindu, are much resorted to. An annual Hindu PA UMBEN—PA UNG -LA UNG. 1 1 9 fair is held in January-February, lasting upwards of a month. A Musalman fair, lasting for three days, is held at the shrine of Shaikh Babu. Weekly market, post-office, and inspection bungalow. Paumben. — Town in Madura District, Madras Presidency. — See Pambam. Paunar (Powndr). — Ancient town in Wardha tahsil, Wardha" Dis trict, Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 20° 47' n., and long. 78° 42' 30" e., on the river Dham, 5 miles north-east of Wardha town. Popu lation (1881) 2495, chiefly agricultural. Hindus number 2268; Muhammadans, 189; Jains, 35; and non-Hindu aborigines, 3. The village contains a ruined fort in a strong position, and one of the large stone gateways of the old wall yet remains. Paunar forms the scene of some curious legends, which will be found in the article on Wardha District. It was formerly the chief seat of the Musalman Govern ment east of the river Wardha' ; and under the Mardthas became the head-quarters of a kamdvisddri or revenue district. In 1807 the Pindaris plundered the town. Anglo-vernacular school. Paung-deh (Poung-day). — Township in Prome District, Lower Burma ; situated to the west of the Myit-ma-ka stream, which traverses the township from north to south, leaving a narrow strip between it and the In-daing, the name given to the long stretch of In (Dipterocarpus tubercuktus) forest land lying between the Prome hills and the Myit- ma-ka. The country is undulating, and the eastern portion consists of a plain highly cultivated and under rice. The great high road from Rangoon to the northern frontier, and also the Irawadi Valley State Rail way, traverse this tract. The chief river is the Myit-ma-ka, the head waters of the Hlaing river, which carries off nearly the whole drainage of the country. Its main tributaries are the Shwe-lay or Weh-gyi and the Kantha or Taung-nyo. Paung-deh now includes In-ma, once an independent jurisdiction. The In-ma lake is an extensive marsh about 10 miles long and 4 broad in the rains, with a depth of 12 feet. The Myit-ma-ka enters it in the north as the Zay. The township comprises 39 revenue circles, with a population in 1881 of 34,287, and a gross revenue of about £8400. Paung-deh (Poung-day). — Chief town of Paung-deh township, Prome District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma; situated in lat. 18° 28' 20" n., and long. 95" 33' 40" e., on the main road from Rangoon northwards, 32 miles south of Prome town. Contains a court-house, market, police station, lock-up, charitable dispensary, the reformatory for the Province, school, etc. Station on the Irawadi Valley State Railway. Population (1881) 6727. Paung-laung (Poung-loung). — Range of hills in Tenasserim Division, Lower Burma, forming the eastern boundary of Shwe-gyin District. The mountains are steep and densely wooded, and many rivers take. 1 20 PA UNG-LIA—PA VA GAD A. their rise here. Three principal passes cross the range — the northern runs up the valley of the Baw-ga-ta, and across the Thayet-pin-kin-dat hill to Kaw-lu-do, the northern police post in the Salwin Hill Tracts ; the central passes up the valleys of the Mut-ta-ma and Meh-deh, and debouches at Pa-pun ; and the southern route is from the Mut-ta-ma river to Pa-wa-ta on the Bi-lin. Paung-lin (Hpaung-lin). — Township of Hanthawadi (formerly Rangoon) District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. Population (1881) 49,526; gross revenue, £26,154. The Sittaung Valley State Railway traverses Paung-lin. — See Hpaung-lin. Pauni. — Town and municipality in Bhandara District, Central Provinces; situated in lat. 20° 48' n., and long. 79° 40' e., 32 miles south of Bhandard town. Population (1881) 9773, namely, Hindus, 8760; Kabirpanthis, 29; Muhammadans, 838; Jains, 7; non-Hindu aborigines, 139. Municipal income (1882-83), £397, of which £342 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, 8|d. per head. The town is surrounded on three sides by high ramparts of earth, in some parts crowned with stone battlements, and by a ditch ; along the fourth side, to the east, runs the scarped bank of the Wainganga river. Two or three handsome stone ghats lead down to the river, which supplies the water used for domestic purposes ; that drawn from the wells being generally brackish. The dense jungle in and around the town renders the place very unhealthy; and this fact, with the consequent removal of many of the wealthier inhabitants to Nagpur, has caused Paunf to decay. A considerable trade still takes place, however, in cotton cloth and silk pieces ; and the finer fabrics manu factured at Paunf are exported to great distances. The town contains many old shrines, but the great temple of Murlfdhar, though com paratively modern, is the only one of repute. Pauni has a large and flourishing Government school, police outpost station, post-office, dispensary, and small rest-house for travellers on the bank of the river. Pauri (Paori). — Village and administrative head-quarters of Garh- .wal District, North-Western Provinces. Lat. 30° 8' 10" n., long. 78° 48' 15" e. Residence of an extra-Assistant Commissioner and of a civil judge (Sadr Amin). Station of the American Baptist Mission. Anglo-vernacular school. Pavagada. — Tdluk in Chitaldnig District, Mysore State. Area, 567 square miles, of which 163 are cultivated. Population (1871) 66,250; (1881) 45.5r3) namely, 23,400 males and 22,113 females. Hindus number 44,586; Muhammadans, 842; Jains, 82; and Christians, 3. Land revenue (1881-82), exclusive of water rates, £7504, or is. 4d. per cultivated acre. Soil sandy, and abounding with talpargis or sub surface springs of water. Crops — rice, ragi, navane, and horse-gram ; exports — iron and rice. In 1883 the tdluk contained 1 civil and 1 PAVAGADA VILLAGE— PAWAGARH. 121 criminal court; police circles (thdnds), 7; regular police, 54 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 132. Pavagada (or Pdmut;onda, ' Snake-hill '). — Village in Chitaldriig District, Mysore State; situated in lat. 14° 6' 23" n., and long. 77° 19' 8" e., 60 miles east of Chitaldriig town, at the southern base of Pavagada hill, 3026 feet above sea-level ; head-quarters of Pavagada tdluk. Population (1881) 1591. The residence of a line of pdlegdrs, whose founder lived towards the close of the 16th century. The existing fortifications were erected by Haidar Ali in 1777. Pawagarh (or ' Quarter Hill'). — Hill fort in the Panch Mahals District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 22° 31' n., and long. 73° 36' e., about 28 miles east of Baroda. An isolated hill surrounded by extensive plains, from which it rises abruptly to the height of about 2500 feet, being about 2800 feet above the level of the sea. The base and lower slopes are thickly covered with rather stunted timber. But its shoulders and centre crest are, on the south, west, and north, cliffs of bare trap, too steep for trees. Less inaccessible, the eastern heights are wooded and topped by massive masonry walls and bastions rising with narrowing fronts to the scarped rock that crowns the hill. To the east of Pawagarh lie the vast Baria State forests, and the hill seems to form the boundary between the wild country to the east and the clear open plain that stretches westward to the sea. On the east side of the north end of the hill are the remains of many beautifully executed Jain temples ; and on the west side, overlooking a tremendous precipice, are some Musalman buildings of more modern date, supposed to have been used as granaries. The southern extremity is more un even, and from its centre rises an immense peak of solid rock, towering to the height of about 250 feet. The ascent to the top of this is by a flight of stone steps, and on its summit stand a Hindu temple and a Musalman shrine. The fortifications consist of a lower fort, a massive stone structure with strong bastions stretching across the less precipitous parts of the eastern spur. This line of fortification is entered by the Atak gate, . once double, but now with its outer gate in ruins. Half a mile further is the Mohoti or Great Gate, giving entrance to the second line of defence. The path winds up the face of the rock through four gates, each commanding the one below it. Massive walls connect the gates and sweep up to the fortifications that stretch across the crest of the spur. Beyond the Mohoti Gate, the path for about 200 yards lies over level ground with a high ridge on the left, crowned by a strong wall running back to the third line of defence. This third line of defence is reached through the Sadan Shah Gate, a winding passage cut through the solid rock, crowned with towering walls and bastions, and crossed by a double Hindu gateway. 122 PAWANGARH—PAWAYAN In old inscriptions, the name of the hill appears as Pawakgarb, or ' Fire Hill.' The first historic reference to it is in the writings of the bard Chand (1022-1072), who speaks of Ram Gaur the Tuar as lord of Pawa. The earliest authentic account is about 1300, when it was seized by Chauhan Rajputs, who fled from Mewar before the forces of Ala-ud-din Khilji. The Musalman kings of Ahmadabad more than once attempted to take the fort, and failed. In 1484, Sultan Mahmud Begara, after a siege of nearly two years, succeeded in reducing it. On gaining possession, he added to the defences of the upper and lower forts, and for the first time fortified the plateau, making it his citadel. In spite of its strength, it was captured in 1535 by the Emperor Hamaydn by treachery. In 1573 it fell into the hands of the Emperor Akbar. In 1727 it was surprised by Krishnajf, who made it his head-quarters, and conducted many raids into Gujarat. Sindhia took the fort about 1761; and from Sindhia Colonel Woodington captured it in 1803. In 1804 it was restored to Sindhia, with whom it remained until 1853, when the British took over the management of the Panch Mahal District. The constant cool winds that prevail during the hot-weather months make the hill at that season a favourite resort for the European residents of Baroda. Pawangarh. — Hill fort in Kolhapur State, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 16° 48' n., long. 74° 10' 15" e. The fort was stormed by a British force on ist December 1844. Pawayan. — Northern tahsil 'of Shahjahanpur District, North-Western Provinces, comprising the pargands of Pawayan, Jamaur, and Kant Area, 598 square miles, of which 358 are cultivated. Population (1872) 261,494; (1881) 245,454, namely, males 131,221, and females 114,233. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 223,408; Muhammadans, 22,028 ; and 'others,' 18. Of the 654 villages in the tahsil, 508 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 108 from five hundred to a thousand ; 37 from one to three thousand ; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Government land revenue, £34,518, or including local rates and cesses levied on land, £39,438. Rental paid by cultivators, £56,304. In 1883, Pawayan tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 magisterial court ; strength of regular police, 61 men; besides a village watch or chaukiddri force. Pawayan. — Town in Shahjahanpur District, North-Western Pro vinces, and head-quarters of Pawayan tahsil. Situated in lat. 28° 4' 10" n., and long. 80° 8' 25" e., 4 miles south of the Bhainsi river, and 17 miles north of Shahjahanpur town. Population (1881) 5478, namely, Hindus, 4038 ; Muhammadans, 1423; and 'others,' 17. The sanitation, conservancy, and police of the town are provided for by a small house-tax. Charitable dispensary. PA WI MULANDA—PEDDAPUR. 1 2 3 Pawf Mulanda. — Zaminddri or chiefship in Chanda District, Central Provinces, 16 miles east of Chamursi; comprising an area of 87 square miles, with 23 villages and 332 houses. Population (1881) 1681. Supplies excellent iron-ore; and the forests yield teak, ebony, and bijesdl. Payanghat. — The valley of the Purna river, in Berar, lying between 20° 27' and 21° 10' n. lat, and between 760 10' and 78° e. long., and running eastward between the Ajanta range and the Gawilgarh Hills like a long backwater or inlet, varying in breadth from 40 to 50 miles, and becoming wider towards the east. The surface of the valley rises and descends by very long low waves, the intermediate valleys lying north and south. At a point just beyond Amraoti, this formation is broken by a chain of low hills crossing the plain in a north-westerly direction, and changing the watershed from west to east. The Payan ghat contains the best land in Berar — the deep black alluvial soil, of almost inexhaustible fertility, called regar. Here and there are barren tracts, where the hills spread out their skirts far into the plain ; or where a few outlying flat-topped hills, often crowned with huge cairn-like mounds, stand forward beyond the ranks to which they pro perly belong. Except the Purna, which is the main artery of the river system, scarcely a stream in this tract is perennial. The Payanghat is very scantily wooded, except close under the hills. In the early autumn it is one sheet of cultivation, but in the hot season the landscape is desolate and depressing. Payidipala. — Village in Golconda tdluk, Vizagapatam District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 170 38' n., long. 82° 47' e. Attached to the village are 10 hamlets, scattered over 5 square miles. Population (1871) 7797 and (1881) 6896, dwelling in 1490 houses. Hindus number 6805; Muhammadans, 88; and 'others,' 3. Peddapur. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Area, 552 square miles. Population (1871) 111,489; (1881) 124,314, namely, 62,088 males and 62,226 females, dwelling in 1 town and 187 villages, and occupying 25,282 houses. Hindus number 122,400; Muhammadans, 1901 ; and 'others,' 13. In 1883 the tdluk contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), n; regular police, 178 men. Land revenue, £22,650. The region is mostly jungle. Rice, sugar-cane, cotton, and gram are grown. Trade is carried on with Coconada. Peddapur (Peddpur). — Head-quarters town of Peddapur tdluk, Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 17° 4 55'' n., long. 82° 10' 35" e. Population (1871) 9202; (1881) 11,278, namely, 5573 males and 5705 females, occupying 2169 houses. Hindus number 10,664, and Muhammadans 614. The town lies 30 miles from Raljal- mahendri (Rajahmundry). Sub - magistrate's and District munsifs i24 PEERPOINTEE—PEGU. courts; post-office, bungalow, and good market. Peddipur was formerly the head-quarters of a large zaminddri. Peerpointee. — Town in Bhagalpur District, Bengal. — See Pir- PAINTI. Pegu (Pai-gu). — Division of Lower Burma, comprising Rangoon Town, the Districts of Hanthawadi (formerly Rangoon District), Tharawadi, and Prome, each of which see separately ; also British Burma and Pegu Town. The Division lies between 16° i' 40'' and 19° 55' 20" n. lat, and between 95° 12' and 96° 54' e. long. Area, 9159 square miles. Number of towns, 5; villages, 4425; houses, 205,416. Total population (1881) 1,162,393, namely, males 635,368, or 54-8 per cent, and females 527,025, or 45-2 per cent. Average density of population, 126-9 persons per square mile; towns and villages per square mile, 0-48 ; persons per town or village, 262 ; occupied houses per square mile, 22-5 ; persons per house, 5-7. Nearly the entire population, namely, 1,058,960, or 91 per cent., are Buddhists. Hindus number 46,742; Muhammadans, 28,159; Christians, 19,815; Nat - worshippers or non-Buddhist indigenous races, 8468; Brahmos, 11; Jews, 172; and Parsis, 66. Of the total number of Christians, European British and other European and American subjects number 3642; Eurasians, 3068; and Native converts, 13,105. Of the Native converts, 9643 are Baptists. The boat population numbers 23,851 persons, living in 4638 boats. As regards occupation, the male population were distributed into the follow ing six main groups: — (1) Professional class, including State officials of every kind and members of the learned professions, 18,024; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 8688 ; (3) commer cial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 44,882 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 196,818; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 59,458; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising labourers, male children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 307,498. The total population dependent on the soil is 759,130, or 65-31 per cent, of the Divisional population. Total cultivated area, 2043 square miles, or an average of 1-72 acres per head of the agricultural population. The total area of cultivable land is 3973 square miles. Amount of Government land revenue assessment, including local rates and cesses paid on land, £291,838, or an average of 4s. 4fd. per cultivated acre. Chief crops of the Division in 1882-83 — rice, covering an area of 1,371,329 acres; oil-seeds, 4681 acres; pulses, 1884 acres; cotton, 3097 acres; tobacco, 6255 acres; vege tables, 2457 acres; fruit-trees, 46,351 acres; dhani palm, 1433 acres; chillies, 105 1 acres. Taungya or nomadic tillage occupies 15,010 acres. PEGU TOWNSHIP AND TOWN. 125 Total number of civil and revenue courts, 36 ; criminal courts, 41. Strength of regular police, 1605 men. Total length of navigable rivers, 716^ miles, and of canals 37 \ miles ; of made roads, 508^ miles ; of the Irawadi Valley State Railway, 116 miles; and of the Sittaung Valley State Railway, 65 miles. Total number of schools under public management, missionary, indigenous, and private (1882-83), 2030; scholars, 53,047. The Census Report of 1881 returned 71,963 boys and 10,943 girls as under instruction; besides 251,817 males and 10,684 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. The principal towns are — Rangoon (134,716), Prome (28,813), and Pegu (5891). Gross revenue (1882-83), £997, 3J9- Pegu (Pai-gii). — North-eastern township of Hanthawadi District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. Population (1877-78), 49,655; gross revenue, ,£27,116: in 1881, the population was 79,099, and the revenue £44,380. The north-western portion is mountainous and forest-clad ; towards the south, the hills gradually sink into undulating ground, and end in level tracts partially cultivated with rice. The princi pal river is the Pegu, which flows first south-east and then south-west through the township. Its valley has an elevation of 1500 feet, and is intersected by deep ravines. The country north of the valley on both banks of the river is covered with dense evergreen forest. The centre of the township is traversed by the Paing-kyun, an artificially widened and deepened creek, communicating on the east with the Sittaung, and by a new locked canal with the town of Myit-kyo. A good road runs from Pegu to Rangoon, and another is being constructed from Pegu to Taung - gnu, to replace the old ' Royal road ' made by the Peguan king, Ta-bin-shwe-ti, in the 16th century. The Sittaung Valley State Railway from Rangoon to Taung-gnu traverses the northern and western portions of the township. The villages are connected by good fair- weather tracks. The township is divided into 6 revenue circles ; the chief town is Pegu. This township comprises the old Burmese juris dictions of Pegu on the north-east, Zaing-ga-naing on the north-west, and Zweh-bun on the south. PegU. — Head-quarters town of Pegu township, Hanthawadi District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma; situated in lat. 17° 20' N., and long. 96° 30' e., on the Pegu river, 20 miles west of the Sittaung (Tsit-toung), and 46 miles north-east of Rangoon. Population (1881) 5891, namely, Buddhists, 5315; Hindus, 247; Muhammadans, 307; and Christians, 22. Contains court-houses, police station, market, post-office, and Government school. Modern Pegu lies close to the river bank. The ancient town was founded in 573 a.d., by emigrants from Tha-tun, headed by the two princes Tha-ma-la and Weh-ma-la, and was formerly the capital of the Taking kingdom ; the sovereigns of which at one time reigned over the whole valleys of the Sittaung and of the Irawadi (Irra- 126 PEGU TOWN. waddy), — including Taung-gnu and Prome, — conquered Ava and the sea-coast as far as the Pak-chan, and successfully invaded Siam and Arakan. Across the river, and connected with the Pegu quarter by a substantial wooden bridge, over which runs the Rangoon and Taung- gnu road, is Zaing-ga-naing. Inside the old walls stands the great Shwe-maw-daw pagoda, an object of greater veneration to the Takings than even the Shwe Dagon at Rangoon. The town is laid out with broad and well-metalled streets crossing each other, generally at right angles. The market is on the bank of the river, a little above the bridge. The court-houses are situated on the wall, which has been levelled east of the town. The houses are built of wood and bamboos, and are thatched or tiled. The town has more than once been burned down. Pegu is described by European travellers in the 16th century as of great size, strength, and magnificence. Caesar Frederick, who was here in the latter portion of the 16th century, according to the account given in Purchas, wrote : — ' By the help of God we came safe to Pegu, which are two cities, the old and the new. In the old citie are the Merchant strangers and Merchants of the Countrie, for there are the greatest doings and the greatest trade. This citie is not very great, but it hath very great suburbs. Their houses be made with canes and covered with leaves or with straw ; but the Merchants have all one House or Magazon which house they call Godon, which is made of bricks, and there they put all their goods of any value to save them from the often mischances which happen to houses made of such stuffe. In the new citie is the Palace of the King and his abiding place with all his barons and nobles and other gentlemen ; and in the time that I was there they finished the building of the new citie. It is a great citie, very plaine and flat, and foursquare, walled round about and with ditches that compass the walls round about with water, in which ditches are many Crocodiles. It hath no Drawbridges, yet it hath 20 gates, five for every square : on the walls there are many places made for Centinels to watch, made of wood and covered or gilt with gold. The streets thereof are the fairest that I have seen, they are as straight as a line from one gate to another, and standing at one gate you may discover the other ; and they are as broad as that ten or twelve men may ride abreast in them. And those streets that be thwart are faire and large ¦ the streets both on the one side and on the other are planted at the doores of the houses with nut-trees of India, which make a very com modious shadow; the houses be made of wood and covered with a kind of tiles in forme of cups very necessary for their use. The King's Palace is in the middle of the Citie made in forme of a walled castle . with ditches full of water round about it. The lodgings within are made of wood, all over gilded, with fine pinnacles and very costlie PEGU TOWN. 127 woike covered with plates of gold ; truly it may be a king's house. Within the gate there is a fine large courte, from the one side to the other wherein are made places for the strongest and stoutest elephants.' When Alaung-paya (Alompra) conquered Pegu in the middle of the 18th century, he used every effort to annihilate all traces of Taking nationality. He destroyed every house in the town, and dispersed the inhabitants. His great-grandson, Bo - daw Paya, who succeeded in 1781, pursued a different policy; and in his time the seat of the local government was for some time transferred from Rangoon to Pegu. Symes, who visited it in 1795, thus describes it:1 — 'The extent of ancient Pegu may still be accurately traced by the ruins of the ditch and wall that surrounded it. From these, it appears to have been a quadrangle, each side measuring nearly a mile and a half; in places the ditch has been choked up by rubbish that has been cast into it, and the falling of its own banks ; sufficient, however, still remains to show that it was once no contemptible defence ; the breadth I judged to be about 60 yards, and the depth 10 or 12 feet; in some parts of it there is water, but in no considerable quantity. I was informed that when the ditch was in repair, the water seldom in the hottest seasons sunk below the depth of 4 feet. The wall was a work of magnitude and labour ; it is not easy to ascertain what was its exact height, but we conjectured it at least 30 feet, and in breadth at the base, not less than 40. It is composed of brick, badly cemented with clay mortar. Small equidistant bastions, about 300 yards asunder, are still discoverable ; there had been a parapet of masonry, but the whole is in a state so ruinous, and so covered with weeds and briers, as to leave very imperfect vestiges of its former strength. ' In the centre of each face of the fort there is a gateway about 30 feet wide ; these gateways were the principal entrances. The passage over the ditch is over a causeway raised on a mound of earth that serves as a bridge, and was formerly defended by an entrenchment, of which there are now no traces.' After describing how ineffectual seemed to have been the endeavours to repopulate Pegu, Colonel Symes continues : ' Pegu in its renovated and contracted state seems to have been built on the plan of the former city, and occupies about one-half of its area. It is fenced round by a stockade from 10 to 12 feet high, on the north and east sides its borders are the old wall.2 The plan of the town is not yet filled with houses, but a number of new ones are building. There is one main street running east and west, crossed at right angles by two smaller streets not yet finished. At each extremity of the principal street there is a gate in the stockade, which 1 Embassy to Ava, p. 182 et seq. 2 It thus included the Shwe-maw-daw pagoda. 128 PEGU RIVER. is shut early in the evening; after that hour, entrance during the night is confined to a wicket. . . . There are two inferior gates on the north and south sides of the stockade. ' The streets of Pegu are spacious. . . . The new town is well paved with brick, which the ruins of the old plentifully supply ; on each side of the way there is a drain to carry off the water.' After the capture of Rangoon during the first Anglo-Burmese war, the Burmese commander-in-chief retired to Pegu ; and his forces be coming thinned by desertion, the inhabitants rose against him and handed the place over to the British, who garrisoned it with a small body of troops. During the second war it was more stubbornly defended. Early in June 1852, the defences were carried by a force under Major Cotton and Commander Tarleton, R.N., the granaries destroyed, and the guns carried away. Without assistance, however, the inhabitants, at whose request the expedition had been sent, were unable to hold the town for a week, and the Burmese reoccupied the pagoda platform, and threw up strong defences along the river. In November of the same year, a force under Brigadier M'Neill was sent from Rangoon to retake the town, which was achieved after considerable fighting, and with some loss. The main portion of the troops were then withdrawn, and a garrison left of 200 men of the Madras Fusiliers, 200 of the 5th Regiment M.N. I., some European artillery, and a detail of Madras sappers, the whole being placed under the command of Major Hill of the Fusiliers. Hardly had Brigadier M'Neill retired when the Burmese attacked the garrison, but were driven off. The attacks continued ; and in the beginning of December the enemy appeared in force, and Major Hill with difficulty held the position. A small rein forcement was despatched from Rangoon ; but this was driven back, and forced to retire without communicating with the besieged. General Godwin, the commander-in-chief, then moved up the Pegu river in person with 1200 men, upon which, after some skirmishing, the Burmese retired ; but as they remained in the neighbourhood, the force moved out against them and finally defeated them, driving them out of a strong position in the plains, where they had thrown up extensive entrenchments. Pegu. — River in Hanthawadi District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma ; rises in lat. 18° n., and long. 96° 10' e., on the eastern slopes of the Pegu Yoma Mountains, and flows first south-south-east, past the town of Pegu, then south-south-west, and finally joins the Rangoon or Hlaing River, in lat. 16° 45' n., and long. 96° 11' e., near Rangoon after a total course of 180 miles. At its mouth it is about 1 mile broad, and can be ascended by large vessels as far as the Pu-zon-daung, where they take in cargoes of rice, cleaned in the steam mills on the banks of that stream. At neaps, the tide is felt as high as Pegu, and PEGU YOMA—PEINT. 129 during springs a bore rushes up the river almost as far. In the rains, the Pegu is practicable for river steamers up to Pegu town. It taps a country rich in teak and other valuable kinds of timber ; and in the lower part of its course, it irrigates a considerable area under rice cultivation. PegU Yoma. — Mountains in Lower Burma. — See Yoma. Pehoa (Pihewd). — Ancient town and place of pilgrimage in Ambala (Umballa) District, Punjab ; situated in lat. 29° 58' 45" n., and long. 76° 37' 15" e., on the sacred river Saraswati (Sarsuti), 13 miles west of Thaneswar. Pehoa was anciently known as Prithudaka, or ' Broad Water,' in allusion to the fact that when the Saraswati is in flood, the low lands surrounding the town are covered with water. The place stands within the boundary of the Kurukshetra, and ranks second in sanctity to Thaneswar alone. There are no buildings with any claim to antiquity in the modern town. The old temples were probably destroyed by Mahmdd of Ghazni in the expedition in which he sacked Thaneswar. There are some very curious remains of old pillars, and the people point out places where they say that digging would result in the discovery of ancient sculptures. There is one curious old door way profusely covered with male and female figures sculptured in high relief, and the remains of a much larger gateway in the same style, but much simpler in design. These probably belonged to a great temple of Krishna, whose image occupies the centre position in the lintel of both doorways. The town was apparently forgotten as a place of pilgrimage until the establishment of the Sikh power in Kaithal. It then revived, and the present temples have all been built within the last fifty or sixty years. The population of Pehoa town in 1881 numbered 3408, namely, Hindus, 2960 ; Muhammadans, 442 ; and Sikhs, 6. Number of houses, 481. Municipal income (1883-84), £351, or an average of 2s. ofd. per head. The palace, formerly occupied by the Kaithal Raji, is now used as a travellers' rest-house. A large annual fair for bathing in the Saraswati ordinarily attracts from 20,000 to 25,000 pilgrims ; but in 1873 as many as 100,000 attended. Widows assemble at the fair to bewail their husbands. The Saraswati contains little water, but is dammed up to secure a sufficiency for the bathers ; it, is, how ever, extremely filthy, and the stench at the close of the season becomes almost unendurable. Peint. — Formerly a Native State, and now a Sub-division of Nasik District, Bombay Presidency. Lying between 20° 1' and 20° 27' n. lat., and between 72° 58' and 73° 40' e. long. Area, 458 square miles, con taining 221 villages. Bounded on the north by Surgana in Khandesh District ; on the east by the Sahyadri Hills, which separate it from the Dindori and Nasik Sub-divisions of Nasik District ; on the south by the vol. xi. J 130 PEINT STATE. District of Thana ; and on the west by Dharampur in Surat. Popu lation (1881) 55,144 persons, namely, 28,546 males and 26,598 females, occupying 9524 houses. Hindus number 54,551; Muhammadans, 540; and 'others,' 53. A maze of hill and valley, except for some rice-fields and patches of rough hillside cultivation, Peint is over its whole area covered with timber, brushwood, and grass. Towards the north, a leading range of hills, passing westwards at right angles to the main line of the Sahyadri, gives a distinct character to the land scape. But over the rest of the country, ranges of small hills starting up on all sides crowd together in the wildest confusion, with a general south-westerly direction, to within 20 miles of the sea-coast, dividing the valleys of the Daman and Par rivers. The heavy rainfall, the thick forest vegetation, great variations of temperature, and a certain heaviness of the atmosphere, combine to make the tract unhealthy. The prevailing diseases are fever and ague. The population consists almost entirely of forest and hill tribes, nominally Hindus, poor and ignorant, unsettled in their habits, and much given to the use of intoxicating spirits. Their language is a corrupt Marathf with a large mixture of Gujarathf words. A large part of Peint is well suited for grazing, and considerable numbers of cattle and sheep are exported. The chief products are timber of various kinds (in cluding bamboos), rice, ndchni, oil-seeds, beeswax, honey, elk-horn, and hides. The ruling family, by descent Rajputs of the Powar tribe, adopted many generations back the family name of Dalvi. During the Maratha supremacy, their estates were for a long period placed under attach ment by the Peshwas. In reward for services rendered in 1818, as it was important, in so difficult and turbulent a country, to have a ruler of undoubted friendliness, the family were reinstated in their former position by the British Government. The last chief, Abdul Momin alias Lakshadir Dalpat Rao in., died in 1837, leaving only a legitimate daughter, Begam Niir Jahan, who died in 1878. The State was placed under British management on the death of the last male chief, but the Begam was allowed a life pension of £600 a year, in addition to one-third of the surplus revenues of the State. On the death of the Begam in 1878, the State finally lapsed to the British Government, and now constitutes a Sub-division of Nasik District. Harstil, the former place of residence of the Begam, lies in lat. 20° 9' n., and long. 73° 30' e. In 1880-81, Peint Sub-division con tained 3816 holdings, with an average area of 48^ acres, and paying an average assessment of 15s. 9d. The area under cultivation in 1880-81 was 149,120 acres; the principal crops being — grain crops, 90,827 acres, of which 62,258 were under ndchni (Eleusine corocana); PEINT TO WN—PEN. 1 3 1 pulses, 29,571 acres, of which 18,215 were under urid (Phaseolus mungo); and oil-seeds, 28,722 acres. In 1883 the Sub-division contained 1 criminal court ; 1 police circle (thdnd) ; regular police, 32 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 155. Land revenue, £3393. Peint. — Chief town of Peint Sub-division, Nasik District, Bombay Presidency; the capital of the former chiefs of Peint State, which lapsed to Government on the death of the late Begam in 1878, but at present a very small place, and the head-quarters of the mdmlatddr. Situated in lat. 20° 16' 30'' n., and long. 73° 29' 35" e., 32 miles north west of Nasik, and 10 miles north of Harsul. Population (1881) 2644. Post-office, dispensary, and travellers' bungalow. Pen. — Sub-division of Kolaba District, Bombay Presidency; situated in the north-east corner of the District; bounded on the north by Thana District ; on the east by Poona ; on the south by Roha ; and on the west by Alibagh. The chief river is the Amba, of which the water is sweet and drinkable from June until September. The soils are reddish and black. A large area of tidal swamps is used as salt-pans. Area, 290 square miles, containing 1 town and 198 villages. Population (1872) 63,363; (1881) 70,200, namely, males 36,221, and females 33,979, occupying 12,757 houses. Hindus number 66,670; Muhammadans, 2345; and 'others,' 1185. Land revenue, £15,524. The rainfall averages 100 inches. In 1881 the number of holdings was 7471, with an average area of 9| acres, paying an average assessment of £1, 19s. 2d. The survey rates were in 1858 fixed for a term of thirty years. The average rates are — for rice land, 7s. 9§d. per acre ; for garden land, 6s. 2|d. ; for upland, 4jd. Of the Government area, namely 289J square miles, 76,970 acres are returned as cultivable, of which 416 acres are alienated lands ; 40,346 acres as uncultivable; 2749 acres as under grass; 17,378 acres as under forest; and 20,219 acres of village sites, etc. Total cultivated area in 1880-81, 41,259 acres, of which 325 were twice cropped. Principal crops — grain, 40,613 acres, of which 32,653 were under rice; pulses, 595 acres ; oil seeds, 311 acres; fibres, 26 acres; and miscellaneous, 39 acres. In 1883, the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 3 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 6 ; regular police, 60 men. Pen. — Chief town of the Pen Sub-division of Kolaba District, Bombay Presidency; situated 16 miles east by north of Alibagh, in lat. 18° 43' 50" n., and long. 73° 8' 40" e. Population (1872) 6514 ; (1881) 8082. Hindus number 7302; Muhammadans, 458; Jains, 109; Christians, 8; Parsfs, 4; and 'others,' 201. Pen is a munici pality, with an income in 1883-84 of £624 ; incidence of taxation, is. 5d. per head. Sub-judge's court, post-office, dispensary, public library, and Anglo-vernacular school. Pen is connected with the Deccan by the Konkan road and the Bor Pass. Steamers from Bombay call daily at 1 32 PENA—PENGANGA. Dharamtar ferry on the Amba river, 5 miles distant ; and cargo boats up to 50 tons burthen come to Auturli or Pen Bandar, 1 \ mile' distant, at spring tides. The neap tide port, Bang Bandar, is 4 miles below Pen. Average annual value of trade for the eight years ending 1881-82 — exports, £66,991; imports, £33,493- In 1881-82 the exports amounted to £63,491, and the imports to £30,172. Pen is one of the two ports forming the Sakse (Sankshi) Customs Division. New water-works have been recently constructed at a cost of £2800. Pena. — Town in Gorakhpur District, North-Western Provinces. — See Paina. Pench. — River of the Central Provinces; rising in lat. 22° 20' n., and long. 78° 37' e., on the Motrir plateau in Chhindwara District. It flows south-east to Machagord, noted for its fishery, thence south to the village of Chalnd, near which it turns north-east, until stopped by the hills dividing Seonf and Chhindwaral Districts. It then flows nearly due south, till, after a total course of 120 miles, it joins the Kanban river in Nagpur District (lat. 21° 17' n., long. 79° 13' e.). Principal affluent, the Kolbira. Penchalakonda. — Peak in the Veligonda Hills, Nellore District, Madras Presidency, and the highest point in the Eastern Ghats within that District. Lat. 14° 17' n., long. 79° 28' 45'' e. ; elevation above sea- level, 3000 feet. Ancient pagoda on the hill, resorted to by numerous pilgrims and visitors. Pendhat. — Village in Mainpuri District, North-Western Provinces ; distant from Mainpuri town 29 miles north-west. Population (1881) 2419, namely, Hindus, 2238; Muhammadans, 86; and 'others,' 95. Noted for a great religious gathering, held on a movable date, at the shrine of Jokhaiya. Pilgrims come for the purpose of obtaining off spring and easy child-birth. Pendra. — Northernmost chiefship or zaminddri of Bikspur District, Central Provinces ; situated on the Vindhyan uplands. Though inter sected by hills, it consists mainly of an extensive plateau. Area, 585 square miles, of which 40,000 acres are cultivated, and 300,000 returned as cultivable. Number of villages, 200, with 9888 houses. Population (1881) 43,868, namely, males 22,323, and females 21,545 ; average density of population, 75 persons per square mile. The chief is a Raj-Gond, and obtained the grant more than three centuries ago from the Haihai-Bansi rulers of Ratanpur. Pendra, the head-quarters (lat. 22° 47' n., long. 82° e.), lies on the direct road from Bilaspur to Rewa, along which a constant flow of traffic takes place in the cold months ; it contains the ruins of a fort. A magnificent grove of mango trees, with spreading tamarinds here and there, affords a pleasant camping ground. Penganga (Paingangd). — River of Berar, having its source in the PENNER. 133 hills beyond Dewalghdt, on the west border of Buldana District, in lat. 20° 31' 30" n., long. 76° 2' e. After its course through Buldana, it forms the southern boundary of the Districts of Basim and Wiln, as well as of Berar itself. A legend tells that it owes the sudden change in its direction to the north (up to that point easterly), which it takes near Mahiir, to Parasuram, son of the sage Jumdagni, who drove an arrow into the ground here. The spot is still held in great venera tion ; the falls there are known as Sahasra Kiind or 'the thousand water caves,' and the river takes the name of Bandganga. The vicinity is densely wooded, and before the British administration it was the resort of numerous plundering gangs. When the river takes a northerly direction, after a series of straight reaches, at rather steep angles, it rushes through a deep rugged channel, broken by rocks and rapids. At last it forces its way through the barriers of basalt into the open country, and joins the Wardha at Jagad (lat. 19° 53' 30" n., long. 79° 11' 30" e.). It has many tributaries, the most important of which are the Aran (100 miles long) and the Arna" (64 miles). The total course of the Penganga exceeds 200 miles. The Sewandhri hills in the Nizim's Dominions are situated on its right bank. Penner (or Pindkini ; Ponnaiydr ; Pcnndr ; Pennair). — The name of two rivers in South India, which both rise near the hill of Nandidriig in Mysore State, and flow eastwards through the Karnatik into the Bay of Bengal. Penner or Pennair is the name adopted by European geographers ; but Pindkini, apparently derived from the bow of Siva, is that by which these rivers are known to the Kdnarese inhabitants of Mysore. (1) The Northern or Uttar Pinakini has its source in the Chenna Kesava Hill north-west of Nandidriig, and after flowing in a northerly direction through the District of Kokr in Mysore, and the Madras Districts of Bellary and Anantapur, turns due east and passes through the Districts of Cuddapah (Kadapa) and Nellore, falling into the sea by several mouths 19 miles below Nellore town. Total length, 355 miles ; area of drainage basin, 20,000 square miles ; principal tributaries, the Papaghni and the Chitravati. The stream is useless for navigation, being liable to sudden freshets, one of which carried away an important railway bridge in 1874, and sent 18 feet of water over the crest of the Penner anicut or weir. The water is largely utilized for purposes of irrigation. In Kokr District, it is estimated that about 85 per cent. of the total drainage is intercepted by means of tanks and minor channels. In Cuddapah District, a canal, constructed by the Madras Irri gation Company, connects the North Penner with the Kistna river. This canal, which was purchased by Government, and transferred on the 6th July 1882, has proved a financial failure. An anicut 134 PENTAKOTA—PENUKONDA. or dam was erected across the river opposite Nellore town in 1855, in order to irrigate the fertile delta at the river mouth. In October 1857 the river rose to the height of 16 feet above the anicut, and did such damage that the anicut had to be rebuilt. The present structure, de signed by Sir A. Cotton, was completed in 1 863. The length of the anicut was increased by 150 yards in 1876, to lessen its liability to damage. This dam is 677 yards long, with a crest 9 feet above the bed, and 37! feet above mean sea-level; it is capable of supplying 150 square miles, all on the right or south bank. The irrigation of the northern bank will be effected by the Sangam anicut. The greatest area yet irrigated (1882-83) is 63,653 acres, or nearly two -thirds of the whole area commanded. Total cost of Penner anicut up to 1882, £122,588; total receipts, £136,111. Outlay in 1882, £7465 ; receipts, £12,062. In November 1883, the Penner rose 19-3 feet above the anicut, the highest flood yet recorded. During the famine of 1877, it was proposed to construct a similar work at Sangam, about 30 miles higher up the river, and the work is now being carried out. Up to 1882-83, .£80,207 had been expended out of a sanctioned expenditure of £356,904. (2) The Southern or Dakshin Pinakini also rises in the hill of Chenna Kesava. It flows first in a southerly direction through the District of Bangalore in Mysore State, and then likewise turns east, and, after crossing the Madras Districts of Salem and South Arcot, falls into the Bay of Bengal, near Fort St. David, a few miles north of Cuddalore (Kadalur) town. Total length, 245 miles ; area of drainage basin, 6200 square miles. In Bangalore District, its waters are freely utilized for irrigation, being stored in large tanks. It is estimated that in its basin also about 85 per cent, of the total supply is thus intercepted. The Hoskot tank alone is 10 miles in circumference. Pentakota. — Fishing village in Sarvassiddhi tdluk, Vizagapatam District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 17° 19' N., and long. 82° 35' 30" e. Population (1871) 1610; (1881) 1313, living in 248 houses. In 1875, x6 ships, with an aggregate burthen of 7000 tons, took on board produce, chiefly grain, to the value of £22,500. In 1879-80, 3 small native craft, of a burden of 143 tons, carried away exports to the value of £250, since which date the port seems to have been entirely abandoned as a seat of export trade. A bar closes the mouth of the river during the shipping season, and a wide stretch of marsh and sand impedes the landing of goods. The manufacture of salt, which till recently gave the place some importance, has likewise been discontinued. Penukonda. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Anantapur District, Madras Presidency. Area, 655 square miles. Population (1881) 73,023, namely, 37,266 males and 35,757 females, dwelling in 1 town and 98 villages, containing 15,865 houses. Hindus number 68,006; PENUKONDA TOWN— PEP ALI. 135 Muhammadans, 4983; Christians, 28; and 'others,' 6. The tdluk contained in 1883, 1 civil and 3 criminal courts; police circles (thdnds), 8; regular police, 62 men. Land revenue, £8291. Penukonda tdluk is hilly ; mixed and gravelly soils predominate. About 60 per cent. of the area is fit for cultivation. Penukonda. — Head-quarters town of Penukonda tdluk, Anantapur District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 140 5' 15" n., long. 77° 38' 10" e. Population (1881) 5331, inhabiting 1133 houses. Hindus number 4149; Muhammadans, 1160; Christians, 17; and ' others,' 5. Once an important fortress, to which the Vijayanagar prince retired after the battle of Talikot (1565). It was a first-class Paldyam, and was dealt with as such in the Partition Treaty of 1799, and in early British revenue settlements. The fort is built on granite rocks, and the remains of its former greatness under Hindu and Musalman rulers are still very striking. ' Dilapidated palaces,' writes Meadows Taylor, ' and other architectural remains, both Musalman and Hindu, are here thrown together in strange confusion ; and in some cases the most grotesque instances of these incongruous styles are found in the same structure. An ancient palace, called the Ganga Mahal, exhibits some strange tokens of these reverses. The basement is of plain massive Hindu construction, and of great antiquity, coeval apparently with some temples of Mahadeo, which stand close by it. The next storey is of more recent date, and is built in the best style of Muhammadan archi tecture, elaborately ornamented. Since its erection, it is evident that attempts have been made by the Hindus to alter the Musalman devices into something which should assimilate with their own work. The very cupolas have been surmounted with inelegant pyramidal work ; and a beautiful Saracenic screen, carved in white marble, has been mutilated, and in some parts replaced by some miserable representations of dragons and other grotesque monsters. The mosque of Sher All is perhaps the handsomest building in Penukonda, and, if erected by the chief whose name it bears, must be nearly 300 years old. It is of dark- grey granite, with mouldings of jet-black stone resembling hornblende. Behind this mosque the hill rises precipitously to the height of 500 or 600 feet, presenting a rugged and apparently inaccessible face, partially overgrown with stunted bushes and jungle. In other places, again, the naked rocks lie piled heap upon heap, with here and there perched on some giddy point a tomb, an altar, or a line of battlements, without an indication of the path by which it is to be approached.' — (Captain Meadows Taylor, Oriental Annual, 1840.) Some well-cultivated gardens lie near the town, in which grapes have been successfully grown. Head-quarters of an Assistant Collector. Post-office. Pepali (or Pydpali). — Town in Pattikonda tdluk, Karnul (Kurnool) District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 15° 15' n., and long. 77° 136 PERAMBAKAM—PERIAKULAM. 48' e., on the road from Gooty (Giiti) to Karniil. Population (1881) 3535, dwelling in 746 houses. Deputy Collector's head-quarters; post- office. Perambakam. — Town in Conjevaram tdluk, Chengalpat (Chingle- put) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 12° 54' 30'' n., long. 80° 15' 40" e. Population (1881) 415, all Hindus, dwelling in 43 houses. Four teen miles north-west of Conjevaram. A place of mournful memory, where the Madras army encountered its most serious disaster. In 1780, Colonel Baillie, marching from the north with a force of 3700 men, was here surrounded by Haidar's army, and his troops all but annihilated. The troops of Haidar were on this occasion guilty of the most barbarous atrocities, sparing neither the wounded nor the women and children with the defeated forces. In the following year, Sir Eyre Coote defeated Haidar Ali on the same spot, and drove him back on Sholingarh. Perambalur. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Trichinopoli District, Madras Presidency. Perambaldr tdluk is generally flat. The soil of the northern half is black clay, with large tracts of stiff black soil ; in the southern half, as a rule, the soil is poor and the country rocky. The tdluk is chiefly irrigated from tanks. The principal grains cultivated are ragi (Eleusine corocana), varagu (Panicum miliaceum), and kambu (Pennisetum typhoideum). Cotton covers an area of about 20,000 acres, or more than half the total area on which the crop is raised in Trichinopoli District. Area, 686 square miles. Population (1881) 172,281, namely, 83,052 males and 89,229 females, dwelling in 214 villages, and occupying 23,719 houses. Hindus number 164,607; Muhammadans, 4892; and Christians, 2782. In 1883 the tdluk con tained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 8 ; regular police, 59 men. Land revenue, £269. Perambalur. — Town in Trichinopoli District, and head-quarters of Perambalur tdluk, Madras Presidency. Situated almost in the centre of the tdluk, on the old road from Trichinopoli to Madras. Population (1881) 3062, dwelling in 530 houses. Perambalur is also the head quarters of a District munsif The water-supply is indifferent. Post- office ; weekly market. Perambur. — Suburb of Madras city. — See Madras City. Periakulam.— Tdluk or Sub-division of Madura District, Madras Presidency. Area, 1169 square miles. Population (1881) 232,123, namely, 112,251 males and 119,872 females, dwelling in 1 town and 85 villages, and occupying 36,369 houses. Hindus number 216,671; Muhammadans, 9885 ; and Christians, 5567. In 1883 the tdluk con tained 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 1 1 ; regular police, 86 men. Land revenue, £26,332. Periakulam.— Town in Madura District, Madras Presidency, and PERIM. 137 head-quarters of Periakulam tdluk. Population (1871) 15,339; (1881) 16,446, namely, 7670 males and 8776 females, dwelling in 2889 houses. Hindus number 14,564; Muhammadans, 1233; and Christians, 649. Periakulam consists of three villages or hamlets — Tenkarai, Vadakaria, and Kaikkuknkulam ; situated on both banks of the Varahanadf, about 45 miles west of Madura town, and about 35 south-west of Dindigal. Post-office. Perim. — Island, situated in lat. 12° 40' 30" n., and long. 43° 23' e. (King), in the narrowest part of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb ; distant from the Arabian coast nearly \\ mile, and from the African coast between 9 and 10 miles ; greatest length, 3J miles ; average width, about 1 \ mile; circumference (following the sinuosities of the coast line), probably more than 30 miles. This island is under the Government of Aden ; and the following account of it is taken from Captain F. M. Hunter's Statistical Account of Aden (1877), pp. 171, 172 : — ' Perirn is called by the author of The Periplus the island of Diodorus, and is known among the Arabs as Mayoon. The formation is purely volcanic, and consists of long, low, and gradually sloping ranges of hills, surrounding a capacious harbour, about a mile and a half in length, half a mile in breadth, and with a varying depth of from 4 to 6 fathoms in the best anchorages. The hills were formerly inter sected by bays and indentures, which in the course of time have been filled up with coral and sand, and are now low plains, scantily covered with salsola, sea-lavender, wild mignonette, and other plants which delight in a soft sandy soil. These plains occupy about one-fourth of the island, and occur principally on the north side. The rocks, which are all igneous, are nowhere exposed, save where they dip perpendi cularly into the sea ; they are covered with a layer of volcanic mud of from 2 to 6 feet in depth, above which is another layer of loose boulders, or masses of black vesicular lava, in some places so thickly set as to resemble a rude pavement. The highest point of the island is 245 feet above the level of the sea. All endeavours to find water have failed, and but a scanty supply is procurable from the adjacent coasts. Water tanks were constructed, which used to be chiefly supplied from Aden, and it was proposed to erect reservoirs to collect the rain ; but, as at Aden, a condensing apparatus was found more suitable. ' Perirn has never been permanently occupied by any nation save the British. Albuquerque landed upon it in 15 13 on his return from the Red Sea, and, having erected a high cross on an eminence, called the island Vera Cruz. It was again occupied for a short time by the pirates who frequented the mouth of the Red Sea, and who amassed considerable booty by plundering the native vessels engaged in the Indian trade. They formed a project of settling here and erecting 138 PERIM ISLAND. strong fortifications ; but having with much labour dug through the solid rock to a depth of 15 fathoms in a fruitless search for water, they abandoned their design, and removed to Mary's Island, on the east side of Madagascar. ' In 1799, Perim was taken possession of by the East India Company ; and a force under Lieutenant-Colonel Murray was sent from Bombay to garrison it, with the view of preventing the French troops, then engaged in the occupation of Egypt, from proceeding to India to effect a junction with Tipd Sahib. But it was deemed untenable as a military position, and the Straits were too broad to be commanded by any batteries on the shore ; the troops were accordingly withdrawn. ' In consequence of increasing steam navigation in the Red Sea, the attention of the Indian Government was directed to the necessity of a lighthouse to facilitate the navigation of the Straits. Perim was conse quently re-occupied in the beginning of 1857. The lighthouse was completed in 1861, and quarters were also built for a detachment of native infantry, 50 strong, who now garrison the island under the command of a European officer. The detachment is relieved every two months when practicable.' For a complete account of the island, see Description and History of the British Outpost of Perim, by Lieutenant J. S. King, Bombay Staff Corps (1877). Perim (The Baiones island of the Periplus). — Low rocky island, about 1800 yards long, and from 300 to 500 broad; situated in the Gulf of Cambay, in lat. 21" 36' N., and long. 72° 23' 30" e., 2 \ miles off shore, and 4\ miles distant from Gogo. The island is surrounded by an extensive rocky reef on all sides, except the south, and rises so sheer from the bottom of the sea, that in some places, a few yards from the shore, there is a depth of 11 and 12 fathoms of water at low-water spring tides. The channel between Perim and a rocky reef in the centre of the gulf, only 1200 yards wide, has the extraordinary depth of 360 feet, the bottom being yellow clay. The island is com posed of tertiary strata ; at the south-south-east end is a cliff showing horizontal beds of pudding - stone, separated by sandy clay. None of the beds appear to dip, and none preserve a uniform thickness throughout the cliff, in one part of which the sandstone disappears altogether. The dry reef surrounding the island consists of confused heaps of rock mixed with mud, sand, and clay; the rock is chiefly yellow pudding-stone, in which, on the south-east end of the island, numerous fossil remains of large mammals are found. The coast is lined with sand-hills. The island has a lighthouse, erected in 1865. It is situated 8 miles south of Gogo, and consists of a brick masonry round tower with a spiral stone stair inside. The light has eight burners; height of lantern above high water, 100 feet. It is a sinole white fixed dioptric light of the fourth order, and is visible from the PER1NDURAI—PERIYAPATNA. 139 deck of a ship 20 miles distant. For further nautical details, see Taylor's India Sailing Directory, part 1, p. 362. Perindurai (' Great Lord'). — Group of hamlets in Erode tdluk, Coimbatore District, Madras Presidency, with a station on the south west line of the Madras Railway; distant 252 miles from Madras city. Lat. 11° 15' 30" n., long. 77° 37' 30" e. Population, 6347 in 1871; and 4948 in 1881, inhabiting 1131 houses. Formerly head-quarters of a tdluk, now included in Erode tdluk. The number of hamlets forming the group, which takes its name from the railway station of Perindurai, is 29, scattered over an area of 17 square miles. Perin durai has a court, post-office, police station, travellers' bungalow, and large market. The railway station is 4 miles distant from the hamlet of the same name. Periya. — Ghat or pass in Malabar District, Madras Presidency, over which the road from Cannanore to Manantavadi (Manantoddi) is carried. Lat. 11° 51' n., long. 75° 50' 20" E. Periyakulam. — Town in Madura District, Madras Presidency. — See Periakulam. Periyapatna (now called Hunsiir). — Tdluk in Mysore District, Mysore State. Area, 447 square miles, of which 157 are cultivated. Population (1871) 116,334; (1881) 113,050, namely, males 56,008, and females 57,042. Hindus number 106,909; Muhammadans, 5790; and Christians, 351. The Kaveri (Cauvery) forms a great part of the western and some of the northern boundary. The Lakshmantirtha flows through the south-eastern portion. The highest hill is Bettadpur, 4350 feet above mean sea-level. The tdluk is undulating and not well adapted for irrigation from channels ; but the soil being generally of a rich red description, ragi and other dry crops thrive remarkably on it. Special crops — tobacco, areca-nut, and plantains. Land revenue (1883-84), £13,459. In 1883-84 the tdluk contained 1 criminal court ; police stations (thdnds), 8 ; regular police, 66 men ; and village watch (chaukiddrs), 401. Since 1865, the head-quarters have been at Hunsur. Periyapatna. — Village in Mysore District, Mysore State. Lat. 12° 20' 40" n., long. 76° 7' 25" e., no miles south-west from Ban galore, and 90 miles south-east of Mangalore. Until 1865, the head quarters of Periyapatna (now called Hunsur) tdluk. Population (1871) 1321. Not separately returned in the Census Report of 1881. An ancient place, with which the earliest Hindu traditions are connected, and formerly called Singa-patna. A king of the Chola dynasty is said to have constructed a tank and a temple here in the 12th century. In 1659, a mud fort was erected by a Coorg chief, which was shortly afterwards captured by Periya Wadeyar, a general of the Hindu Raj£ of Mysore. He built the large stone fort, which still exists in 140 PERIYAR—PERUMUKAL. ruins, and changed the name from Singa-patna" to its present desig nation. During the reign of Tipii the town figures frequently in military history. It witnessed several contests between the Coorgs and the Mysore forces. On three occasions it was occupied by the British ; and in 1791 many houses were burned by Tipu, in order to obstruct the advance of General Abercromby. It is chiefly inhabited by traders, who export cotton and tobacco to Coorg and the west coast. Periyar. — The most important river in Travancore State, Madras Presidency, rising in lat. 10° 40' N., and long. 76° 56' e. It flows first north, and afterwards west, a total distance of 142 miles, falling into the sea near Kodungaliir. In its course to the low country, the Periyar is increased by innumerable tributary streams, of which the Mallai, Sherdhoni, Peringakotai, Mudrapalli, Kiindanpdra, and Eddamaki are the most considerable. Its progress is often impeded by rocks and narrow gorges in the hills, with occasional falls, rendering the passage quite impracticable for boats above Narramangalam. The greater portion of the teak-wood, which is cut annually in the mountains, is floated down this river to the coast. On reaching Alwaye, the Periyar separates into two branches, the northern proceeding to Pallipur, while the southern branch, after leaving Varanpuki, again separates into two streams, one of which, however, is speedily lost in the estuary to which it flows through numerous channels ; the other, continuing in a southerly direction, falls into the lake south of Tripunathorai. Sixty miles of this river may be considered as navigable, small craft ascending as high as Narramangalam ; and on that branch of it which is formed by the Eddamaki, river boats find a ready passage to Iddirarmaud. With the exception of the last 35 miles, the course of this stream lies through a complete wilderness, the populated tracts not extending beyond the town of Mulliatiir. A scheme, known as the Periyar project, for diverting the course of this stream across the watershed of the Ghats into the Vaigai river, in Madura District, is now (1884) being carried into effect. Peruah. — Ruined town in Maldah District, Bengal. — See Pan duah. Perumakal (' Great Travail] so called because Sfta bore twins here ; the Perumacoil of Orme). — Village in Tindevanam tdluk, South Arcot District,. Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 12° 12' 10" N., and long. 79° 46' 30" e. Population (1881) 1844, dwelling in 217 houses. It has a small fort, which is perched on a rocky hill, about 370 feet high. The summit is only 400 by 200 yards in area, and the ascent on all sides is difficult After the defeat at Wandiwash (1759), the French, retreating on Pondicherri, threw a detachment into the Perumakal fort ; Coote, following up the retreat, attempted to storm the place, but was repulsed from the upper fort; he led the attacks himself, and was PER UNG UDI—PESHA WAR. 1 4 1 wounded, the native troops behaving with great gallantry. On the commencement of a more regular attack, the defenders, who had neither food nor ammunition, surrendered. The English held the post for twenty years, and in 1780 Haidar Ali besieged it unsuccess fully. Two years later it surrendered to him, only to fall before British troops in 1783. It was then dismantled, but remained a post of observation till 1790, when it was taken by Tipii. The nearest town is Tindevanam, 5 miles to the west. Perungudi. — Town in Nanguneri tdluk, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 17' n., long. 77° 38' 20" e. Population (188 i) 5575, occupying 1193 houses. Hindus numbered 2655; Muham madans, 56 ; Christians, 2862; and 'others,' 2. Perur. — Village in Coimbatore District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 10° 58' n., long. 77" e. Sometimes called Mel or Upper Chedam- baram, to distinguish it from Kil or Lower Chedambaram in South Arcot. Notable for its temple. Perzagarh. — Hill range in Chanda District, Central Provinces, dividing the Chfmiir pargand from Brahmapuri ; 13 miles long by 6 broad, and ending on the south in a scarped cliff, which can be seen 40 miles off. This cliff is called Perzagarh, and also Sat Bahinf, from seven sisters who lived in religious seclusion on its summit. Some of the valleys have patches of rice cultivation. Peshawar. — A Division or Commissionership under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, lying between lat. 32° 47' and 35° 2' n., and between long. 70° 34' and 74° 9' e. It comprises the three British Districts of Peshawar, Hazara, and Kohat, all of which see separately, together with the control of the semi-independent hill tribes inhabiting the Khaibar Pass as far as Lundi Kotal. Area, 8381 square miles. Population (1881) 1,181,289, besides 8173 tribes men of the Khaibar Pass. Peshawar Division is bounded on the west and north by independent mountain tribes, and by Afghanistan ; on the east by Kashmir State ; and on the south by Rawal Pindi and Bannu Districts. Population. — The population of the three Districts of the Peshawar Division, which in 1868 was returned at 1,033,891, amounted in 1881 to 1,181,289, showing an increase of 147,398 persons, or 14-3 per cent, in thirteen years. Much of this increase is more apparent than real, and is due to temporary immigration caused by the extraordinary demand for labour that existed at the time of the last Census, owing to the Kabul campaign, and the railway and Swat canal works. The results of the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows : — Area of the Division, 8381 square miles ; number of towns, 16, and of villages, 2224; houses, 177,574; families, 275,335. Total popu lation, 1,181,289, namely, males 649,509, and females 531,780. 142 PESHA WAR. The proportion of males is 54-8 per cent, the unequal ratio between the sexes being mainly due to the large military element in the popu lation. Average density of population, 140 persons per square mile, varying from 237 per square mile in Peshawar, to 64 per square mile in Kohat District; persons per town or village, 527; inmates per house, 6-6. Classified according to sex and age, the Census shows — under 15 years of age, males 258,550, and females 215,909; total children, 474,459, or 40-2 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards, males 390,959, and females 315,871; total adults, 706,830, or 59-8 per cent. Religion. — The great bulk of the population, namely, 1,101,095, or 93-4 per cent., are Muhammadans by religion. Hindus number 68,992, or 5-8 per cent; Sikhs, 6724; Christians, 4390; Jains, 44; Parsfs, 39; and ' others,' 5. The Muhammadans by race, as apart from religion, include Pathans, 457,782; Sayyids, 27,526; Kashmiri's, 27,195; Shaikhs, 19,102; and Mughals, 9988. Brahmans number 9290, of whom 290 are Muhammadans by religion. Of the Rajputs, 9845 in number, 8086 are descendants of Hindu converts to Muham- madanism, as against 1755 Hindus and Sikhs. Of 21,228 Khattris,all but 36 are Hindus or Sikhs by religion. The other important tribes and castes, all containing a more or less mixed religious element, include the following — Awan, 179,214 ; Gdjar, 74,668 ; Tanaolf, 41,384, and Baghban, 27,926, two Muhammadan clans or castes confined to the Peshawar Division; Julaha, 29,038; Tarkhan, .54,390; Arora, 21,021; Lohar, 14,794; Kumbhar, 12,456; Nai, i2,i>68; Chuhra, 11,153; Karral, 10,294; Dhund, 20,091 ; Dhobi, 9180;; and Jat, 6902. Of the Christian population, numbering 4390, Europeans number 4235; Eurasians, 74; and natives, 81. By sect, the Christians include — Church of England, 2693 > Protestants undistinguished by sect, 129; Roman Catholics, 1150; Presbyterians, 121 ; and 'others,' 297. Town and Rural Population.— Ihe Peshawar Division contains three towns with upwards of ten thousand inhabitants, namely, Peshawar city and cantonments, 79,982; Kohat, 18,179; and Naushahra, 12,963 ; or a total of 111,124 for the three towns. Besides these, the Census returns thirteen other minor towns, with a population of 54,618 ; making an aggregate urban population of 165,742, or 14-03 per cent, of the whole population of the Division. Seven of the towns are municipalities, with an aggregate population of 110,811. Total municipal income (1883-84), £22,147, or an average of 3s. nfd. per head. The 2240 villages and towns are thus classified according to size — 983 contain less than two hundred inhabitants ; 665 from two to five hundred; 333 from five hundred to a thousand ; 156 from one to two thousand; 61 from two to three thousand; 33 from three to five PESHAWAR. 143 thousand ; 6 from five to ten thousand ; and 3 ten thousand and upwards. As regards occupation, the Census Report classifies the male population of over 15 years of age as follows— (1) Professional class, including civil and military, 38,293; (2) domestic and menial class, 13,098; (3) commercial class, including bankers, traders, carriers, etc., 12,206; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 201,709; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 71,936; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, including general labourers, 32,470 ; and (7) occupations not specified, 21,247. Agriculture, etc. — Of a total assessed area of 831 1 square miles, or 5>3I9-359 acres, in 1883-84, the area under cultivation was returned at 1,488,055 acres, of which 245,924 acres were irrigated, entirely by private enterprise. Of the remaining 3,831,304 acres, 191,427 acres are returned as grazing lands ; 759,865 acres as still available for cultivation; and 2,880,012 acres as uncultivable waste. The principal crops cultivated in 1883 were — Rabi, or spring harvest — wheat, 499,689 acres; barley, 317,892 acres; gram, 26,217 acres; other pulses, 7579 acres; drugs and spices, 1830 acres; oil-seeds, 45,756 acres; and vegetables, 3154 acres. Kharif, or autumn harvest — rice, 24,249 ; iodr, 57,883 acres; bdjra, 72,874 acres; Indian corn, 317,003 acres; other cereals, 7915 acres; pulses, 77,383 acres; drugs, 1036 acres; oil-seeds, 10,047 acres; cotton, 28,233 acres; sugar-cane, 10,680 acres; and vegetables, 2436 acres. The total amount of Government revenue assessment in 1883-84, including all local rates and cesses levied on the land, was £130,478, equal to an average of is. 6|d. per acre of cultivation, or 5|d. per acre of total assessed area. The Kohat salt mines, 14 in number, are all situated in the Peshawar Division. The only five mines, however, which are worked at present, are those at Jalta, Malgin, Nari, Kharrak, and Bahadur Khel, which yielded a Government revenue of £11,090 in 1883-84. There are 98 miles of metalled and 1389 miles of unmetalled roads in the Division, besides 47 miles of the Northern Punjab State Railway, which has its terminus at Peshawar city. Water communication is afforded by 151 miles of navigable rivers. Administration. — The civil administrative staff consists of the Commissioner of the Peshawar Division, who is the principal local officer under the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, and whose head-quarters are at Peshawar city. Under him are three Deputy Commissioners in charge of Districts ; 2 Judicial Assistant Com missioners; 10 Assistant or Extra- Assistant Commissioners; 12 tahsil- ddrs ; 3 munsifs ; and 4 honorary magistrates. These officers preside over 40 civil and revenue and 47 criminal courts. For administrative and police purposes, Peshawar Division is divided into 1 1 tashils or Sub-divisions, and 43 thdnds or police circles. The total imperial i44 PESHA WAR DISTRICT. revenue in 1883-84 was £135,963, of which £94,525 was derived from the fixed land revenue. Peshawar. — A British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the Punjab, lying between 33° 43' and 34° 31' n. lat., and between 71° 25' and 72° 47' e. long. Peshawar is the central District in the Division of the same name, and forms the extreme north-western corner of the Indian Empire, extending from the river Indus to the Khaibar mountains. Area, 2504 square miles. Population (1881) 592,674. It is bounded on the north by the ranges which link the Sufed Koh to the Hindu Kush ; on the west and south by continuations of the same mountains ; on the south-east by the Indus ; and on the north-east by the hills of Boner and Swat It is thus almost entirely surrounded by independent hill tribes, all of whom are of Pathan origin. Peshawar District is divided into six tahsils, of which three lie to the east, and three to the west of the Swat and Kabul rivers. Of the former, Utman Bukk lies to the east, Mardan in the centre, and Hashtnagar to the west. Of the three western tahsils, Doaba Daridzai includes the Doab of the Swat and Kabul rivers and the plains on the right bank of the latter down to its junction with the former ; Peshawar tahsil comprises all the western portion of the District ; and Naushahra tahsil, the territory on the right bank of the united Swat and Kabul rivers. The Mardan and Utman Bukk tahsils constitute the Sub- District of Yusafzai, which is in the separate charge of an Assistant Commissioner stationed at Hoti Mardan. Peshawar stands twentieth in order of area, and seventeenth in order of population among the thirty-two British Districts of the Punjab, comprising 2-35 per cent, of the total area; 3-16 per cent, of the total population; and 5-28 per cent, of the urban population. The administrative head-quarters are at the city of Peshawar. Physical Aspects. — The Peshawar valley forms an irregular amphi theatre, shut in by hills on every side but one, with its base resting upon the banks of the Indus, into whose basin it opens through the narrow passage of the Kabul river. Its geological origin best explains the existing physical features, as the whole valley forms the abandoned bed of a great post-tertiary lake, whose outlet has slowly worn a way for itself through the barrier of hills which once shut it off from the Indus. At the present day, Peshawar consists of a central hollow, filled up by alluvial deposits of silt and gravel, interspersed with water-worn boulders ; while the Kabul river, which formerly supplied its deep mountain lake, now flows through a marshy level to its debouchure into the Indus, opposite the fort of Attock. At Nisatha, 24 miles from the point of exit of the Indus from the hills, that river receives through the Kabul the Swat river, which leaves the hills 21 miles north of the Indus. Opposite Naushahra, about the centre of the valley, the Indus PESHAWAR DISTRICT. J45 further receives, also through the Kabul, the Kalpanf, by which the drainage of Swat is carried across the Yusafzai plain in the south of Peshawar. From the south, the main affluent of the Kabul is the Bara, a stream which, passing close by the city of Peshawar, enters the main river a few miles above its junction with the Swat The depth of water in the Indus at Attock varies from 40 feet in the winter months to 75 feet in flood. The volume of the stream varies greatly according to the season of the year. It is crossed by three ferries, and also by a drift gallery excavated underneath the river bed. Both ferries and tunnel have, however, been superseded by the Punjab Northern State Railway bridge across the Indus at Attock, which was opened in June 1883, and which carries a cart road and footway within its girders. On the southern frontier, the Khattak hills rise to a general height of 3000 feet, while the bolder eminences sometimes reach an elevation of more than 5000. Westward, a still loftier range, reach ing to between 6000 and 7000 feet in height, extends across the valley of the Kabul, and is threaded by the Khaibar Pass, the gate of North western India. Mulla Ghar, the principal peak in this portion of the chain, has a height of 7060 feet. North of the Kalbul comes the Hindu Kush system, here represented by bare and irregular hills of trap and limestone. Between them and the Indus, the barrier line is completed by the mountains of Swat, a labyrinth of intricate valleys, hemmed in by lofty precipices, amid whose mazes the villages of the occupying clans nestle, each in its separate nook. To the south of these uplands lies the plain of Yusafzai, where cultivated valleys run up into the hills on every side ; but elsewhere, the tilled lands of the central hollow are separated from the mountains by a wide strip of stony country, some 3 or 4 miles in breadth. In Yusafzai Sub-District are two small isolated hills standing out from the plain. Karamar, the highest, lies north-east of Hotf Mardan, about 3480 feet above sea-level and 2280 above the plain. On its northern slope are a few fir trees; and the appearance of the hill on that side is green and pleasing, with a sloping plateau on the summit which, if water tanks were con structed, might be utilized as a sanitarium during the summer months. Panjpir, the smaller hill, rises to a height of 2130 feet above the sea, or 940 feet above the level of the surrounding plain. The western and central portions, along the course of the Kabul and the Swat, are highly cultivated ; while the remainder of the District, though unirrigated, produces excellent crops in ordinary seasons. The scenery of the western half is wild and beautiful ; it abounds in craggy passes, crowned by ancient towers, and commanding prospects over fields of luxuriant vegetation. The numerous canals in the foreground give evidence of careful cultivation, and the background is formed by the snowy peaks of the distant ranges beyond the border. The eastern VOL. XI. k 146 PESHAWAR DISTRICT. extremity, consisting of the plains of Yusafzai and the slopes of the Khattak hills, is comparatively bleak and barren. The drainage of the entire valley is carried off by the Kabul river, the shrivelled represen tative of some mighty stream which once burst its way through the rocky barriers on the east into the main channel of the Indus. Its principal tributaries have been enumerated above, and it itself falls into the Indus opposite Attock. There are no lakes in the District ; but owing to extensive percolation, large marshes are formed in many low-lying tracts in the neighbourhood of the Swat and Kabul rivers. There is also a large marsh near Peshawar city. Gold is found in both the Indus and Kabul rivers above Attock, and numbers of boatmen work as gold-washers. About 300 men are estimated to be thus employed, and they frequently work under a system of advances from gold purchasers in the city. The work is carried on during March and April, and September and October, the average earning of each man varying from 3d. to 6d. per diem. The proprietors of the villages within whose boundaries gold-washing is carried on, receive a small share in recognition of their right. Besides gold, kankar is the only mineral product of any value found in the Peshawar valley, though the surrounding hills supply iron and anti mony. The iron of Bajaur, brought for sale to the Peshawar market, is of fine quality, and is used in the manufacture of gun barrels. Good antimony ore from Bajaur sells in Peshawar for about £1, 10s. a cwt. A yellow description of marble, found near Maneri, in Yusafzai, is used for the manufacture of beads, charms, and orna ments. Crude chalk is found in Lundkhwar. Millstones are brought from Pallodheri, in Yusafzai, and fetch 2s. per pair. The distribution of trees is singularly uneven in different parts of the valley. In Yusafzai and Halshtnagar, the mulberry (tut) sissu (shiwa) and Melia sempervirens, with occasionally the tamarisk (gaz), are found in clumps round the village wells ; and here and there groves of the Acacia modesta (pulosa) cover village graveyards, whilst the waste lands support a bare and stunted jungle of Butea frondosa, different species of zizyphus, Capparis aphylla, and other thorny bushes; but otherwise the tract is bare of trees. In Daudzai and Doaba, on the other hand, where the land lies low, and the cultivation is entirely from irrigation, trees are abundant, particularly the tamarisk and in some parts the siris. Here are numerous fruit-gardens and orchards, especially in the western suburbs of Peshawar city, where the vine, fig, plum, apricot, peach, and quince, with cucumbers, melons, and other fruits and vegetables, are produced in great plenty. Peshawar is perhaps one of the worst Districts in India as regards sport, owing to the custom of hawking, the use of firearms by all classes, and the absence of forest and scrub. There are a few ravine deer in PESHAWAR DISTRICT. 147 the Yusafzai and Hashtnagar plains and also under the Khattak hills on the south-east. Hog abound in the Khattak hills, a few uridl (wild sheep) and a stray leopard are now and then heard of. On the Pajja hill there are markhor (wild goat) ; but they are getting more and more scarce every year, and the ground is such that only good cragsmen can successfully follow them. The small game consists of a few hares and partridges still left in parts of the valley. Chakor and sissi are plentiful in and close under the hills, where the people cannot use their hawks. In the spring and autumn, large flights of quail settle down and remain for a short time on their way to India, and again when returning to the steppes of Central Asia. Many thousands are netted by men who make a trade of it ; they are collected in one place by means of tame quail used as call-birds. Water-fowl are plentiful on the rivers during the winter months, and snipe also for two or three weeks in March. Wild swans are very occasionally shot. In Yusafzai, Nau shahra, and under the hills all round the District during the winter months, flocks of sandgrouse are to be seen ; but they are shy, and the only way of shooting them is by driving. The obara, or bastard bustard, is also found during the winter months ; they are usually hawked and often noosed by the natives. Wolves and hyaenas are less numerous than they used to be, and rarely attack children or other human beings. Foxes and jackals are also scarcer than they were a few years ago. The leopard has now almost disappeared from the District. Very large fish (mahsir and rohu) are caught by the natives in the rivers with hook and line, and the fly and minnow would give good sport Otters are occasionally seen on the islands of the Indus. History. — In the earliest days of Aryan colonization, the Peslkwar valley is said to have been occupied by a prince of the great Lunar race, whose name was perpetuated in that of Gandhara, by which the valley is known in Sanskrit literature. Its capital, Peukelas (or Pushkalavati), is mentioned by Arrian as a large and populous city, captured by Hephaistion, the general of Alexander, after the loss of its chieftain Astes. The site of Pushkalavati has been identified with the modern cluster of the Hdshtnagar, or eight cities, on the left bank of the Swat, where vast ruins of ancient edifices are still to be seen. During the epoch of Buddhist supremacy in Northern India, Pushkalavati became famous as the seat of a stupa, erected on the spot where Buddha was fabled to have made one of his numerous alms-offerings in the shape of his own eyes. It is mentioned in the Itineraries of Fa Hian and Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrims of the 5th and 7th centuries, though by that time the capital of Gandhara had been transferred to Parashawara or Peshawar. Until the middle of the 7th century, linguistic evidence would lead us to suppose that the population remained entirely Indian. But before 148 PESHAWAR DISTRICT. the beginning of the 8th century, a new race, the Afghans or Pathans, make their appearance in the local annals; and the history of the Peshawar valley becomes thenceforth that of a debateable ground, fluctuating between the eastern kingdom of Delhi and the western kingdom of Afghanistan. The Afghans, who were still 'infidels' at this date, first effected a settlement in the hill country to the south of the Kabul river, by the aid of the Ghakkars of Hazara and Rawal Pindi ; while the Hindu tribes continued to retain possession of Peshawar itself, and of the Hashtnagar and Yusafzai plains. In 978 a.d., Jaipal, Raja of Lahore, advanced from Peshawar to attack Sabuktigin, governor of Khorasan, under the titular sway of the Samani princes. Jaipal was utterly defeated, and Sabuktigin took possession of Peshawar, which he garrisoned with 10,000 horse. On his death in 997, his son Mahmud succeeded to his dominions, and, throwing off his nominal allegiance on the Sankni dynasty, assumed the title of Sultan in 999. Mahmud was the first Musalman conqueror of Hindustan, and fought many of his greatest engagements in the valley of Peshawar. He succeeded in converting the Pathans to the religion of the Prophet ; and they remained his firm allies in his subsequent struggle with Anang Pal, the last champion of the Hindu creed and nationality in the north, whose defeat on the plains of Chach in Rawal Pindi laid all Upper India at the feet of the Muhammadan conqueror. After that event, Mahmud made Peshawar the basis of operations in his later invasions, and throughout the following century it continued to be a Province of the Ghaznivide empire. When the dominions of Ghazni extended as far as Lahore, Peshawar became a half-way stage of great importance ; but the devastations of Mahmud seem to have left its northern plains a depopulated waste, occupied only by the tiger and the rhinoceros. The first settlement of undoubted Afghan tribes in the central valley took place, apparently, about the 15th century; though a race of spurious Pathans, known as the Dilazaks, took possession of the plains not long after the time of Mahmdd. Meanwhile, the Pathans of Ghor had thrown off their allegiance on Ghaznf, and after the death of Shahab-ud-dfn (1206 a.d.) the provincial governors of India declared their independence, making the Indus their western boundary, so that the Peshawar valley was again cut off from the eastern kingdom. The Pathans of the Khaibar hills retained their autonomy, while Peshawar itself was held by the Dilazaks. But about the close of the 15th century, the great tide of Afghan immigration flowed into the District under the following circumstances :— The Khakhai Pathans were a body of roving adventurers, who first came into notice in the time of Timur, and made themselves useful to his descendant Ulugh Beg. The latter treacherously expelled them from Kabul, whereupon they entered the Peshawar valley in three main clans— the Yusafzai, Gigianis, PESHAWAR DISTRICT. 149 and Muhammadzai — and obtained permission from the Dilazaks to settle on a portion of their waste lands. Soon after, the new immi grants found or invented some cause of quarrel against their hosts, whom they attacked, and drove precipitately into the neighbouring District of Hazara. The Gigianis settled in the fertile strip of land about the confluence of the SwSit and the Kabul ; the Muhammadzais took Hashtnagar as their share of the spoil ; while the Yusafzais were relegated to the northern plain, which still bears their name. The division of the territory thus carried out, subsists undisturbed to the present day. For a while, the tribes remained independent ; but in 15 19, Babar, who had used the Khaibar Pass in previous incursions, allied himself with the injured Dilazak chieftains, and subjugated the Pathan tribes who held these important mountain tracts. It would be tedious to follow the fortunes of Peshawar through all the vicissitudes of the struggle between the dynasties of Babar and Sher Shall. Enough will be said in the simple statement that Peshawar remained in the power of the Delhi court during the reign of Akbar, and that the remnant of the Dilazaks had been completely ousted in the previous reign. During the flourishing times of Jahangi'r, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, the valley rendered an unwilling allegiance to Delhi ; but under the last-named Emperor, a national insurrection was successful in freeing the Pathan tribes from the Mughal supremacy. In 1738 the District fell into the hands of Nadir Shah; and under the succeeding Durani dynasty, Peshawar was often the seat of the Kabul court. On the death of Timur Shah in 1793, Peshawar shared the general disorganization of the Afghan kingdom ; and the Sikhs, who were then in the first fierce outburst of revenge upon their Muhammadan enemies, advanced into the valley in 18 18, and overran the whole country to the foot of the hills. In 1823, Azim Khan made a last desperate attempt to turn the tide of Sikh victories, and marched upon Peshawar from Kahiul ; but he was utterly defeated by Ranjft Singh, and the whole District lay at the mercy of the conquerors. The Sikhs, however, did not take actual possession of the land, contenting them selves with the exaction of a tribute, whose punctual payment they ensured or accelerated by frequent devastating raids. After a period of renewed struggle and intrigue between Sikh and Afghan, Peshawar fell at last into the hands of the Sikhs, who appointed General Avitabile as governor, and ruled with their usual fiscal severity. In 1848, Peshawar District came into the possession of the British ; but the details of the war of occupation belong rather to the general history of India and of the Punjab than to the narrower annals of the Peshawar valley. During the Mutiny of 1857, the Native regiments stationed at Peshawar showed signs of insubordination, and were accordingly disarmed with some little difficulty in May 1857. But the 150 PESHAWAR DISTRICT. 55th Native Infantry, stationed at Naushahra and Hotf Mardan, rose in open rebellion ; and on a force being despatched against them, marched off towards the Swdt Hills across the frontier. General Nicholson was soon in pursuit, and scattered the rebels with a loss of 120 killed and 150 prisoners. The remainder sought refuge in the hills and defiles across the border, but were hunted down by the friendly clans, till they perished of hunger or exposure, or were brought in prisoners, and hanged or blown away from cannon. This stern but necessary example prevented any further act of rebellion in the District. Population. — The Census of 1868, which was the first- trustworthy enumeration of the people, disclosed a total population of 523,152 persons, inhabiting an aggregate of 654 villages or towns, containing 121,256 houses. At the last enumeration in 1881, Peshawar District was found to contain a total population of 592,674, showing an increase of 69,522, or 13-3 per cent, in thirteen years. The results of the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows: — Area of District, 2504 square miles; number of towns, 11, and of villages, 679; houses, 87,720; families, 123,563. Total popula tion, 592,674, namely, males 329,524, and females 263,150. The excessive proportion of males to females (55-6 per cent.) is mainly attributable to the large military element in the population, and also to the fact that at the time of the Census, an extraordinary demand for labour in connection with the Kdbul campaign, the Northern Punjab State Railway, and the Swat Canal works, caused a large influx of labourers. Average density of population, 237 persons per square mile, or excluding large towns, 185 per square mile ; average number of persons per town or village, 858, or excluding the towns, 683 ; inmates per house, 6-7. Classified according to sex and age, the population consists of — under 15 years of age, boys 123,920, and girls 101,070; total children, 224,990, or 37-9 per cent of the population: 15 years and upwards, males 205,604, and females 162,080 ; total adults, 367,684, or 62-1 per cent. In religion, the Peshawar valley is almost entirely Musalman, as might naturally be expected from its early conversion and its close connection with the Afghan kingdom. The Census returns show 546,117 Muhammadans, or 92-1 per cent: while the Hindu faith has only 39,321 adherents, or 6-7 per cent. The remainder is made up by 3103 Sikhs, 4088 Christians, 39 Parsis, 3 Jains, and 3 'others.' By far the largest tribe in the District is that of the Pathans, who number in all 276,656 souls, or 46-8 per cent, of the total popula tion. In the Yusafzai tract the Pathan population retain all the individual freedom, patriarchal institutions, and jealousy of personal aggrandizement, which are the original characteristics of the Afghan mountaineers. The Pathans to the south of the Kabul river, who PESHAWAR DISTRICT. 151 were more completely subjugated by the Sikhs, have lost many of their native traits ; their chieftains have acquired a more feudal character, and the liberty of the Afghan freeman has been lost in the political supremacy of the chief. In their original state, the Yusafzai Pathans were divided into countless minor clans, each of which had a separate organization, and was often at feud with its neighbours ; and the constant intestinal warfare compelled the men to plough their fields with a matchlock slung across their backs. Though British rule has altered this condition of affairs, it has not obliterated from the minds of the Pathans the lawless instincts produced by their ancestral customs. The Sayyids number 4515 souls, and their sacred character and descent gives them great influence amongst the fanatical Pathan population. Other tribes who are Muhammadans by race, as apart from Muham madans by religion, include — Shaikhs, 9576; Mughals, 4538; and Kashmiris, 13,082. Of the Hindkis, or persons of original Indian descent, Awans number 97,445; Baghbans, 21,240; Julahas, 15,372; Gujars, 13,514; Tarkhans, 12,504; Kumbhars, 7583; Chuhras, 7653; Lohars, 6521; Dhobfs, 5467; Chamars, 4156; Mochis, 3263; Jhinwars, 3956; Telis, 3250; Rajputs, 3181 ; and Sonars, 3079. Nearly the whole of these are Muhammadans by religion and the descendants of Hindu converts. The principal Hindu castes, still retaining the faith of their fathers, are the Brahmans, 3745; Khattris, 9578 ; and Aroras, 13,333 ; they form the chief trading community in Peshawar and the other towns, while in each agricultural village a few of them carry on the business of money-lenders. Slavery still lingers on in the remoter villages under the guise of hereditary serfdom, in spite of the theoretical prohibitions of British law ; and a recognised class, named Ghularn (slave), is returned in Peshawar to the number of 3347, who are said to be the descendants of captives taken in war. They are still chiefly employed in domestic service, and are generally attached to their hereditary masters, though some of them have taken to shop- keeping and other occupations. The Christian community includes 3954 Europeans, consisting principally of the troops comprising the garrison, and the civil officers of the District ; 64 Eurasians ; and 70 natives. Classified by sect, there are — Church of England, 2584 ; Roman Catholics, 1 128 ; Presbyterians, 102; Episcopal Church of Scotland, 71; Wesleyans, 42; Protestants not distinguished by sect, 95 ; and 'others,' 66. Peshawar has been a station of the Church Missionary Society since 1855, with a mission- house, church, fine collegiate school, and library. The mission also maintains vernacular schools both for boys and girls in Peshawar city and in the District. Town and Rural Population. — The Census Report of 1881 returns five towns in Peshawar District as containing upwards of five thousand 1 5 2 PESHA WAR DISTRICT. inhabitants — viz. Peshawar City and Cantonment (population 79,982), Naushahra (12,963), Tangi (9037), Maira Parang (8874), and Charsadda (8363). Six other places with less than five thousand inhabitants were also returned as towns, namely, Utmanzai (4823), Mardan (2766), Shankargarh (1367), Fort Abazai (220), Fort Michni (208), and Fort Mackeson (1 70). The total urban population thus disclosed amounts to 128,773, or 21'7 Per cent- of the District population. Of the 690 towns and villages, 197 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 211 from two to five hundred; 135 from five hundred to a thousand; 77 from one to two thousand; 46 from two to three thousand; 19 from three to five thousand; 3 from five to ten thousand ; and 2 upwards of ten thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the Census- Report classifies the adult male population as follows:— (1) Professional class, including civil and military, 22,622; (2) domestic and menial class, 7994; (3) commercial class, including merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 7678 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 93,785; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 42,532 ; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, including general labourers, 22,831 ; and (7) occupations not specified, 8162. Village Life. — In every Pathan village, a separate quarter (kandi) is apportioned to each different khel or clan, the kandi being a collection of separate tenements of the individual families forming the clan. Each kandi has its own mdlik or chief, whose authority is confined to it. His duties are to maintain order, settle disputes among the householders, collect the revenue, and see to the fair distribution of the crops, etc. Each mdlik is subordinate to the chief or khan of the tribe ; to him he makes his reports, and from him receives his orders. Each kandi has its own mosque, its own assembly-room or hujra, and (in villages beyond the border) its own tower of defence or burj. The priests attached to the mosques are supported by rent-free lands, besides daily supplies of food from the residents of their kandi ; and by presents of money, cattle, food, or clothes, on the occasion of a marriage or other special ceremony. The hujra is a public room with court-yard and stables attached, where the mdlik meets the residents of the kandi for the discussion and settlement of matters of public business, where guests are entertained, and where the residents and visitors assemble to smoke, gossip, and learn the news of the day. The burj or- watch-tower now chiefly exists in villages beyond the border. It is always attached to the house of the mdlik, and is in constant use as a place of refuge and observation in case of feuds between the different khels of a village community, as well as against outside enemies. They are, however, still to be found in British territory as survivals from days gone by, when one ward was pitted against another in deadly feud, or when the whole PESHAWAR DISTRICT. 153 village had to. guard against the attack of a neighbouring clan, or of Sikh officials. Many of them have now been converted into cattle sheds or ordinary dwelling-houses. The villages have, for the most part, an air of great comfort, the court-yards being large, with, in most instances, a patch of vegetables or a clump of mulberry trees in the enclosure ; the mosques and hujras are chiefly in the outskirts, with wells and groves in the vicinity. The houses in the plains villages are mostly constructed of mud, one-storied, and not more than ten feet high. In the Khattak hills, however, stone is plentiful, and is used for building purposes. The ordinary furniture of a house consists of a clay corn-bin, containing the grain required for immediate consumption ; a few rough beds and stools, a wooden clothes chest, and a number of earthen dishes. The houses of the village head-men are generally distinguished by their greater privacy and more substantial look ; many have small flower or fruit gardens attached to them. The food of the common people is plain and simple, and consists almost entirely of the produce of their cattle and lands, such as wheat and barley cakes, milk, vegetables, pot-herbs, and edible wild fruits, but seldom meat. The richer classes, however, frequently indulge in meat, fowls, and rice, and occasionally tea. Sugar, and in some parts wild honey, is much used, but spirituous liquors are unknown. Tobacco for chewing, smoking, and snuffing, is largely used. The dress of the agriculturists consists of a turban or pagri of white cloth, a loose coat or shirt, and a loose pair of cotton drawers, tied round the body by a running string; the whole is of coarse country cotton cloth, costing from 4s. to 5s. The coats are often coloured blue to hide the dirt and save washing, and are worn sometimes till they drop to pieces. The chiefs and well to-do classes wear the same pattern of clothes, but made of finer materials. In winter, the poorer classes wear sheepskin coats ; and the better classes woollen chogas. As a whole, the Pathans are singularly indifferent to cleanliness, either in their clothing or persons. Agriculture. — Of a total assessed area of 1,600,993 acres, 847,390 acres were returned as under cultivation in 1883, while 330,959 acres were shown as cultivable, and 422,644 acres as uncultivable waste. The staple crops, and the area under each, in 1883-84 were as follows : — Rabi or spring harvest — wheat, 277,730 acres; barley, 233,044 acres; pulses, 4583 acres ; oil-seeds, 31,602 acres; vegetables, 2157 acres: Kharif or autumn harvest — maize, 98,359 acres ; millets, 56,913 acres ; pulses, 25,756 acres; rice, 9959 acres; cotton, 16,849 acres; sugar-cane, 9496 acres ; oil-seeds, 7761 acres; vegetables, 2013 acres. It will be seen that food-stuffs form the principal products, and that the raw materials of manufacture are little grown. Agricultural knowledge is very backward; rotation of crops being only known in its simplest 154 PESHAWAR DISTRICT. elements. Irrigation is practised to a considerable extent, as many as 180,286 acres being supplied with water from private works in 1883 ; while the lands in the neighbourhood of the Swat and Kabul rivers are saturated with moisture from numerous channels. The out-turn per acre of the principal staples was returned as follows in 1883-84: — Rice, 960 lbs.; cotton, 120 lbs.; tobacco, 124 lbs.; wheat, 620 lbs. ; inferior grains, 400 lbs. ; oil-seeds, 560 lbs. The tenures of land belong to the standard Punjab tyj es, that of pattiddri, pure or mixed, immensely preponderating. Moht of the soil is held by tenants-at-will, only about one-sixth of the cultivators having acquired rights of occupancy. The total amount of Government land revenue assessment in 1883-84 amounted to £86,604, equal to an average of 2s. o|d. per acre of cultivated area, or is. o|d. per acre of total area. Rents vary in accordance with the nature of the crop for which the soil is suited, as well as according to the productive qualities of the soil itself; in 1883-84 they ruled as follows : — Rice lands from 10s. to £2, 8s. ; cotton lands, from 6s. to £2, 8s. ; wheat lands, irrigated, from 10s. t0 j£lt IOS- — unirrigated, from 4s. to £1, 2s. ; inferior grains, irrigated, from 4s. to 18s. — unirrigated, from 2s. to 18s. In the same year, wages were returned at the following rates : — Unskilled workmen, from 4|d. to 7d. per diem ; skilled workmen, from is. 6d. to 2s. per diem: In 1883, prices of food-stuffs ruled as follows : — Wheat, ig\sers per rupee, or 5s. 9d. per cwt. ; Indian corn, 37 sers per rupee, or 3s. per cwt. ; jodr, 36^ sers per rupee, or 3s. id. per cwt. As the rivers are fed by the melting snows of the Hindu Kiish and other mountain ranges, Peshawar is not entirely dependent on the local rainfall, and is consequently to a great extent secure from the danger of famine. Commerce and Trade, etc. — The trade of the District centres in the town of Peshawar, and is far less extensive than might be ex pected from its position on the great highway between India and the Central Asiatic kingdoms. The principal foreign markets with which the District deals are Kabul and Bokhara ; but the greater part of the traffic merely passes through Peshawar, and is not arrested on its direct course to the Punjab. An endeavour was made some years since to constitute Peshawar its main entrepot, by means of a yearly fair; but the enterprise did not prove successful. The imports from Kabul consist of horses, raw silk, worsted, cochineal, drugs, and other miscellaneous goods, for re-exportation to the south and east. Bokhara supplies gold bullion and gold or silver thread, the latter of which is handed on to the traders of Kashmir (Cashmere), while the bullion goes to Bombay. The return trade from Hindustan includes English piece-goods, cambrics, silk, sugar, and spices ; while that from Kashmir is confined to the single item of shawls. The local manufactures comprise cutlery, and weapons, scarves, copper chasing, plain embroidery, snuff, and PESHAWAR DISTRICT. 155 coarse cloth. The Peshawar scarves are celebrated throughout India for their fine texture and tasteful colouring. Peshawar is one of the Districts at which trans-frontier trade is registered. At five registration stations along the frontier in 1882-83 imports were registered of the value of £219,571 ; and exports ofthe value of £417, 911. The chief of these is the Khaibar route, which is the great highway of the trade with Kabul and Central Asia. In 1882-83, the imports via the Khaibar amounted to £185,127, and the exports to £367,403. Roads and Means of Communication. — By the completion of the Punjab Northern State Railway, Peshawar has been brought within the range of the whole Indian railway system. The Punjab Northern State Railway enters the District from the south, crossing the Indus at Attock "by a magnificent railway bridge with a sub-way for ordinary foot and carriage traffic, and running westwards through the District for 47 miles, with stations at Khairabad, Akora, Naushahra, Naushahra tahsil, Pabbi, Peshawar city, and Peshawar cantonment. The Grand Trunk road, entering Peshawar from Lahore District opposite Attock, has a total length of 55 miles, bridged and metalled throughout. The bridge of boats formerly maintained across the Indus at Attock was abolished on the opening of the railway bridge. The other roads of importance are — (1) Peshawar to Hashtnagar, 25 miles ; (2) Peshawar to Doiba Daiidzai, 18 miles ; (3) Peshawar to Kohdt, via Fort Mackeson and the Kohat pass, 37^ miles ; (4) Peshawar to Kohat, via Bala and the Jawaki pass, 66 miles; (5) Peshawar to Cherat, via Jaluzai and Shahkot, 30 miles ; (6) Peshawar to Mardan, via Abbarpurand Nisatta, 32£ miles ; (7) Peshawar to Abazai Fort, via Prang and the east bank ofthe Swat, 32^ miles; (8) Peshawar to Shabkadr, 18 miles; (9) Peshawar to Michnf, 14J miles; (10) Peshawar to Kabul, via Jamrud and the Khaibar pass, 190 miles; (n) Peshawar to Bara Fort, 8 miles ; (12) Naushahra to Mardan, 15 miles; (13) Naushahra to Mfr Kakn, 16 miles ; (14) Mardan to Abbottabad, via Tarbela on the Indus, 82 miles; (15) Jaluzai to Mir Kakn pass in the Khattak hills; (16) Jaluzai to Kanakhel pass in the Khattak hills; and (17) Jaluzai to Kakakhel Ziarat, 13 miles. These roads are all unmetalled and un bridged, and are often mere tracks. The Indus, Swat, and Kabul rivers are navigable throughout the valley at all seasons ; but within the hills, except at certain points where there are ferries, the current is too strong for the use of boats. Total length of navigable water communication, 67 miles. A line of telegraph runs along the length of the railway, with an office at each station. There is also an imperial telegraph office at Peshawar cantonment, with branches to Jamrud, Mardan, and Cherat. Administration. — The ordinary civil staff of Peshawar comprises a Deputy Commissioner, a Judicial Assistant Commissioner, 2 Assistant 1 5 6 PESHA WAR DISTRICT. Commissioners, a Cantonment Magistrate, a Judge of the Small Cause Court, and 3 extra-Assistant Commissioners, besides the usual minor officials, with a bench of honorary magistrates. In 1883-84 the District contained 19 civil and fiscal and 25 criminal courts. In 1851-52 the total imperial revenue amounted to £83,891 ; by 1871-72 it had decreased to £78,412. At the latter date, the sum contributed by the land-tax was £62,327, or rather more than three-fourths of the whole. In 1883-84 the total revenue of the District was returned at £90,995, of which £63,029, or upwards of two-thirds, was made up by the fixed land-tax. The other principal items of revenue are stamps, assessed taxes, and excise. For police purposes, Peshawar is divided into 19 circles (thdnds), besides frontier and outpost stations. The imperial police numbered 664 men of all ranks in 1883; and- this force was supplemented by a municipal constabulary of 265 men, besides a special cantonment police of 177 constables, and a punitive police of 29 men. There was also a rural body of 999 village watchmen (chaukiddrs). The total machinery, therefore, for the protection of person and property consisted of 2134 men, being at the rate of 1 policeman to every 277 of the population and to every 1*2 square mile of the area. The criminal statistics show a total of 5358 persons convicted of some offence, great or small, during the year 1883, being at the rate of 1 offender to every no inhabitants. The more heinous crimes, such as murder, robbery, and housebreaking, are still common, and the wild habits ofthe Pathan tribes have not yet been brought into harmony with our industrial regime. Cattle-poisoning and rick-burning are also common, being the usual means of gratifying private malice. There is one jail in Peshawar, the total number of prisoners in which amounted to 1033 in 1883. The daily average was 512. Education. — In 1872-73, the total number of children under instruction was returned at 1858; while the sum expended upon education from public funds amounted to £1047. In 1883-84, Peshawar District contained 40 schools, with 2197 pupils either supported or assisted by Government, and under the Education Department. There are also a number of indigenous uninspected village schools, where the pupils are taught the Kuran and other religious works by the mullds. In some villages, girls are taught at home privately by women who have learnt the Kuran. The Census of 1881 returned 8183 males and 321 females as under instruction, besides 18,065 males and 649 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. The principal educational institution of the District is the Edwardes Collegiate Aided School of the Church Missionary Society, established in 1855. The pupils, of which there are about 500, many of them the sons of the neighbouring gentry, receive instruction in English, Persian, and Hindustani, up to the matriculation standard of the Calcutta and Lahore PESHAWAR TAHSIL. i57 Universities. The Church of England Zandna Mission supports two vernacular girls' schools, one for Muhammadans, and one for Hindus, in Peshawar city ; and another school with about 50 pupils at Utmanzai, in the Hashtnagar Sub-division. Medical Aspects. — The climate of the Peshawar valley naturally varies much with the elevation and other physical peculiarities. In the high and open uplands of Yusafzai, the air is fresh and buoyant ; but in the low-lying central hollow, the land is saturated with the overflow of the Swat and the Kabul, so that the atmosphere becomes heavy and damp, chilling in winter, and laden with warm moisture in the hot season. In the greater part of the valley, shut in by high walls of rock, the air is singularly stagnant and motionless. The city itself has a bad reputation for fever and cholera. The chief endemic disease is fever, which is very prevalent in the Peshawar cantonments. Besides the city hospital at Peshawar, there are 4 Government charitable dispensaries, two at Peshawar, and one each at Mardan and Shab-kadar; patients in 1883, 55,930, of whom 3105 were in-door patients. Climate. — The average annual and monthly mean temperature at Peshawar city is returned by the Meteorological Department as fol lows: — January, 49-8° F. ; February, 52-8°; March, 62-8°; April, 71° ; May, 8o-8° ; June, 88-5° ; July, 89-2° ; August, 86-7° ; September, 8ri° ; October, 71°; November, 58-2° ; and December, 50-6° : yearly average, 70-2° F. The temperature in May 1883 varied from a minimum of 62-8° F. to a maximum of 110°, with a mean of 85-5° : July, minimum, 70-2° F. ; maximum, 111-5°; mean, 90° : December, minimum, 32-2° F. ; maximum, 71-7"; mean, 51-9°. The average annual and monthly rain fall is thus returned — January, 1-53 inch ; February, 1-48 inch; March, 1-52 inch; April, 2-02 inches; May, 0-70 inch; June, 0-34 inch; July, 1-69 inch ; August, 2-47 inches ; September, 0-69 inch; October, 0-28 inch; November, 0-91 inch; December, 0-72 inch: total annual average, 14-35 inches. In 1883, only 9-8 inches of rain fell in Peshawar, namely, 3-8 inches from January to May; 4-3 inches from June to September; and 1-7 inch from October to December. Snow seldom falls in the valley, and only remains unmelted for a very short time. In the hills surrounding the valley, reaching to upwards of 3000 feet, there are generally repeated falls of snow each winter ; while in the loftier ranges behind snow lies sometimes for weeks at a time from the middle of November till the middle of May. Slight shocks of earthquake are frequently experienced, usually in the spring. Peshawar (Peshawur). — Tahsil of Peshawar District, Punjab; extending from Peshawar city to the Khaibar Hills, together with the Mohmand country in the south-eastern corner of the District. Area, 374 square miles, with 139 towns and villages, 24,849 houses, and 38,330 families. Population (1881) 172,031, namely, males 99,581, 158 PESHAWAR CITY. and females 72,450; average density of population, 460 persons per square mile, or excluding Peshawar city, 246 per square mile. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans number 147,232; Hindus, 20,025 ; Sikhs, 1739; Christians, 2991 ; Parsis, 39; Jains, 3, and 'others,' 2. Of the 139 towns and villages, 79 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 30 from five hundred to a thousand, 29 from one to five thousand ; and only 1 (Peshawar city) has upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Principal crops — Indian corn, wheat, barley, with a little rice, cotton, vegetables, sugar-cane, and inferior food-grains. Revenue of the tahsil, £19,272. The admini strative staff, including the Divisional and District head-quarters officers, comprises the Commissioner and Judicial Commissioner of the Division, the Deputy Commissioner and Judicial Assistant Commissioner of the District, Cantonment Magistrate, and Small Cause Court Judge, 5 Assistant or Extra -Assistant Commissioners, 1 tahsilddr, 1 munsif and 2 honorary magistrates ; besides a staff of subordinate village officials. These officers preside over 12 civil and 13 criminal courts. Number of police stations, 6, namely, at Peshawar city and cantonments, Badhber, Mattani, Burj Hari Singh, and Mathra ; strength of regular police, 321 men ; village police (chaukiddrs), 197. Peshawar. — City, municipality, and administrative head-quarters of Pesfkwar Division and District, Punjab. Situated in lat. 34° 1' 45" n., and long. 71° 36' 40" E., in a small plain near the left bank ofthe Bara stream, 13 J miles south-east of the junction of the Swat and Kabul rivers, and \o\ miles from Jamrud fort near the entrance of the Khaibar (Khyber) Pass. Distant from Lahore 276 miles, from Kabul 190 miles. Ancient capital of Gandhara Province, and historically important at all later periods (see Peshawar District). Buddhist remains still mark its early greatness. The modern city has but slight architectural pretensions, the houses being chiefly built of small bricks or mud, held together by a wooden framework. It is surrounded by a mud wall, built in Sikh times by General Avitabile. The city is entered by 16 gates, which are closed every night at gunfire. The main street, entered from the Kabul gate (recently re-erected as a memorial to Sir Herbert Edwardes), is a broad roadway 50 feet in width, consisting of a double row of shops, the upper rooms of which are generally let out as lodgings ; the street is well paved, and at busy times presents a very picturesque sight. The remainder of the city proper consists of octagons, squares, markets, with narrow and irregular streets and lanes. A masonry canal runs through the centre of the city, which supplies ample water for washing and watering the streets. Drinking water is procured from wells which are numerous in all quarters of the city. The sanitary and conservancy arrangements are described as very good, and all the drains are paved. There are now very few old houses PESHAWAR CITY. iS9 of architectural importance, most of them having been destroyed at the time of the capture of the city by the Sikhs from the Duranis. Several handsome mosques ornament the city ; and a large building known as the Ghor Khattri, once a Buddhist monastery, and then rebuilt into a Hindu temple, is now used as a sarai, and contains the tahsili courts and offices. Just without the wall, on the north-western side, a quadri lateral fort, the Bala Hissar, crowns a small eminence, completely domi nating the city. Its walls of sun-dried brick rise to a height of 92 feet above the ground, with a fausse-braye of 30 feet ; bastions stand at each corner and on three of the faces, while an armament of guns and mortars is mounted above. South-west of the city, stretching from just outside the walls, are the suburbs of Bhana Mari and Baghban, where there are gardens noted for their fruit, producing quinces, pomegranates, plums, limes, peaches, and apples in abundance. These gardens form a favourite pleasure- ground of the people; north of the city is another public pleasure- ground, the Bagh Shahi, or old royal gardens. Two miles west of the city lie the cantonments, where most of the civil offices are also situated. Population. — Peshawar city and suburbs, comprising the municipality, has a total population (1881) of 59,292, namely, males 33,089, and females 26,203. The cantonments contain a population (1881) of 20,690, namely, males 17,233, and females 3457. Including the city proper, suburbs, and cantonments, Peshawar contains a total population of 79,982, namely, males 50,322, and females 29,660. Classified accord ing to religion, Muhammadans number 57,378 ; Hindus, 18,105 > Sikhs, 1465 ; Christians, 3028 ; Jains, 3 ; and ' others,' 3. The municipal income (chiefly derived from octroi duties) amounted in 1883-84 to £18,616, or an average of 6s. 3^d. per head (59,292) of municipal population. Trade and Manufactures. — The larger commercial transactions are in the hands of Hindu Khattri and Arora merchants, although there are also many Muhammadan merchants of position and importance. The mass of the town population is sub-divided into petty trade guilds, recruited from miscellaneous tribes of every race to be found in Northern India or in Afghanistan and the neighbouring countries to the south and west. Peshawar forms the great commercial market for Central Asia, for Afghanistan, and for the neighbouring independent States and tribes adjoining the British frontier, collecting wheat and salt from Kohdt, rice and ghi from Swat, oil-seeds from Yusafzai, and sugar and oil from the Punjab and North-Western Provinces. These articles find their market principally in Bokhara, Kabul, and Bajaur ; in return for which are imported from Bokhara gold coin and bullion, gold and silver thread and lace, and prepared skins ; and from Kabul horses, 160 PESHAWAR CANTONMENT. mules and donkeys, fruits, sheepskin coats (poshtins), woollen em broidered coats (chogas), etc. Indian tea and English piece-goods are also exported in considerable quantities to Kabul. Institutions, etc. — The Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner's courts, and the District offices generally, are situated in the cantonments. Within the city are the Sub-divisional offices and courts in the Ghor Khatri, the large sardi. The Edwardes gate, a newly constructed entrance to the city in place of the old Kabul gate, leads to the main business street ; a clock tower stands in front of the city police station. The principal local institutions are the Church Mission Collegiate School, the Egerton Hospital, and the Martin Lecture Hall and Institute, with its reading room and library, also maintained by the Peshawar Mission. Peshawar. — Large military cantonment in Peshawar District, Punjab ; situated 2 miles west of Peshawar city (vide supra), from whence it is separated by a slight depression occupied by the civil bazar ; lat. 34° o' 15'' n., long. 71° 34' 45" e. The cantonments were occupied by British troops soon after the annexation of the Punjab in 1848-49. There are no old buildings of note, except the Residency. This was formerly the garden retreat of Ali Mardan Khan, one of the Durani chiefs, and is now used as the record-room and the treasury of the District. Among the modern buildings are St. John's Church, double-storied barracks, etc. The site of the cantonment, a curved elevation looking towards the Khaibar hills, is one of the best and highest points in the valley, the only objection to it being its proximity to the city. To the south-east are barren and stony plains intercepted by occasional watercourses ; to the north lies a marshy tract extending in the direction of the Kabul river. The cantonments contained in 188 1 a total population of 20,690, namely, males 17,223, and females 3457. The fighting strength con sisted in 1885 of a battery of Royal artillery, 2 regiments of European infantry, a regiment of Bengal cavalry, and three regiments of Native infantry. The cantonments of Naushahra, Jamrud, and Cherat are subordinate to Peshawar, which also supplies garrisons to the frontier forts and military stations. The cantonment buildings are arranged in three main blocks— right, centre, and left, forming together an irregular oblong 8 miles and 540 yards in circuit, 3 miles and 925 yards in length from north-west to south-west, and 1 mile 1650 yaids in breadth at its widest point. The right (or eastern) block contains the artillery lines, and barracks for two regiments of Native infantry, the commissariat stores, the District court-house and treasury, the jail and police lines, and other public buildings. The centre block contains lines for a regiment of Native infantry. It contains also the church, Roman Catholic chapel, post- PET BUDHWARA—PETHAPUR. 161 office, staging bungalow, and the cantonment magistrate's office. The left (or western) block contains lines for a regiment of British infantry, two companies of sappers, a regiment of Native infantry, and one of Native cavalry. In front of this block are the race-course, grand parade, and burial-ground. In the rear are a large cricket-ground and public garden. The appearance of the place during the cold and rainy seasons is pleasing and picturesque. The gardens attached to the officers' bungalows, which line the main roads, are well planted with trees, and in most cases are well kept. Much public energy and good taste also have been displayed in certain improvements recently carried out. Add to this description the fact of a considerable society brought together by the presence of so large a force, and it will be seen that the place combines the principal qualifications for a pleasurable station. The whole, however, is marred by the excessive unhealthiness for which the cantonment is proverbial throughout Northern India, fever of a very bad type being prevalent at all seasons ofthe year. Much has recently been done to remove the causes of this unhealthiness ; a large marsh near the fort has been drained, and a belt of trees planted between it and the cantonments ; a pure supply of filtered water through iron pipes from the Bara river has been intro duced; and lastly, the sanitation of Peshawar city has been vastly improved. Moreover, a large proportion of sickly men are now annually withdrawn from the valley during the hot months to the comparatively healthy site of Cherat. The result of these measures is said to have been a very marked decrease in the former insalubrity of the station. Pet Budhwara. — Village in Katol tahsil, Nagpur District, Central Provinces. Population (1881) 2361, namely, Hindus, 1893 ; Muham madans, 378 ; Jains, 34 ; non-Hindu aborigines, 56. Peth. — Head - quarters of Walwa Sub-division, Satara District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 17" 3' N., long. 74° 17' e. Population (1881) 5672. Hindus number 5367; Muhammadans, 239; and Jains, 66. Situated 45 miles south-east of Satara town, Peth is one of the local trade centres ; the chief articles of trade being grain and cattle. A yearly fair, attended by about 5000 people, is held in the village in February. Post-office, and school with in pupils in 1883-84. Pethapur. — Native State within the Agency of Mahi Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Population (1881) 7081. Agricultural products — millet, pulse, and wheat. Cotton cloth is imported and dyed, for exportation to Siam. The chief is descended from a branch of the Hindu dynasty of Anhilwara Paltan, whose power was destroyed by Ak-ud-dfn in 1298. Siramshi or Sarangdeo, one of the two sons of the last king of Patan, was granted the town of Kalol and surrounding villages. Descended from him in the tenth generation was Herutajf, VOL. XI. L 162 PETHAPUR— PHAGU. who in 1445 slew his maternal uncle, Pitajf, of the Gohel tribe, and took possession of the State called after him, Pethapur. The chief has enjoyed semi-independent power since the establishment of his family in Mahi Kantha. The present (1885) chief, Thakur Gambhir Singh, a Hindu of the Waghela clan of Rajputs, succeeded his father, Himat Singh, in December 1878, and being a minor, the State is now under Government management. Revenue (1882), £1725. An annual tribute of £863 is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda. The family do not hold a title authorizing adoption, and they follow primogeniture in matters of succession. Transit dues are levied in the State. One school, with 205 pupils in 1882-83. Pethapur. — Principal town in Pethapur State, Mahi Kantha, Gujarat (Guzerat), Bombay Presidency,' and the residence of the chief; situated in lat. 23° 13' 10'' N., and long. 72° 33' 30" e., on the west bank of the Salbarmati. Noted for the brilliancy of its dyes. Considerable quantities of cloth are brought into the town to be coloured, and are then exported to Siam. Population (1881) 7081. Petlad. — Sub-division of Baroda State (Gaekwar's territory). Area, 280 square miles, of which 88,087 acres are under cultivation. Popu lation (1881) 138,292. Number of holdings, 16,159; average size of holding, 6 acres. Gross revenue, £87,814, of which £77,666 is derived from land. Ninety-three per. cent, of the people are supported by agriculture. The region is famous for its tobacco cultivation. Petlad. — Town in Baroda State, head - quarters of Petlad Sub division. Lat. 22° 29' n., long. 72° 50' e. Population (1881) 14,418, namely, 7226 males and 7192 females. Thriving trade in tobacco, and considerable weaving manufacture, in which hand-looms are employed. Post and police offices, jail, dispensary, customs house, and schools. Twenty-one sardis for travellers. Pettai. — Town in Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. — See Pattapattu. Phaeton. — Small shoal off the mouth of the Bassein river, Lower Burma; on which H.M.S. Phaeton struck on the 16th of February 18 10, and was obliged to put into Calcutta for repairs. It bears south west by south from Diamond Island (distant 4 miles), and north by east (distant 3^ miles) from the Alguada Reef, having 9 fathoms of water close to, and 2 fathoms upon it. PhagU. — Halting -place, with good Government rest-house of several rooms, in Keunthal State, Punjab, 1 2 miles east of Simla on the pony route to Kotgarh. Lat. 31" 6' n., long. 77" 21' e. Roman tically situated between 8000 and 9000 feet above sea-level, and frequently resorted to by Simla residents as well as travellers. The noble forests which clothed the mountain slopes have been in great part burned down, and have given place to potato cultivation. Formerly PHA G WARA—PHALIAN. 1 63 a chief source of charcoal fuel for Simla. Of late, game has become very scarce. Phagwara. — Town in Kapurthala State, Punjab. Population (1881) 10,627, namely, Hindus, 6889; Muhammadans, 3133; Sikhs, 496; and Jains, 109. Number of houses, 2065. Phalalum (Phalut). — One of the loftiest peaks in Darjfling District, Bengal, in the Singalik spur of the Himalayas ; 12,042 feet in height. Lat. 27° 12' 30" n., long. 88° 3' e. The view of the great northern Snowy Mountains from this hill is said by the District officer to be one of ' indescribable grandeur. A jagged line of snow connecting the two highest mountains in the world, Everest and Kanchanjanga, dazzles the eye ; and while the deep silence around impresses itself upon the spectator, the thick clumps of pine forest, with their wide- spreading arms, add a weird solemnity to the scene.' The range is crossed by the Nepal frontier road ; and a staging bungalow has been recently erected on the Singalik spur, which is available to travellers on application to the Deputy Commissioner of Darjfling. Phalauda. — Town in Muwana tahsil, Meerut (Merath) District, North-Western Provinces. The town is said to have been founded by Phalgu, a Rajput of the Tuar clan, whose descendants held possession of it till they were ousted by the Muhammadans. The place was abandoned for nearly two centuries, on account of a curse uttered by Kutab Shah, a fakir ; and no one would cultivate it at the settlement in 1836. Some J alts were afterwards induced to occupy the village at a progressive revenue commencing from £3. It is now again in a high state of cultivation, and at the last land revenue settlement was assessed at a revenue of £99. Population (1881) 5163, namely, Hindus, 3076; Muhammadans, 2050; and Jains, 37. Muhammadans still refuse to live in the town, as they say they are immediately seized with disease. Phalgu. — River of Gaya District, Bengal ; formed by the union, a few miles above Gay£ town, of two hill torrents, the Lilajan and the Mohana, which both enter the District from the south. When the Phalgri reaches the high and rocky shores of Gaya, it is above 500 yards wide, and for the next half-mile is remarkable for its sanctity. During the hot weather it dries up, but water can always be obtained by digging a few feet below the surface. After leaving Gaya, the river runs in a north-easterly direction for about 17 miles. When opposite the Barabar Hill, it divides into two branches, which flow eventually into a branch of the Punpun. Phalian. — Western tahsil of Gujralt District, Punjab ; consisting of a plateau bordering on Srkhpur District ; lying between 32° 10' 30" and 32° 44' n. lat., and between 73° 20' and 73° 55' 30" e. long. Area, 772 square miles, with 308 towns and villages, 20,665 houses, and 1 64 PHALJAR—PHAL TAN. 35,753 families. Population (1881) 174,704, namely, males 92,425, and females 82,279; average density of population, 226 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans number 150,946; Hindus, 21,898; Sikhs, 1858; and Christians, 2. Ofthe 308 towns and villages, 178 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 84 from five hundred to a thousand; and 46 from one thousand to five thousand, there being no place with upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Average area under cultivation for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82, 317 square miles, or 202,891 acres; the area under the principal crops being — wheat, 100,464 acres; bdjra, 24,234 acres ; barley, 14,686 acres; moth, 4642 acres; gram, 4318 acres; Indian corn, 2226 acres; rice, 1653 acres; cotton, 5750 acres; sugar-cane, 2887 acres; tobacco, 1247 acres; vegetables, 10,284 acres, etc. Revenue of the tahsil, £15,783. The local administrative staff consists of a tahsilddr and a munsifi presiding over 1 criminal and 2 civil courts; number of police circles (thdnds), 3; strength of regular police, 51 men ; village police (chaukiddrs), 204. Phaljar. — Village in the Jaintia plains in the north of Sylhet District, Assam; containing a celebrated Hindu temple. A human sacrifice at this temple led to the British annexation of Jaintia in 1837. Phaltan. — Native State under the Agency of Satara, in the Deccan, Bombay Presidency, lying between 17" 56' and 18° 6' n. lat, and between 74° 16' and 74° 44' e. long. Bounded on the north by Poona (Puna) District, and on the east, west, and south by Satara District. Area, 397 square miles. Population (1872) 59,124; (1881") 58,402, namely, 29,199 males and 29,203 females, occupying 7082 houses in 1 town and 71 villages. Hindus number 55,389; Muhammadans, 1670; and 'others,' 1343. Gross revenue, inclusive of import and export duties, £12,902. The country is chiefly flat ; lines of stony hills divide it from Satara District The prevailing soil is black, and the rest is red. About 9000 acres of garden cultivation are irrigated, for the most part from wells. Extensive grazing lands. Indian millet, salt, gram, and timber are the chief products ; and oil, weaving of cotton and silk goods, and carving of stone idols are the chief manufactures. The climate is hot, and the rainfall scanty. The State suffered severely during the famine of 1876-77 ; much land was abandoned, and has not yet been brought under cultivation. In 1882-83 the State had 3 civil courts, besides criminal and sessions courts. Regular police, 52 men ; watchmen (rakhvdlddrs), 43. Schools, 16, with 719 pupils. The Phaltan family is of Rajput origin. One Padakla Jagdeo entered the service of the Emperor of Delhi ; and on his death in battle, in 1327, the Emperor gave the title of Nayak and a grant of lands to his son Nimbraji, who died in 1349. In 1825 the State was attached by the Raja of Satara. In 1827, Banaji Nayak was permitted to succeed on PHALTAN TOWN— PHAPHUND. 165 payment of a relief of £3000. On his death in the following year, Phaltan was again attached by the Satara Government till 1841, when the widow of the deceased chief was allowed to adopt a son — the present chief of Phaltan — on payment of a relief of £3000. The present (1882) ruler, who ranks as a 'First-Class Sardar' in the Deccan, is Madhavji Rao Nayak Nimbalkar, Desmukh Jagirdar. He is a Hindu of the Kshattriya caste, forty-four years of age, and administers his estate in person. He pays a tribute of £960, in lieu of a contingent of 75 horse. The family hold a sanad authorizing adoption. In matters of succession they follow the custom of primogeniture. Phaltan. — Chief town of Phaltan State, in the Deccan, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 17° 59' 40" n., and long. 74° 28' 20" e., 37 miles north-east of Satara. Population (1872) 9741 ; (1881) 10,842, namely, 5438 males and 5404 females. Hindus in 1881 numbered 8854; Muhammadans, 794; and Jains, 1194. The town was founded by Nimbraj in the 14th century. The streets are well kept and clean, and the road round the town well shaded by trees. Municipality established in 1868; income (1882), £580; incidence of taxation, 3d. per head. Phallit. — Lofty peak in Darjfling District, Bengal. — See Phalalum. Phaphlind. — Central eastern tahsil of Etawah District, North- Western Provinces ; consisting of a level upland plain, traversed by the East Indian Railway, and watered by the Etawah branch of the Ganges Canal. Area, 228 square miles, of which 124 are cultivated. Popula tion (1872) 97,574; (1881) 111,585, namely, males 61,193, ar>d females 50,392, showing an increase of population since 1872 of 14,011, or 12-5 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 105,142; Muhammadans, 6433; and 'others,' 10. Of the 240 towns and villages in the tahsil, 187 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 38 from five hundred to a thousand; 14 from one to five thousand; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Government land revenue assessment, £21,391, or including local rates and cesses levied upon land, £23,972 ; estimated rental paid by cultivators, £39,134. In 1883, Phaphund tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 magisterial court ; number of police circles (thdnds), 3 ; strength of regular police, 37 men; village police (chaukiddrs), 223. Phaphund. — Town in Etawah District, North-Western Provinces, and head-quarters of Etawah tahsil. Situated in lat. 26° 35' 30" n., and long. 79° 30' 25" e., on an old mound, 36 miles east of Etawah town. Population (1881) 7796, namely, Hindus, 531 1 ; Muhammadans, 2480 ; and Christians, 5. Area of town site, 118 acres. For conservancy and police purposes, a house-tax is levied. Phaphund contains several good brick-built houses ; wide, busy bdzdr ; open modern quarter known as Hume-ganj ; handsome sarai, with large enclosure shaded by trees. 166 PHARAMGIRI—PHENI. Tahsili, police station, Anglo-vernacular school. The Phaphund railway station is situated 6 miles north-east of the town, with telegraph office ; post-office in the town. Ruins of great tanks and temples surround the site on every side. Two mosques, masonry well, 4 tanks. The town was twice plundered and burnt during the Mutiny of 1857. Annual fair, attended by 10,000 persons, at the tomb of Shah Bukhari, a Musalman ascetic. Pharamgiri (or Fardmgiri). — Village in the south-east of the Garo Hills District, Assam ; on the southern slope ofthe Mimanram Mountain, 3952 feet above sea-level. The inhabitants of this village perpetrated the massacre of the survey coolies in 1871, which led to the Garo expedition of the following year, and the British annexation of the District. Pharha (Pharhiya). — Town in Mustafabad tahsil, Mainpuri District, North-Western Provinces. Distant from Mainpuri town 391 miles, and from Mustafabad 8 miles. Population (1881) 4268, namely, Hindus, 3043; Muhammadans, 663 ; and 'others,' 562. The conservancy and police arrangements of the town are met out of the proceeds of a small house-tax. Trade in indigo, cotton, grain, and country produce, which has declined since the opening of the railway. Police station, post- office. Branch indigo factory of the Umargarh establishment. Pheni (Fenny). — Sub-division of Noakhali District, Bengal. Area, 343 square miles; number of villages, 636 ; number of houses, 23,273. Population ( 1 881), males 118,332, and females 123,643; total, 241,975. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans numbered 166.751; Hindus, 75,209; Christians, 3; and Buddhists, 12. Density of popu lation, 705 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, 1-85; persons per village, 380; houses per square mile, 71; persons per house, 10-4. The Sub-division comprises the two police circles (thdnds) of Phenf and Chhagalnaiya. In 1883 it contained 1 criminal court, namely, the Sub-divisional officers' court at Phenf ; and 2 civil munsifs courts, both at Diwanganj. Pheni. — River of Eastern Bengal. Rising in lat. 23° 20' n., and long. 910 49' 30" e., in Hill Tipperah, it flows south-west, marking the boundary between Hill Tipperah and the Chittagong Hill Tracts, which it leaves at Ramghar. Thence it flows west and south, divid ing Chittagong from Noakhali on the north, and ultimately falls into the Sandwfp Channel, an arm of the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 22° 46' n., and long. 91° 31' e. During its course through the hills, it is of little use for navigation ; its banks are abrupt, and covered with heavy grass and bamboo jungle. The Phenf is of considerable depth during the rains, but is rendered dangerous by rapid currents, whirling eddies, and sharp turns ; at every full and new moon, especially at the time of the equinox, there is a bore in the Sandwfp Channel, which is PHILLAUR TAHSLL AND TOWN. 167 highest at the mouth of the Phenf river. It is navigable by large boats throughout the year for a distance of 30 miles. Phillaur. — Central southern tahsil of Jalandhar (Jullundur) District, Punjab, lying between 30° 57' 15" and 31° 13' n. lat, and between 75° 33' and 76° e. long., along the bank of the Sutlej (Satlaj). Area, 294 square miles, with 220 towns and villages, 23,813 houses, and 38,058 families. Population (1881) 168,269, namely, males 92,871, and females 75,398 ; average density of population, 573 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 85,016; Muhammadans, 58,620; Sikhs, 24,532; Christians, 98; and Jains, 3. Of the 220 towns and villages, 127 contain less than five hundred inhabitants; 57 from five hundred to a thousand ; 31 from one to five thousand ; and 5 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Average cultivated area for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82, 261 square miles, or 166,998 acres, the principal crops being — wheat, 55,165 acres; gram, 16,638 acres; Indian corn, 18,193 acres ; jodr, 22,509 acres; moth, 4837 acres; barley, 2222 acres; rice, 1125 acres; sugar-cane, 10,488 acres; cotton, 5793 acres; tobacco, 76 acres, etc. Revenue of the tahsil, £30,017. The local administrative staff consists of 1 tahsilddr and 1 munshi, presiding over 1 criminal and 2 civil courts ; number of police circles (thdnds), 2, with head-quarters at Phillaur and Nurmahal ; strength of regular police, 45 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 307. Phillaur. — Town and municipality in Jalandhar (Jullundur) District, Punjab, and head-quarters of Phillaur tahsil. Situated in lat. 31° o' 38" n., and long. 75° 49' 55'' e., on the right bank ofthe Sutlej (Satlaj), 27 miles south-east of Jalandhar town. The modern town dates from the reign of Shah Jatkn, when its site, then covered with ruins, was selected for one of the sardis or resting-stages on the imperial route from Delhi to Lahore. It was seized on the rise of the Sikh power by one Sudh Singh, who made it the capital of a considerable estate ; and fell into the hands of Ranjft Singh in 1807, who converted the sarai into a fort to command the passage of the Sutlej. After the British occupation, the fort was occupied as an important artillery arsenal and magazine ; and a cantonment was formed in the neighbourhood, which continued to be occupied till the Mutiny of 1857, when the detachment in garrison rebelled. The cantonment was not reoccupied after the pacification. Phillaur owes its modern importance to the Sind, Punjab, and Delhi Railway, on which it forms one of the depot stations. Large colony of railway employe's. Population (1881) 7107, namely, Muhammadans, 4022; Hindus, 2749; Sikhs, 260; Christians, 75; and Jain, 1. Number of houses, 1 137. Municipal income (1883-84), £517, or is. 5|d. per head of the population. Tahsili, police station, branch dispensary, middle-class school, post-office. The town 1 68 PHINGESWAR—PHULPUR. is also the head-quarters of a forest division, and is a great wood mart, large quantities of timber being floated down the Sutlej and stored and sold here. Phingeswar (Fingeswar). — Zaminddri or chiefship attached to Raipur District, Central Provinces, about 30 miles south of Raipur town ; containing 80 villages, and valuable forests. Area, 208 square miles, with 84 towns or villages, and 4834 houses. Population (1881) 16,325, namely, males 8 1 18, and females 8207; average density of population, 78-5 persons per square mile. The chief claims to be a Raj - Gond ; and the chiefship is said to have been granted to his ancestor in 1579. Phingeswar village lies in lat. 20° 58' N., and long. 82° 5' E. Phulaguri (Fuldguri). — Village in Nowgong (Naugaon) District, Assam. A fair, attended by about 5000 persons, is held here for one day in March, and is said to have been introduced in the reign of the Aham kings. Its primary object is the performance of religious plays in honour of certain deities. Phuljhar. — Zaminddri or chiefship attached to Sambalpur District, Central Provinces, formerly one of the Hill States known as the Athdra Garhjdt, or the Eighteen Forts. Area, 787 square miles, two- thirds of which are cultivated. The soil is light and sandy, except here and there in the valleys. In the west, some fine strips of sdl jungle fringe the main road between Raipur and Sambalpur, especially near the river Jonk ; the tigers which infested them have been of late nearly exterminated. Wild buffaloes are found near the Jonk, and bears, leopards, etc., among the hills. Rice forms the staple crop, but pulses, cotton, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, and gram are also grown. Excellent iron- ore has been found. Population (1881) 65,878, namely, males 33,395, and females 32,483, inhabiting 436 villages and 17,010 houses; average density of population, 83-7 persons per square mile. The school in Phuljhar, the chief town (lat. 21° 13' n., long. 820 53' e.), has about 50 pupils. This chiefship is sub-divided into eight estates — Phuljhargarh, Kelinda, Boitarf, Basni, Bakda, Borsar£, Singhora, and SankrSi. About 250 villages are held by the farmers direct from the chief, who is a Raj- Gond. His annual income is estimated at £1362, and he pays an annual tribute of £100. The chiefship was granted to his ancestor 300 years ago by the Patn£ Rajd.s, for service in the field. Phlilpur. — Tahsil of Allahabad District, North-Western Provinces, lying on the north bank of the river Ganges, and comprising the pargands of Sikandra and Jhusf. Area, 285 square miles, of which 161-3 are returned as under cultivation. Population (1872) 160,305; (1881) 173,001, namely, males 86,221, and females 86,780, showing an increase of 12,696, or 7-9 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 151,618; Muham- PIALL—PIHANI. 169 madans, 21,378; and 'others,' 5. Of the 488 towns and villages in the tahsil, 391 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 71 from five hundred to a thousand ; 25 from one to five thousand ; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Government land revenue assessment, £30,069, or including local rates and cesses levied upon land, £34,580. In 1883, Phiilpur tahsil contained 1 civil and revenue and 1 criminal court ; number of police circles (thdnds), 2 ; strength of regular police force, 28 men ; village police force (chaukiddrs), 352-_ Piali. — River in the District of the Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal. A cross stream from the Bidyadhari to the Matla ; it branches off from the former river in lat. 22° 25' n., and long. 88° 35' E., near Bhagfrathpur, and flows a southerly and south-westerly course till it falls into the Matk about 15 miles below Port Canning. The river is bridged at the point where the Calcutta and South-Eastern Railway crosses it. The Pklf is a deep stream, about 100 yards in breadth where it leaves the Bidyadhari, increasing to about 250 yards on its way. Pigeon Island. : — Island off the coast of Vizagapatam District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 17° 33' n., and long. 83° 14' e., about 7 leagues eastward of Wattada. It lies low, and is not discernible from a distance. Pigeon Island (also known as Netrdni or Nitrdn). — Island ten miles off the coast of North Kanara District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 14° 1' n., and long. 74° 19' e., about 15 miles north-west of Bhatkal. The island is about 300 feet high and half a mile broad. It is well wooded, and has good landing on the west side. In clear weather it is visible 25 miles off. Its shores abound in white coral and quicklime, which are taken by boats to the mainland. The numbers of pigeons that haunt its caves have given the island its name. Besides pigeons, the island is frequented by the swiftlet, Collccalia unicolor, whose nests the Chinese esteem a delicacy. It also contains one of the largest known colonies of the white-bellied sea eagle. Pihani. — Pargand in Shahabad tahsil, Hardoi District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Kheri District, on the east by Kheri and Sitapur Districts, on the south by Gopamau and Mansurnagar/a^zraj, and on the west by Mansiirnagar and Alamnagar. Area, 80 square miles, of which 43 are cultivated. Population (1881) 37,463, namely, 30,283 Hindus and 4180 Muhammadans. Government land revenue, £4028. Number of villages or townships (mauzds), 81. The proprietary class consists of Brahmans, Rajputs, Kalyasths, and Musal- nkns. Pihani. — Town and municipality in Shahabad tahsil, Hardoi District, Oudh, and head-quarters of Pihani pargand; situated in lat. 1 7 o PIHEJ—PILIBHIT. 27" 37' 15" n., and long. 80° 14' 25" e., on the road between Sitapur and Shahjahanpur. Population (1881) 7540, namely, 4458 Hindus and 3082 Muhammadans, residing in 327 brick and 1493 mud houses. Municipal income (1883-84), ^215, of which £103 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, 4^d. per head. A place of considerable importance during native administration, but now in a state of decay. A handsome mosque and tomb marks the resting-place of Akbar's celebrated chancellor, Sadr Jahan. Pihani was formerly noted for its manufacture of sword-blades of the finest temper, and of woven turbans (dastdr). Both these industries have now died out. Police station ; Government school. Pihej. — Town in Baroda Division, Baroda State (Gaekwar's territory). Population (1881) 6294. Pihewa. — - Town in Ambala (Umballa) District, Punjab. — See Pehoa. Pilibhit. — District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of the North- Western Provinces, lying between 28° 8' and 28° 53' 30" n. lat., and between 79° 41' and 80° 3' e. long. Area, 1371-6 square miles. Popula tion ( 1 88 1 ) 45 1 ,60 1 . Pilibhit is a District of the Rohilkhand Division ; bounded on the north by the Tarai District; on the east by the independent territory of Nepal, and by Shahjahanpur District ; on the south by Shahjahanpur ; and on the west by Bareilly (Bareli) District. The administrative head-quarters are at the town of Pilibhit. Physical Aspects.- — Pilibhit District, though only separated by the narrow belt of the Tarai from the lower spurs of the Himalayas, con sists chiefly of a level plain, modified by gentle undulations and inter sected by several streams. In the south, the country is well wooded, nearly every village possessing groves of mango and other fruit trees. The total area under fruit groves is returned at 15,612 acres. In the north and east, a large area of forest land fringes Pilibhit and Puranpur pargands, a small portion of which is the private property of zaminddrs, while the remainder is Government property, and is conserved and managed by forest officers. In Puranpur pargand, the cultivators are allowed to cut wood for their domestic consumption free of duty, but in the Pilibhit forest tract, their privileges in this respect are much restricted. The Sarda and the Deoha, with their affluents, are the principal rivers of the District. The former river, after a course of some 150 miles within the Kumaun hills, debouches upon the plains at Barmdeo, and marks the boundary between Nepalese and British territory. For about nine or ten miles, as far as the old fort of Banbasa in the Tarai District, it flows in a southerly and south-easterly direction, generally in one bed, between tolerably high and picturesquely wooded banks. On nearing the plains, the river soon changes its character ; every mile PILIBHIT. 171 rapids become rarer, the bed less strewn with boulders, and sandbanks appear. Near Banbasa, the river separates into two main streams, which reunite about 14 milesTower down, enclosing the island known as Chandni Chauk. Within living memory, the western channel carried the main stream of the Sa>da. But of late years the current has been steadily tending towards the eastern channel, and the western now carries little more than a few inches of water during the summer months. The western channel marks, however, the Nepalese boundary. About a mile below the reunion of the two branches is Mandiyaghat, an important station on the main road between Bareilly, Pilibhit, and Nepal. From Mandiyaghat, the Sarda flows south-eastwards through Pilibhit District, marking at parts the boundary between British and Nepalese territory, but with many bifurcations and interlacing channels, till it passes into Kheri District, where it receives the Kauriala ; and the united river is thence known as the Sarju or Gogra, the great river of Oudh, down to its confluence with the Ganges at Chapra in the Bengal District of Saran, in lat. 25° 43' n., long. 84° 43' 30" e. Ferries are maintained across the Sarda at Sherpur and Jatpura. The principal affluent of the Sarda is the Chauka, a considerable stream, which, after a long course through the Tarai District and the Puranpur pargand of Pilibhit, almost parallel with the Sarda, falls into that river on its right bank near Dhanaura- ghat The Deoha, known to the neighbouring mountaineers as the Nand£, rises in the Bhabar tract of Kumaun. Here its waters, like that of other streams to the eastward, contains large quantities of lime in solution, and blanch after rain to a milky whiteness. The springs from the hills, below which the river debouches on to the plains, are similarly impregnated, and deposit their lime either" pure or in stalac tites. Such lime is exported to Bareilly, Pilibhit, and Shahjahanpur, where its excellent quality commands a ready sale. The Deoha enters Pilibhit from the north in the centre of the District, and flowing a tortuous southerly course, marks the boundary between Jahanabad and Pilibhit pargands, till it passes into Bareilly, and ultimately into Shah jahanpur and Hardoi Districts, in the latter of which it joins the Ramganga under the name of the Garra. Swollen by violent floods from the mountains, the river is at times very broad and deep, with a maximum flood discharge of 26,000 cubic feet per second; its hot- weather discharge does not exceed 200 feet per second. Pilibhft town is situated on the left bank of the Deoha, and below this point the river is navigable during the rains by boats of four tons burthen, while logs may be floated down it for most of the year. The affluents of the Deoha in Pilibhit District are the Kaiks, Absara, Lohiya, and Khakra. A good deal of water for irrigation is supplied from these streams ; but 172 PILIBHIT. the Deoha itself having a wide bed much below the level of the surrounding country, cannot prove similarly useful. The Grimti river takes its rise near Mainakot in the Puranpur forest tract. Its course in Pilibhit District before entering Shahjahanpur consists of a series of swamps, all bearing a bad reputation for malaria. A similar line of swamps, forming the upper part of the Mala, is of a particularly malarious character, and renders the country-side uninhabitable for miles around. Generally speaking, it may be said that on the. western and southern portions the District is populous, well cultivated, and undistinguish- able in general character from the adjacent fertile Districts of Bareilly and Shahjahanpur; while to the north and east in Puranpur pargand it lapses more or less abruptly into a tract of malarious swamp, forest, and grassy waste, interspersed with clumps of miserable huts and patches of poor cultivation. It would be hard to find a stronger dissimilarity than exists between Puranpur ' and its neighbouring pargands of Pilibhit and Jahan&bad, either in soil, produce, water-supply, or even climate. In the wilder parts of Puranpur, especially along the line of the Mala swamp, tigers and leopards are numerous, but elsewhere scarce. The damage done by them in the open country is small, and their raids on cattle are forgiven in consideration of their services against the husbandman's more serious enemies — the wild hog and the deer, who commit serious depredations among the crops. Of wild beasts that are not game, the jackal and the wolf are the most conspicuous. Both are respected as pet dogs of the goddess Kali, and as such are rarely molested. The superstition is strongest in the case of the wolf, whom, in spite of the rewards set on his head, it is considered extremely unlucky to kill. The principal game birds consist of the black and grey partridge, quail, sand-grouse, j ungle-fowl, pea-fowl, geese, ducks, teal, snipe, and floriken. History. — Authentic history of Pilibhit District may be said practi cally to commence with the ascendency of the Rohilk Pathans, Previous to their time, and from a very early date, the country was occupied by tribes of Ahirs, Banjaras, and Rajputs of the Bachhal and Katheriya clans, who predominated in turn, and have left behind them as sole relics of their occupation, ruins of mud forts, irrigation tanks, and in one instance a canal, with a stone inscription 900 years old commemorating its construction. These tribes were afterwards ousted by successive irruptions of Muhammadans, who gradually possessed themselves of the whole country. Local history, however, does not commence before the 18th century, when Pilibhit fell into the hands of a Rohilk chief, Hafiz Rahmat Khan, who has left his mark on the history of all Rohilkhand, and to whom Pilibhit, PILIBHIT. 173 which he selected for a time as his residence, is indebted for its public buildings, markets, and all that distinguished it before the advent of British rule. On the permanent establishment of Rahmat Khan's supremacy in 1754, Pilibhit became the recognised capital of Rohilkhand. Hafiz Rahmat Khan surrounded the city first with a mud, and afterwards with a brick wall. The latter was demolished after his death, but traces of the long lines of curtains and bastions still mark the city boundaries on the northern and eastern sides. The Jamd Masjid or cathedral mosque which he built in imitation of the great Jamal Masjid at Delhi, is the chief architectural ornament of the city ; and the hammdm or public bath which he established, is still maintained and resorted to by the people. Hdfiz Rahmat Khan was killed in the battle of Miranka Katra in 1774, fought between the Rohillas and the Nawib Wazir of Oudh, who was aided by a European force lent by Warren Hastings. Pilibhit was occupied without resistance, and became a part of the new dominions added to the territories of the Nawab Wazir. In 1801, with the rest of Rohilkhand, it passed to the British, being ceded in lieu of the payment of tribute. Pilibhit was made the head-quarters of a tahsil till 1833, when it became the capital of a separate District known as the Northern Division of Bareilly. In 1842, Pilibhit again became a Sub-division of Bareilly District. At the time of the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, Pilibhit Sub division was under the charge of Mr. C. P. Carmichael, Joint Magis trate. Tidings of the rising of the troops at Bareilly reached Pilibhit on the ist June, and tumults at once broke out among the population. Throngs of excited and fanatical Muhammadans, low castes, and bad characters, besieged the tahsili for the purpose of plunder. The leading citizens, who had been charged by the Joint Magistrate with the duty of dividing and removing the treasure to a place of safety, fell out among themselves, and the whole city became a scene of uproar and bloodshed. Mr. Carmichael, finding it impossible to allay the tumult, and that his continued presence could serve no useful purpose, was forced to retire to Naini Tal, whither he had previously despatched his family for safety. Until the restoration of British authority in 1858, the villages of the Pilibhit Sub-division remained a prey to the rapacity and extortions of rival zamindars, while the city nominally submitted to the authority of Khan Bahadur Khan, the rebel Nawab of Bareilly, grandson of Hafiz Rahmat Khan. Since the restora tion of British authority, the only occasion on which order has been disturbed was in 1871, when a riot, which was not suppressed without bloodshed, occurred between the Muhammadan and Hindu factions on the occasion of a Hindu festival. 174 PILIBHIT. Pilibhit continued to remain a Sub-division of Bareilly until 1879, when the three tahsils of Pilibhit, Puranpur, and Baheri were separated from Bareilly, and erected into the separate District of Pilibhit In the following year (1880), Baheri tahsil was restored to Bareilly, and Bisalpur tahsil added to Pilibhit, thus constituting the District as it at present stands. Population. — The population of Pilibhit District, as now constituted, was returned in 1872 at 492,098. The last Census in 1881 disclosed a total population of 451,601, showing a decrease of 40,497, or 8-2 per cent, in nine years. The decrease is ascribed to the severe scarcity of 1878-79, and the consequent heavy mortality. The results of the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows: — Area of the District, 1371-6 square miles; number of towns and villages, 1053; number of occupied houses, 64,625. Total population, 451,601, namely, males 239,787, and females 211,814; proportion of males in total population, 53-1 per cent. Average density of population, 329 persons per square mile ; towns and villages per square mile, -76 ; persons per town or village, 429 ; houses per square mile, 47-1 ; persons per occupied house, 6-9. Classified according to sex and age, there are — under 15 years of age, boys 94,806, and girls 79,805 ; total children, 174,611, or 38-7 per cent, of the population: 15 years and upwards, males 144,981, and females 132,009; total adults, 276,990, or 61-3 per cent. Religion. — Hindus number 377,003, or 83-5 per cent, of the popula tion ; Muhammadans, 74,580, or 16-5 per cent. The remainder con sists of 18 Christians, of whom 12 are Europeans, 2 Eurasians, and 4 natives. Among the higher classes of Hindus, Brahmans number 25,028; Rajputs, 9756; Baniyas, 7356; and Kayasths, 5148. The lower castes include the following — Kurmf, the principal agricultural class, and most numerous caste in the District, 98,427 ; Lodhi, 33,953; Chamar, 30,025; Kachhf, 24,063; Kahar, 13,689; Ahir, 13,250; Palsi, 10,712; Barhai, 10,524; Telf, 10,101; Dhobi, 8774; Lohar, 7372; Kori, 7080; Nai, 7014; and Gadark, 6445. The Muham madans, who are almost without exception Sunnis by sect, include 1642 descendants of Hindu Mewatfs. Town and Rural Population. — Pilibhit District contains only two towns with a population exceeding five thousand, namely, Pilibhit, 29,721, and Bisalpur, 8903; total, 38,624, or 8-5 per cent, of the District population. These are also the only municipalities; total municipal income (1883-84), £3893, of which £3069 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, is. 7d. per head of town population. Of the 1053 towns and villages, 353 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 441 from two hundred to five hundred; 198 from five hundred to a thousand; 42 from one to two thousand; 14 from PILIBHIT. 175 two to three thousand ; 3 from three to five thousand ; and 2 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the male popula tion is divided into the following six main classes — (1) Professional class, including civil and military, 2527; (2) domestic class, 602; (3) commercial class, including bankers, traders, carriers, etc., 5316; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 116,964; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 23,500; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers and male children, 90,878. Agriculture. — In 1883-84, out of a total area assessed for Govern ment revenue amounting to 1220^ square miles, or 781,109 acres, 419,164 acres were returned as under cultivation, 287,792 acres as cultivable waste, and 74,153 acres as uncultivable. The three tahsils of which the District is composed differ widely in soil, products, and climate. In the northern tahsil of Pilibhit, with its clayey soil and heavy rainfall, rice forms the predominant crop ; but owing to the canals which have been constructed west of the Deoha, and to a more laborious system of cultivation now generally observable, a con siderable area has of late years been devoted to wheat and barley; and the cultivation of the sugar-cane is rapidly extending. The cultivated portion of the eastern tahsil of Puranpur consists mainly of a level plateau of light sandy loam, producing chiefly urd and bdjra for the autumn, and wheat and barley for the spring harvests. The large uncultivated area in Puranpur tahsil is mostly utilized as pasture land ; and the cattle bred here, although of small size, are noted for their hardiness and endurance. In the southern tahsil of Bisalpur, where irrigation from wells is the rule, as elsewhere it is the exception, every variety of crop common to Rohilkhand is grown with success. The style of cultivation varies as much as the produce. In the south and west, it will bear comparison with the best of the Rohilkhand Districts ; but in the north-east and east, where the energies of the cultivator are devoted to protecting his crops from the depredations of wild beasts, cultivation is slovenly and irrigation rare. The total area irrigated in Pilibhit District in 1883-84 was 81,417 acres, of which 11,161 acres were irrigated from Government works, and 70,256 acres by private individuals. Rents are paid in every possible way, and at widely differing rates. For rice cultivation, the system of batdi or division of the crop prevails; while in Puranpur tahsil a peculiar system of crop rates is universally found, by which rents are paid in cash, at rates regulated according to the nature of the crop grown, and without any reference to the quality of the soil or its situation. The total male adult agricul tural population of Pilibhit District, as returned by the Census of 1881, is 116,303, with an average of 3-41 cultivated acres for each. Includ- 176 PILIBHIT. ing males and females, the adult agriculturists number 144,433, of whom 1859 are landed proprietors, 3507 are engaged in estate service, 131,903 are cultivators, and 7164 are agricultural labourers. In cluding children, the total agricultural population dependent on the soil numbers 326,574, or 72-31 per cent, of the District population. Total Government assessment in 1881, including rates and cesses levied on the land, £83,811, or at the rate of 4s. 3§d. per cultivated acre; estimated rental paid by cultivators, £138,334, or at the rate of 6s. nfd. per cultivated acre. The cultivators are mostly poor, but independent, with strong migratory instincts, which are markedly developed in the sparsely populated tracts along the forest borders. The general absence of irrigation in these tracts, coupled with the roving character of the population, render cultivation so uncertain, that it has been found necessary to introduce in many villages a system of annual assessment by which the revenue varies according to the area of land under cultivation. Natural Calamities. — Pilibhit District has never suffered very severely from famine caused by floods or droughts, and the diseases con sequent thereon. The Sarda and the Deoha occasionally rise suddenly and inundate their banks owing to heavy rainfall in the hills ; but the Sarda flows through sandy wastes and jungles, and cultivation is scanty along the Deoha. The loss arising from floods is seldom more serious than the drowning of a few head of cattle, or the destruction of a few hundred acres of rice. The natural moisture of the soil, the scanty population, and the resources of the forests have hitherto served to protect the people from the extremity of famine. Commerce and Trade. — The trade of the District is chiefly centred in Pilibhit town, the principal staples consisting of rice, borax, spices, sugar, timber, hides, and cattle. Ihe finer descriptions of rice, grown in the Tarai District, are mostly collected at Neork, a town inhabited by Banjaras, about nine miles north of Pilibhit town. The rice is husked here, and when re-sold passes under the name of Pilibhit rice. Borax and spices come principally from Barmdeo, a mart in Kumaun District at the foot of the hills, to which the hillmen come every cold season to exchange their products for those of Pilibhit traders, consisting chiefly of salt, cloth, brass vessels, and hardware. Large timber comes principally from the Kumaun and Nepal forests, but the supply of late years has been scanty and uncertain. Sugar cane is. largely grown in the District, and the raw material is manufactured into sugar in Pilibhit and Bisalpur towns. Consider able capital is employed in this manufacture. The cattle trade is in the hands of dealers from other Districts, who annually visit Pilibhit, and purchase young animals from the vast herds which graze in the open pastures of the Sarda and in the forests. Trade is PILIBHIT. 177 also carried on with Nepal, which, although at present comparatively small, is capable of indefinite expansion, contingent on the opening of new and improved means of communication, and the removal of harassing restrictions imposed by the Nepal authorities. The imports fiom Nepal, consisting chiefly of rice and grain, gums and resins, amounted in 1882 to the value of £14,908; while the exports into Nepal from Pilibhit, principally salt and cotton goods, were valued at .£4732. Means of Communication. — With the single exception of the road to Bareilly, no metalled roads exist in the District ; but fair-weather roads, partially bridged, converge from every direction on Pilibhit town. Total length of made roads, 245 miles. A continuation of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway from Bareilly to Pilibhit, for a distance of 30 miles, was opened for traffic in 1 884. Administration. — Pilibhit District is under the administrative charge of a Magistrate-Collector, assisted by two Deputy Magistrates. The Pilibhit and Bisalpur tahsils are each under the separate charge of a tahsilddr, while Puranpur tahsil is entrusted to an officer of inferior rank, styled a peshkdr. Two munsifs, subordinate to the Judge of Bareilly, are stationed in the District at Pilibhit and Bisalpur towns. They exercise civil powers only, and their jurisdiction extends over a portion of Bareilly District. The total revenue of the District in 1881-82 amounted to £86,489, namely, imperial, £70,531 ; local, £11,967; and municipal, ,£3991. In 1883-84, the imperial revenue ofthe District amounted to £88,617, of which the following were the principal items: — Land revenue, £68,293; stamps, £4492; excise, £4574; provincial rates, £8361; assessed taxes, £840; registration, £600 ; and irrigation and navigation receipts, £200. The District con tains 8 civil and revenue and 12 magisterial courts. The regular District and town police force in 1883-84 numbered 354 men, main tained at a cost of £3393; besides a village watch or rural police of 1047 men, maintained at a cost of £3778. Long-term prisoners are confined in the Bareilly District jail. The lock-up at Pilibhit contained a daily average of 13-50 prisoners in 1883-84, all males. Education. — There is no District or zild school in Pilibhit ; but its place is supplied by a good Anglo-vernacular school, named after its founder, a former Collector of the District, the Honourable Robert Drummond, which is under the management of the Pilibhit municipality; total number of pupils (1882), 243. There were also in 1882, 2 tahsili schools with 52 pupils, and 62 halkabandi or village schools with 2263 pupils. In 1883-84, the total number of inspected schools in Pilibhit District was 73, attended by 2465 pupils. There is also a well-managed girls' school in Pilibhit town, under a Muhammadan schoolmistress. In 1881, the Census Report returned 2448 bovs and VOL. xi. M 178 PILIBHIT TAHSIL. 31 girls as under instruction, besides 7510 males and 83 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. Medical Aspects. — Fever, usually intermittent, though sometimes changing to the remittent type, is endemic throughout the District, but localizes itself most malignantly about the swamps that border on and intersect the forests in Puranpur tahsil. It is most prevalent as well as most fatal in its character at the end of the rains and the commence ment of the cold season. It is least frequent in the cold-weather months, and it is popularly believed that the malaria is destroyed or rendered innocuous by the first frosts of December. Apart from fever, Pilibhit may be considered to be, on the whole, a healthy District, and visits of epidemic disease are rare. In 1883-84, the registered deaths in Pilibhit District numbered 13,412, or a rate of 31-79 per thousand ofthe population, as against a rate of 37'8o per thousand for the previous five years. Of the total deaths in 1883-84, 8841 were assigned to fevers, and 3123 to small-pox, which appeared in an epidemic form in that year throughout Rohilkhand, and in the adjacent Districts of Oudh. Two charitable dispensaries at Pilibhit and Bisalpur towns afforded medical relief in 1883-84 to 532 in-door and 23,006 out-door patients. [For further information regarding Pilibhit, see the Gazetteer of Bareilly (from which District the present District of Pilibhit was severed in 1879), published in the Gazetteer of the North-Western Provinces, by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, C.S., vol. v. pp. 499-694 (Government Press, Allahabad, 1879); also the Census Report for the North-Western Provinces and Oudh for 1881; and the several Provincial Administration and Departmental Reports from 1881 to 1884.] Pilibhit. — North-western tahsil of Pilibhit District, North-Western Provinces, lying to the south of the submontane Tardi District, and comprising the pargands of Pilibhit and Jaha.nd.bad. Area, 372 square miles, of which 248 square miles are returned as under cultivation. Population (1872) 200,501; (1881) 183,344, namely, males 96,111, and females 87,233, showing a decrease in population of 17,157, or 8-5 per cent, in nine years. Classified according to religion, the population in 1881 consisted of — Hindus, 135,636; Muhammadans, 47,695 ; and Christians, 13. Of the 393 villages in the tahsil, 300 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 74 from five hundred to a thousand; 18 from one to five thousand; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Government land revenue assessment, exclusive of local rates and cesses levied upon land, £34,954; estimated rental paid by cultivators in money or in kind, £54,139. In 1883, Pilibhit tahsil contained, besides the head-quarter courts, r civil and revenue and 5 magisterial courts ; number of police circles (thdnds), 5 ; strength of regular police, 69 men; village police (chaukiddrs), 590. PILIBHIT TO WN. 1 7 9 Pilibhit. — Town, municipality, and administrative head-quarters of Pilibhit District, North-Western Provinces, situated in lat. 28° 38' n., and long. 79° 50' 50" e., about 30 miles north-east of Bareilly city, on the left bank ofthe Deoha river. It is impossible to say when the town was first founded. Nothing appears to be known of it prior to 1740, about which year the Rohilk leader, Hafiz Rahmat Khan, seized both Pilibhit town and pargand, and established his capital in the former. The history of the city under Maratha and British rule is given in the District article. Population (1881) 29,721, namely, males 14,889, and females 14,832. Hindus number 17,197; Muhammadans, 12,520; and Christians, 4. Municipal income (1883-84), £3579, of which £2797 was derived from taxation, chiefly octroi duties; average incidence of taxation, is. iojd. per head. Pilibhit is a long and straggling town, with more than the usual number of brick-built houses, and of a business-like appearance. It contains two large markets, one of which, Drummond-ganj, named after a former District officer, consists of a large number of good shops, well arranged on a good site. Rice from the Tarai, borax and pepper from Kumaun and Nepal, honey, wax, wool, etc., are bought up at Barmdeo and other submontane marts, by Pilibhit merchants, who afterwards distribute the produce throughout this and neighbouring Districts. In former years, a good deal of timber was imported from the trans-Sarda Tarai ; but since the forests of that tract were made over to Nepal, the timber import, and with it the boat-building trade of Pilibhit, has declined. The coarser kind of carpentry still flourishes ; and though all wood intended for furniture passes on to Bareilly, country carts are largely made. A small trade is carried on in catechu, boiled from the bark of the khair tree (Acacia Catechu). There is a brisk manufacture of metal vessels made from imported materials, and a small manufacture of hempen sacking. But the most important industry is that of sugar-refining. The expressed syrup, after a rude boiling process in its native village, is carted into Pilibhit town, where it is refined. Sugar forms the main export both of the town and Dis trict. The chief imports are grain, salt, cotton goods, and cleaned cotton. The handsomest portion of Pilibhft town is its western outskirt, where stand the remains of the old Rohilk chiefs palace, his cathedral mosque (a brick and plaster imitation of the Jamd Masjid at Delhi), the Anglo-vernacular school, and the dispensary. All these buildings stand on an open space enclosed and planted with trees. The other public buildings include the Government courts and offices ; police station, post-office, public bath (hammdm), and a sarai or native inn. The northern portion of the town is especially liable to inundation during the rains. Pilibhit is now connected by railway with Bareilly 180 PILKHUWA—PIMPALNER. city, 36 miles distant, and six lines of roads converge on the town from different quarters. The Bareilly and Jahanabad roads meet on the opposite or right bank of the Deoha, which they cross together on a bridge of boats. A military encamping ground is situated amidst groves just outside the town on the south. Pilkhuwa. — Town and municipality in Meerut (Merath) District, North-Western Provinces. Situated in lat. 28° 42' 45'' n., and long. 77° 42' e., in a depression of the plain, 19 miles south-west of Meerut (Merath) city. Population (1881) 5661, namely, Hindus, 5027; Muhammandans, 632; Jain, 1; and Christian, 1. Area of town site, 43 acres. Municipal income (1883-84), £365, of which £304 was derived from octroi duties ; average incidence of taxation, is. o|d. per head. The Hindu manufacturing population is engaged in cotton- weaving, which employs 100 looms. There is also some trade in leather and shoes. Mr. Michel of the Masuri factory owns the town with 13 neighbouring villages, having purchased the estate after the Mutiny. Two large Hindu temples; police station, post-office, 2 sardis. Piming. — Pass in Bashahr (Bussahir) State, Punjab, traversing a lofty ridge in Kunawar, which forms the boundary between Chinese and British territory. Lat. 31" 49' n., long. 78° 46' e. ; elevation above sea, 13,518 feet. Pimpalgaon Raja.— Town in Buldana District, Berar. Said to have been founded 800 years ago, by a prince of the herdsman (Ahir) caste, named Pirat Singh ; situated in lat. 20° 43' n., and long. 76° 30' e., on the river Dayanganga. Population (1881) 4357. It is said to have suffered much from marauders towards the end of the last century, and to have been subsequently ruined by the black-mail levied by Mahadajf Sindhia in 1790, on his way to Poona (Prina) after his expedition against Ghukm Kadir Beg of Delhi. On the south side of the town is a temple to the goddess Renuka, about 30 feet under ground. At the end of the narrow rock-hewn gallery or temple is the idol. Ganesh Dewadaya, a Hindu theologian, flourished here about 161 9 a.d. Some of his works are still read and preserved in the neighbourhood. Two Government schools, post-office, and police station. Pimpalner. — Sub-division of Khandesh District, Bombay Presidency. Area, 1339 square miles, containing 236 villages. Population (1872) 60,125; (1881) 87,549, namely, 44,563 males and 42,986 females. Hindus number 39,762; Muhammadans, 1629; and 'others,' 46,158. Land revenue (1883), £12,631. The Sub-division lies partly above and partly below the Sahyadri Hills. It is bounded on the north-west by Baroda territory ; on the north by Nandurbar ; on the east by Virdel and Dhulia ; on the south PIMPALNER TOWN—PLNAHAT. 181 by Nisik District ; and on the west by Baroda. The desk or plains are intersected by abrupt mountain ranges, of which the range of the Selbari hills is the most considerable. The dang, or tract below the Sahyadris, is composed of steep hill ranges clothed with forest, inhabited by Bhils. Climate unhealthy, especially to Europeans and natives of the Deccan ; annual rainfall, 25 inches. Fair water-supply, the rivers being utilized for irrigation by means of bandhdrds or masonry dams. In 1868, when the survey settlement was introduced, there were 4180 holdings, with an average area of 24 acres, paying an average assessment of £2, 2s. 9d. Incidence of land-tax per head, about 4s. 5d. In 1878 there were 176,320 acres actually under cultivation; grain crops occupied 121,781 acres; pulses, 19,609 acres; oil-seeds, 25,167; fibres, 8169 acres; and miscellaneous crops, 1594 acres. The Sub-division contained in 1883 — criminal courts, 3 ; police circles (thdnds), 3 ; regular police, 115 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 232. Pimpalner. — Town in Khandesh District, Bombay Presidency, and head-quarters of Pimpalner Sub-division. Situated 40 miles west of Dhulia. Population (1872) 2972. Not separately returned in the Census Report of 1881. Trade with Surat in oil made from grass. Old fort. Dispensary ; post-office. Pimpladevi.— Bhil State in the Dang country, Khandesh District, Bombay Presidency. — See Dang States. Pimpri. — Bhil State in the Dang country, Khandesh District, Bombay Presidency. — See Dang States. Pin (Pinu or Pirn). — River in Kangra District, Punjab; the most important tributary of the Spiti. Rises in the angle of the Mid- Himalaya and Manirang ranges, and with its affluent, the Parakio, drains one quarter of the Spiti valley. Flows through a barren and rocky glen, shut in on either side by bare precipices; but near the mouth the basin broadens out so as to afford room for 1 1 villages with their cultivated lands. Finally joins the Spiti, in lat. 32° 6' n., and long. 78° 11' e., a little above Dankar, the principal village in the Spiti valley, after a course of 45 miles. Width of bed near the mouth, from 300 to 800 yards. Pindhat. — South-eastern tahsil of Agra District, North-Western Provinces; consisting of the broken strip of country between the Jumna (Jamuna) and the Chambal rivers, and conterminous with Pinahat pargand. Area, 341-5 square miles, of which 167 square miles were returned as under cultivation in 1882. Population (1872) 142,155; (1881) 120,529, namely, males 63,524, and females 57,005, showing a decrease of 21,626, or 15-2 per cent., in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881— Hindus, 115,154 ; Muhammadans, 3491; Jains, 1880; and 'others,' 4- Of the 204 villages in the tahsil, 126 contain less than five hundred inhabitants; 1 8 2 PINAHA T TO WN—PIND DADAN KHAN. 48 from five hundred to a thousand; 29 from one to five thousand; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Government land revenue assessment, £20,862, or including local rates and cesses levied on land, £25,114. Estimated rental paid by cultivators, ,£45,052. In 1883, Pinahat tahsil contained 1 magisterial court; number of police circles (thdnds), 4 ; strength of regular police, 56 men ; village police (chaukiddrs), 348. Pinahat. — Town in Pinahat tahsil, Agra District, North-Western Provinces, 33 miles south-east from Agra city, and 14 miles west of Bah, the head-quarters of Pinahat; lat. 26° 52' 39'' n., long. 78° 24' 58" e. Population (1881) 5697, namely, Hindus, 5005 ; Muhammadans, 653; and Jains, 39. First-class police station; post-office; school; three Hindu temples. Station of the great Trigonometrical Survey. Until January 1882, the town was the head-quarters of the Pinahat tahsil, which was then removed to Bah, and the tahsil is now generally known as Bah-Pinahat Pinakini, Northern and Southern. — Two rivers in Southern India. — See Penner. Pind Dadan Khan. — South central tahsil of Jehlam (Jhelum) District, Punjab ; occupying the Salt Range and country to the south. Lat. 32° 26' to 32° 49' n., and long. 72° 32' to 73° 22' e. Area, 887 square miles, with 211 towns and villages, 26,654 houses, and 38,028 families. Population (1881) 166,186, namely, males 87,047, and females 79,139; average density of population, 166 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans number 143,273 ; Hindus, 21,713 ; Sikhs, 1091 ; Jains, 58; and Chris tians, 51. Of the 211 towns and villages, 106 contain less than five hundred inhabitants; 52 from five hundred to a thousand; 52 from one thousand to five thousand ; and 1 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Average cultivated area for the five years 1877-78 to 1881-82, 290 square miles, the principal crops being wheat, bdjra, barley, moth,jodr, gram, Indian corn, cotton, and vegetables. Revenue of the tahsil, £19,362. The administrative staff consists of an Assistant Commissioner, tahsilddr and munsifi presiding over 3 civil and 2 criminal courts ; number of police circles (thdnds), 3, with head quarters at Pind Dadan Khan, Ahmadabad, and Jaklpur ; strength of regular police, 126 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 109. Pind Dadan Khan. — Large and flourishing commercial town and municipality in Jehlam (Jhelum) District, Punjab, and head-quarters of Jehlam tahsil. Situated in lat. 320 35' n., and long. 73° 5' 20" e., 1 mile from the north bank of the Jehlam river, and 5 miles from the foot of the Salt Range. Founded in 1623 by Dadan Khan, whose descendants still reside in the town. Population (1868) 17,814; (1881) 16,724, namely, Muhammadans, 10,001; Hindus, 6419; Sikhs, PINDIGHEB. 183 246; and Jains, 58. Number of houses, 2780. Municipal income (1883-84), £2822, or an average of 3s. 4|d. per head of the town population. Pind Dadan Khan was till quite lately the trade emporium for the whole neighbourhood, and carried on, besides its local traffic, an extensive export and import trade with the distant marts of the Province. Its traders had their agents at Amritsar, Sakkar, Multan, Peshawar, and in the countries beyond the border. Lying low, near the bank of the river, its situation was admirably adapted to secure the traffic in salt from the Mayo mines at Kheura, and most of the export trade of the District, which goes down the river to Mriltan and Karachi. The latter item, however, is very uncertain in amount ; and since the opening of the new Salt Railway to Mianf, the trade in salt is seriously threatened. It is impossible to foresee the result. In certain contingencies, Pind Dadan Khan might recover its hold on the trade ; but at present it seems probable that the trade will gravitate to Lala Miisa, or eventually to Kheura itself or to Mianf. Meanwhile carriage of salt by boat between Pind Dadan Khan and Jehlam has almost ceased. But there is, and probably will continue to be, a large general trade in Pind Dadan Khan for the supply of the Potwar and Takgang. The braziers of the town are an important body, and the pots and pans and other utensils turned out by them are in request in many parts ofthe Punjab. There is also a considerable weaving industry, and embroidered lungis are often sold at high prices. The principal exports are salt towards the south, silk and cotton piece-goods northwards and westwards, and brass and copper wares to the whole neighbourhood. An extensive trade is carried on also in grain, ghi, and oil. Pind Dadan Khan imports English piece-goods, cast-iron, zinc, and raw silk from Amritsar and Multan ; woollen fabrics from Kashmir ; dried fruits, furs, and woollen stuffs of Central Asia from Peshawar. Among other industries, that of boat-building is largely carried on, and river boats of Pind Dadan Khan make are in request throughout the whole course of the Jehlam. Unglazed pottery of a deep red colour, ornamented with black patterns, and remarkably strong and good in quality, are a speciality of the town, as are also stout leather riding whips made after English patterns. The principal buildings consist of the usual Sub-divisional courts and offices, -mission house, and dispensary. Pindigheb. — South-western tahsil of Rawal Pindi District, Punjab ; lying between 33° and 33° 47' n. lat, and between 71° 45' and 72° 42' e. long., and consisting of a rugged hilly tract lying along the eastern bank of the Indus. Area, 15 17 square miles, with 129 villages and towns, 14,428 houses, and 23,475 families. Population (1881) 103,581, namely, males 54,328, and females 49,253; average density 1 84 PINDIGHEB TOWN— PIP ALG AON. of population, 68 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans number 91,839; Hindus, 11,277; Sikhs, 448; Christians, 15; and Parsis, 2. Of the 129 towns and villages, 69 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 33 from five hundred to a thousand; 26 from one to five thousand; and 1 from five to ten thousand inhabitants. The average area under cultivation for the five years from 1877-78 to 1881-82 was 310^ square miles, or 198,782 acres, the area occupied by the principal crops being — wheat, 100,946 acres ; bdjra, 27,792 acres ; barley, 16,190 acres ; gram, 10,940 acres; moth, 8304 acres ; jodr, 6549 acres; Indian corn, 3921 acres; and cotton, 8359 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, £7696. The only local administrative officer is a tahsilddr, who presides over 1 civil and 1 criminal court : number of police circles (thdnds), 3, with stations at Pindigheb, Pind Sultani, and Makhad, besides 4 outpost stations; strength of regular police, 86 men ; village police (chaukiddrs), 90. Pindigheb. — Town and municipality in Rawal Pindi District, Punjab, and head-quarters of Pindigheb tahsil. Situated in lat. 33° 14' 30" n., and long. 72° 18' e., on the road between Rawal Pindi and Kalabagh. Residence of chiefs ofthe Jodrah clan of Rajputs, by whom the town was founded. Population (1881) 8583, namely, Muham madans, 5342; Hindus, 3221; and Sikhs, 20. Number of houses, 1517. Municipal income (1883-84), £334, or 9^d. per head of the town population. The neighbourhood of the town is famous for its excellent breed of horses ; but owing to the scarcity of water, and the consequent absence of pasturage, colts are generally sold across the Indus after being kept for one year only. Trade in grain, cotton, oil, and wool. The surplus grain supplies the cantonments of Rdwal Pindi and Attock. Manufactures of country cloth and soap, exported beyond the Indus. Tahsili, police station, excellent school, dispensary, Government rest-house. Pinjar. — Village in Akola District, Berar. Lat. 20° 33' n., long. 77° 17' e., 24 miles east of Akola town. Population (1881) 3311. Pinjai formerly had 2000 houses, of which only 589 now remain; its decline dates from 1772 a.d., when Madhujf Bhonsla laid a heavy tax upon the people. A fine specimen of a Hindu temple exists here, with a Sanskrit inscription. Police station. Pinjaur (Pinjore). — Decayed town in Patiala State, Punjab. Lat. 30° 48' n., long. 76° 59' e. ; situated at the confluence of two tributaries of the Ghaggar. Residence and pleasure-grounds of the Raja. Thornton describes an ancient covered well and numerous fragments of Hindu sculpture and architecture that are found here. Fort dis mantled by Bourquin, Sindhia's partisan leader. Pinu or Pirn. — River in Kangra District, Punjab. — See Pin. Pipalgaon. — Village in Brahmapuri tahsil, Chanda District, Central PIPARIA—PIPPLL 185 Provinces. Population (1881) 2162, namely, Hindus, 2140; Muhammadan, 1 ; non-Hindu aborigines, 21. Piparia. — Village in Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) tahsil, Jabalpur District, Central Provinces. Population (1881) 2177, namely, Hindus, 1805 ; Jains, 224; Muhammadans, 73 ; non-Hindu aborigines, 75. Piparia. — Village in Kawardha State, attached to Bilaspur District, Central Provinces. Population (1881) 2205, namely, Hindus, 1758; Satnd.mis, 209 ; Kabfrpanthis, 70 ; Muhammadans, 147 ; non-Hindu aborigines, 21. Piparwani. — Village in Seoni tahsil, Seoni District, Central Pro vinces; situated 35 miles south of Seoni town. Population (1881) 2065, namely, Hindus, 1627; Muhammadans, 115; Jains, 11; and non-Hindu aborigines, 312. Village school, weekly market, and police outpost station. Piplianagar. — Guaranteed Thakurate or chiefship under the Bhopal Agency of Central India. One of the shares of the estate granted to Rajan Khan, brother of the notorious Pindari leader, Chitu, on the settlement of Malwd. — See Jabria Bhil. Pippli. — Tahsil of Ambala (Umballa) District, Punjab ; comprising the tract of country around Thaneswar, and embracing the three pargands of Thaneswar, ShaMbad, and Ladwa. The Thaneswar pargand (including Pihewa) contains a population consisting chiefly of Jalts, Rajputs, Rors, and Gujars. It consists of a high tract of poor soil dependent for cultivation chiefly on rain, and on the very uncertain floods of the Sarsuti (Saraswati). The villages in the south of Pihewa get no hill-stream navigation. Shahabad pargand is locally known as Ttfharwara, from the fact of the villages being owned by Rajputs of the Tiihar clan. It is a rich tract, and watered by the overflowings of the Markanda and Umla streams. In the Ladwa pargand, the eastern portion is protected from drought by the Jumna river and canal, which has raised the water level, and made well-irrigation easy. The western part of the pargand is much floorer. Area of Pippli tahsil, 745 square miles, with 495 towns and villages, 14,122 houses, and 47,899 families. Population (1881) 209,341, namely, males 113,700, and females 95,641; average density of population, 281 persons per square mile, or excluding towns, 244 per square mile. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 142,160; Muhammadans, 62,126; Sikhs, 5020; Jains, 29; and Chris tians, 6. Of the 495 towns and villages, 386 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 80 from five hundred to a thousand ; 2 7 from one to five thousand ; and 2 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. The average cultivated area for the five years from 1877-78 to 1881-82 was 285^ square miles, or 182,746 acres, the principal crops being — wheat, 87,900 acres; gram, 34,720 acres; barley, 15,47° acres; Indian 1 86 PIPPLI— PIRN A GAR. corn, 12,541 acres; rice, 7685 acres; jodr, 3665 acres; sugar-cane, 6547 acres; cotton, 2386 acres; and tobacco, 1389 acres. Revenue of the tahsil, £18,712. The local administrative staff consists of 1 tahsilddr and 1 munsif presiding over 1 criminal and 2 civil courts ; number of police circles (thdnds), 7, with stations at Pippli, Shahabad, Thaneswar, Pihewa, Radaur, Sanghaur, and Ladwa, with a Baluch guard at Ismailabad. Strength of regular police, 146 men ; village police (chaukiddrs), 491. Pippli. — Village on the Subarnarekha river, Balasor District, Bengal. Lat. 21° 34' n., long. 87° 22' e. The site of the first English factory on this coast, founded in 1634 on the ruins of an earlier Portu guese settlement. Pippli was ruined by the silting up of the river at its mouth. During the first half of the present century, the place lingered on as a silt-locked village ; but a recent report states that no trace of the town now exists, at any rate under the same name. The name is apparently preserved in one or two villages in the neighbourhood of the Subarnarekha, called Pimpal. Pipraich. — Market village in Maharajganj tahsil, Gorakhpur Dis trict, North-Western Provinces ; situated on the Pharend river, and on the unmetalled Padrauna road, 13 miles east-north-east of Gorakhpur town. Population (1881) 2932. The market flanks either side of the road as it passes through the town. A fair local trade in grain, cloth, and metal vessels is carried on ; and a good deal of sugar is refined. The village, however, is not a thriving one, and the progress of the market has been checked by competition with the neighbouring mart of Sidhawa. Police station, post-office, elementary school, and Sivaite temple. Piram. — Island in the Gulf of Cambay. — See Perim. Pirmaid. — Hill station in Travancore State, Madras Presidency; the centre of the northern coffee country of Travancore, with a growing European community. Lat. 9° 36' n., long. 77" e. ; average elevation, 3000 feet. Round the station are numerous coffee-gardens, occupying about 10,000 acres, of which a considerable proportion is in bearing. Fairly constructed roads communicate with Alleppi and Trevandrum on the west, and Madura on the east. Pir Mangho (Pir Magar). — Valley, hot springs, temple, and tank in Karachi (Kurrachee) District, Sind, Bombay Presidency. — See Magar Talao. Pimagar. — Pargand in Sftapur tahsil, Sftapur District, Oudh ; bounded on the north and north-east by Biswan, on the east by Bari, on the south by Gundlamau, and on the west by Machhrehta. Area, 44 square miles, or 27,956 acres, of which 17,164 acres are cultivated and 4830 acres cultivable. Population (1881) 19,692, namely, males 10,428, and females 9264. The incidence of the Government land PIROZPUR—PIR PANJAL. 187 revenue is at the rate of 2s. 5^d. per cultivated acre; is. nd. per acre of assessed area ; and is. 6|d. per acre of total area. The pargand contains 54 villages, of which 15 are held under tdlukddri and 39 under zaminddri tenure. Bais Kshattriyas own 48 villages; Brahmans, 3; Kayasths, 2 ; and Musalmans, 1. The villages are all small, none having a population exceeding 1000. There is not a single masonry house in the pargand, the people having a superstition against using burnt bricks or tiles for their dwellings. This superstition is not peculiar to Pirnagar, being found in many other parts of the District. Pirozpur. — Sub-division of Bakarganj District, Bengal. Area, 692 square miles; villages, 945; houses, 52,049. Population (1872) 405,797 ; (1881) 447,306, namely, males 225,436, and females 221,870, showing an increase of 41,509, or 10-23 per cent., in nine years. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Muhammadans, 246,569; Hindus, 200,681; Brahmos, n ; and Chris tians, 45. Proportion of males in total population, 50-4 per cent. ; average density of population, 644 persons per square mile ; number of inhabitants per village, 473; houses per square mile, 77; inmates per house, 8 '6. This Sub-division comprises the four police circles of, Pirozpur, Mathbari, Bhandaria, and Swariikati. It contained in 1883, 3 civil and 2 criminal courts, a regular police force of 90 men, and a village watch numbering 968. The Sub-divisions of Pirozpur and Madaripur (now in Farfdpur District) were originally established with the object of suppressing robberies on the Kachna river. Pirpainti (Peerpointee). — Large village in Bhagalpur District, Bengal, and a station on the loop-line of the East Indian Railway. Lat. 25° 17' 52" n., long. 870 27' 40" e. The village, which is also the site of a flourishing indigo factory, is situated about 2 miles from the railway station, and contains a bdzdr about half a mile in length. Local traders are connected with firms at Sahibganj and Colgong, and a con siderable business is carried on in the export of country produce. Some stone is quarried in the neighbourhood. Police outpost. Pir Panjal (' The Saint's Mountain '). — A lofty range in the Native State of Kashmir (Cashmere) ; separating that State, on its south western side, from the Punjab. Runs north-west and south-east, from the Baramula Pass to that of the Pir Panjal or Nandan Sar, a distance of about forty miles ; the highest peaks attaining an elevation of about 16,500 feet above sea-level. The geological formatition is basaltic, — an amygdaloidal trap, beautifully marked in some places. The range is named from a pir or Muhammadan saint, whose shrine in the Pfr Panjdl Pass receives the offerings of all devout Musalnkn travellers. The most picturesque road into Kashmir, and one of the easiest and most frequented, traverses the Pir Panjal Pass, and is known as the Gujavat and Pir Panjal route. The pass itself is crossed in the eleventh 1 88 PISANGAN—PISHIN. stage from Gujavat, between the halting-stations of Porhiana and Aliabad Sarai. The top of the pass, about six miles from Porhiana, is a fine grassy plateau about half a mile wide, with an elevation of about 11,500 feet, gradually sloping down to the Aliabad sarai. In clear weather the Shahdera mindrs at Lahore are visible, though distant about 130 miles. Pisangan. — Town in Ajmere District, Ajmere-Merwara Division, Rajputana. Lat. 26° 24' N., long. 74° 25' e. Population (1881) 3375- Distant from Ajmere city 20 miles. Residence of the Istimrdrddr of Pisangan. By reason of its position in the immediate neighbourhood of Marwar, it is the centre of the cotton and tobacco trade. There is here an old Jain temple which derives its name from its being situated near the Priya Sangam, or junction of the Saraswati and Sagarmati streams. Water-supply good. Post-office and dispensary. Pishin (or Peshin). — Formerly a District of Southern Afghanistan, situated between 30° 10' and 31° 15' N. lat, and 66° 10' and 67" 50' e. long. Estimated area, 3600 square miles ; estimated population, which has been under British administration since 1878, 60,000. Physical Aspects. — Pishin may be roughly described as a large plain (Pishin proper), surrounded on three sides by hills, which are all included in the District. From the scarp of Toba hill on the north and the line of the main watershed on the east, the whole country slopes away to the south-west. It consists of treeless flats or alluvial valleys (of which the Pishin plain is by far the most important), divided by ranges of bare and rocky hills, preserving a remarkable parallelism with one another, and all running north-east and south-west. The average elevation of the Pishin plain is about 5000 feet above sea-level, while the sub-districts to the east and north are higher. On the west, the Khwaja Amran peak rises 8864 feet above sea-level ; and the general height of the range is between 7000 and 8000 feet. On the north, the edge of Toba nearest to Pishin is about 8000 feet ; and the Kund mountain nearly 11,000 feet. Takatii, on the south, is also about 11,000 feet. The streams on quitting the stony daman, or hill country, for the soft soil of the plain, have cut for themselves immense beds, quite out of pro portion to the amount of water which they bring down. These cuttings are 30 to 50 yards wide and 10 to 25 feet deep, with perpendicular and scarped banks. The alluvial soil, where it exists, is rich and deep, and from its clayey nature is apt to become soft and slippery after rain or snow. Irrigation is conducted with a total disregard of any roads or pathways that may exist. Hares and ravine deer are found in the valleys, and a few uridl or wild sheep in the hills. Ibex are fairly numerous on Takatii. Wolves, jackals, and foxes are common. The hill leopard and small sloth bear PISHIN. 189 occur on the higher and more remote hills. Of game birds, the chikor and partridge are common. Sand-grouse are often extremely numerous. The migratory game birds which visit India in the winter are found in Pishfn, being most abundant at the times when they are coming from and returning to their northern breeding places in October and November, and again in March. History. —Pishin formed a portion of the dominions of Ahmad Shah, Durani. A fragment of what is now Pishin was ceded by Ahmad Shall to NasirKhan, Mfrof Khekt, in 1770. On the fall ofthe Sadozai dynasty and the partition of the kingdom among the sons of Paindah Khan, Barakzai, Pishin was included in the Province allotted to the Kandahar sarddrs, who exercised, however, only a limited administration over this tract. The British occupation of Quetta in 1876 aroused an increased interest in Pishin on the part of the Amir of Kabul, and he attempted to stop the through traffic. The Amir's Government was thoroughly unpopular, and not the faintest show of resistance was offered to the British troops on their advance from Quetta, nor has dissatisfaction been shown during the years the tract has remained in the hands of the British. Pishfn was occupied by British troops in December 1878, and assigned to the British by the treaty of Gandamak, 25th May 1879. Since the assignment, Pishin has remained under British administration, and its history has been generally uneventful. The only exception worth noticing is the conduct of the Achakzai tribe (on the Khwaja Amran range) in the autumn of 1880. While the British force in Kandahar was besieged by Ayiib Khan, the Achakzais were openly hostile ; but they dispersed on Ayub Khan's defeat, and their submission was completed by a punitive expedition led against them at the end of September 1880 by Brigadier-General Baker. Population. — In May 1881, Colonel (now Sir Oliver) St. John estimated the gross population of Pishfn at from 50,000 to 60,000. Deducting the Achakzais, a wandering tribe on the further side of the Khwaja Amran, and those members of other tribes who may be absent for various reasons, the latter number approximately represents the resident population. The tribes of Pishin and their approximate numbers are — Achakzais, 20,000; Tarins, 14,500; Sayyids, 6500; and Kakars, 40,000 : total, 81,000. The Achakzais are a Durani clan and an offshoot of the Barakzais. The sections who are more or less directly connected with the District are alone included in the above total, and even of these a considerable number are always beyond its limits. It is doubtful whether more than about 5000 Achakzais are ever in the District. They are a purely pastoral tribe. The Tarins belong to the Tor branch of that race. They are agriculturists and carriers. The Sayyids are traders and cultivators, and hold more land than any other class. The 190 PISHIN. Kakars are nearly all settled agriculturists, but they also possess large flocks and own 1 1 2 villages and hamlets. A good many Kakars and a few Achakzais and Tarins proceed to India every year in search of employment as labourers on public works, etc. Many Sayyids also are always absent engaged in trade. Taken as a whole, the inhabitants of Pishin are peaceable and well disposed. The Achakzais, indeed, are predatory, and have a reputa tion for turbulence ; but they have not given much trouble. The Sayyids, being comparatively well off and enlightened, have been the best friends of the British. The dress, manners, and customs of the people are in all essentials those of the inhabitants of Southern Afghan istan generally. They are a hardy and fairly industrious peasantry, not particularly fanatical, and seem well satisfied with British rule. The settled population of Pishin (cultivators and traders) live in houses ; the pastoral people in tents (kizhdis). It is not uncommon for families to spend part of the year in one description of habitation, and part in another. The houses in Pishin proper are built of mud in a rectangular form, and contain only one room, with a raised circular hearth to serve as a fireplace at one end, while the other end is frequently- occupied by sheep and cattle. The tents (kizhdis) are comfortable, roomy, clean, and warm, not withstanding that camels, goats, sheep, and poultry are sheltered under one roof with their owners. The tents are about 30 feet long by 15 wide. The centre is supported by slim poles 7 feet high, and the sides by others 4 feet high, across which are passed light ribs of wood. Over this framework is stretched a single sheet of tough and waterproof black haircloth woven in lengths two yards wide and sewn together. The interior is divided into two by a curtain of corn sacks. Of these divisions, one is excavated to a depth of 2 feet for the camels and oxen ; the other is smooth and swept clean. In the centre is a circular hole for a fireplace, for the smoke of which there is no outlet, except the openings at either end of the tent. Agriculture. — The cultivable area of Pishfn is probably about one- third ofthe whole, say 1200 square miles. The methods of cultivation are simple and careless. The chief food-grains grown are wheat, barley, maize, and millet. The straw of the first three, when chopped, is a valuable commodity, and much used instead of grass for feeding horses and other animals. In addition to grain, lucerne, water-melons, and musk -melons are cultivated. Irrigation is carried on either from natural streams, or from karezes, a series of shafts connected under ground by tunnels. The irrigated area is estimated at three-fourths of the total cultivated area. The use of manure is well understood, but the supply is deficient, and is confined to lucerne and melon fields. PISHIN. 191 Trade and Manufacture. — Except the transit trade between India and Afghanistan, Pishin has little or no commerce, and no manufactures or produce for export. A considerable trade in horses, however, is carried on ; the Sayyids of Pishfn being large dealers, and supplying many hundred remounts yearly to the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. The horses exported to India are purchased at Herat, or in countries lying to its west and north ; and they are only kept in Pishin long enough to get them into condition. About 1000 maunds of salt are annually made. Formerly the greater portion was exported to Kanda har, but it is now (1881) bought up locally for commissariat purposes. Revenue and Administration. — Pishin is under the control of the Governor-General's Agent in Baluchistan, whose head-quarters are at Quetta. A Political Agent is in subordinate charge of the administra tion, and lives generally at the small town of Pishin (formerly known as New Bazar), where there are also a tahsilddr, ndib tahsilddr, police thdnd, sub-treasury, commissariat store, telegraph, and post offices. Pishfn fort is the only military station ; it is occupied by one regiment of Bombay infantry and a squadron of Bombay cavalry. Bodies of tribal levies are distributed at important points. The revenue of Pishfn is derived principally from land. A report submitted by the Political Agent in 1885 classifies the inhabitants of Pishfn from a revenue point of view as follows : — ' I. The mudfiddrs or those who pay nothing, a very large class, mostly Sayyids and Achakzais. ' II. Those who pay a fixed assessment in cash or kind, or both, the assessment being calculated originally on a rough valuation of the gross produce of their lands. To this class belong the Kakars of the Balozai and Gwal valleys, and the Kakar Lorah villages. 'III. Those who pay a fixed cash assessment in lieu of military service, the assessment being calculated at so much per head on the total number of men-at-arms the village was formerly bound to furnish. To this class belong about half the Tarins and Parezuns of the Pishin Valley and the Kakars of Barshor. The Tarins pay £1, 9s. per naukar or man-at-arms, and the Kakars £2, 10s. and £2, 18s. Those paying this assessment (known locally as ghdm-i-naukar) are exempt from all other dues whatever. ' IV. The villages in which baiai or a division of the crops is made, the Government share varying from \ to \. To this class belong nearly all the Tarins on the east of the Lorah river — that is to sa}', the Tor Tarins proper as distinguished from the Parezuns. These men originally paid the ghdm-i-naukar, or tax in lieu of personal service, now paid only by class III. ; but years ago, they voluntarily adopted the present system in exchange. Grass and straw and other village produce were at that time of little or no value, and they preferred 1 92 PIT ARI— PITH APUR. parting with a heavy share of their produce to paying a fixed suif- in cash.' The land revenue collections in 1884-85 amounted to nearly £9000. Under the Afghan system, which is still maintained, a maldaghi, or poll- tax on cattle is also levied, except from Sayyids and the class paying a fixed cash assessment in lieu of military service. The rates, per head of cattle, are — camel, 2s.; bullock, 2s.; donkey, is.; sheep, i£d.; lamb, ofd. There are also a few dues yielding from £10 to £30 per annum. Excise revenue is also collected, but the amount fluctuates greatly, the highest total in any year since the British occupation being £716, and the lowest £26, 4s. Military Importance. — The strategic value of Pishfn is considerable. It is the meeting-place of a great number of routes leading from Sind and the Punjab Frontier Districts to Kandahar. These routes are perfectly practicable for troops, and have been traversed by considerable bodies. They are, however, impassable by wheeled carriage, and indifferently furnished with supplies. The possession of Pishin places the occupant within easy reach of Kandafkr, which is only six marches from Chaman. Medical Aspects. — The climate of Pishin is trying, not only to natives of India, but also to Europeans, until both are acclimatized. There are four well-marked seasons, as in England, and the temperature ranges from a moderate heat in summer to a severe cold in winter. The climate, however, is rather relaxing. In summer, Europeans are apt to suffer from diarrhcea, dysentery, and affections of the liver; natives from diarrhcea and dysentery. In winter, pneumonia and other lung diseases are very fatal to natives. Pitari.— Town in Unao District, Oudh, about 4 miles north-west of Unao town. Population (1881) 2964, namely, 2781 Hindus and 183 Muhammadans. An ancient village, dating from the time of Rajal Unwant Singh, the reputed founder of Unao. Pithapur (Pittdpur). — Tdluk or Sub-division of Godavari District, Madras Presidency. For the most part an important zaminddri tract. Area, 200 square miles. Population (1881) 68,161, namely, 33,502 males and 34,659 females, dwelling in 1 town and. 50 villages, con taining 12,610 houses. Hindus number 66,517; Muhammadans, 1 64 1 ; and Christians, 3. The zaminddri lies between the eastern branch of the Godavari and the District of Vizagapatam, and contains 128 villages in different taluks. The Raja's ancestors are said to have come from Oudh. The grant of the estate dates from about 1647. Total rental, £81,150; peshkash or quit-rent, £24,900. Pithapur. — Town in Pithapur tdluk, and head-quarters of the Pithapur zaminddri, Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 170 6' 45" N., long. 82° 18' 40" e. Population (1871) 9240, living in 2318 PITH OR A GARH—PLASSE Y. 193 houses; (1881) 11,593, namely, 5636 males and 5957 females, occupy-. ing 1894 houses. Hindus number 10,512, and Muhammadans 1081. Post-office, courts, and good schools. The town is the centre of the Pithapur zaminddri, and the residence of the zaminddr. Pithoragarh. — Military outpost in Kumaun District, North-Western Provinces. Lat. 290 35' 35" n., long. 8o° 14' 30" e. The troops are cantoned on a low ridge in the Shore valley, for the protection of the Nepal frontier. Population (1881) 438. Bdzdr, stone-built hospital. Fort Loudoun, 100 yards west of the lines, commands the station. Elevation above sea-level, 5334 feet. Pithoria. — Estate in Sagar (Saugor) District, Central Provinces ; 20 miles north-west of Sagar town. Area, 51 square miles; comprising 26 villages. In 181 8, when Sagar was acquired from the Peshwa by the British, Rao Ramchandra Rao, a child ten years old, held Deori and the Panch Mahal. In 1819 the Panch Mahal was transferred to Sindhia, and the Rao's mother received in lieu thereof a pension of £125 per month. On her death, the Rao requested the Government to assign him a tract of land instead of the money payment. Pithork with 18 other villages was granted to him; but as their revenue did not equal the required amount, 7 other villages were added. Govern ment assessment, £313. Pithoria, the chief village (lat. 24° 4' n., long. 780 381 e.), contains a fort, built about 1750 by Umrao Singh, a Rajput, to whom the place had been granted rent-free by Govind Pandit, the Peshwa's governor at Sagar. At the market, held every Thursday, little trade takes place. Pitihra (Patera).— Estate in the extreme south-east of Sagar (Saugor) District, Central Provinces. Area, 120 square miles; comprising 86 villages, and yielding a revenue of about £2472 to the Raja\ The whole estate, except 8 villages, lies in the Sub-division of Deori'. About 1730, the Gond Rajk of Gaurjhamar seized Deori, but was expelled ten years later by the Marathas. His son then plundered the country, till the Marathas pacified him by the cession of the four estates of Pitihra, Muar, Kesli, and Tarari, containing 8 villages. He died in 1747; and his grandson Kiraj Singh obtained from the Marathas in 1798 another estate, called Balki, comprising 53 villages. At the cession of Sagar to the British in 181 8, Kiraj Singh was not disturbed; but on his death in 1827, 30 villages in Balki were resumed, and the remainder were secured to his son Balwant Singh. The residence of the Raja is at Pitihra, a village on the Narbada (Nerbudda) river, with a population of about 800. Pitlad. — Sub-division and town in Baroda State. — See Petlad. Plassey (Paldsi, from palds, the red flower of the Butea frondosa). — Battle-field on the Bhagirathf river, Nadiya District, Bengal. Lat. 23° 47' n., long. 88° 17' 45" e. Of this memorable scene of Clive's victory VOL. XI. n 194 POD DA TUR U—POKARAN. over Suraj-ud-dauk, on the 23rd June 1757, only a small fragment now remains. The Bhagfrathf, on whose left or east bank the battle was fought, has eaten away the scene of the fight ; as the Jalangf river, in the same District, has eaten away the city of Nadiya, the ancient capital of Bengal. In 1801, 3000 trees of Clive's famous mango grove were still standing ; now, only one has survived the ravages of the river and of time. A general of the Nawab, who fell in the battle, lies buried beneath it. As early as 1801, the river had eaten away the actual field of battle ; and a traveller recorded in that year that ' a few miserable huts, literally overhanging the water, are the only remains of the celebrated Plassey.' The neighbourhood relapsed into jungle, and was long a favourite haunt of river dakdits. Part of the site is now covered by the waters of the Bhagirathi, the rest stretches out as a richly cultivated plain ; and the solitary surviving tree of the historic mango grove is held sacred by the Muhammadans. The high road from Calcutta vi& Krishnagar to Berhampur passes close by the field ; 96 miles north of Calcutta, and 22 south of Berhampur. Poddatiiru. — Town in Cuddapah District, Madras Presidency. — See Proddutur. Pohra. — Village in Sakoli tahsil, Bhandara District, Central Pro vinces. Population (1881) 3111, namely, Hindus, 2587; Muham madans, 169; Jains, 12; non-Hindu aborigines, 343. Poicha. — Petty State of the Pandu Mehwas in Rewd Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Area, 3| square miles. There are 6 shareholders. The revenue was estimated in 1882 at £245 ; tribute of £150, 2s. is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda. The estate lies on the Mahi river between Kanora and Bhadarwa. Poini (more correctly Ponn'e). — River, called near the source Dainal- cheruvu, rising among the high hills south-west of Chandragiri, in the north of North Arcot District, Madras Presidency, and flowing about 45 miles south to the Pakr between Vellore (Vellur) and Arcot. Largely used for irrigation by means of anicuts, which force the water into tanks. Chittur is on the bank of one of the tributaries. Point Calimere (Kallimedu). — The most southerly point of the Coromandel coast, Madras Presidency. — See Calimere. Point, False. — Cape, with lighthouse, on the west coast of the Bay of Bengal. — See False Point. Point Palmyras. — Headland in Cuttack District, Bengal.— See Palmyras Point. Pokaran (Pokharn).— Town in Jodhpur State, Rajputana; situated in lat. 26° 55' n., and long. 71° 57' 45" e., on the route from Phulodi to Jaisalmer (Jeysulmere city), 66 miles east of the latter place. It is situated close to the deserted town of the same name, and contained when Thornton wrote (1862) 3000 houses. No information as to the POKHAR—POLAVARAM. 195 population was supplied by the darbdr authorities for the Census of 1 88 1. The town is surrounded by an uncemented stone wall. A conspicuous Jain temple, on an elevated situation, marks the site of the old deserted city, and near it are the monuments of the deceased members of the chief's family. Being situated on one of the great commercial routes between Eastern Rajputana and Sind, the transit trade is considerable. Red sandstone crops out or lies near the surface, and there are several tanks near the town. It is an appanage of the leading noble of Jodhpur, who holds the post of pardhan, and is entitled to a seat on the royal elephant immediately behind the Markraja. Pokhar. — Town, lake, and place of pilgrimage in Ajmere-Merwara, Rajputana. — See Pushkar. Pokri. — Village in Garhwal District, North-Western Provinces. Lat. 30° 20' n., long. 79° 15' e. Population (1881) 185. Small copper mines, once very productive, but now of little value. Elevation above sea-level, 6 no feet. Pol (Pal). — Petty State within the Mahi Kantha Agency, Gujarat, Bombay Presidency ; situated on the north-eastern frontier of Mahi Kantha. The boundary marches with that of Mewar in Rajputana. Population (1872) 4919 ; (1881) 6629. The tract is wild and moun tainous. Cultivated area, 42 square miles (27,500 acres). Chief agricultural products — millets, wheat, maize, gram, etc. No mines or manufactures. The ruling family is descended from Jai Chand, the last Rahtor sovereign of Kanauj. Jai Chand (1193) left two sons, Seojf and Sonakjf. The former founded the present family of Marwar; the latter established himself at Edar in 1257. For twenty-six generations, the chiefs of this line bore the title of Rio of Edar ; but the last independent prince, Jagannath, was driven out by the Muhammadans in 1656. The family retired into the hills, fixed their head -quarters at Pol, and were known thenceforward as the Rabs of that mountainous tract. The Raos of Pol pay no tribute, the difficult nature of their territory having apparently saved them from the exactions of the Gaekwar. The present (1883) chief, Rao Hamir Singhji, is thirty-six years of age, and manages the State in person. He enjoys an estimated gross revenue of £2800. The State has one school with 24 pupils. The family follows the rule of primogeniture in matters of succession, and hold no deed allowing adoption. Transit duties are levied in the State. Rainfall in 1882, 26 inches. Polavaram. — Zaminddri estate in the 'Northern Circars,' Goda vari District, Madras Presidency, containing 128 villages. Assessment imposed at the Permanent Settlement (1803), £10,570. Previous to that time, this estate, like the others in the District, was the scene 1 96 POLEKURR U—POL UR. of constant disputes and struggles (see Godavari District). Between 1785 and 1790 especially, the disturbances became so serious that it was necessary to repress them with the help of the military. Again, in 1800, the zaminddr's fort, situated on the Godavari river, was captured and destroyed, and the whole tract was placed under martial law. The population of Polavaram village, situated in Ernagudem tdluk (lat. 17" 14' 50" n., long. 81° 40' 40" e.), was 2734 in 1872, and 3552 in 1881. Number of houses (1881), 737. Polekurru (Pdlkuru). — Town in Coconada tdluk, Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 16° 47' n., long. 82° 18' e. Population (1871) 6429, inhabiting 1333 houses; and (1881) 5141, inhabiting 1243 houses. Poli. — Town in Pullampet tdluk, Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 14° 12' 45" n., long. 79° 13' e. Population (1881) 6947, inhabiting 1577 houses. Hindus number 6351; Muhammadans, 595 ; and Christian, 1. Pollachi. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Coimbatore District, Madras Presidency. Area, 710 square miles. Population (1881) 172,909, namely, 83,737 males and 89,172 females, dwelling in 1 town and 160 villages, and occupying 37,815 houses. Hindus number 169,570; Muhammadans, 3235 ; Christians, 95 ; and ' others,' 9. In 1883 the tdluk contained 3 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 6 ; and regular police, 59 men. Land revenue, £24,069. Pollachi. — Head-quarters town of Pollachi tdluk, Coimbatore Dis trict, Madras Presidency. Lat. 10° 39' 20" n., long. 77° 3' 5" e. Population (187 1) 4922, inhabiting 724 houses; and (1881) 5082, inhabiting 700 houses. Hindus number 4468; Muhammadans, 548; and Christians, 66. Large weekly fair, hospital, and travellers' bungalow. Residence of Head Assistant Collector and Magistrate of Coimbatore District. Pollillir. — Town in Conjeveram tdluk, Chengalpat (Chingleput) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 12° 58' 20" n., long. 79° 45' 20" e. Population (1871) 933, inhabiting 139 houses ; and (1881) 1068, inhabiting 155 houses. Pohir. — Tdluk or Sub-division of North Arcot District, Madras Presidency. Area, 443 square miles. Population (1881) 106,818, namely, 52,713 males and 54,105 females, dwelling in 1 town and 194 villages, containing 13,357 houses. Hindus number 101,147; Muhammadans, 3292; Christians, 1585; and 'others,' 794. The northern and western parts of the tdluk are hilly, the rest is tolerably flat. The soil is black and red clay mixed with sand and gravel; in the vicinity of the hills a rich loam is found. On the whole, Polur is a fertile tdluk, and raises good crops of rice, spiked millet, varagu (Panicum miliaceum), and ragi (Eleusine corocana). Twenty- POLUR TOWN—PONANI. 197 three square miles are reserved forests; leopards, bears, sdmbhar deer, and wild hog are common ; bison are not rare, and tigers and elephants are occasionally found. The manufactures are weaving and shoemaking. In 1883 the tdluk contained 1 criminal court ; police circles (thdnds), 9 ; regular police, 84 men. Land revenue, .£18,771. Poliir. — Head-quarters town of Poliir tdluk, North Arcot District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 120 30' 45" n., long. 79° 9' 30" e. Situated about 27 miles south of Vellore. Population (1881) 5649, dwelling in 765 houses. Hindus number 4310; Muhammadans, 1227 ; and Christians, 112. Poliir is poorly built, with narrow and ill- arranged streets. A small ruined fort stands near the town. To the west is a large tank, which irrigates 1100 acres, bearing an assessment of nearly £500. Five miles from the town magnetic iron-ore occurs in small nodules. Sub-jail ; post-office. Ponampet. — Village in the Kiggatnad tdluk of Coorg, on the road from Gonikopal to Hudikeri. Founded by Ponapa, a former Diwan, from whom it takes its name. Population (1881) 783. Head-quarters of the parpattigdr. Weekly market on Mondays. Pcnani. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Malabar District, Madras Presi dency. Area, 390 square miles. Population (1881) 392,654, namely, 194,150 males and 198,504 females, dwelling in 72 parishes or amshdms, containing 70,625 houses. Hindus number 231,402 ; Muhammadans, 146,868; Christians, 14,363; and 'others,' 21. In 1883 the tdluk contained 3 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 1 7 ; regular police, 159 men. Land revenue, £31,238. Ponani. — Head-quarters town of Ponani tdluk, Malabar District Madras Presidency. Lat 10° 47' 10" n., long. 75° 57' 55" e. Popula tion (1881) 12,421, inhabiting 1919 houses. Muhammadans number 9916; Hindus, 2478; Christians, 26; and 'other,' 1. A busy Map- pilla seaport, the most important between Cochin and Calicut, trading largely in salt, and possessing water communication with the Tiriir station on the south-west line of the Madras Railway, as well as with Cochin and Travancore. Ponani is inhabited almost exclusively by Mappilk Muhammadans, whose Tangal or high priest lives here ; and it is the centre of Musalman education on the coast, possessing a kind of religious college, which confers degrees. In 1662, after the Dutch took Cochin, the English retired to Ponani. In 1782, Colonel Macleod landed troops here from Bombay, and was joined by Colonel Humberstone's force. The latter had given up the projected siege of Palghat, and, abandoning the siege train at Mangari- kota, fell back by forced marches, followed and harassed by Tipd and Lally. Once within Macleod's lines, however, the united forces turned on the pursuers and repulsed them. Owing to the death of Haidar 198 PONANI RIVER— PONDICHERRI. All, the attack was not renewed. When Colonel Hartley (1790) made his brilliant descent upon the west coast, the Ponani people gave in their adhesion readily. Average annual value of the trade of Ponani for the five years ending 1883-84 — imports, £9567, and exports, £44,195. In 1883-84, the imports were valued at £11,467, and the exports at ,£51,696. Ponani. — River rising in the Anamalai Mountains, Madras Presidency. Flows past Palghat across Malabar District, and enters the sea at Ponani town, in lat. 10° 47' 30" n., and long. 750 58' e. It is about 120 miles in length, and flows for about 70 miles parallel to the south-west line of the Madras Railway. Navigable by small craft for many months to a considerable distance above its mouth, and is largely used for timber-floating. Pondamalai. — Town in Chengalpat District, Madras Presidency. — See Punamallu. Pondicherri (Puducheri, Puthuvai, Pulcheri). — Chief settlement of the French in the East Indies ; situated on the Coromandel coast, surrounded by the Cuddalore tdluk of South Arcot District, Madras Presidency. The town lies in lat. 11° 55' 57'' N., and long. 79° 52' 33° e. Population (1876) 156,094; (1882) 140,945. The settlement forms part of the delta of the Penner (Ponnaiyar) river, and a great portion of its surface is alluvial. Many artesian wells have been sunk, and excellent drinking water is obtainable. The hills known as Les Montagnes Rouges form a natural girdle to the country about Pondicherri. The climate is healthy. In January, the tempera ture is from 25° to 28° centigrade, and from May to September from 31° to 40° centigrade. ' The first French settlement at Pondicherri,' says Mr. Garstin, 'was in 1674, under Francois Martin. In 1693 it was captured by the Dutch, but restored in 1699. It was besieged four times by the English. The first siege, under Admiral Boscawen, was unsuccessful.. The second, under Colonel (afterwards Sir) Eyre Coote, in 1761, resulted in the capture of the place; it was restored in 1763. It was again besieged and captured in 1778, by Sir Hector Munro, and restored in 1785. It was captured a third time, by Colonel Braithwaite, in 1793, and finally restored in 1816.' [For a fuller account ofthe history of Pondicherri, see article French Settlements.] ' The territory of Pondicherri comprises four Districts — Pondicherri, Villianvir, Oulgaret, and Bahrir — containing 93 large villages and 141 hamlets. Its area is 29,145 hectares =115 square miles, and its popu lation, according to the Annuaire des Etablissements Francais dans L'Inde for 1 884, 140,945 souls. The town of Pondicherri is divided into two parts, the White Town and the Black Town, separated from one another by a canal. The White Town is by the seaside, and is well PONNANI— PONNERI. 199 built. The chief public buildings are — Government house, the parish church, the Foreign Missions church, two pagodas, the new bdzdr, the clock tower, the lighthouse, the barracks, the military hospital, and the town hall. A handsome statue of Dupleix stands on the esplanade opposite the landing-place. There is also a neat and well-cared-for iron screw-pile pier ; and a supply of drinking water has been brought into the town which for purity is perhaps unrivalled in any other town in Southern India.' A colonial college (with 185 pupils in 1883) and 172 other schools, attended by nearly 5000 children, provide for the educational wants of the territory; and a public library of 12,000 volumes, a Catholic mission, 2 orphanages, and 2 refuges are among its institutions. The chief industries are weaving and dyeing. The former has of late years languished in consequence of European competition, but there are still 4000 weavers. The revenue of Pondicherri was in 1883 £57,315. In 1879, railway communication was opened between Pondicherri and the South Indian system at Villupuram. Ponnani. — Town and river, Malabar District, Madras Presidency. — See Ponani. Pon-na-reip (Pun-na-riep or Poon-na-riep). — Village in the Mo-nyo township of Tharawadi District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. Popu lation (1881) 351. Ponne. — River in North Arcot District, Madras Presidency. — See Poini. Ponneri. — Tdluk of Chengalpat District, Madras Presidency. Area, 347 square miles. Population (1881) 107,543, namely, 54,522 males and 53,021 females, dwelling in 241 villages, containing 17,249 houses. Hindus number 103,569; Muhammadans, 3674; Christians, 294 ; and ' others,' 6. The tdluk is an almost unbroken flat of rice- fields and desert plain, while its eastern and northern borders are covered with salt swamps and sandy tracts. Average rainfall, 35 inches. Once famous for its manufacture of muslins at Ami, but the skill and the manufacture (except of common cloth) are now extinct. Red handkerchiefs and Muhammadan cloths are woven at Pulicat. Casuarina planting is in progress. The hamlet of Coromandel (Dutch and English corruption of Kareimanal = sand coast) is thought to have given its name to the eastern coast of the Presidency. In 1883 the tdluk contained 2 criminal courts; police circles (thdnds), 6 ; regular police, 45 men. Land revenue, £20,837. Tne high road from Madras to Calcutta traverses the taluk. Ponneri. — Town in Chengalpat District, Madras Presidency, and head-quarters of Ponneri tdluk ; situated on the right or south bank of the Naranavaram (known more commonly as the Araniyanadi), about 200 POODOOCOTTAH— POONA. 20 miles north-west of Madras city. Population (1872) 1170; (1881) 779, dwelling in 120 houses. Sub-jail; post-office. Poodoocottah. — State and town in Madras Presidency. — See Pudukottai. Poo-loo. — Creek in Bassein District, Lower Burma. — See Pu-lu. Poona (Puna). — British District in the Deccan, Bombay Presidency, lying between 17° 54' and 19° 23' n. lat., and between 73° 24' and 75° 13' e. long. Area, 5348 square miles. Population (1881) 900,621. Poona District is bounded on the north by the District of Ahmad nagar ; on the east by Ahmadnagar and Sholapur ; on the south by the Nira river, separating it from Sitara and the estate of the chief of Phaltan ; and on the west by Kolaba and Thana. Two isolated blocks of Bhor State, one in the west and the other in the south, are included within the limits of Poona District. The administrative head-quarters are at Poona city. Physical Aspects. — Towards the west, the country is undulating, and intersected by numerous spurs of the Sahyadri range, which break off in a south-easterly direction, becoming lower as they pass eastwards, and in the end sinking to the general level of the plain. On the extreme western border, the land is so rugged and cut up by valleys and ravines, that on the slopes and sides of the hills a system of spade tillage takes the place of ordinary cultivation by bullocks and ploughs. Along the western border of the District, the Sahyadri hills form a barrier inaccessible except by a few difficult passes or ghdts. Of these, the Borghat, traversed both by a road and a railway, is the only line fitted for wheeled vehicles. The spurs which form the main line of the Sahyadri mountains have the flat tops and steep sides common to basaltic hills. Within the limits of the District not a few of the hills have had their sides hewn into rock temples, or their summits crowned with fortresses. Many streams rise in the Sahyadri range, and flow eastwards, until they join the Bhima river, which passes through the District from north-west to south-east. The water of the rivers is good for all purposes, and all of them are sources of supply to the many villages along their banks. About 10 miles south-west of Poona city, the Khadakwasla lake, with an area of 5J square miles, supplies water to Poona and Kirki. The District is not rich in minerals, but trap rock fit for road-making and stone for building purposes are found. There are no tracts producing large timber of any value. Of late years, efforts to afforest the denuded hill-sides have met with some success. Except in the west, where tigers, leopards, bears, and sdmbhar deer are sometimes to be found, the District contains no wild animals larger than the antelope, boar, and wolf. History. — The District of Poona, with the adjacent tracts of Satara and Sholapur,— the home of the Marathas, and the birthplace of POONA. 201 the dynasty, — stretches for about 150 miles along the Sahyadri range between the 17th and 19th degrees of latitude, and extends at one point as far as 160 miles inland. The great Mara.dk capitals — Poona, Satara, Kolhapur — lie close to the mountains under the shelter of some hill fort ; while the Musalman capitals — Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Bidar, Gulbarga — are walled cities out in the plains. The history of the three Districts forms the subject of a monograph by Mr. W. W. Loch of the Bombay Civil Service, from which the following section has been condensed. The three Districts can be best historically considered together, and they are so treated here ; but the reader is also referred for topographical details to the articles on Satara and Sholapur. The rise and progress of the Maratha power, on the other hand, forms an important and essential part of the general history of India, and will be only very briefly noticed in this place. Of little consequence under the early Musalman rulers of the Deccan ; growing into importance under the kings of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar ; rising with the rise of the State founded by Sivajf the Great in the 17 th century, • — these Districts of Poona, Sahara, and Sholapur became in the 18th century the seat of an empire reaching from the Punjab to the confines of Bengal, and from Delhi to Mysore. Early in the Christian era, Maharashtra is said to have been ruled by the great Salevdhana, whose capital was at Paitan on the Godavari. At a later period, a powerful dynasty of Chalukya Rajputs reigned over a large part of Maharashtra and the Karnatik, with their capital at Kallkni, not far from Sholapur. The founder of the line, Jaisingh, had overthrown another Rajput tribe, the Pallavas. The Chalukyas rose to their greatest power under Talapa Deva in the 10th century, and became extinct about the end of the 12th century, when the Yadava Rajas of Deogiri (Daulatabad) became supreme. This was the dynasty which was ruling at the time of the Musalman invasion. We find, besides, that there was a Raji at Punalla, near Kolhapur, at the end of the 12th century, whose power extended as far north as the Nira river. He was conquered by Singhan, the Rajput Raja of Deogiri, whose camp is shown at Mhasurna, near Pusesauli, in Sahara District. The first Musalman invasion took place in 1294, but the Yadava dynasty was not finally extinguished until 13 12. The conquest of the country was long imperfect ; and Ferishta records an attack made by Muhammad Tughlak, the Emperor of Delhi, in 1340, on Nagnak, a Kolf chief, who held the strong fort of Kondhana (now Singarh), which was only reduced after eight months' siege. The Deccan remained subject to the Emperor of Delhi till 1345. when the Musalman nobles revolted from Muhammad Tughlak, and established the Bahmanf dynasty, whose first capital was at Gulbarga, 202 POONA. about 60 miles east of Sholapur. The open country acknowledged the power of the Bahmanf sovereigns without a struggle. In the year 1426 the capital was changed by Ahmad Shah Bahmani to Bidar, said by Ferishta to have been an old Hindu capital, about 100 miles farther east A terrible famine, known as the Durgadevi, is said to have lasted throughout Maharashtra for twelve years — from 1396 to 1408. Taking advantage of the general depopulation, the local Maratha chiefs obtained possession of the hills and strong places, which had been conquered by the Musalnkns. Several expeditions were sent by the Bahmanf kings to recover the Ghat country, but without success, until, in the year 1472, Mahmud Galwan, the great minister of the last independent Bahmani king, made another effort ; he forced his way through the forests, and did not leave the country till he had reduced the lesser forts, and finally Kelna itself. Subsequently he made a new distribution of the Bahmani dominions. Junnar became the head-quarters of a Province which comprehended Indapur, the Mandesh, Wai, Belgaum, and parts of the Konkan. The other districts on the Bhink were under Bijapur, while Shokpur, Gulbarga, and Purenda formed a separate Province. Yusaf Adil Shah, the founder of the Bijapur dynasty, was made governor of Bijapur ; Ahmad Sikh, the founder of the Ahmadnagar dynasty, was sent to Junnar ; Gulbarga was entrusted to Dastur Dinar, an Abyssinian; while Purandhar, Sholapur, and 11 districts were held by two brothers, Zein Khan and Khwaja Jahan. When Ahmad Shalh went to Junnar about the year 1485, he found that the fort of Junnar Shivner had fallen into the hands of the Marathas, and he at once reduced it. He then took Chawand, Logarh, Purandhar, Kondhana (Singarh), and many forts in the Konkan, and brought his charge into good order. The fall of the Bahmani dynasty was now at hand, for the great nobles had become virtually independent. The first who rose in revolt was Bahadur Gekni, who governed the country south of the Warna river ; he was soon defeated and killed. Then Zein - ud - din, the idgirddr of Chakan, rebelled with the aid of Yusaf Adil Shah. Next, in the year 1489, Ahmad Shah threw off his allegiance; he was attacked by Zein-ud-dfn, but the latter was driven into the fort of Chakan ; the fort was stormed, and Zein-ud-din killed in the fight. About this time, Yusaf Adfl Shah of Bijapur also asserted his inde pendence, and made himself master of the country as far north as the Bhima. The new kings of the Deccan made a kind of partition treaty in 1491, by which the country north of the Nira and east of Karmala, together with some of the present District of Sholapur, was assigned to the Nizam Shahi king, while the country south of the Nira and POONA. 203 Bhima" was allotted to Bijapur. The lesser chiefs, who had joined in the revolt against the Bahmanf kings, were gradually subdued by the more powerful. Dastiir Dinar, who held Gulbarga, was defeated in 1495, and again in 1498, by Yusaf Adfl Shah ; but he returned after each defeat, and it was not till 1504 that he was slain, and Gulbarga annexed to the Bijapur dominions. In 1 51 1, Sholapur was annexed to Bijapur. Amir Berid took Gulbarga ; but Kamal Khan was soon after assassinated, and Gulbarga recovered. Purandhar and the neighbouring tracts remained for many years under Khwaja Jahan, who seems to have been a semi-independent vassal of the king of Ahmadnagar. In 1523, as a condition of peace between the kings of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar after one of their many wars, the sister of Ismail Adil Shah was given in marriage to Burhan Nizam Shah, and Sholapur was promised as her dowry, but it was not given up. The claim to Shokpur by the Nizam Shahi kings was the cause of constant wars during the next forty years. At last the Musalman kings, alarmed at the power of Rainraj, Hindu king of Bijanagar, formed a league against him (1563-64). In January 1565 was fought the great battle of Talikot, which resulted in the death of Ramraj and the complete defeat of his army. For some years there was peace; but in 1590, Dikwar Khan, who had been regent of Bijapur, fled to Ahmadnagar, and urged Burhan Nizam Shah 11. to recover Shokpur. In the year 1592 they advanced into the Bijapur territory, but Ibrabfm Adil Shah managed to win back Dikwar Khan ; and having got him into his power, sent him as a prisoner to the fort of Satara, and quickly forced the Ahmadnagar troops to retire. Soon after this, the Mughal princes of Delhi began to invade the Deccan, and in 1600 Ahmadnagar fell. The country was, however, only temporarily subdued, and was speedily recovered by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian chief, who made Aurangabad, then called Kharki, the capital of the Nizam Shahi kings. In 1616, SMh Jahan again conquered the greater part of the Ahmadnagar territory ; but in 1629, the country was given up by the Mughal governor, Khan Jahan Lodi. A war ensued, and in 1633 Daulatarkd was taken, and the king made prisoner ; but Shahji Bhonsla, one of the leading Maratha chiefs, set up another member of the royal family, overran the Gangthari and Poona districts, and, with the help of the Bijapur troops, drove back the Mughals from Purenda. Shah Jahan now marched into the Deccan in person, besieged Bijapur, and forced the king to come to terms, 1636. The country seized by Shahjf was then easily recovered; that chief surrendered in 1637, and the Nizam Shahi dynasty came to an end. The country north of the Bhima, including Junnar, was 204 POONA. annexed to the Mughal territory, and that south of it was made over to Bijapur. Shahji took service under the king of Bijapur, and received the jdgir of Poona and Supa, to which Indapur, Baramati, and the Miwal country near Poona were added. It was under the Bijapur kings that the Marathas first began to make themselves conspicuous. The Bargirs or light horse furnished by the Mardtha" chiefs played a prominent part in the wars with the Mughals ; the less important forts were left in their hands, and the revenue was collected by Hindu officers under the Musalman mokdsddrs. Seveial of the old Mardtha' families received the offices of deshmukh and sar- deshmukh. The kingdom of Bijapur survived that of Ahmadnagar by fifty years ; but, weakened by internal dissensions, it was gradually falling to pieces. This was the opportunity for the predatory Maratha chiefs ; and a leader arose in Sivajf, the son of Shalijf Bhonsla, who knew how to unite the Maratfks into a nation by inspiring them with a hatred for their Musalman masters, and how to take advantage of the constant quarrels and increasing weakness of -those masters. The story of the rise and progress of the great Maratha power belongs to the general history of the country. It will be found in the article on India, and need not be repeated here. With the fall of Bajf Rao, the last of the Peshwas, in 1818, the Maratha power ended ; and since then, no events of political import ance have taken place in Poona District Throughout the Mutiny, peace was maintained, and no open outbreak took place, though the mutiny of a regiment at Kolhapur gave rise to uneasiness, and there was undoubtedly a good deal of disaffection at Satara among the classes whom the annexation of the country had impoverished. The notorious Nand Saliib was the adopted son of Baji Rao. Population. — The Census of 1872 showed a total population of 921,353 persons, on an area corresponding to that of the District as at present constituted. The next general Census of 1881, taken over an area of 5348 square miles, disclosed a total population of 900,621 inhabitants, residing in 8 towns and 1177 villages, and occupying 153,401 houses. This decrease of population, amounting to 2-25 per cent, in the nine years between 1872 and 1881, is ascribed to the famine of 1876-77, in which the eastern portion of the District suffered severely. Density of population, 168-4 persons per square mile; houses per square mile, 38-3 ; persons per village, 624; persons per house, 5-87. Classified according to sex, there were 455,101 males and 445,520 females ; proportion of males, 50-50 per cent. Classified according to age, there were — under 15 years, boys 181,706, and girls 170,951 ; total children, 352,657, or 39-15 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards, males 273,395, and females 274,569 ; total adults, 547,964, or 60-85 Per cent. In point of POONA. 205 religion, Hindus number 834,843; Muhammadans, 42,036; Jains, 10,880; Pdrsfs, 1574; Christians, 9503; Jews, 619; Sikhs, 30; non- Hindu aborigines, 1058; and Buddhists, 78. Hindus are sub-divided into castes as follows: — Brdhmans, 49,060; Rdjputs, 3364; Kunbfs (cultivators), 396,586; Kolfs (cultivators), 42,829; Mdlis (gardeners), 52,543; Lohdrs (blacksmiths), 2587; Darjis (tailors), 8857; Chamdrs (skinners), 15,790; Lingayats (traders), 5364; Sondrs (goldsmiths), 9239; Sutars (carpenters), 9534; Telis (oil-men), 8694; and depressed castes, like the Mdngs and Mahdrs. The Mdngs and Mahdrs together are returned at 88,019. Muhammadans are distributed according to tribe as follows: — Pathans, 5912; Sayyids, 4226; Shaikhs, 30,498; and 'others,' 1400. As regards sects of Muhammadans, there are 41,253 Sunnfs and 783 Shias. Christians are divided into 5039 Roman Catholics, 3426 Episcopalians, 560 Presbyterians, 91 Methodists, 92 Baptists, 6 Plymouth Brethren, and 289 belonging to miscellaneous Christian creeds. Among the aborigines, the Bhfls are returned at 376, probably a large under-estimate ; Kathodfs and Warlis, 682. The Census of 1881 divides the male population into the following six main classes : — (1) Professional class, including State officials of every kind and members of the learned professions, 27,234; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 8585 ; (3) commercial class including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 8348 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 174,341 ; (5) industrial class, in cluding all manufacturers and artisans, 49,388 ; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising male children, general labourers, and persons of unspecified occupation, 187,205. Ofthe 1185 towns and villages in Poona District in 1881, 255 contain less than two hundred inhabitants ; 438 from two to five hundred ; 300 from five hundred to one thousand; 135 from one to two thousand; 24 from two to three thousand ; 22 from three to five thousand ; 8 from five to ten thousand ; 1 from ten to fifteen thousand ; 1 from twenty to fifty thousand; and 1 over fifty thousand. The following towns, including Poona and Kirki cantonments as separate places, are the most important in the District: — Poona (99,622); Poona Canton ment (30,129) ; Junnar (10,373) ; Kirki, cantonment (7252) ; Saswad (5684); Baramati (5272); Talegaon (4900); and Lonauli (3334). Excepting the cantonments, all these have municipalities, the aggregate municipal revenue (including minor municipalities, 6 in number) in 1882-83 being £32,671 ; the aggregate municipal population, 179,739; and the incidence of municipal taxation, 2s. nfd. per head of the population within municipal limits. The incidence varied in different municipalities from 2§d. to 5 s. io|d. Agriculture. — Agriculture supports (according to the Census Returns of 1881) 511,943 persons, or 56-8 per cent, of the entire population. 206 POONA. The agricultural workers were returned at 291,798, giving an average of 8-9 cultivable and cultivated acres to each. Kunbis and Malis are the chief cultivating classes, although men of all castes own land. About four-fifths of the landholders till with their own hands. The rest let the land to tenants, and add to their incomes by the practice of some craft or calling. Kunbfs depend almost entirely on the produce of their fields. They work more steadily, and have greater bodily strength than other husbandmen, and show high skill in their occupation. The uncertain rainfall over a great part of the District, the poverty of much of the soil, the want of variety in the crops, and a carelessness in their dealings with money-lenders, have, since the beginning of British rule, combined to keep the bulk of the Poona landholders poor and in debt. Between 1863 and 1868 they suffered from the introduction of enhanced rates of assessment, based on very high prices which were wrongly believed to have risen to a permanent level. To their loss from the fall in prices was added the suffering and ruin ofthe 1876-77 famine. In spite of these recent causes of depression, the records of former years seem to show that, except during the ten years of unusual prosperity ending about 1870, when great public works and the very high price of cotton and other field produce threw much wealth into the District, the mass of the landholding classes, though poor and largely in debt, are probably at present less harassed, and better fed, better clothed, and better housed than they have been at any time since the beginning of the present century. For the relief of landholders, who, though hampered by debt, were not insolvent, it was proposed to establish a system of State Agricul tural Banks, in order to enable embarrassed proprietors to effect a compromise with their creditors. The scheme is at present in abeyance, owing to doubts on the part of Government as to the wisdom of enforcing the recovery of loans made by the bank by the same procedure as arrears of land revenue. Of the total District area of 5348 square miles, 3560 square miles were in 1881 assessed for Government revenue, of which 3261 square miles were under cultivation and 299 square miles were cultivable! Total amount of Government assessment, including local rates and cesses on land, £125,954, or an average of is. ifd. per cultivated acre. The holdings as a rule are small, though large holdings are found in many villages. They are also divided among members of different families. In the hilly tract in the west of the District, where the chief grains are rice, ragi, and other coarse grains, which require great atten tion and labour, the holdings are generally smaller than in the east. In 1882-83, including alienated lands, the total number of holdings was 227,871, with an average area of about 9 acres. In Poona all arable land comes under one or other of three great heads POONA. 207 — dry-crop land, watered land, rice land. The kharif or early crops are brought to maturity by the rains of the south-west monsoon ; the rabi or spring crops depend on dews, on irrigation, and on the partial fair-weather showers which occasionally fall between November and March. The chief kharif crops are spiked millet mixed with the hardy tur (Cajanus indicus), and jodr. These are sown late in May or in June, and are reaped in September and October or November. In the wet and hilly west the chief harvest is the kharif The rabi crops are sown in October and November, and ripen in February and March. They are chiefly the cold-weather Indian millets, together with gram, lentils, and pulses. As in other parts of the Deccan, the chief kinds of soil are black, red, and barad or stony. The black soil, found generally near rivers, is by far the richest of these. The red soil is almost always shallow and coarser than the black. The stony soil is found on the slopes of hills. It is merely trap rock in the first stage of disintegration ; but if favoured by plentiful and frequent rains, it repays the scanty labour which its tillage requires. With four oxen, a Kunbi will till some sixty acres of light soil. Sixty acres of shallowish black soil require six or eight oxen. Eight oxen can till fifty acres of deep black soil. Many husbandmen possess less than the proper number of cattle, and have to join with their neighbours for ploughing. Of 1,924,630- acres, the total area of Government cultivable land, 1,775,583 acres were taken up for cultivation in 1882-83. Of these, 181,395 acres were fallow land or occupied waste. Of the remain ing 1,594,188 acres under actual cultivation (28,035 acres of which were twice cropped), grain crops (wheat, barley, and rice, but mostly millets) occupied 1,383,092 acres, or 85 per cent. ; pulses (gram, peas, and others), 103,030, or 6 per cent. ; oil-seeds, 91,428 ; fibres, 24,467 ; tobacco, 1402; spices, 7356; garden produce, 7194; and sugar-cane, 4234. The area under cotton in 1882-83 produced 6874 cwts. The farm stock decreased considerably in the famine of 1876-77, and has not yet reached its former level. In 1875-76, the year before the famine, the stock included — carts, 21,857; ploughs, 63,629; bullocks, 233>759; cows> 160,097; buffaloes, 57,872; horses, 12,790 (including mares and foals) ; asses, 4932 ; and sheep and goats, 342,081. According to the 1882-83 returns, the farm stock was— carts, 21,044; ploughs, 52,630; bullocks, 227,619; cows, 144,949; buffaloes, 52,730; horses (including mares and foals), 11,163 ; asses, 6745 ; and sheep and goats, 289,688. Among special crops, the grape-vine (Vitis vinifera) is occasionally grown in the best garden land on the border of the western belt and in the neighbourhood of Poona city. The vine is grown from cuttings which are ready for planting in six or eight months. It 208 POONA. begins to bear in the third year, and is in full fruit in the sixth or seventh. With care, a vine goes on bearing for 60, or even, it is said, for 100 years. The vine is trained on a stout upright, often a growing stump which is pruned to a pollard-like shape about five feet high ; this mode is said to be most remunerative. Or a strong open trellis roof is thrown over the vineyard about six feet from the ground, and the vines are trained horizontally on it ; this mode is preferred by the rich for its appearance and shade, and is said to encourage growth to a greater age. The vine yields sweet grapes in January to March, and sour grapes in August. The sour grapes are very abundant, but are not encouraged ; the sweet grape is tended in every possible way, but is apt to suffer from disease. After each crop the vine is pruned, and salt, sheep's droppings, and dried fish are applied as manure to each vine after the sour crop is over. Vines are flooded once a year for five or six days, the earth being previously loosened round the roots. Blight attacks them when the buds first appear, and is removed by shaking the branches over a cloth, into which the blight falls, and is then carried to a distance and destroyed. This operation is performed three times a day until the buds are an inch long. Rates of interest vary from 9 to 36 per cent. Labourers earn 4|d. a day ; bricklayers and carpenters, is. The current prices of the chief articles of food during 1882-83 were as follows per 80 lbs.: — Wheat, 6s. 2*d. ; barley, 6s. 5f d. ; rice, from 6s. 8£d. to 7s. 6d. ; jodr, 3s. 3d. ; gram, 5s. ofd. ; salt, 6s. 3d. ; flour, 8s. 3^d. ; ghi, £3, 4s. ; firewood, is. 2d. Timber (mostly teak) cost 5s. ixd. per cubic foot; jungle- wood, 3s. i|d. per cubic foot. Carts can be hired at is. 9d. per day, and camels at is. Natural Calamities. — With much of its rainfall cut off by the western hills, large tracts in the east of the District have a very uncertain water- supply. In the year 1792-93, no rain fell till October, and the price of grain rose to 4 lbs. for the rupee (2s.). In 1 802, owing to the devastation of the country by the Mardtha troops, the price of grain is said to have risen to 1 lb. for the rupee. In 1824-25 and 1845-46, the failure of rain caused great scarcity. In 1866-67, more than ,£8000 of land revenue was remitted, and £2000 spent in relief to the destitute. Poona was one of the Districts specially affected by the famine of 1876-77. Commufiications. — Besides about 500 miles of partly bridged and partly metalled roads, 106 miles of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway cross the District from west to east. The route from Poona to Mahdb- leshwar passes by Kartrije tunnel, Kaparoli, Khandala, Sherol, Wai, and Panchganj, the journey occupying from 10 to 12 hours. A rail way is now (1885) in course of construction which will place Poona in connection with the South Mardthd region. Trade and Commerce. — The general trade of the District is small. POONA. 209 The chief manufactures are silk robes, coarse cotton cloth, and blankets. The brass and silver work of Poona is much admired ; among the other specialities may be mentioned toys, small clay figures carefully dressed, and ornaments, baskets, fans, etc., of Mas -Mas grass, decked with beetles' wings. The manufacture of paper, formerly of some importance, has of late years nearly ceased. Administration. — For purposes of administration, the District is apportioned into 8 Sub-divisions, as follows : — Kirki, in which is included Poona city and Haveli ; Junnar, Khed, Sirur, Purandhar, Mawal, Indapur, and Bhimthadi. The revenue in 1882-83, under all heads — imperial, local, and municipal — amounted to a total of £180,735, showing, on a population of 900,621, an incidence per head of 4s. The land-tax forms the principal source of revenue, yielding £115,503, or 63-9 per cent. The other principal items are stamps (£18,263) and excise (£32,352). The local funds created since 1863 for works of public utility and rural education yielded a total sum of £10,150, The administration of the District in revenue matters is entrusted to a Collector and 5 Assistants, of whom 3 are covenanted civilians. For the settlement of civil disputes there are in all 11 courts. Twenty -eight officers share the administration of criminal justice. The average distance of a village from the nearest court is 53 miles. The total strength of the regular police in 1876-77 was 1094 officers and men, giving 1 man to every 829 of the population. The total cost of this force was £16,670, equal to £3, 5s. 3d. per square mile of area and 4^d. per head of the population. The number of persons convicted of any offence, great or small, was 2746, being 1 to every 330 of the population. The corresponding statistics for 1882-83 are as follows: — Total strength of police, 1146 men, giving 1 to every 785 of population; total cost, £18,962, or £3, 10s. iod. per square mile of area and 5d. per head of population; number of persons convicted, 2650, or 1 to every 347 of population. There is one jail in the District ; average daily number of prisoners, 353. Education has widely spread of late years. In 1855-56 there were only 94 schools, with a total of 4206 pupils. In 1876-77 there were 251 schools, with 12,926 pupils, or, on an average, 1 school to every 4 villages. In 1882-83 there were 330 schools, with an average attendance of 18,235 pupils. Of these, 266 are Government schools; namely, 2 high schools, 6 Anglo-vernacular schools, 256 vernacular schools, and 2 training schools in medicine, forestry, and agricul ture. There are also 2 colleges in the District — the Deccan College and the College of Science. The Census of 1881 returned 17,863 males and 1095 females as under instruction, besides 37,362 males and 1798 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. There are 3 libraries, and 8 vernacular newspapers were published in 1882. vol. xi. 0 210 POONA TOWN. Medical Aspects. — The climate is dry and invigorating, and suits European constitutions better than that of most other parts of the Bombay Presidency. The average annual rainfall during the twenty-six years ending 1881 was 29-4 inches. In 1881 the rainfall was only 17 inches. The average annual mean temperature of Poona for the seven years ending 1881 was 77'6° F., the average monthly mean being — January, 72°; February, 76°; March, 82-9°; April, 85-7°; May, 84-6°; June, 79-2°; July, 75-5°; August, 74'9°; September, 75-3°; October, 77-8°; November, 75-5°; and December, 72-1° F. The prevailing diseases are fever and affections of the eyes, skin, and bowels. Twelve dispensaries afforded medical relief to 2415 in-door and 53,118 out door patients in 1876-77, and 21,151 persons were vaccinated. In 1 88 1 the number of dispensaries was the same (12); in-door patients, 2155; out-door, 76,759; persons vaccinated, 24,942. Vital statistics showed for 1882-83 a death-rate of 17-84 per thousand, and a birth-rate of 27-4 per thousand. [For further information regarding Poona Dis trict, see Gazetteer ofthe Bombay Presidency, compiled under the orders of the Government of Bombay, by Mr. J. M. Campbell, C.S., vol. xviii. in three parts (Government Central Press, Bombay, 1885). Also see Historical Account oj the Poona, Sdtdra, and Sholapur Districts, by Mr. W. W. Loch, C.S. (Bombay Government Central Press, 1877) ; the Bombay Census Report for 1881 ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports ofthe Presidency from 1880 to 1884.] Poona (Puna). — Town and cantonment in Poona District, Bombay Presidency. The military capital of the Deccan, and from July to November the seat of the Government of Bombay. A station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 119 miles south-east of Bombay. It is situated in lat. 18° 30' 41" n., and long. 73° 55' 21" e., 1850 feet above the level of the sea, and, in a straight line, about 63 miles distant from the coast. Area, including suburbs, about 4 square miles. Population (1872) 90,436; (1881) of city, 99,622; of cantonment, 30,129; total, 129,751, namely, males 66,923, and females 62,828. Hindus number 103,348; Muhammadans, 16,374; Christians, 6384; Jains, 1745; Pdrsfs, 1329; and 'others,' 571. Municipal income (1882-83), £2% 126; incidence of taxation, 3s. 7d. per head. The city stands on the right bank of the Mrita river. Much of the country round is barren and rocky, and to the east stretches an open plain. Not much high ground is seen to the north and west, but to the south extends a line of hills ending in the bold square rock of Singhgarh. Close at hand, on the north, the confluence of the streams of the Miita and Mula ; through the heart of the town, the line of the Kharakwdsla Canal ; and on the south, the lake and temple-crowned peak of Pdrvati, are objects of interest. The aqueduct was built by an ancient Mardtha family. The waterworks owe their existence to the liberality of Sir POONA TOWN. 211 Jamsetji Jijibhai of Bombay, who contributed £17,500 to the entire cost (£20,000). Gardens on every side, and groves of acacia along the banks ofthe rivers, give much ofthe neighbourhood a green, well- clothed appearance. The city proper extends along the Miita for about 1 \ mile inland, varying in height from 30 to 70 feet above the river. Its length is about 2 miles from east to west, and its breadth about if mile, the total area being about 21- square miles. For police and other purposes, the area of the town is divided among 18 wards or pets. Under the Peshwas, it was divided into 7 quarters, named after the days of the week. The ruined palace of the Peshwas stands in the Shanwar quarter or Saturday ward. The palace was burned down in 1827, and all that now remains is the fortified wall. The chief streets run north and south. Though broad in parts, they are all more or less crooked, none of them offering an easy carriage-way from one end to the other. From east to west, the only thorough fare is by lanes, narrow, short, and interrupted. One of these was set apart for the execution of criminals, who, in the time of the Peshwas, were here trampled to death by elephants. Of 12,271 houses in 1 88 1, there were 716, or 5-8 per cent, of the better sort. Most of the houses are of more than one storey, their walls built of a framework of wood filled in with brick or mud, and with roofs of tile. A few residences of the old gentry are still maintained in good order, but the greater number are in disrepair. Within many of the blocks of buildings that line the streets are large courtyards, entered by a doorway, and crowded all round with the hovels of the poorer classes. North of the town is the military cantonment, with a population of 30,129. Within cantonment limits, northwards to the Muta-Miila river, and for 2 miles along the road leading west to the canton ment of Kirki (Khadki), are the houses of the greater part of the European population. Here also is the large bungalow of the Western India Club. The first Residency was built where the present Judge's house now stands, at the Sangam or junction of the Mula and Miita rivers. The compound included the site of the present Science College and the English burial-ground close to the present Sangam Lodge. The Resident's quarters contained five houses, besides out -offices for guard and escort parties. The entire block was destroyed on 5th November 1817, immediately upon the departure of Mr. Mountstuart Elphinstone to join the British forces drawn up for battle at Kirki. There have been 3 European cemeteries opened since the Maratha possession of Poona — one near the old Residency, the second near the present Church of St. Paul, and the third the present East Street Cemetery. A new Residency was built near the present site of St. Paul's Church in 1819, and was 212 POONA TOWN. accidentally burnt down in 1863. The Sangam Bridge was first built on piles in 1829, at a cost of £9500. Sir John Malcolm opened it in 1830, with the name of the Wellesley Bridge, after the Duke of Wellington. It was rebuilt with stone in 1875, at a cost of £9000. Holkar's Bridge was built by Madhu Rao Peshwd, and so named because in its vicinity Holkar was accustomed to pitch his tents. The first mention of Poona in history seems to be in 1604, when it was granted by the Sultan of Ahmadnagar to Maloji, the grandfather of Sivajf the Great. In 1637 the grant was con firmed by the Sultdn to Shdhjf, father of Sivajf. In 1663, during the operations conducted against Sivajf by order of Aurangzeb, the imperial viceroy, Shdista Khan, took possession of the open town, from which, when surprised a few days afterwards by Sivajf, he had great difficulty in making his escape. His son and most of his guard were cut to pieces, and he himself wounded. A powerful force, however, immediately reinstated the discomfited commander. In 1667, Aurang zeb restored Poona to Sivajf; but under the sway of his successor, Sambaji, it was occupied by Khan Jahdn, an officer of the Emperor. On the Peshwd obtaining supremacy in the Maratha confederacy, the chief seat of Government was removed from Satara to Poona. In 1763, Nizdm Ah' of Haidardbdd sacked the town, and burned such parts of it as were not ransomed. In the struggle between the successive Peshwds and their nominal subordinates, Sindhia and Holkar, Poona suffered many vicissitudes, until in 1802, by the provisions of the Treaty of Bassein, the Peshwd admitted a British subsidiary, force to be stationed here. The final defeat of the Peshwa Bdjf Rao, and the capture of Poona in 1818, were the results of three engagements. In the battle of Kirki (5th November 1817), the English forces were commanded by Colonel Burr, 800 being Europeans. Their loss was 80 killed and wounded, of whom 50 were sepoys. No European officer was killed. The Peshwd's forces were under Bapu Gokla, and con sisted of 18,000 horse and 8000 foot; killed and wounded, 500. The battle of Yeroada (16th and 17th November 181 7) occurred near where the present Fitzgerald Bridge now stands, the British guns on ' Picket Hill ' commanding the position. The English troops were commanded by Brigadier - General Lionel Smith. The result was the flight of the Peshwd's army, and the immediate occupation of the city by the British. The third battle, that of Korigaum (ist January 1818), was the most general of the three engagements, and was fought 2 miles distant from Loni, on the right bank of the Bhfma, and 16 miles from Poona. The British force was commanded by Captain Stanton, not more than 500 strong, with 6 guns and 300 horse, marching to the support of Colonel Burr. When the British reached POONA TOWN. 2r3 Korigaum at 10 a.m., they found themselves in face of the main body of the Maratha army, 20,000 strong. The village was at once occupied and until 9 p.m. was held against the Mardthds, the British troops meantime suffering from want of water. When day broke, the Mardtha army was observed moving off along the Poona road. After the deposition of the Peshwa Bdjf Rao (1818), the city became the head-quarters of a British District, as well as the principal cantonment in the Deccan. With the heat of April and May tempered by a sea-breeze, a moderate rainfall, and strong cool winds, the climate is agreeable and healthy. In 1881 the rainfall at Poona was 17-23 inches, but the average for twenty-six years ending 1881 has been 29-41 inches. The mean temperature in 1881 was 77-4°; maximum, 107° (in May); mini mum, 45° (in December). During the last thirty years, Poona has been steadily growing in size. In 185 1 its population was returned at 73,209; by 1863 it was supposed to have risen to about 80,000; in 1872 it was found to have reached 90,436; and in 1881 it was returned at 99,622, exclusive of 30,129 in the cantonment; total, Though Poona is no longer so great a centre of trade and industry as under the Peshwds, there are still about 250 handlooms for the weaving of fabrics of silk and cotton ; and articles of brass, copper, iron, and clay are made in the city. Throughout Western India, Poona workers have earned a reputation for the manufacture of silver and gold jewellery, combs, dice, and other small articles of ivory ; of fans, baskets, and trays of Mas-Mas grass ornamented with peacocks' feathers and beetles' wings ; and of small carefully dressed clay figures representing the natives of India. As a civil station, Poona is the residence of the usual District officers, and also the head - quarters of the Survey, Revenue, and Police Commissioners of the Presidency. As a military station, it is the head-quarters of a General of Division, of the Quartermaster- General and Adjutant-General of the Bombay Army. The garrison generally consists of European and Native infantry, artillery, and cavalry. There is a branch of the Bank of Bombay. Besides a female normal school, a training college for preparing teachers for vernacular and Anglo - vernacular schools, and several Government and private vernacular, Anglo-vernacular, and English schools, Poona has a Government first-grade High School, and two colleges — the Deccan College, teaching classics, mathematics, and philosophy; and the College of Science, with special training for civil engineers. The daily average number of pupils in the female normal school during 1881-82 was 31 ; in the training college for teachers, 145 ; and in the first-grade High School, 360. The average daily attend- 2 1 4 POONAMALLEE— PORBANDAR. ance at the Deccan College was 83 in 1879-80, and 120 in 1881-82. The receipts from fees in the latter year were £720. The College of Science (with engineering, forest, agricultural, and mechanical classes) had a daily average attendance of 188 in 1880 and 173 in 1881 ; fee receipts (1881), £501. Other principal public build ings in Poona are the Legislative Council Hall, the Sassoon Hospital (with beds for 150 patients), Jewish Synagogue, military pay offices, barracks, etc. The total number of in-door patients treated at the Sassoon Hospital in 1883 was 2290; and of out-door patients, 11,809. Poonamallee. — Town in Chengalpat (Chingleput) District, Madras Presidency. — See Punamallu. Poon-na-riep. — Village in Tharawadi District, Lower Burma. — See Pon-na-reip. Pooree. — District, Sub-division, and town in Orissa, Bengal. — See Purl PoO-ZWOn-doung. — River of Lower Burma. — See Pu-zun-daung. Porakad (Porca). — Town in Alleppi Sub-division, Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Lat 9° 21' 30" n., long. 76° 25' 40" e. Popula tion (1871) 2922, dwelling in 743 houses; not separately returned in the Census Report of 1881. Porakad was formerly a separate princi pality, known as Chambagacheri, and the principal port of the country ; it passed to Cochin in 1678, and to Travancore in 1746. Both the Dutch and Portuguese had a settlement here, and the remains of the Portuguese fort still stand. The seaport has been ruined by the prosperity of Alleppi. Porayar. — Suburb of Tranquebar port and town, Tanjore District, Madras Presidency. — -See Tranquebar. Porbandar. — Native State in the Sordth division of Kathiawdr, Bombay Presidency. Situated in the west of the peninsula of Kdthk- war, consisting of a strip along the shore of the Arabian Sea, no where more than 24 miles broad, and lying between 21° 14' and 21° 58' n. lat., and 69° 28' and 70° 1' e. long. Area, 636 square miles, with 1 town and 84 villages. Population (1872) 72,077; (1881) 71,072. The Census authorities estimated the area at 567 square miles in 1881, but the area given above is a more recent return. Males numbered 36,566 in 1881, and females 34,506, dwelling in 14,936 occupied houses. Hindus numbered 63,406; Muhammadans, 6741; and 'others,' 925. The style of house-building is said to be peculiar. No mortar is used, but the limestone, of which the better class of houses is built, is accurately squared and fitted ; and it is asserted that the quality of the limestone is such that when once the rain has fallen on a wall thus built, the joints coalesce and become as though all were one solid block. The Porbandar State may be described roughly as a PORBANDAR. 215 plain sloping from the Barda hills to the sea, drained by many rivers, of which the largest — the Bhadar, Sorti, Wartu, Minsar, and Ojat — contain water generally throughout the year. Near the sea the rain accumulates in large marshes called gher land. When salt-water has access to these marshes, nothing can be grown except grass and reeds; but in the sweet -water marshes, rice, gram, ddl, and other crops are grown. The largest gher is the Modhodra, about six miles long by four miles broad, connected with the sea by the Kindari creek. This marsh receives all the drainage of the Bardas, though no large stream flows into it ; when it becomes filled with water during the rainy season, the villagers dig away the sand with which the sea annually closes the mouth of the creek, the water flows into the sea, and the sea- water enters the marsh during very high tides. The Gangajal is a large fresh-water marsh situated not far from the Kindari creek, about two miles in circumference, but unless the rains are heavy does not hold water for more than eight months in the year. The climate is healthy. Minimum temperature (January), 54° F. ; maximum (May), 99° F. : average rainfall, 20 inches. The country is nowhere far distant from the sea. The limestone known as Porbandar stone, found over almost the whole of the State, is chiefly quarried in the Barda hills. The best quarry is at Adatiana. The stone is largely exported to Bombay. Iron is also found, but is not smelted. The Mdlik hill is the only portion of the elevated country that is fairly- wooded. Turtles of large size abound along the coast, but are not captured. Oysters are found, but do not produce pearls like those of the Gulf of Cutch. Silk of good quality and cotton cloth are manu factured. Of recent years much of the trade has been absorbed by Bombay, but large quantities of timber are still imported from the Malabar ports. Cotton seed and tobacco are imported from Broach, embroideries from Surat, and raw sugar from Gandevi and Naosari in Surat. Grain is imported from Kardchi. All the exports go to Bombay. Heavy port dues, the competition of Verdwal and Bhaunagar, and insufficient communications, account for the decline of the State as a trading centre. Something is being done to remedy this, decadence, and in 1881 a British superintendent of customs was appointed under local administration. The value ofthe trade in 1880 was £55,316; and in 1882-83, under British administration, £165,943. Port dues (under native administration), £1670; under British administration, £6168. The chief harbours are Porbandar, Madhavpur, and Miani. The ruler executed the usual engagements in 1807. The present (1881-82) chief, Rand Sri Vikmdtjf, is a Hindu ofthe Jethwa clan of Rajputs, and belongs to one of the oldest races in Western India. He is entitled to a salute of 11 guns, and has power to try for capital 216 PORBANDAR TOWN— PORT CANNING. offences, without permission from the Political Agent, any person except British subjects. He administers the affairs of his State in person. He enjoys an estimated gross revenue of £40,000 ; and pays a tribute of £4850, 8s. jointly to the British Government, the Gaekwdr of Baroda, and the Nawdb of Junagarh. He maintained a military force of 595 men in 1882-83. He has a mint, and coins silver pieces called koris, and copper coins called dokrds, of which 32 usually go to the kori ; three of these koris, on an average, make a rupee (2s.). The family of the chief follow the rule of primogeniture in point of succes sion, and hold no sanad authorizing adoption. There are 10 schools in the State, with a total of 726 pupils in 1882-83. Porbandar ranked as a State of the first class in Kathiawar until 1869; and since as a State of the third class. Transit dues are not levied in the State. A total sum of £2435 was spent in works of public utility during 1882. The land revenue is about £18,000. Porbandar. — Chief town and port of Porbandar State ; situated on the western coast of Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency, in lat. 21° 37' 10" n., and long. 69° 48' 30" e., on the shore of the Arabian Sea. Popu lation (1881) 14,569, namely, 7120 males and 7449 females. Hindus number 10,568; Muhammadans, 3079; Jains, 887; Parsis, 34; and Christian, 1. Though a bar prevents the entrance of ships of any great size into the port, it is much frequented by craft of from 12 to 80 tons burthen. In spite of the levy of heavy customs dues, and the competition of other ports, the trade is considerable, including, besides a local traffic with the Konkdn and Malabar coast, a brisk trade with the ports of Sind, Baluchistan, the Persian Gulf, Arabia, and the west coast of Africa. In 1881 the imports were valued at £48,572, and the exports at £33,586. Total value in 1882-83, £165,943. At a little cost, the port might be made one of the most secure on the Kdthiawdr seaboard. The town is entirely built of stone and sur rounded by a fort. It is said to have been called in ancient times Suddmdpuri; and it has been the Jethwa capital for about 150 years. Post-office. Port Blair. — Principal harbour of the Andaman Islands. — See Andaman Islands. Port Canning (or Matld). — Decayed town and port in the District of the Twenty-four Pargands, Bengal ; situated in lat. 22° 19' 15" n., and long. 88° 43' 20" e. It occupies a tongue of land round which sweep the collected waters of the Bidyddhari, Karatoyd, and Atharabdnka rivers, forming the Matla estuary, which then takes a fairly straight course southward to the sea. Port Canning is now (1885), and has been for several years, abandoned as an attempted seat of maritime trade ; but before entering into its history, it may be well to mention its capabilities when the present author visited it in 1869-70, in case it PORT CANNING. 217 should ever be resuscitated. The junction of the rivers formed a fine sheet of water, with 21 feet at dead low tide under the jetties which the Port Canning Company had constructed. Ships drawing 23 feet could discharge their cargo without grounding, as they would lie 6 feet from the jetty-side. Seven moorings were laid down, one off each jetty, the maximum length of the moorings being from 320 to 420 feet. Five jetties were formed on the Matia river opposite Canning Strand, and two on the Bidyddharf off the rice-mills. These mills were, and still are, the most conspicuous feature in the landscape. There was also a desolate- looking hotel with a small railway station. This was all the town, with the exception of a few native huts and thatched bungalows. The rest was marsh land. The railway line did not reach to any ofthe moor ings ; but goods had to be landed at the ends of the jetties, then carried by coolies to railway waggons at the shore end of the jetties, and hand- shunted along a tramway to the railway station, where an engine was finally attached to them and took them off to Calcutta, 28 miles distant. The pilotage and port-dues on the Matia were reported as practically one-half of those on the Hugh ; the hire of Government moorings and boats, and harbour - master's charges, being about the same at both ports. The following narrative of the attempt to form a seat of maritime trade at Port Canning is condensed from official papers furnished by the Bengal Government. The first step towards creating a town and municipality on the Matk appears to have been made in 1853, when, in consequence of the deterioration ofthe navigation ofthe Hugli, which it was feared at that time was rapidly closing, the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce ad dressed Government on the necessity of providing an auxiliary port on the Matk, and opening communication with Calcutta by means of a railway or canal. Lord Dalhousie's Government, although not partici pating in these fears, took the precaution of acquiring the land on the proposed site of the new port, afterwards named Port Canning ; and in July 1853, lot No. 54 of the Sundarban Grants was purchased for the sum of £1100 from the grantee, the whole comprising upwards of 8000 acres, or 25,000 bighds of land, of which one-seventh was culti vated, the remainder being jungle. About the same time, the adjoin ing lot having lapsed to Government, a portion, consisting of 650 acres, was reserved for building. A committee was appointed to survey and report upon the site. Plans for laying out a town were submitted, and a position was fixed upon for the terminus of a railway to connect the new port with Calcutta. . In June 1862, the provisions of the Municipal Act were extended to the town; and in 1863, the whole of the Government proprietary right in the land was made over to the Municipality, in trust for the town 218 PORT CANNING. of Canning, subject to the control of Government. Rules were also passed empowering the Commissioners to grant leases and to borrow money on the security of the land, but the Government itself declined to advance any loan. The expenditure necessary for the various works was estimated at upwards of £200,000; and the Municipality, in November 1863, with the sanction of Government, opened a loan of ,£"100,000 upon debentures, at 5 J per cent, interest, redeemable in five years. The privilege of commuting debentures for lands in freehold or leasehold at certain rates was also allowed. Not more than £26,500, however, was subscribed; and early in 1864 the Municipal Commissioners again applied to Government for a loan of £45,000, which was refused, except on the condition that the mercantile community should con tribute the remainder of the £200,000 required. The scheme of forming the Port Canning Company dates from a proposal made in 1864 by Mr. Ferdinand Schiller, one of the Municipal Commissioners, to raise the means of undertaking the works essential to the development of the port, consequent on the refusal of Govern ment to advance the funds except on terms which the Municipality found impossible of fulfilment. Mr. Schiller's proposals were to advance the sum of £25,000 to the Municipality, on condition of receiving from them certain concessions, namely — (1) the gift in free hold of 100 acres of land in the centre of the town; and (2) the exclusive right of constructing tramways, wharves, jetties, and landing accommodation, and of levying rates upon the same for fifty years, subject to the control and regulation of the Commissioners. Mr. Schiller also undertook on the part of himself and his assignees — (1) to excavate within two years a dock, 2500 feet in length by 200 feet in width and 10 feet in depth, on the assigned land; (2) to provide for the conservation and protection of the river bank along the entire length of the Commissioners' property facing the Matk ; (3) to pay the Commissioners one-third of all profits from these works exceeding 10 per cent. The right of purchasing the completed works at original cost at the expiration of fifty years was reserved to the Municipality ; and in the event of non-purchase, an extension of the term for another twenty- five years was stipulated. These terms were agreed to by Government, and the payment ofthe loan of £25,000 to the Municipality was made in March 1865. In March 1866, the Government of India consented to a loan of £45,000 on security of the property of the Municipality, without interest, repayable in five years, for which debentures were issued bearing dates from April 1866 to August 1868. Under the conditions of commutation mentioned above, debentures to the extent of £33,780 were converted for lands. PORT CANNING. 219 In the meantime, the prospectus of the Port Canning Company had been issued, in January 1865, accompanied by an announcement that the share list was closed. The shares rose in value at an unprecedented rate, till they attained a premium of £1200 in Bombay and £1000 in Calcutta. It was soon found, however, that the sanguine expectations of speculators were not likely to be realized, and the shares fell as rapidly as they had risen. Subsequently, dissensions arose between the directors and the shareholders, result ing in the management of the Company being transferred to other hands. A dispute also took place between the Company and the Muni cipality. The former made an application to commute the £25,000 of municipal debentures which it held, into land. But the deeds were not executed, although the lots were assigned ; and commutation was deferred till maturity of the debentures, and payment of a quit-rent, equivalent to the interest, was agreed on. In 1868, when affairs definitely assumed an unfavourable aspect, the Company endeavoured to repudiate the transaction, and brought an action against the Munici pality for payment of £2700 interest on the debentures. The latter resisted the claim, on the ground that the Company had agreed to commute the debentures for certain lands in the town of Canning. The Company gained the suit in the first instance ; but on appeal, the order was reversed, and the commutation was declared to be valid. The Company, however, have not entered into possession of their lands, and an appeal is said to have been preferred to the Privy Council in England. In 1870, the Secretary ofthe Company addressed Government, urging upon it the duty of redeeming the debentures which the Municipality had failed to meet. The Government, in reply, declined to admit any obligation, and refused to provide the Municipal Commissioners with funds to pay their debts. The first of the Government debenture bonds for £10,000 having arrived at maturity in April 187 1, steps were taken to obtain a decree, and the whole of the municipal property, moveable and immoveable, was placed under attachment. Government having thus obtained priority, notice was sent to the private debenture-holders, inviting them to co-operate in obtaining a fair division of the assets. Subsequent decrees were also obtained to the extent of £35,000 ; and the whole of the Canning Municipal Estate was attached and made over to the Collector of the Twenty-four Parganas, who was appointed manager. As regards the operations of the Company, it may be stated that, according to the prospectus, they possessed 134,590 acres of land yielding an estimated annual rent of £13,000. These lands con sisted of the town belonging to the Municipality, and of Sundarban lots leased from Government or purchased from individuals, the greater 220 PORT CANNING. portion being redeemable in freehold. In 1866, the Company added to their business the lease of the forest rights in all the unappropriated lands of the Sundarbans, as well as the rights of fishery in all the rivers, which were put up to auction by Government for a term of five years, but liable at any time to resumption on six months' notice. The fishing rights were withdrawn in October 1868, in consequence of the claims of the Company being contested by fishermen and others holding prescriptive rights ; and the question was finally decided, under legal advice, that the Government had not the right to farm out the fisheries in tidal waters to private persons. The lease of the forest rights was resumed after due notice, on the grounds that the monopoly was contrary to the interests of the general public, and that oppression was exercised by the Company's agents in the collection of the fees. An appeal was presented to the Government of India and the Secretary of State against the withdrawal of these leases, but the action of the Bengal Government was upheld. The following are the principal works undertaken and executed, either partially or completely, by the Company, namely — (1) A wet dock, 3500 by 400 feet, for the accommodation of country boats, in accordance with the conditions in the deed of concession ; (2) the protection from erosion of the Matk foreshore ; (3) seven landing wharves and iron jetties, each capable of accommodating two ships at a time ; (4) goods sheds and tramways in connection with the jetties ; (5) a 'gridiron' and graving dock for repairing vessels; (6) lastly, the rice- mills, constructed on an extensive scale, capable of husking and turning out about 90,000 tons of rice a year, from which very profitable results were expected. Many of these works have fallen into disrepair, and are now to a large extent unserviceable. The number of ships that visited the port since its opening in 1861-62 down to the close of 1870-71, was as follows : — 1861-62, none; 1862-63, x ; r863-64, n ; 1864-65, 14; 1865-66, 26; 1866-67, 20; 1867-68, 9; 1868-69, 1; 1869-70, 2 ; 1870-71, none. In March 1869, the Company applied to Government, urging the suspension for a time of the port-dues and charges. The request was complied with ; and a Government notifica tion was issued declaring Canning to be a free port, and providing that six months' notice should be given before the charges were reimposed. This notification, however, had no effect. The two vessels which arrived in 1869-70 were chartered by the Company for the purpose of bringing trade to the rice-mills, as well as to give effect to the notifica tion. Since February 1870, no ocean-going ships have arrived at the port; and the arrivals of 1867-68 may be looked upon as the last response of the mercantile community to the endeavours made by the Company, and aided by the Government, to raise Canning to the position of a port auxiliary to Calcutta. PORTO NOVO. 221 The last effort of the Company to develop the rice-mills having proved financially unsuccessful, and the only remaining source of revenue being derivable from their landed estates, it was resolved, at a meeting of shareholders in May 1870, to appoint a committee for the purpose of preparing a scheme of voluntary liquidation and reconstruc tion of the Company. The head office was removed to Bombay, and the local expenditure reduced ; the working of the mills was stopped until such time as they could be leased out or worked profitably, and the operations of the Company confined to the improvement of the revenue from their landed estate. At a subsequent meeting of share holders, held in August 1870, it was resolved to make further calls to pay off existing debts, and to transfer and sell, under certain con ditions, the whole of the property and rights of the 'Port Canning Land Investment, Reclamation, and Dock Company,' to the new ' Port Canning Land Company, Limited.' These resolutions have since been carried out, the interest in the new Company being principally vested in the Bombay shareholders, who exercise the chief direction of affairs. The Port Establishment has been a heavy and unprofitable charge to Government. In 1869-70, the cost of the port amounted to £15,709, while the receipts were only £1134, 14s. This was exclusive of the charges for special survey and arsenal stores. Con sidering the position and prospects of the Company, and the hopeless ness ofthe establishment of any trade which would justify the retention of a port on the Matk, the Lieutenant-Governor, in June 187 1, recom mended that the earliest opportunity should be taken of officially closing the port, and withdrawing the establishments, with the excep tion of the light vessel outside, which would be of use to ships from the eastward, and might occasionally guide a vessel to an anchorage in rough weather. These recommendations were adopted, and shortly afterwards the Government moorings, etc., were taken up, and the port officially declared closed. In 1870, the town contained 386 houses or huts, with a total population of 714 souls. At present it is nearly deserted. The Commissioner of the Sundarbans, in a report dated the 10th April 1873, states that, 'with the exception of the Agent and others employed by the new Port Canning Land Company, and a ddk munshi or deputy postmaster, no one lives at Canning.' The line of railway connecting Port Canning with Calcutta, 28 miles distant, proved a failure from the first. Upon the collapse of the Com pany, it was taken over by Government as a State line. It is still worked, but on a very economical scale ; its traffic consists almost solely of firewood, bamboos, and fish from the Sundarbans. Porto NOVO (Feringhipet or Parangipetai ; Mahmiid Bandar). — Sea port town and railway station in South Arcot District, Madras Presi- 222 PORTUGUESE POSSESSIONS. dency ; situated in lat. n° 29' 25" n., and long. 79° 48' 13" e., 145 miles south of Madras, and 32 miles south of Pondicherri, at the mouth of the river Vellar. Population (1881) 7823. Hindus number 4401; Muhammadans, 3350; and Christians, 72. Considerable trade with Ceylon and Achfn. The port is frequented exclusively by native craft, of which, in 1875, 248 (tonnage 16,700) called. Value of exports in the same year, £56,000 ; of imports, £9500. In 1881-82, the number of native craft arriving was 97 (tonnage 8812) ; the number leaving was 105 (tonnage 9022). Value of exports in 1881-82, £14,750; of imports, £5010. In the previous year, 1880-81, the value ofthe imports was £4244 ; and value of exports, £23,198. When the English commenced trading here in 1682, they found the Danes and Portuguese already established. In 1 749, the Madras army, marching against Tanjore, halted at Porto Novo for a while; in 1780, Haidar Alf plundered the town. In 1781, Sir Eyre Coote marched out of Porto Novo with 8000 men to meet the whole army of Mysore, some 60,000 strong, under Haidar; and in the battle which ensued, won the most signal victory of the war, and practically saved the Presidency. Porto Novo is interesting also as the scene of English joint-stock enterprise. From 1824, and for many years afterwards, efforts had been made to establish ironworks here. A company called the Porto Novo Iron Company established a large factory ; but, after many years of patient endeavour, the enterprise had to be abandoned. To facilitate the carriage of the iron-ores, which were brought by water from Salem, the old Khdn Sahib's canal was made navigable in 1854 by the construction of 3 locks, — one where the canal debouches into the Vellar, nearly opposite the town of Porto Novo ; the second where it leaves the Viranam tank ; and the third a little lower down. The Iron Company cut a short canal of their own from the Velkr into the backwater adjoining the embouchure of the Coleroon, down which they used to float their ore in basket boats to Porto Novo before the Khan Sahib's canal was rendered navigable. The Company's canal, which is only about 2 miles long, is now much silted up. The excavation of the East Coast Canal at Porto Novo was commenced in 1853, and con siderable progress was made up to 1857, when the Mutiny seems to have put a stop to it, as it did to many other public works. A small expen diture would probably render the canal navigable for boats from the Velkr to the Paravanar, and so to Cuddalore ; but the construction of .the railway has rendered such expenditure hardly necessary. The only special manufacture of Porto Novo is a species of mat, made from the leaves of the wild pine-apple, in imitation of similar mats of ah exceedingly soft and elegant make imported from Achin. Portuguese Possessions.— The Portuguese Possessions in India PO TANUR—PRA TAPGARH 2 2 3 consist of Goa, Daman, and Dm, each of which see separately. Total area, 2365 square miles; total population (1881), 475,172. Potanur. — Railway station in Coimbatore District on the south-west branch of the Madras Presidency ; 302 miles from Madras. Potegaon. — Zaminddri or petty chiefship in Chdnda District, Central Provinces; 16 miles east-north-east of Chdmursf. Area, 34 square miles ; comprising 1 5 villages, in a hilly country, which yields much sdj, bijesdl, and ebony. Population (1881) 793. Potegdon village is situated in lat. 20° N., long. 80° 11' e. ; population (1881) 301. Potikall. — Zaminddri or chiefship in Bastar State, Central Pro vinces ; comprising 22 villages. Area, 350 square miles. Population (1881) 2013, almost entirely Kols, although the zaminddr is a Telinga; number of houses, 450. Potikall, the chief village, containing about 100 houses, is situated on the river Tdl, in lat. 18° 33' n., and long. 8o° 56' E. Poung-day. — Township in Prome District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. — See Paung-deh. Poung-loung. — Range of hills in Tenasserim Division, Lower Burma — See Paung-laung. Pownar. — Village in Wardhd District, Central Provinces. — See Paunar. Prakasha. — Town in Khandesh District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 21° 36' n., and long. 74° 28' e., 45 miles north-west of Dhulia, and 7 miles south-west of Shahada ; at the junction of the Tapti river with two of its tributaries. Population (1881) 5651, namely, Hindus, 3645; Muhammadans, 479; Christians, 18; and 'others,' 1509. Municipal revenue (1883-84), £156 ; incidence of tax, 8£d. per head. East of the town stands an old temple of Gautameswar Mahadeo, in whose honour a great Hindu fair is held every twelve years, when the planet Guru or Jupiter enters the constellation of the Lion, or Singhast. There are several other interesting temples in the neighbourhood. Post-office; school with 138 pupils in 1883-84; dis pensary. Pranhlta. — The name of the united streams of the Wardhd and Wainganga rivers down to their junction with the Godavari at Sironcha, in Chdnda District, Central Provinces ; length about 70 miles. Forty miles above Sironcha, occurs the 'third barrier,' a formidable obstruction to navigation. The Pranhfta has a broad bed, which in the rainy season is filled with a rushing flood, but in the dry weather con sists of a broad expanse of sand, with a thin and shallow stream. Pratapgarh. — District, tahsil, pargand, and town in Oudh. — See Partabgarh. Pratapgarh. — State in Rajputdna. — See Partabgarh. 224 PRATAPGARH ZAM1NDARI—PR0DDATUR. Pratapgarh. — Zaminddri estate in the north-west of Chhindwdra District, Central Provinces, near Motiir ; comprising an area of 289 square miles, with 140 villages, and 3203 houses. Population (1881) 17,078, namely, males 8727, and females 8351. Together with Sonpur, Pratdpgarh once formed part of the Hardi chiefship ; but at the begin ning of this century it was separated, and came under the management ofthe Hardi chief's brother. The present (1884) chief is a minor, and the estate (which contains a fine sdl forest) is under Government management. Principal village and residence of the chief, Pagdrd, population (1881) 342. Pratapgiri (or Chihna Kimedi). — Zaminddri in Ganjam District, Madras Presidency. — See Kimedi. Pratapnagar. — Chief village of Jamira Fiscal Division in the District of the Twenty-four Pargands, Bengal; situated in lat. 22° 23' 5" n., and long. 89° 15' 15'' E., on the bank of the Kholpetua river. Contains a large rice mart; in 1857 the seat of the principal revenue court of the local landholder. Prattipadu. — Village in Guntiir tdluk, Kistna District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 16° 12' n., long. 80° 24' e. Population (1871) 7315, inhabiting 2051 houses; and (1881) 3181, inhabiting 582 houses. Hindus number 2722; Muhammadans, 273; and Christians, 186. The village is 10 miles distant from Guntiir. Temples. Post-office. Premtoli. — Village in Rdjshdhi District, Bengal. Lat. 24° 24' 30" n., long. 88° 25' 15" e. An annual religious trading fair is held here on the 20th day of the moon of Aswin, to celebrate the anniversary ofthe visit of the reformer-saint Chaitanya to Gaur, the former capital of Lower Bengal. Proddatiir. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras Presidency. Area, 487 square miles. Population (1881) 90,653, namely, 45,732 males and 44,921 females, dwelling in 1 town and 91 villages, containing 19,166 houses. Hindus number 78,554; Muhammadans, 10,184; Christians, 191 2 ; and 'others,' 3. The prin cipal soil is the black cotton soil, and cotton is the chief product. In the valleys of the Penner and the Kiinder, ' dry ' grains and rice are raised by means of irrigation. Indigo is also grown. The Kurniil- Cuddapah irrigation and navigation canal traverses the tdluk. The timber on the high slopes of the hills is valuable; in 1883-84, 28| square miles were ' reserved.' In 1883 the tdluk contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police circles, 6; village watch (chaukiddrs), 64 men. Land revenue, £21,113. Proddatiir (Poddaturu).— Town in Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 14° 45' n., long. 78° 35' 20" e. Population (1871) 6709, inhabiting 1334 houses; and (188 1) 6510, inhabiting 1440 houses. Hindus number 4828 ; Muhammadans, 1667 ; and PROME. 225 Christians, 15. The head-quarters of Proddatiir tdluk. Some trade is carried on, the chief staple being indigo. Dispensary; munsifs court ; post-office. Prome (Burmese Pye). — District in Pegu Division, Lower Burma. Stretches across the valley of the Irawadi (Irrawaddy) between lat. 18° 22' and 19° 50' N., and between long. 940 44' and 95° 58' e. ; bounded on the north by Thayet-myo ; on the east by the Pegu Yoma range ; on the south by Henzada and Tharawadi ; and on the west by the Arakan Hills. Area, 2887 square miles. Population (1881) 322,342. The District of Prome originally extended northwards as far as the frontier of Upper Burma; but in April 1870, Thayet-myo was erected into a separate jurisdiction. The head-quarters of the District are at Prome Town. Physical Aspects. — The Irawadi flows through the District from north to south, dividing it into two portions, which differ considerably in area, appearance, and fertility. On the west, the country is broken by thickly wooded spurs from the Arakan mountains into small valleys drained by short and unimportant tributaries of the Irawadi, and but little under cultivation. North and north-east of Prome town, the forest- covered spurs of the Pegu Yomas also form numerous valleys and ravines, stretching as far as the Irawadi, and watered by torrents which, as they proceed south-west towards more level country, eventually unite into one large stream called the Na-win. The south and south-western portions of the District consist of a large and well-cultivated plain, intersected by low ranges with a general north and south direction, the chief of which is called the Prome Hills. Towards the east and south east, this fertile tract is drained by streams, which, walled back from the Irawadi by the Prome Hills, send their waters to the Myit-ma-ka, the head of the Hlaing river, and thus seawards in a line parallel to that of the great river. There are several roads running across the Pegu Yoma range, but none are practicable for wheeled traffic. Footpaths lead from the sources of the North and South Na-win to the Myauk-mwe and Pa- laung streams respectively ; and farther south, there is a track from near the source of the Shwe-leh river to the Karen hamlets on the Za-ma-yi, the head-waters of the Pegu river. A road over the Arakan mountains connects Pa-daung via Nyaung-kye-dauk with Taung-gtip in Sandoway. It was by this route that the main body of the Burmese army advanced in 1784 from Prome to the final conquest ofthe kingdom of Arakan. In 1826, however, it was reported as altogether impassable for troops or laden cattle. The chief rivers of Prome District are — the Tha-nf, which rises in the extreme north-west angle and flows east- south-east for 25 miles, joining the Irawadi at Pe-gyf ; the Bii-ro, rising in the Arakan mountains, and after a south-easterly course of 35 miles, vol. xi. p 226 PROME. falling into the Tha-nf near Nyauhg-bin-tha ; the Kyauk-bii, another tributary of the Tha-ni; the Tha-le-dan streams, which rise in the Arakan range and unite near Ma-taung, 17 miles from the village of Tha-le-dan, where their combined waters reach the Irawadi. The hill country east of the Irawadi and north-east of Prome town is drained by the Na-win system of rivers, of which the most important are the South Na-win, falling into the Irawadi at Prome, and its affluents the North Na-win, the Chaung-sauk (Khyoung-tsouk), and the Tin-gyi, all of which take their rise in the Pegu Yomas, and eventually join the Irawadi. Though all these rivers are to a certain extent navig able by boats, yet they are at present mainly important as the routes by which the valuable timber of the hill country is floated down the Irawadi to be lashed into rafts at the mouth of the Na-win. The plains in the south of Prome are watered by a series of streams forming the Myit- ma-ka system. The chief of these are — the Zeh, which flows into the In-ma (Eng-ma) swamp ; the Shwe-leh ; the Kyat, rising in Tharawadi District, where it is known astheTaung-nyo; and the Myit-ma-ka or upper portion of the Hlaing River. The District contains two lakes — the In-ma and the Shwe-daung Myo-ma. The Di-dut swamp, on the east bank of the Irawadi, is a depression in the plains supplied by the annual overflow of the Irawadi; in the rains it is 7 feet deep, but dries up in the hot season. The forest area of the teak localities on the west side of the Irawadi is estimated at 40 square miles, with about 200 first-class trees. Between the Pegu Yomas and the Irawadi are vast forests of in, thit-ya (Shorea robusta), in-gyin (Shorea siamensis), and thit-tsi. Teak occurs all over the hills, and the average annual yield since the three-year permit system was introduced in 1862 has been about 10,000 logs. The forests of the Province are now worked by the Pegu Circle officers of the Forest Department. The Shwe-leh forests, with an estimated area of 95 square miles, contain some of the most valuable teak in Pegu. Many other varieties of timber, such as pyin-gado, pa-dauk, rin-daik, sha, kitk-ko, abound. It has been calculated that as many as 2000 pa-dauk trees, 1100 kuk-ko, and 130,000 sha were felled annually until these trees were reserved. The Chaung-sauk teak plantation occupied an area of 561 acres in 1884. Receipts ofthe Forest Department in 1883-84, ,£7581 ; expenditure, £4502. History. — Fact and fable are so interwoven in the early history ofthe once flourishing kingdom of Prome, that it is impossible to disentangle the true from the false. It is most probable that the area of distribution of Gautama Buddha's relics after his death in 543 b.c. marks the limits of his forty-five years' wanderings, yet all Burmese historians assert that he visited and preached in Burma. The Prome chronicles begin by relating the foundation of Prome in accordance with a prophecy of PROME. 227 Gautama, who, whilst looking towards the south-east from the site of Prome over a 'great ocean,' observed a piece of cow-dung floating with the current, and at the same time a bamboo rat appeared and adored him. Gautama spoke thus : ' This rat at my feet shall be born again as Dut-ta-baung ; and in the hundred and first year of my religion he shall found, at the spot where that piece of cow-dung now is, the large town of Tha-re-khettra (Sn'-kshettra) ; and in his reign shall my religion spread far and wide.' The date of the foundation of this city can be fixed ; for some of the histories of Prome — all of which agree in giving the year 101 of the Buddhist era as the date — state that it was in the first year after the second great Buddhist council, and this is known from independent testimony to have taken place about 443 B.C. Tha-re-khettra was situated 5 or 6 miles east of the present town of Prome, and was, according to the annalists, surrounded by a wall 40 miles long, with 32 large and 23 small gates. About the beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era, the town was abandoned, and fell into ruins. Embankments and pagodas, standing in rice-fields and swamps, alone mark the site of what was once the capital of a powerful kingdom. The next date which can be fixed with any accuracy is the accession of a king in whose reign was held the third Buddhist council. This was called together by Asoka in the twenty-second year of his rule, counting from his accession, and in the eighteenth from his coronation, and assembled under the guidance of the Arahat Mogaliputra in 244 B.C. In a monograph upon the legendary history of Burma and Arakan, a recent writer, Captain C. J. F. Forbes, Deputy Commissioner, says the Prome dynasty dates from 444 B.C. to 107 a.d. During the reign of the third monarch of the line, Captain Forbes relates that two important events took place in the contemporaneous history of India. The first was the invasion of India by Alexander the Great (b.c. 327). The second was the assem blage of the third great Buddhist council in 308 B.C., to collect and revise the sacred books. The third council here alluded to is not different from the one mentioned above as having been called by Asoka in 244 B.C. : the apparent difference is caused by variant calculations founded on the Burmese dates. It is not until about 90 B.C. l that any statements by historians of other countries are available as checks on the Prome chroniclers. About that year, the Buddhist scriptures were reduced into writing in Ceylon ; and this fact, which is noticed in the Burmese palm-leaf chronicles, is stated there to have taken place in the 17 th year of a king named Te-pa. This sovereign, who was originally a poor student for the priesthood and was adopted by his childless predecessor, must 1 Dr. Mason says 93 or 94 B. c. Sir J. Emerson Tennent in his work on Ceylon, third edition, page 376, says in 89 B.C. 228 PROME. thus have ascended the throne circa 107 B.C. He is stated to have been the nth monarch since the foundation of the capital; but this would give over forty years as the average length of the reign of his predecessors, except that of Dut-ta-baung, who, it is asserted, reigned for seventy years. The Te-pa dynasty occupied the throne of Tha-re-khettra for 202 years, or until 95 a.d., when the monarchy was broken up by civil war and an invasion by the Kan-ran tribe from Arakan. The last king was Thu-pa-nya. His nephew Tha-mun-da-rit fled first to Taung-ngu, south-east of Prome ; he then crossed the Irawadi to Pa-daung, but being still harassed by the Kan-rans, he went northwards to Min- dun. He finally recrossed the river, and founded the city of Lower Pagan, in 108 a.d. In establishing his new kingdom he was greatly assisted by a scion of the old Ta-gaung race of kings, named Pyu- min-ti or Pyu-saw-ti, who married his daughter and afterwards suc ceeded him. From about the middle of the 14th to the beginning of the 16th century, the greater part of the Pagan kingdom was parcelled out amongst a crowd of adventurers from the Shan States. In about 1365, a descendant of the old Ta-gaung dynasty succeeded in re-establishing the Burmese monarchy, but it lasted only a few years. In 1404, Raza-di-rit, king ofthe Taking kingdom on the south, the capital of which was at Pegu, invaded Burma ; and passing by Prome and Mye-deh, ravaged the country near the chief city, Ava. Towards the close ofthe 15 th century, the power of the rulers at Ava maybe said to have ceased. Their dominions were divided amongst a number of independent Burmanized Shan Saw-bwas or chiefs, one of whom was settled at Taung-ngu. In 1530, Min-tara-shwe-ti, or Ta-bin-shwe-ti, ascended the throne of Taung-ngu ; and four years later, commenced his aggressive career by invading Pegu. In two campaigns, the power of the Taking king was broken, and he fled to Prome, and Min- tara-shwe-ti fixed his capital at Pegu. An alliance was formed against him by the kings of Ava, Prome, and Arakan ; but their forces were successively routed by Ta-bin-shwe-ti and his renowned general, Burin- naung, in the neighbourhood of Prome, which surrendered in 1542. In the later years of his life, Ta-bin-shwe-ti is said to have associated with a dissipated Portuguese adventurer; and he was murdered in May 1550, after a glorious reign of twenty years, in which time he had raised himself from being merely Saw-bwa of Taung-ngu to the position of lord paramount over Pegu, Tenasserim, and Upper Burma, as far as Pagan, with the kings of Burma and Siam paying him tribute. He was succeeded by the general to whom much of his military success was owing, viz. Burin-naung, who assumed the title of Shin-pyu-mya-shin (literally, ' Lord of many Elephants '), from the fact of his having taken PROME. 229 six white elephants from the King of Siam. It was not without fighting, however, that Burin-naung obtained possession of the throne. No sooner was Ta-bin-shwe-ti dead, than the rulers of Prome and Taung- ngu — though they were Burin-naung's own brothers — declared them selves independent, and the old royal Taking family again set up its claim to the throne of Pegu. Burin-naung speedily reduced his refrac tory brothers to subjection. Commencing with Taung-ngu, he crossed thence to Mye-deh and Ma-lun, and there obtaining a fleet of boats, sailed down by water to Prome. Having subdued Prome, he went northwards, and had nearly reached Ava when he was recalled by the intelligence that the Peguans were about to attack Taung-ngu. This attempt he easily frustrated. He now called a family gathering, and distributed the Provinces of the empire among his brothers, making them tributary princes of Martaban, Prome, and Taung-ngu. The great king, Shin-pyu-mya-shin, died in 1581, and his vast empire shortly afterwards fell to pieces. The seat of government was removed after his death to Taung-ngu, and one of his younger sons, Nyaung-ran-min- tara, established his capital at Ava. The second dynasty of Ava kings which was thus established lasted for about a century and a half, and was ultimately overthrown by an invasion from Pegu. The Takings were driven into revolt by the mis government of the officers sent down from Ava. They established their independence ; and the second king, Byi-nya-da-k, invaded the Burman territory, captured Ava, and carried off the king a prisoner to Pegu. The whole of Upper Burma was reduced, with the exception of one village, Mut-so-bo, some miles to the north of Ava. The head-man of this village, Maung Aung-zeya, refused to surrender to the Taking conquerors, and was repeatedly attacked, but always without success. The fame of his patriotism and ability soon spread, and a crowd of Burmese, who chafed under the domination of the Takings, gathered round him and acknowledged him as their leader. With their assistance he drove the Takings out of Ava and the whole of Upper Burma. He then assumed the title of Alaung-min-tara-gyi, or Alaung-paya (corrupted by Europeans into Alompra), and became the founder of the third and last dynasty of Ava kings (1753 a.d.). In 1758 he conquered Pegu, and carried away captive Bya-hmaing-ti-raza, the last of the Taking kings. From this period till the annexation of Pegu by Lord Dalhousie in 1853, at the close ofthe second Anglo-Burmese war, Prome remained a Province of the Burmese kingdom. Population. — Until the year 1870, Prome included Thayet-myo Dis trict, and no separate details of population are available. By the Census of 1872, the number of inhabitants was returned at 274,872. The Census of 1881 returned a total population of 322,342, and disclosed 230 PROME. the fact that in the decade since 1872, an increase of 47*47° had taken place. In 1881, males were found to number 161,433, females 160,909; density per square mile, nr6. The people dwelt in 3 towns and 1647 villages, containing together 62,800 occupied and 1675 unoccupied houses; towns and villages per square mile, -57; houses per square mile, 22-3; persons per house, 5-1. Distributed as regards religion, Hindus number only 978, and Muhammadans 1795; Christians number 484; Nat or demon worshippers, 5819; Parsis, 5 ; but by far the largest portion of the population, number ing 313,261, or 97-2 per cent, are Buddhists. Of the Muham madans, 902 are Sunnfs, 813 Shids, 21 Wdhabis, 21 Faraizfs, and 38 'others.' Ofthe Christians, 290 are Baptists, 121 members of the Church of England, 49 Roman Catholics, and the remainder, dissenters, followers of the Greek Church, and unspecified. Of the total Christians returned, 335 are natives. Taking language as a test of race, pure Burmese number 301,214; Arakanese, 192; Chins, 10,662; Karens, 3021; Takings, 10; Shans, 3602; Chinese, 371; Hindustanis, 1552; Bengalis, 158; Tamils, 410 ; Manipuris, 963 ; English, 95 ; and a few of other foreign or cognate nationalities. The Census distributes the male population into the following six main groups : — (1) Professional class, including State officials of every kind and members of the learned professions, 3805 ; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging keepers, 508 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 4935 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 56,744; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 17,700; and (6) indefinite and non productive class, comprising all male children, general labourers, and persons of unspecified occupation, 77,741. The Kyins or Chins, a portion of the mountain race which extends far north into Upper Burma and westward into Arakan, are found generally to the west of the Irawadi. When living near the Burmese, the men adopt the Burmese costume much more readily than the women, whose tattooed faces unmistakably betray their origin. Their professed religion is Buddhism. The Shans are settlers from the north-east of Ava, a patient hard-working people. The Manipuris, locally called Kathays, were brought to Prome as Burmese captives, and are Hindus in religion. They are principally engaged in silk-weaving. The natives of India and the Chinese are immigrants engaged in cattle-dealing and trade. It is impossible to give with complete accuracy the number of persons dependent upon agriculture, as many combine the occupations of agriculturists and fishermen as the season serves, and still more have, under the charge of members of their families, small retail shops for the sale of almost every kind of article. The number, however, returned in the Census Report (1881) as agriculturists — that is, as employed in PROME. 231 growing and collecting the produce of the land — is 54,463 males and 51,532 females, aggregating 105,995, or nearly one-third of the whole population. Town and Rural Population. — The chief towns of Prome District are — Prome, on the left bank of the Irawadi, and the terminus of the Irawadi Valley (State) Railway, population (1881) 28,813; Shwe- daung, a large trading centre, population 12,373; Pa-daung, popu lation 2267 ; Paung-deh, population 6727. The principal pagodas in the District are the Shwe-san-daw in Prome, and the Shwe- nat-daw, 14 miles south of that town. The former, situated on a hill about half a mile from the left bank of the Irawadi, rises from a nearly square platform to a height of 80 feet, and covers an area of 11,025 square feet. It is surrounded by 83 small gilded temples, each containing an image of Gautama. Many marvels are told concerning the erection of this pagoda ; and it is said to have been raised on an emerald box, resting on seven ingots of gold, in which were deposited three hairs of Gautama himself. Successive kings and governors have added to and embellished the building. The annual festival, attended by thousands of devout Buddhists, is held in Ta-baung, corresponding to our month of March. The Shwe-nat-daw Pagoda also stands on high ground, and immediately below it is a plain where, early in the year, as many as 20,000 pilgrims sometimes assemble for the annual eight days' festival or religious fair held here. The palm-leaf chronicles relate that the Shwe-nat-daw was originally built by San-da-de-wi, wife of Dut-ta-baung, who reigned from 443 to 372 B.C. This king granted to the pagoda, and set apart from secular uses for ever, the whole space around it on which its shadow fell between sunrise and sunset, and directed that a grand festival should be held there annually on the full moon of Ta-baung. Of the 1650 towns and villages in Prome District, 1187 contain (1881) less than two hundred inhabitants; 418 from two to five hundred; 41 from five hundred to one thousand; 1 from two to three thousand ; 1 from five to ten thousand ; 1 from ten to fifteen thousand ; and 1 from twenty to fifty thousand. Agriculture. — Rice forms the staple product of the District, being cul tivated mainly in the Paung-deh and Shwe-daung townships. The grain is soft and unsuited for a long sea voyage, and used to be consumed in the District or exported northwards to Mandalay. Owing, however, to the opening of the railway, a considerable quantity is now brought south, as it will bear the short voyage through the Suez Canal. Tobacco is grown on the banks of the Irawadi after the floods have fallen. Cotton is sown on the hill-sides, and is partially cleaned in Prome, and sent down to Rangoon for export, sometimes mixed with a shorter- stapled kind, imported from Upper Burma. Near Prome, and on the 232 PROME. hills opposite, are numerous fruit-gardens, the custard apple predominat ing, no less than 667 acres being planted with this tree ; mixed fruit-trees cover an area of 15,580 acres. The taungya or nomadic system of cultivation is more extensively adopted than in any other District of Lower Burma, the estimated area being 12,347 acres in 1882-83. A portion of the forest is cleared, and the timber felled early in the dry season ; just before the rains it is fired, and the logs and brushwood reduced to ashes. On the first fall of rain, the crop is sown ; and after it has been reaped, the clearing again becomes waste. One kind of injury generally caused is the over-luxuriant growth of dense jungle that immediately springs up; but in this District the fertilizing effect of the ashes has the opposite result, for an unusual number of young teak and other valuable trees are found on deserted taungya clearings. In 1882-83, the total area under cultivation in Prome District was 239,512 acres, the average holding of each cultivator being 7 acres. In 1877-78, the area under rice was 151,920 acres; tobacco, 2154 acres; vegetables, 3747 acres; fruit-trees, 12,155 acres: the area under cotton in 1876-77 was 1529 acres. In 1881, the area under rice was 196,543 acres; tobacco, 2732 acres; vegetables, 3024 acres; fruit-trees, 17,436 acres; cotton, 2606 acres. The figures for 1882-83 are — rice, 198,560 acres; tobacco, 3326 acres; vegetables, 2457 acres; fruit-trees, 16,171 acres; and cotton, 3093 acres. In Pa-daung the land is a good deal encumbered with debt and obligations, owing probably to its having been more thickly peopled in former years, and to many of the inhabitants having crossed the river to Shwe-daung and mortgaged their land to obtain funds for trading. But, as a rule, proprietors everywhere live close to their landed property. The rates of rent per acre in 1882-83 were — rice-land, from 8s. to £1, 10s. ; land for oil-seeds, 10s. ; land for cotton, 10s. ; land for tobacco, £1 ; taungya land, 10s. ; garden land for fruit- trees, £3, 1 os. ; land for pulses, 6s. Compared with the average for the whole Province, these rates are high in respect of land for tobacco, cotton, and particularly fruit-trees. The produce per acre from each sort of land yearly was as follows in 1882-83 : — Rice, 1485 lbs.; tobacco, 1606 lbs. ; vegetables, 730 lbs. ; cotton, 106 lbs. ; and oil-seeds, 584 lbs Prices current in the same year were — rice, 7 s. 6Jd. per maund (80 lbs.); tobacco, 9s. 7d. per maund; cotton, 6s. 7d. per maund ; and oil seeds, ns. iod. per maund. In 1882-83, the price of a plough-bullock was £5 ; of a sheep or a goat, £1, 12s. ; of an elephant, £90; of a buffalo, £7 ; and of a Pegu pony, ,£9. Fish sold at 3d. per lb. The agricultural stock of the District included in 1882-83 — cows a"d bullocks, 128,879; horses and ponies, 464; sheep and goats, 694; pigs, 12,770; buffaloes, 31,390; elephants, 8; carts, 32,818; ploughs, PROME. 233 38,270; and boats, 2087. Skilled labourers received 4s. a day, and unskilled is. 6d. Manufactures, etc. — One of the most important manufactures of the District is silk. Neither the worm nor the mulberry are indigenous to the Province, but were most probably imported from China down the Irawadi valley. That this lucrative manufacture is not more general may be attributed to the fact that it involves taking the life of the chrysalis — an act of impiety regarded with horror by every rigid Buddhist. The silk-growers are nearly all Yabaings, a race of the same stock as the Burmese, by whom, however, they are held in contempt ; and those who breed silk-worms live in separate villages, and hold little intercourse with their neighbours. They are exceedingly few, for only 436 pure Yabaings are returned by the Census of 1881 for the whole Province. The price of the raw silk, when brought to the markets on the river bank, varies from 5 rupees 8 annas (or ns.) to 9 rupees (or 18s.) per lb., the average being 7 rupees 4 annas (or 14s. 6d.). The method pursued in this industry is rude and careless in the extreme, all the processes being carried on in the ordinary bamboo dwelling-houses of the country, which are smoke-begrimed and dirty. The plant of a Burmese silk filature is inexpensive, consisting simply of — (1) a set of flat trays with slightly raised edges, made of bamboo strips from 2 to 4 feet in diameter ; (2) a few neatly made circles of palm-leaves, 3 or 4 inches in diameter; (3) some strips of coarse cotton cloth; (4) a common cooking pot ; (5) a bamboo reel ; and (6) a two-pronged fork. Silk-weaving is carried on principally in the towns of Prome and Shwe- daung ; but a loom forms part of the household furniture of every Burmese family. The best cloths are made from Chinese silk, which costs £4 per viss or 3-65 lbs., whilst the same quantity of the home grown article costs only £2, 18s. The number of male workers in silk returned by the Census of 1881 was 2140, of whom 928 were spinners, 64 weavers, and the remainder merchants and petty dealers. The other manufactures of the District are — ornamental boxes used for keeping palm-leaf books, made in Prome town only ; coarse sugar, varying in price from £1 to£i, 10s. per 80 lbs. ; in 1877 there were 500 sugar-boilers. The monthly out-turn of one furnace is estimated at 4562 lbs. Cutch, made in the wooded townships of Shwe-lay, Maha-tha-man, and Pa-daung from fibre of the Acacia Catechu, sold on the spot in 1876-77 for 4s. 7 Jd. per maund of 80 lbs., but fetched 19s. 7|d. in the Rangoon market. In 1881-82 it sold on the spot for 15s. 7^d. per maund of 80 lbs., but fetched £1, 13s. in the Rangoon market. Three men can produce an out-turn of from 25 to 36 lbs. of cutch daily. In 1877-78 this industry gave employment to 2040 persons; the number of cauldrons was 2282. In 1881 it employed 4325 persons, of whom 4265 belonged to the rural population. Cheroots 234 PROME. are manufactured to a small extent. Only women are employed at this craft, and one woman can turn out about 400 cheroots daily. Telegraph lines run from Rangoon via Paung-deh and Shwe-daung to Thayet-myo, and from Prome to Taung-gup in Arakan. All messages from Upper Burma and the whole country east of the Irawadi, includ ing Rangoon, to Calcutta and Europe, pass by this latter line. The chief road in the District is that from Rangoon via Paung-deh, and across the Wek-put and Na-win streams, to Prome. Soon after the annexation of Pegu, a military road was constructed over the Arakan range, but it is now in disrepair. The Irawadi Valley (State) Railway traverses the District, with stations at Paung-deh, Sinmyisweh, Theh- gon, Hmaw-za (Moza), and Prome. Total length of railroad within the District, 38J miles. Numerous dry-weather cart-tracks connect village with village. The mails are carried from Rangoon by the railway daily, and thence to Thayet-myo by steamer of the Irawadi Flotilla Company, which now plies daily instead of once a week. as formerly. Administration. — Under native rule the larger portion of the imperial income was derived from a poll-tax levied by the chief local authority, but the assessments on each house were left to the village thugyi. Certain royal lands near Prome were held by a class of tenants called Lamaing, on payment of a rent of half the produce — a kind of tenure which existed nowhere else in the Province. The gross revenue in 1869-70, before Thayet-myo was separated from Prome, was £80,328, of which £28,457 was derived from land and £34,069 from capitation dues. The gross revenue in 1877-78 amounted to £68,574; the expenditure was £15,913. In 188 1, the gross revenue was £78,817; and in 18S2-83, £92,676. Of the latter sum, £29,258 was derived from land. The remainder accrued from capitation and minor taxes. The local revenue raised in 1877-78 (excluding that of Prome town) amounted to £6323 ; and in 1881 to £7187. Under Burmese rule, the District was divided into small independent tracts, administered by wun and myo-thiigyi, under whom were taik-thiigyi, rwa or village thugyi, and kyedangye. The officers in charge all com municated directly with the court at Ava. Under British rule, Prome Jhas been split up into 6 townships, each under a myo-uk or an extra- Assistant Commissioner, who is entrusted with limited fiscal, judicial, and police powers. The number of thugyi has been reduced from 140 to 120. The townships are Ma-ha-tha-man, Shwe-leh, Paung-deh, Theh-gon, Shwe-daung, and Pa-daung. Prome town is a municipality ; income in 1882-83, £1228. Over the whole District is a Deputy Commissioner, with 8 Assistants. In 1877 the regular police force consisted of 379 officers and men paid from Provincial revenues. The total cost was £9681. In 1882-83 the regular police force consisted of 467 officers and men ; total cost, £1 1,984. There are courts in the PROME TOWN. 235 chief towns ofthe District, viz. Prome, Pa-daung, Shwe-daung, and Paung- deh. For many years, education in Prome District was entirely in the hands of Buddhist monks and a few native laymen, whose teaching was confined to reading and writing. Soon after the annexation of Pegu (1853), the American Baptist missionaries opened village schools and a normal school at Prome ; in 1866 the State established a middle-class school in the same town, and since then several others have been opened. In 1876-77, the average daily attendance at the State school was 108 ; and in 1881-82, 82. In pursuance of the scheme for utilizing the monasteries as far as possible in giving a sounder education than had hithertx>been imparted, an officer was appointed in 1873-74 to inspect all schools the head monks of which would allow their pupils to be examined. In 1877-78, 85 monastic and 29 lay schools were inspected. In 1881-82, the number of monastic and lay schools inspected was 291. The total number of schools on 31st March 1884 was 565 public and 180 private institutions. Scholars in the former, 12,470; in the latter, 1393. In 1866-67, the Prome jail was reduced to the grade of a lock-up, and the construction of a new prison at Thayet-myo was begun; in 1878, the site of the lock-up was bought by the Railway Department, and the prisoners removed to Thayet-myo. There is no prison of any kind now in Prome. Climate. — The climate of Prome is much drier than in other Districts of Lower Burma. The total rainfall in 1877 was returned at 53-46 inches; and in 1881 at 42-9. The average rainfall at Prome town for the twelve years ending 1881 was 53-23 inches. There are 3 dispensaries in the District, namely, at Prome town, Paung-deh, and Shwe-daung; in-door patients (1882), 966; out-door, 10,736. Ophthal mia is very prevalent in the District. [For further information regard ing Prome District, see The British Burma Gazetteer, compiled by authority (Rangoon Government Press, 1879, vol. ii. pp. 489-522). Also see the British Burma Census Report of 1881 ; and the several Administration and Departmental Reports of British Burma from 1880 to 1884.] Prome. — Chief town and head-quarters of Prome District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma ; situated in lat. 18° 43' n., and long. 95° 15' s..f on the left bank of the Irawadi (Irrawaddy). By railway, 161 miles distant from Rangoon. The town extends northwards from the foot of the Prome Hills to the bank of the Na-win, with a suburb on the farther side of that stream ; and eastwards for some distance up the Na-win valley. It is divided into several municipal quarters, viz. Na-win on the north, Ywa-beh on the east, Shin-su on the south, and Shwe-ku and San-daw in the centre. In Burmese times, the east side was closed in by a ditch, which has been filled up, for during the dry weather it proved a fertile source of fever. Skirting the high 236 PROME TOWN. river bank are the police office, the Government school, the court' houses, the church, and the telegraph station. The Strand road traverses the town from north to south, and from it numerous well-laid roads run eastwards. North of Shin-su is the great Shwe-san-daw Pagoda, conspicuous among the dark foliage of the trees covering the slopes of the hill on which it stands. In the Na-win quarter, a large trade in nga-pi or fish-paste is carried on. Here are the markets, con sisting of four distinct buildings. Farther south, overlooking the river and separated from it by the Strand, are the charitable dispensary and Lock hospital — wooden buildings, well raised above the ground. The railway station, at present the terminus of the Irawadi Valley (State) Railway, lies a little south of the court-houses. The town was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1862. Prome is mentioned in ancient histories as the capital of a great kingdom before the Christian era, but the town spoken of was Tha-re- khettra (Sri-kshettra), some miles inland, of which traces still exist. After the destruction of Tha-re-khettra, about the end of the ist century, Prome belonged sometimes to Ava, sometimes to Pegu, and sometimes was independent. But since the conquest of Pegu by Alaung-paya, it remained a Burmese town until Pegu was annexed by the British in 1853. In 1825, during the first Anglo-Burmese war, when Sir Archibald Campbell was advancing on the capital, endeavours were made to induce him to halt before reaching Prome, but he declined entering into negotiations. Upon the first appearance of our troops, the place was partly burned by the Burmese, and though strongly fortified, it was deserted. After the signing ofthe Treaty of Yandabu in 1826, the British evacuated Prome District with the rest of the Irawadi valley. During the second Anglo- Burmese war in 1852, the town was attacked by the flotilla under Commander Tarleton, and taken ; but almost immediately abandoned, as there were no troops to hold it. Three months later, in October of that year, the advance from Rangoon took place. The flotilla arrived off Prome on the morning of the 9th, and each ship was cannonaded as it passed up, but with little effect. After a short contest, the place was again occupied. On the 15th of October, Maha Bandula, the Burmese commander, surrendered, and the enemy were driven out of the District. Gradually the country settled down, and a regular civil government was established. The British garrison in Prome first encamped on the hills south of the town, but were subsequently trans ferred to Nwa-ma-yan, near Shwe-daung. In 1854 they were removed to Thayet-myo, which was nearer the frontier, and supposed to be healthier. In 1872 the population of Prome town was returned at 31,157, inclusive of all wayfarers and casual inhabitants. In 1877 the popula- PUBNA—PUDUKATTAI. 237 tion was estimated at 26,826. In 1881 the Census returned the popula tion at 28,813, of whom 14,982 were males and 13,831 females. According to religion, 26,735 were Buddhists, 1160 Muhammadans, 650 Hindus, 263 Christians, and 5 ' others.' The municipal revenue in 1877-78 was £9638, and the expenditure £7984 : in 1881-82 the revenue was ,£11,500, and the expenditure £10,879. In l874 the town was erected into a municipality, and since then great improve ments have been made — tanks have been dug, swamps filled in, the town lighted with kerosene oil lamps, and public gardens have been laid out. The total amount spent on public works up to the close of 1877-78 was ,£9282, inclusive of a loan of £726; and up to the close of 1881-82, £24,061. In 1882 the Prome dispensary afforded relief to 542 in-door, and 5380 out-door patients. Pubna. — District, Sub-division, and town in Bengal. — See Pabna. Plidukattai (Poodoocottah, 'The Tonda-man's Country'). — Native State in Madras Presidency, lying between 10° 15' and 10° 29' n. lat, and between 78° 45' and 79° e. long., entirely surrounded by the British Districts of Tanjore, Trichinopoli, and Madura. Area, 1101 square miles. Population (1871) 316,695; (r88i) 302,127, almost entirely agricultural. The Census of 1881 affords the following details: — Number of males, 142,810; females, 159,317; dwelling in 1 town and 596 villages, containing 58,449 occupied and 15,635 unoccu pied houses. The density of the population was (187 1) 288, and (1881) 274 persons to the square mile. Hindus (in 1881) numbered 281,809, or 93-28 per cent. ; Muhammadans, 8946, or 2-96 per cent. ; and Christians, 11,372, or 3-76 per cent., of whom nearly all were Roman Catholics. The largest class among the Hindus were the Vanniansor labourers and husbandmen (82,954) ; next comes the caste of Shembadavans or fishermen (53,961), forming 19 per cent, ofthe population; Velklars, agriculturists (30,139); and Idayars or shep herds (26,158). Pariahs numbered 26,568. The professional class, including State officials of every kind and members of the learned professions, is returned — males 4964, and females 391 ; the domestic class, including servants, inn and lodging keepers, at males 1208, and females 3104; the commercial class at males 2587, females 361; the agricultural class at males 75,292, females 54,543; the industrial or artisan classes at males 11,040, females 9075; and the indefinite and non-productive classes at males 47,719, females 91,843. There is only one town, Pudukattai — population (1881) 15,384. The country is for the most part a flat plain, interspersed with small rocky hills, some of which are crowned by old forts. In the south-west, hills and jungles are found, but elsewhere the State is well cultivated. There are 3000 tanks, some of considerable size. Products — rice and dry grains. Iron-ore is found in places, but is not worked. Silk- 238 PUDUKATTAITOWN—PUKHRA. weaving is carried on. Manufactures of cloths, blankets, and mats. The gross revenue of the State is £60,000, but the alienations of land revenue are extensive. Members of the Raja's family hold 110,000 acres, 95,627 acres have been granted to temples, and 9584 acres to almshouses. The indms or rent-free grants held by Brdhmans, and the various service tenures, amount to 100,000 acres. After these deductions, only 3 lakhs (say £30,000) of the revenue is payable to the Rdjd. The following statistics relate to the year 1882-83 : — Land revenue, £29,998; State expenditure on public works, £5326; on State jewels, £5400 ; strength of police, 177 officers and men ; number of convicts in jail, 87, cost of maintenance £329 ; number of pupils in the Raja's College, 337; dispensary — in-door patients 137, and out-door 10,576 ; number of persons successfully vaccinated, 2397. Total force, including village police and personal retinue, 3636. The first connection of the British Government with this chief, then usually called Tondaman (a family name derived from the Tamil word meaning 'a ruler'), was formed at the siege of Trichinopoli in 1753, when the British army greatly depended on his fidelity and exertions for supplies. Subsequently he was serviceable in the wars with Haidar Ali and in the Palegdr war, the name given to the opera tions against the usurpers of the large zaminddri of Sivaganga in Madura District after the cession of the Karnatik. In 1803 he solicited as a reward for his services the favourable consideration of his claim to the fort and district of Kilanelli, situated in the southern part of Tanjore. This claim was founded on a grant by Pratdp Singh, Rajd of Tanjore, and on engagements afterwards entered into by Colonel Braithwaite, General Coote, and Lord Macartney. The Government of Madras granted the fort and district of Kilanelli ; and the cession was confirmed by the Court of Directors, with the con dition that the revenue should not be alienated, and that it should revert to the British Government upon proof being given at any time that the inhabitants laboured under oppression. The present Rdjd, Ramachandra Tondaman Bahadur, has received a sanad granting the right of adoption. He exercises independent jurisdiction, but is considered as an ally subject to the advice of the British Government. He maintains a military force of 126 infantry, 21 cavalry, and 3260 militia, besides armed servants and watchmen. The succession follows the law of primogeniture. Plidlikattai (Poodoocottah). — Chief town of Piidukattdi State, Madras Presidency. Lat. 10° 23' n., long. 78° 51' 51" e. Population (1871) 13,978: (1881) 15,384, of whom 7274 are males and 8110 females. Hindus number 14,089 ; Muhammadans, 914 ; Christians, 381. An unusually clean, airy, and well-built town. Pukhra.— Town in Bara Banki District, Oudh; situated 5 miles PULALI—PULLCAT. 239 east of the Giimti river, on the Rdi Bareli and Haidargarh road. Population (1881) 2544, of whom 2470 were Hindus and 74 Muham madans. Number of houses, 510. Fine Sivaite temple and handsome masonry bathing ghdts. Pukhra is the head-quarters of the estate of Pukhra Ansari, belonging to the Amethi Rajputs. Pulali. — Petty State in Jhakwar Division, Kdthiawar, Bombay Presidency. — See Pal ali. Pulgaon. — Railway station in Wardha District, Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 20° 44' n., and long. 79° 21' e., near the river Wardhd, which has a picturesque waterfall close by. Population (1881) 645. The site was previously unoccupied ; but when the spot was selected for the station, land was also set aside for a village. Two roads connect Pulgaon with the cotton marts of Deoli and Hinganghat, and with Arvi and Ashtf. The latter is a good fair-weather road, all the streams being bridged or provided with causeways. The Hindus deem Pulgaon a holy place, and have built a temple in the neighbourhood. Puliangudi. — Town in Sankaranainarkoil tdluk, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency ; situated on the old Madura road, in lat. 9° 10' 40" N., and long. 77° 26' 15" e. Population (1871) 6810, inhabiting 1618 houses; and (1881) 6401, inhabiting 1383 houses. Hindus number 5602 ; Muhammadans, 714; and Christians, 85. Police station ; post- office. Pulicat (Paliydverkddu). — Town in Ponneri tdluk, Chengalpat (Chingleput) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 13° 25' 8" n., long. 80° 21' 24" E. Population (1871) 4903, inhabiting 846 houses; and (1881) 4967, inhabiting 849 houses. Hindus number 3426; Muhammadans, 1306; and Chiistians, 235. The town lies at the southern extremity of an island which divides the sea from the large lagoon called the Pulicat Lake, which is about 37 miles in length by from 3 to 1 1 in breadth, 23 miles north of Madras city. This salt water lake is under the influence of the tide, and must have been produced by an inroad of the sea during a storm, when it topped the low ridge of the coast-line. Pulicat was the site of the earliest settlement of the Dutch on the mainland of India. In 1609 they built a fort here, and called it Geldria; and in 1619 they allowed the English a share in the pepper trade with Java (Eastwick). Later, it was the chief Dutch Settlement on the Coromandel coast. It was taken by the British in 1781 ; re stored in 1785 to Holland under the treaty of 1784; and surrendered by them in 1795. In 1818, Pulicat was handed over to the Dutch by the East India Company, agreeably to the Convention of the Allied Powers in 1814; in 1825, finally ceded to Great Britain under the treaty of March 1824. The backwater is connected with Madras by 24o PULIKONDA—PULLAMPET. Cochrane's Canal. There used to be a considerable trade between Pulicat and the Straits Settlements, but of late years this has considerably declined. The old Dutch cemetery, which was rescued from decay by Sir Charles Trevelyan, contains many well-cut tomb stones, some of them nearly 300 years old. Roman Catholics resort to Pulicat in great numbers on certain feast days. Plilikonda (Pullicondah, from Pallikondai, ' you lie down '). — Village in Vellore tdluk, North Arcot District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 12° 54' 40" n., and long. 78° 59' e., on the road from Madras by Vellore to Bangalore ; distant from the former place 97 miles, and from the latter 115 miles. Population (1881) 2405, inhabiting 357 houses. It lies at the base of a high hill near the right or southern bank of the Palar. The trade is chiefly carried on by Labbays (Lubbais). Gunny-bags are manufactured. The sacred name for the place is Adirangam. Annual fair ; post-office ; fine pagoda. Pulivendala (lit. Puli-mandalam == the abode of tigers). — Tdluk or Sub-division of Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras Presidency. Area, 701 square miles. Population (1881) 95,617; namely, 49,006 males and 46,611 females, dwelling in 2 towns and 103 villages, con taining 19,787 houses. Hindus number 87,462 ; Muhammadans, 8127; Christians, 27; and 'others,' 1. The tdluk is hilly; and the greater portion of the land is unirrigated. Throughout the western most half spreads the rich loam known as cotton soil. Along the eastern limits of the tdluk, the waters of the Papaghni irrigate a large area on both banks. Cotton and cholam (Pennisetum typhoideum) divide the greater part of the land between them. Other cereals and pulses, with oil-seeds, indigo, are also grown. Before the subjugation by the English of the Ceded Districts in 1800, Pulivendala tdluk was given up to the rule of several small pdlegdrs, whose memories still linger round their now ruined forts dotted here and there over the country. These forts are, as a rule, a mud enclosure, about 100 yards square, surrounded by ditch and glacis. At each corner stands a round tower, and midway between each two corner towers a square bastion, loop-holed, as is the whole face of the wall, for musketry. In 1883 the tdluk contained 2 criminal courts; police circles (thdnds), 10; regular police, 79 men. Land revenue, £18,353. Pulivendala. — Town in Cuddapah District, Madras, and head- ' quarters of Pdlivendala tdluk. Population (1881) 1885, dwelling in 397 houses. Government garden ; post-office. Pullampet. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Cuddapah (Kadapa) District, Madras Presidency. Area, about 979 square miles. Population (1881) 134,366, namely, 68,162 males and 66,204 females, dwelling in 130 villages, containing 29,667 houses. Hindus number 126,593; PULLAMPETTOWN—PUNAMALLU. 241 Muhammadans, 7696; and Christians, 77. Black regdr (cotton) and red soil predominate, the former of which is rich and fertile. To the east and west the tdluk is intersected by hill ranges. Seventy- seven square miles are reserved forest lands. The principal manu factures are indigo and cotton of very fine texture, which is highly prized for turbans and ornamental cloths. In 1883 the tdluk con tained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 10 ; regular police, 82 men. Land revenue, £21,371. Pullampet. — Town in Cuddapah District. Population (1881) 2311, dwelling in 503 houses. Fine mats of coloured grass are manu factured, which form house mats, and are exceedingly ornamental. Indigo and cloth of fine texture are the other manufactures of the town. Post-office. Pulney. — Town and hills in Madura District, Madras Presidency. — See Palni. Pulu (Poo-loo). — Tidal creek in Bassein District, Irawadi Division, Lower'Burma. It branches from the Myaung-mya river in about lat. 16° 35' 30'' N., and then runs south and west into the Ywe. Navigable at all times by river steamers plying between Rangoon and Bassein. Puna. — District and town in Bombay Presidency. — See Poona. Punadra. — Petty State in the Mahi Kantha Agency, Bombay Presidency; situated on the Watruk river. Villages, 11. Estimated area, 12^ square miles; under cultivation, 16,650 bighds. Population (1881) 3767. The revenue is returned (1882-83) at £1570; and tribute of £37, 10s. is paid to the Gdekwar of Baroda. Products — bdjra, rice, and wheat. The Miah of Pu'nddra, Abhi Singh, is a Muk- wana Kolf, converted to Iskm. The Miahs observe a sort of mixed Muhammadan and Hindu religion, giving their daughters in marriage to Muhammadans of rank, and marrying the daughters of Kolf chiefs. On their death their bodies are buried, not burnt. There is 1 school with 24 pupils. Transit dues are levied in the State. Punakha. — The winter capital of Bhutan State, on the Bhagni river, lat. 27° 32' n., long. 89° 53' e. Punakha lies about 100 miles north-east of Ddrjfling. It has a scanty and poor population, but possesses some importance as the residence of the Bhutan Court during the winter months. It was selected for this purpose owing to its mild climate, and comparative accessibility from the Indian plains. Plinamallu (Poonamallee, Pondamaldi). — Town and cantonment in Saidapet tdluk, Chengalpat (Chingleput) District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 13° 2' 40" n., long. 80° 8' n" e. Lies 13 miles west of Madras city. A military cantonment, with a Magistrate and District munsifi Population (1881) of town 2849, dwelling in 390 houses, and of cantonment 4821, dwelling in 722 houses. Of the total, Hindus vol. xi. Q. 242 PUNASA—PUNGANUR. numbered 6162; Muhammadans, 814; and Christians, 694. The permanent European population of the place are chiefly pensioners. A convalescent depot for British troops from the whole Madras Presidency and Burma is located here, the climate being very salu brious. The number of men is usually about 150. A fine hospital, with 90 beds, is built on the site of the old fort, the walls of which have been levelled. There is no garrison. The fort played a con-r spicuous part in the wars of the Karndtik. Post-office and Government rest-house. Punasa. — Town in the north of Nimdr District, Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 22° 14' n., and long. 76° 26' e., 33 miles from Khandwa. Once a considerable place, held by Tuar chiefs. The fort, built in 1730 by Rdm Kushal Singh, afforded a refuge for European families during the Mutiny in 1857. The country round is mostly waste, having never recovered from the ravages of the Pinddrfs ; it has now been converted into a Government reserved forest. The large tank was repaired by Captain French in 1846. A market is held every Saturday. Plindri. — Town and municipality in Kaithal tahsil, Karnal District, Punjab. Lat. 29° 45' 30" n., long. 76° 36' 15" e., situated on the bajik of an extensive tank, known as the Piindrak taldo, which gives its name to the town, and which nearly half surrounds it with bathing places and flights of steps leading to the water. Population (1881) 4977, namely, Hindus, 3343; Muhammadans, 1630; Sikhs, 3; and Jain, 1. Number of houses, 342. Municipal income (1883-84), £196, or an average of 9^. per head. The town is surrounded by a mud wall with four gates, and nearly all the streets are paved. Several large brick houses, and a good brick sarai or native inn. Little trade. School and police station. Pundtir. — Tract of country in Keunthdl State, Punjab, lying between 30° 58' and 31° 4' n. lat, and between 77° 35' and 77° 42' E. long. (Thornton). It consists of a mountain ridge, running north east and south-west, with an estimated elevation of from 6000 to 7000 feet above sea-level. It formerly belonged to Jubbal State, but after the expulsion of the Giirkhas it devolved upon the East India Company, who transferred it to Keunthdl. Estimated population, 3000. Pungamir. — Zaminddri estate in North Arcot District, Madras Presidency. Area, 523 square miles. Population (1881) 72,143, namely, 36,377 males and 35,766 females, dwelling in 1 town and 68 villages, containing 15,271 houses. Hindus number 68,406; Muhammadans, 3598; and Christians, 139. The estate lies above the ghdts, in the north-west corner of the District. Mysore State bounds it on the west. Large game is abundant, and twenty-five years ago (i860) elephants were found. An PUNGANUR HEAD-QUARTERS— PUNJAB. 243 excellent breed of cattle is raised. Granite, lime, and iron-sand are plentiful. About 40,000 acres are under cultivation, 9000 acres being irrigated. Sugar-cane is largely cultivated. Exports — raw sugar, tamarinds, grain, and jungle produce. Imports — salt and fine cloths. The tdluk has no miles of road. Income (1880), £9410; peshkash (permanent rent), £6686. Punganiir. — Head-quarters of the Pungandr zaminddri in North Arcot District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 13° 21' 40" n., and long. 78° 36' 33" e., on a plateau 2000 feet above the sea. Popula tion (1881) 7672, dwelling in 1603 houses. Hindus number 6306; Muhammadans, 1305; and Christians, 61. Punganiir was one of the Cuddapah (Kadapa) Pakyams, and possessed considerable importance at one time, the Palegar having 5000 men under him. In 1642 the country was taken by the Mardthas, and in 17 13 it was occupied by the Cuddapah Nawab. In 1755 the Marathds, and in 1774 Haidar Alf, subdued the Palegdr. After various vicissitudes, the family was restored by the British in 1799. One ofthe Pdlegdrs fell at the battle of Wandiwash. The town is prosperous, and contains 1603 good houses. The temperature is much lower than in other parts of the District. A large cattle fair is held in April. A pair of Mysore bullocks have recently fetched here so high a price as £60. The zaminddr's palace has accommodation for European travellers. In the courtyard are stalls for a menagerie ; a museum ; and several life-sized models of natives of different castes in their customary dress or undress. A mile from the town are the ruins of a large Roman Catholic chapel, bearing date 1780. School; post-office. Punjab (Panj-db, ' The Five Rivers '). — Province of British India, under the administration of a Lieutenant-Governor; lying between 27° 39' and 35° 2' N. lat, and between 69° 35' and 78° 35' E. long. Area under direct British administration, 106,632 square miles. Population, according to the Census of 188 1, 18,850,437. The Native States in dependence upon the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab (exclusive of Kashmir, which has recently been separated from the Punjab, and placed under the direct superintendence of the Govern ment of India) have an estimated area of 35,817 square miles, with a population in 1881 of 3,861,683 persons. The total area ofthe Punjab (British and Native) accordingly amounts to 142,449 square miles, and its population (1881) to 22,712,120. The entire Province, with its attached Feudatory States, comprises one-tenth of the total area, and one-eleventh of the total population of the Indian Empire. It numbers among its inhabitants one-fourth of the Muhammadan, one-twentieth of the Hindu, and eleven-twelfths of the Sikh subjects of the Queen. Together with Kashmir, which lies further north, it occupies the extreme north-western corner of the Empire, and comprises the whole of British 244 PUNJAB. India north of Sind and Rdjputdna and west of the river Jumna. The Punjab is bounded on the north by Kashmir (Cashmere) and the Hill States of Swdt and Boner ; on the east by the river Jumna (Jamuna), the North-Western Provinces, and the Chinese Empire ; on the south by Sind, the river Sutlej (Satlaj), and Rajputana; and on the west by Afghdnistan and Khelat (Baliichistdn). The capital of the Punjab is Lahore, situated in about the centre of the Province, but the principal city in population and importance is Delhi, the ancient metropolis of the Mughal dynasty. The table on pp. 245 and 246 shows the Divisions and Districts of the Punjab, with the area and population of each in 1881, together with the Native States. Physical Aspects. — In its strict etymological sense, the Punjab, or region ofthe Five Rivers, comprises only the tract of country enclosed and watered by the confluent streams of the Sutlej (Satlaj), the Beas (Bids), the Ravi, the Chenab (Chinab), and the Jehlam (Jhelum). But modern territorial arrangements have included under the same designation three other well-demarcated tracts, namely— the Sind Sagar Dodb, or wedge of land between the Punjab Proper and the Indus ; the Derajdt, or narrow strip of country west of the Indus, and stretching up to the Sulaimdn mountains ; and the cis-Sutlej Districts, or table-land of Sirhind, between the Punjab Proper and the Jumna (Jamund), the greater part of which belongs historically and physi cally to the North-Western Provinces, though now transferred for administrative purposes to the Lieutenant-Governor at Lahore. As stated above, the Punjab includes two classes of territory, namely, 32 British Districts, and the States of 34 native chiefs, almost all of whom pay. tribute in some form or other, and all of whom are subject, more or less, to control by the local government. Of the 107,010 square miles included in British territory, n,i7o square miles are irrigated, 36,656 square miles are cultivated, 36,706 square miles more are classed as cultivable, and would repay the labour of the husbandman were means of irrigation available, while the remain ing 33,648 square miles consist of inhospitable mountain - sides or uncultivable waste. The dominions of the 34 native chiefs vary in size and importance, from the principalities of Patiala and Bahdwalpur, with areas of 5500 and 17,300 square miles, and populations of 1,500,000 and 600,000 respectively, and ruled over by chiefs subject only to the most general supervision, to the tiny State of Darkuti, with an area of 4 square miles and a total population of 590 souls, whose ruler is independent in little more than the name. They may be grouped under three main classes. The Hill States, lying among the Punjab Himdlayas, and held by some [Sentence continued on p. 247. PUNJAB. 245 o cm o inco co ¦<*¦ cr* o II 0\ CM \0 ON o 00 W H Cn 0 OMH sfc0~\O""¦sr CO co ro ro oo loco m H -f CM 1000 vo O HCO ts « o sr- sJ-vO m~ coco" H H H ChNO H LOCO Cx co on « sf "f ON 00 o \o w -f CO sf sr ON NO >0 Tf 1- CO CO ON CO IT) CO IO H CM N H cn sr h no « On CM CM no «vO 00" IS Q\ CO W CM M sr CO CO O 10 10 10 10 CM CO COLO OnvO On CN ON LO O ON ON CM lo lo CO vo CM h MS ON CO LO ON CM CO CO* ON LO sr cm « 00 co cn on on CM LO LO co" ch cn CO CO CM LO CO CO LQLO NO CO TT CM CO ON Ch ON CO sr h \o *D NO tN M Ch H CO LO LO CM IO LO coco O CM vO sf vo sj- 0 toco (M >0 (x m CO ON LO^O CS CO CM NO sf looo LO H LO LOCO sr LO COCO ON lo CM vo co ts CO H >0 H LO H h On CO ON sf w ¦OWN N NN Cn ChcO vow sr N cn cm' O NN sr co -f sfco h ON ONMD vO_ tsvo O" LO ON ON XT" CO sf sj-m \D LOCO vo Ch ^r CN NO H ro co cm" On CM m CO CO 0 LO W M LO -TVO H CM CM Cs no lo CM CM ro LO sf -f VO sf CM CO IN M M M H rh ON tS CM -'3 ffi«c/i 134 76z ; (I0) Ludhiana, 44,163; (11) Firozpur (Ferozepore), 39.57°; (t2) Bhiwani. 33,762; (13) Panipat, 25,022; (14) Batala, 24,281; (15) Riwari, 23,972; (16) Karnal, 23,133 ; (17) Gujranwala, 22,884; (18) Dera Ghazi Khan, 22,309; (19) Dera Ismail Khan, 22,164; (20) Hushiarpur, 21,363; and (21) Jehlam, 21,107. The Census also returns 11 1 towns with a population between 5000 and 20,000; and 106 smaller towns, either as civil stations, cantonments, or municipalities. The total urban population of these 238 towns and stations amounts to 2,431,357, or 12-9 per cent, of the population of British territory in the Punjab. The Province contained 202 municipalities in 1883-84, of which 8 are of the first, 20 ofthe second, and 174 ofthe third class. Total municipal income (1883-84), ,£305,559, or an average of 2 s. n£d. per head ofthe population (2,144,379) within municipal limits. Simla, population 13,258, the summer capital of India, stands on an isolated patch of British territory among the mountains of the north-eastern border; and Marri (Murree), in Rdwal Pindi District, population 2489, forms the great hill sanitarium for the western half of the Province ; while between them, the hill stations of Dharmsala in Kangra and Dalhousie in Gurdaspur, are favourite resorts during the summer months. Of the 34,324 towns and villages in British territory in 1881, the Census returns 11,937 as containing less than two hundred inhabitants; 11,879 276 PUNJAB. from two to five hundred; 6348 from five hundred to a thousand ; 2954 from one to two thousand ; 693 from two to three thousand ; 349 from three to five thousand; 115 from five to ten thousand; 20 from ten to fifteen thousand; 8 from fifteen to twenty thousand; 13 from twenty to fifty thousand ; while 8 contain upwards of fifty thousand inhabitants. The Punjab ' Village.' — The 'village' of the Census Report includes, as regards British territory, all the population living within the area of the mauzd, or village unit of revenue administration. Throughout the greater part of the Province this is a perfectly natural and homogeneous unit, and embraces the lands owned and cultivated by the members of a single village community who, with their attendant traders, priests, and menials, live in one main homestead, though they occasionally occupy also one or more small hamlets situated in the outlying fields, where certain families or parts of families live more or less permanently for the convenience of being close to their work. But on the great pasture lands of the Multan Division and in the sandy plains of the Sind-Sdgar dodb, the large and compact village communities of the Eastern Punjab are almost unknown. The people here have only lately abandoned a nomad life, and are still largely pastoral in their habits. Much of the land has been brought under cultivation, often since the introduction of our rule, by local notables holding grants from Government who have collected cultivators from diverse sources and settled them here and there in small bodies each in a separate homestead, or by individuals who have acquired property by breaking up waste or by the construction of irrigation works ; and the local hollows, in which alone grass and water or cultivable land are in many parts to be found, are occupied by small communities consisting each of only a few families and living at great distances from each other. So in the trans-Jehlam and frontier tracts, where Pathans, Baluchis, Ghakkars, and other dominant races have subjugated but not expelled a peaceful agricultural population, the latter are similarly scattered over the country in small detached homesteads surrounding the central stronghold of their conquerors; while where the tribal organization exists in full vitality and the land is held and cultivated by the dominant race, there is no intermediate step between the clan which occupies a considerable tract of country, and its constituent families of which every two or three form a separate group and inhabit a separate hamlet. In these cases the hamlet is usuallytoo small to be recognised as a unit; and the boundaries of the ' village ' embrace an area, often enormous, over which a scanty population is widely scattered in small communities having no connection with one another beyond the mere fact of their common inclusion in an artificial unit based upon considerations of PUNJAB. 277 administrative convenience. The 'village' of the Census tables is in many cases largest where the unit of habitation is smallest. Thus, there are in Dera Ismdil Khan three village areas, each including a population of more than 5000, but of which the inhabitants live in numerous scattered hamlets no one of which contains more than 350 souls, So again, there is in Bannu a ' village ' of 2000 inhabitants which is split up into not less than 43 distinct hamlets, and covers an area of 1 01 square miles; while the 'town' of Lawa in Jehlam includes an area of 141 square miles dotted over with innumerable tiny hamlets surrounding a central town, and containing a total population of over 6000 souls ; and in the hills even more striking cases occur. There are in the British Districts 32 places of more than 5000 inhabitants which have, by reason of the scattered nature of their population, been classed as villages and not as towns. Occupations of the People. — The adult male population of the British Districts of the Punjab is returned in the Census under the following seven main headings, with a vast number of sub-orders too numerous for specification here: — Class 1. Professional, including all persons engaged in the administration ofthe Province, 114,862 ; army, 62,887 ; learned professions, literature, art or science, 142,596 : total, 320,345. Class 2. Domestic and menial, including boarding and lodging house keepers, 4827 ; and attendants, domestic servants, menials, etc., 324,135 : total, 328,962. Class 3. Commercial, including bankers, merchants, and traders, 76,021 ; and all carriers, messengers, porters, etc., 102,456: total, 178,477. Class 4. Agricultural, including all cultivators, fruit and market gardeners, and flower dealers, also graziers, 3,074,183 ; and persons engaged about animals, such as horse, cattle, and sheep breeders and dealers, farriers, hunters, fishermen, etc., 22,056 : total, 3,096,239. Class 5. Commercial, including workers in art and mechanical productions, 37,833 ; workers and dealers in textile fabrics, 684,929 ; workers and dealers in articles of food and drink, 280,358; workers and dealers in animal substances, such as hides, leather, etc., 34,481; workers and dealers in vegetable substances, such as oil-men, carpenters, workers in mat, straw, etc., 2 1 7,458 ; workers and dealers in minerals, 203,420 : total. 1,458,479. Class 6. Indefinite and non-productive, including general labourers, 270,380; persons of rank and property, 12,813 ; and of no true occupation, 262,471 : total, 545,664. Class 7. Occupation not specified, 353,309. Agriculture. — The tillage of the Western Punjab extends along the foot of the boundary mountains, and stretches in long strips by the side of the great arterial rivers. But cultivation is more extensive in the central and southern portion of the Eastern Plains, which, while comprising only 15 per cent, of the total area of the Province, com prise no less than 2 7 per cent, of its cultivated area, or more than the 278 PUNJAB. whole of the Western Plains, with their rivers and canals. Excluding Native States, and the semi-independent possessions of the Nawab of Teri in Kohat, and the Nawdb of Tanawal in Hazara, the total assessed area of the 32 British Districts in the Punjab in 1883-84 is returned at 64,139,592 acres, of which 23,518,686 acres are under cultivation ; 5,867,214 acres are grazing lands; 20,488,941 acres are cultivable, but still untilled; and 14,264,751 acres are absolutely barren. The agricultural year is divisible into the rabi or spring, and the kharif or autumn harvest. The former is the more important, the principal crop being wheat, covering an area in 1875 of 6,282,687 acres, and in 1883-84 of 7,209,721 acres; gram, 1,604,132 acres in 1875, and 1,853,769 acres in 1883-84; barley, 1,818,433 acres in 1875, and 1,681,849 acres in 1883-84. Oil -seeds are largely grown, occupying 594,3°9 acres of the rabi area in 1883-84. Peas and other pulses occupy a small area, and tobacco and vegetables are grown on garden plots. Tea cultivation is followed with success chiefly in Kangra District, the area having extended from 5623 acres in 1875 to 9600 acres in 1883-84. The area occupied by the principal rabi crops has increased from 10,961,257 acres in 1875 to 12,502,416 acres in 1883-84. Rice cultivation, which forms the chief staple of the kharif crory, has decreased of late years, having fallen from 802,014 acres in 1875 to 569,808 acres in 1883-84. Millets (jodr and bdjra) were grown on 4,613,720 acres in 1875, and 4,945,850 acres in 1883-84 ; Indian corn, 1,039,594 acres in 1875, and 1,233,718 acres in 1883-84; and pulses, 1,604,006 acres in 1875, and 1,130,090 acres in 1883-84. Cotton cultivation increased fiom 651,150 acres in 1875 t0 802,534 acres in 1883-84. Sugar-cane was grown on 344,993 acres in 1875, ar>d 348,141 acres in 1883-84. Total area occupied by the principal kharif crops, 9,610,166 acres in 1875, and 9,994,749 acres in 1883-84. The methods of agriculture still retain their primitive simplicity, scarcely differing from those in use during the Vedic period. Artificial irrigation is common, and is rapidly extending, about 25 per cent, of the cultivated area being irrigated either from Government canals or private works. The Bari Doab, the Western Jumna, and the Sutlej inundation canals supply water to a large area; while the Sirhind Canal, the main line of which was opened in November 1882, and its branches completed in 1883-84, has already added greatly to the fertility of the dry cis-Sutlej tract. The Swat River Canal was opened in 1884-85. These canals will be more fully referred to in a subsequent paragraph. Manure is applied only in the vicinity of villages, and to the best crops, such as sugar-cane, cotton, and rice, when grown near wells. Rotation of crops is confined chiefly to manured soils, where, after a rich crop, poorer and poorer staples are sown successively until the manure is exhausted ; when another dressing becomes necessary, PUNJAB. 279 followed by a similar cycle of crops. For example, in the cis-Sutlej tract, sugar-cane is succeeded by wheat, and wheat by cotton, so that the manure once laid down suffices for three years. Cultivation is steadily and quickly advancing in the Punjab. The area under tillage rose from 20 to 23^ millions of acres in the fifteen years ending 1883-84. The irrigation by Government canals rose during the same period from \\ to considerably over if millions of acres (increase more than half a million) ; irrigation from wells, water courses, and other private works, from 4§ to 5^ millions of acres (increase, say \ million). Total increase in irrigation during fifteen years, nearly \\ million acres, or about 17 per cent. Not only did the general area under tillage increase, but the area under the more valuable crops increased in an even greater ratio. Thus (in round figures) the area under wheat was 5^ million acres in 1869, and i\ millions in 1883-84; oil-seeds in 1869 occupied nearly half a million acres, and in 1884 upwards of three-quarters of a million acres; sugar cane, which in 1869 covered 325,831 acres, in 1884 had increased to 348,141 acres; indigo rose within the same period from 32,444 to 128,251 acres ; and tea from 5521 to 9600 acres. The selling price of land rose from 18 years' purchase, calculated on the land revenue demand of 1869, to 25^ years' purchase in 1879. The average incidence of the land revenue per cultivated acre fell during the same period from 25I pence to 23 pence. Rents are paid both in money and kind, and the following return of rent rates prevailing in 1883-84 is based, in the latter case, on an estimate of the money value of the landlord's share. The following statement shows the average rates prevailing throughout the Province for lands growing different descriptions of crops : — Wheat land (irrigated), from 7s. 4d. to 19s. rod. an acre— unirrigated, 4s. 5jd. to 13s. id. an acre; inferior grains (irrigated), 4s. \\a\. to 13s. an acre; rice, from 7s. 9jd. to £\, 2s. 8d. an acre ; cotton, from 6s. to 17s. an acre; sugar-cane, from 19s. 8d. to £2, 9s. iod. an acre; indigo, from 7s. 3d. to 19s. 7d. an acre; oil-seeds (irrigated), 5s. 9^d. to 14s. 6fd. an acre — unirrigated, 4s. to 9s. 9^d. an acre. The average out-turn of produce throughout the Province is thus returned :— Wheat, 659 lbs. per acre; rice, 730 lbs. ; barley, 677 lbs.; bdjra, 345 lbs. ; jodr, 323 lbs.; cotton, 177 lbs.; tobacco, 845 lbs.; unrefined sugar (gur), 761 lbs. ; and tea, 202 lbs. Wages and prices have both risen greatly through the action of railways. The average prices of food-grains ruled as follows on the ist of January 1884 :— Wheat, 2if sers per rupee, or 5s. 2d. per cwt. ; barley, 33^ sers per rupee, or 3s. 4^d. per cwt. ; gram, 30I sers per rupee, or 3s. 7^d. per cwt.; bdjra, 27! sers per rupee, or 4s. id. per cwt. ; jodr, $i\ sers per rupee, or 3s. s£d. per cwt. ; rice, 7^ sers per rupee, or 15s. per cwt. Wages of unskilled 280 PUNJAB. labour range from 3§d. to sfd., and of skilled labour from 8d. to is. 2d. per diem. Horse and cattle breeding are carried on to a considerable extent, both by Government at stud depots and by private individuals. The Government Horse-Breeding Department maintained in 1883-84, 190 horse and 167 donkey stallions. Horse fairs were held at ten towns in the Punjab in 1883-84, at which 7675 animals were exhibited, and prizes to the extent of ^1135 were awarded. Twelve cattle fairs were held in the same year, at which fees to the extent of ^5049 were levied, in return for an expenditure of ^1329 on prizes and for other purposes. The demands made for carriage during the Afghan cam paign, a succession of bad seasons, drought, and cattle disease for a time seriously affected the number of cattle and beasts of burthen in the Province ; and although a return of better seasons has occurred of late years, the last return of agricultural stock still shows the number of horses, cows, and bullocks to be below what they were in 1868. The figures for 1883-84 return — Cows and bullocks, 6,707,904 ; horses, 86,228; ponies, 38,456; donkeys, 351,890; sheep and goats, 4,906,883; pigs, 65,955 ; and camels, 174,753. Carts numbered 100,669. Forests. — The Forest Department of the Punjab administers an area of 4694 square miles in British territory, or in Native States of which the forests have been leased to Government. The latter, which are situated principally in Chamba and Bashahr, are managed in accordance with agreements made with the chiefs of those States. The former are subject to the Forest Act (vii. of 1878), the Hazdra Forest Regulation (11. of 1879), and in a few cases to rules for the conservancy of hill Districts, which were published in 1855. A further area of 13,000 square miles, covered more or less with inferior forest growth, is managed by the District Deputy Commissioners, chiefly as grazing ground. Efforts have been made to secure the lease of a larger forest area in the Simla Hill States, but without success. The above area is divided into ten Forest Divisions, namely, Hazara, Rawal Pindi, Jehlam, Gujrdnwdla, Chamba, Lahore, Beas, Bashahr, Phillaur, and Miiltdn. Of the total forest area of 4694 square miles, 1228 square miles are ' reserved,' 311 square miles are 'protected,' and 3155 square miles are 'unreserved.' The forests ofthe Punjab may be roughly classified as follows : — (1) The deodar (Cedrus Deodara) and other pine forests of the higher Himdlayan ranges in Hazara, Chamba, Kulu, and Bashahr; (2) the chil (Pinus longifolia and Pinus excelsa) forests in the Siwdliks and other hill tracts in Kangra, Hushidrpur, Gurddspur and Rawal Pindi Districts ; (3) the Changa Mdnga plantation and such of the shishatn blocks in the Indus valley as have escaped the action of the river of recent years ; (4) the small sdl (Shorea robusta) forest at Kalesar in Ambdla District ; (5) the plain rakhs, situated principally in the bdr PUNJAB. 281 tracts, and producing chiefly kikar (Acacia arabica), jand (Prosopis spicigera), jdl (Salvadora persica and S. oleoides), phuldi (Acacia modesta), karil (Capparis aphylla), ber (Zizyphus Jujuba), and dhdk (Butea frondosa). The working of the Forest Department in 1883-84 resulted in gross receipts amounting to ,£91,017, against an ex penditure of .£65,314, including a sum of ;£6ooo paid to the Maharaja of Kashmir, leaving a surplus or net profit amounting to ^25,703. Canals. — The canal system of the Punjab consists ofthe Bdri Dodb, Western Jumna, Sirhind and Swat River Canals, all of which are perennial ; and a number of inundation channels, known as the upper Sutlej series, the lower Sutlej and Chenab series, the Indus series, the Muzaffargarh series, and three inundation canals in Shdhpur District, which belong to, but are not administered by, the Irrigation Depart ment. The total capital outlay, exclusive of contributions from the States of Patidla, Jfnd, and Ndbha, amounted at the close of 1883-84 to ,£5,033,284. The expenditure during the year amounted to ,£282,524. Of the total outlay, .£4,697,538 represents the capital expenditure on canals in operation, and .£335,746 on canals still under construction. The gross revenue ofthe year from all sources amounted to ,£428,416, and the working expenses to .£197,033 ; the net revenue was therefore ,£231,383, yielding a return of 4'6 per cent, on the total outlay, and nearly 5 per cent, on the capital of the canals open. Up to the close of 1883-84 the net revenue from the canals had exceeded the interest charges by ,£2,074,560. The total area irrigated by these canals in 1883-84 was 1,652,068 acres. Of this only 5030 acres was irrigated by the Sirhind Canal, the main channel of which was only opened at the end of 1882. The Swat River Canal was not opened till 1885, and has not yet been utilized for irrigation. Land Tenures. — The following account of the prevailing land tenures of the Province is quoted in a slightly condensed form, and with a few additions and alterations, from the Punjab Administration Report for 1872-73, pp. 9-16 :— According to the statistics of 1872-73, the Punjab has an area of 65,283,050 acres, or nearly 102,005 square miles. [Area in 1883-84, 106,772 square miles.] Returns of tenure exist for 30 Districts, being wanting only in the case of Kohat and Hazdra ; but the Jhang return must be rejected, as regards area at least, as it shows the entire area of the District, much of which is waste land the property of Government, or held by private owners. There remain 29 Districts, with an area of 90,462 square miles. In these Districts, 1301 villages, with an area of 4446 square miles, are held by 3579 proprietors ofthe landlord class ; and 29,558 villages, with an area of 63,039 square miles, by 1,955,928 cultivating proprietors. Taking the Province as a whole, it may be 282 PUNJAB. estimated that between one-fifth and one-sixth of the area is the property of Government ; while upwards of four-fifths belongs to private owners. The greater part of the area belonging to Government is, however, little better than an arid prairie, and could not profitably be brought under cultivation without the aid of extensive works of irrigation. Some of the more favourably situated portions are preserved as forest or grazing lands, and others are held under lease from Government for purposes of cultivation ; but almost the entire cultivated area of the Province is included in the lands of private owners. These lands are held subject to the payment of land revenue to the State, or to grantees holding from the State ; and their revenue at pre sent exceeds .£2,365,000 per annum, of which more than ,£295,000 is ' received by assignees who had, on various grounds, claims to con sideration from Government. In some cases, these assignments are of the nature of the release of the revenue of lands belonging to the assignees, but they have no necessary connection with proprietary right ; and in the majority of instances the grantees are merely entitled to receive the revenue payable to Government, the amount of which is limited in the same way as if it were paid direct to Government. From the above figures it will be seen that the great mass of the landed property in the Punjab is held by small proprietors, who culti vate their own land in whole or in part. The chief characteristic of the tenure generally is, that these proprietors are associated together in village communities, having to a greater or less extent joint interests, and under our system of cash payments, limited so as to secure a certain profit to the proprietors, jointly responsible for the payment of the revenue assessed upon the village lands. It is almost an invariable incident of the tenure, that if any of the proprietors wishes to sell his rights, or is obliged to part with them in order to satisfy demands upon him, the other members of the same community have a preferential right to purchase them at the same price as could be obtained from outsiders. In some cases, all the proprietors have an undivided interest in all the land belonging to the proprietary community, — in other words, all the land is in common ; and what the proprietors themselves cultivate is held by them as tenants of the community. Their rights are regu- tated by their shares in the estate, both as regards the extent of the holdings they are entitled to cultivate and as regards the distribution of profits ; and if the profits from land held by non-proprietary cultivators are not sufficient to pay the revenue and other charges, the balance would ordinarily be collected from the proprietors according to the same shares. It is, however, much more common for the proprietors to have their own separate holdings in the estate ; and this separation may extend so PUNJAB. 283 far that there is no land susceptible of separate appropriation which is not the separate property of an individual or family. In an extreme case like this, the right of pre-emption and the joint responsibility for the revenue, in case any of the individual proprietors should fail to meet the demand upon him, are, in the absence of common descent, almost the only ties which bind the community together. The separa tion, however, generally does not go so far. Often, all the cultivated land is held in separate ownership, while the pasture, ponds, or tanks, etc., remain in common. In other cases, the land cultivated by tenants is the common property of the community ; and it frequently happens that the village contains several well-known sub-divisions, each with its own separate land, the whole of which may be held in common by the proprietors of the sub-division, or the whole may be held in severalty, or part in separate ownership and part in common. Throughout the greater part of the Province, the organization of the proprietors of land into village communities has existed from time immemorial, and is the work of the people themselves, and not the result of measures adopted either by our own or by previous Govern ments. Indeed, these communities have sometimes been strong enough to resist the payment of revenue to the Government of the day ; and before our rule, nothing was more common than for them to decide their disputes by petty wars against each other, instead of having recourse to any superior authority to settle them. But in some locali ties, the present communities have been constituted from motives of convenience in the application of our system of settlement. Thus, in the Simla Hills, and in the mountainous portions of Kangra District, the present village communities consist of numerous small hamlets, each with its own group of fields and separate lands, and which had no bond of union until they were united for administrative purposes at the time of the Land Revenue Settlement. In the Multan Division, again, while regular village communities were frequently found in the fertile lands fringing the rivers, all trace of these disappeared where the cultivation was dependent on scattered wells beyond the influence of the river. Here the well was the true unit of property ; but where the proprietors of several wells lived together for mutual protection, or their wells were sufficiently near to be conveniently included within one village boundary, the opportunity was taken to group them into village communities. The same course has been followed in some parts of the Derajdt Division, where small separate properties readily admitting of union were found. These arrangements were made possible by the circum stance that the village community system admits of any amount of separation of the property of the individual proprietors, and by care being taken that in the internal distribution of the revenue demand it 284 PUNJAB. should be duly adjusted with reference to the resources of the separate holdings. They, also, in general, involved the making over in joint ownership to the proprietors of the separate holdings of waste land situate within the new boundary in which no private property had previously existed. The reason for this artificial inclusion of widely separated tracts is that among the semi-nomad Baliichis there is no intermediate step between the clan and the family. The clan hold a considerable tract of country, over which the families live scattered in tiny hamlets, each having separate property only in its cultivation and' irrigation works. An analogous case exists along the Pathdn frontier, and in the Salt Range, where a dominant race lives in large central villages, and a subject population occupy scattered hamlets among the fields which they cultivate. Here, again, these hamlets are grouped for revenue and administrative purposes by inclusion within purely artificial boundaries. In some cases, the village communities, while holding and managing the land as proprietors, are bound to pay a quit-rent to superior pro prietors under whom they hold. The settlement is made according to circumstances, either with the superior proprietor, who collects the Government revenue as well as his quit-rent from the communities, or with the communities in actual possession of the land, who pay the land revenue to Government and the quit-rent to the superior proprietor, In either case, the amount which the superior proprietor is entitled to collect is determined at settlement, as well as the amount of the land revenue demand. In the 30 Districts from which returns of tenure were received in 1872-73, only 435 villages, with an area of 514^ square miles, are shown as held by superior proprietors collecting the Government revenue in addition to their own quit-rent ; but this evidently does not include cases where the superior proprietors are also assignees of the Government revenue. There are also 13,169 holdings of superior pro prietors who collect only their own quit-rent and are not responsible for the Government revenue. The latter are in many cases persons to whom the quit-rent was given in commutation of more extensive pro prietary rights, of which they had been dispossessed in favour of the present holders. There are sometimes also proprietors holding lands within the estates of village communities, but who are not members of the communities, and are not entitled to share in the common profit, nor liable for anything more than the revenue of their own lands, the village charges ordinarily paid by proprietors, and the quit-rent, if any, payable to the proprietary body of the village. The most common examples of this class are the holders of plots at present or formerly revenue free, in which the assignees were allowed to get proprietary possession in con- PUNJAB. 285 sequence of having planted gardens or made other improvements, or because they had other claims to consideration on the part of the village community. In the Rawal Pindi Division, also, it was thought proper to record old-established tenants, who had never paid anything for the land they held but their proportion of the land revenue and village expenses, and had long paid direct to the collectors of the revenue — but were not descended from the original proprietary body — as owners of their own holdings, while not participating in the common rights and liabilities of the proprietary community. Except in the Jehlam and Rdwal Pindi Districts, where a small quit-rent was imposed, these inferior proprietors were not required to pay anything in excess of their proportion of the Government revenue and other village charges. In Gujrat, at the time of the first regular settlement, this class held no less than 10 per cent, ofthe total cultivated area, and in Rdwal Pindi it paid 9 per cent, of the revenue. In Rawal Pindi the persons recorded as proprietors of their own holdings only were in some cases the repre sentatives of the original proprietary body, jagirddrs having established proprietary rights over what were formerly the common lands of the village. In Multan and Muzaffargarh, and perhaps in some other Districts in the south of the Punjab, a class of proprietors distinct from the owners of the land, is found under the name of chakddrs, sillanddrs, or kasurkhwdrs. These are the owners of wells, or occasionally of irriga tion channels, constructed at their expense in land belonging to others. They possess hereditary and transferable rights, both in the well or irrigation channel and in the cultivation of the land irrigated from it, but may be bought out by the proprietor repaying the capital they have expended. They are generally entitled to arrange for the cultivation, paying a small fixed proportion of the produce to the proprietor, and being responsible for the Government revenue. Sometimes, however, the management of the property has been made over to the proprietor, who pays the Government revenue ; and the chakddr receives from him a fixed proportion of the produce, called hak kasiir. Or a third party may manage the property, paying the Government revenue and the hak kasiir, out of which the chakddr pays the proprietor's allowance. In Jhang, and possibly in other Districts, a tenure known as hdthrakhai exists, where the old proprietor, worn down by the extortionate demands of the Sikh officials, has made over his land in absolute property to some stranger who had sufficient influence with the Government to secure favourable terms, on condition of the latter accepting all responsibility for the payment ofthe revenue, and allowing the original proprietor to continue to cultivate. In Rdwal Pindi, also, there is a small class of well proprietors in the position of middle-men, paying cash rent to the owner of the land, and receiving a grain rent from the cultivator. 286 PUNJAB. In the 30 Districts from which returns are available (1872), the number of tenant holdings is about 1,100,000, as against 3661 landlord proprietors and nearly 2,000,000 cultivating proprietors. Tenants entered as having rights of occupancy are 378,997, 50,685 as holding conditionally, 1,232,467 as tenants-at-will, and 33,932 as holders of service grants excused from revenue or rent other than the customary service by the proprietors. After the necessary correction for Rohtak District, the tenants-at-will can scarcely be estimated at more than 650,000 ; and this number and the number of tenants entered as holding conditionally has been considerably reduced by the revision of tenancy entries in the Amritsar Division and in Lahore and Gujrdnwala Districts, while the number of tenants with right of occupancy has been correspondingly increased. Tenants with rights of occupancy have a heritable, but not, except in the case of a few of a superior class, transferable tenure. Commerce and Trade, etc. — The great centres of trade in the Punjab are Lahore, Amritsar, Miiltdn, Ambdla, Delhi, and Peshawar. The channels of external traffic fall into four great divisions. That on the north frontier comprises the trade with Kashmir, Laddkh, Yarkand, Chinese Tibet, and Central Asia generally ; the imports being valued in 1875-76 at ,£622,991, and the exports at ,£341,242. In 1883-84 the imports amounted to ,£605,782 in value, and the exports to ,£439,230. That on the west frontier includes the trade with Kabul, Tirah, and Siwestan, with imports in 1875-76 valued at .£937,188, and exports at ,£840,017. Of late years, the trans-frontier trade with Kdbul has greatly fallen off, and in 1883-84 only amounted to — imports valued at ,£292,858, and exports ,£567,287. By both the northern and western trans-frontier routes, the traffic inward consists of charas (an intoxicating preparation of Indian hemp), dyes of various kinds, goat's wool, raw silk, fruits and nuts, wood, furs and feathers, and shawl cloth ; while indigo, grain, metals, salt, spices, tea, tobacco, Indian and European cotton cloth, hides and leather, form the chief items of return trade. An enormous and increasing trade with Europe takes place, Delhi being the great centre for manufactured imports, while the chief local marts of the grain trade, mentioned below, are the head-quarters of the export trade. Since the opening of the Rdjputana-Malwa Railway to Delhi, Bombay has taken the place of Calcutta as the port of shipment for the export trade with Europe. The internal trade of the Punjab consists mainly of — (1) The Indus traffic with Sind and Kardchi, of which Miiltdn is the centre, and to which Fazilka and Firozpur contribute by collecting grain and wool from Rdjputdna and the eastern plains, and sending it down the Sutlej, or by rail to join the Indus Valley State Railway. (2) The trade with eastern Rdjputdna, of which Delhi is the great centre, and Riwari and PUNJAB. 287 Bhiwdni the principal feeders, salt and wool being imported, and sugar, cotton, and oil-seeds exported. (3) The export of grain and cotton eastwards from the eastern plains, Ludhiana and Delhi being the - principal collecting places ; and from the western plains, of which Lahore is the centre. (4) The salt traffic of the western Punjab, of which Lahore is still the head-quarters, although not to the same extent as it used to be before the opening of the railway direct to the salt mines. (5) Trade in local manufactures. As the Punjab is essentially an agricultural country, the exports consist chiefly of grain, cotton, salt, and other raw produce ; while the imports comprise cloth, hardware, and other manufactured articles. The mineral wealth of the Province is almost confined to its rich deposits of rock-salt. (See Mayo Mines, Kalabagh, Salt Range, and Jehlam, Shahpur, and Kohat Districts.) The principal manu facture of the Punjab is that of cotton cloth, valued in 1883-84 at ,£2,200,000. The other main items include wood-work, iron, leather, gold and silver lace, silk, and shawls. The total number of manufac tories at work in the Province in 1875-76 was returned at 501,165, employing 1,407,91 1 workmen, with an estimated out-turn of ,£5, 398, 282. In 1882-83, the last year for which statistics are available, there were 406 mills or large manufactories at work in the Punjab, besides 484,399 private looms or small works, employing 919,391 native workmen, the estimated total value ofthe out-turn being .£13,710,062. Communications, etc. — The railway system of the Punjab is a continua tion of that which extends from Calcutta into the North-Western Pro vinces, and has now been put into direct connection with the sea at Karachi (Kurrachee) in Sind. The East Indian Railway sends a branch across the Jumna at Delhi, whence the Rdjputdna State Rail way runs southward through Delhi and Gurgaon Districts into Rdj putdna, ultimately extended to Bombay. The Sind Punjab and Delhi Railway (now taken over by Government and re-named the North-Western Railway) continues the main system through the Gan- getic Dodb, crossing the Jumna into this Province from Sahdranpur District, and runs via Ambala, Ludhidna, Jdlandhar, and Amritsar to Lahore. Thence the Northern Punjab State Railway continues the line as far as Peshawar on the north-west frontier ; while the Indus Valley Railway (now a branch of the North-Western Railway) unites Lahore and Multan with Bahdwalpur, Sukkur (Sakhar), and Karachi. The total length of railways in the Province in 1875-76 amounted to 663 miles, increased by 1883-84 to 11 88 miles. A large part of the heavy traffic is conveyed by country boats on the Five Rivers, and thence by the Indus to the sea, although the river trade is now to a large extent subsidiary to the railway. Excellent metalled roads also connect the main centres of trade and the District head-quarters. 288 PUNJAB. In 1883-84 there were 1817 miles of metalled and 21,949 miles of unmetalled roads in the Province. The navigable rivers afford 2685 miles of water communication. Total length of telegraph lines, 2076 miles in 1S83. The Imperial Post-Office conveyed 9,887,643 letters in 1869, and 23,764,182 in 1883. During the 15 years 1869-83, the number of newspapers officially returned as published in the Punjab increased from 13 to 54. Administration. — For administrative purposes, the Punjab is divided into 10 Divisions, namely, Delhi, Hissar, Ambala, Jalandhar, Amritsar, Lahore, Rawal Pindi, Multan, the Derajat, and Peshawar, each of which see separately. These Divisions comprise 32 Districts. The total revenue of the Province for the year 1876-77 amounted to ^£3,837,599, of which ^2,005,814 was contributed by the land-tax. The expenditure for the same year was returned at ,£1,945, 858. In 1883-84 the total revenue of the Punjab — Imperial, Provincial, Local — amounted to ,£3,388,589, and the expenditure to .£2,111,400, shown in detail in the table on opposite page. Jails and Police. — The Punjab contained in 1883-84, 35 Central and District Jails, besides 18 subsidiary prisons or lock-ups, with a total daily average of 12,355 prisoners, of whom 456 were females, or an average of 1 prisoner in jail to every 1445 °f tne population. The convict prison population averaged 11,469 per day. The total cost of the jails, excluding new buildings and repairs, amounted to .£72,733. Average cost per convicted prisoner, ,£6, os. 6d., or deducting prisoner's net earnings, ,£5, is. per head. The total police force (excluding the semi-military frontier police) at the end of 1883 — including imperial, cantonment, railway, village, canal, and ferry police — consisted of 78 superior officers, 556 subordinate officers, 772 mounted constables, and 19,141 foot constables; total of all ranks, 2°,547. giving 1 policeman- to every 5-18 square miles of area, or to every 916 of the population. Total cost of police, ,£322,464, of which ,£267,042 was paid from Provincial revenues, and ,£55,422 from municipal and cantonment funds or other local sources. The number of criminal offences returned as 'true' in 1883 was 95,446, of which 78,892 were brought to trial. Of 167,687 persons brought to trial, 98,962 were acquitted or discharged, 66,011 were convicted, 223 were transferred to other Provinces, while 2491 remained under trial at the end of the year. Murder forms the principal serious crime along the north-western frontier and in the trans-Indus tract, committed chiefly by the semi-civilised Pathdn and Baluch clans, chiefly from motives of revenge or jealousy. In 1883, out of a total of 346 murders committed in the Province, 175 occurred in the comparatively small trans-Indus tract, as against 171 in the whole ofthe rest ofthe Punjab. Cattle-lifting is also a very prevalent crime. [Continued on page 290. Table of Revenue and Expenditure of the Government of the Punjab for 1883-84. Revenue. Expenditure. Heading. Imperial. Provincial. Local. Total. ' Heading. Imperial. Provincial. Local. Total. £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Land revenue, 1,133,544 859.7*3 84,505 2,077,762 Interest on ordinary debt, 1,080 1,080 Stamps 170,158 170,158 340.316 Interest on other obligations, 1,070 1,070 Excise 67, 122 67, 122 !34,244 Refunds and drawbacks, . 7,745 6,356 53 14. 154 Provincial rates, S0,^2 205,288 255,420 Assignments and compensations, 21,042 21,042 Assessed taxes, 28,081 28,081 56,162 Land revenue, 36,733 192,468 67.985 297,186 Forest 45,S°9 45,509 91,018 Opium, . 175 175 Registration, .... 8,698 8,698 17,396 Stamps, . 6,612 6,6t2 13,224 Tributes, 28,198 28,198 Excise, . 2,966 2,966 5>932 Post-office, .... 3,004 3,004 Provincial rates, 3,957 11,872 15,829 Law and justice, 69,927 69,927 Assessed taxes, '" 96 96 192 Police 67,783 67,783 Forest, 32,504 32.5°4 65,008 Education, 11,409 11,409 Registration, 4.355 4.355 8,710 Medical 2,893 2.893 Post-office, 8,666 5,613 14,279 Scientific andminordepartments, 8,072 8,072 General administration. 17,615 111,879 160 129,654 Interest, 16,137 740 16,877 Law and justice, 320,449 320,449 Superannuation, 4,008 4,008 Police, 14,455 320,460 334.915 Stationery, .... 8,942 8,942 Education, 71,261 45,743 117,004 Irrigation and navigation, 28,361 5.561 33,922 Ecclesiastical, . 19,487 19.487 Land revenue due to irrigation, 42.951 29,503 72,454 Medical, . 53.472 26,766 80,238 Civil buildings, 61,298 61,298 Political, . 95'885 95.885 Credit on account of exchange, 1,277 1,277 Scientificand minordepartments, 3,677 10,257 8,415 22,349 Miscellaneous, .... 8,002 8,014 10,191 26,207 Territorial and political pensions, Superannuation allowances, Stationery and printing, . Interest on debt for productive public works, Irrigation and navigation, Other public works, Exchange on trans, with London, 49,5" 99 56.63939.639 11,115 ^,387 285,970 200 74.J95 49,5" 56,639 39,839 11,115 1,387 360, 165 99 Miscellaneous, 2,911 9,182 2,690 I4,783 1,578,038 1,510,567 299,984] 3,388,589 318,018 1,549,690 243,692 2,111,400 2 90 PUNJAB. Continued from page 288.] Military. — Thirty-eight towns, cantonments, and military stations in the Punjab are garrisoned by the Bengal Army, with a total force in March 1884 of 15,868 European and 18,083 Native troops; total, 33,951 officers and men of all ranks, with 96 .field guns. The Punjab Frontier Force numbers in all (March 1884) 12,491 officers and men, with 16 guns. Artillery numbers 757; cavalry, 2574 ; and infantry, 9158. European officers number 186; Native commissioned officers, 248 ; non-commissioned officers and fighting men, 10,837, besides camp followers. The main body of the force is cantoned along the frontier at Abbottahad, Mardan, Kohdt, Edwardesabacl, Dera Ismail Khan, Dera Ghazi Khah, and Rajanpur, with 46 outpost stations, of which 22 were held in 1884 by detachments of regular cavalry and infantry and the remainder by locally raised militia levies. The Punjab Volunteer Administrative Battalion consists of three rifle corps, one with its head-quarters at Lahore, a second with its head-quarters at Simla, and a third or railway corps stationed along the line of railway, with its head-quarters at Lahore. Total strength of volunteers in March 1884, 1583, of whom 1539 were efficients. Education. — The Punjab University dates only from 1882, when its first convocation was held at Lahore in the presence of the Viceroy. The institution is rapidly gaining in popularity, and in its second year may be said to have rivalled the Calcutta University, so far as regards natives of the Punjab. The principal educational institutions are the Lahore Government College ; Oriental College ; St. Stephen's College, Delhi ; Lahore Medical School ; St. Thomas' College, Murree ; Bishop Cotton School, Simla ; and the Lawrence Military Asylum, Sanawar, the largest European school in the Punjab. The following are the educational statistics for the year ending 31st March 1884. Univer sity education is provided for by 2 arts colleges, attended by 152 pupils ; secondary education by 26 high schools, with 928 pupils; and 211 boys' middle schools, with 6774 pupils. Boys' primary schools numbered 1629, with 106,901 pupils. Technical education is provided by the Lahore Training College, with 57 pupils; the Mayo School of Art, with 62 pupils ; the Medical School, with 159 pupils ; 4 normal schools for male teachers, with 206 pupils ; and 3 industrial schools, with 79 pupils. Total schools for boys, 1878, with 114,755 pupils. For female education there are 6 middle and 336 primary schools, attended by 10,378 girls; besides 6 normal schools with 191 pupils, and 1 industrial school with 19 pupils. Total number of institutions in 1883-84, 2227, of which 348 were for girls. Total number of pupils, 125,906, of whom 10,588 were girls. The above figures do not include the Lawrence Military Asylum School at Sandwar, which had 424 boys and girls on its rolls at the annual inspection in September PUNJAB. 291 1883. The total cost of education to the State in 1883-84 amounted 10^167,327. Temperature and Climate. — Owing to its geographical position, its scanty rainfall and cloudless skies, and perhaps to the wide expanse of untilled plains, the climate of the Punjab presents greater extremes of both heat and cold than any other part of India. The extreme heat of the summer months begins to moderate about the middle of September; and after the beginning of October, though the days are still hot, the nights are fairly cool. From that time the tem perature sinks lower and lower, till the minimum is reached with the fall of the winter rains in the early part of January, when sharp frosts are common, and water exposed at night with due precautions is frozen in all parts of the Province. The temperature then rises again slowly but steadily till the end of March. With April the hot weather proper may be said to begin. For the next three months the Punjab acts as the exhaust-chamber of India, and creates that monsoon of which it enjoys so small a share. The great plains bake throughout the long summer days, the heated air rises, and with it the barometer, the wind rushes in from the area of greatest pressure to the west and south-west to supply the partial void, and dust-laden hot winds sweep with unbroken violence over the open plains, while the dancing air seems to blaze with the glare reflected from the ground. It is said that the fierceness of this heat has a beneficial effect in disintegrating and preparing for tillage the fallow fields, similar to that exercised by frost in more frigid climates. Towards the end of June the wind changes — at least in the east of the Province; the vapour -laden monsoon travelling up the Ganges Valley approaches the border ; the sky grows heavy with clouds, and the heat becomes stifling almost beyond endurance, till the first burst of the welcome rains relieves the tension. The succeeding three months constitute the rainy season. The heat of July is hardly less intense than that of June, but the air is moist, while from the middle of August the temperature gradually falls, and it again becomes possible to believe in the existence of winter. On the hills, the seasons and their changes are very similar, though of course the heat is much more moderate, and the cold much more severe. From the middle of December to the middle of January, snow storms are heavy and frequent throughout the Himalayas proper; while even in the height of summer the thermometer seldom rises above 90° in the shade. The following are the temperatures recorded in 1883 at a station in the east, centre, and north-west of the Punjab plains, together with that of the hill station of Simla:— (1) Delhi— May, maximum, 1 16-6° F. ; minimum, 68-2"; mean, 93-4°: July. maximum, 103-6°; minimum, 292 PUNJAB. 76°; mean, 89-5°: December, maximum, 767°; minimum, 41-3°; mean, 6o-6°. (2) Lahore — May, maximum, ii2,5°; minimum, 64-6°; mean, 88-5": July, maximum, 114-5°; minimum, 75-9°; mean, 92-3°: December, maximum, 7370; minimum, 36°; mean, 56°. (3) Dera Ismail Khah — May, maximum, 113-5°; minimum, 64-8° ; mean, 88-2°: July, maximum, 110-5°; minimum, 7°'8'; mean, 92-4°: December, maximum, 767°: minimum, 34°; mean, 55-9°. (4) Simla — May, maximum, 87-4°; minimum, 44-6°; mean, 68-4°: July, maximum, 76-5°; minimum, 57-9°; mean, 66-9°: December, maximum, 61-9°; minimum, 31 "6°; mean, 45 '8°. Rainfall. — The Punjab enjoys two well-marked seasons of rainfall — the monsoon, lasting from the middle of June to the end of September, which brings by far the greater portion of the annual supply, and upon which the autumn crops and spring sowings depend ; and the winter rains, which fall early in January, and although insignificant in amount, affect very materially the prospects of the spring harvest. The rainfall is heavier in the Himalayas than in any other portion of the Province, the vapour-laden air from the south east and south precipitating its water as it rises to top the great mountain barrier across its path. The highest average of the Province is 126^ inches at Dharmsala. Excepting the Alpine regions, the rainfall is greatest in the east of the Province. In the plain country, the rainfall decreases rapidly as the distance from the hills increases, and markedly also, though less rapidly, proceeding from east to west. The submontane zone, which skirts the foot of the mountains, has an annual fall of from 30 to 40 inches, while in the strip of country lying along the right bank of the Jumna, the average is between 25 and 30 inches. But in no other portion of the Province, except in the portions of the Salt Range immediately under the hills, are these figures approached. In the eastern plains the annual fall may be said, roughly speaking, to decrease by about 1 inch for every 10 miles of distance from the hills, and ranges along their southern border between 20 inches in the east (Rohtak) and 15 in the west (Sirsa). But directly the meridian of Lahore is crossed, and the great steppes of the western plains are entered, the figures fall to 8 or 10 inches, while in the neighbourhood of Multan in the extreme south-west of the Province, the yearly average is only from 5 to 6 inches. The great rivers have a slight local effect in increasing the amount of rain precipitated in their immediate neighbourhood ; and this influence is of more importance than appears from bare statistics, as the addition thus made to the total annual fall is distributed in the form of occasional showers which often bring timely moisture to the crops. Medical Aspects. — The principal endemic disease of the Punjab is fever. Small-pox and cholera in a more or less epidemic form are rarely PUNJAB NATIVE STATES. 293 entirely absent from some portion of the Province. The total number of births registered in 1883-84 was 734,912, giving a birth-rate of 39 per thousand, varying from a maximum of 53-32 per thousand in Sialkot, to a minimum of 10-04 per thousand at Simla. The registered deaths in the same year numbered 475,741, or giving a death-rate of 25 per thousand, as against an average of 31-6 per thousand for the previous five years. The deaths from fevers alone numbered 306,185, or 16-25 per thousand of the population. The Province contained in 1883-84, 191 hospitals and dispensaries, affording medical relief to 38,016 in-door and 1,560,240 out-door patients, at a total cost of ,£44,261, of which Government contributed £7050. Punjab Native States. — The Native States in dependence on the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab are 36 in number, com prising an area of 35,817 square miles, and a population in 1881 of 3,861,683 persons, as shown in the table on next page. Until recently, Kashmir was included among the Punjab States, but in 1877 it was placed under the direct political control of the Government of India. Of the above 36 States, four, namely, Patiala, Bahawalpur, Jind, and Nabha, are under the direct control of the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab; one — Chamba, under the Commissioner of Amritsar; two, namely, Maler Kotla and Kalsia, with the twenty-two Simla Hill States, under the Commissioner of Ambdla ; three — KapurthaM, Mandi, and Suket, under the Commissioner of Jalandhar; one — Faridkot, under the Commissioner of Lahore ; one — Pataudi, under the Commissioner of Delhi ; and two — Lohani and Dujana, under the Commissioner of Hissar. Relations with Government. — The relations of the British Govern- with Bahawalpur are regulated by treaty ; those with the other States by sanads or charters from the Governor-General. Patiala, Jind, and Maler Kotla furnish a quota of horsemen for service in British territory in lieu of tribute. The other States pay a money tribute, aggregating £27,907 in 1883-84. The States of Patiala, Jind, and Nabha are ruled by members of the Phulkian family. Should the ruling line in any of these States become extinct in respect of direct heirs, the sanads provide for the selection of a collateral as successor by the chiefs of the other two States. A nazardna or relief is payable to the British Government by the collateral heir who succeeds. The Phulkian chiefs, and also the Raja of Faridkot, are bound by sanad to execute justice, and to promote the welfare of their people ; to prevent sati, slavery, and female infanticide; to co-operate with the British Government against an enemy, and to furnish supplies to troops ; and to grant, free of expense, land required for railways and imperial lines of road. On the other hand, the British Government has guaranteed them full and unreserved [ Continued on page 295. 3. 3 p ro, S« S3 »HH-P-t0OJ4^O>-'< OlOJ 4* vO vO COW HSIOl to 4*. s COC i ON CO O On 004* On4* » O CO^J o c H N) 10 OJ 4* OJ 00MCO COO O OJ Ui ¦HjiOiS to Oi N ^-l 4- OJ to OJ OJ v) OvOi Oi " » CO to 4=- ^J. tO O\00O H OvOJ vo OvvO ,. „ W B M-f'OlOiM COO) O vo OiM h s) QNOi OJ Oi ON H Ov Ov A^OW U OvOi Oi 4- W •<] 4* to OJ NvO^OOJLn H^.Cn 5 COCDH OiUi4>- 4» Co h O vO h U) U» O0 tO to w O CO-f^v) OS O H 4>. vo „ . ¦! 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M CO'uO vO O* OnUi H O 4" Ol Ol S OOl o\ M Q OJ 10 m S CO CO-P* w Ov OJ O Ov tO OvOi SM^vO 00 Cn w W 10 4* S H w M OnS vO^Iji OvO\ OJ OJ S 00 S HSvO tO MM 4* s 004- Vo O CO ON 00 4* voOi-P' H OOlOJ OvH 10 OJ 4* 4* s on co h 4* to s 4* oj OJCnCnCn COOl COVO Ov H vo vOOJ m W vO Ol 4* Q OJ Ol 00 Oi vo O Oi Ov O COvO COOl 4»- H 0\ Ov tO H oi m oj oo -P>- h . . vO Ov CO O O VMM M OJ Ov O > b , N OJ CO COOl H vb vb o\ 4*. VO HOJNO H O COOl -o ON-S VOUS H |0 H ONOJ VO vo vO a p SM hiz; srS°o 'I o ffq a* 3 p JV H to OJ ) ONCO'Sl S COp ; J VO O v3 N i " ) O S m O c > O ON^J Ov C >PI >o > Ho1 nn « o oo j . w a > I— « Hw ^3 Co Co PUNJAB NATIVE STATES. 295 Continued from page 293.] possession of their territories. They and Bahawalpur differ from the remaining feudatories in the fact that they possess power to inflict capital punishment upon their subjects. The treaties with Bahawalpur define the supreme position of the British Government, and bind the Nawab to act in accordance with the wishes of Government, while in turn the British Government engages to protect the State. Sanads of varying import are also possessed by the minor feudatories. Religion. — Of the chiefs, those of Bahawalpur, Maler Kotla, Pataudi, Loharu, and Dujaha are Muhammadans; those of Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Kapurthala, Faridkot, and Kalsia are Sikhs ; and the rest are Hindus. Of the Muhammadan chiefs, the Nawah of Bahawalpur is head of the D^iidpiitra tribe, and a descendant of BahaVal Khan, who acquired independence during the collapse of the Afghan Sadozai kingdom at the commencement of the present century. The Nawab of Maler Kotla is a member of an Afghan family which came from Kabul about the time of the rise of the Mughal Empire ; his ancestors held offices of importance under the Delhi kings, and became independent as the Mughal dynasty sank into decay. The chiefs of Pataudi and Dujana are descended from Afghan adventurers, and the Nawab of Lohdru from Mughal, upon whom estates were conferred by the British Government as a reward for services rendered to Lord Lake in the beginning of this century. Race. — With one exception, the Sikh chiefs belong to the Jdt race. Chaudhri Phul, the ancestor of the houses of Patiala, Jind, and Nabha, died in 1652. His descendants took advantage of the breaking up of the Mughal Empire in the eighteenth century, and of the confusion that attended the successive Persian, Afghah, and Maratha invasions of Delhi, to establish themselves, at the head of marauding bands of Sikh horsemen, in the cis-Sutlej Provinces, and eventually, to rise into independent chiefs. The Raja" of Kapurthala" belongs to the Kalal tribe, and his ancestor, Jassa Singh, took rank among the Sikh Sardars about the middle of the last century. The founder of the Faridkot family, a Burar Jat by tribe, rose to prominence in the service of Babar. Jodh Singh founded the Kalsia State about a hundred years ago. The remaining chiefs, whose territories lie along the lower Himalayan hill ranges, are principally of Rajput descent, claiming a very ancient lineage. Chiefs who are Minors. — The rulers of Patiala, KapiirthaM, Chamba, Suket, Pataudi, and Taroch are (1884) minors. The State of Patiala is administered by a Council of Regency, composed of a President, Sarddr Sir Dewa Singh, K.C.S.I., and two members, Chaudhri Charat Ram and Namdar Khah. A British medical officer supervises the education of the Maharaja" and his brother. Kapurthala and Chamba 296 PUNNAH— PURANDHAR. are under the direct management of British officers ; in the remainder of the States, Native Superintendents carry on the administration with the assistance of relatives of the minors or of the State officials, and under the general control of the Commissioners of the Divisions under whose charge the States are respectively placed. Further information will be found in a separate article for each State under its respective alphabetical heading. Punnah. — State and town in Bundelkhand. — See Panna. Pun-na-riep (Poon-na-riep). — Village in the Mo-nyo township of Tharawadi District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. — See Pon-na-reip. Punniar. — Battle-field in Gwalior State, Central India. — See Panniar. Punpun. — River of South Behar, rising in the extreme, south of Gaya" District, in lat. 24° 30' n., and long. 84° 11' e. It flows towards the Ganges, into Patna" District, in a north-easterly course, more or less parallel to that of the Son, till it^ approaches the canal at Naubatpur, where it takes a bend to the east, crossing the Patna" and Gaya road about 10 miles from Bankipur, and joining the Ganges at Fatwd. About 9 miles above its junction with the Ganges, the Punpun is joined by the Mdrhar. Lat. 25° 28' 45" n., long. 85° 13' 30" e. The width of the Punpun, which is enclosed with high steep banks, is here about 100 yards. Piir. — Town in the Native State of Udaipur, Rdjputdna. Situated about 60 miles to the north-east of Udaipur town, in the centre of the tract set apart as a provision for the bdbds or relations of the blood- royal. About a mile to the east of the town is an isolated hill of blue slate, in which garnets have been found. Pdr is one of the oldest towns in Mewar, and, according to tradition, bears date anterior to Vikrama. Puraiyar (or Poraydr). — Town in Tanjore District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 11' 1° n., and long. 79° 53' e., close to, and a suburb of, Tranquebar. — See Tranquebar. Purandhar. — Sub-division of Poona (Puna) District, Bombay Presidency. Area, 470 square miles, containing 1 town and 91 villages. Population (1881) 75,678, namely, 37,478 males and 38,200 females. Hindus number 73,536; Muhammadans, 1570; and 'others,' 572. Purandhar, one of the southern Sub-divisions of Poona, with its head-quarters at Saswad, is a hilly tract. The ranges run north-east and south-west, dividing the tract into two valleys, along which flow almost parallel streams. The spur of the Sahyddris, which forms the watershed between the Bhfma and the Nira, runs along the northern boundary of the Sub-division. Its chief peaks are those in which stand Malhargarh fort, and the Hindu temples of Bhuleswar and Dhavaleswar. A branch of the same spur fills the southern half of the Sub-division, the only PURANDHAR SANITARIUM. 297 important peak being crowned by the twin forts of Purandhar and Wazirgarh. The general level is about 2800 feet above the sea; but the hill of Purandhar is nearly 1700 feet higher, on which, about 400 feet from the summit, is Purandhar fort. The Nira, with its small feeder the Karha, and the Ganjauni, are the principal streams. The Karha, from the lowness of the banks, is of great use to landholders, who hold back its water by means of dams, and raise it with lifts. When the Nira water-works are completed, a large area of the Sub-division will be commanded. Besides 280 wells used for drinking purposes, about 1677- wells are used for irrigation. The raw sugar of Purandhar is much prized for its quality, which is said to be due to the peculiar practice of keeping the cane in the ground 18 months. The cane is planted in May or June, and cut in November or December of the following year. The chief crop is bdjra, which covers 48 per cent, of the whole area under tillage; the next is jodr, with 27-2 per cent. Of the whole area under cultivation, 51-5 per cent, are under early, and 48-5 per cent, under late crops. The height above the sea, the unfailing water-supply, and the woody valleys, combine to make Purandhar one of the pleasantest and healthiest parts of the District. The, western branch of the. Southern Marathd Railway (now under construction) traverses the Sub-division. The thrifty, skilful husbandmen, the Nira Canal, and railway communication, have combined to draw attention to Purandhar as the most favourable part of the Deccan in which to try the experiment of an agricultural bank. The area cultivated in 1881-82 was 124,046 acres, of which 2225 acres were twice cropped. Grain crops occupied 117,997 acres; pulses, 5233 acres; oil-seeds, 501 acres; fibres, 91 acres; and miscel laneous crops, 2449 acres, of which 1022 were under sugar-cane. In 1883 the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police circle (thana), 1; regular police, 58 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 233. Land revenue, ^9798. Purandhar. — Once a fortress, and now a sanitarium for European troops, in Purandhar Sub -division, Poona (Puna) District, Bombay Presidency. It really comprises two hill forts, Purandhar and Wazir garh, and lies in lat. 18° 16' 33" n., and long. 74° o' 45" e. ; 20 miles south-east of Poona city. The highest point of the mountain of Purandhar is upwards of 1700 feet above the plain below, and 4472 feet above sea-level. Purandhar is larger, higher, and more import ant than Wazirgarh. The summit of both hills is crowned with a masonry ruin studded here and there with bastions. Purandhar is varied by two elevations, on the higher of which, the loftiest point in the range, is a temple to Siva. The hill on which this temple stands is part of the upper fort of Purandhar. On the northern face of the hill, 300 feet below the temple and upwards of 1000 feet above the plain, 298 PURANDHAR SANITARIUM. runs a level terrace on which stands the military cantonment, flanked on the east by the barracks and on the west by the hospital. The northern edge of the terrace is defended by a low wall with several semicircular bastions, and a gate flanked by two towers. This is called the Machi or terrace fort. At the foot of the hill is a well-built rest- house, from which the ascent leads by a wide, easy road. From the middle of the cantonment, a winding road, 830 yards long, runs towards the upper fort, ending in a flight of rude stone steps which wind between a loop-holed wall of masonry and the basalt cliff on which the fort stands. A sharp turn leads suddenly to the Delhi Gate, flanked by solid bastion towers. The defences, like most of the hill forts in this part of the country, are of perpendicular rock, and are weakened rather than strengthened by curtains and bastions of masonry. The earliest known mention of Purandhar is in the reign of the first Bahmani king, Ala-ud-din Hassan Gangu (1347-1358), who obtained possession of almost the whole of Maharashtra, from the Purandhar range to the Kaveri (Cauvery), and fortified Purandhar in 1350. During the early rule of the Bijapur and Ahmadnagar kings, Purandhar was among the forts which were reserved by the Government, and never entrusted to jdgirddrs or estate-holders. The fort of Purandhar passed to Malojf, the grandfather of Sivajf, when Bahudar Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar (1576-1599) granted him Poona and Supa. In 1665 it was invested by the forces of Aurangzeb, under the command of Raja" Jai Singh, the famous Rajput general, assisted by the Afghan Diler Khan. Though the defence by Baji Prabhu, a Dashpandya of Mhar, who was the commandant of the fort, was obstinate, Sivaji appears to have been so intimidated at the prospect of the fall of Purandhar that he surrendered it, together with Singhgarh, and entered the service of Aurangzeb. He revolted, however, and recaptured Purandhar in 1670. After the power of the Peshwas had superseded that of the descendants of Sivaji at Poona, Purandhar was the usual stronghold to which the Peshwas retreated when unable to remain in safety at their capital. In 18 18, Purandhar was invested by a British force under General Pritzler. On the 14th of March a mortar battery opened on it; and on the 15th, Wazirgarh admitted a British garrison. As Wazirgarh commanded Purandhar, the com mandant had to accept the terms given to that garrison, and the British colours were hoisted at Purandhar on the 16th March 1818. The fort commands a passage through the Ghats, called the Purandhar Ghat. Here, in .1776, was concluded a treaty between the British Government and the Maratha States; but its conditions were never fulfilled, being overruled by the subsequent treaty of Salbai in 1782 between the Bombay Government and Raghuba, at the close of the first Mardtha war. PURANIGUDAM—PURI. 299 Puranigudam. — River-side village in Nowgong District, Assam, whose inhabitants are engaged in fishing and trade. Purara. — Zaminddri or petty chiefship in the south-east of BhandaVa" District, Central Provinces, along the Bagh river ; comprising 7 villages. Area, 37 square miles, of which 7 are cultivated. Population (1881) 3517. The chief is a Gond, and the population consists mainly of Gonds and Goaras. The forests contain good building timber, but are infested by tigers. Purara., the chief village, is situated in lat. 21° 9' n., long. 80° 26' e. Puri. — A District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, forming the southern portion of the Orissa Division ; lying between 19° 27' 40" and 20° 16' 20'' n. lat., and between 85° o' 26" and 86° 28' e. long. Area, 2473 square miles; population (1881) 888,487 souls. Bounded on the north by the Government estate of Banki, and Athgarh Tributary State ; on the east and north-east by Cuttack District ; on the south east and south by the Bay of Bengal ; and on the west by the Madras District of Ganjam and the State of Ranpur. The head-quarters of the District are at Puri Town. Physical Aspects. — Puri District generally may be divided into three tracts — west, middle, and east. The western extends from the right bank of the Daya river across the stone country of Dahdimal and Khurdhd, till it rises into the hills of the Tributary States. It contains the only mountains found in Puri. A low range, beginning in Dompdra" and running south-east in an irregular line towards the Chilkd Lake, con stitutes a watershed between this tract and the Mahinadi river. The most important peaks are in the Khurdha Sub-division. On the north of the Chilkd they become bold and very varied in shape, and throw out spurs and promontories into the lake, forming island-studded bays, with fertile valleys running far inland between their ridges. The middle and eastern divisions consist entirely of alluvial plains, the south-western part of the Mahanadi delta. They are watered by a network of channels, through which the most southerly branch of that river, the Koyakhai, finds its way into the sea. The middle tract comprises the richest and most populous pargands of the District ; the eastern is less thickly peopled, and in the extreme east loses itself in the jungles around the mouths of the Devi stream. The following scheme briefly shows the river system of the District -.— Koyakhai Kusbhadra { l^bhadra} Kusbhadra } Ba? of BenSal- \ BhaVgavi BhaVgavi Bhargavi { Nun ) n . V Chilka Lake. ( Daya Daya All these rivers are navigable by large boats during the rainy season, but none is deep enough for boats of 100 maunds, or say 4 tons 3co PURI. burden, throughout the year. Only one of them, the Kusbhadra, enters the sea. It follows a very winding course, and is of little value for navigation. Its bed has silted up, and its floods devastate the surrounding country. The three rivers most important to the people of Puri are the Bhargavi, the Daya, and the Nun, which all enter the Chilka Lake after running widely diverse courses. In the rainy season they come down in tremendous floods, that burst the banks and carry everything before them. In the dry weather they die away into long shallow pools in the midst of vast expanses of sand. Their banks are generally abrupt, and in many parts are artificially raised and protected by strong dykes. The total length of Government embankments in Puri District amounted in 1866 to 316 J miles, with 43 sluices, main tained at an annual cost of £i, 16s. per mile. The total cost to Government of inundations in Puri District amounted, for construction of embankments, etc., and remission of revenue alone, to ,£79,963 in fifteen years, equivalent to a charge of 10 per cent, on the total land revenue of the District. In addition to this large sum, it is estimated that the single flood of 1866 destroyed standing crops to the value of £643,683 in Puri District alone, not withstanding that 10,620 acres of fertile land are permanently left untilled for fear of inundation. The truth is, that the Mahanadi, in time of flood, pours double the quantity of water into the Puri rivers that their channels are capable of carrying to the sea. The result is, that the surplus overflows, in spite of embankments and protective works. The whole District lives in readiness for such calamities ; and the deaths by drowning reported to the police, during the three years ending in 1870, averaged only 117 per annum. These figures, how ever, by no means represent the total loss of life from this cause. The excessive floods also render tillage precarious, and the crops uncertain ; so that in localities most subject to inundations, the rents are brought down to one-fifth of the rates obtained for the same quality of land in parts protected from the violence of the rivers. Of the 24 fiscal divisions (pargands) of the District, 12 are still so completely at the mercy of the rivers that more than 50 per cent, of their area was flooded in 1866. The coast-line of Puri consists of a belt of sandy ridges, varying from 4 miles to a few hundred yards in breadth. It contains no harbours of any importance. Puri port is simply an unprotected roadstead, open from the middle of September to the middle of March. During the remainder of the year, the surf does not allow of the vessels frequenting the port (chiefly country brigs) being laden or unladen. The principal lakes in the District are the Sar and the Chilka. The former is a backwater of the river Bhdrgavf, and is 4 miles long by 2 broad. The Chilka Lake is an inland sea in the extreme south-east corner PURL 3oi of Orissa, separated from the ocean by a narrow sandy ridge. On the west, the lake is hemmed in by lofty mountains, and on the south it is bounded by the hilly watershed separating Orissa from Madras. It is a pear-shaped expanse of water, 44 miles long, of which the northern half has a mean breadth of 20 miles, while the southern barely averages 5 miles. Its smallest area is returned at 344 square miles in the dry weather, increasing to about 450 in the rainy season. Its mean depth is from 3 to 5 feet, and its bed is in some parts slightly below low-water mark. From December to June the lake is salt. The theories respecting the origin of the Chilka are given at length in the article under that heading. The scenery of the lake is very varied, and in places exceedingly picturesque. On its eastern side lie the islands of Parikud, which have silted up behind, and are now partially joined to the ridge of land shutting off the Chilka from the sea. Salt- making is largely carried on in this part of the District. The Puri rivers enter the Chilka at its northern end ; and it is in the tracts situated here that the greatest suffering occurs in times of general inundation. There are no revenue-paying forests in Puri District ; but the jungles yield honey, beeswax, tasar silk, the dye called gundi, and various medicinal drugs. The timber-trees include sdl, sissu, ebony, jack-wood, mango, pidsdl, kurmd, etc. Bamboos and rattan-canes abound. Game of every kind is plentiful ; but in the open part of the country the larger wild beasts have been nearly exterminated. Of fishes there is an endless variety, and the fisheries have been estimated to give employment to 30,073 fishermen. History. — The general history of Puri is that of Orissa. The only two noteworthy political events that have taken place since the District passed into our hands, together with the rest of the Province, in 1803, are the rebellion of the Maharaja of Khurdha in 1804, and the rising of the pdiks or peasant militia in 1817-18. The Raja of Khurdhi, although stripped of a considerable portion of his territory, had been left by the Marathas in comparative indepen dence within his own kild or fort. When we entered the Province, the Raja passively espoused our cause, and the decision of the British Com missioners to retain the pargands taken by the Marathis was acquiesced in by him. But after the European troops had returned to Madras, and the native force at Cuttack had been considerably reduced by the necessity of establishing detached outposts in different parts of the country, the Rajd thought that a favourable opportunity had arrived for recovering the lost territory. As a tentative measure, he sent one of his servants in July 1804 to collect the rents of one of the villages, named Bdtgaon, lying within the Mughalbandi. This messenger was summarily ejected ; and the Commissioners addressed to the Raja" a strong remon- 3o2 PURI. strance, but the warning appears to have had but little effect. In September of the same year (1804), the Raja was detected in an intrigue relative to the affairs of the Puri temple. He was therefore forbidden to issue orders to any person whatever residing within the limits of Mughalbandi territory, without the express sanction of the Commissioners. • In October, exactly one month after the issue of this order, the Rajd's troops — if a disorderly mob of pdiks and peons can so be called — made a raid on the villages in the vicinity of Pippli ; and this affair, though partaking more of the nature of a large dakditi or gang-robbery than of an organized and preconcerted military aggression, occasioned con siderable alarm. The majority of our forces had returned to Madras, and what few troops remained behind were scattered over a large area. The nature of the country rendered speedy communication and rapid concentration impossible. Troops were sent for from Ganjam, and a detachment speedily marched from Cuttack. The rebels, driven out of Pippli, retreated to the fort at Khurdha, followed by our troops. In three weeks the approaches, which were stockaded and fortified with strong masonry barriers, were carried by storm ; but the Rajd made good his escape southwards. A few days later he surrendered, and his territory was confiscated. The Rajl was released in 1807 and allowed to reside in Puri, his estate being managed as a Government Mas mahdl, and an allowance made for his main tenance. In 1817, the. pdiks or landed militia rose in open rebellion against the oppressions suffered at the hands of the farmers, sarbardhkdrs, and other underlings, to whom was entrusted the collection of the revenue ; and also against the tyrannies of a venal police. They found a natural leader in one Jagabandhu, an officer who had inherited from his ancestors the post of commander of the forces of the Rajd of Khurdha, and ranked next to the Raja" himself. He had been unlaw fully deprived of his estate, and reduced to beggary. For nearly two years he derived his maintenance from the voluntary contributions of the people, and wandered about attended by a ragged band of followers, bearing the insignia pertaining to his former position. The rebels first attacked the police station and Government offices at Banpur, where they killed upwards of a hundred men, and carried off about £1500 of treasure. The civil buildings at Khurdha were burnt to the ground; and another body of the insurgents advanced into Lembai pargand, and murdered one of our native officials, who had incurred their displeasure. On the report of these occurrences, the authorities at Cuttack at once despatched a force, one detachment of which marched direct to Khurdhd, and another to Pippli. After some severe fighting, British PURI. 303 authority soon re-established itself everywhere. The Rdjd was captured in Puri town as he was on the point of taking flight, and was removed to Calcutta, and placed in confinement in Fort William, where he died in November 1817. The country has been gradually restored to order and tranquillity ; and at the present day, Khurdha is a profitable Government property, and the cultivators are a contented and prosperous class. The present Rdjd of Puri was convicted in 1878 of murder, and sentenced to penal servitude for life. Puri district is of surpassing interest as containing the sacred shrine of Jaganndth, which, with the festivals held there, is fully described in the article on Puri Town. Population. — A Census, roughly taken by the police in 1854, returned the population of Puri District at 700,000. In 1866, after the famine, the houses were counted by the police, and, after allowing 5 inhabit ants to each house, the population was estimated at 528,712. The regular Census of 1872 disclosed a total population of 769,674 persons, dwelling in 3175 villages and 143,920 houses. The Census of 1881 returned the population at 888,487, showing an increase of 118,813, or 15-43 per cent, in nine years. The general results arrived at by the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows : — Area of District, 2473 square miles; number of towns and villages, 5166; number of houses, 127,369. Total popula tion 888,487, namely, males 446,609, and females 441,878; proportion of males, 50-2 per cent. Average density of population, 359 persons per square mile; average number of inhabitants per village, 172; average number of persons per house, 6-9. Classified as to sex and age, there are — under 15 years, males 175,545, and females 169,659; total children, 345,204, or 38-8 per cent, ofthe total population : above 15 years, males 271,064, and females 272,219; total adults, 543,283, or 6 1 -2 per cent. Classified according to religion, Hindus numbered 873,664, or 98-3 per cent, of the District population; Muhammadans, 14,003, or i-6 per cent; Christians, 819; and Sikh, 1. Among the higher classes of Hindus, Brahmans number 88,692; Rajputs, 3898; Karans, 28,738 ; Khanddits, 18,742 ; and Baniyas, 14,054. Other castes include the following — Chasa, the principal agricultural class and most numerous caste in the District, 217.406; Baurf, 69,307; Goala, 66,662; Teli, 38,916; Siidra, 29,357 ; Keut or Kewat, 28,476; Ndpit, 20,094; Kanddra, 16,739; Dhobi, r-4,w, Tdnti, 12,787; Mali, 12,059; Barhai, 11,680; Kumbhar, 11,448; Hari, 7617; Lohdr, 6454; and Pan, 6124. Caste-rejecting Hindus number 7702, of whom 7273 are Vaishnavs. The Muhammadans are sub-divided according to sect into Sunnis, 13,317 ; Shids, 316 ; and unspecified, 370. The Christian population comprises — Europeans, 19 ; Eurasians, 31 ; and natives, 3o4 PURI. 769. The bulk of the native Christians are Baptists (754)1 that sect having a mission station at Pippli, with 522 followers in 1881. The native population is nominally divided according to the ancient fourfold classification of Brdhmans, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Siidras. In reality, it is divided into the Brdhmans, or priests ; the Kshattriyas, or royal and military class ; and the Siidras, who comprise the residue ofthe population. In order, however, to maintain some show of keep ing up the ancient fourfold division, several classes are admitted to hold a position half-way between the Siidras and the Kshattriyas. The most important of these are the Karans, who correspond to the Kayasths or writer caste of Bengal. The bulk of the population consist of Uriyd-speaking castes, but many little colonies from other parts of India have settled in the District. There is a considerable sprinkling of Bengalis among the officials and landed classes. A number of Telingas have come from the south, and established themselves on the shores of the Chilkd; and around the mouths of the rivers. Almost the whole boat traffic of the District is in their hands. The Kumtis are immigrants from the adjoin- ng District of Ganjdm. The trading classes contain families who have come from Bhojpur, Bundelkhand, and other parts of North-Western India. A scattered Mardtha population survives from the time when the country was in the hands of their race. They live chiefly by trade, or enjoy little grants of land, and form a very respectable, although not a numerous, class. The Musalmans, who also represent a once domi nant race in Orissa, exhibit no such powers of adapting themselves to their altered circumstances. They are generally poor, proud, and discontented. They include representatives of Afghdn families from beyond the confines of Northern India; but, as a rule, they are the descendants of the common soldiery, camp-followers, and low-caste Hindu converts. There are also two hill tribes, the Kandhs and the Savars or Saurds ; for a furthur account of whom, see Orissa Tributary States. The population of the District is entirely rural, and the only town containing upwards of five thousand inhabitants is Puri itself, with a resident population (1881) of 22,095. There are 3871 villages with less than two hundred inhabitants; 1098 with from two to five hundred; 185 with from five hundred to a thousand; 11 with from one to two thousand; and 1 with upwards of twenty thousand; total, 5166. The chief towns in the District are — Puri, the capital, and the seat of the worship of Jaganndth; population (1881) 22,095 : Pippli, 25 miles from Puri, the centre of considerable trade in rice and cloth, and a station ofthe Baptist Mission: and Bhuvaneswar, the temple city of Siva, and a place of pilgrimage, containing shrines in every stage of Orissa art. PURI. 305 Buddhism, for ten centuries, was the prevailing religion of Orissa ; but its only existing traces are to be found in the cave dwellings and rock habitations of the priests and hermits, and in recently deciphered inscriptions. Their principal settlement was at Khandgiri, about half-way between Puri and Cuttack. The Snake, Elephant, and Tiger Caves here (for a description of the latter see Udayagiri), and a two- storied monastery, known as the Queen's Palace (Rani-nur), are the most interesting excavations. They form relics of the three distinct phases through which Buddhism passed. The first, or ascetic age, is represented by the single sandstone cells, scarcely bigger than the lair of a wild beast, and almost as inaccessible ; the second, or ceremonial age, is shown in the pillared temples for meetings of the brotherhood, with commodious chambers for the spiritual heads attached to them ; the third, or fashionable age of Buddhism, reached its climax in the Queen's Palace, adorned with a sculptured biography of its founder. Sun-worship is one of the religions into which Buddhism disintegrated ; and the most exquisite memorial of this is the temple of Kanarak upon the Orissa shore, now a picturesque ruin. (For a full account of these temples, see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xix. pp. 72-91.) Material Condition of the People. — The people are poor, and appear even poorer than they are. They wear inferior clothes to men of the same class in other Districts. The well-to-do settlers from the south are distinguished by their earrings and necklaces of gold. A respect able shopkeeper's house is built principally of wattle and mud. The front verandah is of brick, and the roof of thatch, firmly fixed on a good bamboo or wooden frame. The dwelling of a., prosperous merchant or landholder, with an income of £100 a year, consists of a series of houses built round two courts, which lead one into the other, with the road in front of the outer court, and a garden behind the inner one. The outer court is bordered by the chambers of the male members of the family, and the inner court by the women's apartments, the family storehouses, and the cook-room. The furniture of such a house would consist of a few low bedsteads, a press or two, some wooden stools, a few broken chairs, and perhaps a striped cotton carpet for the reception-room. The dwellings of the common people consist of sheds or thatched huts built round a court. The outer apartments are used by the men, and for the cattle. The inner are devoted to the women, to the cook-room, and the storehouse. The food of a well-to-do shopkeeper comprises the following articles : — Rice, split-peas, vegetables, fish, milk, ghi or clarified butter, curds, and occasionally goat's flesh. The family of a husbandman in good circumstances, consisting of six persons, and able to spend Rs. 8, or sixteen shillings, a month, would consume the following food per diem :— 5 sers (10 lbs.) of rice, 2 dnnds 8 pies, or fourpence ; vege- vol. xi. u 306 PURI. tables or split-peas and fish, 6 pies, or three-farthings ; and oil and spice, 6 pies, or three-farthings. As regards occupation, the Census Report returns the male population under the following six main headings: — Class (i) Professional, includ ing civil and military, 19,459; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging- house keepers, 4391 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, traders, carriers, etc., 6156; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 146,177 ; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, including all artisans, 59,519; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising male children and 34,637 general labourers, 210,907. Agriculture. — No trustworthy figures are available for the area under cultivation. In 1870 it was returned at n 58 square miles, out of a then total area of 2504 square miles. For the purposes of the Census the area was taken at 2473 square miles, of which about 800,000 acres are estimated as under cultivation. Of rice crops, the following are the most important : — The bidli, sdrad, ddlud, and mandud. The sarad or winter crop is usually transplanted, a process ensuring a much larger return. Pulses, jute, hemp, flax, and oil-seeds are also grown. Among miscellaneous crops are — tobacco, grown on low moist lands ; cotton, sown early in the cold weather, and reaped in May or June, on sdrad rice land ; sugar-cane, on high land, with abundant moisture, or with capabilities for irrigation ; turmeric (haldi); bdigun (Solanum melongena), on homestead land ; potatoes, red pepper, and pan or betel-leaf. Manure is sparingly employed; irrigation is effected from wells,tanks, and rivers. Rotation of crops is not very generally practised. The total crop of rice is estimated at about 5 millions of cwts. ; the cotton at about 21,000 cwts. ; and the pulses at about 25,000 cwts. It is estimated tbat about 60,000 cwts. of rice are annually exported — one-third by sea, and two-thirds by land and the Chilkd Lake; but the above figures must be received with caution. The yield per acre is from 16 to 36 cwts. of unhusked paddy, and from 8 to 16 cwts. of husked rice. The average out-turn from fair land may be put down at 10 cwts. of rice. Thirty acres forms a large holding, and 80 acres an unusually large one. A husbandman with 10 acres is supposed to be as well off as a small retail shopkeeper, or a servant earning about Rs. 8, or 16s., a month. The husbandman dresses worse, but he has more to eat. The cultivators, as a class, are deeply in debt to the landholders, who make advances of money and rice to their tenants. A large proportion of them hold at fixed rates, and represent the thdni rdyats of the Settle ment papers, who hold their land under leases (kdlipattds), granted by the Settlement officers in 1836-37, and remaining in force until the next Settlement in 1897. The average rates of rent in Puri District vary from 6s. 3d. in the deltaic upland to 3s. 3d. in the neighbourhood PURI. 307 of the Chilkd Lake. -The average for sdrad rice land yielding only one crop is 5s. iod. per acre ; for the same land yielding a second crop of cotton, 6s. 3d. Of land suited to special crops, sugar-cane land fetches 10s. per acre ; tobacco land, 14s. ; and/i« land, £1, 5s. Wages are lower in Puri than in Cuttack or Balasor. The most common rate of wages for permanent employment is Rs. 2, or 4s., per month, with a suit of cold-weather and warm-weather clothing : altogether, this would be in money Rs. 24, or £2, 8s., a year; in clothes, Rs. 3, or 6s. ; and in occasional donations, Rs. 6, or 12s. : in all, Rs. 33, or £1, 6s., a year. For occasional labour, the rate is from 3d. to 4d. per diem. Skilled labour fetches about 6d. a day. In salt manufacture, the rate of remuneration is 2 annas, or 3d., per maund (82 lbs.) of the out-turn, all at the risk of the labourer. It takes four men to make 400 maunds of salt in a fair season of three months ; and in the end it has been estimated that they will receive only Rs. 50, or £5. The average price of rice (calculated from the prices between 187 1 and 1874) was — in Puri Sub-division, 29 sers per rupee, or 3s. iod. per cwt., and in Khurdhd Sub-division, 30 sers per rupee, or 3s. 9d. per cwt. The average price of pulses in Khurdhd was 11 sers per rupee, or 10s. 2d. per cwt. In 1883-84, the price of common rice was 24^ sers per rupee, or 4s. 7 J-d. per cwt. ; and of wheat nf sers per rupee, or 9s. 6d. per cwt. The price of ordinary coarse rice has doubled within the last thirty years. Thus people are working at the same rate of wages now, when a rupee buys only about 25 sers of rice, as prevailed formerly when 64 sers could be bought for the same sum. Natural Calamities. — The District is liable to disastrous floods and famines. Of the thirty -two years ending 1866, twenty-four were years of flood so serious as to require remissions of revenue to the extent of £41,993. If to this we add £1393 remitted for the drought in 1865-66, we have a total loss of £43,386. At the same time, the sum of £35,577 had been expended by Government on embank ments and other protective works. In 7 villages, on the north of the Chilkd, one-fourth of the whole area is exempt from assessment on account ofits exposure to inundation. By the flood of 1866, more than 412,000 persons were driven suddenly out of house and home into the midst of a sea between 7 and 9 feet deep. The unhappy inhabitants of this region live in a constant state of preparation. Most of the hamlets have boats tied to the houses ; and for miles, the high thatched roofs are firmly held down by bamboo stakes, so as to afford a refuge in time of flood. In 1866 the destruction of human life was great; the cattle, too, suffered terribly. Inundations are, as a rule, more calamitous than droughts, for, even if the rivers fail, the Province has its own local annual rainfall of 55 inches in reserve. The famine of 1866 is estimated to have caused a mortality of not less than 35-81 per cent. 308 PURI. on a population returned in that year at 588,841. -(For a further account of the great famine of 1866, see Orissa.) Manufactures, etc. — Apart from a little weaving and pottery-making, the only manufacture of Puri is salt, which is made by solar evapora tion, principally in Parikud and the tract to the north and east of the Chilkd Lake. The process has already been described in the article on Parikud. Speaking generally, a Pdrikud salt-field consists of a little canal from the Chilkd ' workings,' diverging at right angles upon either side. Each working is composed of a row of four tanks and a network of shallow pools, and is managed by from three to five men, who are paid by results, and earn about Rs. 3, or 6s., a month. The total cost of salt made in this way is about 8d. per cwt. In 1875-76, the total amount of salt manufactured in Puri was 67,170 maunds, realizing £38,544. In 1882-83, 120,407 maunds of salt were manufactured in Puri District. The value of the sea-borne trade ofthe District in 1874-75 was £6066; 32 vessels, with a tonnage of 10,553, entered Puri Port. In 1883-84, 38 vessels entered, and the same number cleared from Puri Port in 1883-84, of a total burthen of 159,045 tons; value of imports, £21,253; exports, £67,260. In January 1876, a system of traffic registration was introduced on the Grand Trunk Road between Calcutta and Madras, the registering station being at Rambhd, on the Chilkd Lake, just beyond the Puri frontier. The chief exports from Puri are pulses, rice, vegetables, metals, salt, drugs, cotton, and silk goods. The imports include salt, unrefined sugar, and spices. The two main lines of road in Puri Dis trict are the Calcutta and Madras Trunk Road, and the Pilgrim Road from Cuttack to Puri. Administration. — In 1877-78, the revenue of Puri District was returned at £62,512. In 1883-84, the six principal items of the District revenue aggregated £67,773, made up as follows : — Land revenue, £47,369; excise, £9207; stamps, £6896; registration, £554; road cess, £2555; and municipal rates, £1192. The land- tax amounted to £44,707 in 1829-30, to £45,973 in 1850-51, to £47,963 in 1870-71, and to £47i309 in 1883-84. Between 1850 and 1883-84, the number of separate estates had risen from 272 to 458, and the number of proprietors from 910 to 7252. Average payment by each estate in 1883-84, £103, 8s. 6d., by each individual proprietor, £6, 10s. 7d. In 1828-29 there were only three courts, revenue and judicial, in the District; in 1850 there were 7; in 1883-84, 8. In 1828-29 there was only 1 covenanted officer; there are now (1884) 3- The regular and municipal police force in 1883 consisted of 426 men of all ranks, main tained at a total cost of £6847. There is also a rural or village police, numbering 2045 in 1883, and maintained at an estimated cost both in PURI SUB-DIVISION. 309 money and lands of £2517. The total machinery, therefore, for protecting person and property consisted of 2471 officers and men, giving 1 man to every square mile of area, or to every 360 of popula tion. Total estimated cost, £9364, equal to an average of £3, 15s. 8|d. per square mile of area, or 2^d. per head of population. The total number of persons convicted of an offence in ' cognisable ' and ' non- cognisable' cases in 1883, was 2 151, or 1 to every 413 of the popula tion. There are 2 jails in Puri, namely the District jail at the civil station, and a Sub-divisional lock-up at Khurdha. In 1883 the daily average number of prisoners was 98, of whom 4-50 were females. In 1872-73, the number of inspected schools was 112, attended by 2802 pupils. By March 1884, as the result of Sir George Campbell's educational reforms, the number of schools brought under the inspec tion of the Educational Department had risen to upwards of 2000, and the pupils to 20,000. The Census Report of 188 1 returned 14,521 boys and 1081 girls as under instruction, besides 29,157 males and 1460 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. A Sanskrit school has been established in Puri town. The District contains one municipality, namely Puri town. The municipal income in 1876-77 amounted to ,£914, and in 1883-84 to £1927; average incidence of taxation (1883-84), nfd. per head of population (24,336) within municipal limits. Temperature, etc. — The average annual rainfall is 56-24 inches. The prevailing diseases of the District are malarial fever in all its varieties, elephantiasis, dysentery, and cholera. Fairs and religious gatherings are the great predisposing causes of epidemics. The Puri pilgrim hospital and dispensary is the principal medical charity of the District ; branch dispensaries at Khurdhd and Pippli. These hospitals and dispensaries afforded medical relief in 1883-84 to 559 in-door and 12,326 out-door patients. The total number of deaths registered in Puri District in 1883 was 18,019, equal to a death-rate of 20-28 per thousand. The principal cattle diseases are guti, or cattle small-pox, andphdtud, or hoof-disease, which occasionally break out in an epidemic form, and are extremely fatal. [For further particulars regarding Puri, see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. W. Hunter, vol. xviii. pp. 17-192 (Triibner & Co., London, 1877). Also Report of the Com missioners to enquire into the Famine in Bengal and Orissa in 1866 ; the Bengal Census Reports for 1872 and 1881 ; and the several annual Bengal Administration and Departmental Reports from 1880 to 1884.] Puri.— Head-quarters Sub-division of Puri District, Bengal. Area, 1530 square miles : villages, 3852 ; houses, 97,i32- Population (1881) 565,082, namely, males 284,748, and females 280,334. Hindus number 557,379; Muhammadans, 7 114; and Christians, 589. Average number of persons per square mile, 369 ; villages per square mile, 2-52 ; persons 310 PURI TOWN. per village, 146 ; houses per square mile, 72-7 ; inmates per house, 5-8. This Sub-division includes the 3 police circles (thdnds) of Puri, Gop, and Pippli. In 1883 it contained 1 civil and 5 magisterial courts ; with a regular police force numbering 311 officers and men, and a village watch or rural police 1638 strong. Puri (commonly known as Jaganndth). — Chief town of Puri District, Bengal; situated on the coast, in lat. 19° 48' 17" n., and long. 85° 51' 39" e., separated from the sea by low sandy ridges. In 1825, according to Stirling, it contained 5741 houses. In 1841 the houses numbered 6620, inhabited by 23,766 persons. The Census of 1872 disclosed a population of 22,695, of whom 12,077 were males and 10,618 females. In 1881 the population was returned at 22,095, namely, males 11,769, and females 10,326. Municipal income (1883-84), £1927. The number of Hindus in 1881 was 21,913; of Muhammadans, 181; and 'other,' 1. This is the ordinary resident population, but during the great festivals of Jaganndth the number is sometimes swollen by as many as a hundred thousand pilgrims. Puri covers an area of 1837 acres, including the whole kshetra or sacred precincts of the town. It is a city of lodging-houses, being destitute alike of manufactures or commerce on any considerable scale, The streets are mean and narrow, with the exception of the principal avenue, which leads from the temple to the country-house of Jaganndth. The houses are built of wattle covered with clay, raised on platforms of hard mud, about 4 feet high, and many of them gaily painted with Hindu gods, or with scenes from the Sanskrit epics. The intervening sandhills between the town and the beach intercept the drainage, and aggravate the diseases to which the overcrowding of the pilgrims gives rise. The sanitary measures which have been taken for the improve ment of the town are of three kinds, — the first directed to lessen the number of pilgrims ; the second, to mitigate the dangers of the road ; and the third, to prevent epidemics in the town. In seasons of cholera or other great calamity in Orissa, it would be possible to check the pilgrim stream, by giving warning in the Government Gazette, and through the medium of the vernacular papers. This was done in the famine year 1866, and native opinion supported the action of Government. But such interference is resorted to only under extreme circumstances. The second set of preventive measures can be applied with greater ease, and with more certain results. Thousands of pilgrims die annually upon the journey from exhaustion and want of food, nor does it seem possible to lessen the number of deaths from these causes. Within the last twenty years, pilgrim hospitals have been opened along the main lines of road, and a medical patrol has been, through the energy and devotion ofthe Civil Surgeon of Puri, established in the vicinity of the PURI TOWN. 311 holy city. Great good has been effected by these means ; but a heavy drawback to their utility consists in the fact that the devotees will only enter an hospital at the last extremity, and the surgeons say that the great majority of pilgrim patients are beyond the reach of aid when they are brought in. Cuttack city, the capital of Orissa, formerly suffered terribly from the passage of the pilgrim army ; but a sanitary cordon is now maintained, and the result upon the public health has been marvellous. This in expensive quarantine might easily be applied to other municipalities along the pilgrim highway. The devotees suffer no inconvenience ; for as soon as the change in their route is known, little hamlets of grain- sellers spring up outside the cordon. Indeed, the pilgrims would be gainers by the change, in so far as they could purchase their food free of octroi or other municipal charges, where such dues are enforced. The great difficulty has been to check the overcrowding in Puri town. In 1866, a Bill was introduced into the Bengal Council for the better regulation of the lodging-houses for pilgrims, and finally passed with amendments in 1868. It provides for the appointment of a health officer, to inspect the lodging-houses, and report on them to the Magistrate. Under this Act, no house may be opened without a licence ; and licences are granted only upon a certificate from the sur geon, stating the suitability of the tenement for the purpose, and the number of persons which it can properly accommodate. Except in cases where the lodging-house keepers are persons of known respectability, their establishments continue under the surveillance of the health officer, and penalties are provided for wilful overcrowding, and similar breaches of the licence. Much good has resulted from the operation of this Act. The Government offices lie upon the beach, with the sandy ridge between them and the town. The site is salubrious ; but the dwellings of the English residents barely number 6 thatched cottages, much out of repair. The monsoon blows so fresh and cool from the sea, that in former days the officials from Cuttack used regularly to come to Puri during the hot weather. During the rains it is less healthy. The following description of the shrine of Jaganndth at Puri is condensed from the present author's Orissa (vol. i. chaps. 3 and 4) : — For two thousand years, Orissa has been the Holy Land of the Hindus ; and from the moment the pilgrim passes the Baitarani river, on the high road 40 miles north-east of Cuttack, he treads on holy ground. The Province is divided into four great regions of pilgrimage. On crossing the stream, the devotee enters Jajpur (lit. ' City of Sacri fice '), sacred to Pdrvati, the wife of Siva. To the south-east lie the matchless ruins, the relics of sun-worship in Orissa ; to the south-west, the temple city of Siva; and beyond this, nearly due south, is the 312 PURI TOWN region of pilgrimage beloved of Vishnu, known to every hamlet through out India as the abode of Jaganndth, the Lord of the World. As the outlying position of Orissa long saved it from conquest, and from that desecration of ancient Hindu shrines and rites which marks the Muhammadan line of march through India, so Puri, built upon its extreme south-eastern shore, and protected on the one side by the surf, and on the other by swamps and inundations, is the corner of Orissa which has been most left to itself. On these inhospitable sands, Hindu religion and Hindu superstition have stood at bay for eighteen centuries against the world. Here is the national temple, whither the people flock to worship from every Province of India. Here is the Swarga-dwdra, the Gate of Heaven, whither thousands of pilgrims come to die, lulled to their last sleep by the roar ofthe ocean. This great yearning after Jaganndth is to some extent the result of centuries of companionship in suffering between the people and their god. In every disaster of Orissa, Jaganndth has borne his share. In every flight of the people before an invading power, he has been their companion. The priests, indeed, put the claims of their god upon higher ground. ' In the first boundless space ' they say, ' dwelt the Great God, whom men call Ndrdyan, or Parameswara, or Jaganndth.' But without venturing beyond this world's history, the earliest of Orissa traditions discloses Puri as the refuge of an exiled creed. In the uncertain dawn of Indian history, the highly spiritual doctrines of Buddha obtained shelter here ; and the Golden Tooth of the founder of the Buddhist faith remained for centuries at Puri, then the Jerusalem of the Buddhists, as it has been for centuries that of the Hindus. Jaganndth makes his first historical appearance in the year 318 a.d., when the priests fled with the sacred image and left an empty city to Rakta Bahu and his buccaneers (see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xviii. p. 182). For a century and a half the idol remained buried in the western jungles, till a pious prince drove out the foreigners and brought back the deity. Three times it has been buried in the Chilka Lake ; and whether the invaders were pirates from the sea, or the devouring cavalry of Afghdnistdn, the first thing that the people saved was their god. The true source of Jaganndth's undying hold upon the Hindu race consists in the fact that he is the god of the people. The poor outcast learns that there is a city on the far eastern shore, in which priest and peasant are equal in the presence of the ' Lord of the World.' In the courts of Jaganndth, and outside the Lion Gate, 100,000 pilgrims every year join in the sacrament of eating the holy food, the sanctity of which overleaps all barriers of caste, race, and hostile faiths. A Puri priest will receive food from a Christian's hand. The PURI TOWN 313 worship of Jaganndth, too, aims at a Catholicism which embraces every form of Indian belief and every Indian conception of the deity. He is Vishnu, under whatever form and by whatever title men call upon his name. The fetishism of the aboriginal races, the mild flower- worship of the Vedas, and the lofty spiritualities of the great Indian reformers, have alike found refuge here. Besides thus representing Vishnu in all his manifestations, the priests have superadded the worship of the other members of the Hindu trinity in their various shapes; and the disciple of every Hindu sect can find his beloved rites, and some form of his chosen deity, within the sacred precincts. In the legendary origin of Jaganndth (see Statistical Account oj Bengal, vol. xix. pp. 43-46), we find the aboriginal people worshipping a blue stone in the depths of the forest. But the deity at length wearies of primitive jungle offerings, and longs for the cooked food of the more civilised Aryans, upon whose arrival on the scene the rude blue stone gives place to a carved image. At the present day, in every hamlet of Orissa, this twofold worship co- exists. The common people have their shapeless stone or block, which they adore with simple rites in the open air; while side by side with it stands a temple to one of the Aryan gods, with its carved idol and elaborate rites. Whenever the villagers are questioned about their creed, the same answer is invariably given. ' The common people have no idea of religion, but to do right, and to worship the village god.' The first part of the legend of Jaganndth shadows forth the original importation of Vishnu-worship by an Aryan king from the north-west, and its amalgamation with the aboriginal rites existing in Orissa. It is noteworthy, that although a Brahman figures in this as in all of the religious legends of the Hindus, he is not the principal person. An ancient text mentions Vishnu as the special god of the kingly and warrior caste ; and it is the king who plays the chief part in introducing his worship. The worship of Vishnu was not the first form of Aryan faith in these remote jungles. For centuries before the birth of Christ, the rock caves of Orissa resounded with the chants of Buddhist monks. But about the 4th century of our era, Buddhism gradually gave way to other developments of spiritual life, which took the form of Siva- worship. The great temple city of Siva, Bhuvaneswar, dates from the 7th century. Both Sivaism and Vishnuism were attempts to bring the gods down to men. The former plunged boldly into the abyss of super stition, and erected its empire without shame or scruple upon the ignorance and terrors of the people. The worship of Vishnu shrank from such lengths, and tried to create a system wide enough and 314 PURI TOWN. strong enough for a national religion, by mixing a somewhat less base alloy with the fine gold of Aryan spirituality. It was a religion in all things graceful. Its gods are bright, friendly beings, who walk and converse with men. Its legends breathe an almost Grecian beauty. But pastoral simplicities and an exquisite ritual had no chance against a system like Sivaism, that pandered to the grossest superstition of the masses. In the nth century, the Vishnuite doctrines were gathered into a great religious treatise, which forms one ofthe 18 Purdna s or 'Ancient Sayings ; devoted to Hindu mythology and legendary history. The Vishnu Purdna, dating from about 1045 A-D-> starts with an intolerance equal to that of the ancient code of Manu ; and its stately theogony disdains to touch the legends of the people. Its cosmography is confined to the Aryan world. It declares, indeed, that there is one God ; but this God is the God of the Brdhmans, to whom he has given the earth as an inheritance, and in whose eyes the ancient races are as demons or wild beasts. Vishnuism had to preach a far different doctrine before it could become, as it has for ages been, the popular religion of Orissa. From the 12th century a curious change took place. Jaganndth, who had ever been the companion of the ruling race in Orissa, began to appeal to the eternal instincts of human liberty and equality. The movement first commenced in Southern India, where Rdmanuja about 1 150 a.d. preached from city to city the unity of God under the title of Vishnu, the Cause and the Creator of all. The preacher made converts from every class, but it was reserved for his successors formally to enunciate equality of caste before God as an article of the Vishnuite faith. In 1 1 74 a.d., King Anang Bhim Deo ascended the throne of Orissa. He ruled all the country from the Hiigli river on the north to the Godavari on the south, and from the forests of Sonpur on the west, east ward to the Bay of Bengal. But in the midst of his prosperity he was struck down by a great calamity. He unhappily slew a Brahman ; and the rest of his life became one grand expiation of his guilt. Tradition relates that he bridged ten broad rivers, constructed \$2 ghdts or landing- stages, and countless other public works. Among the temples that he built was the shrine of Jaganndth. Gold and jewels to the value of a million and a half measures of gold were set apart for the work, being estimated at half a million sterling in the money of our time. For four teen years the artificers laboured, and the temple was finished, as it now stands, in 1198 a.d. At the end of the 13th century, according to some authorities — at the end ofthe 14th, according to others — the great reformation took place, which made Vishnu-worship a national religion in India. Rdmanand PURI TO WN 3>S and Kabfr (1380-1420 a.d.) were the first reformers. The moral code of the latter consists in humanity, truthfulness, retirement, and obedience to the spiritual guide. Kabfr was followed by Chaitanya, the great prophet of Orissa, who was born in 1485, and miraculously disappeared in 1527. According to his doctrine, no caste and no race was beyond the pale of salvation. Chaitanya is the apostle of the common people, being generally adored in connection with Vishnu ; and of such joint temples there are at present 800 in the Province. The death of this reformer marks the beginning of the spiritual decline of Vishnu- worship. As early as 1520, a new teacher, Val- labha-Swami, appeared in Northern India, preaching that God was not to be sought in nakedness, hunger, and solitude, but amid the enjoyments of this world. Vishnu was adored in his pastoral incar nation as Krishna, leading a glorious Arcadian life in the forest, and surrounded by everything that appeals to the sensuousness of a tropical race. His great annual ceremony is the Car Festival, hereafter to be described. In a religion of this sort, great abuses are inevitable. The most deplorable of its corruptions at the present day is that which has covered the temple walls with indecent sculptures, and filled their innermost sanctuaries with licentious rites. It is very difficult for a person not a Hindu to pronounce upon the real extent of this evil. None but a Hindu can enter any of the larger temples, and none but a Hindu priest really knows the truth about their inner mysteries. But between Vishnuism and Love -worship there is but a step, and this step has been formally and publicly taken by a large sect of Vishnuites. The devotion of centuries has made Jaganndth a very wealthy god ; but it is difficult to form anything like an accurate estimate of his present income. During the twenty - one years ending 1831, the pilgrim tax yielded a net total of £139,000, or £6619 a year, after deducting £5955 a year from the gross returns for the temple expenses and charges. It was felt, however, that the money thus received was to a certain extent the price of a State sanction to idolatry, and in 1840 the Government abolished the tax, and made over the entire management of the temple to the Rajds of Khurdhd. A moderate computation estimated the offerings to the priests at twice the gross sum which the British officers realized as pilgrim tax; and now that the tax is withdrawn and the pilgrims enter the city so much the richer, the oblations cannot fall much short of three times the amount. This would yield a yearly sum of £37,000, which, added to the £4000 derived from the temple lands, and to the revenues of the religious houses valued at £27,000, makes the total income of Jaganndth not less than £68,000 per annum. It may be mentioned that Ranjit Singh bequeathed the celebrated 316 PURI TOWN. Koh-i-Nur diamond, now one of the Crown jewels of England, to Jaganndth. The immediate attendants on the god are divided into 36 orders and 97 classes, at the head of whom is the Rdjd of Khurdhd, the repre sentative of the ancient royal house of Orissa, who takes upon himself the lowly office of sweeper to Jaganndth. Decorators of the idol, priests of the wardrobe, cooks, dancing-girls, grooms, and artisans of every sort, follow. A special department keeps up the temple records, and affords a literary asylum to a few learned men. The Temple. — The sacred enclosure is nearly in the form of a square, 652 feet long, and 630 broad. The interior is protected from profane eyes by a massive stone wall 20 feet high. Within rise about 120 temples, dedicated to the various forms in which the Hindu mind has imagined its god. But the great pagoda is the one dedicated to Jaganndth. Its conical tower rises like an elaborately carved sugar-loaf, 192 feet high, black with time, and surmounted by the mystic wheel and flag of Vishnu. Outside the principal entrance, or Lion Gate, in the square where the pilgrims chiefly throng, is an exquisite monolithic pillar which stood for centuries before the Temple of the Sun, twenty miles up the coast. The temple of Jaganndth consists of 4 chambers, communicating with each other, viz. — the Hall of Offerings ; the Pillared Hall for the musicians and dancing-girls ; the Hall of Audience ; and, lastly, the Sanctuary itself, containing rude images of Jaganndth, his brother Balabhadra, and his sister Subhadra. Jaganndth is represented without arms. The service of the temple consists partly in a daily round of oblations, and partly in sumptuous ceremonials at stated periods throughout the year. The offerings are bloodless ; but, nevertheless, within the sacred enclosure is a shrine to Bimala, the ' stainless ' queen of the All-Destroyer, who is annually adored with bloody sacrifices. Twenty- four festivals are held, consisting chiefly of Vishnuite commemora tions, but freely admitting the ceremonials of other sects. At the Red Powder Festival, Vishnu and Siva enjoy equal honours ; in the festival of the slaughter of the deadly cobra-de-capello (KaK damana), the familiar of Siva and his queen, the supremacy of Vishnu is declared. But the Car Festival is the great event of the year. It takes place in June or July, and for weeks beforehand the whole District is in a ferment. The great car is 45 feet in height and 35 feet square, and is supported on 16 wheels of 7 feet diameter. The brother and sister of Jaganndth have separate cars a few feet smaller. When the sacred images are at length brought forth and placed upon their chariots, thousands fall on their knees and bow their foreheads in the dust. The vast multitude shouts with one throat, and, surging back- PURI TOWN. 317 wards and forwards, drags the wheeled edifices down the broad streets towards the country-house of lord Jaganndth. Music strikes up before and behind, drums beat, cymbals clash, the priests harangue from the cars, or shout a sort of fescennine medley enlivened with broad allusions and coarse gestures, which are received with roars of laughter by the crowd. The distance from the temple to the country-house is less than a mile ; but the wheels sink deep into the sand, and the journey takes several days. After hours of severe toil and wild excitement in the tropical sun, a reaction necessarily follows. The zeal of the pilgrims flags before the garden-house is reached ; and the cars, deserted by the devotees, are dragged along by the professional pullers with deep-drawn grunts and groans. These men, 4200 in number, are peasants from the neighbouring fiscal divisions, who generally manage to live at free quarters in Puri during the festival. Once arrived at the country-house, the enthusiasm subsides. The pilgrims drop exhausted upon the burning sand of the sacred street, or block up the lanes with their prostrate bodies. When they have slept off their excitement, they rise refreshed and ready for another of the strong religious stimulants of the season. Lord Jaganndth is left to get back to his temple as best he can, and but for the professional car-pullers, would inevitably be left at his country-house. In a closely-packed, eager throng of a hundred thousand men and women, many of them unaccustomed to exposure or labour, and all of them tugging and straining at the cars to the utmost under a blazing sun, deaths must occasionally occur. There have, doubtless, been instances of pilgrims throwing themselves under the wheels in a frenzy of religious excitement; but such instances have always been rare, and are now almost unknown. At one time, several people were killed or injured every year, but these were almost invariably the result of accidental trampling. The few cases of suicide that did occur were for the most part those of diseased and miserable objects, who took this means to put themselves out of pain. The official returns place this beyond doubt. Nothing, indeed, could be more opposed to the spirit of Vishnu -worship than self-immolation. Accidental death within the temple renders the whole place unclean. The copious literature of the sect of Chaitanya makes no allusion to self-sacrifice, and contains no passage that could be twisted into a sanction for it. The temple of Jaganndth, that colluvio religionum, in which every creed obtained an asylum, and in which every sect can find its god, now closes its gates against the low -caste population. Speaking generally, only those are excluded who retain the flesh-eating and animal-life-destroying propensities of the aboriginal tribes ; wine-sellers, sweepers, skinners, corpse-bearers, are also shut out. 318 PURI TOWN. Day and night throughout every month of the year, troops of devotees arrive at Puri ; and for 300 miles along the great Orissa road, every village has its pilgrim encampment. The pilgrims to the shrine of Jaganndth are a motley assemblage, at least five- sixths of whom are women. Ninety-five out of a hundred come on foot. Mixed with the throng are devotees of various sorts, — some covered with ashes ; some almost naked ; some with matted, yellow- stained hair; almost all with their foreheads streaked with red or white, a string of beads round their necks, and a stout staff in their hands. But the greatest spectacle is a north-country Rdjd, with his caravan of elephants, camels, led horses, and swordsmen, followed by all the indescribable confusion of Indian royalty. The vast spiritual army that thus marches its hundreds, and sometimes its thousands, of miles, along burning roads, across unbridged rivers, and through pestilent regions of jungle and swamp, is annually recruited with as much tact and regularity as is bestowed on any military force. Attached to the temple is a body of emissaries, called pilgrim guides, numbering about 3000 men, who wander from village to village within their allotted beats, preaching pilgrimage as the liberation from sin. A good part of the distance can now be accomplished by rail, but the northern pilgrims walk, as a rule, from 300 to 600 miles, although recently a steamboat service between Calcutta and Orissa is attracting a steadily increasing number of pilgrims. The guide tries to keep up the spirits of the wayfarers, and once within sight of the holy city, the pains and miseries of the journey are forgotten. The dirty bundles of rags now yield their inner treasures of spotless cotton, and the pilgrims, refreshed and robed in clean garments, proceed to the temple. As they pass the Lion Gate, a man of the sweeper caste strikes them with his broom to purify them of their sins, and forces them to promise, on pain of losing all the benefits of pilgrimage, not to disclose the events of the journey or the secrets ofthe shrine. In a few days the excitement subsides. At first nothing can exceed the liberality of the pilgrims to their spiritual guides; but thoughts of their return journey soon enter their minds, and the last few days of their stay are spent in scheming a speedy departure, with as few more payments as possible. Every day the pilgrims bathe in one of the sacred lakes, and at the principal one 5000 bathers may be seen at once. At the great festival, as many as 40,000 rush together into the surf at the ' Gate of Heaven,' a tract extending about a quarter of a mile along the coast. No trustworthy statistics exist as to the number of pilgrims who visit Jaganndth. But a native gentleman, who has spent his life on the spot, has published as his opinion that the number never falls short of 50,000 a year, and sometimes amounts to 300,000. At the Car Festival, food is cooked in the temple kitchen for 90,000 devotees ; at PURI TOWN. 319 another festival for 70,000. The old registers, during the period when the pilgrim tax was levied, notoriously fell below the truth ; yet in five out of the ten years between 1820 and 1829, the official return amounted to between one and two hundred thousand. The pilgrims from the south are a mere handful compared with those who come from Bengal and Northern India, yet it has been ascertained that 65,000 find their way to Puri, across the Chilkd Lake, in two months alone. As many as 9613 were actually counted by the police leaving Puri on a single day, and 19,209 during the last six days in June. The records of the missionaries in Orissa estimate the number of the pilgrims present at the Car Festival alone, in some years, as high as 145,000. Pilgrim Mortality. — The predisposing causes to disease among the pilgrims are bad food, the unhealthiness of Puri town, and the crowding together in the lodging-houses. The priests impress upon the pilgrims the impropriety of dressing food within the holy city, and the temple kitchen thus secures the monopoly of cooking for the multitude. The food consists chiefly of boiled rice, which is considered too sacred for the least fragment to be thrown away. Consequently, it is consumed by some one or other, whatever its state of putrefaction, to the very last morsel. As a rule, the houses in Puri consist of two or three cells communicating with each other, without windows or ventilation of any kind. The city contains upwards of six thousand houses, and a resident population, in 1881, of 22,095. ' I was shown one apartment,' says Dr. Mouat, late Inspector-General of Jails, ' in the best pilgrim hotel of the place, in which 80 persons were said to have passed the night. It was 13 feet long, 10 feet. 5 inches broad, with side walls 6\ feet in height, and a low pent roof over it. It had but one entrance, and no escape for the effete air. If this be the normal state of the best lodging-house in the broad main street of Puri, it is not difficult to imagine the condition of the worst, in the narrow, confined, undrained back-slums of the town.' About the time of the Car Festival, there can be no doubt that as many as 90,000 people are often packed for weeks together in the 5000 lodging-houses of Puri. At certain seasons of the year the misery is mitigated by sleeping out of doors, but the Car Festival unfortunately happens at the beginning of the rains. Cholera invariably breaks out during this time. But it is on the return journey that the wretchedness of the pilgrims reaches its climax; and it is impossible to compute, with anything like accuracy, the numbers that then perish. After the Car Festival, they find every stream flooded; and even those who can pay have often to sit for days in the rain on the bank, before a boat will venture on the ungovernable torrent. Hundreds die upon the road- 320 PURLA KIMIDI—PURNABHABA. side. The missionaries along the line of march have ascertained that pilgrims sometimes travel 40 miles a day, until at last they drop from sheer fatigue. Those are most happy whom insensibility overtakes in some English station, for they are then taken into hospital. Personal inquiries among the pilgrims led to the conclusion that, up to 1870, the deaths in the city and by the way seldom fell below one-eighth, and often amounted to one-fifth, of each company ; and the Sanitary Com missioner for Bengal accepts this estimate. It is impossible to reckon the total number of the poorer sort who travel on foot at less than 84,000. It is equally impossible to reckon their deaths in Puri and on the road at less than one-seventh, or 12,000 a year. Deducting 2000 for the ordinary death-rate, we have a net slaughter of 10,000 per annum. It may well be supposed that the British Government has not looked unmoved on this appalling spectacle, to which nothing but a total prohibition of pilgrimage could put a stop. But such a prohibition would amount to an interdict on one of the most cherished religious privileges, and would be regarded by every Hindu throughout India as a national wrong. The subject has come up from time to time for official discussion; and in 1867, circular letters were sent to every Division of Bengal. The pilgrims' lodging-houses in Puri have been placed under special Acts ; a system of sanitary surveillance and quarantine introduced ; and pilgrims' hospitals established along the great line of road. These efforts to reduce the loss of life to a minimum have been described in a previous section of this article. Purla Kimidi. — Ancient zaminddri and town in Ganjdm District, Madras Presidency. — See Parla Kimedi and Kimedi. Purna (the ancient Payoshni). — River of Berar, having its source in the Satpura range, lat. 21° N., long. 76° 14' E. It flows through Akola District from east to west, almost equidistant from the ranges of hills which bound the valley north and south. It is not navigable by boats. The banks, though soft, seem to a great extent to have resisted erosion by the water, but there are exceptions ; some villages on the south bank, notably Wagoli, have had to move southwards, gradually losing their ground to the north. The Purna has many tributary streams, of which the chief are the Kdta Purna, the Miirna, the Man, the Ghan, the Shdhmir, the Chandra Bhdga, and the Wan. Towards the end of its course in Berar, the Purna for a space bounds the Districts of Akola and Buldand, and, passing beyond the latter into Khandesh, joins the Tapti about 20 miles below Burhdnpur. In the valley of the Purna lie some of the richest cotton-producing tracts of Berar. Pumabhaba. — River of Bengal; rises in the Brahmanpukhur Marsh in the District of Dindjpur, and flows southwards for about 72 miles, until it enters Maldah District. Here it takes a south- PURNGARH— PURNIAH. 3 2 1 westerly direction, passing through the dense kdtdl or highland jungle occupying the eastern portion of Maldah District, and joins the Mahananda in lat. 24° 50' n., and long. 88° 21' e., about a mile below the ancient Muhammadan grain mart of Rohanpur, which was formerly fortified as one of the approaches to Gaur by way of the Mahanandd. The chief tributaries ofthe Purnabhabd in Dinajpur are the Dhepa,Nartd, Sidldanga, Ghdgrd, Hanchd-Katakhal, and Harbhangd, on the east or left bank ; and the Mind on the west or right bank. Its bed is sandy, and very deep in the upland tract, where the banks are steep ; elsewhere they are sloping or abrupt, according as the current sets from one side of the river to the other ; generally speaking, they are jungly and uncultivated. The river is navigable throughout its course by large boats in the rains, and by small boats during the dry season. During the rainy months, the basin of the Purnabhabd is entirely filled by the flood of waters which come down from the high land of the kdtdl, rising above the river banks ; and at that season it may be said to expand into one vast lake, extending over a very wide area of adjoining low land. Pumgarh. — Port in Ratndgiri District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 16° 48' n., long. 73° 20' e. Twelve miles south of Ratndgiri. Popula tion (1872) 512. The river Machkundi admits only vessels of small size. One of the ports of the Ratndgiri Customs Division. Average annual value of trade fnr five years ending 1881-82 — imports, £5810, and exports, .£4350. Fort. Purniah. — British District in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal, lying between 25° 15' and 26° 35' n. lat., and between 87° 1' and 88° 33' e. long. Area, 4956 square miles ; population (according to the Census of 1881) 1,848,687. Purniah forms the north-eastern District of the Bhdgalpur Division. It is bounded on the north by the State of Nepal and Ddrji'ling District ; on the east by the Districts of Jalpaigurf, Dinajpur, and Maldah ; on the south by the river Ganges, which separates it from the Districts of Bhdgalpur and the Santal Pargands ; and on the west by Bhdgalpur. The administra tive head-quarters are at Purniah town, which is also the most populous place in the District. Physical Aspects. — Purniah District forms a north-western extension of the great deltaic plain of Bengal proper. With the exception of a small hill of nodular limestone (kankar) near Manihari in the south of the District, and a few tracts of undulating country in the north bordering on Nepal, the whole presents an almost dead level. As regards physical character, Purniah may be divided into two portions of nearly equal size. East of a line running from the point where the Panar river enters the District, to the town of Purniah, and then trending southward and eastward to Manihdri, the soil is vol. xi. x 322 PURNIAH. composed of a rich loam of alluvial formation, intersected by rivers and natural canals, by means of which nearly every part of it is accessible during the dry season. Large marshes also exist, which do not com pletely dry up at any period of the year. In this tract, rice is the great staple of cultivation, except in the north, in Krishnaganj Sub- Division, where jute and tobacco occupy a considerable area. In the western half of the District the physical features of the country are different. The soil is here thickly overlaid with sand deposited by the Kusi in the course of its westward movement, and is but little cultivated. This tract spreads out from the vicinity of Purniah town, chiefly to the north and west, in the form of radiating stretches of land, opening out occasionally into fine grassy, prairie-like plains. These afford pasturage to great herds of cattle, and towards the south to numerous flocks of sheep. Villages are much rarer here than in the east of the District, and the huts comprising them are smaller and much less comfortable. The rivers of Purniah group themselves into three systems, all tributary to the Ganges, which forms the southern boundary of the District. The Kusi forms the principal feature in the hydrography of the District. This river takes its rise in the Nepdl Himdlayas, being formed by three principal hill torrents; and on reaching British territory, it is already a large river nearly a mile wide. The Kusf is remarkable for the rapidity of its current, and for the uncertain nature of its bed. It has a constant westerly movement, so that the present bed of the river is many miles distant from the channel shown on old maps. Owing to these characteristics, its navigation is at all times a matter of much difficulty. The channels of deep water are constantly changing, new ones being yearly opened up, and old ones choked by vast sandbanks. The Kusi is navigable throughout the year by boats of about 9 tons burthen as far as the Nepdl frontier, and by boats of 25 or 30 tons in the lower portions of its course. Boats of any size proceeding up or down the river require to be preceded by a regular Kusi pilot, who goes some distance in advance, and selects the channel to be followed. The minor tribu taries of the Kusi on its right or west bank, the Nagardhdr, Mara Hiran, and Rdjmohan, have now nearly disappeared, their courses being almost entirely obliterated by the westward movement of the main stream. The Kdla Kusi, the most clearly marked of the old beds of the Kusi, still preserves to some extent the appearance of a river, but with many diverging, reuniting, and interlacing channels. It runs southwards from Arariyd, past Purniah town, where it receives its principal tributary, the Saura, and continues its southerly course, often by several beds, till it falls into the Ganges nearly opposite Sdhibganj. PURNIAH 323 The Panar river is formed in the Matiyari police circle by the confluence of a number of hill streams from Nepal. It flows a south-easterly and southerly course, passing about ten miles east of Purniah town, and joining the Ganges in the extreme south-east of the District. It is navigable by boats of 3^ tons from a short distance below the Nepal frontier to the neighbourhood of Purniah town, and afterwards by boats of about 9 tons to the Ganges. The Mahananda, which rises in the lower mountains of Sikkim, touches on Purniah District at Phansidewa, in the extreme north-east corner, and forms the eastern boundary of the District for about eight miles, as far as Titalya, from whence it flows first westwards, then south wards, and afterwards eastwards by a circuitous course, with several tributaries on both banks, till it passes into Maldah District, where it joins the Ganges. In its upper course it is unnavigable, but becomes navigable by boats of about 3^ tons below Kalidganj, increasing in depth and volume till, shortly before entering Maldah District, it is navigable by boats of 35 tons burthen. Many of the tributaries of the Mahdnandd are also navigable. The principal trading villages on the banks of the Mahdnandd are — Kalidganj, Haldibari, Kharkhari, Krishnaganj, Duldlganj, and Barsoi. Wild Animals. — Tigers are found in all parts of the District, but particularly along the banks and among the sandy islands of the Kusi, where they find shelter in the high grass jungle with which the country is covered. Another tract much frequented by tigers is the scrub jungle along the northern boundary of the District. A few also come from near Gaur, in Maldah District, and from the sdl forests in Dindjpur. Leopards are common along the Dindjpur frontier, and hytenas in the north of the District. Deer are few, but antelope are plentiful on the open plains in the north. Wild hog and jackals are 'common. Game birds include pea-fowl, jungle-fowl, partridge, quail, plover, snipe, varieties of wild geese, duck, teal, and widgeon. History. — Purniah fell into the hands of the Muhammadan con querors in the 13th century, previous to which time the southern portion of the District is said to have constituted a portion of the dominions of Lakshman Sen, the last independent Hindu king of Bengal. It was not, however, apparently until the 17th century that Purniah became the valuable prize which it was afterwards considered. During the intermediate centuries it was regarded as an outlying military Province of the Mughal Empire ; and its revenues were almost consumed in protecting its own lands against the incursions of the northern and eastern tribes. During the war between Sher Sbdh, the Afghdn ruler of Bengal, and Humdyun, the Mughal Emperor of Delhi, Purniah supplied the latter with some rough levies ; but so little was known of this outlying tract from the 13th to the middle of the 17th 324 PURNIAH. century, that not even the names of its faujddrs or military governors appear to have been recorded. About the latter quarter of the 17th century, Ostwdl Khan was appointed faujddr, with the title of Nawab, and united with the com mand of the frontier army the fiscal duties of dmil or superintendent of the revenues. He was succeeded by Abdulla Khan, who was vested with similar powers. Upon the death of Bdbhaniydr Khdn in 1722, Saif Khdn, the greatest of the governors of -Purniah, was appointed to what had now become an office of great emolument and dignity. Under his administration, and afterwards under that of Sayyid Ahmad, son-in- law of Alf Vardi Khan, Nawdb of Bengal, who died in 1756, the power of the Purniah governorship was consolidated. A considerable army was equipped, and the frontier was extended in many directions. Sayyid Ahmad was succeeded by Shaukat Jang, whose character is represented to have been as bad as that of his notorious cousin Sirdj- ud-dauld, the Nawab of Bengal. Both young men, by their perverse conduct, gave offence to the old servants and officers of their fathers, and alienated the affections of the people. The chief among the dis graced adherents of the Nawdb, Mir Jafar Khan, a name subsequently well known in British history, betook himself to the court of the Purniah governor, and describing the weakness of his own master, urged Shaukat Jang to advance an army towards Murshiddbad. This advice coincided with the natural impules of Shaukat Jang. War was declared, and Sirdj-ud-daula, who had just returned from Calcutta after the tragedy of the Black Hole, proceeded into Purniah to anticipate the attack. A sanguinary battle was fought near Nawabganj, and lost by Shaukat Jang, mainly in consequence of his own gross indolence and incapacity. He was himself killed in the battle, after a reign of only nine months, and the victorious army entered Purniah two days later. Temporary governors were then appointed ; but the country remained in a state of anarchy until the last governor was superseded, in 1770, by an English official, with the title of Superintendent. The present jurisdiction of the District has been established gradually, after large portions have been parcelled away to create the District of Maldah, and, more recently, to consolidate Bhdgalpur upon the western frontier. Purniah District is now divided into three Sub divisions, viz. the head-quarters or southern Sub-division, Arariya in the north-west, and Krishnaganj in the north-east. Population. — In the beginning of this century, Dr. Buchanan- Hamilton estimated that the population of the District was 2,904,380; but this seems to be an excessive estimate, even after making allow ance for the greater extent of the Purniah jurisdiction at that time. There are no grounds for supposing that the population has decreased. According to the Census of 1872, which was very carefully effected, the PURNIAH. 325 total population of Purniah District as at present constituted was 1,714,795, giving an average of 346 persons per square mile. At the last enumeration in 1881, a total of 1,848,687 was disclosed, showing an increase in the nine years of 133,692, or 8-72 per cent. The general results arrived at by the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows : — Area of District, 4956 square miles; number of towns, 7, and of villages, 5680; number of houses, 311,131, of which 304,712 were occupied, and 6419 unoccupied. Total population, 1,848,687, namely, males 937,080, and females 911,607; proportion of males, 50-7 per cent. Average number of persons per town or village, 325 ; average inmates per house, 6-07 ; average density of population, 373 persons per square mile. The population is most dense in the rich alluvial plain to the east ot the District, watered by the Mahdnandd and its affluents, where the proportion is 471 to the square mile. The east and central police circles also show a denser population than the average of the District. The number diminishes to the south and west along the banks of the Ganges and Kusi, in consequence of the devastating overflow of these rivers. Along the Kusi the population grows more and more sparse from north to south, until in the police circle of Damdaha it falls to only 212 to the square mile. Classified according to sex and age, the population consists of — under 15 years, males 377,373, and females 349,008 ; total children, 726,381, or 39-3 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards, males 559,707, and females 562,599; total adults, 1,122,306, or 60-7 per cent. The course of the Mahdnandd river marks a distinct ethnical divi sion of the people. To the west there is a large Aryan element, whose characteristics of language and physique predominate over the more numerous non-Aryan people among whom they are diffused. East wards, the mass of the people are aborigines, being an outlying portion of the Koch or Kirdnti race. Whole villages of Goalds, or herdsmen, are found on the sandy plains formed by the Kusi, in the west of the District. Religion. — The bulk of the population are Hindus, who were returned in the Census Report of 1881 as numbering 1,076,539, or 58-2 percent. ofthe District population. Muhammadans numbered 771,130, or 41-7 per cent. ; Christians, 327 ; Jews, 12 ; and non-Hindu Kols, 679. Of the higher castes of Hindus, Brdhmans number 34,822 ; Rajputs, 48,465; Babhans, 11,842; Kayasths, 12,761; and Baniyas, 31,290. The principal lower or Siidra castes include the following : — Godla or herdsmen, the most numerous caste in the District, 131,629 ; Kaibartta, 44,221 ; Dhanuk, 35,584 ; Telf, 38,136; Musahar, 31,209; Dosadh, 30,949; Hari, 30,883; Koeri, 26,238; Chamar, 21,968; 326 PURNIAH. Keut or Kewat, 19,798; Kumbhdr, 18,732; Ndpit, 18,222; Tior, 16,028; Tdnti, 15,860; Mallah, 15,593; Kahdr, 15,190; Kurmi, 14,648; Barhai, 14,522; Sunri, 14,146; Tatwd, 13,621; Dhobi, 13,620; Lohar, 11,517 ; Madak, 9905 ; Kalwar, 9822 ; Sondr, 7997; Bind, 7748; Mali, 7172; Dom, 6805; Kdndu, 5823; Nuniyd, 5754; Baruf, 4795 ; and Gareri, 3648. Caste-rejecting Hindus number 7367, of whom 341 2 are returned as Vaishnavs. The Hindu aboriginal popu lation is returned at 86,366, of whom 71,833 are Kochs, and 4000 Kharwars, with a sprinkling of Gonds, Kols, Bhuinyds, and others. The Muhammadan population is returned as under, according to sect — Sunnis, 735,889; Shids, 4422; and unspecified, 30,819. The Christian community consists of 94 Episcopalians and Church of England, 31 Roman Catholics, 12 Baptists, 98 Protestants without distinction of sect, while the remainder are unspecified. Town and Rural Population, etc. — The population of the District is almost entirely rural, and only seven towns have a population ex ceeding five thousand inhabitants, namely, Purniah, population (1881) 15,016; Bansgaon, 6158; Sitalpur Khas, 6002 ; Krishnaganj, 6000 ; Raniganj, 5978 ; Bhatgaon, 5723 ; and Kasba, 5124. These seven towns contain a total population of 50,001, or only 2-7 per cent, of the District population. Three towns only are municipalities, namely, Purniah, Krishnaganj, and Raniganj. Total municipal income (1883-84), £2205, of which £1814 was derived from taxation; aver age incidence of taxation, is. 4d. per head. Ofthe total of 5687 towns and villages, 2558 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 2138 from two to five hundred ; 754 from five hundred to a thousand ; 212 from one to two thousand; 16 from two to three thousand ; 2 from three to five thousand ; and 7 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the Census Report classifies the male popula tion into six main divisions, as follows : — Class (1) Professional, includ ing civil and military, 6064; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging- house keepers, etc., 63,945 ; (3) commercial, including bankers, merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 42,743 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 325,663; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, including all artisans, 46,279 ; (6) unspecified and unproductive, including general labourers, 452,386. Agriculture. — Rice is the most important crop in Purniah. Although the area under rice is less than in Bengal proper, it is considerably larger than in the more western parts of Behar. Next to rice, tobacco and jute are the most important products of the District. The best tobacco is grown along the high strips of country extending from the town of Purniah in a north and somewhat westerly direction. The soil farther to the east, which is richer and moister, is not so well adapted for the cultivation of this crop. Jute is grown over the north of the PURNIAH. 327 District, and indigo is raised on a considerable area to the south of Purniah town. Irrigation is not usually resorted to in any part of Purniah. The total cultivated area of the District has been estimated at 2,315,910 acres; the uncultivated area capable of cultivation at 285,440 acres, and the uncultivable waste at 571,029 acres. Seventy- five acres would be considered a very large holding, and 8 acres or under, a very small one. Twenty acres may be put down as a fair- sized comfortable holding. Eight acres is as much as a single pair of ordinary bullocks can keep in cultivation. There are but few intermediate permanent rights between the land lord and the cultivator. Estates are generally let on short leases to farmers, who try to make as much as they can during their term. The number of permanent under-tenures of all kinds is, according to the road cess returns, only 1031, as against 2378 farming leases. Indebted ness among the cultivators is common. A late Collector estimated that tenants with occupancy rights do not form more than a quarter of the peasantry of the District, while those holding at rents protected from enhancement under Act viii. of 1869 scarcely amount to one-sixteenth. The great mass of the cultivators are mere tenants-at-will. The rates of rent are generally low as compared with other Districts, ranging from a nominal rate of 6d. to 8s. per acre. Besides the system of rents founded on the nature and richness of the soil, there is another, current in the south-west of the District, called hdl-hasli, under which rent is assessed according to the crops grown on the land. A letter from the Collector to the Board of Revenue in 1788, estimates the average earnings of the labouring classes at 1 rupee, or 2S., a month. In 1842, wages were from 3s. to 4s. a month. At the present day, agricultural labourers are paid 7s., but the labourers who come to the District for the season from Chutid Nagpur usually demand 8s. a month. Skilled labour, when employed by natives, is generally paid in kind. Blacksmiths can earn about 24s. a month ; carpenters, from 12s. to 14s. ; bricklayers, from 8s. to 10s. The prices of food have increased in the same proportion as the wages of labour. In 1794, the price of rice per cwt. was about is. 4d. ; in 1878, it was about 4s. iod. In 1883-84, the average price of common rice and of wheat was returned at 6s. 9d. per cwt. at the head-quarters town. Natural Calamities. — Purniah District is very liable to floods, which cause much damage ; but on such occasions it is usual for the high lands to yield abundantly, thus tending to compensate for the crops destroyed by the inundation. Drought, when it occurs, is a more serious calamity than flood. The great famine of 1770, which was attended with a terrible mortality in Purniah, was occasioned by the failure of nearly all the crops of the year, but particularly of the 328 PURNIAH. late rice, in consequence of long-continued drought. In a report to the Directors of the East India Company, it was stated that ' the famine which has ensued, the mortality, the beggary, exceed all descrip tion. Above one-third of the inhabitants have perished in the once plentiful Province of Purniah.' In 1788, the rainfall was again deficient, but no serious results followed, and there is no record of any other failure of the crops till 1866. Even on that occasion, the local pressure was caused, not so much by deficiency in the produce, as by the drain on the District for the troops, which had been constantly passing to and fro in connection with the war in Bhutan during the two previous years. In 1874, the crops again partially failed, but the necessary precautions were taken, and famine was effectually averted from the District. Manufactures, Commerce, etc. — Indigo is the most important manu facture in Purniah. In an average year, the out-turn of indigo is estimated at 5000 to 7000 maunds (about 225 tons) of dye; area of land under indigo, 60,000 to 70,000 acres. The annual expendi ture by the various factories is returned at £100,000; but there are no figures showing how much capital is invested in buildings, machinery, and land. There are 34 factories in the District, with 31 subsidiary works ; of which only 3 are owned and managed by natives. The cultivation is based more on the principle of freedom than in Lower Bengal or in the neighbouring Behar Districts. The cultivators sell their indigo at the vats, where it is measured, and a fair value given for the plant. Bidri ware, a local manufacture, is made from a mixture of pewter and brass, inlaid with silver; it is chiefly used for hookah- stands, plates, jugs, etc. Blanket-weaving is carried on by the Gareri or shepherd caste, almost exclusively in the south and west of the District. Some members of this caste have no flocks, and live entirely by weaving ; others have both looms and flocks, and others flocks but no looms. All, however, hold farms, as, owing to the frequency of disease, the produce of their flocks and looms is uncertain. Gunny is largely woven from jute in the Krishnaganj Sub-division by women of the lower castes, who bring the pieces for sale to the village markets, where they are purchased by petty traders and carried to the larger bdzdrs on the banks of the Mahdnandd, and exported to Calcutta by boat. Paper manufacture is carried on in Krishnaganj town by a colony of Musalmdns, who intermarry only among themselves, and who subsist solely on the profits of their special trade. The chief articles of trade are rice, oil-seeds, indigo, jute, tobacco, hides, and fish; the principal seats of commerce being Kasba, Ekamba, Duldlganj, Krishnaganj, Rdniganj, Nawdbganj, Purniah, and Sdifganj, the latter being the chief seat of the sheep-breeding trade. Agri- PURNIAH 329 cultural products, with dried fish and hides, form the chief staples of the export trade, in return for which piece-goods, spices, drugs, brass and iron ware are imported. A considerable trans-frontier trade, both export and import, is carried on with Nepal. Means of Communication are not so good in Purniah generally as in neighbouring Districts of Bengal and Behar. The tract of country, however, lying north of the head-quarters station is fairly well opened out by roads, many of which were made during the relief operations of 1874; and as this whole system of roads converges on the great Darjfling and Kdrdgold road, it is thereby connected with the river Ganges, and beyond the river, by steamer, with the East Indian Railway at Sahibganj. Purniah District will, however, be shortly brought into communication directly with the railway system of India. A line is in course of construction from the Darbhangah branch of the Tirhut State Railway, running eastwards through Purniah for some distance along the Nepal frontier, afterwards turning to the south and running past Purniah town, till it touches the Ganges near Mani- hdrf opposite Saifganj. A line is also to be constructed from Sdifganj station on the above line, running eastwards through Dindjpur to Kuch Behar. Administration. — The revenue of the District of Purniah, according to the records in the Collector's office, amounted in 1792 to £126,049 ; in 1850-51 to £157,690; and in 1870-71 to £179,449. The net expenditure in 1792 was £27,204; in 1850-51, £24,258; and in 1870-71, £37,831. The increased revenue in the twenty years ending 1870-71 is noteworthy, as since 1850 large transfers have been made from Purniah to Maldah and to Bhdgalpur, involving a loss in land revenue to Purniah of £20,000. This loss, however, was met by a threefold increase in excise receipts, a much larger sale of stamps, and the imposition of an income-tax. The additional expenditure was generally distributed through all departments of local administration. In 1883-84, the six principal items of District revenue aggregated £177,930, made up as follows: — Land revenue, £116,259; excise, £26,303; stamps, £23,967; registration, £1463; road cess, £8124; and municipal taxes, £1814. The total cost of civil administration, as represented by the salaries of District officials and police, amounted in 1883-84 to £21,438. In 1883-84 there were 1653 estates in the District, owned by 5776 registered proprietors or coparceners; the average amount of revenue paid by each estate being £70, 6s. 6d., and by each proprietor, £20, 2s. 6d. The gradual steps by which the land revenue of Purniah was assessed are interesting, and have been given at considerable length from the original records in The Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xv. p. 389 et seq. Protection to person and property has steadily improved. In the 33o PURNIAH. year 1800 there were 3 magisterial courts, 2 civil and 2 revenue courts; in 1883 there were 6 magisterial and 7 civil and revenue courts. For executive purposes, the District is divided into 3 Sub-divisions and 13 police circles. In 1883 there were 1 superior European officer, 82 subordinate officers, and 459 constables in the regular and municipal or town police, maintained at a total charge of £8565. The village watch consisted of 4398 rural policemen, maintained entirely by con tributions from the people at a total estimated cost in money and lands of £15,237. The whole police force of the District amounted, therefore, to 4940 officers and men, being at the rate of 1 policeman to every square mile of area, or 1 to every 374 of the population. The total police charges, actual and estimated, were £23,802, showing an incidence of about £4, 1 6s. per square mile of area, or a fraction over 3d. per head of population. The total number of persons convicted of an offence, great or small, in 1883, was 1579, or 1 to every 1171 of the population. The average number of prisoners in jail during 1883 was 132, of whom 5 were females. Education of all kinds, and especially primary education, has been widely diffused in Purniah District during the past few years. This progress is due to the policy of Sir George Campbell, in recognising the existing village schools of the country, improving them by Govern ment grants, and incorporating them into the State system of public instruction. The number of Government and aided schools increased from 1 in 1856-57 to 12 in 1870-71, and 347 in 1874-75. The total number of pupils increased from 66 in 1856-57 to 288 in 1870-71, and to 8744 in 1874-75. In the latter year there were also 183 private and unaided schools, subject to Government inspection. Full details are not available showing the exact educational figures for 1883-84, but the number of Government inspected primary schools in that year had increased to 995, with 12,223 pupils. The District or zild school had 133 pupils in 1883-84. These figures are exclusive of all unin spected and unaided schools. The Census Report of 1881 returns 16 889 boys and 569 girls as under instruction in that year, besides 28,143 males and 1059 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. There are 3 municipalities in the District — Purniah town, with a municipal income in 1 883-84 of £1756, of which £1380 was derived from taxation, or an incidence of taxation of is. iod. per head; Krishnaganj, where the municipal income was £325, incidence of taxation is. ofd. per head; and Rdniganj, municipal income £123, incidence of taxation 5d. per head. Medical Aspects. — The climate of Purniah District is of an inter mediate character between that of Behar and Central Bengal. The rainfall averages 67 inches in the year, which is far above the rate PURNIAH SUB-DIVISION AND TOWN. 331 of Tirhiit or North Bhdgalpur, but not so heavy as in Dindjpur, Rangpur, or Bogrd. Purniah is the most eastern District that distinctly feels the hot and dry west winds so prevalent in Behar and Upper India. The average monthly mean temperature for the year is 76-8° F, the thermometer during May rising to 105° or 107° F. in the shade. The most unhealthy season of the year is towards the close of October, when the rains cease, and the flooded lands begin to dry up, filling the air with malarial exhalations from decaying vegeta tion. At this season the population suffers greatly from fever. The District is in consequence generally considered unhealthy by the people of Bengal. Medical relief is afforded by charitable dispensaries at Purniah town, Krishnaganj, and Basantpur. [For further informa tion regarding Purniah, see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. W. Hunter, vol. xv. pp. 219-444 (Triibner & Co., London, 1877). Also Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton's MS. Statistical Account of Purniah, compiled about 181 1 ; the Bengal Census Reports for 1872 and 1881 ; and the several Bengal Administration and Departmental Reports from 1880 to 1884.] Purniah. — Head-quarters Sub-division of Purniah District, Bengal. Area (1881), 1644 square miles; towns and villages, 1430; houses, 85,871. Population (1881) 511,945, namely, males 261,055, and females 250,890. Hindus number 363,121, or 70-5 per cent ; Muham madans, 150,548, or 29-4 per cent.; Christians, 264; and Jews, 12. Average density of population, 311 persons per square mile; average number of villages, -87 per square mile; persons per village, 358; houses per square mile, 54; inmates per house, 5-9. This Sub division comprises the 4 police circles of Purniah, Amur-Kdsba, Damdaha, and Gondwdra. In 1883 it contained 5 magisterial and 4 civil and revenue courts, with a regular police force of 334 men, and a village watch or rural police of 1843 chaukiddrs. Purniah. — Chief town, municipality, and administrative head quarters of Purniah District, Bengal ; situated on the east bank of the Saurd river, in lat. 25" 46' 15" n., and long. 87° 30' 44" e. Population (1872) 16,057; (1881) 15,016, namely, males 8463, and females 6553. Hindus number 9175; Muhammadans, 5662; and 'others,' 179. Municipal income (1883-84), £1756, of which £1380 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, is. iod. per head. The old civil station of Rdmbagh, formerly a western suburb, now lies within the centre of the town. The population has decreased considerably in the last half-century, owing to the unhealthiness of the climate, consequent on the silting up of the river Kdli Kusi, when it formed the bed of the Great Kusi. As that river worked westward, it gave place to a chain of marshes connected by low strips of land, which were flooded in the rains, and formed at that season of the year a con- 332 PURULLA—PURUSHOTTAPUR. tinuous water communication. At the time of the English occupation (about 1 771), this change seems to have been not yet complete; the main body of water had been diverted, but enough still remained in the Kdli Kusi to keep the swamps deep, and very little of the bed was left dry for any considerable part of the year. About 1820 the station became one of the most unhealthy in Bengal ; and the old graveyard shows how great must have been the mortality among the European residents during the second quarter of this century. About 1835 the Government offices were removed to higher ground, 2 miles west of the military lines of Purniah. After this change there was an appreci able improvement in the health of the officials and other residents ; but the town still retained its unpopularity. The native quarter is even now subject to outbreaks of fever, passing into severe epidemics ; and it is believed that in unhealthy years no less than 90 per cent, of the native population suffer from this disease. Purniah has a consider able trade in jute. Purulia. — Head-quarters Sub-division of Mdnbhiim District, Bengal. Area, 3344 square miles ; towns and villages, 4366 ; houses, 147,305. Population (1881) 861,644, namely, males 427,336, and females 434,308. Hindus number 794,359, or 92-2 per cent.; Muhammadans, 30,769, or 3-6 per cent. ; Santdls, 30,103, or 3-5 per cent. ; other non- Hindu aboriginal tribes, 5906, or -68 per cent.; Christians, 482; Bud dhists, 23 ; and Jews, 2. Average density of population, 257-7 persons per square mile; number of villages per square mile, 1-31; persons per village, 198 ; houses per square mile, 44-7 ; inmates per house, 5-9. This Sub-division contains the 1 1 police circles of Purulid, Jaipur, Jhalidd, Baghmundi, Ichhdgarh, Barabhiim, Manbdzar, Raghundthpur, Gaurandi, Para, and Chds. Purdlia. — Chief town and administrative head-quarters of Mdn bhiim District, Bengal. Lat. 23° 19' 38" n., long. 86° 24' 35" e. Population (1872) 5695; (1881) 9805, namely, Hindus, 7795; Muhammadans, 1248; and 'others,' 262. Municipal income (1876-77), £457 ; (1883-84), £919, of which £569 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, is. 4|;d. per head ofthe population (8192) within municipal limits. The town contains a Deputy Commissioner's office, court-house, jail, police station, dispensary, church, etc. ; the bdzdr supplies the District generally with cotton, salt, and other imported goods. Purushottapur (Purushottamapuram, 'City of Purushottama,' or Jaganndth). — Town in Ganjdm District, Madras Presidency ; situated in lat. 19° 31' 15" n., long. 84° 57' E., on the banks of the Rashikuliya river. The town is being gradually driven back froirl its present site by the encroachment of the river. During the last twenty years four streets have been obliterated. Population (1881) 3962. Chiefly notable PURWA. TAHSIL AND TOWN. 333 for the Pillar of Tougodo (4 miles to the north), bearing an Edict of Asoka (dating probably about 250 B.C.), similar to those at Dhauli in Cuttack, and in the fort at Allahdbad. Round the pillar runs a ram part, or encirling mound, marking the site of a very ancient fort and city, which covers a total area of about 144 acres. The inscrip tion is addressed to the dwellers on the Kephalinga hills. The letters are fast being worn away, but photographs have been taken which secure the sense of the writing. The mound is locally known as the ' Lac Fort ; ' its name being derived from the tradition that it was made of lac (Coccus Lacca), and impregnable, as no enemy could scale the smooth and slippery walls. Station of a Sub-magistrate, post- office, etc. Purwa. — Tahsil or Sub-division of Unao District, Oudh ; situated between 26° 8' and 26° 40' n. lat., and between 80° 37' and 81° 5' 30" E. long., and comprising the ten pargands of Purwd, Maurdnwdn, Asoha, Bhagwantnagar, Daundia Khera, Panhan, Behar, Patan, Mag rayar, and Ghdtampur. Bounded on the north by Rasuldbdd and Lucknow tahsils, on the east by Mohanldlganj and Mahdrdjganj, on the south by Ldlganj tahsil and Fatehpur District, and on the west by Unao tahsil. Area, 547 square miles, of which 270 are cultivated. Population (1881) 278,527, namely, 263,793 Hindus and 14,734 Musalmans ; average density of population, 509 persons per square mile; number of villages and townships (mauzds), 538. In 1883, Purwa tahsil contained 1 civil and 2 magisterial courts ; number of police circles (thdnds), 3; strength of regular police, 66 men; village police (chaukiddrs), 825. Purwa. — Pargand of Unao District, Oudh. Bounded on the north by Govinda Parsandan ; on the east by Maurdnwdn ; on the south by Panhan, Patan, and Magrayar ; and on the west by Harha. Area, in square miles, of which 54 are cultivated. The soil is chiefly loam and clay ; the principal crops are wheat, barley, and sugar-cane. The Lon river runs through the pargand, but is dry in the hot weather. Population (1881) 60,335, namely, 55,746 Hindus and 4589 Musalmans. Government land revenue, £7897, or an average of 2s. 2^d. per acre. The area under the different tenures is as follows : — Tdlukddri, 15,980 acres; zaminddri, 39,640 acres; pattiddri, 15,411 acres. Purwa. — Town in Unao District, Oudh, and head-quarters of Purwd tahsil and pargand ; situated 20 miles south-east of Unao town. Lat. 26° 27' 20" n., long. 80° 48' 55" E. Population (1881) 9719, namely, 7176 Hindus and 2543 Muhammadans. Purwd was formerly the head-quarters of the District ; but soon after annexation the seat of administration was moved to Unao. Four lines of unmetalled road lead from Purwd — one between Unao and Rdi Bareli, a second from Purwa to Cawnpur, a third from Purwd to Lucknow, and a fourth 334 PUS—PUSAD. from Purwd to Behar, Baksar, and Rdi Bareli. The town is noted for its shoes and leather-work. Two markets are held weekly; and there are three annual fairs, the sales at which amount to about £3100. Besides the usual Sub-divisional courts, Purwd contains a police station, and a school attended by upwards of 100 boys. Piis. — River of Berar; rises at the village of Kdta, just north of Basim town, in lat. 20° 9' n., long. 77° 12' E. ; and, after a course of 64 miles, first south-east and then north-east, empties itself into the Penganga at Sangam (lat. 19° 51' n., long. 76° 47' e.). The valleys drained by the river, and by the Kdta Purna, which rises close to it, are generally narrow and confined. The soil is good, and fairly cultivated. Plisa. — Government estate in Darbhangah District, Bengal. Area, 4528 acres. The records of the old Tirhiit Collectorate show that the village was acquired by Government in 1796, on mukarrdri lease from the Maliks or head-men of Lodipur Pusa, Chandmari, and Despur, who bound themselves and their heirs to give up all interest in the lands, except the right to the first year's rental. In 1798, other waste lands appertaining to Bakhtiarpur were assigned to Government without any additional rent. The estate was long used as a stud depot, but all stud operations were closed in 1872 ; and in 1875 a model farm was established, the soil being of the first quality, the situation good, and water-carriage and large markets within easy reach. The most important experiment is that of investigating whether the garpd rice of Dacca can be made to grow in high lands in Tirhdt as it does in Bengal. Another project is to teach the Tirhiit rdyats, who take great interest in these experi ments, to grow and prepare safflower-dye according to the Bengal method. The grounds at Pusa have been very well laid out. There is a great deal of valuable timber scattered over the estate. The total receipts from the model farm in 1873-74 amounted to £527. Still more recently, the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco have been undertaken at Pusa, in connection with the State model farm at Ghazipur in the North-Western Provinces. A professional curer of the leaf has been obtained from America. In 1877-78, a crop of 150,000 lbs. of tobacco was raised from 200 acres. Of this, 15,000 lbs. was sent to England, and there sold at prices ranging from 2^d. to s|d. per lb. The population of Piisd village in 1881 was 376. Pusad. — Tdluk of Basim District, Berar. Area, 1273 square miles; containing two towns and 309 villages. Population (1867) 9^268; (1881) 125,051, namely, 64,080 males and 60,971 females, or 98-23 persons per square mile. Area occupied by cultivators, 351,427 acres. Hindus number 116,514; Muhammadans, 7668; Jains, 847; Christians, 12 ; and Sikhs, ic. The tdluk contains 1 civil and 2 PUSAD TOWN—PUSHPA-GLRL 33S criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 6 ; regular police, 104 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 139. Total revenue, £21,751, of which £18,263 was derived from land. Pusad. — Chief town of Piisad tdluk, in Basim District, Berar; situated in lat. 19° 54' 30" n., and long. 77° 36' 30" e., about 25 miles south-east of Basim town, on the Pus river, from which it takes its name. Population (1881) 5047, of whom 4190 are Hindus, 679 Musalmans, and 178 Jains. Though now decayed, it is still the head-quarters of a tahsilddr, and has been the residence of the revenue officials for more than 150 years. There are two old Hindu temples, and the ruins of some others ; also a fine tank for irrigation, which has now silted up owing to a defect in the original construction. Pusad has a few well-to-do shopkeepers and dealers in country produce, and its weekly market is well attended. Vernacular school, police station, post-office, and dispensary. Pusesavli. — Town in Satdra District, Bombay Presidency ; situated in lat. 17° 26' N., and long. 74° 24' e., 27 miles south-east of Satara town. Population (1881) 2569 ; municipal revenue, .£95. Dispensary and post-office; weekly market; school with 84 pupils in 1883-84. Pushkar. — Town, lake, and place of pilgrimage in Ajmere-Mer- wara, Rdjputdna. Lat 26° 30' n., long. 74° 36' E. Height, 2389 feet. Pushkar is the only town in India which contains a temple dedicated to Brahma, who here performed the sacrifice known as yajna, whereby the lake of Pushkar became so holy, that the greatest sinner by bathing in it earns the delights of Paradise. The town contains five principal temples, dedicated respectively to Brahma, Savitri, Badri Nardyana, Vardha, and Siva Atmateswara, all of modern construction, as the earlier buildings suffered severely under Aurangzeb. Bathing ghdts line the lake, and most of the princely families of Rdjputdna have houses round the margin. No living thing may be put to death within the limits of the town. Great fair in October and November, attended by about 100,000 pilgrims, who bathe in the sacred lake. Large trade at that time in horses, camels, bullocks, and miscellaneous merchandise. Permanent population about 3750, chiefly Brdhmans. Pushpa-giri (or Subrahmanya hill). — Prominent bullock-hump- shaped peak of the Subrahmanya range of mountains, a spur of the Western Ghdts, at the north - western boundary of Coorg, in South Kanara District of Madras, and on the border of Hassan District of Mysore. Lat. 12° 40' n., long. 75° 44' e. ; 5626 feet above the sea. The ascent is difficult, but can be managed on foot in about three hours. On the lower slopes there is a dense jungle, haunted by wild elephants ; on the summit are many ancient stone cairns. The view is very extensive. An annual fair is held here in December, which attracts a great number of people. 336 PUTERA—PYA-PUN. Putera.— Estate in Sdgar (Saugor) District, Central Provinces.— See Pitihra. Puthanapuram. — Tdluk or Sub - division of Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Area, 400 square miles, containing 80 karas or villages. Population (1875) 36,816; (1881) 37,064, namely, 18,594 males and 18,470 females, occupying 8461 houses. Density of popula tion, 92-7 persons per square mile. Hindus number 30,709; Muham madans, 2565 ; and Christians, 3790. Putur. — Town in Uppinangddi tdluk, South Kanara District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 12° 45' 45" n., long. 75° 14' 10" e. Population (1881) 2481, inhabiting 452 houses. Hindus number 1765; Muham madans, 356; Christians, 338; and 'others,' 22. Putiir was formerly an outpost on the Coorg frontier, and troops were stationed here till 1859. The head-quarters ofthe Uppinangddi tdluk, with a post-office. It was the scene of a rebellious outbreak in 1837. Putiir. — Town in Tirumangalam tdluk, Madura District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 9° 57' 30" N., long. 77° 52' 30" e. Population (1881) 7625, inhabiting 1230 houses. Hindus number 7490; Muham madans, 125; Christians, 9; and 'others,' 1. Pli-zun-daung. — River in Hanthawadi District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma; rises in the Pegu Yoma range, in about lat. 17" 8' n., and, after a southerly course of 53 miles, falls into the Hlaing just below Rangoon town. It is about 440 yards wide at its mouth ; but the river is now silting up, owing to the vast quantities of rice-husk dis charged from the mills on its banks. The upper part of the Pli-zun- daung valley produces valuable timber, and the lower part large crops of rice. Pya-ma-law. — One of the mouths of the Irawadi (Irra waddy), the great river of Burma. At the town of Shwe-laung, situated in lat. 16° 44' 30" n., and long. 95° 23' 30" e., it leaves the Pan-ta-naw river, and runs for about 6 miles to the north-north-east. Then it turns west and south-south-west, and, after a course of 90 miles, falls into the sea in about lat. 150 50' n., and long. 940 48' e., having, 15 miles above, given off a large branch eastward called the Pyin-tha-lu. The Pya-ma- law is connected with the Irawadi by numerous inter-communicating creeks, and is navigable throughout its whole course by river steamers ; its mouth is 4 miles wide. Pya-pun (Pya -poon). — Township in Thun-gwa District, Irawadi Division, Lower Burma. Bounded east by Hanthawadi District, south by the Bay of Bengal, and west by Bassein. A level tract, intersected in its lower portions by numerous inter-communicating tidal creeks; subject to inundation. Chief product, rice. The township comprises 8 revenue circles. Population (1877) 44,207 ; gross revenue, £26,322. Population (1881) 78,299; gross revenue, £44,161. PYA-PUN— QUETTA. 337 Pya-pun (Pya-poon). — Chief village of Pya-pun township, in Thiin- gwa District, Lower Burma; situated in lat. 16° 16' n., and long. 950 40' E. Population (1881) 2009, engaged chiefly in sea-fishing. Pya-pun (Pya-poon). — Tidal creek in Thun-gwa District, Lower Burma, forming one of the mouths of the Irawadi. It branches off southwards from the To or China Bakir near Kun-ta, and has a depth of 1 2 feet at low-water almost throughout its whole length. Its banks are somewhat steep and muddy, and are fringed with forest. Pyaw-bhway. — Village in Hanthawadi District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma ; situated in lat. 16° 40' n., and long. 96° 13' e., on both banks of the tidal creek Ka-ma-aung, which is spanned by several good bridges. Contains numerous pagodas and small zayats or rest-houses. Population (1877) 3766; and (1881) 2043. Pykara (Paikdra). — River in the Nilgiri District, Madras. — See Nilgiri. Pyouk-seit (Hpyouk-tshiep). — The southern portion of Shwe-daung town, Prome District, Pegu Division, Lower Burma. It is 7 miles below Prome, on the left bank of the Irawadi. Pyu (Hypu). — River in Taung-gnii District, Tenasserim Division, Lower Burma. — See Hypu. Pyun-wa (Pyoon-wa). — Tidal creek at the entrance to the Bassein river, Irawadi Division, Lower Burma. It leaves the Thek-ge-thaing mouth at Auk-kyun-ywa, where its breadth is 300 yards, and rejoins it 13 miles higher up at Pyun-wa-ywa, where the stream is only 50 yards wide. Total length, 16 miles; minimum depth, 25 feet. Quetta. — The most northerly District of Baluchistan proper, forming part of the territories of the Khan of Kheldt. It is bounded on the north, north-west, and west by the Pishin and Sharod Districts ; on the east by the Zarghun range ; and on the south by the desert tract known as the Dasht-i-bedaulat, and by the Kheldt District of Mastung. Physical Aspects. — Quetta District is a valley about 20 miles long by 5 broad, almost entirely surrounded by mountains. It is fertile, populous, well-waterecl, and contains many villages and orchards. Its principal inhabitants are Afghans named Kasis. The main road via the Bolan Pass to Pishin and Kandahdr traverses the length of the valley. History. — The District was originally a part of the Durdni Empire formed by Ahmad Shdh, but was ceded by him, together with Mastung and' Sharod, to Nasir Khdn 1. of Kheldt, surnamed the Great. This grant was in recognition of the services rendered by Nasir Khan, and his contingent of Baliichi's and Brahui's, in the campaign against the Persians vol. xi. Y 338 QUETTA TOWN— QUIL AND! in 1768-69. The decisive battle of this campaign was fought in the neighbourhood of Mashad, and the Afghdns would have been defeated but for Nasir Khdn and his Brahuis, who retrieved the fortunes of the day. The story goes that when Ahmad Shdh was distributing rewards to his chiefs, on the return of the victorious army to Kandahdr, he handed to Nasir Khdn a grant conferring on him the sovereignty of the Districts above mentioned, saying at the same time, ' This is your shdl.' The District, before known as Rasulabad, is said to have acquired its modern and local name of Shdl from this circumstance. Administration and Revenue. — Quetta District has been admini stered by British officers since 1877. At first its revenues were ac counted for to the Khan of Kheldt, but in 1882 it was arranged that the District should be leased by the Khan to the British Government for a fixed annual quit-rent of £2500. Since 1883 the administration has formed part of the charge of the Political Agent for Quetta and Pishin, who is under the control of the Governor-General's Agent in Baliichistdn. Subordinate to the Political Agent are the usual establish ments of an Extra-Assistant Commissioner, a tahsilddr, and also a police force supplemented by tribal levies. The revenue of the District is derived chiefly from land. The culti vators may be divided into two principal classes, viz. (1) those whose assessment is fixed, either in cash or in kind, and (2) those who pay to Government shares of the produce of their lands which vary according to the nature of the water-supply. These shares are generally one-third of the produce in case of irrigation from streams, and one-sixth of the produce in case of irrigation from the artificial channels called karezs. The land revenue amounts to about £2500 a year. Medical Aspects. — The climate is pleasant, but has lately not proved healthy for Europeans. Quetta (or Shdlkot, as it is locally called). — Chief town of Quetta District, Baliichistdn. The town has developed largely under British administration. It was occupied by troops in 1876, and formed the base of operations in Southern Afghanistan during the war of 1879-80. It is now the head-quarters of a strong brigade, and the defences of the old fort have been improved. Adjacent to the military caritonment is a flourishing civil bdzdr and native town, which are administered on municipal principles. The head-quarters ofthe Agent to the Governor-General, the chief civil authority in Baliichistdn, are at Quetta. On the completion of the Bolan and the Sind-Pishfn Railways, Quetta will be connected with the railway system of India, and will doubtless increase in importance. Quilandi (properly Kovilkandi ; corruptly Coilandi, Koyildndi). — Town in Malabar District, Madras Presidency. Lat. n" 26' 25" n., long. 75° 44' n" e. Population (1881), with surrounding township, Q UILON TAL UK AND TO WN. 339 10,259, namely, 4958 males and 5301 females, occupying 1752 houses. Hindus numbered 6625; Muhammadans, 3570; and Christians, 64. A Mdppilld seaport between Calicut and Mahe, with a considerable trade. Sub-magistrate's and District munsifs courts, customs-house, bungalow, etc. The roadstead, which is protected by a mud bank, is more secure than most anchorages on the coast ; and it was close to this place, in 1498, that Vasco da Gama's fleet first cast anchor. One of the E. I. Company's ships was lost here in 1793, while attempting to ride out the south-west monsoon under shelter of the mud bank. Close to the seaport on the north, is one of the nine original Muhammadan mosques established on the Malabar coast by Malik Ibn Dinar (see article Malabar). The mosque, recently renewed, is at Kollam, called Northern or Pantalayini Kollam, sometimes confounded with the southern Kollam (Quilon). Quilon. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Travancore State, Madras Presi dency. Area, 154 square miles. Population (1875) 106,091, and (1881) 108,469, namely, 53,027 males and 55,442 females, dwelling in 22,208 houses, scattered over 160 karas or parishes. Hindus number 82,114; Muhammadans, 12,478 ; and Christians, 13,877. Ofthe Christians, 160 are Protestants, 9291 are Roman Catholics, and 4426 are Syrians. Quilon (Kollam, Coilam, Elangkon E7nporium, Ptol.). — Town and port in Quilon District, Travancore State, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 53' 28" n., long. 76° 36' 59" E. Population (1875) 14,366, inhabiting 2877 houses; and (1881) 13,588, inhabiting 2719 houses. The fourth largest town, and the military head-quarters, ofthe State. One of the oldest towns on the coast, from whose re-foundation, in 1019 a.d., Travancore reckons its era. It contains the courts of the Divisional Peshkdr, District judge, and subordinate courts, post- office, etc. The ancient history of Quilon goes back to the records of the primitive Syrian Church in India. It was for long one of the greatest ports of Malabar, and is mentioned as Coilon in a letter of the Nestorian Patriarch, Jesujabus of Adiabene ; died 660 a.d. It appears in Arabic as early as 851 a.d., under the name Kaulam-Mall, when it was already frequented by ships from China; and during the 13th and 14th centuries it continued to be the great port of trade in Malabar with China and Arabia. It is the Coilum of Marco Polo; and the Columbum of several ecclesiastical writers of that age, one of whom, Friar Jordanus, was consecrated Bishop of Columbum, circ. 1330. It was an emporium for pepper, brazil-wood, and ginger, the best kind of which was known till late in the middle ages as Columbine ginger. Kaulam was an important place down to the beginningof the 16th century when Varthema speaks of it as a fine port, and Barbosa as ' a very great city, with many great merchants, Moors, and Gentoos, whose ships trade to all the Eastern ports, as far as Bengal, Pegu, and the Archi- 340 RABKA VI—RABNABAD. pelago.' Throughout the Middle Ages it appears to have been one of the chief seats of the ' Saint Thomas Christians,' and it formed, with Kdyal (Koilpatam), one of the seven churches ascribed by Indo-Syrian tradition to Saint Thomas himself. — (Col. Yule's Marco Polo, vol. ii. p. 365, ed. 1874.) In 1503, the Portuguese established a factory and fort, captured by the Dutch 150 years later. Besides these changes, the town was at different times subject to Cochin, Cully Quilon, and Travancore. In 1 741, Travancore unsuccessfully besieged it, but in 1745 the Quilon Rdjd submitted. From 1803 to 1830, a strong British garrison was stationed here. The subsidiary force is now reduced to one Native regiment, whose cantonments lie to the east of the town. It is connected, by a road over the Arian-kavu Pass, with Tinnevelli and Palamcottah. — See Kayenkolam. R. Eabkavi. — Town in the Native State of Sangli, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 16° 28' 25" n., long. 75" '9' 16" e. Population (1881) 5028, namely, Hindus, 4557; Muhammadans, 431; and Jains, 40. The population consists almost entirely of bankers, traders, and artisans. Local affairs are managed by a municipal body, known as the Daiva. There are four schools, one being for girls. An important trade centre. Silk is dyed and made up into various articles of clothing. Cotton is also dyed to some extent, with the permanent dye known as suranji. Rabkob. — Chief village of Udaipur State, Chutid Ndgpur, Bengal ; situated in lat. 22° 28' 18" n., and long. 83° 15' 25" e., near the centre of the State, in a picturesque bend of the Mand river, which at this point has carved its way through a vast mass of sandstone rock, and flows in a narrow pass with perpendicular cliffs on either side. The Raja of Udaipur maintains a police station and jail, and possesses a large granary, in this village ; and a periodical market is held here. Rdbkob is noted for its gold mines, which have shafts sunk from 20 to 60 feet in depth. These are very close together, as the miners are afraid to run galleries underground. The gold is separated from the soil by washing in wooden troughs. Another plan is to cut small watercourses before the rainy season, so as to catch the deposit of soil carried down by the water; this soil is cleared out several times, and is usually found to contain a certain proportion of gold. Some years ago, a lease of the village, with permission to work the mines for seven years, was obtained from Government, but the scheme had to be abandoned in consequence of the extreme unhealthiness of the climate. Rabnabad.— An arm of the Bay of Bengal, east of the Haringhatd RABNABAD—RADHANPUR. 341 river, and on the western side of the entrance to the Meghna river, in the Sundarbans, with three large islands of the same name at its mouth. The westernmost channel is narrow, but is thought to have 3 or 3! fathoms of water; the eastern is supposed to be of nearly the same depth, but shoal water extends for a long way to seaward. Rabnabad. — Three islands at the mouth of the Rabndbad channel in the Sundarbans, Bengal. Their southern extremity is situated in about lat. 21° 50' n., 18 or 20 miles to the eastward of the Haringhata, and on the western side of the entrance to the Meghnd river. On parts of the island, where the forest once ran unbroken down to the water's edge, a belt of trees has been carefully preserved to protect the land from the violence of cyclones and storm-waves. Rabupura. — Town in Khiirja tahsil, Bulandshahr District, North- Western Provinces; situated 3 miles east of the Jumna, and 19 miles south-west of Bulandshahr town. The place was founded by a Mewati named Rabu, about 800 years ago. The Mewdtis were ousted by the Jaiswdr Rajputs in the days of Prithwi Rdj, in the latter part of the 1 2th century. From the time of the Emperor Shah Alam, down to 1857, Rabupura was the centre of an estate comprising 24 villages, which was confiscated after the Mutiny for the rebellion of the proprietors. Population (1881) 3830. Weekly cattle market ; village school. A small house-tax is raised for police and conservancy purposes. Radaur. — Town and municipality in Pippli tahsil, Ambdla (Umballa) District, Punjab; situated in lat. 30° 1' n., and long. 77° 10' e., on the road from Thaneswar, 40 miles south-east of Ambdla town. Population (1881) 4081, namely, Hindus, 2488; Muhammadans, 1520; and Sikhs, 73. Number of houses, 674. Municipal income (1883-84), £150, or at the rate of 8|d. per head. Head-quarters of a police circle (thdnd). Radhanpur. — Native State within the group under the supervision of the Political Superintendent of Pdlanpur, in the Bombay Presidency ; lying between 23° 26' and 23" 58' n. lat., and between 71° 28' and 72° 3' e. long. Including Munjpur and Sami, it is bounded north by the petty States of Morwdra and Terwdra; east by Baroda; south by Ahmadabad District and Jhinjhiwara under Kdthidwdr; and west by the petty State of Wardhi under Pdlanpur. The area of Radhanpur is 1150 square miles. Population (1872) 91,579; (1881) 98,129, namely, 50,903 males and 47, 226 females, dwell ing in 2 towns and 156 villages, containing 23,048 houses. Hindus numbered 80,588; Muhammadans, n, 757 '> and ' others,' 5784. The country is flat and open. Its rivers, three in number, rise near Mount Abu and the spurs of the Aravalli range, and fall into the Little or 342 RADHANPUR. Kdthidwdr rann. As they generally dry up during the hot weather, the inhabitants are dependent on wells for their supply. Water is found at a depth of from 10 to 30 feet, but is sweet only near the surface, owing to the proximity of the rann. The soil is of three kinds — sandy, black, and saline. The chief products are cotton, wheat, and the common varieties of grain. The prices of grain in the State per rupee (2s.) were as follows in 1883 : — bdjra (Pennisetum typhoideum), 30 lbs. ; wheat, 30 lbs. ; moth (Phaseolus aconitifolius), 47 lbs. ; gram, 30 lbs. ; rice, 18 lbs. From April to July, and in October and November, the heat is excessive. If rain falls, August and September are pleasant months, and from December to March the climate is cool and bracing. The prevailing disease is fever. The only manufacture of importance is the preparation of a fine* description of saltpetre. Radhanpur, now held by the celebrated Bdbi family, who, since the reign of Humayiin, have always been prominent in the annals of Gujarat, is stated formerly to have been in the possession of the Wdghelas, and to have been called Lundwdra, after Wdghela Lundji of the Sardhdra branch of that tribe. Subsequently it was held as a fief under the Muhammadan kings of Gujarat by Fateh Khdn Baluch, and is said to have been named Radhanpur after Rddhan Khdn of that family. The first Bdbi entered Hindustan in the company of Humayiin. Bahddur Khan Bdbi was appointed faujddr of Tharad in the reign of Shdh Jahdn ; and his son Sher Khan Bdbi, on account of his local know ledge, was sent to aid Prince Murad Baksh in the government of Gujardt. In 1693, his son Jafar Khdn, by his ability and local influence, obtained the faujddri of Rddhanpur, Sami, Munjpur, and Terwara, with the title of Safdar Khdn. In 1704 he was made Governor of Bijapur, and in 1706 of Patan. His son, Khan Jahdn or Khdnji Khan, received the title of Jawdn Mard Khdn, and was appointed Governor of Rddhan pur, Pdtan, Wamagar, Visalnagar, Bijdpur, Kheralu, etc. His son, again, Kamdl-ud-din Khan, received the title of Jawdn Mard Khdn 11., and usurped the Governorship of Ahmaddbdd in the disturbed times after the death of Aurangzeb, during the incursions of the Mardthas and the subsequent collapse of the imperial power. During his rule, a branch of the family was able to establish itself at Jundgarh and Bdldsinor. The founder of the Jundgarh house, who was also the first Bdbi of Bdldsinor (Wdrdsinor), was Muhammad Bahddur, otherwise known as Sher Khdn. In 1753, Raghundth Rdo Peshwd and Ddmdji Gdekwdr suddenly appeared before Ahmaddbdd ; and Jawdn Mard Khan, after a brilliant defence, was forced to surrender the city, and was confirmed as jdgirddr of Rddhanpur, Sami, Munjpur, Pdtan, Visalnagar, Wamagar, Bijdpur, Thardd, and Kheralu. It was agreed at the same time that the RADHANPUR TOWN. 343 Mardthds should give Jawdn Mard Khdn the sum of £10,000, besides presenting him with an elephant and other articles of value. Ddmdjf Gdekwar, however, wrested from his successors all their dominions excepting Rddhanpur, Sami, and Munjpur. In 18 1 3, Rddhanpur, through Captain Carnac, then Resident of Baroda, concluded an engagement with the Gaekwdr, whereby the latter, under the advice of the British authorities, was empowered to control the external relations of Rddhanpur, and assist in defending it from foreign invasion. In 1819, on aid being sought of the British Govern. ment by Rddhanpur against the Khosas, a predatory tribe from Sind, Colonel Barclay marched against them and expelled them from Gujardt. In 1820, Major Miles negotiated an agreement with the Nawab ot Rddhanpur. Under the terms of this agreement the Nawdb bound himself not to harbour robbers, or enemies of the British Govern ment ; to accompany the British troops with all his forces ; and to pay a yearly tribute in proportion to his means. On the 18th February 1822, the yearly tribute was fixed for five years at a sum of £1700. This tribute was, in 1825, remitted by the British Govern ment, and has never again been imposed; the engagement of 1820 remaining in force in other respects. The present (1882) chief, Nawdb Bismilld Khan, a Pathan of the Bdbi family, is forty years old, and administers the State in person. He is entitled to a salute of 1 1 guns, and has power to try his own subjects for capital offences, without permission from the Political Agent. He enjoys an estimated gross revenue of £60,000 inclusive of transit dues, and maintains a military force of 248 horse and 362 foot. The family of the chief hold a title of adoption, and follow the rule of primogeniture in point of succession. In 1883 the State maintained 9 schools with 572 pupils. Radhanpur. — Chief town of Radhanpur State, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 23° 49' 30" n., and long. 71° 38' 40" e. Population (1872) 13,910; and. (1881) 14,722, namely, 7500 males and 7222 females. Hindus number 6787; Muhammadans, 4622; and Jains, 3313. The town lies in the midst of an open plain, mostly under water during the rains. It is surrounded by a loopholed wall 15 feet high, 8 feet broad, and about two and a half miles in circumference, with corner towers, eight bastioned gateways, outworks, and a ditch now filled up. There is also, surrounded by a wall, an inner fort or castle, where the Nawdb lives. A considerable trade centre for Gujardt, Cutch, and Bhaunagar. Nearest railway station, 40 miles distant, at Khdrdgora. Post-office and dispensary. A municipality has recently been organized ; income per annum, £70. Exports— rapeseed, wheat, gram, and cotton ; imports — rice, sugar, tobacco, cloth, and ivory. In 1816, and again in 1820, a disease in many symptoms the same as the 344 RADHAPURAM—RAGHUGARH. true plague or pestis, visited Radhanpur and carried away about one- half of its population. Radhapuram. — Town in Nangiineri tdluk, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 8° 16' 30" n., and long. 77" 44' 3°" e. Population (1871) 5215, inhabiting 1194 houses; and (1881) 2428, inhabiting 535 houses. Head-quarters of a Sub-magistrate, and mission station of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Post-office. Rae Bareli. — Division, District, tahsil, and town in Oudh. — See Rai Bareli. Raegarh. — Town in Partabgarh (Pratdpgarh) District, Oudh.— See Raigarh. Raeka. — State in Rewd Kdntha, Bombay Presidency. — See Raika. Raekot. — Town in Ludhidna District, Punjab. — See Raikot. Raesen. — Fort in Malwa, Central India Agency. — See Raisin; Ragauli. — Village and hill in Bdnda District, North - Western Provinces. Lat. 25° 1' n., long. 80° 22' e. ; distant from Ajaigarh 10 miles north. The old fort, now dismantled, was stormed by the British forces in 1809, during the operations against Lachhman Singh, Rdja of Ajaigarh, whose uncle, Prasad Singh, had fortified this post with considerable strength. The British carried the lower defences with some difficulty, and during the night the enemy evacuated the position. Elevation above sea-level, about 1300 feet. Population of Ragauli village (1881) 861. Raghugarh (Rdghogarh). — Guaranteed chiefship, a feudatory of Gwalior, under the superintendence of the Giina (Goona) Sub- Agency of Central India. The chief of Raghugarh is recognised as the head of the Kechi clan of Chauhdn Rdjputs, who originally held possession of nearly all the country round Giina for a distance of eighty or a hundred miles. In 1780, Madhuji Sindhia imprisoned the Rdjd Balwant Singh and his son Jai Singh ; and hostilities commenced which lasted till 18 18-19, when, through the mediation and guarantee of the British Government, Sindhia ceded to the chief the town and fort of Raghugarh, with adjoining lands estimated to yield a Idkh (say £10,000) of revenue. In 1843, owing to family disputes, a fresh arrangement was made, by which the jdgir was divided between the three principal members of the family, viz. Bijai Singh, Chhatar Sdl, and Ajit Singh. The present Rdja, Jai Mandal Singh, who succeeded to Ajit Singh's share, holds 120 villages, yielding a revenue of about £2400 per annum. The State of Raghugarh contains, as it now stands, 88 villages with a total population in 1881 of 16,920, namely, 9218 males and 7702 females. Hindus number 14,301 ; Muhammadans, 782; Jains, 295 ; and aboriginal tribes, 1542. The aborigines included — Minds, 1 1 98; Bhfls, 218; Moghids, 105; and Mhars, 21. Since 1843, no less than 32 villages appear to have been deserted. The RAGHUGARH TOWN— RAHATGARH. 345 State, which lies about 18 miles south of Giina, contains a great deal of forest land, but the cultivation is generally indifferent. With better management, the estate might be made to yield a much larger revenue. Raghugarh. — Chief town of the State of Raghugarh, Central India; situated in lat. 24° 26' n., and long. 77" 15' e., on a tributary of the Parbati river, and on the road from Giina to Mhow (Mau), 16 miles south-west of the former and 169 north-east of the latter. Population (1881) 3266. Raghugarh contains a fort, now much dilapidated, but strong enough at the beginning of the century to withstand for some time the forces of Daulat Rdo Sindhia. The town was founded in the reign of Shah Jahdn (1627-58) by Ldl Singh, a Rajput of the Kechi clan, and is still considered the chief town of that clan. Raghunandan. — Hill range in the south-west of Sylhet District, Assam, running north from the State of Hill Tipperah. Estimated area, 61 square miles ; height above sea-level, 200 feet. Raghunathapuram. — Town in Ganjdm District, Madras Presi dency. Lat. 19° 43' 40" n., long. 84° 51' e. Population (1871) 5206, inhabiting 1526 houses; (1881) 7634, inhabiting 1337 houses. Hindus number 7585 ; Muhammadans, 47 ; and Christians, 2. Head-quarters of a Sub-magistrate, and the principal town of the ancient zaminddri of Tekkali, which pays a.peshkash or permanent tribute of £4908. Raghunathpur. — Hill in Mdnbhiim District, Bengal, 8 miles west of Gaurdngdihi. Rises abruptly in three prominent peaks, the highest of which is at least 1000 feet above the sea. Raghunathpur Hill is composed mainly of bare and jagged rock, but is in places thickly covered with dense jungle ; it is quite inaccessible to wheeled carriages or beasts of burden, and difficult for men, in some places requiring steps to be cut for a foothold. Raha. — Village and police station in Nowgong District, Assam ; situated 13 miles south-west of Nowgong town. The population is engaged in fishing and trade, and there is an important ferry over the Kalang. Rahatgarh. — Town in Sdgar (Saugor) tahsil, Sdgar District, Central Provinces. Lat. 23° 47' n., long. 78° 25' e., 25 miles west of Sdgar town. Population (1881) 4013, namely, Hindus, 2803; Muham madans, 912; Kabirpanthis, 42; and Jains, 256. It was held by a branch of the Bhopdl family, one of whom, Sultdn Muhammad Khan, built the fort, till 1807, when Daulat Rao Sindhia took the place after a siege of seven months. In 18 10, Rdhatgarh was assigned to the British, with other Districts, for the payment of the contingent ; and in 1861 it was ceded unconditionally to the British Govern ment. In 1857, Nawdb Adil Muhammad Khan and his brother, Fazl Muhammad Khdn, descendants of Sultdn Muhammad Khan, 346 RAHIMATPUR^RAHIMNAGAR PANDIAWAN. with a band of insurgents, seized the fort, which was retaken in the following February by Sir Hugh Rose. Fazl Muhammad Khan was hanged, but his brother escaped. The fort stands on an eminence to the south-west of the town, and is said to have been fifty years in building. The outer defences consist of 26 enormous towers connected by curtain-walls, and enclose 66 acres. This space contained a large bdzdr and many temples and palaces, among them the lofty Bddal Mahdl, or ' Cloud Palace,' attributed to one of the Rdj-Gond chiefs of Garha-Mandla. The east wall was breached for nearly 100 yards by Sir Hugh Rose's guns in 1858; and most of the buildings and the outer walls are now in a ruinous condition. Rdhatgarh has a travellers' bungalow, and two Government schools for boys and girls. It manufactures excellent shoes and a native cloth called dosiiti, which are exported to Sdgar and Bhopdl, besides being sold, together with all kinds of grain, at the market held in the town every Friday. About a mile from the fort, the Bhopdl and Bombay road is carried by a bridge of 14 arches over the river Bind, which has some beautifully wooded reaches near Rdhatgarh. Rahimatpur. — Town in the Koregdon Sub-division of Sdtdra District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 17° 35' 35" N., and long. 74° 14' 40'' e., 17 miles south-east of Sdtdra town. Population (1881) 6082. Hindus number 5485 ; Muhammadans, 492 ; Jains, 103 ; and Christians, 2. Sub-judge's court; post-office; weekly market on Thursday and Friday; two schools with 134 pupils in 1883-84. Rahimatpur is a large trading centre with about 155 prosperous merchants. Bombay and English piece-goods, twist, and silk, salt, cocoa-nuts, dates, and spices are imported ; raw sugar, turmeric, earth-nuts, and coriander seed are exported. The chief object of interest is a mosque and mausoleum. The mausoleum seems to have been built in honour of Randulla Khdn, a distinguished Bijapur officer, who flourished in the reign of the seventh Bijapur king Mahmud (1626-1656). About a hundred yards south east of the mosque is an elephant water-lift, a tower of about 50 feet high, with an inclined plain on the west, which supplied power for the mosque fountain. The municipality was established in 1853, and had in 1883-84 an income of £140; incidence of taxation per head, s£d. Rahimnagar Pandiawan. — Town in Lucknow District, Oudh; situated on the right bank of the Sai. Population (1881) 2098, dwell ing in 360 mud houses. The largest of a group of 12 villages belonging to Pdnde Brdhmans. Although, as its name imports, it claims a Muhammadan origin, it is now chiefly inhabited by Hindus. A Pathdn family, who live in a hamlet of the village called Baliichgarhi, assert their original right to the land, which they state was granted to their ancestors in jdgir by the Delhi Emperors, but taken from them RAHMANGARH—RAHURI. 347 by Nawdb Saddat Ali, and conferred upon the Brdhmans. The country round is in a high state of cultivation. Rahman-Garh.— Hill in Koldr District, Mysore State. Lat. 13° 21' n., long. 780 4' e. ; 4227 feet above sea-level. According to local legend, a giant, one of the Pdndu brothers, lies buried underneath. Tipii Sultdn, after the capture of Nandidriig by the British, proposed to fortify this hill, but the design was never carried out. Rahon. — -Town and municipality in Nawashahr tahsil, Jdlandhar (Jullundur) District, Punjab ; situated in lat. 31° 3' n., long. 76° n' e., on the high bank of the Sutlej (Satlaj), about 3 miles from its present bed, the intermediate space being occupied by a malarious swamp. Population (1881) 11,736, namely, males 6132, and females 5604. Hindus number 5994 ; Muhammadans, 5683 ; Sikhs, 58 ; and ' others,' 1. Number of houses, 1452. Municipal income (1883-84), £664, or an average of is. r\6\. per head of the town population. Rahon is an ancient town, built upon raised ground, and formerly a strong hold of the Rajputs, by whom it was founded. Owing to its distance from the railway, the population of the town has fallen off con siderably of late years. Brisk trade in sugar ; large manufacture of country cloth. The town contains a rest-house, police station, post- office, dispensary, and flourishing District school, besides an indi genous school. Polluted water-supply; defective sanitary arrange ments. Rahiiri. — Sub-division of Ahmadnagar District, Bombay Presidency. Area, 497 square miles, containing 111 villages. Population (1872) 59,093; (1881) 63,289, namely, 32,262 males and 31,027 females. Hindus number 57,113; Muhammadans, 3601; and 'others,' 2575. Land revenue (1882), £8518. The Sub-division contains 2 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circle (thana), 1 ; regular police, 39 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 151. Rahiiri is the most central Sub-division of the District, with a length from north to south and a breadth from east to west of about 24 miles each way. It forms part of an extensive plain country drained by the rivers Mula and Pravara, tributaries of the Goddvari. The south eastern boundary is a well-marked range of hills dividing Rahiiri from the more elevated Sub-division of Nagar, which forms the water shed between the Goddvari and Bhima rivers. The highest point, the hill of Gorakhndth, has an elevation of 2982 feet above sea-level, or about 1200 feet above the level of Rahiiri. The Sub-division is scantily wooded, and with the exception of a few mango and tamarind groves chiefly on the bank of rivers near villages, is entirely bare of trees. The prevailing soil is a deep black, requiring much rain to enable it to yield good crops. Towards the hills and on the ridges between the rivers, the soils being lighter and more friable, are better adapted for 348 RAHURI—RAI BARELI. the early crops. Four miles of the Ojhdr canal, and 17 miles of the Lakh canal, traverse the Sub-division. Early and late crops are grown in about equal proportions ; the early crops chiefly in the hill villages, and the late crops in the plains. Of 172,171 acres, the actual area under cultivation in 1881-82, grain crops occupied 154,619 acres, of which 84,240 were under jodr (Sorghum vulgare) ; pulses, 12,591 acres ; oil-seeds, 2404 acres ; fibres, 300 acres ; and miscellaneous crops, 2257 acres. The Dhond and Manmad State Railway traverses the Sub division from north to south. The manufactures are quite insignificant, there being only about 125 looms, of which 100 are for weaving coarse woollen blankets, and 25 for weaving cotton cloth. Survey rates were introduced into Rahiiri Sub-division in 1849-50 ; average incidence, is. 2d. an acre. In 1879-80, the Sub-division, which had meanwhile undergone some slight territorial changes, was reassessed. The average incidence of the new rates was 40 per cent, above that of the previous settlement. The average annual rainfall for the eleven years ending 1884 was 21-67 inches, ranging from 10-57 inches in 1876 to 33-10 inches in 1883. Rahiiri. — Town in Ahmadnagar District, Bombay Presidency ; head-quarters of Rahiiri Sub-division, with a railway station and weekly market. Situated in lat. 19° 23' n., and long. 74° 42' e., on the north bank of the Mula river, and 25 miles north of Ahmadnagar. Popu lation (1881) 4304. Independent Marwari traders have a capital of about £15,000. The station of the Dhond-Manmdd State line is situated 3 miles to the east. Weekly market on Thursday. Two Government schools for boys and one for girls. Rai. — Port in the Salsette Sub-division of Thdna (Tanna) District, Bombay Presidency. Average annual value of trade for the five years ending 1873-74, returned at £116,979, namely — imports, £944, and exports, £116,035 j and average annual value for the five years ending 1881-82, £22,651, namely — imports, £4163, and exports, £18,488. Value for 1881-82 — imports, £12,683, and exports, £59,037. Rai is one of the seven ports forming the Ghorbandar Customs Divisions. Post-office. Rai Bareli (Rae Bareli or Bareilly). — Division or Commissionership of Oudh, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces ; lying between 25° 34' and 26° 39' n. lat., and between 80° 44' and 82° 44' e. long. Rdi Bareli forms the southernmost Division of Oudh, and comprises the three Districts of Rai Bareli, Sultanpur, and Partabgarh (qq.v.). It is bounded on the north by Bara Banki and Faizdbdd Districts ; on the east by Azamgarh and Jaunpur Districts of the North-Western Provinces ; on the south by Allahabdd and Fatehpur Districts ; and on the west by Unao and Lucknow. Area, 4881-7 square miles. Population (1869) RAI BARELI. 349 2,811,916; (1881) 2,756,864, namely, males 1,362,761, and females 1,394,103, showing a decrease of 55,052, or 1*9 per cent, in thirteen years. Number of towns, 5; and of villages, 6431 ; occupied houses, 567,908. Average density of population, 564-7 persons per square mile ; towns and villages per square mile, 1-31; persons per town or village, 428 ; number of houses per square mile, 116; persons per occupied house, 4-8. Classified according to sex and age, there are — under 15 years of age, males 532,136, and females 478,561 ; total children, 1,010,697, or 36-7 per cent, of the population: 15 years and upwards, males 830,625, and females 915,542 ; total adults, 1,746,167, or 63-3 per cent. Religion. — Hindus number 2,493,536, or 90-4 per cent, of the whole population ; Muhammadans, 262,892 ; Sikhs, 192 ; Christians, 226 ; Jains, 17; and Pdrsf, 1. Among the higher class Hindus, Brdhmans number 383,915, constituting the most numerous caste in the Divi sion ; Rdjputs number 219,190; Bhats, 14,684; Kdyasths, 35,356; and Baniyas, 61,029. Of the lower or Siidra castes of Hindus, the most numerous are the following : — Ahfr, 331,381 ; Chamar, 292,329 ; Kurmi, 171,935; Pasf, 159,797; Kdchhi, 126,502; Gaddria, 83,963; Lodhi, 60,984; Teli, 52,027; Kori, 50,215; Nai, 47,465; Kahdr, 42,574; Lohdr, 37,669; Kumbhar, 35,866; Bhurjf, 35,154; Kalwdr, 34,702; Dhobi, 33,296; Mallah, 26,460; Loniyd, 26,154; Barhai, 24,359; Tamiili, 17,098; Sondr, 10,768; Mdlf, 8659; and Gosain, 5832. The Muhammadans according to sect consist of — Sunnis, 258,229 ; and Shids, 4663. The Muhammadans include 17,915 Rajputs by race, 10,806 Giijars, and 359 Mewatis. The Christian community consists of— Europeans, 89; Eurasians, 72; and Natives, 65- Town and Rural Population.— -The population of Rdi Bareli Division is purely rural, and there is no tendency on the part of the people to gather into towns. Only five places in the whole Division contain upwards of five thousand inhabitants, namely, Rai Bareli, popula tion (1881) 11,781; Jais, 11,044; Sultanpur, 9374; Bela or Mac- Andrewganj, 5851 ; and Dalmau, 5367. These five towns contain an urban population of 43,417, or only i'6 per cent, ofthe population of the Division. The only three municipalities are Rdi Bareli, Sultdn- pur, and Bela towns, with a total municipal income in 1883-84 of £3359, of which £1944 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, is. 3d. per head of the population (30,175) within muni cipal limits. Of the 6436 towns and villages comprising Rdi Bareli Division, 2318 contain less than two hundred inhabitants ; 2403 from two to five hundred ; n 89 from five hundred to a thousand ; 435 from one thousand to two thousand ; 65 from two to three thousand; 21 from three to five thousand; 3 from five to ten thousand; and 2 350 RAI BARELI. upwards of ten thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the Census Report classifies the male population under the following six principal headings : — (i) Professional class, including civil and military, 12,484; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc., 2495 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 11,205; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 632,102; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, including all artisans, 113,090; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, compris ing all general labourers and male children, 591,385. Agriculture. — Of a total assessed area of 3,117,930 acres, or 4872 square miles, in 1883-84, 1,589,639 acres, or 2483-8 square miles, were returned as under cultivation; 788,648 acres, or 1232-3 square miles, as cultivable; and 739,643 acres, or 11577 square miles, as uncultivable waste. Irrigation is more largely resorted to in Rdi Bareli Division than in any other part of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh ; and of the cultivated area, no less than 1,171,638 acres, or 1830-7 square miles, are returned as artificially irrigated entirely by the people themselves, and without any Government irrigation works. The total crqp area of the Division in 1 884 (including lands bearing two harvests in the year) was 1,907,897 acres, or 2981 square miles, made up as follows: — Rice, 421,726 acres; wheat, 203,715 acres; other food-grains, 1,197,129 acres; oil-seeds, 2867 acres; sugar-cane, '9,559 acres; cotton, 3898 acres; opium, 38,545 acres; indigo, 6077 acres; fibres, 2352 acres; tobacco, 2352 acres; and vegetables, 8677 acres. The total adult agricultural population, male and female, of the Rdi Bareli Division in 1881 was returned at 980,736, comprising land holders, 47,886 ; cultivating tenants, 708,866 ; agricultural labourers, 222,376 ; and estate agents, 1608. The male adult agricultural popula tion numbered 628,339; the cultivated area being at the rate of 2-53 acres for each male adult agriculturist. The total population, however, of all ages, dependent upon the soil, is returned at 1,998,957, or 72-51 per cent, of that of the whole Division. Excluding 453-7 square miles held revenue free, the area assessed for Government revenue is 4428 square miles. Total Government assessment in 1881, including local rates and cesses levied on the land, £364,064, or an average of 4s. 8d. per cultivated acre. Total amount of rental, including cesses, paid by the cultivators, £691,243, or an average of 8s. 8Jd. per cultivated acre. The means of communication in 1883-84 included 287 miles of navigable rivers, 1244 miles of made roads, and d\ miles of railway, the branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway just cutting across the eastern corner of Sultdnpur District. A proposed line of railway from Lucknow to Jaunpur has been surveyed, which when carried out will intersect Rdi Bareli and Partdbgarh District for their entire length. RAI BARELI DISTRICT. 351 The construction of the line, however, has not yet (1885) received the sanction of Government. Administration. — The total revenue of Rdi Bareli Division in 1883-84 amounted to £461,748, of which £340,944 was contributed by the land-tax. Total cost of civil administration, as represented by the cost of District officials and police, £53,852. For administrative and police purposes, the three Districts comprising the Rai Bareli Division are sub-divided into 10 tahsils, 29 pargands, and 26 thdnds or police circles. Justice is administered by a total of 41 magisterial and 40 civil and revenue officers of all grades. The total regular police force in 1883 numbered 1375 officers and men, of whom 84 were employed in towns or municipalities, maintained at a total cost of £14,960, of which £14,524 was paid from Provincial revenues. There is also a village watch or rural police consisting in 1883 of 8574 chaukiddrs, maintained at a cost of £17,390. The daily average number of prisoners in jail in 1883 was 986-92, or one person always in jail to every 2793 ofthe population. Government-inspected schools in 1883-84 numbered 323, attended by 13,520 pupils. The Census Report returned 12,128 boys and 207 girls as under instruction in 1881, besides 57,111 males and 845 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. Medical relief is afforded by 1 2 hospitals and dispensaries, which were attended in 1883 by 2001 in-door and 60,764 out-door patients. The total number of registered deaths in 1883 amounted to 75,008, of which 54,289 were from fevers and 8153 from small-pox. Average rate of mortality, 27-2 per thousand of the population. [For further particulars and details, see the separate District articles on Rai Bareli, Sultanpur, and Partabgarh.] Rai Bareli. — District of Oudh in the Rdi Bareli Division, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces; situated between 25° 49' and 26° 35' n. lat, and between 80° 44' and 81° 40' e. long. Area, 1738 square miles. Popula tion (1881) 951,905. It forms the central District of the Rdi Bareli Division, and is bounded on the north by Lucknow and Bara Banki ; on the east by Sultdnpur ; on the south by Partdbgarh ; on the south west by the Ganges, which separates it from Fatehpur District in the North-Western Provinces ; and on the west by Unao. The civil station and administrative head-quarters of the District are at Rai Bareli Town. Changes of Jurisdiction. — Rdi Bareli has undergone many changes of jurisdiction. At the time of annexation, it consisted of the four tahsils of Behar, Dalmau, Bareli, and Haidargarh. These were afterwards reduced to three by the distribution of the Dalmau pargands among neighbouring tahsils. On the general redistribution of the Oudh Dis tricts in 1869, Behar tahsil was separated from Rai Bareli and added 352 RAI BARELI DISTRICT. to Unao, while Haidargarh was transferred to Bara Banki. On the other hand, the pargands of Simrauta, Mohanganj, Inhauna, and Rokha Jais were added to the District from Sultdnpur ; and Salon and Parshddepur pargands from Partdbgarh. Before these last transfers, Rdi Bareli District contained an area of 1350 square miles and a population (1869) of 782,874. Its present area is returned in the Provincial Census Report for 1881 at 1738 square miles, with a population of 951,905. The District is at present composed of 4 tahsils as follows : — (1) Rdi Bareli tahsil, consisting of the pargand of Rdi Bareli; (2) Dalmau tahsil, with the 3 pargands of Ddlmau, Sareni, and Khiron ; (3) Digbijdiganj tahsil, with the 6 pargands of Inhauna, Bachhrawan, Kumhrdwdn, Hardoi, Simrauta, and Mohanganj ; and (4) Salon tahsil, with the 3 pargands of Salon, Parshadepur, and Rokha Jais. Physical Aspects. — The general aspect of the District is that of a slightly undulating plain, which, as the country is beautifully wooded, chiefly with mango and mahud groves, gives it a variety not often seen in the valley of the Ganges. The fertility of the soil is remark able; and the cultivation being of a high class, the beauty of the country is not to be surpassed by any part of the plain of Hindustan. Scattered here and there all over the District, and more specially towards the Ganges, are noble trees, generally bargad or pipal. Trees are not, however, grown for timber. The babul is not plentiful, and the bamboo is very scarce, while the shisham and the ttin, both of which thrive well, and would yield a certain revenue from lands which are too broken for cultivation, are only found in the District where planted as ornamental trees since our occupation of the country. The principal rivers are the Ganges and the Sai, the former skirting the District for 54 miles along its south-western boundary, while the latter runs through the centre of the District in a tortuous direction from north-west to south-east. The Ganges is everywhere navigable by boats of 1200 maunds, or nearly 50 tons burthen. The Sai is navigable during the rains, but few or no boats now ply. The banks of both are high and generally precipitous, and the level of the water is 70 or 80 feet below the surface of the country ; the beds are sandy. The rivers are not therefore of much value for irrigation, except for the alluvial bottoms in the immediate neighbourhood. There are no large towns on their banks, and no centres of trade or commerce. Very little fishing is carried on except in the jhils. The Sai is spanned by a fine bridge at Rdi Bareli, erected in 1864, and is crossed by numerous ferries. The extreme flood discharge of the Sai is about 6000 cubic feet per second ¦ average discharge during the five rainy months, about 1000 cubic feet; minimum discharge in the dry weather, about 25 feet. The minor RAI BARELI DISTRICT. 353 rivers are — (1) the Liin, which rises in a swamp in Unao, and, after a course of 30 miles in Rdi Bareli, falls into the Ganges in Ddlmau pargand; the stream dries up in the hot weather : (2) the Basdha, a watercourse dry during the hot weather, but a rather formidable stream during heavy rains; it enters this District from Unao, and finally falls into the Sai a few miles west of Rdi Bareli town : (3) the Naiya is also a watercourse dry during the hot months ; it enters this District from Lucknow, and flows in three channels during the rains, two streams passing into Sultdnpur District, and one finding its way into the Sai. The principal jhil is the Mdng tdl, a shallow lake about 1500 acres in extent, extensively used for irrigation by the neighbouring villages, and also valuable for its fish and water-fowl. The indigenous timber trees are tim (Cedrela Toona), shisham (Dal- bergia Sissoo), dhdk (Butea frondosa), and babul (Acacia arabica). Numerous varieties of thatching grass are found, and a variety of rice known as pasdhi grows wild in many tanks and marshes. Lac and silk cocoons constitute the principal jungle products. Herds of wild cattle were formerly found in Salon pargand near the Sai river, and did much harm to the crops, but scarcely any are now left. They are generally very poor, small animals, but occasionally a fine bull is seen among them. The villagers catch the male calves, which, if taken young, are easily domesticated, and they grow into tolerable bullocks. Nilgai are common near the Ganges, and wolves are occasionally met with in jungly tracts. Tigers or leopards are not found. Population. — The population of Rai Bareli in 1869, after the trans fers enumerated in a previous section of this article, was returned at 989,008. The last Census in 1881 returned the population of the District at 951,905, showing a decrease of 37,103, or 3-7 per cent, in the twelve years since 1869, mainly owing to the heavy mortality caused by the famine of 1877-78. The results arrived at by the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows: — Area of District, 1738-3 square miles, with 3 towns and 1759 villages; number of houses, 180,548. Total population, 951,905, namely, males 466,906, and females 484,999 ; proportion of males, 49-05 per cent. Average density of population, 547-6 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, roi ; persons per town or village, 540; houses per square mile, 103-8; persons per house, 5-2. Classified according to sex and age, there are — under 15 years of age, males 178,466, and females 163,400; total children, 341,866, or 35-9 per cent, of the population: 15 years and upwards, males 288,440, and females 321,599 ; total adults, 610,039, or 64-1 per cent. Religion. — Hindus form the great majority of the population, num bering in 1881, 874,345, or 91-8 per cent; Muhammadans number 77,424, or 8-i per cent; Jains, 13; Christians, 123; and Sikhs, 165 vol. xi. z 354 RAI BARELI DISTRICT. Among the higher class Hindus, Brdhmans number 113,212, form ing the second most numerous caste in the District ; Rdjputs number 68,491 ; Bhdts, 4872; Kayasths, 13,247; and Baniyds, 16,610. The lower or Siidra castes include the following: — Ahir, 114,869, the most numerous caste in the District; Pasi, once a dominant aboriginal tribe, 82,519; Chamar, . 81,608; Kachhi, 55,830; Lodhi, 54,932 ; Kurmf, 45,227 ; Kori, 30,680 ; Gaddria, 26,813 ; Teh', 20,782; Ndi, 19,354; Dhobi, 11,615; Bhurji, 11,472; Kumbhar, 11,212; Barhai, 11,198; Kahdr, 10,296; Lohar, 10,081; Kalwar, 9008; Tamuli, 7423; Loniyd, 6342; Mali, 4966; Sonar, 4596; Dom, 3879; and Gosain, 2804. The Muhammadans classified according to sect consist of — Sunnis, 75,222 ; and Shids, 2202. The Muhammadans include 4256 Rdjputs, 6438 Giijars, and 204 Mewati's by race descent. The Christian community consists of — Europeans, 3 1 ; Eurasians, 44 ; and Natives, 48. Town and Rural Population. — The population of Rdi Bareli District is purely rural, the only three towns with upwards of five thousand in habitants being — Rai Bareli, population (1881) 11,781 ; Jais, 11,044; Dalmau, 5367 : total urban population, 28,192, or only 2-9 per cent. of the District population. The only municipality is Rai Bareli town, with an income in 1883-84 of £1906, of which £1073 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, is. 3|d. per head of the population (16,269) within municipal limits. Of the 1762 towns and villages in the District, 503 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 656 from two to five hundred; 377 from five hundred to a thousand ; 177 from one to two thousand ; 3 1 from two to three thousand; 15 from three to five thousand; and 3 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the Census Report classifies the male population under the following six main headings : — (1) Professional class, including civil and military, 5964; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc., 1575; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 3533 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 232,328 ; (5) manu facturing and industrial class, including all artisans, 45,052; (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising all general labourers and male children, 178,454. Agriculture. — Of a total assessed area of 1,107,124 acres, or 1730 square miles, in 1883-84, 569,582 acres are returned as under cultiva tion ; 329,213 acres as cultivable; and 208,329 acres as uncultivable waste. Irrigation by private individuals from wells, tanks, etc., is largely resorted to, and 423,772 acres were thus irrigated in 1883-84. The total crop area of Rai Bareli District in 1884 (including lands bearing two harvests in the year) was 676,110 acres, or 1056-4 square miles, made up as follows: — Rice, 128,698 acres; wheat, RAI BARELI DISTRICT. 355 79,251 acres; other food-grains, 436,853 acres; oil-seeds, 684 acres; sugar-cane, 879 acres; cotton, 2916 acres; opium, 21,869 acres; indigo, 57 acres; fibres, 436 acres; tobacco, 879 acres; and vege tables, 3588 acres. Rates of rent are reported to be much higher than the general average for the Province, owing to the density of the population, and to the irrigation facilities afforded by numerous masonry wells. An official return gives the average rates in 1883-84 as follows :— Rice, 9s. per acre; wheat, 15s. 6d. ; inferior grains, 8s. 2d.; opium, 17s. 6d. ; oil-seeds, 9s.; sugar, 16s. 9d. ; tobacco, £1, is. 9d. ; cotton, 13s. 3d. The highest rents are for lands in the vicinity of the towns. Opium-fields so situated pay as high as Rs. 13 per local bighd, or £2, is. 6d. per acre ; ordinary wheat lands, irrigated from the tenants' own wells, pay Rs. 7 per bighd, or £1, 2s. 4d. per acre ; and unirri gated lands, which grow nothing but gram, barley, and arhar, pay Rs. 5 per bighd, or 16s. per acre, if the soil is not very sandy. Poor sandy soils, remote from village sites, rent as low as 2s. an acre. The settlement officer estimates that one man with a single pair of bullocks can cultivate fairly about 4 acres, from which he may calculate on an average yield of 12 maunds, or 8| cwts. per acre. The average value of the total produce, together with the straw, is about £9, 12s. ; and taking the landlord's share at one-third, the rent of the holding would be about £3, 4s., or 16s. per acre. The total agricultural population, male and female, of Rai Bareli in 1881 was returned at 374,052, comprising 9282 landholders, 273>I35 tenant cultivators, 90,082 agricultural labourers, and 1553 estate agents, etc. The male adult agricultural population numbered 230,912, giving an average of 2-47 cultivated acres for each .male adult agriculturist. The total population, however, dependent upon the soil, is returned at 700,379, or 73-58 per cent, of the District population. Excluding 416-9 square miles which are held revenue free, the area assessed for Government revenue is 1321-4 square miles. Total Government assessment in 1881, including local rates and cesses levied on the land, £134,570, or an average of 4s. 7|-d. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, including cesses, etc., £278,017, or 9s. 8|d. per cultivated acre. The average out-turn per acre of the different crops is thus returned for 1883-84: — Rice, 521 lbs.; wheat, 818 lbs.; inferior food-grains, 654 lbs. ; indigo, 22 lbs. ; cotton, 59 lbs. ; opium, 22 lbs. ; oil-seeds, ^^^ lbs.; fibres, 486 lbs. ; sugar, 918 lbs. ; and tobacco, 687 lbs. Labourers and village servants are paid chiefly in grain ; some receive grants of rent-free land in payment. Unskilled labourers are paid at the rate of about 5§d., and skilled labourers 7|d. per diem. The agricultural stock ofthe District in 1883-84 was returned as follows : — Cows and 356 RAI BARELI DISTRICT. bullocks, 337,898; horses, 2340; ponies, 4281 ;' donkeys, 5720; sheep and goats, 115,402; pigs, 67,012; carts, 3527; and ploughs, 90,837. The average prices of food-grains and other produce during 1883-84 throughout the District were — wheat, best, 5s. id. per cwt, common, 4s. 9d. per cwt. ; rice, best, 8s. 2d. per cwt, common, 6s. iod. per cwt; gram, 3s. iod. per cwt; sugar, refined, £1, 16s. per cwt., and un refined, 9s. 1 id. per cwt. ; and salt, 10s. nd. per cwt. Natural Calamities. — In years of scarcity, Rai Bareli is worse off than other Districts of Oudh, having as yet (1885) no railway, and only 83 miles of water communication along its outer border. On the other hand, its masonry wells afford it a greater assurance against famine, its drainage is superior to that of other Districts, it suffers com paratively less from floods, and its area of artificial irrigation is so large that absolute famine ought to be almost unknown. Great scarcity from a deficiency of rainfall in October for the winter rice, and in January for the spring crops, is, however, common. On an average, in five years out of ten, the October and January rains are so scanty as to be of no practical value. The average annual rainfall is 33 inches, or about the same as Lucknow; the rains were specially deficient in 1864, 1868, 1873, and 1877-78, when the rainfall was respectively 22, 19, 41, and 13-9 inches. In 1873, although the rainfall was above the average, the distribution was unequal, and the September-October rains were deficient. The year 1784-85 was one of severe drought and famine, and considerable scarcity occurred in 1770 and 1810. In 1864, 1869, and 1874, there was very considerable scarcity in the District, approaching to famine. No special Government measures were called for, and the people were employed on the local roads. In 1877-78, the deficiency in the rainfall was followed by widespread scarcity, causing acute distress for a considerable time, while actual famine pre vailed for about two months. Special relief measures were organized ; relief works put in hand, and poorhouses opened by Government. The landlords and well-to-do classes generally also liberally came forward by furnishing work and food to those in distress. The food of the people is the same as that consumed throughout the rest of Oudh. Moth, or peas pottage, and barley bread, or cakes made of barley and gram mixed, form the ordinary food of the people. There are generally two meals in the day, at noon and at sunset ; but if the people are very poor, they content themselves with one meal at sunset, and a little of what is left served up cold the next morning, and called bdsi. Sdnwdn and kodo are largely consumed in the rainy season. Rice and maize are less used than in Northern and Western Oudh. Three-quarters of a ser, or i| lb., is reckoned a meagre daily allowance for a man, and 10 chhatdks, or ij lb., a famine allowance ofthe grains above alluded to. RAI BARELI DISTRICT. 357 The Land Tenures are principally tdlukddri. The returns received for the first edition of this work show 1198 villages held under this description of tenure, and 537 held as zaminddri by smaller proprie tors. Among the latter, sub-division of property has been carried to an extreme degree, the 537 villages being held by no less than about 11,000 small proprietors, two-thirds of whom possess on an average not more than 10 acres of land each. On the other hand, in the tdlukddri estates, n proprietors hold among them 350,000 acres; and no less than 816,000 acres, or two-thirds ofthe entire District, are held in 62 great estates, owned by 100 chiefs. Thirty-five tdlukddrs pay a Govern ment revenue exceeding £500 a year, varying from £643 for the Usah estate of 6 villages and an area of 5000 acres, to £11,342 for the large property of Tholri, which comprises 129 villages, and covers an area of 92,260 acres. The principal landed proprietors are the Tilok Chandi Bais, whose estates lie in the west of the District, comprising par gands Dalmau, Rai Bareli, Sareni, Khiron, Hardoi, and others ; and the Kanhpurias in the east, who hold Sdlon, Rokha Jais, Parshadepur, Mohanganj, and Simrauta. Means of Communication, etc. — Rdi Bareli District contains 516I miles of made road, the principal lines being as follows: — (1) From Rdi Bareli via Dalmau to Fatehpur, length within the District, 17 miles; (2) from Rdi Bareli via Ddlmau to Unao, 38 miles; (3) from Rdi Bareli via Dalmau to Allahabad, 14 miles ; (4) from Rdi Bareli via Dalmau to Partabgarh, 10 miles; (5) from Rdi Bareli via Dalmau to Sultdnpur, 8 miles ; (6) from Rdi Bareli via Dalmau to Faizabad (Fyzabad), 12 miles; (7) from Rdi Bareli via Dalmau to Lucknow, 24 miles; (8) from Rdi Bareli via Dalmau to Haidargarh, 28 miles; (9) from Rdi Bareli via Ldlganj to Rdipur, 28 miles; (10) from Ldlganj via- Bachhrdwdn to Haidargarh, 40 miles; (11) from Dalmau to Behar, 18 miles; (12) from Digbijdiganj via Bachhrdwdn, 18 miles; (13) from Behar to Purwa, 6 miles; (14) from Behar to Baksar, 12 miles; (15) from Chandakitur to Unao, 36 miles; (16) from Chdnda- kitur to Sdlon, 10 miles; (17) from Lucknow via Haidargarh to Sultdnpur, 13 miles. Only the first-named road is metalled. There are no railways as yet (1885) within the District, but the projected line from Lucknow to Jaunpur will, when completed, intersect Rai Bareli throughout its entire length frOm east to west. Water communication is afforded by the Ganges, which flows along the south-eastern boundary of the District. Total length of navigable rivers, 83 miles. The District manufactures consist of a little cloth-weaving for local use, the making of brass and copper utensils, and a little glass-ware, principally bottles for holding Ganges water. Administration. — Rai Bareli is administered by a Deputy Commis sioner, assisted by one or more Assistant Commissioners, 2 Native 358 RAI BARELI DISTRICT. Assistant Commissioners, 4 tahsilddrs, and 7 Honorary Magistrates. The jurisdiction of the Civil Judge extends over the neighbouring Districts of Sultdnpur and Partdbgarh. Subordinate Civil Judges (munsifs) are stationed at Rdi Bareli and Dalmau. The District is divided into 4 tahsils or revenue Sub-divisions, comprising 13 pargands, as follows: — (1) Ddlmau tahsil, comprising the pargands of Ddlmau, Sareni, and Khiron ; (2) Rdi Bareli tahsil, which is conterminous with Rdi Bareli pargand; (3) Digbijdiganj tahsil, comprising pargands Inhauna, Bachhrdwdn, Kumhrdwan, Hardoi, Simrauta, and Mohan ganj ; (4) Sdlon tahsil, comprising pargands Salon, Parshadepur, and Rokha Jais. The total revenue, imperial and local, of Rdi Bareli District in 1872-73 was £149,306, of which £122,411 was derived from the land- tax. The expenditure in the same year amounted to £28,597. In 1883-84, the total District revenue amounted to ,£155,152, the principal items being — land revenue, £130,035; stamps, £9807; and excise, £14,166. The civil expenditure, as represented by the cost of the District officials and police, amounted in the same year to £23,973. Rai Bareli contains 17 civil and revenue, and 20 magisterial courts. For police purposes, the District is divided into 10 police circles, namely, Rai Bareli, Bachhrdwdn, Mohanganj, Digbijdiganj, Giirbaksh- ganj, Ddlmau, Sareni, Mau, Jagatpur, and Sdlon. The total regular police force in 1883 numbered 509 officers and men, of whom 31 were employed in town duty; maintained at a total cost of £5472, of which £5298 was paid from Provincial revenues. There is also a village watch or rural police, consisting in 1883 of 3115 men, maintained at a cost of £7788. The total police force of the District, therefore, amounted to 3624 of all ranks, being at the rate of one policeman to every -5 square mile of area, or one to every 263 of population; total cost, £13,260, or £7, 12s. 7d. for every square mile of area, or 3|d. per head of population. The daily average number of prisoners in jail in 1883 was 401, of whom 64 were females. Education is afforded by 132 Government-inspected schools, includ ing a high school at the civil station, attended in 1883-84 by 5683 pupils. This is exclusive of unaided and uninspected schools ; and the Census Report of 1881 returned 6034 boys and 122 girls as under instruction, besides 25,103 males and 332 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. Medical Aspects. — The average monthly and annual rainfall of Rai Bareli District for the fourteen years ending 1 881 is returned as follows: — January, 0-47 inch; February, 0-29; March, 0-28; April, o-i6; May, 0-29; June, 3-86; July, 9-90; August, 8-38; September, 7-95; October, 1-15; November, 0-03; and December, 0-13 inch: average for the year, 32-89 inches. The rainfall, however, is very capricious, and RAI BARELI TAHSIL AND TOWN. 359 frequently fails in the very months when it is most needed for agricul tural purposes, although the total for the year may be equal to the average. No thermometrical returns are available. The prevalent disease is fever, but cholera and small - pox also carry off yearly numbers of victims. Cattle-disease is common. Five charitable dispensaries afforded medical relief in 1883 to 518 in door and 29,665 out-door patients. The total number of registered deaths in 1883 amounted to 29,675, of which 20,603 were ascribed to fevers and 5063 to small-pox. Average rate of mortality, 31-94 per thousand ; as against a mean rate of 33-74 per thousand for the five previous years. [For further particulars regarding Rdi Bareli, see the Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh, vol. iii. pp. 171—260 (Allahdbdd Government Press, 1878); the Land Settlement Report of Rdi Bareli District, by Mr. J. F. MacAndrew, C.S. (1872); the Census Report of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh for 1881 ; and the several annual Provincial and Departmental Reports from 1880 to 1884.] Rai Bareli. — Tahsil or Sub-division and pargand, both conterminous, in Rdi Bareli District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Maharajganj, on the east by Sdlon, and on the south and west by Ldlganj and Purwd. Area, 371^ square miles, or 237,730 acres, divided into 363 villages, of which 244 are held in tdlukddri, 58 in zaminddri, and 61 in pattiddri tenure. Population (1869) 212,905 ; (1881) 199,095, namely, males 98,203, and females 100,892 ; decrease of population since 1869, 13,810, or 6-5 per cent, in twelve years, caused principally by the severe famine of 1877-78. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 183,345 ;. Muhammadans, 15,524; and 'others,' 226. The principal land -holding caste are the Bdis Kshattriyas, descendants of the great Bdis Rdjd Tilok Chand. Government land revenue, £25,517, at the rate of 2s. 2|-d. per acre. The Sub-division contained in 1884 (including head-quarters) 3 civil and n criminal courts, with 2 police circles (thdnds), a regular police force of 36 men, and a village watch or rural police of 622 chaukiddrs. Rai Bareli. — Town in Rdi Bareli District, Oudh, and administrative head-quarters of the District ; situated on the banks of the Sai, 48 miles south-east of Lucknow, in lat. 26° 13' 50" n., and long. 8i° 16' 25" e. The town was founded by the Bhars, and called after them Bharauli, subsequently corrupted into Bareli. With regard to the prefix Rdi, one story asserts that it is derived from Rdhi, a village near the town; while another attributes the name to the fact of the place having long been in the possession of a Kdyasth family bearing the title of Rai. After the expulsion of the Bhars by Ibrdhim Shdrki of Jaunpur, early in the 15th century, the town passed into the possession of the Muham madans. Population (1869), including the suburb of Jahdndbdd, 360 RAICHUR. 11,544; (1881) 11,781, namely, males 5970, and females 581 1. Hindus number 6262; Muhammadans, 5451; Christians, 33; and 'others,' 35. Number of houses, 2356, of which 457 are brick-built. The municipal limits extend beyond the town, and include a total population of 16,269; municipal income (1883-84), £1906, of which £1073 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, is. 2|d. per head of municipal population. Three large markets, with daily sales averaging £118. The town possesses many architectural features, the principal being a spacious and strong fort erected by Ibrahim Sharki, and constructed of bricks 2 feet long by 1 thick and \\ wide, probably taken from more ancient strongholds of the previous Bhar possessors. In the centre of the fort is a huge well or baoli, 108 yards in circumference, dug down to the springs, and then lined with brick walls supporting balconies, and containing chambers on a level with the water. These are now more or less in ruins. Tradition relates that when the fort was building, all that was erected during the day fell down in the course of the ensuing night. In his perplexity, the king had resort to a holy man of Jaunpur, Makhdum Sayyid Jafri, who walked over the ground, after which no interruption occurred in the work. The saint's tomb stands beside the gate of the fort. The other ancient buildings are the magni ficent palace and tomb of Nawdb Jahdn Khan, the Governor in the time of Aurangzeb, and 4 handsome mosques. One of them is without domes, but has three spacious halls, and is said to be a copy of the Ka'aba at Mecca. A handsome bridge was constructed over the Sai a few years ago, at the expense of the neighbouring landholders. Besides the usual Government courts and buildings, the town contains 2 schools, one supported by a Christian mission ; a sarai or travellers' rest-house, and a charitable dispensary. Attached to the dispensary is a poorhouse under the management of the civil surgeon, at which indigent blind, lame, and decrepit persons receive gratuitous food and clothing. Raichiir. — Old town and fort in the Haidardbdd State, Nizdm's Dominions, Southern India. Lat 16° 12' n., long. 77° 24' 30" e. Situated in the south-west corner of the Nizdm's Dominions, nearly midway between the Kistna and Tungabhadra rivers. Population (1881) 15,387. The fort presents a picturesque appearance; the citadel, protected by a double line of fortification, rises 290 feet above the plain. A short distance from the west gate of the fortress are the remains of a strongly built palace, now utilized as a jail. The town stands to the east of the fort. It is well built, and traversed by good streets. Rdichiir is famous for its glazed pottery and slippers. The railway station, which is the junction of the Great Indian Peninsula with the Madras line, is one mile and a half from the town. RAIDHAK—RAIDRUG. 361 Raidhak.— River of Northern Bengal ; rises in the Bhutan Hills, and flows southwards through the Western Dwars of Jalpdigurf District, till it enters Kuch Behar territory near the small village of Bhurjkuti. In its upper course through Jalpdigurf, which it enters in lat. 26° 43' 30" n., and long. 89° 48' e., this river forms a large island by throwing off a branch stream, called the Mdinagdon nadi, which leaves the Raidhdk at the point where it enters the District, and rejoins it about 8 or 9 miles lower down. The Rdidhdk cuts across the eastern angle of Kuch Behar, and unites with the Kdljani, flowing in the same direction, to form the Sankos. The combined streams fall into the Brahmaputra below Dhubrf. Raidrug. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Bellary District, Madras Presi dency. Area, 898 square miles. Population (1881) 83,799, namely, 42,778 males and 41,021 females, dwelling in 1 town and 147 villages, containing 16,017 occupied houses. Hindus number 78,899; Muham madans, 4875; Christians, 10; and 'others,' 15. In 1883 the tdluk contained 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 8 ; regular police, 60 men. Land revenue, £13,439. Cotton soil in the north and west. Raidrug (Rdyadrug). — Town in Raidrug tdluk, Bellary District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 14° 41' 50" n., long. 76° 52' 50" e. Population (1881) 8766, inhabiting 1571 houses. Hindus number 7298; Muham madans, 1455 ; Christians, 2 ; and ' others,' 1 1. Consists of a citadel and lower fort, the latter containing the town, which is regularly laid out. The citadel occupies the summit of a mass of granite rocks, rising to the height of 1200 feet, and connected by a lower ridge with a group of wild hills, which form the north-eastern boundary of the plain of Chitaldrug. The south face of the rock is abrupt and inaccessible. The lower fort is guarded by a triple line of works, and a narrow path way hewn in the rock leads from it to the citadel. At intervals along this path are gateways of solid masonry and fresh lines of fortification. About half-way up the hill is the old palace of the pdlegdr, said to have been built about the beginning of the 16th century; and close by are two handsome temples dedicated to Rama and Krishna. There are also the ruins of houses and gardens on the rock, but few people now live there. The earlier pdlegdrs of Raidrug were Boyas ; and it is said that the palace and the forts were built by one of them, named Janga Nayak. About the end of the 16th century, this family seems to have been deposed ; and one of the descendants of the ex-Commander-in-Chief of Vijayanagar succeeded in making himself master of Raidrug and the adjacent fort of Konderpi-drug. In 1766 the pdlegdr assisted Haidar All at the siege of Sira, as a reward for which his tribute was reduced to Rs. 50,000 (say £5000) as soon as Haidar became master of the country. Subsequently the pdlegdr, Venkatapati Ndyudu, gave 3 62 RAIGANJ—RAIGARH. offence to Tipii by refusing to join him when about to attack Adoni. Tipii captured Rdidrug and sent the pdlegdr to Seringapatam, where he was assassinated in 1791, just before Rdidrug was stormed by Lord Comwallis. In 1799, his sister's son, Gopdl Ndyudu, was released from Seringapatam, and soon made his way to Rdidrug, where he attempted to collect a following. He was taken prisoner by Muhammad Amin Khan, who had been sent by the Nizam to settle the District, and was taken to Haidardbdd. After the cession to the British, he was sent to Gooty (Giiti), where he resided as a quasi-State prisoner till his death. Pensions were granted to his family, which is now extinct. Raiganj. — Town in Dindjpur District, Bengal ; situated in lat. 25° 36' 40" n., and long. 88° 9' 48" e., on the river Kulik. An im portant seat of river trade. In 1876-77, the registered exports were valued at £108,820, chiefly jute (£28,000), gunny-bags (£51,000), grain (£9000); the .imports were valued at £13,503, including salt C*o9°o°) and raw cotton (£3000). In 1881 the exports were valued at £47,300, and the imports at £12,000. Rdiganj is a substantial town, surrounded by extensive rice -fields, and contains numerous tanks. A dispensary was established here in 1872. Raigarh. — Native State attached to Sambalpur District, Central Provinces, lying between 21° 45' and 22° 35' n. lat, and between 83° and 83" 35' e. long. Bounded on the north by the Native States of Sargiija and Gdngpur in Chntia Ndgpur ; on the south by the river Mahanadi and Sambalpur District; on the east by the Kodabdga zaminddri and Gdngpur State ; and on the west by Chandrapur Chiefship and Sakti. Population (1881) 128,943 (of whom 121,256 were Hindus) ; residing in 685 villages or townships and 23,282 houses, on an area of i486 square miles, 300 of which are cultivated, while of the portion lying waste 400 are returned as cultivable. Towards the Mahdnadi on the south, Raigarh is well cultivated, though the soil is poor and sandy ; but the northern and eastern parts are a waste of hill and jungle, containing sdl, sdj, bijesdl, and many other kinds of useful timber, but no teak of any size. The principal rivers are the Mahdnadi and its affluents, the Tedi, Man, and Kelii. Rice forms the staple crop; but pulses, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, and cotton are also produced, besides a little wheat and gram. The jungles yield lac, tasar-silk, and rdi, or sdl resin. The manufactures are unimportant. They consist of brass and bell-metal vessels, tasar- silk fabrics, and coarse cotton cloth. Iron-ore is abundant, but no mines are worked regularly. The road from Sambalpur to Bilaspur passes through the south of the State. The chief is a Gond ; and, according to tradition, his ancestor Thdkur Darydo Singh obtained the title of Rdjd for assistance afforded to the Marathas. The State RAIGARH TOWN. 363 now includes the once independent chiefship of Bargarh, which was conferred on the family about fifty years ago. Four subordinate chief- ships are held by connections of the Rdjd, viz.— Anjdr Singh, possessing 12 villages; Amar Singh, 5; Thakur Raghunath Singh, 30; and Thdkur Parameswar Singh, 30. The supposed gross revenue of the State amounts to .£2800, and the tribute is fixed at £40. The climate resembles that of Sambalpur District, and is thought unhealthy. Fever is the prevailing disease, especially from September to November; and in the hot season, cholera is a frequent visitant. Raigarh.— Chief town of Rdigarh State, Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 21° 54' n., and long. 83° 25' e. Population (1881) 4860, namely, Hindus, 4361; Kabfrpanthis, 3; Satnamis, 2; Muham madans, 328; and non-Hindu aboriginal tribes, 166. The town is the residence of the Rdjd of the State, and contains a fairly attended school. Rdigarh (Rdygad, or the ' Royal Fort ; ' originally called Rdiri, and known to the early Europeans as the Gibraltar of the East). — Town and fort in Koldba District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 18° 14' N., long. 73° 30' e. ; 32 miles south-west from Poona, 65 south-east from Bombay. Situated among the Northern Ghats, and regarded in the last century as one of the greatest strongholds of India. Its scarped sides and long top form a great wedge-shaped block, cut from the Sahyadri hills by a deep valley about a mile broad at the base and two miles across from crest to crest. The hill-top, 2851 feet above sea-level, stretches about a mile and a half from east to west by a mile from north to south. On the west, south, and east, the hill-sides are so steep that, excepting the gateways in the west and south faces, there are no artificial defences. The north-west face is protected by a main line of masonry and two upper walls or portions of walls where the natural scarp is imperfect. Its size, strength, and its easy communication with the Deccan and with the sea, must from early times have made Rdigarh an important fortress. But its time of magnificence as the capital of a great sovereign lasted from 1664 to 1680, the last sixteen years of Sivaji's reign. In the twelfth century, Rdiri was the seat of a family of petty Mardthd chiefs. In the fourteenth century these chiefs acknowledged the Vijayanagar princes as their overlords. About the middle of the fifteenth century, Ala-ud-di'n Shdh Bahmani 11. compelled the Rdiri chief to pay tribute. In 1479, R^1"' passed to the Nizamshdhi rulers of Ahmadnagar; and was held by them till 1636. On the final conquest of Ahmadnagar, the Mughals made Rdiri over to the Adilshdhi kings of Bijdpur. Under Bijapur, with the name of Isldmgarh, it was made over to the Sidi of Janjira, and garrisoned by a body of Marathds. In 1648, Rdiri fell into the hands of Sivajf, who in 1662, after diligent 364 RAIGARH TOWN—RAIKOT. search, chose the hill for his capital, changing the name to Rdigarh. The royal and public buildings are said to have numbered 300 stone houses, including palaces, mansions, offices, mint, granaries, magazines, quarters for a garrison of 2000 men, a market nearly a mile in length, and a number of rock-cut and masonry cisterns. While the hill-top was being covered with these buildings, care was taken to complete its defences. In 1664, Sivaji enriched Rdigarh with the plunder of Surat, and made it the seat of his government. In the same year, after the death of his father Shahji, Sivaji came to Rdigarh, assumed the title of Rdjd, and struck coins in his own name. In 1674, Sivaji was crowned with much splendour as an independent prince at Raigarh, and died here six years afterwards in 1680. In 1690, Rdigarh was taken by Aurangzeb ; but having reverted to the Mardthds during the decay of the Muham madan power, it was invested by a British force in April 1818,. and surrendered after a bombardment from the hill spur called Kdl-kdi lasting 14 days. A treasure of £50,000 in coin was discovered among the ruins of the fort. Raigarh (Raegarh). — Town in Partdbgarh (Pratdpgarh) District, Oudh; situated 6 miles from Behar, on the Partabgarh road. Population (1881) 2374, namely, Hindus 2100, and Musalmdns 274. Three Hindu temples and one mosque ; small bdzdr. Raika. — One of the petty States at Rewa Kantha, Bombay. Area, 21- square miles. There are two chiefs. The revenue was estimated in 1875 at £270 ; and in 1884 at £170. Two-thirds of the State belong to the original proprietors, and one-third to the Pageddr of Baroda. Tribute of £120 is paid to the Gaekwdr of Baroda. Raikot. — Town and municipality in Jagrdon tahsil, Ludhidna District, Punjab, and former capital of a Native State"; situated in lat. 30° 39' n., and long. 75° 35' e., 30 miles south-west of Ludhidna town. Resi dence of a celebrated family of Muhammadan Rdjputs, the Rais of Raikot, who held a position of great importance in early times. Tulsi Das, founder of the family, emigrated from Jaisalmer (Jeysulmere) in 1323, and settled at Faridkot. He embraced the Muhammadan creed, and took the name of Shaikh Chachu. His descendants founded the towns of Shahjahdnpur (in Ludhidna) and Talwandi. They obtained the title of Rdi from an Emperor Ala-ud-di'n, probably the Sayyid prince who reigned from 1445 to 1478. They acquired possession of Ludhidna town in 1620; and during the 18th century owned a con siderable tract of country, extending apparently beyond the Sutlej (Satlaj). After the rise of the Sikh power, the Rdis held their own till the beginning of the present century, by calling in the aid of George Thomas, the adventurer of Haridna. Rdi Alyas, the last independent prince, died in 1802, and left the territory to his mother, Niir-ul-Nissa. RAIMANGAL—RAINGARH 365 In 1806, Ranjit Singh, crossing the Sutlej to aid the Rajas of Ndbha and Jind against their neighbour of Patidla, took the oppor tunity of reducing the Muhammadan family, whose dominions he divided between himself and his allies. Rdnf Niir-ul-Nissa retained possession of Raikot itself, and other members of the family received small jdgirs. On the extension of British protection to the Cis-Sutlej States, our Government recognised the de facto title of Ranjit Singh's grantees; and only allowed the Rani's claim to the territories which she held at the date of British occupation. Nur-ul-Nissa died in 1831, and was succeeded by her daughter-in-law, widow of Rai Alyas, by name Bhdg Bhari. On her death in 1854, the British Government recognised her nephew and adopted son, Imdm Bakhsh Khdn, as heir to her estate and to the title of Rai. Besides the revenues of Raikot and Mallah, he receives from Government a pension of £200 a year. Raikot town is surrounded by a wall, and substantially built. It contains several handsome houses, the property of the Rdi and of Sikh gentlemen of the neighbourhood. Population (1881) 9219, namely, Muhammadans, 5281; Hindus, 2855; Sikhs, 838; and Jains, 245. Number of houses, 1384. Police station, post-office, dispensary. Municipal revenue in 1883-84, £368, or 9^d. per head of population. Raimangal. — Estuary in the Sundarbans, Bengal. Its entrance is situated about 12 miles eastward of the Guasuba River; and about 6 miles from the sea it receives the united streams of three rivers — the Hariabhanga being the westernmost, the Rdimangal proper the next, and the Jamund the easternmost. The point of land on the west side of the entrance is situated in lat. 21° 37' n., with a depth of 5 or 6 fathoms in the channel close to it, and with from 10 to 12 fathoms inside towards the Haridbhangd river. From the point to seaward, the depth decreases gradually to 4 fathoms in the western channel, the outer part of which is separated from the Gudsubd by a sandbank which stretches out from the land between them. The eastern channel leads directly to the entrance of the Rdimangal and Jamund rivers, having a sandbank between it and the western channel, with deep water inside. According to Captain Horsburgh's Sailing Directions, two considerable reefs of breakers have formed on the western side of the channel leading to these rivers, situated respec tively at 5 and 10 miles from the land. Raimatla. — River in the District of the Twenty-four Pargands, Bengal. — See Matla. Raina. — Village and thdnd or police station in Bardwan District, Bengal. Lat. 23° 4' 20" n., long. 87° 56' 40" e. Population under 5000. . Raingarh.— Fort in Keunthdl State, Punjab. Lat. 31° 7' n., long. 366 RAIPUR. 77" 48' e. It crowns an isolated hill on the left bank of the river Pabar, which is here crossed by a wooden bridge. Belonged to Bashahr before the Gurkha invasion; surrendered to the British in 1815, and transferred to Keunthdl in exchange for territory now forming part of Simla District. Small community of Brdhmans hold the sur rounding valley, and have charge of two temples of Tibetan architecture. Elevation of fort above sea-level, 5408 feet. Raipur. — British District in the Chief Commissionership of the Central Provinces, lying between 19° 48' and 21° 45' n. lat, and betweeen 80° 28' and 82° 38' e. long. ; bounded on the north by Bilas pur, on the south by Bastar, on the east by petty States attached to Sambalpur District, and on the west by Chdnda and Balaghat Population of the British District in 1881, 1,405,171 persons; area, 11,885 square miles. Within the geographical limits of Raipur are the four dependent Feudatory States of Chhuikhadan, Ranker, Khairagarh, and Nandgaon (qq.v.), with a total area of 2658 square miles, and a population (1881) of 427,066. Total for Raipur District and the four attached States — area, 14,543 ; population (1881) 1,832,237. The administrative head-quarters of the District are at Raipur, which is also the principal town. Physical Aspects. — Rdipur forms the southern portion of the Chhatis- garh country, which may be generally described as the basin of the Upper Mahdnadi and its tributaries, together with the hills in which these tributaries take their rise. The District spreads out in a vast plateau, merging on the north in the open plain of Bildspur, while on every other side ranges of hills, branching from the great Vindhyan chain, close it in. To the north-east and south, wild tracts of jungle contrast with the populous villages among which they lie ; everywhere else, the plain country has been cleared, except where a strip has been left waste for the sake of the thatching grass it produces, or because the rocky soil_ is more valuable as jungle than as cultivated land. Rdipur is drained by two rivers, which subsequently unite, and form the Mahdnadi proper. The larger of these, the Seondth, rises in Chdnda, and after its entrance into Rdipur, flows in a north-easterly direction for about 120 miles, till it receives the Hamp from the west; it then turns westward for 40 miles, during part of its course forming the boundary between Raipur and Bilaspur, and finally joins the Mahdnadi in the north-east corner of the District. On the right bank, its tributaries are the Karkara, Tendiild, Kariin, and Khorsi ; on the left bank, the Gumaria, Am, Sun', Gardghat, Ghogwd, and Hamp. Like the Seondth, most of these streams flow over a rocky or gravelly bottom, and retain their water nearly all the year. The Mahdnadi proper, here a comparatively insignificant stream, has its source in the RAIPUR. 367 extreme south-east of the District, and flows due west for about 30 miles. It then turns sharply to the north-east, its bed lying for 20 miles through a narrow valley, in places only 500 yards wide. Emerging into more open country, it rolls on in a northerly or north-easterly direction till it unites with the Seondth. During its course in Rdipur, the Mahdnadi is swelled by the Pairi and Sundar, which meet before their junction with the Mahdnadi, and by the Kesho, Kordr, and Nairn', which flow from the east through hilly tracts, along narrow but fertile valleys, and fall directly into that river. In this part of the District the river beds are wide wastes of sand, dry for more than half the year, and at no time, except during high flood, containing much water. Everywhere in Rdipur the country is dotted with tanks. These are generally formed by throwing a dam across a hollow : but in most large villages one or more tanks may be found embanked on all sides, and planted with trees, the work of some public-spirited villager, or perhaps of some enterprising Banjdra who used to pasture his pack-bullocks in the village in the days when the jungle was yet uncut. Such tanks, which depend almost entirely on the rainfall for their supply, give better drinking water than those formed by damming the valleys ; but as little care is taken to keep them clear, the water generally becomes a mass of impurity in the hot weather. Wells were unknown until quite recent years; but the regulations granting land rent-free to persons digging them, has led to the construction of wells lined with masonry in many villages. Near the Mahdnadi, and to the south of the District, water occurs at from 12 to 24 feet below the surface ; but in the east it is not so easily procured. The highland borders of Rdipur, on the east and south, and to a smaller extent on the west, are mostly occupied by the chiefships attached to the District, which fringe the khdlsa or portion under British administration. The hills are rarely over 1500 feet in height, except the Gaurdgarh plateau, and the range which extends from the south of Sehdwd into Bastar and Ranker. The hilly tracts on the out skirts of Rdipur are mainly composed of gneiss and quartzite, while the sandstone rocks are intersected with trap dikes. The soil here is poor, except in the narrow valleys, where the land is almost always in the swampy state suitable for the cultivation of rice. Throughout the. plain country the soil is generally fertile. The stratum below the alluvial deposits is invariably a soft sandstone slate, frequently covered with a layer of laterite gravel; and in many places the shale has been converted into hard vitrified sandstone, forming an excellent building material. Below this again lies the blue limestone, which crops out in numerous places on the surface, and is constantly found in the beds of the rivers. 3 68 RAIPUR. Iron-ore abounds, that found at Dalli in the Lohdra estate, and in the hills to the west of Ganddi, being reckoned the best. The red ochre of Ganddi and Thakurtold also bears a high repute. Apart from the trees round the tanks, but few are to be seen throughout the greater part of the plain. The teak, which once grew luxuriantly on all the river banks, has nearly disappeared, and scarcely a mango grove em bellishes the country. The commonest tree is the mahud, which is always preserved when the others are cleared away. The uplands on the borders, however, are still covered with forests ; though few of these, except the great sdl forest lands of Sehawd and Bindra Nawdgarh, and that along the Kamtdra ndld in the Deori and Kaurid za??iinddris or estates, yield much valuable timber. The Ganddi and Lohdra zamin- ddris also contain large tracts of young teak ; and among the hills of the Gaurdgarh plateau, as well as on the high range in the south of Sehdwd, spread noble forests of sdj and tendii. Rdipur offers great attractions to the sportsman. In the hot months, tigers and leopards are found near the streams ; on the hills, bears abound ; and to the east, bison ; while in every direction antelope, spotted deer, and' other varieties of game are met with. History. — According to Gond traditions, Raipur was originally inhabited by a race of giants, endued with supernatural powers ; who, however, at length yielded to the marvellous prowess of the Gond heroes. Those critics who think that a poetic legend must always contain a kernel of prose, refer these mythical victories to the conflict of the Gonds with the Bhunjiyas and other Kolarian races, with whom the Gonds came in contact in Chhati'sgarh, as elsewhere in Central India. To the east of the Mahdnadi, the Bhunjiyas and Binjwars maintained themselves till a late period, and the ruined forts along the river still testify to the raids of the Kolarians from the Sondkhan Hills. Our earliest historical knowledge of Rdipur reveals the District as forming part of the dominions under the Haihai-Bansi' dynasty of Ratanpur. On the accession of Surdeva, twentieth of his line, about 750 a.d., the Chhatisgarh country was divided; and while Surdeva retained the northern half, his younger brother, Brahmadeva, moved to Rdipur, and governed the southern section. From this time two separate Rajas ruled in Chhatisgarh ; for when, after nine generations, the direct line from Brahmadeva became extinct, a younger scion of the Ratanpur house, Derandth Singh, the son of Rdjd Jaganndth Singh Deva, again proceeded to Rdipur about 1360, and his issue con tinued in uninterrupted possession until the arrival of the Mardthas. The elder branch of the Haihai-Bansi family, however, always claimed a certain supremacy over the southern kingdom. Probably some time elapsed before the Raipur Government was firmly established • for an RAIPUR. 369 inscription in a temple at Rajim, dated Samvat 796, or a.d. 750, com memorates the conquests of a chief named Jagat Pal, who seems to have acquired the fort of Dnig by a marriage connection with Prithwf Deva, the successor of Surdeva at Ratanpur. Apparently the Haihai-Bansi kings made no alteration in the system of society established by the Gonds. The clan, not the village, formed the social unit ; and while in Upper India the family developed into the village community, throughout Chhatisgarh the clan settled in a cluster of villages, which were formed into a tdluk. All the original inhabitants of each tdluk either were or deemed themselves connected with the chief by ties of blood. Immigration from Hindustan, and the mere lapse of time, however, gradually relaxed the bond of union till nothing was left to combine the people except their common depend ence upon a central authority. Thus, with the decay of the ruling race, all national feeling faded away ; and the Mardthds met with little or no opposition when they entered the country. The first Maratha invasion took place in 1741, when Bhaskar Pandit, on his way to attack Bengal, defeated Raja Raghundth Singh at Ratan pur ; but neither he nor Mohan Singh, who was put in charge of Chhatisgarh by Raghuji 1. of Nagpur in 1745, at first interfered with Amar Singh, the Raja of the younger line ruling in Raipur. Five years later, however, Amar Singh was quietly ousted, receiving for his main tenance the pargands of Rajim, Pdtan, and Rdipur, for which he paid a yearly tribute of £700. After several changes, in 1822 the present arrangement was made, by which his grandson Raghundth Singh received Bargdon, with the neighbouring villages of Govinda, Murbend, Nandgaon, and Baleswar, free of revenue. Raipur was already in a condition of decay when it came under the Mardthds, and the raids of the Binjwars of Sondkhan continued to desolate the eastern portion of the District. Bimbaji, and on his death, in 1787, his widow Anandi Bai, effected some improvement ; but after the time of her successor, the subahddr Vitthal Devakar, the government became a mere engine of financial oppression, and the country relapsed into absolute anarchy. On the deposition of Apa Sahib in 1818, the Nagpur dominions were taken under British superintendence during the minority of Raghujf in.; and by the mild but firm administration of Colonel Agnew, Rdipur rapidly progressed, until Raghuji m. assumed the throne in 1830. From that time till 1854, when the Nagpur kingdom lapsed to the British Government, Chhatisgarh was administered by subahs, who continued the system organized by Colonel Agnew with such success, that in 1855 the revenue of Rdipur alone nearly equalled the revenue paid by the whole of Chhatisgarh in 1818. Captain Elliot, the officer appointed after the annexation, at first had jurisdiction over all Chhatis garh, together with Bastar. In 1856 the country was divided into 3 vol. xi. 2 A 370 RAIPUR. tahsils, two of which, Dhamtdri and Rdipur, lay within the present Dis trict, and Drug was made a tahsil in the following year. In 1861, Bildspur was formed into a separate District, and in 1863 a fourth tahsil of Simgd was added to Raipur. The District suffered but little during the Mutiny, the only disturbances being those excited by Ndrdyan Singh, the last of the Binjwdr chiefs of Sondkhdn. He was nanged in 1858, and his estate confiscated. Since then the raids ofthe hill tribes into the east ofthe District have entirely ceased, and the tracts they desolated are fast becoming the most flourishing portions of Raipur. Population. — Raipur is both the largest and the most populous District of the Central Provinces. A rough enumeration in 1866 returned the population at 1,322,662 persons. The Census of 1872 disclosed 1,437,255; and the last enumeration in 1881 returned 1,832,237. The above returns include the population of the four Feudatory States attached to the District ; but as a separate article is devoted to each of these dependencies (see under Chhuikhadan, Ranker, Khairagarh, and Nandgaon), the following examination of the people will be confined to the khdlsa, or portion of the District under direct British management. The Census of 1872 disclosed a population of 1,093,405 persons, on an area of 11,885 square miles, residing in 4431 villages and inhabit ing 241,922 houses. In 1881, the Census, taken over the same area, returned the population at 1,405,171, showing an increase of 311,766, or 28-5 per cent, in nine years. This increase, however, is only apparent, and is the result of more careful enumeration in 1881, as the increase of registered births over deaths was only 6-3 per cent, and immigration is small. The results of the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows : ¦ — Area of British District, 1 1,885 square miles ; number of towns and villages, 4743 ; number of houses, 460,306, namely, occupied 446,651, and unoccupied 13,655. Total population, 1,405,171, namely, males 696,242, and females 708,929; proportion of males, 49-5 percent. Average density of population, 118 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, 0-4; persons per town, 296; occupied houses per square mile, 376 ; inmates per occupied house, 3-15. Classified according to sex and age, there are — under 15 years of age, males 306,854, and females 292,337; total children, 599,191, or 42-7 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards, males 389,388, and females 416,592 ; total adults, 805,980, or 57-3 per cent. Religion. — Classified according to religion, the population consists of — Hindus proper, 856,492, or 60-9 per cent, of the whole population ; Satndmis, 223,447, or 15-9 per cent; Kabfrpanthis, 143,178, or 10-2 per cent; Muhammadans, 14,991, or 11 per cent; Christians, 821 ; Jains, 513; and non-Hindu aborigines, 165,729, or n-8 per cent. RAIPUR. 371 The total number of aboriginal tribes, however, is returned by the Census at 316,353, namely, Hindus 150,624, and non-Hindus 165,729. Of the aboriginal tribes, the Gonds are the most numerous, being returned (Hindus and non-Hindus) at 261,791. Though the oldest settlers in the country, they have succumbed to the Hindu invaders, and are now rarely found holding villages, except in the jungles. In the open country they are almost entirely Hinduized ; and though some of them show energy and industry, yet, generally speaking, they are a down-trodden race, and rarely attain wealth or comfort. In the jungles also, the old religion of the tribe is disappearing, and while all Gonds worship Burhd Deo and Duld Deo (the latter being the household god), the Rdipur Gonds know little of the distinctive gods of the Dhur Gonds, to which tribe most of the Chhatisgarh Gonds belong. They are all intensely superstitious, and worship the numerous local deities assidu ously; though, except in the jungles, the Baiga, or village priest, is as often a Keut (Kewat), Teli, or Ahir, as a Gond. The Kawdrs or Kanwdrs, 19,333 m number, who conquered the country from the aboriginal Bhuiyas, and who supplied the chief counsellors and most trusted followers of the Haihai-Bansi kings, are also returned as aborigines. There is, however, ground for supposing them to be imperfect Rajputs, who settled in early times among the hills of the Vindhyan range, and escaped becoming Hinduized. Their claim to be considered as Rajputs is recognised in one instance, as the first Kan war chief of Narrd in Rdipur tahsil received his estate as a dowry on his marriage with the daughter of the Rajput chief of Kharidr. Though the warlike traditions of the race are preserved in their worship of Jhdgrd Khand under the form of a sword, the Kanwdrs of the present day are the most peaceable and quiet of men, and once fairly settled in a cultivated country, are industrious and good cultivators. In the jungles they have conformed generally to the customs of their neighbours, and worship Burhd Deo and Diila Deo, like the Gonds. The richer among them, however, all wish to be considered as good Hindus. The Kanwdrs are chiefly found in the north-east of the District ; but a large colony of them in Dhamtari tahsil, in the south, still hold lands granted to their ancestors by the Haihai-Bansf kings. They are most numerous, however, in the Feudatory States. The other aboriginal tribes include — Binjwars, 7316 in number, found chiefly in the north-east of the District, who occasionally cultivate. The allied tribes of Bhunjiyas and Bhumids, 4721 in number, inhabit the east ofthe District, particularly the Kharidr and Bindra Nawdgarh zaminddris, where they hold a good many fairly cultivated villages. The Saonras, a branch of the Savar tribe, 3849 in number, are only found in Khalari in the east of the Rdipur tahsil, and are the most industrious of the jungle tribes. The Kandhs, 1325 in number, and Kamars, 3641, utterly 372 RAIPUR. refuse to cultivate, and generally live in the most remote jungles, supporting themselves on jungle fruits and small game. The only other aboriginal tribe that need be mentioned is the Khdrwar, 13,481 in number, a branch of the Kols, which has now become almost com pletely Hinduized. Among the orthodox Hindu population, the Brahmans number 20,261. The majority of them are residents of long standing, and claim to be the descendants of Kanauj Brdhmans imported by Kalydn Sahi, the great Haihai-Bansi Rdjd, in the 16th century. They are looked down upon and regarded as impure by their brethren who have settled in the District in more recent times ; but they make good landlords, and are not unpopular with their cultivators. The Marathd Brdhmans are of recent origin, and almost all the villages held by them have been acquired by the ousting of older proprietors. The Rdjputs, 9393 in number, for the most part belong to families who have been settled here for many generations. They are generally descendants of immigrants from the north ; though in the Dhamtdri tahsil there are a few Rajputs who have migrated from the Madras State of Jaipur, and it is only this latter class who will hold the plough. The other respectable castes are — Baniyds, or traders, who often hold land, 3634 in number; Gosains, also a landholding class, 3046; Bhats, or genealogists, 271 1; and Kdyasths, writers, Government officials, and landholders, 1044. The lower or Siidra castes of Hindus include — Chamdr, the most numerous caste in the District, returned at 248,429. Among the Chamdrs are included large numbers of the Satnami sect, described below. Next to Chamdrs comes the Teli caste, 203,503 ; followed by the Ahir caste, 141,983; Kurmi, 58,293; Keut or Kewat, 50,923; Ganda, 35,728; Marar, 35,096; Pankd, 31,659; Mehra, 26,796; Kalldr, 20,307; Dhobi, 19,063; Koshti, 17,433; Dhimar, 17,113; Lohdr, 14,763; Nai, 13,121; Gadarid, 9222 ; Banjdra, 8518 ; Kumbhdr, 7561 ; Lodhi, 7079; Bairagi, 6507; Sondr, 5718; Dom, 4763; Ghdsid, 4705; Mali, 3575 ; and Maratha, 2967. The Satnamis, 223,447, and the Kabirpanthis, 143,178, are Hindus who theoretically recognise no distinction of caste. The Satnamis, who principally belong to the Chamdr caste, call themselves Rdi Dasis, from Rdm Dds, a Chamdr reformer and disciple of Ramanand in the 15th century; the modern Satnami creed is a revival ofthe doctrines of Rdm Das, preached by Ghdsf Das in the early part of the present century. The creed found ready acceptance among the low-caste Chamars, and the majority of that caste are now included in the sect, although other castes are also admitted. The Kabirpanthis, or fol lowers of Kabfr, a religious reformer and also a disciple of Rdmanand, are very similar to the Satnamis, but are principally found among the Pankds, Gdndas, and Telfs. Though theoretically the Kabfrpanthis RAIPUR. 373 profess an equality of caste, it would now be difficult for a Chamdr to obtain admission into the brotherhood. Town and Rural Population. — Rdipur District contains only two towns with upwards of five thousand inhabitants, namely, Raipur, population (1881) 24,948; and Dhamtari, 6647. Total urban popu lation, 31,595, or 2-3 per cent, of the population of the District. The only regular municipality is that of Raipur town, with an income in 1882-83 of £4862, of which £3642 was derived from taxation, mainly octroi duties ; average incidence of taxation, 2s. lofd. per head. Of the 4743 towns and villages in the District, 2136 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 1938 from two to five hundred; 587 from five hundred to a thousand ; 72 from one to two thousand ; 5 from two to three thousand ; 3 from three to five thousand ; and 2 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. As regards occupations, the Census Report groups the male population under the following six main headings : — (1) Professional, military, and official class, 11,162; (2) domestic class, including inn and lodging-housekeepers, etc., 46 16 ; (3) commercial class, including merchants, traders, carriers,' etc., 6004 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 356,841 ; (5) industrial and manu facturing class, including all artisans, 53,120; and (6) unspecified and unproductive, comprising general labourers and male children, 264,499. Agriculture. — Of the total area of 11,885 square miles, only 3636 are cultivated, and of the portion lying waste, 4827 square miles are returned as cultivable, and 3422 square miles as uncultivable waste ; 10,405 acres are irrigated entirely by private enterprise. The area assessed for Government revenue is 10,405 square miles, of which 3577 square miles are cultivated, 4290 square miles cultivable, and 2538 square miles un cultivable waste. Rice forms the staple crop of the District, and appears to have once been the only produce of Chhatisgarh. Even now the rice crop alone is under the special protection of Thakur Deo, the great local god, and his priest the bdiga ; while the questions as to the time of sowing the modern wheat crop, the colour of the bullocks to be yoked to the plough, and the direction in which the sower is to proceed, are referred to the Brahman purohit. In 1883, rice occupied 1,372,618 acres. The other kharif 'crops are cotton, which was grown on 38,163 acres, arhar, til, and kodo. The last, a hardy and prolific pulse, supplies the chief food of the poorer classes, who find a pound of kodo as satisfying as twice the quantity of rice. For all these crops the land is ploughed twice before sowing, and the seed is sown broadcast. Of the rabi harvest, the principal grain is wheat, covering 215,544 acres in 1883-84. It is sown on the best lands after repeated plough ings, while for gram, castor-oil, and the other rabi crops the land is generally ploughed only once or twice. Sugar-cane was grown on 3498 acres, and, though requiring much labour, amply repays the cultivator ; 374 RAIPUR. 6570 acres were devoted to tobacco. Rotation of crops is not practised; and the agriculture of the District is for the most part slovenly. The average out-turn per acre for different crops was returned as follows in 1883-84 : —Rice, 271 lbs.; wheat, 404 lbs.; inferior grain, 600 lbs. ; oil-seeds, 200 lbs. ; sugar (giir), 1448 lbs. ; tobacco, 124 lbs. Of the adult male and female agricultural population in 1881, 13,375 were returned as landed proprietors; 450,474 as tenant cultivators, of whom 289,293 were tenants-at-will; 55,637 were tenants at fixed rates or with a right of occupancy, 28,505 assistants in home cultivation, and 199,261 were agricultural labourers. Estate agents, farm bailiffs, shepherds, herdsmen, etc., bring up the total agricultural population of Rdipur District to 666,394, or 47-42 per cent, of the District population ; average area of cultivated and cultivable land, 8 acres per head. The rent rates per acre for the different qualities of land in 1883-84 are returned as follows: — Land suited for rice or oil seeds, is.; for wheat, is. 6d. ; for inferior grains, is. 4^d. ; for cotton, is. 3d. ; for tobacco or sugar-cane, 3s. Total amount of Govern ment assessment, including local rates and cesses levied on the land, £58,440, or an average of 6|d. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, £126,809, or an average of is. i£d. per cultivated acre. The agricultural stock consists of — cows and bullocks, 521,826 ; horses, 844; ponies, 11,285 > donkeys, 527 ; sheep and goats, 140,689 ; pigs, 6724; carts, 59,860; and plough, 175,526. A skilled labourer receives is. per diem; an unskilled labourer, 3d. to 4d. The ordinary price of produce per cwt. was — rice and linseed, 4s. ; wheat, 3s. 5d. ; cotton (cleaned), £2, ns. iod.; raw sugar (giir), us. 4d. ; refined sugar, £2, 4S. 9d- Natural Calamities. — So land-locked a region as Rdipur incurs con siderable risk of famine, but the hills which shut in the District also ensure in most years an adequate rainfall. In 1835, and again in 1844, however, terrible famines desolated the country; and in 1869, Raipur suffered severely both from famine and from the cholera epidemic which accompanied it. Coitimerce and Trade. — The chief trading towns in the District are Rdipur, Balodd, Simgd, and Rani Taldo, which have a considerable traffic in grain, lac, and cotton ; and Dhamtari and Rdjim, where lac and other jungle produce are collected for export. Dongargarh in Khairdgarh, and Nandgdon in Nandgaon State — although not in British territory, yet within the1 geographical limits of the District — have of late years risen into considerable importance as emporia of the grain trade ; and their position on the new Ndgpur-Chhati'sgarh railway will probably, when the line is fully opened out, in a few years raise them into the position of the centres of the Rdipur grain trade. The commerce of Raipur is of quite recent creation. Under the Mardthds, RAIPUR. 375 heavy transit duties prevented its development, and cowries formed the only circulating medium. Metals constitute the chief import. English piece-goods had not till recently penetrated beyond the wealthier classes ; the bulk of the people taking the produce of their patch of cotton to the native weavers, who are found in most villages, to be converted into clothing for themselves and their families. English piece-goods, and the coarser fabrics from the Nagpur mill, have now, to a considerable extent, supplanted the indigenous hand-looms. The Maratha women wear saris woven by local weavers ; but even in this case, the thread is generally imported from Nagpur or Bombay. The local yield of cotton now mostly finds its way to Cuttack and Sambalpur. The principal export is grain ; but cotton, sugar, and coarse cloth are also exported. There were, in 1883, only 170 miles of road, entirely of the second class, in Rdipur. The Nagpur-Chhatfsgarh railway has been opened out as far as Nandgaon, a length of 149 miles from Ndgpur town, and will afterwards be extended to Bildspur, and ultimately to the East Indian railway system at Etawah. The most important road traffic with Ndgpur follows two principal routes, one by the Great Eastern Road, and the other by a line passing through Khairdgarh, and thence by Kamtha to Ndgpur. The route to the eastern coast runs through the Fingeswar and Bindra Nawdgarh chiefships, whence it turns due south down the valley of Kharidr, subsequently meeting another road running south from Sehdwd, along which a good deal of traffic passes. Two roads of less importance lead towards Jabalpur (Jubbulpur), and other tracks pass by Balod to Wairdgarh, and by Dhamtari and Kdnker to Bastar and the Goddvari river. During the rains, the Mahdnadi affords means of communication for 132 miles. Administration. — In 1861, Rdipur was formed into a separate District of the British Government of the Central Provinces. It is administered by a Deputy Commissioner, with Assistants and tahsilddrs. Total revenue in 1883-84, £89,829, of which the land yielded £64,870. Total cost of District officials and police of all kinds, £15,276. Number of civil and revenue judges of all sorts within the District, 14 ; magistrates, 10; maximum distance from any village to the nearest court, 69 miles ; average distance, 14 miles. Number of regular police, 512 men, costing £7313, being 1 policeman to about every 22 square miles and to every 2744 inhabitants. The daily average number of prisoners in 1883, in the Rdipur jail, which is one of the three central prisons of the Central Provinces, was 772, of whom 44 were females. The total cost of the jails in that year was £2904; the average net cost, after allowing for profits from prison labour, being £2, 12s. 6d. per prisoner. The number of Government or aided schools under inspection in the District in 1883-84 was 216, attended by 14,825 pupils. Medical Aspects. — The climate is generally good, being free from 376 RAIPUR TAHSIL AND TOWN. sudden or vioient changes. Average temperature in the shade during 1883 at the civil station : — May, highest reading 114-6° F., lowest 74-6° ; July, highest 92-6°, lowest 69-6°; December, highest 78-6°, lowest 42-6° F. In 1883 the rainfall was 47-8 inches; the average fall is slightly under 50 inches. The prevailing diseases of the District are fevers and small-pox; cholera, for which Rdipur formerly bore an ill name, is now a less frequent visitant. Stone is also a common complaint In 1883, 5 charitable dispensaries afforded medical relief to a total of 46,897 patients. Vital statistics showed in the same year a death-rate of 29-8 per thousand, as against a mean of 36 per thousand for the previous five years. [For further information regarding Rdipur, see the Gazetteer of the Central Provinces, by Mr. (now Sir Charles) Grant, K.C.S.I., pp. 403-424 (Ndgpur, 1870). Also the Settlement Report of Rdipur District, by Mr. J. F. K. Hewitt, C.S. (1869); the Census Report of the Central Provinces for 1881 ; and the several annual Administration and Depart mental Reports ofthe Central Provinces from 1880 to 1884.] Raipur. — Central tahsil or Sub-division of Rdipur District, Central Provinces. Area, 5791 square miles, with 1958 towns and villages, and 141,332 houses. Population (1881) 466,091, namely, males 233,793, and females 232,298; average density of population, 80-5 persons per square mile. The total adult agricultural population (male and female) numbers 213,900, with an average of n acres of cultivated and cultivable land to each. Of a total area of 5791 square miles, 469 square miles are held entirely revenue free, while 3961 square miles are made up of seven zaminddris or petty chiefships, which pay a total peshkash or permanent tribute of £282. The Government lands of the tahsil comprise an area of only 1361 square miles, of which 759 square miles are cultivated, 543 square miles cultivable, and 59 square miles are uncultivable waste. Total amount of Government assessment, including local rates and cesses levied on land, .£14,638, or an average of 7|d. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, £32,178, or an average of is. $\a\. per cultivated acre. In 1884 the Sub-division contained (including District head-quarters) 7 civil and 10 criminal courts, with a regular police force of 87 officers and men. Raipur. — Chief town of Raipur District, and head - quarters of the Chhatisgarh Division of the Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 21° 15' n., and long. 81° 41' e., on a plateau 950 feet above sea-level, about 180 miles east of Nagpur, on the road from Ndgpur to Calcutta via Sambalpur and Midnapur. Raipur first appears in history when Brahma Deva established his court here in 750 a.d. The site of the old town lay more to the south and west than at present, extending to the river bank at Mahadeo Ghat The modern town dates from 1830, when Colonel Agnew laid out the main street, which is nearly 2 miles long, and contains a good bdzdr and many fine houses, some of them RALPUR TOWN. 377 with elaborately carved pillars and balconies. Population (1872) 19,116; (1881) 24,948, namely, males 12,447, and females 12,501. Hindus number 19,181 ; Satndmis, 278; Kabirpanthis, 94; Jains, 307; Muhammadans, 4406; Christians, 532; and non-Hindu aborigines, 150. The municipal income of the town in 1882-83 amounted to £4284, of which £3642 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, 2s. iofd. per head. Tanks and groves of trees surround the town. The Biirhd tank, to the east of the f jrt, and, like it, over 400 years old, covered nearly a square mile, but has been reduced in extent by recent improvements. On its eastern side, public gardens have been laid out The Maharajf tank, south of the fort, takes its name from Mahdrdj Dani, a revenue- farmer under the Mardthds a century ago, who constructed an embank ment half a mile from the fort, and converted a pestilential swamp into a beautiful tank, covering about half a square mile. Close to the embank ment stands a temple to Ramchandra, built and endowed in 1775 by Bimbdji Bhonsla, Rdjd of Rdipur. The Koko tank, constructed by Kodand Singh, Kamavisdar of Rdipur, about fifty years ago, has stone retaining walls on three sides, with steps down to the water. Into this tank are thrown the images of Ganpati at the close of the festival of Ganesh Chaturki. The Amba tank, constructed by a Teli merchant 200 years ago, was repaired about 1850, and faced with massive stone terraces, having steps to the water on three sides, at the cost of Sobhdrdm Mahdjan of Rdipur. This tank lies a quarter of a mile to the north of the town, and supplies a large quarter with excellent drinking water. A mile to the west of the city is the Rajd tank, constructed two cen turies ago, in the time of Rdjd Bariar Singh, with one side faced with stone. The Teli Bdndh, constructed fifty years ago by Dinanath, father of Sobhdrdm Mahdjan, has also one side faced with stone ; though small, it holds deep water. Lastly, the Kankdli tank, in the middle of the town, was constructed of stone throughout, about two centuries ago, by Kirpal Gir Mahant, who also built a small temple to Mahddeo in the centre. Its water has a fetid smell, but is used by the people for washing purposes. The Rdipur fort was founded by Rdjd Bhuvaneswar Singh in 1460 ; and before recent improvements in artillery, it must have been a place of immense strength. Its outer walls, nearly a mile in circumference, consisted of five bastions, with connecting curtains, pierced by three large gates and one postern. It was protected on the east by the Biirhd tank, and on the south and west by the Maharajf tank. Immense masses of fine limestone and granite were used in constructing the walls,, though no quarries exist in the neighbourhood. The main gate, on the north side, was entire when the British took possession in 1818 ; and lately, in knocking down one of the bastions, the workmen came 378 RALPUR TAHSIL— RAIRAKHOL. on some old tombs 20 feet below the surface, carefully protected by stone walls, but without any inscription. Rdipur carries on a large and increasing trade in grain, lac, cotton, and other produce. It contains, besides the ordinary District offices, the court, civil and criminal, of a Divisional Commissioner. It is also the head - quarters of a circle of education, and possesses a thriving Anglo-vernacular school, and a normal school. It has a main and branch dispensary, a post-office, and a handsome police station ; and since 1863, a church, a travellers' bungalow, a sarai for native travellers, and a central jail have been erected. The garrison consists of a regiment of Native infantry, under the Brigadier-General com manding the Kdmthi (Kamptee) force. Raipur (also called Amethi). — Tahsil or Sub-division of Sultdnpur District, Oudh ; bounded north by Muzaffarkhdna tahsil, east by Sultdnpur, south by Partabgarh, and west by Mahdrdjganj. Area, 366 square miles, of which 163 are cultivated. Population (1881) 198,734, namely, males 96,861, and females 101,873. Hindus number 188,590 ; Muhammadans, 10,143 ; and Christian, 1. Average density of popu lation, 543 persons per square mile ; number of villages (mauzds), 452, of which 325 contain less than five hundred inhabitants. This tahsil comprises the two pargands of Amethi and Tappa Asl. Land revenue, £24,338. In 1883 it contained 1 criminal court ; two police stations (thdnds) ; a regular police force of 39 men ; and a village watch or rural police of 637 chaukiddrs. Rairakhol (Rehrakol). — Petty Native State attached to Sambalpur District, Central Provinces, lying between 20° 55' and 21° 20' n. lat, and between 84° and 84° 48' e. long. Bounded on the north by Bamrd, on the east by Athmallik and Angiil, on the west by Sambalpur District, and on the south by Sonpur. Population (1881) 17,750 (of whom 12,690 were Hindus), residing in 199 villages or townships, and 3349 houses, on an area of 833 square miles, 150 of which are cultivated, while ofthe portion lying waste 275 are returned as cultivable. The principal rivers, the Chanpdli and Tikkird, are insignificant streams. The soil is light and sandy. Rice forms the staple crop ; but pulses, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, and cotton are also grown. Rairakhol contains valuable sdl forests, besides other useful trees ; but for want of means of transport, the timber can find no market. The forests yield sdl resin and beeswax, and lac is found in considerable quantities. Iron-ore of excellent quality abounds, and smelting is carried on in eight or ten villages. Traders from Cuttack come up periodically and carry off the iron on pack-bullocks. The smelters pay the Rdjd but a trifling tax for the right to work up the ore ; but as most of them are deeply indebted to the traders for advances, the profit goes almost entirely into the pockets of the traders. The main road from Sambalpur to Cuttack via RAIRI. 379 Angiil passes through the centre of the State ; to the northward, also, another road leads to Cuttack, which has now fallen into disuse. Rdirakhol was formerly subordinate to Bdmra, but was erected into an independent State, forming one of the Garhjat cluster, by the Patnd Rdjds about a century ago. The chief is a Janamuni Rdjput. His supposed gross revenue amounts to ^2200, and he pays a tribute of £58. The revenue has of late fallen off, through over-assessment and other mismanagement. Education is utterly neglected. In 1872 no child was returned as under instruction; and only 18 persons between twelve and twenty years of age, and 10 above twenty, were said to be able to read and write. The climate, like that of Sambalpur, is unhealthy. Fever is the prevailing disease, especially from September to November ; and cholera is frequently epidemic. Rairi (Redi, or more properly Yashwantgarh). — Fort in Ratndgiri District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 15° 45' n., and long. 73° 44' E., on a rocky height at the mouth of a small navigable river, 225 miles south of Bombay. Built (according to Grant-Duff) in 1662 by Sivaji ; subsequently it came into the possession of the rulers of Sawantwari, and, on becoming a stronghold of piracy, was in 1765 taken by a British force, but restored the following year. By a treaty made in 181 2, Rdiri reverted in 181 9 to the British, whose rights were confirmed in 1820. The fort stands on a hill, which, with a portion of the surrounding plain, is enclosed by an irregular outer wall. The outer wall is armed with round towers, the strongest of them about 20 feet high, and joined by a loop-holed curtain, about 17 feet high. Through the gate of the outer wall a paved road, passing up the central citadel hill, is crossed by a wall that runs from the citadel to the outer fortifications. Through a gate in this wall is a square court, and up a flight of steps and through a third gate is the citadel. From their outer foundations the walls of the citadel stand about 25 feet high ; and close under them, circling all except the south-west corner ofthe wall, is a dry ditch or trench 24 feet wide, and about 13 feet deep, cut in the solid rock, its side opposite the wall being a sheer perpendicular. In the south-east corner, where there is no moat, the wall is built rather to protect the besieged from distant artillery than to carry guns. The walls of the citadel are about 12 feet thick at the top, with a semi circular tower at about every 60 yards, intended for guns. The circum ference of the citadel is about one-third of a mile. In the vicinity of the fort, on Hasta Dongar Hill, are caves hollowed in the face of the rock. The local story is that the caves are sacred, and were cut a thousand years ago when Redi was called Pdtan or Patna. Of the ruins of old Redi, lying west and south of the outer wall of the fort, very little masonry is left. But the ground has been considerably dug, as if for building stone. 380 RAI SANKLL— RAJAGRIHA. Rai Sankli. — Petty State in the Jhaldwar pranth or division of Kdthidwdr, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 2 villages. The revenue is estimated at £900; and tribute is paid of £55, 12s. to the British Government, and £38 to the Nawdb of Jundgarh. Area, 6 square miles. Population (1881) 721. Raisin. — Fort in the Native State of Bhopdl, Central India; situated in lat. 23° 20' n., and long. 77" 46' 10" e., at the eastern extremity of a sandstone hill, with scarped sides, 500 feet above the plain, and about 1950 feet above the sea ; it is 10 miles from the famous Sanchi topes, and on the road from Hoshangabad to Sdgar (Saugor), 50 miles north of the former and 87 south-west of the latter. Thornton states that it was formerly a fort of great importance. In 1543 it was besieged by Sher Shdh, and at length capitulated on condition of the garrison being allowed to march out unmolested. Towards the middle of the 1 8th century, Raisin was seized by the Marathas, from whom it was wrested, in 1748, by the Nawab of Bhopdl, between whom and the British Government a treaty was made here in 1818. Rajaborari. — State forest in the south of Hoshangabad District, Central Provinces ; covering about 160 square miles, and extending from Sdulfgarh on the east to Kdlibhft and Makrai on the west. It has been much exhausted by indiscriminate felling, and will require a long rest. Rajagriha. — A range of rocky hills in Patnd District, Bengal, extending from lat. 240 58' 30" to 25° 1' 30" n., and from long. 85° 25' to 85° 33' 30" e., consisting mainly of two parallel ridges enclosing a narrow valley, which is intersected by numerous ravines and passes. Adjacent to the two ridges are many detached peaks and knolls. In geological formation, the Rdjdgriha Hills are igneous, being composed almost entirely of quartz and siliceous hornstone. They seldom exceed a thousand feet in height, and are for the most part covered with dense low jungle. Hot springs are found near the site of the ancient city of Kusanagarapura, and are yearly visited by thousands of pilgrims, Hindus, Jains, and even Muhammadans. Every third year, a large fair is held on the site of these springs. The water has a sulphurous taste. Rajagriha (or Rdjgir). —Ruins in Patnd District, Bengal. Lat. 2 50 1' 45" N., long. 85° 28' e. Identified by Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton with Rdjd griha, the residence of Buddha and capital of the ancient Magadha ; and by General Cunningham with Kusa-nagdra-pura (' the town of the kiisd grass '), visited by Hiuen Tsiang, and called by him Kiu-she-kie-lo-pu-lo. Rdjdgriha, which means ' the royal residence,' was also known as Giribrdjd, ' the hill surrounded ; ' and under this name the capital of Jardsindhu, King of Magadha, is mentioned both in the Rdmdyana and the Mahdbhdrata. It is also described by_ Fa-Hian and Hiuen RAJA JANG—RAJAKULARAMAN. 38 r Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrims ; the latter gives an account of the hot springs found at this place. The five hills surrounding the city, mentioned in the Mahdbhdrata and in the Pali annals, have been examined by General Cunningham. The first, Baibhdr, is undoubtedly the Webhars Mountain of the Pdli annals, on the side of which was the famous Sattapanni Cave, where the first Buddhist synod was held in 543 B.C. The second hill, Ratndgiri, is the one called by Fa-Hian ' The Fig-tree Cave,' where Buddha meditated after his meals, identical with the Rishigiri of the Mahdbhdrata, and the Pandao of the Pali annals. A paved zigzag road leads to a small temple on the summit of this mountain, which is still used by Jains. The third hill, Bipula, is clearly the Wepullo of the Pali annals, and the Chait-yaka of the Mahdbhdrata. The other two hills have Jain temples. Traces of the outer wall around the ancient town of Rdjdgriha may still be seen, about 4! miles in circumference. The new Rajgir is about two - thirds of a mile north of the old town. According to Buddhist annals, it was built by Srenika or Bimbisdra, the father of Ajata Satru, the contemporary of Buddha, and therefore not later than 560 B.C. Dr. Buchanan- Hamilton stated that the town stood upon the north-west corner of a fort, which is an irregular pentagon in form, and apparently of great antiquity. At the south-west extremity are traces of a more modern fort, with stone walls, which might have been a kind of citadel. It occupies a space of about 600 yards. The eastern and northern faces had no ditch, but there was a strong stone wall about 18 feet thick, with circular projections at intervals. The eastern approach to Rdjdgriha was protected by a stone wall 20 feet in width, and running zigzag up the southern slopes of the hills. A watch-tower on the extreme eastern point of the range corresponded with a similar tower immediately over the city. One tower still exists, and also the foundations of the second tower. South of the ancient city of Rajagriha are found inscriptions on huge slabs of stone, which form a natural pavement. So far as is known, the characters have never been deciphered. Raja Jang. — Town in Kasiir tahsil, Lahore District, Punjab; situated three miles from Rdiwind on the branch road from that place to Gandd Singhwdla. Population (1881) 5187, namely, Muhammadans, 3094 ; Sikhs, 1560 ; and Hindus, 533. Number of houses, 798. The place is an unpretentious collection of native houses, chiefly of unburnt bricks, with no paved streets or bdzdrs. Primary vernacular school. The main branch of the Lower Bdri Dodb Canal passes close to the town. Rajahmundry.— Town in Goddvari District, Madras Presidency.— See Rajamahendri. Rajakularaman.— Town in Srivillipatdr tdluk, Tinnevelli District, 382 RAJAMAHENDRI TALUK AND TOWN. Madras Presidency ; situated in lat. 9° 23' 30" n., and long. 77° 40' 30" e., on the Tinnevelli road. Population (1881) 3408, mostly engaged in agriculture ; number of houses, 1109. Rajamahendri (Rdjdmandri). — Tdluk of Godavari District, Madras Presidency. Area, 481 square miles. Population (1881) 131,196, namely, 66,023 males and 65,173 females, dwelling in 2 towns and 130 villages, and occupying 23,365 houses. Hindus number 126,518; Muhammadans, 3984; Christians, 653; and 'others,' 41. In 1883 the tdluk contained 2 civil and 3 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 6 ; regular police, 304 men. Land revenue, £15,361. Raja mahendri tdluk is partly hilly and partly flat. In some places it is very rocky. The special industry of the tdluk is the manufacture of cotton carpets. A considerable trade is also carried on in tobacco and in dry grains. Rajamahendri (Rdjdmahendravaram, Rajahmandri). — Town in Rdjdmahendri tdluk, Goddvari District, Madras Presidency ; situated in lat. 17" n., and long. 81° 48' 30" e., on the left bank of the Goddvari, 30 miles from the sea and 365 miles north-east of Madras. Population (1871) 19,682, inhabiting 3486 houses; (1881) 24,555, namely, 12,290 males and 12,265 females, inhabiting 3624 houses. Hindus number 22,480 ; Muhammadans, 1785 ; Christians, 285; and 'others,' 5. The town gave its name to the old District of Rajamahendri, now incor porated with Goddvari, and is at present the residence of a Sub-Col lector, with the courts of a District Judge, District munsif and Magistrate. Contains post and telegraph office, 2 churches, civil dispensary, public garden, museum, provincial college, and several schools. There are 2 jails, in the largest of which, the central prison, are 955 convicts. Rajamahendri is a fairly built town (the suburb of Innespet being excellently laid out), connected by road or canal with every other place of importance in the District Municipal income (1883-84), ,£1718 ; incidence of municipal taxation, is. per head. The court-house and judge's residence stand on an elevation over looking the river, which is here 3 miles wide. Portions of the old ramparts still exist. The Europeans reside on the north and north-east of the town. There is a Protestant mission connected with the American Evangelical Lutheran Church, which has 400 Christian converts, and costs annually about £600. The Government school was established in 1854, and was one of the four Provincial schools sanctioned by the Government of India for the Presidency of Madras. Tradition divides the merit of founding the city between the Orissa and the Chalukya princes ; and General Cunningham believes it to have been the capital of Kalinga at the time of Hiuen Tsiang's visit. This Fergusson disputes, and with apparent reason ; but there is little doubt that the city of the Vengi kings was identical with the site of the RAJANPUR TAHSIL AND TOWN. 383 present town, and that this also was the seat of the Orissa power in the south. Another authority, however, asserts that the site of Vengi exists five miles from Ellore, and is now known as Pedda Vengi or Great Vengi. In 1471, Rajdmahendri was taken by the Muhammadans. In 1512, Krishna Rdya recaptured the city, and restored it to Orissa. For over sixty years, Hindu rule continued ; and Rajamahendri withstood two protracted sieges, till in 1571-72 it yielded to the Musalmans of the Deccan, under Rafat Khan. For the next century and a half, Raja mahendri was the scene of perpetual fighting, and at last fell to Gol conda, and became one of the 4 Nawdbships of that Government. It was granted to the French in 1753, and was Bussy's head-quarters from 1754 to 1757. Hither, retreating before Forde, came the remains of Conflans' army after the battle of Condore (1758), only to be driven out by the British sepoys. Shortly afterwards, Forde proceeded against Masulipatam ; and during his absence, the French recaptured Rajdmahendri, but finding nothing of value (the treasure had been sent to a Dutch settlement), evacuated it almost immediately. Rajanpur. — Southern tahsil of Dera Ghazi Khan District, Punjab ; consisting of a strip of land stretching from the Sulaiman mountains to the river Indus. Area, 1615 square miles; towns and villages, 149; houses, 13,708; number of families, 1703. Population (1881) 82,675, namely, males 46,758, and females 35,917; average density of population, 512 persons per square mile. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans number 71,432 ; Hindus, 10,678; Sikhs, 552; and Christians, 12. Of the 149 towns and villages, 100 contain less than five hundred inhabitants; 27 from five hundred to a thousand; 1 7 from one to three thousand ; and 5 upwards of three thousand inhabitants. The principal crops are wheat, jodr, rice, and barley. Land revenue, £6016. The administrative staff of the tahsil consists of an Assistant Commissioner, tahsilddr, and 3 honorary magistrates, presiding over 5 civil and 5 criminal courts. Number of police circles (thdnds), 4 ; strength of regular police, 84 men ; village watch or rural police (chaukiddrs), 82. Rajanpur. — Town and municipality in Dera Ghazi Khan District, Punjab, and head-quarters of the Rajanpur tahsil. Situated in lat. 29° 6' 20" n., long. 70° 21' 54" E., at a distance of 8 or 9 miles from the right bank ofthe Indus, on the high road which runs from Edwardesabad and Dera Ismail Khdn, through Dera Ghazi Khan on to Jacobabad. Founded in 1732-33 by Makhdiim Shaikh Rajhan, who ousted the original Ndhir possessors, and made himself master of their estates. Population (1881) 4932, namely, Muhammadans, 3013; Hindus, 1667; Sikhs, 239; and 'others,' 13. Number of houses, 479. Muni cipal income (1883-84), £333, or an average of is. 4d. per head of 384 RAJAPALAIYAM—RAJAPUR. population. Rdjanpur was a small unimportant village until 1862, when the town of Mithankot was washed away by the Indus, and the head-quarters of the Assistant Commissioner were transferred from Mithankot to Rajanpur. The latter town has also attracted a con siderable amount of the export grain trade formerly monopolized by Mithankot. The Assistant Commissioner's court, Sub-divisional courts and offices are all situated north of the town, which contains also a post-office, telegraph office, ddk bungalow, middle school, and public garden. The cantonments, with accommodation for a regiment of cavalry and two companies of infantry belonging to the Punjab Frontier force, lie about half a mile north-east of the town. Considerable exports of grain and cotton to Sakkar, and of opium and indigo to Multan and Amritsar. Rajapalaiyam. — Town in Srivillipatur tdluk, Tinnevelli District, Madras Presidency. Population (1881) 12,021, namely, 5914 males and 6107 females, inhabiting 2688 houses. Hindus number 11,913; Muhammadans, 75 ; and Christians, 33. Police station ; post-office. Rajapur. — Sub-division of Ratndgiri District, Bombay Presidency. Bounded on the north by Ratndgiri and Sangameswar Sub-divisions; on the east by Kolhapur ; on the south by the Vijaidrug creek ; and on the west by the Arabian Sea. Area, 512 square miles, containing 1 town and 173 villages. Population (1881) 127,999, namely, 60,773 males and 67,226 females, occupying 16,570 houses. Hindus number 117, 705 ; Muhammadans, 10,080; and 'others,' 214. The coast-line of the Sub-division stretches from the Vijaidrug creek to the Machkandi river, a distance of 20 miles. Soil poor, except in the valleys. No forest. The principal passes across the Sahyadri range are the Anaskuda and Kdjirda. Chief port of the Sub-division, Jaitdpur. Average rainfall, 113 inches. The Vijaidrug creek has no bar, and is navigable throughout its course in Rajapur. Water-supply good for 1 2 miles inland. In 1877-78, the area under actual cultivation was 40,445 acres — grain crops occupied 37,134 acres, of which 14,744 were under rice; pulses, 1057 acres; oil-seeds, 870 acres; fibres, 767 acres; and miscellaneous crops, 617 acres. In 1883 the Sub-division contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts; police circles (thdnds), 8 ; and regular police, 73 men. Rajapur.— Chief town of the Rajdpur Sub-division of Ratndgiri District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat 16° 39' 10" n., and lono-. 73° 33' 20 E-> at the head of a tidal creek, 30 miles south by east of Ratndgiri town, and about 15 miles from the sea. Population (1881) 7448, namely, Hindus, 4742 ; Muhammadans, 2685 J Jains, 15 ; and Christians, 6. Rajapur is the oldest-looking and best preserved town in the Konkan ; its streets are steep and narrow, and the markets paved and roofed. The old English factory, a massive stone buildin°- with RAJAPUR TOWN. 385 an enclosure leading to the creek, now used as a Government office, gives the town a special interest. It is also peculiar as the single Ratndgiri port to which Arab boats still trade direct. Rdjdpur is not now the port it once was, and vessels of any size cannot ply within 3 miles of the old stone quay. Jaitdpur, situated 1 1 miles lower down, is the outlet for the sea traffic from Rajapur, and the place of call for coasting steamers. Municipality established in 1876; income in 1883-84, £924; incidence of taxation, 2s. ifd. per head. The water-supply of the town is from a lake, upwards of half a mile long, and with an average breadth of 250 feet, containing about 60,000,000 gallons of water, which has been formed by damming the Koddvli river at a point 3 miles above the town. The demand for Rdjdpur being only 100,000 gallons a day, the balance is applied to irrigation. Sub- judge's court; telegraph and post offices; school with 197 pupils in 1883-84. At the time ofthe first Muhammadan conquest (131 2), Rdjdpur was the chief town of a District. In 1660-61, and again in 1670, Sivaji plundered the town, sacking the English factory. In 1713, Rdjdpur was handed over to Angria. In 1756 it was taken by the Peshwd from Angria ; and in 1818 it came into British possession, together with the rest of the Peshwd's dominions. Rajapur (or Mdjhgdon). — Commercial town in Mau tahsil, Bdnda District, North-Western Provinces. Situated in lat. 25° 24' n., and long. 81° 12' e., on the bank of the Jumna, 18 miles north-east of Karwitown. Population (1881) 7329, namely, Hindus, 6946; Muham madans, 377 ; and Jains, 6. The town is not a municipality, but for police and conservancy purposes a small house-tax is levied under the provisions of Act xx. of 1856. Rdjdpur is the principal mart for all the produce of the District, especially cotton, which is conveyed by boat to Allahdbdd, and so up the Ganges to Cawnpur. Allahdbdd firms have agencies for the purchase of produce. The trade of the town, though still large, is now declining, as the railway has superseded the river for purposes of transport, and new trading sites are set up along the line. Many Rdjdpur merchants have within a few years removed their business to Satnd in Rewa State, which is attracting the inland traffic to a great extent. The principal trade at Rdjdpur is the export of country produce, but a brisk local trade in miscel laneous commodities is carried on in the bdzdr. Large cloth mer chants import cloth from Allahdbdd, and sell it at Rdjdpur; and all the local bdzdrs in the neighbourhood, as far as Sitdpur and Kdrwi, are supplied from this source. Rdjdpur was founded in the reign of Akbar by Tulsi Dds, a devotee from Soron, who erected a temple, and attracted many followers. He established several peculiar restrictions, still scrupulously observed vol. xi. 2 B 386 RAJA SANSI—RAJGARH by the inhabitants ; amongst others, that no houses (except shrines) should be built of stone, even the wealthiest merchants still living in mud houses. Several handsome temples. Four annual fairs. Police station. Ferry, let at an annual rental of £350. Raja Sansi. — Town in Ajndla tahsil, Amritsar (Umritsir) District, Punjab ; situated on the Sialkot road, 7 miles north-west of Amritsar city. Founded in 1570 by Rdjd Sansi Jat, from whom it derives its name. His brother, Kirtu, was common ancestor of Ranjft Singh and of the Sindhanwdlia family. The latter still reside in the town, which owes its importance to their presence. They rose to great distinction under the Sikh Government, and still own 36 villages in idgir. Sardar Bakshish Singh, the present head of the family, has a handsome mansion in the town, finely decorated ; he exercises the powers of a Deputy Commissioner within his jdgir. Population (1868) 3922. Not separately returned in the Census Report for 1881. Post-office. Anglo-vernacular school. Rajauli. — Town and municipality in Nawadd Sub-division, Gaya District, Bengal. Lat. 24° 39' n., long. 85° 32' 25" e. Population (1881) 4812; municipal revenue (1883-84), £44; incidence of taxa tion, 2^d. per head ; police force, 14 men. Manufacture of ghi for export to Calcutta; jungle products, from the adjacent hills, and talc are brought here for distribution among the neighbouring Districts. A metalled road connects Rdjauli with the towns of Nawadd and Behar. Rajgarh. — Native State in Malwd, under the political superin tendence of the Bhopdl Agency of Central India. The District known as Omatwara was conquered during the decline of the Mughal power by the Omat Rajputs. In 1448, the chief of Omatwara received the title of Rdwat, which is still borne by the chief of Rdjgarh. The family trace back their descent to Raja Bhoj, and through him to Vikramdditya. About 1681 a.d., the chiefs son, who was also the diwdn or minister, compelled his father to divide the territory. The portion assigned to the diwdn was called Narsinghgarh, while that retained by the chief or Rdwat was known as Rdjgarh. Eventually Narsinghgarh became tributary to Holkar, and Rdjgarh to Sindhia. The area of Rdjgarh (including Sutalia) is 655 square miles. Population (1881) n7,533> namely, 56,977 males and 60,556 females, dwelling in 638 villages. Hindus number 104,166; Muhammadans, 5830; Jains, 352; Christians,6; Sikhs,4; and aboriginal tribes,7i75. The aborigines include Bhfls, 3568 ; Minds, 3209 ; and Moghids, 398. The revenue is returned at £50,000, of which £8517, 4s. is paid to Sindhia as tribute for the District of Tallian ; and about £100 to Jhdldwdr for Kalipit pargand. The prinicipal products of the State are opium and grain. In 187 1, the Rdwat Moti Singh announced his conversion to the RAJGARH—RAJGHA T. 387 Muhammadan faith, and took the name of Muhammad Abdul Wasih Khan. He received the title of Nawab from the British Govern ment in 1872, and is entitled to a salute of 11 guns. On the death of Muhammad Abdul Wasih Khan in 1880, his son Bakhtdwar Singh succeeded to the chiefship; the latter died in 1882, and was suc ceeded by his son Balbahddur Singh, the present chief. Having been but a child at the time of his grandfather's change of faith, Balbahd dur Singh has been again received by his brother chiefs as one of themselves, and the family have resumed their position as Rajputs of the Omat clan. The military force consists of 240 cavalry, 360 infantry, 4 field and 8 other guns, with 12 artillerymen. The town of Rdjgarh contains a population (1881) of 6881, namely, Hindus, 5617; Muhammadans, 1134 ; and 'others,' 130. It lies in lat. 24° o' 23° n., and long. 76° 46' 38" e. ; elevation above sea-level, 12 10 feet. Rajgarh. — Guaranteed Thakurate under the Deputy Bhil Agency of Central India. Population (1881) 706. The chief or Bhiimia holds the villages of Rdjgarh (with a hill fort) and Dhal under a sanad from the British Government dated 18th March 187 1, and receives payment from both Holkar and the Dhar State, on condition of keeping the roads free from thieves, and being answerable for all robberies in certain tracts. Rajgarh. — Pargand in Miil tahsil, Chdnda District, Central Pro vinces ; comprising 140 villages, with an area of 447 square miles. The Wainganga river bounds it on the east ; it is intersected from the north by two branches of the Andhari, which meet about its centre, and a third branch flows along its western boundary in a south-easterly direction. The western and northern portions are hilly and covered with forests ; in the lowlands, the soil is sandy, and produces rice and sugar-cane. Principal towns, Saoli and Mul. Rdjgarh formerly belonged to the Gond princes of Wairdgarh. Rajgarh. — Fort in Sirmur (Sarmor) State, Punjab. Lat. 30° 52' n., long. 77" 23' E. Situated upon a natural terrace, projecting from the side of a-mountain. Square outline ; tower at each corner, about 40 feet high and 20 square. Fired and nearly demolished by the Gurkhas in 1814, but recently restored. Elevation above sea-level, 7115 feet. Rajgarh. — Town in Ajmere-Merwara District, Rdjputdna; distant from Ajmere city 10 miles south, from Nasirabad 6 miles west. Lat. 26° 17' 50" N., long. 74° 40' 35" e. Ruins of a fort, with rampart of massive rough stones. Small lake, apparently artificial. Held by Gaur Rajputs before the ascendency of the Rahtors, and restored in jdgir to the descendant ofits original rulers in 1874. Raj ghat. — Fort in Benares District, North-Western Provinces, commanding the city of Benares, and situated on an eminence 50 feet above the plain, at the junction of the Barna river with the Ganges, 388 RAJGIR—RAJKOT. Erected during the Mutiny of 1857 to command the ferry, but now abandoned. The ferry will shortly be superseded by a handsome bridge across the Ganges, now (1885) under construction by the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway at Rajghdt Considerable remains of Buddhist buildings have been found on the site of the fort. Rajgir. — Ruins in Patnd District, Bengal. — See Rajagriha. Rajim. — Town in Rdipur tahsil, Rdipur District, Central Provinces, at the junction ofthe Pairf and Mahdnadi rivers, 24 miles south-east of Rdipur town. Lat. 20° 58' 30" n., long. 81° 55' o" e. Famous for the temple of Rajiva Lochan, and for the pilgrimage and fair held in his honour every February. The fair lasts a month, and attracts from 20,000 to 30,000 persons. The temple contains an image 4 feet high, of black stone, standing, and facing the west. Its four arms hold the Hindu emblems of the conch, the discus, the club, and the lotus. Garuda, the bird of Vishnu, faces the god in a posture of devotion ; and behind him are images of Hanumdn and of Jagat Pdl, the founder of the temple. The doorway between them, finely carved with Nagas (serpent demi-gods) entwined in endless folds, leads to two modern temples of Mahddeva; and a third, behind, is dedicated to the wife of an oil-seller, contemporary, according to a popular story, with Jagat Pal. In the same court of the great temple are shrines sacred to Narsinha, Waman, Varaha, Badrfnath, and Jaganndth. The temple of Ram- chandra contains two ancient inscriptions, one of them dated Samvat 796, or a.d. 750. Both commemorate the origin of Jagat Pal, and recount the enemies he conquered. Mention is also made of a fort called Durga (doubtless Dnig, 25 miles west of Rdipur), which Jagat Pal obtained by marrying the Rajd's daughter. On a small rocky island at the junction ofthe rivers stands a temple of Mahddeva, called Kuleswar, said to have been built by the widow of Jagat Pdl. It bears an inscription, now illegible. Rdjim has a town school, a District post- office, and a police station. Population (1881) 3252, namely, Hindus, 2751; Satndmis, 369; Kabirpanthis, 71; and Muhammadans, 61. Rdjim is also a depot for the collection and export of lac, of which from 3000 to 4000 bullock-loads are annually sent to the markets of Ndgpur and Jabalpur. Rajkot. — Native State in the Hallar division of Kdthidwdr, Bom bay Presidency. Area, 283 square miles, comprising 1 town and 60 villages. Population (1881) 46,540, namely, 24,778 males and 21,762 females, occupying 9325 houses. Hindus number 36,929 ; Muham madans, 6775; and 'others,' 2836. An undulating country, with a stony soil, watered by several streams, of which only one, the Ajf, is perennial. The common kinds of grain, sugar-cane, and cotton are the principal agricultural products. They are exported from Gogo and Jorya, and to a certain extent by rail from Wadhwdn. Carts are the RAJKOTTOWN—RAJMAHAL. 389 chief means of transport, but pack-bullocks and horses are also employed. The climate, though hot in the months of April, May, and October, is generally healthy. Rainfall, 22 5 inches in 1882. The prevalent disease is fever. Rdjkot is an offshoot of Nawdnagar, and ranks officially as a ' second- class' State in Kdthidwdr. In 1807, the ruler executed the usual engagements. The chief has power to try his own subjects for capital offences, without the express permission of the Political Agent. The family follow the rule of primogeniture in matters of succession, and hold no sanad authorizing adoption. The present (1881-82) chief, Thdkur Sahib Bdwdjf, is a Hindu of the Jareja Rajput caste, and administers his State in person. He received his education at the Rdjkumar College at Rdjkot He enjoys an estimated gross yearly revenue of £17,278, and pays a tribute of £2132 jointly to the British Government and the Nawab of Jundgarh. He maintains a military force of 336 men. The State contains 14 schools, with a total of ir68 pupils. No transit dues are levied. Rajkot. — Chief town of the State of Rdjkot in Kdthidwdr, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 22° 17' 40" n., long. 70° 55' 45" e. Population (1872) 11,979, exclusive of the civil and military station; (1881) 15,139, namely, 7725 males and 7414 females. Hindus number 10,305; Muhammadans, 3032; Jains, 1795; Christians, 2; and Parsis, 5. Rdjkot is a cantonment, and the head - quarters of the Political Agent for Kdthidwdr. Population of the civil and military station (1881) 6013, namely, Hindus, 3908; Muhammadans, 1631 ; Parsis, 142; Christians, 126; Jains, 89; and 'others,' 117. It con tains a college for the sons of chiefs, a sort of Eton for the aristo cracy of Western India, which has already done good work in the education and moral training of those who will hereafter be the rulers of the Kdthidwdr Native States. Famous for its dyes ; good general trade. Post and telegraph offices ; School of Art ; Alfred High School ; churches ; Irish Presbyterian Mission House ; jail ; travellers' bungalow and dharmsdla. Will shortly be connected with the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Rajmahal.— Sub-division of the Santal Pargands District, Bengal. Lat. 24° 42' 15" to 25" 18' 30" n., and long. 87° 29' 45" to 87° 57' e. Area, 751 square miles; villages, 1326; houses, 47,241. Popu lation (1881) 253,825, namely, males 126,420, and females 127,405. Average density of population, 338 persons per square mile ; average number of villages per square mile, i'8; persons per village, 191; houses per square mile, 62-05; inmates per house, 5-37. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 114,702; Muhammadans, 21,564; Christians, 1182; Jains, 2 ; Jews, 6; non-Hindu Santals, 99,116; other non- Hindu aborigines, 17,253- I" l884 the Sub- 390 RAJMAHAL TO WN—RAJMAHA L HILLS. division contained 3 civil and 3 criminal courts, with a regular police force of 41 men, and a village watch or rural police of 448 chaukiddrs. Rajmahal.— Town in the Santdl Pargands District, Bengal ; situated in lat. 25° 2' 51" N., and long. 87" 52' 51" E., on the right bank of the Ganges. Now a mere collection of mud huts, interspersed with a few respectable houses. The ruins of the old Muhammadan city, buried in rank jungle, extend for about 4 miles to the west of the modern town. Man Singh, Akbar's Rdjput general, after his return from the conquest of Orissa in 1592, selected Rajmahal (formerly Agmahdl) as the capital of Bengal, on account of its central position with respect to that Province and to Behar, and from its commanding the Ganges and the pass of Telidgarhi, through which the railway now runs. The chief antiquities of Rajmahal are the Jama Masjid of Mdn Singh, the palaces of Sultan Shuja and Mir Kdsim Ali, Nawdb of Bengal, the Phulbdri or flower-garden, and numerous mosques and monuments. [For a full account of these, and of the history of Rdjmahdl, see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xiv. pp. 325, 326.] In the beginning of the present century, Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton estimated that the town contained from 25,000 to 30,000 persons. In 1881, the Census returned the population at 3839. Rdjmahdl is a distributing centre for- cotton goods, and also a seat of export trade in grain, tasar silk, small-sized timber, hill bamboos, oil-seeds, etc. In i860, when the loop-line of the East Indian Railway was opened to this town, an arm of the Ganges ran immediately under the station, forming a navigable channel for steamers and boats of all sizes. In 1863-64 the river abandoned this channel, leaving an alluvial bank in its place. Rdjmahdl was, till 1879, 3 miles distant from the main stream of the Ganges, and could only be approached by large boats during the rains. In 1879 the Ganges returned to its old bed, but in 1882 it showed indications of again deserting it. In consequence of these changes, the bulk of the trade has been transferred to Sahibganj, though Rdjmahdl still retains the local traffic across the Ganges with Maldah District. Rajmahal Hills.— Hill tract in the Santdl Pargands District, Bengal, known as the Daman-i-koh ; estimated to cover an area of 1366 square miles. The height nowhere exceeds 2000 feet above sea-level, and the average elevation is considerably less. The most striking feature of the northern portion of this range is the great central valley, which extends 24 miles north and south, with an average width of 5 miles, and is surrounded by hills on every side. The Rdjmahdl Hills were long regarded as a continuation of the Vindhyan range of Central India; but Mr. V. Ball, of the Geological Survey, after a detailed examination of these hills, came to the conclusion that they form an isolated RAJNAGAR—RAJPLPLA. 391 group, the north-eastern extremity of which constitutes the turning- point of the Ganges. Geologically there is nothing in common between the two. The Vindhyas are composed of quartzite, sandstone, lime stone, and shales of great age ; while the Rajmahal Hills consists of overflowing basaltic trap of comparatively recent date, resting upon coal measures and metamorphic rocks of a gneissose character. Rajnagar.— Town and fort in the Native State of Udaipur, Raj putana; situated on the southern side of the Raj Samand lake, about 39 miles north-north-east of Udaipur city. Rajnagar. — Town in Birbhiim District, Bengal. — See Nagar. Rajoli. — Zaminddri estate in Sakoli tahsil in the south-east of Bhanddra District, Central Provinces; comprising 12 villages, with an area of 43 square miles, less than 2 of which are cultivated. Population (1881)1625. The chief is a Muhammadan ; but the population consists for the most part of Gonds and Gauh's. The forests afford pasturage to large herds of cattle. The village of Rdjoli lies in lat. 20° 40' n., and long. 80° 16' e. Rajpara. — Petty State in the Gohelwar pranth or division of Kdthid wdr, Bombay Presidency. It consists of 1 village, with 2 separate shareholders or tribute-payers. Population (188 1) 610. Area, 1 square mile; situated 2\ miles north-east of Jesar. The revenue is estimated at £252; and tribute of £25, 12s. is paid to the Gaekwar of Baroda, and £1, 16s. to the Nawab of Jundgarh. Rajpipla. — Native State within the British Political Agency of Rewa Kantha, Bombay Presidency, lying between lat. 21° 23' and 21° 59' n., and between long. 73° 5' and 74° e. Bounded on the north by the river Narbadd (Nerbudda) and the Mehwdsi estates of Rewa Kantha ; on the east by the Mehwdsi estates under the District of Khdndesh ; on the south by the State of Baroda, and Surat District ; and on the west by Broach District. Its extreme length from north to south is 42 miles, and its extreme breadth from east to west, 60 miles. Area (comprising 1 town and 211 villages), 15 14 square miles. Population (1872) 120,036, of whom about 60 per cent, were Bhils. The Census Report of 1881 returned males 59,834, and females 54,922; total, 114,756 ; occupying 22,494 houses; density of population, 75-8 persons per square mile. Hindus numbered 47,811; Muhammadans, 5161; and 'others,' 61,784, mostly Bhils. Two -thirds of the State are occupied by a continuation of the Sdtpura range, known as the Rajpipla Hills, nowhere exceeding 2000 feet in height above the sea, which form the watershed between the rivers Narbadd and Tdpti. Towards the west, the hills gradually subside into gentle undulations. The State contains several forests, yielding valuable teak, blackwood, and other timber, which is exported in large quantities to the neighbouring British Districts. In the 392 RAJPIPLA. Narbadd valley the soil is alluvial and very productive, and by far the largest share of the revenue is derived from lands lying in the vicinity of that river. The more valuable crops, such as cotton, oil seeds, tobacco, and sugar-cane, are grown on lands annually submerged by the Narbadd floods. The principal rivers of Rajpipla are the Narbadd, skirting the territory north and west for nearly ioo miles ; and the Karjan, which rises in the hills of the Ndnchal pargand, and, flowing north into the Narbadd, divides the State into two equal portions. Carnelian mines are worked at Ratanpur, a village about 14 miles above the town of Broach. Iron of good quality used to be made near Ratanpur. The chief routes through the country are a cart-track between Khandesh and Gujardt, and a road from Surat to Malwd, which crosses the Narbadd at Tilakwdra. The climate is exceedingly- unhealthy, malarious fevers being prevalent from September to February. Rainfall, 58 inches in 1881. The family of the Rajpipla chief is said to derive its origin from one Chokdrdna, son of Saiddwat, Rdjd of Ujjain, a Rajput of the Parnar tribe, who, having quarrelled with his father, left his own country and established himself in the village of Pipla, in the most inaccessible part of the hills to the west of the modern town of Ndndod. The only daughter of Chokdrdna married Mokers or Makherdj, a Rdjput of the Gohel tribe, who resided in the island of Premgar or Perim, in the Gulf of Cambay. Makherdj had by her two sons, Dungarji and Gemarsinghji. The former founded Bhaunagar, and the latter succeeded Chokdrdna. Since that time (about 1470) the Gohel dynasty has ruled in Rajpipla. The Musalmdn kings of Ahmaddbdd had before this taken an agreement from the Rdjd to furnish 1000 foot-soldiers and 300 horse men. This arrangement remained in force until Akbar took Gujarat, in 1573, when he imposed a tribute on the country of £3555 in lieu of the contingent. This was paid until the end of the reign of Aurangzeb (1707), when, the imperial authority declining, the pay ments became irregular, and if opportunity favoured, were altogether evaded. Subsequent to the overthrow of the Muhammadan authority, Ddmdjf Gdekwar, in the latter half of the 18th century, succeeded in securing a half-share of four of the most fertile sub-divisions of the terri tory. These were afterwards released at the cost of an annual payment of £4000 to the Gaekwdr, and this sum later on was raised to £9200. Such rapid and frequent encroachments on the State, and internal quarrels, led to the intervention of the British Government. About the close of 182 1, of two disputants, the rightful claimant, Verisaljf, was placed on the throne by the British. Verisalji ruled till i860, when, with the permission of the British Government, he abdicated in favour of his only son, Gambhersinghji. The present (1883) RAJPIPLA CAPITAL— RAJPUR. 393 chief is thirty-six years of age. His estimated gross revenue in 1878 was £67,000; in 1882-83, .£60,000. A tribute of ^6500 is paid to the Gdekwdr of Baroda, through the British Government. He maintains a force of 566 men, horse and foot, and is entitled to a salute of ir guns. He has power to try for capital offences, with out the permission of the Political Agent, any person except British subjects. The capital of the State, Nandod, is situated on the river Karjan, in lat. 21° 54' n., long. 73° 34' e. A palace was built here about fifty-five years ago, previous to which time the rulers of the country resided in a fort on the hills, called Rajpipla. Ten schools for boys and one for girls. Dispensary. Rajpipla. — Old capital and fort of Rajpipla State, Rewa Kdntha, Bombay Presidency ; situated on a spur of the Devsdtra hill, about 8 miles west of Nandod, the present capital. On the spur are two forts ; one, Pipla, being the original stronghold of the chiefs, where they lived till 1730. It is almost inaccessible to any but a Bhil. No wheeled vehicles can pass, the road lying through a narrow gorge between high overhanging hills. In former times it was a safe retreat, when, if invaded, the chief blocked the path with wood and rubbish. There are still traces of the village, now inhabited only by a few Bhils. The new fort of Rajpipla, built about 1730, is approached, along the bank of the Karjan, through two miles of a wild and beautiful mountain gorge. Both sides of the hills overhanging the stream are crowned by breastworks, and the road is rugged enough to make access to the fort difficult. In front of the fort, the Ldl Darwdza, a gateway with flanking towers, completely bars the road. The fort, a square court with walls about 10 feet high, enclosing an area of 8 acres, contains the palace, a paltry structure with flanking towers. Raj pur. — Petty State in the Jhdldwdr division of Kdthidwdr, Bom bay Presidency ; consisting of 2 villages, with 1 tribute-payer. Situated about 3 miles north-east of Wadhwdn civil station, and close to the Bombay and Baroda Railway. Area, 15 square miles. Population (1881) 1674. The revenue is estimated at £1400; tribute of £241 is paid to the British Government, and £18, 12s. to the Nawdb of Jundgarh. Rajpur. — Petty State of Rewa Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Area, 1 1 square miles. The chief is named Rdwal Stir Singh. The revenue is estimated at £26; and tribute of £5, 2s. is paid to the Gdekwar of Baroda. Rajpur. — Town and municipality in the District of the Twenty-four Pargands, Bengal. Population (1881) 10,576, namely, males 5101, and females 5475. Hindus number 9733 ; Muhammadans, 841 ; and 'others,' 2. Municipal income (1883-84), £640, of which £592 was derived from taxation ; incidence of taxation, is. ifd. per head. Rajpur. — Town in Dehra Dun District, North-Western Provinces; 394 RAJ PUR A— RAJPUR ALI. situated 7 miles north of Dehra town, at the foot of the hills. Popula tion (1881) 3293. The town or rather village is simply a halting-stage on the road to Masuri, where ponies, coolies, etc., are procured for the last stage of the journey up the hill. Rdjpur contains three or four hotels, and a rest-house for the convenience of travellers. Post-office and dispensary. Rajpura. — Petty State in the Halldr division of Kdthidwdr, Bombay Presidency. Consists of 7 villages, with 1 tribute-payer. Situated 14 miles south-east of Rdjkot Area, 1 square mile. Population (1881) 2094. The revenue is estimated at £1200; tribute of £292 is paid to the British Government, and £24 to the Nawdb of Jundgarh. Rajpur Ali. — Native State under the Bhopdwar Agency of Central India ; lying between the Narbadd (Nerbudda) river and the Vindhya Mountains. Area, 837 square miles. Population (1875) 29,000; (1881) 56,827. Hindus number 35,834; Muhammadans, 187 1 ; Jains, 167; and aborigines, 18,955. The products are &f/V C iu J'sS C oi rt V O. £ Population. Estimated s — 0 0 Revenue. U*Z h> os Both Sexes. Male. Female. Alwar (Ulvvur), 3,024 1.747 101,348 682,926 360.384 322,542 £ 230 oeo Banswar£, . . 1,500 1,081 35.820 104, OOO1 53.498 50,502 28,000 Bhartpur, . . 1.974 1-359 88,104 645.540 350,475 295,065 280, OOO Bfkaner (Bick- aneer) , . . 22,340 1.739 107,569 509,021 293,650 2I5.37I 125,000 Bundi, . . . 2,300 842 60,565 254,701 133,103 121,598 60, OCO Dholpur, . . 1,200 S38 48,429 249,657 138,342 111,315 110,000 Dungarpur, . I, OOO 421 36,226 86,429- 44,568 41,861 20, OOO Jaipur, . . . 14.465 5.9^4 507.697 2.534.357 1,369,134 1,165,223 500,000 Jaisalmerfjey- sulmere), 16,447 414 26,217 108, 143 61,127 47,016 12,000 Jhalawar, . . 2,694 ^¦457 63,001 340,488 183,039 157.449 150,000 Karauli, . . 1,208 862 25.930 148,670 80,645 68,025 50,000 Kishengarh, . 724 213 24,928 112,633 59.098 53.535 28,000 Kotah, . . . 3.797 I,6n 130,698 517.275 269,924 247.351 295,000 Lawa, . . . 18 I 591 2,682 1,360 1,322 Marwar or Jodhpur, 37,000 3.78S 386,707 1,750,403 969, 125 781,278 400,000 Mewar or Udaipur, 12,670 5.722 324,136 1,443,144' 772,685 670,459 510,000 Partdbgarh, . 1,460 5^9 18,622 79,298"* 41,118 38,180 Shahpura, . . 400 118 10. 849 5175° 27,217 24.533 3»5°o Sirohi, . . . 3,020 366 30.532 142,903 76,132 66,771 Tonk, . . . z.5°9 1,192 73,482 338,029 176,869 161,160 1 20, coo Ajmere - Mer- wara(British), 2,711 739 64,118 460,722 248,844 211,878 132,461 30,740 2,165,569 10,562,771 5.710,337 4.852,434 J Exclusive of 48,045 Bhils. 3 Exclusive of 51,076 Bhils. 2 Exclusive of 66,952 Bhils. 4 Exclusive of 270 Bhils. 396 RAJPUTANA. Rdjputdna, as traced on the map, is of very irregular shape, being touched on the west, north, east, and south by the extreme outer boundary lines of the States of Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Dholpur, and Bdnswdra. On the west, Rdjputdna is bounded by the Province of Sind, and on the north-west by the State of Bahdwalpur. Thence its northern and eastern frontier marches with the Punjab and the North- Western Provinces, until, as it turns south-eastward, it touches Sindhia's country. Its southern boundary runs across the central region of India in an irregular zigzag line, which separates the Rdjputdna States from a number of other Native States in Central India, and which marks off generally the northern extension of that great belt of territory subject, mediately or immediately, to the Mardtha powers — Sindhia, Holkar, and the Gdekwdr of Baroda. It may be useful to give roughly the geographical position of the several States within this area. The States of Jaisalmer, Marwar or Jodhpur, and Bikaner form a homogeneous group in the west and north. In the north-east is Alwar (Ulwur), and a tract called Shaikhdwati, subject to Jaipur. Jaipur, Bhartpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Bundi, Kotah, and Jhdldwdr may be grouped together as the eastern and south-eastern States. The southern States are Partabgarh, Bdnswdra, Dungarpur, Mewar or Udaipur, with Sirohi in the south-west. In the centre lie the British District of Ajmere, Kishengarh State, the petty chiefship of Shahpura, with parts of Tonk. As the last State consists of six isolated patches of territory, it does not fall wholly into any one of these rough geographical groups. Physical Aspects. — The Aravalli mountains intersect the country almost from end to end, in a line running nearly north-east and south west. About three-fifths of Rdjputdna lie north-west of this line, leaving two-fifths on the south-east. The heights of Mount Abu lie at the south-western extremity of this range ; whilst its north-eastern end may be said to terminate near Khetri in the Shaikhdwati country, though a series of broken rocks and ridges are continued in the direc tion of Delhi. In the following paragraphs, and throughout this article, an excellent account of Rdjputdna, supplied by the Foreign Office, Calcutta, is used. Its length (99 pages), however, precludes the incorporation of the article in full. Looking first at the division of Rdjputdna that lies north-west of the Aravallis, a vast tract stretches from Sind on the west along the Southern Punjab frontier to near Delhi on the north-east. As a whole, this tract is sandy, ill watered, and unproductive ; improving gradually from a mere desert in the far west and north-west, to comparatively fertile and habitable lands towards the north-east. The Great Desert, RAJPUTANA. 397 which separates Rdjputdna from Sind along the whole of its western frontier, extends from the edges ofthe Rann of Cutch (Kachchh) beyond the Loni river northward. Eastward of this is a zone of less absolutely sterile country, consisting of rocky land cut up by limestone ridges, which to some degree protect it from the desert sands ; and still farther eastward is ' The Little Desert,' which runs up from the Loni between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur into the northern wastes. The desert region is the same everywhere. It is covered with sand hills, shaped generally in long, straight ridges, which seldom meet, but run in parallel lines, separated by short and fairly regular intervals, something like the ripple marks on a sea-shore upon a magnified scale. Some of these ridges may be 2 miles long, varying from 50 to 100 feet in height. Their sides are water-marked, and at a distance they look like substantial low hills. Their summits are blown up and curved like waves by the action of the periodical westerly winds. They are sparsely clothed with stunted shrubs and tufts of coarse grass in the dry season, and the light rains cover them with vegetation. The villages within the desert, though always known by a local name, cannot be reckoned as fixed habitations, for their permanence depends entirely on the supply of water in the wells, which is constantly failing or turning brackish ; and so soon as the water gives out, the village must shift. A little water is collected in small tanks or pools, which become dry before the stress of the heat begins ; and in places there are long marshes im pregnated with salt. This is the character, with more or less variation, of the whole north and north-west of Rdjputdna. The cultivation is everywhere poor and precarious, though certain parts have a better soil than others, and some tracts are comparatively productive. Neverthe less, the principal towns within this region are well built and fairly prosperous ; they have for ages managed the traffic across the desert, and their position has given them immunity from predatory armies. The towns along the southern border of this tract have already been sub stantially affected for good by the construction ofthe Raj putdna-Mal wd Railway, which runs a little to the north of the Aravalli mountains. In the central midland part of Rajputana, the Aravalli mountains lose the character of a distinct range ; and north-eastward from this region they never altogether re-unite, though their general direction is clearly indicated by successive hills and rocky eminences as far as the group of hills near Khetri. Amid these disunited hills stands the town of Ajmere, on the highest level of an open table-land spreading eastward towards Jaipur, and sloping on all sides. From Abu to Ajmere, the Aravallis offer a fairly clear line of demarcation between the sandy inferior land of the north-west, and the more fertile districts of the south-east ; but beyond Ajmere the contrast is no longer so plainly marked. 398 RAJPUTANA. The south-eastern division of Rajputana, which is considerably smaller in extent than the other, consists of the higher and more fertile countries behind the Aravallis. This division may be circumscribed by a line starting from the south-western extremity of that range, and sweeping round first south-eastward, then eastward along the northern frontiers of Gujarat and Malwd. Where it meets Gwalior territory, the border-line turns northward, and eventually runs along the Chambal, until that river enters the British dominions. It then skirts the British possessions in the basin of the Jumna as it goes northward, past Agra and Muttra, up to the neighbourhood of Delhi. In contrast to the sandy plains, which are the uniform feature, more or less modified, of the north-west, this south-eastern division has a very diversified character. It contains extensive hill ranges, and long stretches of rocky wold and woodland. It is traversed by considerable rivers, and in many parts there are wide vales, fertile table-lands, and breadths of excellent soil. Behind the loftiest and most clearly defined section of the Aravallis, which runs between Abu and Ajmere, lies the Mewar (Udaipur) country, occupying all the eastern flank of the range, at a level 800 or 900 feet higher than the plains on the west. And whereas the descent of the western slopes is abrupt towards Mdrwar (or the Jodhpur country) ; on the eastern or Mewdr side, the land falls very gradually as it recedes from the long parallel ridges which mark the water-parting, through a country full of high hills and deep gullies, much broken up by irregular rocky eminences, until it spreads out into the open champaign of the centre of Mewdr. Towards the south-western corner of Mewdr, the broken country behind the Aravallis is prolonged farthest into the interior ; and here the outskirts of the main range do not soften down into level tracts, but become entangled in a confused network of outlying hills and valleys, covered for the most part with thick jungle, which forms that very peculiar region known to British political administration as the Hilly Tracts of Mewdr. All the south-east of Rdjputdna is watered by the drainage of the Vindhya mountains, carried north-eastward by the Bands and Chambal rivers. North of Jhalra Patan, the country on the eastern side of the territory rises to a remarkable plateau called the Pdtar, upon which lies all Kotah State, with parts of Bundi on the north and of Jhdldwdr on the south. Eastward, this plateau falls, by a very gradual descent, to the Gwalior country, and the basin of the Betwa river. Beyond the Pdtar, to the north-east of the junction of the Bands and Chambal, there is a very rugged and hilly region along the frontier line of the Chambal in Karauli State ; and farther northward, the country opens out towards Bhartpur territory, whose flat plains belong to the alluvial basin of the Jumna. .RAJPUTANA. 399 Rivers and Water System. — In the north-west division of Rdjputdna, the only river of importance is the Loni, which rises in the Pukar valley close to Ajmere, and runs south-west for about 200 miles into the Rann of Cutch. It receives and cuts off from the western plains all the drainage brought by the mountain torrents down the western slopes ofthe Aravallis between Ajmere and Abu. Running for the most part over a sandy bed between low banks, its waters are brackish, and the bed occasionally yields salt — hence its name, meaning ' the salt river.' When very heavy rain falls, the Loni overflows its banks to a breadth of some 5 miles, leaving as it recedes a rich alluvium, which gives excellent crops. North-west of the Loni there are no perennial streams in the country; and the north-east of Rdjputdna has hardly one worth mentioning, nor does any water penetrate from this region eastward into the Jumna watersystem, until as far south as the Bangangd river, which runs out through Bhartpur. The high watershed of the midland country about Ajmere and Jaipur sends all its appreciable contributions of water south ward into the Bands. The south-eastern division of Rdjputdna has a river system of importance. The Chambal flows through the territory for about one- third of its course, and forms its boundary for another third. It enters Rdjputdna at Chaurdsgarh, on the south-east border of Mewar, where the old fort of that name stands 300 feet above the stream, and the stream level is 1166 feet above the sea, the width of the bed being about 1000 yards. Thirty miles lower down, at Bhainsrorgarh, it meets the Bamni river, at an elevation of 1009 feet above the sea. Just above this place occurs the series of small cataracts locally known as Chulis, of which the total fall is about 80 feet. In its course through Kotah the Chambal receives several large streams flowing northward from the Vindhyas, and so much of the drainage of the Mewar plateau as is not intercepted by the Bands. Farther northward it receives its two principal tributaries, the Pdrbati from the right and the Bands from the left. It emerges into the open country near Dholpur, and finally discharges itself into the Jumna after a total course of about 560 miles. The Bands, which is next in importance to the Chambal, rises in the south-west, near Kankraoli in Mewdr. It collects nearly all the drainage of the Mewdr plateau, besides that of the south-eastern slopes and hill tracts of the Aravallis. It joins the Chambal a little beyond the north-eastern extremity of Bundi State, after a course of about 300 miles. Among the south-western hills of Mewdr, the Western Bands and the Sabarmati take their rise, but attain no size or importance until after passing the Rdjputdna frontier towards the south-west. 400 RAJPUTANA. The Mahi, a considerable river in Gujardt, runs for some distance through the territories of Partdbgarh and Bdnswdrd, but it neither begins nor ends in Rdjputdna. Its chief tributary in this part is the Som, which flows first east and then southward through Mewdr. These rivers carry off the drainage of the south-west corner of Rdjputdna into the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay. Rdjputdna has no natural fresh-water lakes, the only considerable basin being the well-known salt lake at Sambhar. There- are some fine artificial lakes in Mewdr State ; the largest are those near Debar and Kankraoli, of which the former is a noble sheet of water, about 25 or 30 miles in circumference, constructed in 1681 a.d. by Rdna Jdi Singh, and named from him the 'Jai Samand.' There are also artificial lakes in the Eastern States, about Bundi and Kotah, and in the British District of Ajmere-Merwdra. Hills. — The Aravallis are the only mountains in Rdjputdna. Taking the range from the north-east, it first appears on a large scale near Khetri, in the north of Jaipur ; thence trending in a south-west direction, it skirts the western limit of the Sdmbhar lake, continues in the same direction to Ajmere, and on to the south-west of Beawar, where the hills begin to assume the consistency and compact elevation of a range, separating the plain of Mdrwar from the upland country of Mewar. The chain loses its distinctive formation amid wide tracts of hilly wastes extending southward over the whole western half of Mewdr. The heights of Mount Abu lie at the south-western extremity of this range. The other hill ranges of Rdjputdna, although numerous, are com paratively insignificant The towns of Alwar and Jaipur lie among groups of hills more or less connected. In Bhartpur State is a range of some local importance; the highest peak being Alipur, 1357 feet above sea-level. South of these are the Karauli hills, whose greatest height nowhere exceeds 1400 feet above sea-level. In the eastern States, a low but well-defined range runs transversely south-west and north-east. This range presents a clear scarp for about 25 miles on its south-eastern face, and gives very few openings for roads. A series of steep hills runs along the northern or left bank of the Chambal river, as a continuation of the Bdndi hills, through Karauli to Dholpur. The Makomdara range runs across the south-western portion of Kotah State from the Chambal to beyond Jhdlra Pdtan. This range has a curious double formation of two separate ridges, running parallel at a distance of more than a mile ; the interval being filled with dense jungle, and in some parts with cultivated lands. Geology. — Rdjputdna may be divided into three geological regions — a central, and the largest, comprising the whole width of the Aravalli system, formed of very old sub-metamorphic and gneissic rocks ; an. RAJPUTANA. 401 eastern region, with sharply defined boundary, along which the most ancient formations are abruptly replaced by the great basin of Vindhyan strata, or are overlaid by the still more extensive spread of the Deccan trap, forming the plateau of Malwd ; and a western region, of very ill- defined margin, in which, besides some rocks of undetermined age, it is known or suspected that tertiary and secondary strata stretch across from Sind, beneath the sands ofthe desert, towards the flanks ofthe Aravallis. Compared with many parts of peninsular India, Rdjputdna may be considered rich, if not in the quantity, at least in the variety, of metals it produces. Ore of cobalt has not been obtained from any other locality in India ; and although zinc blend is found elsewhere, Rdj putdna is the only part of the country in which zinc is known to have been extracted. Copper and lead exist in several parts of the Aravalli range, and in the minor ranges of Alwar and Shaikhdwati ; and iron- ores abound in Alwar, Mewdr, Kotah, and Jhdldwdr. Unfortunately very little has yet been ascertained in detail about this great mineral wealth, or as to the probable increase in yield that might be obtained from improved processes of mining. The most important copper-mines are those near Khetri in the Shaikhdwati dis trict of Jaipur ; and here some of the hills are honeycombed with the old excavations, whilst the accumulations of slag from the furnaces form a range of huge hillocks. In 1830, the annual out-turn of lead from the mines near Ajmere is said to have been about 850 cwts. At Jdwar, south of Udaipur, considerable quantities of zinc were formerly obtained ; in Tod's Rdjdsthdn, the mines are said to have yielded ^22,200 a year, but this is probably an exaggeration. These mines were abandoned in consequence of a famine in 181 2-13, and they have not been re-opened. Large deposits of specular and magnetic iron-ore (hematite) occur in several places in the Aravalli rocks, and are worked on a small scale to supply native furnaces. Nickel has been found in iron made from the Bhangarh ore. Alum and blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) are manufactured from decomposed schists at Khetri in Shaikhdwati. The only known Indian ore of cobalt is a grey metallic substance known as sehia, occurring in small cubes mixed with pyrrhotite (magnetic iron pyrites) in the copper mines of Khetri (Shaikhdwati). The composition of this mineral, which has received the name of Jaipurite (wrongly written Syepoorite in most books), is still imperfectly ascertained. It was at first supposed to be a simple sulphide of cobalt, but subsequent examination has rendered it probable that antimony and arsenic are also contained in the mineral. The ore was formerly extensively used for colouring enamels, bangles, etc., of a blue colour, and, it is said, for giving a rose colour to gold— an art unknown in Europe, and deserving of further inquiry. vol. xi. 2 c 402 RAJPUTANA. The rocks of Rdjputdna are rich in good building materials. Two of its forms of limestone — (i) the Raialo limestone, a fine-grained crystalline marble, quarried at Raialo in Alwar, and at Makrdna in Jodhpur; and (2) the Jaisalmer limestone — are well known for their beauty and usefulness. The Makrdna quarries supplied the chief portion of the stone for building the Tdj at Agra, as well as the marble used in decorating many other buildings in Northern and North-Western India. About 1000 workmen are employed at the present day in quarrying and working the stone at Makrdna alone. The sources of the salt for which Rdjputdna is celebrated are practically confined to that tract which lies north of the Aravallis. (See Sambhar Lake.) Forests. — Although the woodlands are extensive upon the south western Aravallis and throughout the adjoining hilly tracts, there are no forests of large timber in Rdjputdna. Mount Abu is well wooded from base to summit, and possesses several valuable kinds of timber ; and from Abu north-westward the western slopes of the range are still well clothed with trees and bushes up to the neighbourhood of Merwdrd. Below the hills on the western side runs a belt of jungle, sometimes spreading out along the river beds for some distance into the plain. All vegetation, however, rapidly decreases in the direction of the Loni river; and beyond that river, Marwar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer have scarcely any trees at all, except a few plantations close to villages or towns. In Sirohi and all over the south-western part of Mewdr, the wood lands stretch for many miles, covering the hills with scrub jungle and the valleys with thickets. In many places, teak and other valuable timber trees would thrive well if the forests were not periodically burned by the Bhils and other half-savage dwellers in these tracts. In the eastern States, the woodlands are considerable. South of the Bands and along parts of the Chambal are immense wolds, covered for the most part with small trees ; and near the capitals and around forts of the principal chiefs the woods have been carefully preserved for game or for defence, while deep thickets may be seen which are sacred to some deity. The southernmost States of Bdnswdra, Dungar pur, and Partdbgarh are perhaps the best wooded in proportion to their area. In Bhartpur there are some valuable reserved woodlands, one of which occupies an area of about 40 square miles, and is worked for fuel. Nowhere, however, have the woods been more closely cut down than in the British District of Ajmere. Large wastes have now been set apart to repair this loss by careful conservation. Rdjputdna does not possess a flora peculiar to itself, but rather presents a field on which the floras of dry India and of the deserts of Western Asia and Northern Africa meet. There are no species RAJPUTANA 403 peculiar to this area, every plant in it being found also either in the adjacent Provinces of Central India, Gujarat, the Punjab, North-Western Provinces, or in the dry regions of the Deccan and Southern India ; several of them occur also in countries far beyond the limits of the Indian Empire. History. — As of other parts of India, the history of Rdjputdna before the advent of the Muhammadans is very obscure, and its materials are scanty. Only faint outlines can be traced of the con dition of the country; and these indicate that it was subject for the most part to two or three powerful tribal dynasties. The Rdhtors, whose seat of dominion was at Kanauj, were for a long time the family whose rule was strongest and most widely extended ; whilst much of South-West Rdjputdna was ruled by a dynasty whose head-quarters were in Gujardt With these, and in succession to them, other tribal dynasties arose. In the nth century, at the time of the conquests of Mahmud of Ghazni, the leading tribes were the Solankhyas of Anhilwara in Gujardt, the Chauhans of Ajmere, and the Rdhtors of Kanauj ; whilst the Gehlot clan had established itself in Mewdr or Udaipur (still occupied by the Sesodids, a sept of the Gehlots), and the Kachwaha clan occupied the eastern tracts about Jaipur, now their chiefs capital. The march of Mahmud's victorious army across the Rajput countries, though it temporarily overcame the Solankhyas, left no permanent impression on the clans. The latter were, however, seriously weakened by the celebrated feuds between the Solankhyas and the Chauhans, and between the latter and the Rdhtors of Kanauj, which give such a romantic colour to the traditions of the latter part of the 12th century. Nevertheless, when Shahab-ud-din began his invasions, the Chauhans fought hard before they were driven out of Ajmere and Delhi in 1193 a.d. ; and Kanauj was not taken till the following year. Kutab-ud-dfn garrisoned Ajmere and Anhilward ; and the Musalmans appear gradually to have overawed, if they did not entirely reduce, the open country. They secured the natural outlets of Rdjputdna, towards Gujardt on the south-west, and towards the valley of the Jumna on the north-east ; and the effect was probably to press back the clans into the outlying Districts, where a more difficult and less inviting country afforded a second line of defence against the foreigner — a line which they have held successfully up to the present day. Indeed (setting aside for the present the two Jat States of Bhartpur and Dholpur, and the Muhammadan Principality of Tonk), Rdjputdna may be described as the region within which the pure-blooded Rdjput clans have maintained a sort of independence under their own chieftains, and have kept together their primitive societies ever since their principal 404 RAJPUTANA. dynasties in Northern India were cast down and swept away by the Musalman irruptions. And the existing capitals of the modern States indicate the positions to which the earlier chiefs retreated. Thus, one clan (the Bhdttis) had at an early period founded Jaisalmer in the extreme north-west, having been driven across the Sutlej by the Ghaznivide conquerors ; the Rdhtors settled down among the sands of Marwdr or Jodhpur ; the Sesodids pushed inward from north-east and south-west, concentrating on the Mewdr plateau behind the scarps of the Aravallis ; while the Jdduns were protected by the hills and ravines that lie along the Chambal. The process by which the Rajput clans were gradually shut up within the natural barrier of difficult country, which still more or less marks off their possessions, continued with varying fortune — their frontiers now receding, now again advancing a little — until the end of the 15 th century. Early in the 13th century, the rich southern Province of Mdlwd was attached by the Musalmans to the Delhi Empire ; and at the beginning of the 14th century, Ald-ud-din Khilji finally exter minated the Rajput dynasties in Gujardt, which also became an imperial Province. When at length, with the decline of the Tughlak dynasty, independent Muhammadan kingdoms arose in Mdlwd and Gujardt, these powers proved more formidable to the Rajputs than even the Delhi Empire had been; and throughout the 15th century there was war between them and the clans. For a short interval, at the beginning of the 16th century, came a brilliant revival of Rajput strength. The last Afghan dynasty at Delhi was breaking up, and Mdlwd and Gujarat were at war with each other, when there arose the famous Rdnd Sanga of Mewdr, chief of the Sesodid clan. The talents and valour of this chief once more obtained for his race something like predominance in Central India. Aided by Medni Rdo, chief of Chanderi, he fought with distinguished success against both Malwa and Gujardt. In 15 19 he captured the Musalman King of Mdlwd; and in 1526, in alliance with Gujarat, he totally subdued the Malwa State, and annexed to his own dominion all the fine eastern Provinces of that kingdom, and recovered the strong places of the Eastern Marches. This was the time at which the power of the Rdjputs was at its zenith, for Rdnd Sanga was now not merely the chief of a clan, but the king of a country. The Rdjput revival was, however, as short-lived as it was brilliant. A month before the capture of the capital of Mdlwd, Babar, with his Mughals, had taken Delhi ; andin 1527, Rand Sanga, at the head of all the chivalry of the clans, encountered the invader at Fatehpur Sikri, when his army was utterly defeated after desperate fighting, and the Rdjput power hopelessly shattered. Next year, Medni Rao, with the flower of his clan, fell in the defence of Chanderi, which was sacked by Babar. The hegemony of the Rajputs, RAJPUTANA. 405 which passed to Mdldeo Rao, the Rahtor chief of Jodhpur, was no longer that of a victorious empire. The clans, harassed first by the attacks of the Musalman King of Gujarat, then by the Afghdn Sher Shdh of Delhi, were finally either conquered, overawed, or conciliated by the genius of the great Akbar— all but the distant Sesodid clan, which, however, submitted to Jahdngi'r in 16 16. Akbar took to wife the daughters of two great Rdjput houses. He gave the chiefs or their brethren high rank in his armies, sent them with their contingents to command on distant frontiers, and succeeded in attaching the Rdjputs generally. Under the early Mughal Emperors, the chiefs constantly entered the imperial service as governors or generals — there were at one time 47 Rajput contingents — and the headlong charges of their cavalry became famous in the wars of the empire. Jahdngir and Shah Jahdn were sons of Rdjput mothers ; and Shah Jahdn in exile was protected at Udaipur up to the time of his accession. Thus, whereas up to the time of Akbar, the Rdjput clans had to a certain extent maintained their political isolation, though within limits that were always changing, from the end of the 16th century their chiefs became feudatories of the Empire — which is their natural and honourable relation to the paramount power in India. In the family wars which resulted in the accession of Aurangzeb, the Rajputs were generally found on the side of their unfortunate kinsman Dara ; still, even Aurangzeb employed them in distant wars, and their contingents did duty at his capital. He was, however, too bigoted to retain undiminished the hold on them acquired by Akbar. Though one Rajput chief governed Kdbul for him, while another commanded his armies in the Deccan, he is said to have had them both poisoned. Towards the end of his reign he made bitter, though unsuccessful, war upon the Sesodids, and devastated parts of Rdjputdna; but he was very roughly handled by the united Rdhtors and Sesodids, and he had thoroughly alienated the clans before he died. If Aurangzeb's impotent invasion be excepted, it may be affirmed that, from Akbar's settlement of Rdjputdna up to the middle of the 18th century, the Rdjput clans did all their serious warfare under the imperial banner in foreign wars, or in the battles between competitors for the throne of Delhi. When Aurangzeb died, the clans took sides as usual ; and Shdh Alam, the son of a Rdjput mother, was largely indebted for his success to the swords of his kinsmen. The obligations of allegiance, tribute, and military service to tbe Emperor, were undoubtedly recog nised as defining the political status of the chief so long as an Emperor existed who could exact them. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Rajputs vainly attempted the formation of an independent league for their own defence, in the shape of a triple alliance between the three leading clans— the Sesodid, the Rahtor, and the Kachwaha ; and this 406 RAJPUTANA. compact was renewed when Nadir Shah threw all Northern India into confusion. But the treaty contained a stipulation, that in. the succession to the Rahtor and Kachwaha chiefships, the sons born of a wife from the Sesodids should have preference over all others ; and this invidious preference was the fruitful source of disputes which soon split up the federation. About 1756, the Mardthds got possession of Ajmere, being called in by one of the Rdhtor factions ; and from this time Rdjputdna became involved in the general disorganization of India. The primitive constitution of the clans rendered them quite unfit to resist the pro fessional armies of Mardthds and Pathdns ; and the Rajput States very nearly went down with the sinking Empire. The utter weakness of some ofthe chiefs, and the general disorder following the disappearance of a paramount authority in India, dislocated the tribal sovereignties, and encouraged the building of strongholds against predatory bands, the rallying of parties round petty leaders, and all the general symptoms of civil confusion. From dismemberment among rival adventurers, the States were rescued by the appearance of the English on the political stage of Northern India. In 1803, all Rdjputdna, except the remote States of the north-west, had been virtually brought under the Mardthds, who exacted tribute, held cities to ransom, annexed territory, and extorted subsidies. Sindhia and Holkar were deliberately exhausting the country, lacerating it by ravages, or bleeding it scientifically by relentless tax-gatherers ; while the fields had been desolated by thirty years' incessant war. Under this treatment, the whole group of ancient chieftainships was verging towards collapse, when Lord Wellesley struck in for the English interest. The victories of Generals Wellesley and Lake permanently crippled Sindhia's power in Northern India, and forced him to loosen his hold on the Rdjput States in the north-east, with whom the English made a treaty of alliance against the Mardthds ; Holkar, too, after various turns of fortune, was compelled in 1 805 to sign a treaty which stripped him of some of his annexations in Rdjputdna. Upon Lord Wellesley's departure from India, the chiefs of Central India and Rdj putdna were left to take care of themselves ; and the consequence was that the great predatory leaders plundered at their ease the States thus abandoned to them, and became arrogant and aggressive towards the British power. This lasted for about ten years, and Rdjputdna was desolated during the interval. The roving bands increased and multiplied all over the country into Pindari hordes, until in 1814 Amir Khan was living at free quarters in the heart of the Rajput States, with an army estimated at 30,000 horse and foot, and a strong force of artillery. The two principal Rdjput chieftainships of Jodhpur and Jaipur had brought themselves to the brink of extinction by the RAJPUTANA. 407 famous feud between the two rulers for the hand of a princess of Udaipur; while the plundering Mardthds and Pathans encouraged and strenuously aided the two chiefs to ruin each other, until the dispute was compromised upon the basis of poisoning the girl. In 181 1, Sir Charles Metcalfe, Resident at Delhi, reported that the minor chiefs urgently pressed for British intervention, on the ground that they had a right to the protection of the paramount power, whose obvious business it was to maintain order. At length, in 181 7, the Marquis of Hastings was at last able to carry into action his plan for breaking up the Pinddri camps, extinguishing the predatory system, and making political arrangements that should effectually prevent its revival. Lawless banditti were to be put down, the general scramble for territory was to be ended by recognising lawful governments once for all, and fixing their possessions, and by according to each recognised State British protection and territorial guarantee, upon condition of acknow ledging our right of arbitration and general supremacy in external disputes and political relations. Accordingly, the Pindaris were put down, Amir Khdn submitting and signing a treaty which constituted him the first ruler of the existing State of Tonk. By the end of 1818, all the Rajput States, except Bhartpur, had executed treaties with the paramount power. There was a great restoration of plundered Districts and rectification of boundaries. Sindhia gave up the Province of Ajmere to the British, and the pressure of the great Mardtha powers upon Rdjputdna was permanently withdrawn. Since then, the political history of Rdjputdna has been compara tively uneventful. The great storm of the mutinies of 1857, though dangerous while it lasted, was short. The capture of the town of Kotah, which had been held by the mutineers of that State, in March 1858, marked the extinction of armed rebellion in the Province. The only serious disorders in Rdjputdna had been caused by mutinous mercenaries in the service either of the British Government or of the chiefs. There was no question of internal treason, or of plots for the subversion of chiefs or dynasties ; and the country at large probably suffered little. Population. — The following detailed returns of the population of Rdjputdna are confined to the Native States ; Ajmere-Merwdrd, although under the jurisdiction of the Governor-General's Agent for Rdjputdna, is strictly a British District. In exhibiting the total population under the jurisdiction of the Governor-General's Agent, in the table at the beginning of this article, Ajmere-Merwdrd was necessarily included. But in dealing with the population of the Native States, which form the geographical area of Rdjputdna, it is expedient to exclude the British District of Ajmere-Merwdrd. The Census of the Native States of Rdjputdna taken in 1881 was the first general enumeration of the 408 . RAJPUTANA. people attempted since the British took possession of the peninsula of India. That Census may be regarded, on the whole, as satisfactory. But owing to the repugnance among the Bhils to being enumerated, no accurate Census could be taken of that tribe. The authorities had to be content with counting the Bhil houses in some States, and allowing an average of four persons to each house. The total population of the Native States of Rdjputdna in i88r, exclusive of the 166,343 Bhils only enumerated by houses, was 10,102,049, of whom 5,461,493 were males and 4,640,556 females. The total area of the Native States of Rdjputdna was estimated at 129,750 square miles. The total number of occupied houses was returned at 2,101,451; and the number of persons to each house at 4-89. Average density of population, 79*14 persons per square mile ; houses per square mile, 16; total number of towns and villages, 30,001. With regard to religion, Rdjputdna is eminently Hindu. The Census returned the Hindus as numbering 8,839,243 ; Muhammadans, 861,747 ; Jains, 378,672; Christians, 1294; Sikhs, 9; Parsis, 7; 'others' not specified (non-Hindu aborigines and wild tribes), 21,077. Sub-divided into castes, the Hindus include : — Brdhmans, 906,463 ; Rajputs, 479,554 ; Mahdjans, 634,440 ; Chamdrs, 567,098 ; Minas, 427,672; Giijars, 402,709; Jdts, 425,598; Ahirs, 130,653; Hindu Bhils, 105,870; Dhakurs (Thakurs), 75,008; Balais, 61,530; Sondhias, 43,740; Katch, 19,118; and 'others,' 3,344,167. Sub-divided into tribes, the Muhammadans consist of — Shaikhs, 120,110; Pathdns, 70,242 ; Meos, 45,946; Mughals, 32,146; Sayyids, 24,755 J and 'others,' 353,098. No attempt could be made to collect any information regarding the non-Hindu or aboriginal castes and tribes of Rdjputdna, or to in any way classify the Christians. In the above figures, the caste and tribe tables for Jodhpur State have been omitted from the calculation, as the information was not furnished by the Jodhpur Darbar. It is difficult to give any concise account that shall be quite accurate of the ethnical divisions of the_jjfi.pttlation over a wide extent of country, especially where- statistics are to a considerable extent wanting ; but the outline is somewhat as follows : — In the Rajput States, the pure Rdjput clans occupy the first rank ; though by rigid precedence it would be taken by the Brdhmans, who are numerous and influential. The total number returned as Brdhmans was nearly a million in 1881. The Rajputs nowhere form a majority of the popu lation ; they are strongest, numerically, in the northern States and in Mewar. Their total number in 1881 was returned at nearly half a million. With the Brdhmans may be classed the peculiar and important caste of Chdrans or Bhdts, the keepers of secular tradition and of RAJPUTANA. 409 the genealogies. Next in order follow the mercantile castes, mostly belonging to the Jain sect, some of them undoubtedly of Rajput extraction, though separated by'difference of profession and of worship from the clans. Then come the principal cultivating tribes, such as the Jdts (425,598) and Giijars (402,709). After these may be mentioned the tribes of uncertain origin peculiar to Central India, who occupy the outlying tracts and the skirts of the open country, of whom the Minas (427,672) and Mers are the best specimens. Most of these claim irregular descent by half-blood from Rdjputs, while some of them are closely connected with the Bhils ; and they shade off, according as they are more or less settled down to cultivation and a quiet life, from industrious agriculturists into preda tory tribal communities. The Meos (now converts to Islam), the Mers, and the Mfnas are evidently allied tribes, whether by similarity of origin and way of life, or by remote descent from the same stock, is uncertain. Some reasons have been given for tracing the earliest habitations of the Minas and Meos to the Indus valley and the Upper Punjab; and the Mers have been conjectured to be a relic of the Meds, an Indo-Scythian tribe from Central Asia. Lastly, there are non-Aryan groups of pure Bhils, inhabiting long stretches of wild and hilly tracts, where they are almost independent, holding together under their own petty chiefs and head-men, paying irregular tribute or rents to the chief of the State, or to the Rajput landowner upon whose estate they may be settled. There are also, of course, a good number of Bhfls, as of all other half- tamed tribes, who have mixed with the general population, and are to be found scattered among the villages on the outskirts of the wild country. The geographical distribution of the Rdjput clans is broadly as follows: — The Rdhtors are probably the most numerous of all; they greatly predominate in the north-west, in the country of Mdrwdr, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer, in the State of Kishengarh, and all about the central portion of Ajmere. In Jaisalmer, the Bhattis rule. In the north-east States is the Kachwaha clan, very strong in Alwar and in Jaipur ; some districts in the north of Jaipur being altogether in the hands of the Shaikhdwat sept of the Kachwdhas. The Chauhdns, once famous in the history of the north-west of India, are now most in fluential in the eastern States, where the Hdra sept has been long dominant ; and the Deoras, another sept of the Chauhans, still hold Sirohi, while the Khichis also belong to the same stock. In the north west, the last trace of the ancient predominance of the Chauhans at Delhi is to be found in the petty chiefship of Nimrdna, held by Chauhans who claim descent from Prithwi Rdj ; and in the extreme north-west, the Rdo of Kusalgarh in Bdnswdrd is the head of a Chauhdn colony. 4io RAJPUTANA. All over Mewdr and the north - western States of Rdjputdna, below the Aravallis, the Sesodid clan predominates, their head being the Mahdrdna of Udaipur, the eldest family of the purest blood ofthe whole Rdjput caste. Among other clans of high descent and historic celebrity which were once powerful, but have now dwindled in numbers and lost their dominion, may be named the Parihdr, the Pramdra, and the Solankhya. The clans are, of course, the aristocracy of the country ; and they hold the land to a very large extent either as receivers of rent or as cultivators. As united families of pure descent, as a landed nobility, and as the kinsmen of ruling chiefs, they are also the aristocracy of India; and their social prestige may be measured by observing that there is hardly a ruling family (as distinguished from a caste) in all India which does not claim descent from, or irregular connection with, one of these Rajput stocks. The Rajput proper is very proud of his warlike reputation, and most punctilious on points of etiquette. The tradition of common ancestry has preserved among them the feeling which permits a poor Rajput yeoman to hold himself as good a gentle man as the most powerful landholder. As noticed further on (see Land Tenures), primogeniture exists. But the custom of equal division of inheritance is more or less in force among the Rdhtors of the Mallani country, among the Shaikhdwat sept of the Kachwdhas, and in certain other tribes. The marriage customs are strictly exogamous, a marriage within the clan being regarded as incestuous ; thus, each clan depends on the other clans for its wives, for, of course, no Rajput can take a wife elsewhere than from Rajputs. The mercantile classes are strongest in the cities of the north, where are the homes of almost all the petty bankers and traders who have spread over Northern and Western India under the name of Marwdrfs. The number of these petty traders or Mdrwarfs in Rdj putdna was 634,440 in 1881. Perhaps the Oswal section of the Jains, which had its beginning in Rdjputdna, is the wealthiest among the merchants; and many ofthe hereditary officials belong to the commercial castes. Of the cultivating tribes not belonging to pure Rdjput clans, the principal are the Jdts and Giijars, north of the Aravallis, and along the borders towards the Punjab and the Jumna, from Bikaner round to Bhartpur, and in Jaipur. The Ahirs, Lodhas, Kachhis, Mdlis, and Chamdrs also cultivate widely in the eastern Districts. South of the Aravallis, we find the Kunbfs and Sondias as cultivators, immigrants from Central and Southern India ; and in the south-west corner, we meet with the Kolis, so common in Gujarat Muhammadans are numerous in the north - eastern and eastern States; and also in Ajmere, where is the shrine of one of the most RAJPUTANA. 411 famous Musalmdn saints in India. In the pure Hindu States of the west and south-west they are rare, perhaps rarest in Mewdr; but in Mdrwar they have been from time to time influential. The special feature of Islam in Rdjputdna is to be found in the clans or indi genous tribes who have been converted to the faith ; such are the Khanzadahs, the Khaimkhdnis, the Meos, the Merdts, and the Sodhas. The Khdnzadahs, principally found in Alwar, and in the north of Jaipur, are descendants of a group of families of uncertain origin, who were the old rulers of Mew at during the 16th century. Their principal chief fought on the Rajput side against Babar in 1528. They are now numerically insignificant, and are not reckoned among the aristocracy. In social rank they are far above the Meos, and, though probably of more recent Hindu extraction, are better Musalmans. They observe no Hindu festivals, and will not acknowledge that they pay any respect to Hindu shrines. But Brdhmans take part in their marriage contracts, and some Hindu marriage ceremonies are observed by them. Though generally as poor and ignorant as the Meos, they, unlike the latter, say their prayers and do not let their women work in the fields. No Khanzddahs now hold any jdgir or rent-free villages. Some have emigrated eastward, and taken to trade in the Gangetic cities. Those, who have not abandoned the traditions of their clan, are often glad of military service. A few have enlisted in British regiments ; and many have joined the service of the Alwar chief. There are 26 Khanzddah villages in Alwar, in most of which the proprietors themselves work in the field and follow the plough. No other settle ments out of Alwar are known. The Khdimkhdnis, also most numerous in Alwar and Jaipur, were originally Chauhan Rdjputs, converted to Islam. They are said to have formerly owned the tract of country now called Shaikhdwati, but were afterwards dispossessed by Shekhji, the founder of the Shaikhdwat clan of Rajputs. The Meos, a tribe who are very strong in Alwar and Bhartpur, have been known in India, according to the Kutab Tawdrikh, for 850 years. They were originally Hindus, and became Muhammadans at the time of Mahmud of Ghazni, in the nth century. Their origin is obscure. They themselves claim descent from the Rajput races of Jadun, Kachwdha, and Tunwdr. They may have some Rajput blood in their veins, but they are probably, like many other similar tribes, a combination from various stocks and sources. There is reason to believe them very nearly allied to the Minas, who are a tribe of the same structure and species. The Meos are divided into 52 clans, the first six of which are identical in name, and claim the same descent as the first six clans of the Minas. Intermarriage between 4i2 RAJPUTANA. both was a rule till the time of Akbar, when, owing to an affray at the ^ marriage festival of a Meo with a Mina, the custom was discontinued. Both Meos and Minas were once notoriously predatory tribes. The Meos have a mixture of both Muhammadan and Hindu customs. They practise circumcision, nika marriage, and burial of the dead. Brdhmans take part in the formalities preceding a marriage, but the ceremony itself is performed by the Kazi or Muhammadan judge. Their village deities are the same as those of Hindus. Among Hindu customs, they observe the Holi, Diwdli, and other festivals. Their marriages never take place in the same got, and their daughters cannot inherit. They call their children indiscriminately by both Muhammadan and Hindu names. They are almost entirely unedu cated, but have bards and musicians, to whom they make large presents. The dialect is harsh and unpolished. They are given to the use of intoxicating drinks, are very superstitious, and have great faith in omens. The dress of the men and women resembles that of the Hindus. Like the women of low Hindu castes, they tattoo their body. The men often wear gold ornaments, but the women are seldom or never allowed to have them. As agriculturists, Meos are inferior to their Hindu neighbours. Their women, whom they do not seclude, do more field-work than the men. Merats, a term which is generally used as synonymous with a Muhammadan Mer, is a patronymic derived from Mera, the common ancestor of the Kdtdls and Gordts. Hardj, the grandson of Mera, became a convert to Isldm in the reign of Aurangzeb, and is the progenitor of all the Kdtdl Merats. Gora was brother of Hardj, and his descendants are Hindus. Among the Merats there is a distinct tendency to socially assimilate with the orthodox followers of Islam, and to abandon ancient customs common to them with their non- Muhammadan brethren. They have abjured the flesh of the wild hog ; they have begun to adopt nika marriage, to seclude their women, and to intermarry with persons within degrees prohibited by their ancient customs. The peculiarity of the above Muhammadan bodies is that, while the ritual of Islam has been more or less successfully imposed upon them, they have maintained in structure the social institutions of a Hindu clan or family, and that the tribes especially have continued to regulate their marriages, not by the law of Islam, but by their own rules of genealogy and consanguinity. Up to very recently, their worship was polytheistic, and their primitive gods survived under various disguises. One special element in the Rdjputdna population is that of the half-blood tribes. They are so called in this brief account of the different classes of the people, because they themselves invariably RAJPUTANA. 413 claim descent from the pure Rdjput clans by irregular marriages, and because their own society is framed on the model of the Rajput clan, while there is every probability that they really derive largely from a crossing between the Rajputs and the more primitive tribes whom the Rajputs overcame and superseded. As a body, however, these tribes seem to be mixed aggregations of all sorts of persons who have taken to an independent and predatory life in the wilder parts of the country. Of these tribes, the most important is that of the Mfnas, who inhabit several distinct tracts in different parts of Rdjputdna, and are also found sparsely scattered among the population in the neighbourhood of those tracts. Minas were formerly the rulers of much of the country now held by Jaipur. The earliest annals of the Rdjput conquests are full of tradi tions of the cruel and unscrupulous extermination of the people whose country they seized by force or fraud ; and in the eastern States, places are still shown where some Mina Chief made his last stand, or was decoyed into massacre by the Rdjput hero who founded his clan's dominions. The tracts now occupied by the Minas in the interior of Rdjputdna are the holds and fortresses where they have found refuge. They are also found in the northern part of Jaipur and Alwar, where they are famous for organized robberies all over Northern India. The Minas of Jaipur and Alwar reckon themselves superior to the other groups of their tribe, neither intermarrying nor eating with them. This section of the tribe consists of two classes — zamindars or agri culturists, and chaukiddrs or watchmen. The former are excellent cultivators, and are well behaved. The chaukidari Minas, though of the same tribe as the other class, are quite distinct. They consider themselves soldiers by profession, and somewhat superior to their agricultural brethren from whom they take, but do not give, daughters in marriage. Those of the chaukiddri Minas who take to agricul ture lose caste to some extent. These chaukiddri Minas are famous marauders. They travel in bands, headed by a chosen leader, as far south as Haidardbdd (Nizam's Dominions), where they commit daring robberies. They are the principal class which the Dakditi Suppression Department has to watch. So notorious are they as robbers, that the late chief of Alwar, afraid lest they should corrupt their agricultural brethren, and desirous of keeping them apart, forbade their marrying, or even smoking or associating with members of the well-conducted class. In 1863, orders were issued placing the chaukiddri Minas under surveillance ; and subsequently, lists of them were made out, periodical roll-calls enforced in the villages, and absence without a leave-certificate punished. The Minas still hold a good social position, as Rdjputs will eat and drink from their hands, 414 RAJPUTANA. and they are the most trusted guards in Jaipur. On every succes sion in Jaipur, a Mina performs the ceremony of tika or investiture of the new chief. The wilder Minas have their special habitation in three particular tracts. Of these, one is called the Kherdr, a rugged country situated in the north-east corner of Mewdr. They call themselves Purihar Mfnas, claiming half-blood with the well-known Rdjput Purihars. They are famous as savage and daring marauders. Zalim Singh, the Rdjd of Kotah, carried fire and sword in their lands early in this century. In 1857-58 they committed great excesses, and were put down with much severity in i860 by the Rdjput Chiefs. They are lower in social standing than the Mfnas of the north, and are much less Hinduized. Farther southward again, in the south-east corner of Mewdr, is another stretch of hill country and jungle called the Chappan. Its high lands are studded with Mfna villages, lying within the great estates of Mewar nobles, whose orders they obey. These Mfnas live in the most inaccessible parts among the hills; they never build regular fixed villages. Each homestead is complete in itself, consisting of several grass and wood huts for grain and cattle within a single enclosure. This tract needed an armed force to bring it to order 55 years ago, and is still one of the most difficult and troublesome in Central India. Last come the Minas in the south-west of Rajputana, who occupy the wild country in the north of Sirohi State, and are entrenched among the inaccessible spurs of the Aravalli hills. They cultivate least and plunder most, maintaining incessant guerilla warfare with the State authorities ; and they occupy the lowest grade in the social scale, caring- little for caste rules, and being ineligible for intermarriage with the other groups of Minas. The Mers or Mhairs form another tribe of mixed origin, claiming descent from Rajput chiefs who took Mina wives; and they are evidently connected with the Minas. The country they inhabit is called Merwdrd. They appear to have held their own in this tract from time immemorial, though attempts to subjugate them are on record. They gave great trouble to the Muhammadan governors of Ajmere, to the neighbouring Rdjput chiefs, and to the Mardthds, until they were subdued, not without some sharp skirmishes, by British officers about 45 years ago. One section of the Mers, the Mewdts, is, as already stated, Muhammadan. According to the customs of the tribe, a sonless widow retains possession of her husband's property till she marries again or till her death. She can mortgage in order to pay her husband's debts, to discharge arrears of Government revenue, or to obtain funds for the expense of her daughter's marriage. Daughters do not inherit when there are sons alive. All sons inherit RAJPUTANA. 415 equally. A relation of any age may be adopted. Sons by slave girls, who are numerous, are granted lands to cultivate, which they cannot transfer. The custom of widow marriage prevails. Much money is spent on funeral feasts. There is a widely-spread tribe of professional thieves, which is by origin evidently nothing but an association for the purpose of robbery, and as yet lays little claim to any common descent, though it is, in a loose way, a distinct caste. These people are called Baorias north of the Aravallis, and Moghias south of the range, but they are under stood to be one tribe under two names. To the north they are found mostly in Marwdr, and to the south they are most numerous in the country round Nimbhera and Nimach. Formerly they were well known as mercenary soldiers, bold, hardy, and most licentious ; and they took their share in the disorders at the beginning of this century. They eat all kinds of flesh, and drink liquor. These people pretend to a remote descent from Rajputs, and shape their internal society upon the model of a Rajput clan. The tradition is that, in the time of the kings of Delhi, a princess of Gujardt was sent in charge of a few Rajputs to wed the king then reigning. They halted one day in Mdrwar territory at a well. The princess thinking it beneath her dignity to have to go to her future husband, instead of him coming for her, resolved to destroy herself, and therefore jumped into the well and was drowned. Her escort feared either to go back and relate what had happened to her relatives, or to go on to Delhi and tell their story there, and therefore remained at the well. After they had exhausted the little money they had, they took to robbery, and were called by the people in the neighbourhood the Baorias, from ' Baori,' a well. They afterwards married women of other castes, and eat the flesh of animals forbidden to Rdjputs, and were in consequence made outcastes by the Rajputs. The religion of the Moghias is similar to that of the Hindus : they worship the same gods and observe the same funeral and marriage ceremonies. Those who adhere to all religious rites, etc., are called Ujjal or pure, those who do not are called Bitla or impure. They do not take life except in self-defence or to escape capture, when they do not hesitate to do so. Every one of the tribes, no matter how wealthy, always affects a miserable dress and manner of living. They invariably have houses outside the village or town where they reside. The houses are built in small enclosures, with a passage between each, and numerous outlets in the enclosure to admit the inhabitants to escape if an official, or any one likely to want them, is seen approaching. The Moghias have now been brought under the stringent provisions of the Criminal Tribes Act, and up to 1885, 6252 male adults had been entered on the register. 4i 6 RAJPUTANA. The only tribe in Rdjputdna that may be termed aboriginal is that of the Bhils (q.v.), who numbered in 1881 about 270,000 in all. The towns of Rdjputdna have their special characteristics. The largest are the capitals of the principal States, which have usually grown up around the forts of the chiefs, in situations that, originally chosen for defence or retreat, are now striking and often picturesque. The Rajput capital is nearly always named after its founder. Its citadel is usually on a hill close above, or placed in some commanding position over against the town ; and the chief's ancestral palace is sometimes within the fortified lines, sometimes lying below the stronghold, with ready access to it in case of need ; while, here and there, a modern palace has been built apart from the fortress within the town. But the fortress and the palace, whether combined or separate, are the two conspicuous features of a Rdjput town. The suburbs often contain gardens and stone pavilions, while country houses of the chiefs and nobles lie a little beyond ; and the chattris, or domed cenotaphs erected where chiefs or men of mark have been burned after death, often with their wives and female slaves, are usually at a little distance. Jaipur, the most modern of the Rajput capitals, is also the largest ; it is laid out with spacious streets, and the hereditary taste of the ruling family has decorated and improved it for generations. Jodhpur is a fenced city in the desert ; and Bikaner and Jaisalmer are towns of the same type, built upon islands of hard rock amid deep sand. Ajmere, Alwar (Ulwur), and Udaipur are all remarkable for picturesque beauty and for excellence of situation. Bhartpur, Tonk, Kotah, Biindi, and Jhdlra Pdtan are the other important places. The forts and castles of Rdjputdna are numerous, and often exhibit the best specimens of the architecture of this part of India. The most remarkable are Tard- garh above Ajmere, Chitor, Kumalmer, and Gogunda in Mewdr, Alwar (Ulwur), Jaipur, Khetri, Bhainsrorgarh, Mandalgarh,- Indra- garh, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Biindi, Kotah, Gagron, and Rinth- ambor. Religious Sects. — The vast majority of the population are Hindus, with a very strong infusion of Jainism. The Rdjputs, though super stitious, are not remarkable either for devotion or for fastidiousness about caste rules and sacred personages. Of local sects most in vogue, may be mentioned the Dddu Panthis, whose head-quarters are in Jaipur State, to whom belong the armed Nagas ; and the Rdm Sanehi sect, which prevails in Alwar (Ulwur) and Mewdr, with its head-quarters at Shdhpurd. Both these sects have a special book of precepts, in favour of which they reject all others, and a spiritual founder who transmits a special grace and insight divine to his chosen descendants. Secret societies are said not to be uncommon in the country ; the obscene sect of the Vallabhacharayas have two shrines in Mewdr. Astrology is RAJPUTANA. 417 universally practised ; and a professor of the occult art must be con sulted at all critical conjunctures, political or social. The belief in witchcraft still strongly prevails. Agriculture. — Westward of the Aravallis there is a good strip of soil along the banks of the Loni, which occasionally overflows, and on the subsidence of the waters an alluvial deposit remains which yields good crops of barley and wheat. Excluding the fertile portions of Marwar enclosed within the branches of the Loni, nearly the whole country to the north-west of this river, including most of Marwar, the States of Bikaner and Jaisalmer, and the District of Shaikhdwati, is a vast sandy tract. Water is far from the surface, and scarce. Irrigation from wells is impracticable, for not only is the supply of water too scanty to admit of it being used for this purpose, but also the depth of the wells usually exceeds 75 feet, the maximum at which well-irrigation has been found profitable in Jaisalmer and Bikaner. The water in the wells is often from 300 to 500 feet below the surface. The people have thus to depend for their supply of grain entirely on the produce of the crops sown in the rainy season, which in this part of the country is of very uncertain character. When rain does fall, it sinks into the sandy soil and does not flow off the surface, so that a very light rainfall suffices for the crops. The system of agriculture is simple, and only one crop is raised in the year. At the commencement of the rainy season, the sandhills are ploughed up by camels, and the seed is then planted very deep. After it has sprouted, a few showers bring the young crop to maturity. As the light camels of the desert are quick movers, and the ploughs are of trifling weight, each cultivator is able to put a large extent of ground under crop. The produce in a favourable season is much more than is necessary for the wants of the population ; but, unfortunately, the means of stowing grain are not easily procurable, burnt earthen vessels for the purpose having to be brought from long distances; consequently, the surplus produce is often left on the ground to be eaten by cattle. The karbi, or bdjra stalks, which make excellent fodder, are little needed in good seasons when rich grass is plentiful ; and, generally speaking, neither karbi nor grass is cut or stacked as a stand-by for bad seasons. Bdjra (Pennisetum typhoideum) and moth (Phaseolus aconitifolius) are the only crops which are grown in the desert tracts. The former is planted as early as possible, even in May, if any rain fall in that month; the latter in August. The former takes three months, the latter six weeks, to ripen. Besides these cereals, large quantities of melons spring up, of which the Bikaner melon is famous. These supply food for a considerable portion of the year, and, when abundant, are allowed to be plucked by any passer-by. Cattle, even, are allowed to feed on them. The seeds are dried and ground, and eaten with flour. vol. xr. 2 D 4i 8 RAJPUTANA. The main wealth of the desert lands of Mdrwdr and Bikaner consists in the vast herds of camels, horned cattle, and sheep which roam over their sandy wastes and thrive admirably in the dry climate. Camels and cattle are bred in such numbers that they supply the neighbouring Provinces. What are called and sold as Gujardt cattle are often in reality Marwar cattle of the Nagar breed, celebrated for their size and pace. The stock is yearly sold at great fairs. In Western Rdjputdna, camels are also bred in large quantities; and besides being ridden, and used as beasts of burden, they are employed in agriculture. The Bikaner camel is the finest, swiftest, and handsomest in India. The Mdrwdr camel is more enduring, but not the equal of the former in speed. The Jaisalmer camel is a dark, small, and ugly animal, but docile and the easiest of any in his paces. The sheep of Mdrwdr and Bikaner are exported in great numbers to Bombay and other markets. The endurance of the horses of Mallani is proverbial. In other parts of Rdjputdna, south and east of the Aravallis, two crops are raised annually, and various kinds of cereals, pulses, and fibres are grown. The principal crops in the hilly tracts of Mewdr, and in Dungarpur and Bdnswdrd, are Indian corn and oil-seeds for the kharif, and grain, barley, and wheat for the rabi harvest. On the plateau near Nimach in the State of Partdbgarh, the chief crops are jodr for the kharif, and opium, wheat, and al for the rabi. The staple produce of Jhdldwdr is opium; nearly 10,868 maunds (or 400 tons) were exported in 1882-83, while 7943 maunds were imported, and 2438 maunds passed through the State. Kotah is a grain-producing country, in which artificial irrigation scarcely exists ; the soil, being black mould (disintegrated trap), is retentive of moisture, and large quantities of wheat are grown for the spring harvest, and jodr for the autumn harvest. The extensive plains of the Mewar plateau are fertile when irrigated ; almost every village has its artificial lake or tank. Behind the retaining embankments, or in the beds of these tanks, and wherever there are wells, large crops of wheat are grown, and here and there cotton, opium, and sugar-cane. In 1882, the State of Mewdr expended ^23,862 on irrigation, the profits from the existing irrigation works in that year being ^14,000. To the east of Ajmere, including Kishengarh, the southern half of Jaipur, Tonk, and Alwar (Ulwur) as far as Bhartpur, the soil is fertile though light, and produces crops of wheat, barley, cotton, jodr, and opium. The District of Shaikhdwati in Jaipur re sembles in character of soil and productions the deserts of the west. Much of Dholpur possesses the physical characteristics of Karauli — rocky hills and ravines. Where these exist, cultivation is much strait ened ; but elsewhere, the crops grown are the same as those of the neighbouring tracts to the west. Land Tenures. — The characteristic of land tenures in the Rdjput RAJPUTANA. 419 States proper, in the west and south-west particularly, is that a very great proportion of the land is held on freehold tenure by the kinsmen of the chief, and by other clans of Rdjputs. The word 'freehold' is here used to denote the holding of a free man by service not unbe coming his birth, and upon payment of the customary share of the produce ofthe soil in which chief and clan are coparceners — the 'fruits of worship,' as it is devoutly expressed. Here and there are also some assignments or grants of land in the nature of jdgirs proper, — that is, the revenue has been allotted to certain persons as a convenient way of paying the estimated cost of civil or military establishment or other services. All large estates are held under the implied condition of keeping up the police within their borders, protecting traffic, preventing heinous crimes, and pursuing offenders hot-foot when the hue and cry is raised, or when the tracks of flying brigands are followed across the boundaries. In many parts of the country, the estate passes entire to the eldest son, the others being entitled only to maintenance ; in other parts, the tendency to divide the land as the family increases and branches out is more marked; while in other parts, again, division among brothers is imperative. Of course, the partition of the freeholds is in proportion as the custom of sub-dividing the land among the clansmen may prevail. Taking all the Rajput States together, the extent of land thus held in cultivating free hold is large. In Karauli whole villages are held by clansmen, who pay nothing to their chief. The freehold tenures are most extensive in Mdrwdr, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jaipur, and in part of Mewdr, a light quit- rent being usually paid. The smaller plots of freehold land are usually held on the bhiim tenure, which is a better title than any. The Bhiimia and his heirs hold for ever on condition of some particular service, such as the watch and ward of villages, guard of the roads, etc. ; and their holdings are not, like those of the kinsmen and clansmen of a chief, portioned off on lots of the family domain, which might be resumed if the chief and his folk quarrelled. The freeholding classes are distinct from the mass of cultivating peasantry. The cultivating tenures of the peasantry at large are not easy to define accurately, though their general nature is much the same through out Rdjputdna, both in the khdlsa villages (paying directly to the State) and in the great feudatory estates. The cultivator is understood to have a permanent hereditary right to his holding so long as he pays the rent- demanded, and to evict a man is a hard measure; but in a country where the irresponsible exactions of the tax-collectors are held in check only by the scarcity of tenants, the precise strength of the tenure depends really on the balance between these two opposing considera tions, the desire to squeeze the tenant, and the fear of losing him. On the whole, it may be said that the demand for tenants pre- 420 RAJPUTANA. dominates, and a good cultivator has a firm root in his fields, which can be mortgaged or sold, and which pass by inheritance. A distinction is recognised, naturally, between lands which have come to a cultivator by inheritance, or which he has himself cleared or improved, and lands which have changed hands recently, or which have been assigned in an ordinary farming way. The real point of importance, however, is, of course, not the nature of tenure, but the limitation of rent demand ; and this is practically unfixed, except where English officers have prevailed upon a chief to accept and uphold a regular land revenue settlement. In rack-renting States, all particular tenures are loose and undefined ; and though the village community, as a body, generally sticks to the township, yet between the rent-collector and the money-lender, the peasant is apt to sink into the condition of a predial serf rather held to, than holding by, the land. There are, speaking broadly, no middle-men in Rdjputdna between the tax-collector and the rent-payer, though the head-man of a village often contracts for a fixed payment for a short term of years. The pdtel and patwdri are merely the local agents in the villages for culti vating and collecting arrangements ; they are paid by remissions of rent demand, but have no rights or solid status, and the village com munity, as an institution, is feeble and depressed. The revenue is assessed on an assumed proportion of the crop, this being taken usually in kind, but sometimes at a money valuation, varying from year to year, and arbitrarily calculated. In places a fixed rate is assessed upon the measured bighd, according to the kind of crop or upon the plough. But the rent-rate proper is often only a fraction of the real demand upon the cultivator, which is made up of sundry and manifold cesses. After the freeholding classes, perhaps the strongest and most pros perous cultivating bodies are to be found in the Jat and Gdjar villages in the north and north-west, where the peasant is occasionally a sub stantial farmer, and where large herds of cattle are kept. Industrial Occupations. — Whilst the mass of the people is occupied in agriculture, in the large towns banking and commerce flourish to a degree beyond what might have been expected in so backward a country. In the north, the staple products for export are salt, grain, wool, and some cotton. In the south, the great article of export is opium, and secondly, cotton ; the imports consisting of sugar, hardware, piece-goods, and the usual miscellaneous articles needed by a country with no manufactures on any scale. Salt is made very extensively in Jodhpur and Jaipur from the great salt-lakes, which are the most valuable possessions of the northern States, and in Bhartpur from brine wells. From the great plains north of the Aravallis, especially from the Shaikhdwati country, comes wool ; and from these pasture lands a great many sheep are driven annually to Bombay. Cotton is RAJPUTANA. 421 grown in the midland and eastern districts ; while the rich, well-watered black soils which send opium to Malwa are owned by Mewdr and the south-eastern States, Kotah and Jhdldwdr in particular. Of late years an unwonted depression in the opium trade has been complained of all over Rdjputdna. Although the trade is depressed and the exports are falling off, poppy cultivation is spreading,, and the culture is nearly coextensive with irrigation. The falling off in the export may be estimated by the fact that only 2809 chests passed the scales at Udaipur in 1882-83, as against 4659 chests in 1881-82, a great decrease on the average weighing of the previous eleven years, which was 6550 chests. Of late, a species of inferior opium called Chota Battis is produced for home consumption, and is worth from £4 to £<-, per 80 lbs. less than the superior drug. The opening of the railway has had the effect of extending the cultivation of the poppy. The head-quarters of banking and exchange operations may be said to be Jaipur, the largest, most modern, and richest city of Rdjputdna ; though the principal firms of Mdlwd and of the northern cities of British India have agencies in most of the towns. The employment of capital in Rdjputdna is becoming less productive, and is diminishing since the peculiar sources of profit formerly open have been disappearing. At the beginning of the present century, great firms often remitted goods or specie under the guard of armed companies in their own pay, and loans were made at heavy interest for the payment of armies or the maintenance of a Government. Now, railways and telegraphs are gradually levelling profits on exchange and transport of goods, while the greater prosperity and stability of the States, under the wing of the Empire, render them more and more independent of the financing bankers. Of course, there is an immense amount of money-lending to the peasantry. The largest commercial fairs in the country are, for cattle, camels, and horses, at Pukar (Pushkar) near Ajmere, and at Tilwdra in Jodhpur State. In manufactures, Rdjputdna has no speciality, unless the making of salt be included under this head. In Bikaner, fine woollen cloth is woven ; and leather-working is successfully carried on in most of the northern States. In the finer and more artistic manufactures, however, Rdjputdna takes a high place. The enamel workers of. Jaipur produce beautiful articles by a process of which the secret is unknown ; in Partdbgarh, a peculiar enamel of gold is worked on glass; while at Alwar and some other capitals, the goldsmiths and silversmiths have acquired superior skill in workmanship and design, under the patronage of the native Courts. Climate and Hygiene.— The rainfall is very unequally distributed 422 PAJPUTANA. throughout Rdjputdna. The western side of the country comes very near the limits of that part of Asia which belongs to the ' rainless district of the world ; ' though even on this side, the south-west winds bring annually a little rain from the Indian Ocean. In Western Rdjputdna — that is, in Jaisalmer, Bikaner, and the greater part of Mdrwdr — the annual fall scarcely averages more than 14 inches, as the rain-clouds have to pass extensive and heated tracts of sand before reaching these plains, and are emptied of much of their moisture upon the high ranges in Kdthidwdr and the nearer slopes of the Aravallis. In the south-west, which is more directly reached, and with less intermediate evaporation, by the periodical rains, the fall is much more copious ; and although for the 22 years ending 1881 the average at Mount Abu has been 64 inches, it sometimes exceeds 100 inches. But except in these south-west highlands of the Aravallis, the rain is most abundant in the south-east of Rajputana. The southern States, from Bdnswdra to Jhdldwdr and Kotah, get not only the rains from the Indian Ocean, which sweep up the valleys of the Narbadd and Mahi rivers across Mdlwd to the countries about the Chambal, but also the last of the rains which come up from the Bay of Bengal in the south-east ; and this supply occasionally reaches all Mewdr. In this part of the country, if the south-west rains fail early, the south-east rains usually come to the rescue later in the season ; so that the country is never subjected to the extreme droughts of the north-western tracts. The rainfall in 1882 at Bdnswdra was 42^4 inches; at Jhdldwdr, 34 inches; and at Kotah, 3 1 ^67 inches. On the other hand, the northern part of Rdjputdna gets a scanty share of the winter rains of North India, while the southern part usually gets none at all, beyond a few soft showers about Christmas. In the central Districts, round Ajmere and towards Jaipur, the periodical supply of rain is very variable. If the eastern winds are strong, they bring good rains from the Bay of Bengal ; whereas if the south-west monsoon prevails, the rain is comparatively late and light. Sometimes a good supply comes from both seas, and then the fall is larger than in the eastern Districts ; but it is usually much less. The average rainfall for 19 years ending 1881 has been at Ajmere, 22-5 inches (26 inches in 1882) ; and at Jaipur for 15 years ending 1881, 2378 inches (24-46 inches in 1882). In the far north of Rdjputdna, the wind must be very strong and the clouds very full to bring any appreciable supply from either direction. It may be said shortly, that from Bikaner and Jaisalmer in the north-west, to Partdbgarh and Kotah in the south-east, there is a very gradually increasing rainfall, from 10 to about 60 inches, the quantity increasing very rapidly after the Aravallis have been crossed. Statistics are not always trustworthy ; but the subjoined table gives the average rainfall in recent years at certain places, which, being wide apart, may RAJPUTANA. 423 afford an indication of the state of the mountainous districts, and thus generally of the whole tract. Table Illustrative of the Rainfall of Rajputana, divided by the Aravalli Hills into Three Sections. Section of Country. Sub-division. Station. Number of Years taken, ending 1881. Average Rainfall in Inches. I. Eastern or j North . . . Bhartpur . . 14 24-8 fertile j South . . . Jhalra Patan . 11 38-4 II. Central or \ hilly } Central . . . South Ajmere . Mewar . . 19 8 22'5 26 9 III. Western or J barren ) North . . . South Bikaner . . Jodhpur . . 4 8 I4-S13-8 IV. Exceptional ) elevation, > 4000 feet ) South Abu .... 22 64 In the summer, the sun's heat is much the same all over the Province, being, except in the high hills, great everywhere ; in the north-west, very great. Hot winds and dust-storms are experienced more or less throughout ; in the sandy half-desert tracts of the north they are as violent as in any part of India, while in the southerly parts they are tempered by hills, verdure, and water. In the winter, the climate of the north is much colder than in the lower districts, with hard frost and ice on the Bikaner borders ; and from the great dryness of the atmosphere in these inland countries, the change of temperature between day and night is sudden, excessive, and very trying. The heat, thrown off rapidly by the sandy soil, passes freely through the dry air, so that at night water may freeze in a tent where the thermometer marked 900 F. during the day. The following thermometrical readings relate to the year 1882: — Mount Abu (max. 76-9° F., min. 62°); Disa (max. 84° F., min. 57°); Erinpura (max. 92° F, min. 75°); Ajmere (max. 92° F., min. 34°); Nasirdbdd (max. 93° F., min. 80°); Jaipur (max. 95" R, min. 70°) ; Alwar (max. 86° F., min. 64°) ; Bikaner (max. 85° F, min. 70°); Udaipur (mean, 81° F.) ; Kotah (mean, 80° F.) ; Deoli (mean, 76° F.) ; and Tonk (mean, 78° F). The influence of these climatic conditions upon the general health may be shortly noticed. Among the climatic characteristics are an irregular, and in some parts a very scanty, rainfall ; excessive dry heat during one season of the year, and great variation of temperature dur in 424 RAJSHAHI. another ; vast sandy tracts in the north-west, an immense extent of salt deposit, and a water-supply in parts very deficient, brackish, not good for drinking, and sometimes failing altogether. The epidemic diseases which might be expected, and which actually do prevail, are principally of the paroxysmal or malarious type. Cholera visitations occur most virulently in the eastern States ; for the sparsely populated and semi- desert nature of the western tracts, over which the winds travel freely, prevents the spread of cholera in that direction. The scanty and unwholesome nature of the water-supply, and the comparative poorness of the grain — bdjra (Holcus spicatus) — which forms the staple food of the people in the north-west, give rise to many dyspeptic maladies, and also to skin diseases. But the most formidable enemies of human life in Northern Rdjputdna are the frequently recurring dearths caused by failure of the always uncertain rainfall, which periodically desolate the country. Within the last thirty years, two very serious famines — in 1848-49, and in 1868-69 — have deeply affected the whole condition of the people ; the second famine was intensified by the ravages of locusts, which breed in the deserts by myriads. Of late years, important sanitary improvements have been effected in the cities of Udaipur, Alwar, Tonk, and Jaipur. Of vital statistics, there are yet none for Rdjputdna as a whole ; though some records have been made in Ajmere which indicate a very low death-rate. Notwithstanding its many drawbacks, and excepting some towns urgently needing sanitary reforms, Rdjputdna may be reckoned one of the healthiest parts of India, at least for natives. The total number of dispensaries in the Native States of Rdjputdna was 64 in December 1882. Ofthe patients treated, 18 per cent, were suffering from abscesses, boils, and other skin diseases ; 1 7 per cent, from malarial fever and spleen diseases ; 6 per cent, from respiratory diseases ; and 4 per cent, from bowel diseases. Cholera annually causes a large mortality, and small-pox annually recurs. The number of persons vaccinated was 51,826 in 1872; and 105,642 in 1882. Three military bodies are maintained in Rdjputdna — the Merwdrd Battalion, the Deoli Irregular Force, and the Mewar-Bhil Corps. In the last two, Minas and Bhils are chiefly enlisted. The Merwdrd Battalion numbers 600 men. Education is reported to be making fair progress. The Mayo College at Jaipur had 64 pupils in 1882, and an income of ^2900 in the same year. Female education is neglected throughout the States. R&jsh&hi. — Division or Commissionership under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, lying between 23° 49' and 27° 12' 45" n. lat, and between 88° 1' 50" and 89° 55' 30" e. long. It comprises the seven Districts of Dinajpur, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Bogra, Pabna, Darjiling, Jalpaiguri, all of which see separately. RAJSHAHI. 425 The Division is bounded on the north by the independent States of Sikkim and Bhutdn ; on the east by Goalpard District, Kuch Behar State, the Gdro Hills, Maimansingh and Dacca Districts ; on the south and south-west by the Ganges or Padma river, separating it from Faridpur, Nadiyd, and Murshiddbad Districts ; and on the west by Maldah and Purniah Districts, and the independent kingdom of Nepal. Area, 17,428 square miles. Population (1872) 7,380,777 ; (1881) 7,733,775, namely, males 3,925,710, and females 3,808,065, showing a total increase of 352,998, or 4-78 per cent, in nine years. The greatest increase was shown in the thinly populated Districts of Darjfling and Jalpdiguri, partly due to defective enumeration in 1872, and partly to immigration caused by the great development of the tea industry of late years. Number of towns 27, and of villages 28,827 ; number of houses, 1,285,874, namely, occupied 1,254,164, and un occupied 31,710. Average density of population, 4437 persons per square mile, varying from 1257 per square mile in Darjiling, to 710^2 per square mile in Pabnd. Number of towns and villages per square mile, i-66; persons per town or village, 268; number of houses per square mile, 73'8; persons per occupied house, 6'2. Classified according to sex and age, the population consists of — under 15 years, males 1,618,022, and females 1,494,299; total children, 3,112,321, or 40-2 per cent, of the population of the Division : 15 years and upwards, males 2,307,688, and females 2,313,766; total adults, 4,621,454, or 5 9 "8 per cent. Religion. — The bulk of the population are Muhammadans, the faith of Islam being professed by 4,885,165, or 63-1 per cent, ofthe total popu lation. Hindus number 2,818,858, or 36-5 percent. ; Buddhists, 19,379 5 Christians, 1806; Jains, 564; Brahmos, 22; Sikhs, 3; Jews, 2; and ' others,' chiefly non-Hindu aboriginal tribes, 7976. The total aboriginal population by descent, however, is returned at 1,240,062, or 16 per cent, of the total population. The most numerous of these are the Kochs, now completely Hinduized, and numbering 1,1 13,933. Though generally recognised as a low caste of Hindus, many of the higher class of Kochs assert a high religious rank and style themselves Rdjbdnsis, or of the royal line of Kuch Behar, the Raja of which is a Koch, for whom the Brdhmans have discovered a divine ancestry. The other Hinduized aboriginal tribes include the Bhumij, 7818, and the Bhuiya, 2121, who are all Hindus. Santdls number 8806, of whom 7360 are returned as Hindus, and 1446 as non-Hindus. The other aboriginal castes number 107,384, and are almost all Hindus by religion. Among the orthodox Hindus, Brdhmans number only 70,886; Rajputs, 14,891; Kayasths, 68,400; Baniyds, 43>33i; and Babhans, 6905. The lower or Sudra castes include— Kaibartta, 176,460; Chandal, 139,181; Tior, 135,254; Jaliyd, 84,103; Hari, 58,714; Napit, 55,799 ; 426 RAJSHAHI. Sunn', 49,646; Goald, 39,036; Kumbhdr, 33,271; Bagdi, 32,154; Madak, 30,933; Lohar, 29,037; Teli, 28,162; Tdntf, 26,771; Chamdr, 24,054; Barhai, 22,936; Jugi, 20,179; Kurmi, 13,460; Kahdr, 12,152; Mdli, 11,757; Mallah, 8830; Dhobi, 8684; Kapdli, 8695; Sadgop, 7517; Dom, 7216; Dosadh, 7056; and Barui, 6856. Caste-rejecting Hindus are returned as numbering 93,212, of whom 91,668 are Vaishnavs. The Muhammadan population according to sect are divided into — Sunnis, 4,739,293 ; Shids, 85,259 ; Wahdbi's, 863 ; and unspecified, 59,750. The Buddhists are almost entirely confined to Ddrjiling District, and the Jains are almost equally divided between Rangpur and Pabnd. The Christian community consists of 841 Europeans, 5 Americans, 4 Australians, 4 Africans, 153 Eurasians, 721 Natives, and 78 ' others.' They are thus classified — Protestant, sect unspecified, 193; Church of England, 681 ; Roman Catholic, 252; Church of Scotland, 156; Baptist, 196; and 'others,' 328. Town and Rural Population. — The principal towns in the Rajshdhi Division are Sirajganj, population (1881) 2 1,037 ; Rampur Beauleah, 19,228; Pabna, 15,267; Rangpur, 13,320; Dinajpub, 12,560; Barak- hata, 11,393; Bhogdabari, 10,892; and Dimla, 10,503. There are also 17 minor towns with between five and ten thousand inhabitants, containing an aggregate population of 123,079. The total urban popu lation thus disclosed, therefore, amounts to 237,279, or only 3^07 per cent, of that of the whole Division. Seven towns are municipalities, with a population of 120,513 souls. Total municipal income (1883-84), ^23,195, of which ^11,019 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, is. 9|d. per head of municipal population. Of the 28,854 towns and villages in the Rajshdhi Division, 17,778 contain less than two hundred inhabitants ; 7363 from two to five hundred ; 2572 from five hundred to a thousand ; 909 from one to two thousand ; 149 from two to three thousand ; 58 from three to five thousand ; and 25 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the Census Report classifies the male popu lation under the following six principal headings: — (1) Professional class, including civil and military, 56,931; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc., 105,144 ; (3) commercial class, includ ing bankers, merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 128,226; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 1,871,495; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, including all artisans, 226,550; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising all general labourers and male children, 1,537,364. Administration. — For administrative, fiscal, and police purposes, the seven Districts of the Rdjshdhf Division are further split up into 15 Sub-divisions and 74 police circles (thdnds). The Sub - divisional RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. 427 system has not yet been introduced into Bogra and Dindjpur Dis tricts. The whole is under the direct supervision of a Commissioner, subordinate to whom are 29 civil judges and 52 stipendiary magistrates of all grades. The six main items of Government revenue in 1883-84 aggregated ,£723,807, made up as follows :— Land revenue, ,£492,619; excise, .£64,633; stamps, .£104,976; registration, ^6405; road cess, ;£44>I55 ; and municipal taxes, .£11,019. The land revenue is derived from 5437 separate estates, and is paid by 30,956 registered pro prietors; average payment from each estate, .£90, 12s., or by each proprietor, ,£15, 18s. 3d. The total regular police force in 1883 numbered 2489, of whom 264 were employed on town or municipal duty, maintained at a total cost of ,£48,174. There is also a village watch or rural police force, consisting in 1883 of 17,331 chaukiddrs, and maintained by the villagers and landholders at an estimated cost in money or lands of ,£69,827. The principal educational institutions are the College and Madrasa at Rdmpur Beauleah, and a zild school at the head-quarters of each District ; the Doveton College and St. Paul's School at Darji'ling, and a school at Karsiang, the last three being for European or Eurasian boys. The total number of inspected primary schools in the Division in 1883-84 was 3319, attended by 79,974 pupils. The Census Report of 1881 returned 98,630 boys and 3825 girls as under instruction. There were also 201,831 males and 6266 females returned in the same year as able to read and write, but not under instruction. Medical relief is afforded by 37 hospitals and dispensaries, which were attended in 1883 by 2014 in-door and 121,298 out-door patients. The total number of registered deaths in 1883 amounted to 171,436, or a death-rate of 22^17 per thousand ofthe population. [For further parti culars and details, see the separate District articles under the headings Dinajpur, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Bogra, Pabna, Darjiling, and Jalpaiguri.] Rajshahi. — British District occupying the south-western corner of the Rajshdhi Division, under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. It lies between 24° 3' and 24° 59' n. lat, and between 88° 20' 45" and 89° 23' 30'' e. long., the Ganges river forming the continuous southern boundary. Area, 2361 square miles. Population (1881) 1,338,638. Bounded on the north by Dindjpur and Bogra ; on the east by Bogra and Pabna ; on the south by the Ganges and Nadiya District ; and on the west by Maldah and Murshidabad. The administrative head quarters are at Rampur Beauleah on the Ganges, which is also the residence of the Commissioner of the Rdjshdhi Division. Physical Aspects. — Rdjshdhi District presents the usual appearance of a recent deltaic formation, being one uniform alluvial plain, seamed with old river beds and studded with wide marshes. The general level 428 RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. of green paddy-fields is only broken by the raised village sites, and the groves of trees in which the villages are embowered. In the north-west, bordering on the Districts of Maldah and Dindjpur, is a small tract of comparatively undulating ground, where the soil is a stiff red clay and the low jungle of brushwood is yet unreclaimed. Towards the east, the marshes increase in number and size, until they merge in the great Chalan bil on the District boundary. The river system is composed of the network of streams and water courses, which anticipate the confluence of the main channels of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. The Ganges itself only fringes the southern boundary of the District, from below its junction with the Mahdnandd, which latter river also borders the District for a few miles. Its two most important offshoots are the Narad and Bardl, which finally mingle their waters with those of the Atrdi. The chief representatives of the Brahmaputra system are the Atrdi and Jamund, both navigable throughout the year for small cargo boats. The drainage of Rdjshdhi District is not carried off by means of its rivers, but through the chains of marshes and swamps, which lie for the most part below the level of the river banks. The Chalan bil is, in fact, a great reservoir for the surplus water-supply of the whole surrounding country. It has open connections with all the rivers and watercourses, which here lose their identity ; and during the rains it swells till it covers a total area of about 120 square miles. The discharge is from the southern extremity into the Brahmaputra. No artificial canals exist in Rdjshdhi, and none are needed. Embankments have been erected to protect the station of Rdmpur Beauleah, which is exposed to the full force of the Ganges floods. Reclamation of river-banks and marshes, with the object of cultivating the finer varieties of rice and other crops, is only carried on to a very slight extent in Rdjshdhi. A late Collector states that the marshes in which reeds grow indigenously, and the coarse boro rice is cultivated, are very profitable in their present state, and he is doubtful whether their reclamation would increase the value of the land. Long-stemmed rice, which grows with the rise of the water to a height of 20 feet or upwards, is extensively cultivated in the low-lying lands and swamps. Reeds and canes grow wild in almost all the marshes, but are not cultivated. No revenue-yielding forests are situated in Rajshdhi. A large portion of the north-western angle is covered with brushwood, interspersed with occasional trees, and a small amount of charcoal is made there by Dhangars — an aboriginal tribe from the western Districts of Bengal. The jungle products consist of a little honey and beeswax collected by Dhangars. There are no large uncultivated pasture-grounds in the District, nor does any class of the population live by pasturing cattle in the jungle. RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. 429 Wild Animals. — Among wild beasts, tigers are to be found, especially in the country around the Chalan bil, and in the jungle tract in the north-west bordering on Maldah ; but they are nowhere numerous. Leopards are abundant and destructive. A few herds of wild buffaloes are also found. Bears and wolves do not exist in the District. Among smaller animals are the tiger-cat, civet-cat, fox, jackal, hog-deer, and wild hog. The principal game birds met with in the District are snipe, teal, many species of wild duck, for which the Chalan bil is a great place of resort ; the francolin or black partridge, a few pea-fowl, the floriken, etc. Fish abound in all the rivers and tanks, and nearly all the rural population engage in fishing to a greater or less extent. It has been estimated that the value in the fisheries in the Ganges alone, within Rdjshdhi District, is about ^20,000 a year. History. — Rdjshdhi presents a typical example of the process by which a native zaminddri has been moulded into a British District. When the East India Company obtained possession of the diwdni or financial administration of Bengal in 1765, the wealthiest landholder with whom they were brought into direct relations was the Brahman Rdjd of Nattor, Rdmjdn, the first of the present family. His official position was not of old standing, for it only dated from 1725; but the purity of his caste, his lavish charity, and the immense area of his revenue collections, caused him to be regarded as one of the first Hindus in the Province. His estate was known as Rdjshdhi ; and the same name was adopted for the British District, whose original bound aries were conterminous with the estate. In those days Rdjshdhi seems to have extended from Bhdgalpur on the west to Dacca on the east, and to have included a large sub-division called Nfj Chakla Rdjshdhi, on the south bank of the Ganges, which stretched across Murshiddbad and Nadiya as far as the frontiers of Bfrbhum and Bardwdn. The total area was estimated at 12,909 square miles, or about five times the size of the present District ; and the land revenue was sikkd Rs. 2,702,400, or .£292,760. The territory is thus described by Mr. J. Grant, in his Analysis of the Finances of Bengal, dated 1786: — 'Rdjshdhi', the most unwieldy, extensive zaminddri in Bengal, or perhaps in all India; intersected in its whole length by the great Ganges or its lesser branches, with many other navigable rivers and fertilizing waters; producing within the limits of its jurisdiction at least four-fifths of all the silk, raw or manufactured, used in or exported from the Empire of Hindustan, with a superabundance of all the other richest productions of nature and art to be found in the warmer climates of Asia, fit for commercial purposes ; enclosing in its circuit, and benefited by the industry and population of, the over grown capital of Murshiddbad, the principal factories of Kasfmbazar, Beauleah, Kumdr-khdli, etc. ; and bordering on almost all the other 430 RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. great provincial cities, manufacturing towns, and public markets of the subah or Governorship.' But the necessities of British administration soon introduced a series of changes, which led to the gradual breaking up of this great District. On the one hand, it was found that the power or the disposition of the Rdja was unequal to the duty of collecting promptly the land-tax ; and, on the other hand, the demands of civil and criminal justice became too pressing to be satisfied from a single centre. The records of these early times are full of, two classes of complaints, referring to constant arrears of revenue, and to the general disturbed condition of the country. Unfortunately, also, for the Nattor family, the estate fell at this time under the management of a woman, the celebrated Rani Bhawani, whose charitable grants of rent-free land permanently impoverished the ancestral possessions. The Government was com pelled to take the collections out of her hands ; and for a succession of years the zaminddri was either held Mas, i.e. under direct management, or farmed out to revenue contractors. At the Decennial Settlement in 1790, the adopted son of the Rani was permitted to engage for the whole District, at a permanent assessment of sikkd Rs. 2,328,101, or £'252,211. The strict regulations, however, which were then introduced for the recovery of revenue arrears by sale of the defaulter's estate were constantly called into requisition against the Raja. Portion after portion of his hereditary property was put up to auction, and knocked down either to strangers from Calcutta, or to the dependants whom his own laxity had enriched. At the present time, the Nattor family only ranks third or fourth in Rdjshdhi in respect of wealth, while ail the outlying estates have been irretrievably lost. Meanwhile, a second set of circumstances was tending to dissolve the integrity of the original District. At first, the attempt was made to ad minister justice through a single Collector-Judge and Magistrate, with two Assistants, one stationed at Murddbdgh near Murshiddbad, and the other at the local capital of Nattor. The first change took place as early as 1793, when the extensive tract lying south of the Ganges was taken from the parent District, and divided among the adjoining jurisdictions of Murshiddbdd, Nadiya, and Jessor. This transfer left to Rajshdhi the irregular triangle lying at the confluence of the Ganges and Brahma putra, with those two rivers as its natural boundaries. But complaints of the frequency of crime in parts remote from the central authority still continued to force themselves upon the notice of Government, and it was recognized that the evil could only be remedied, by the creation of new administrative Districts. In 1813 the present District of Maldah was constituted out of a neglected tract, towards which Rdjshdhi, Dinajpur, and Purniah each contributed their share. Bogrd was formed in a similar manner in 1821 ; and in 1832 the limits of RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. 431 Rajshdhi were finally fixed very much at their present lines, by the erection of Pabna and the adjoining police circles into an independent jurisdiction. The only marks of its former pre-eminence that Rdjshdhi now retains are to be found in the fact that remote estates in other Districts still exercise the privilege of paying their land revenue into the parent treasury, and in the preservation of the old name for the Commissionership or Division of Rdjshdhi. Population. — Various attempts were made in early times to estimate the population. In 1784, when the District was at its largest, the number was put at 2,000,000 souls ; in 1801, after the separation of the trans-Gangetic tract, at 1,500,000. In 1834, when the size of the District was probably not very different from what it is at present, an official enumeration showed a total of 1,064,965 ; and a more exact Census two years later raised the number to 1,121,745. The Census of 1872 disclosed a population of 1,310,729 persons, on an area corresponding with that of the present District (2361 square miles). The last Census in 188 1 returned the population at 1,338,638, showing a slight increase of 27,909, or 2^14 per cent, in the nine years between 1872 and i88r. This trivial advance denotes a stagnant population, and an absence of immigration. The decline of the silk manufacture has gradually driven the population from the west and south of the District, where the mulberry tree was grown in large quantities, to the north-east, where the increasing value of the rice crop, coupled with the improvement of the soil from the gradual silting up of the Chalan bil, has given a stimulus to agriculture. The general results arrived at by the Census of 1881 may be sum marized as follows: — Area of District, 2361 square miles; number of towns 3, and of villages 5156; number of houses, 233,165, namely, occupied 224,678, and unoccupied 8487. Total population, 1,338,638, namely, males 660,226, and females 678,412. Average density of population, 259 persons per square mile; towns and villages per square mile, 2*19; persons per town or village, 259; houses per square mile, 987 ; persons per occupied house, 5 '96. Classified according to sex and age, the population consists of — under 15 years of age, males 282,028, and females 259,912; total children, 541,940, or 40-5 per cent, of the District population : 15 years and upwards, males 378,198, and females 418,500; total adults, 796,698, or 59-5 per cent. Religion. — In the religious classification, Muhammadans are returned as numbering 1,049,700, or 78-4 per cent. ; Hindus, 288,749, or 21-6 per cent; Christians, 121; Buddhists, 55; Jains, 4; Jews, 2; and 'others,' 7. It was one ofthe surprises first revealed by the Census of 1872, that the Musalmdns constitute more than three-fourths of the inhabitants. By sect they are returned as under— Sunnis, 1,040,997; Shids, 5459; 432 RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. and unspecified, 3244. There can be no doubt that in Rdjshdhi, as in the rest of the Gangetic delta, the great bulk of the people are of aboriginal descent, and that on the Muhammadan invasion of Bengal, the majority willingly adopted the conquering faith of Islam, in prefer ence to remaining out-castes beyond the pale of exclusive Hinduism. The Census Report shows the non-Muhammadan aboriginal population as numbering 20,184, all of whom, except 7, are returned as Hindus. The Muhummadans almost entirely belong to the cultivating class, and engage little in trade. It is stated that Fardizi fanaticism is not very prevalent among them, and that at the present day Isldm gains no proselytes from the Hindus. Among Hindus proper, the Brdhmans number 16,523, including many of the largest landholders; Rdjputs, 1233; Kdyasths, 8378; and Baniyds, 3732. Among the Sudra or lower Hindu castes (many of which contain a large aboriginal element), by far the most numerous is the Kaibartta, with 63,134 members; the despised Chanddl comes next with 29,792; followed by the Jaliya, 13,774; Goald, 9273; Ndpit, 8462; Kumbhdr, 6991; Teli, 6284; Sunn', 6252; Chamdr, 5709; and Lohdr, 5119. Caste-rejecting Hindus (Vaishnavs) number 17,081. The small Christian population consists of 40 Europeans and Americans, 2 Eurasians, 71 Natives, and 8 'others.' The native Christians include 34 converts in connection with the Presbyterian Mission at Rdmpur Beauleah. The Brdhma Samdj has a com paratively numerous following among the Government officials at Beauleah, who have built for themselves a substantial meeting-house. At the same town there is also a wealthy community of Jain merchants. Town and Rural Population. — The population is almost entirely rural. Only three towns are returned in the Census Report of 188 1 as each containing more than 5000 inhabitants — Rampur Beauleah, population 19,228 ; Nattor, 9094 ; and Patiya, 6249 ; showing a total urban population of 34,571, or 2-6 per cent. It is noticeable that in these towns the Muhammadans are considerably below the general proportion. The only municipalities are Rampur Beauleah and Ndttor. Municipal income (1883-84), ,£2709, of which .£2480 was derived from taxation ; average incidence of taxation, is. 8|d. per head of the population (29,118) within municipal limits. The people show no tendency whatever to gather even into large villages. Goddgdri on the Ganges, and Ndogdon on the Jamund, conduct a considerable river traffic; Ldlpur, also on the Ganges, is the centre of a flourishing industry in jewellery and brass-ware; and several other places have local importance as the sites of frequented temples and mosques. Of the 5159 towns and villages in the District, 2926 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 1603 from two to five hundred; 515 RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. 433 from five hundred to a thousand; 103 from one to two thousand; 6 from two to three thousand; 3 from three to five thousand; and 3 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. The building materials used in the construction of the dwelling- houses, both of shopkeepers and cultivators, consist, in the rural parts, simply of bamboos for the uprights and rafters, straw mats or reeds for the walls, thatching grass, and a little string. In the towns and larger villages, however, almost all the respectable shopkeepers have brick houses ; and even those in poorer circumstances have tiled roofs. Each house consists of as many rooms as there are married members of the family, besides a cooking shed, cow shed, rice-husking shed, and a store-room, -which is also used for the reception of guests, and as a sleeping apartment for the unmarried male members of the family The food consumed in the household of a well-to-do shopkeeper consists of rice, pulse, fish, vegetables, fruit, oil, salt, milk, clarified butter (ghi), curds, sugar, and some sweetmeats. That of a cultivator in ordinary circumstances consists of the same, with the exception of milk, ghi, sugar, and sweetmeats. The estimated cost of living for a middle-sized family of the cultivating class is returned at about 15s. per month. This represents the cost which would have to be incurred if the articles had to be purchased in the market. The actual cost, however, is much less, as the cultivator grows rice and vegetables for his own consump tion, and also catches most of the fish consumed. As regards occupation, the Census of 1881 returns the male popula tion under the following six main headings : — (1) Professional class, including civil and military, 10,379; (2) domestic servants, lodging- house keepers, etc., 14,635 ; (3) commercial class, including merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 27,055 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 299,797 ; (5) manufacturing and industrial class, including artisans, 42,687 ; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers and male children, 265,673. Agriculture, etc. — Rice constitutes the staple crop throughout the District. Of the total food supply, the dman or winter crop, grown on low lands, forms from 70 to 90 per cent. ; the dus or early crop, grown on high lands, from 5 to 20 per cent. ; the boro or marsh crop is com paratively insignificant. In addition, wheat, barley, and Indian corn are °rown to a small extent ; and various pulses and oil-seeds are raised from the dus rice-fields during the cold season. The crops grown in connection with European enterprise are indigo and mulberry for silk worms, but both are now on the decline. In 1872, when the demand for jute was at its highest, the area under this fibre was about 14,000 acres, with an out-turn of more than 150,000 cwts. In the extreme north of the District there is a small tract on which is grown the gdnjd (Cannabis sativa), which supplies the smokers of this drug throughout vol. xi. 2 E 434 RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. a great part of India. No adequate reason is assigned for the extremely limited nature of this cultivation. The total area under gdnjd is estimated at 400 acres, and the annual produce at 7000 cwts., valued at ,£20,000, which is nearly all exported. The demand for the drug is kept down by repeated augmentations in the rate of the excise duty. Manure is but little used throughout Rdjshdhi. Irrigation is practised in the case of rice -fields, the water being conducted from tanks or natural watercourses by means of small trenches. Land is hardly ever permitted to lie fallow ; at most, one crop is occasionally sub stituted for another. Spare land is only to be seen in the elevated tract to the north-west of the District. The average produce of an acre of good rice land, renting at from 6s. to 9s., is 20 cwts., valued at £1, 16s. In the eastern part of the District, a second crop of pulses or oil-seeds is raised from the dus rice-fields, which yields from 4 to 6 cwts. per acre, worth from 18s. to £1, 4s. The lowest rate of rent is 3s. per acre; the highest is 18s., paid for mulberry, sugar-cane, and garden lands. Prior to the Decennial Settlement of 1790, the rent paid for ordinary lands was under is. an acre. There is but little pecu liarity in the land tenures of the District, except the small number of patni or permanent under-leases. A few large zamindars, of whom the Rdjd of Nattor still ranks as the most respected, though no longer the most wealthy, hold the greater part of the soil in their own manage ment. A cultivator's holding in Rdjshdhi exceeding 33 acres in extent would be considered a very large farm, and anything below 3^ acres a very small farm. A farm comprising about 17 acres would be considered a fair -sized, comfortable holding for a husbandman. A single pair of bullocks cannot plough more than between 5 and 6 acres. A holding of about 5 acres in extent, although it would not make a cultivator as well off as a respectable retail shopkeeper, would enable him to live quite as well as a man receiving money wages of 16s. a month. The produce of a farm of this extent is ordinarily worth about ,£12 a year. Very few cultivators of Rdjshdhi are continually in debt; but most of them incur liabilities to the village merchant at seed-time in the shape of advances of grain, which are repaid with interest after the rice crop has been harvested. The great majority of the husbandmen of the District hold their lands with a right of occupancy, the proportion of these cultivators to ordinary tenants-at-will being estimated to be as twenty to one. The number of maurusi jotddrs, or husbandmen holding their lands in perpetuity and at a permanently fixed rate of rent, is, however, very small ; and the Collector doubts whether they amount to even 1 per cent, of the general body of husbandmen cultivating with occupancy rights. No class of small RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. 435 proprietors exists in Rdjshdhi District, who own, occupy, and cultivate their hereditary lands themselves, without either a zaminddr or superior landlord of any sort above them, or a sub-tenant or labourer of any sort below them. The ordinary rates of wages have approximately doubled within the past ten years. A common coolie now receives 3d. a day; an agricul tural labourer, 3fd. ; a blacksmith or carpenter, 9d. ; a mason or brick layer, 6d. It does not appear whether the prices of food-grains have risen in proportion. In 1870, common rice sold at from 2s. to 2s. 8d. per cwt. ; wheat at 5s. 5A The highest price reached by rice in 1866, the year of the Orissa famine, was 13s. 4d. per cwt. The average price of common rice for five years ending 1882-83 was 20J sers per rupee, or 5s. 6d. per cwt. ; wheat, 16 sers per rupee, or 7s. per cwt. ; and pulses, 17I sers per rupee, or 6s. 4d. per cwt. The year 1883-84 was one of deficient rainfall, and prices ranged somewhat higher than the average, common rice being returned at 16^ sers per rupee, or 6s. io^d. per cwt. ; and wheat at i6| sers per rupee, or 6s. 9d. per cwt. Rdjshdhi is liable, to some extent, to both the calamities of flood and drought. The inundation which covers the country every year with water is usually only of such a character as to fertilize the soil ; and the growing rice crop can keep pace with a moderate daily rise of the water. But on two or three occasions within the memory of the present generation, violent floods have injuriously affected the general harvest. On the other h:md, in 1873, the deficient and capricious rainfall pro duced an amount of suffering which required the institution of relief works by Government By help of the Ganges and the Northern Bengal Railway, the District is sufficiently well provided with means of communication to prevent a local scarcity from intensifying into famine. No system of irrigation works or embankments has ever been proposed for adoption. If the price of rice were to rise in January, after the dman harvest, to 6s. 8d. per cwt, that should be regarded as a sign of approaching distress. Manufactures, etc. — In former times, the preparation of indigo and the winding of silk were largely conducted by European capital ; but both these industries are now on the decline. The annual out-turn of indigo in 1870 was estimated at about 700 cwts., from three factories; in 1881-82, indigo manufacture had decreased to less than 600 cwts., valued at ,£19,652. The European and native silk filatures which produced about 400,000 lbs. of raw silk in 1870, valued at ,£372,000, had by 1881-82 decreased to 110,000 lbs. of raw silk, valued at .£82,333. Up to the time when the Company abandoned its private trade in 1835, the head factory at Rampur Beauleah was among the most flourishing centres of sericulture in Bengal. A little of the native-wound silk is woven into a coarse cloth for local use ; and 436 RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. there is a special manufacture in certain villages of brass and bell-metal ware of a peculiarly fine quality. The position of the great majority of the manufacturing classes is said to be about the same as that of the poorer cultivators and day- labourers. Their ordinary wages vary from 8s. to £i, according to the skill required. For really good skilled labour, the rates of wages range, according to the particular class of work, from £i, ios. to £2 a month, and even higher. The manufacture of raw silk and indigo is conducted by capitalists entirely by means of hired labour. As to other manufactures, there is no well-marked distinction between capital and labour. Weavers work in their own houses, either on their own account or to order. Artisans either work for masters abroad, at a fixed rate of wages, or else carry on their work in their homes, and sell their productions to merchants. Advances to cultivators for growing indigo are frequently made by the planters. Occasionally, also, mer chants make small money advances as loans to operatives, on the con dition that the articles manufactured shall be sold to them at a rate somewhat below the current market price. The total number of skilled workers, mechanics and artisans, in Rajshahi District in 1881, was returned at 27,079 male adults. River traffic is brisk in all parts of the District. The chief marts are Rdmpur Beauleah and Goddgdri on the Ganges ; and Ndogdon, Kali- ganj, and Buridah on the network of streams which lead through the Chalan bil into the Brahmaputra. The principal export is rice, together with some jute from the northern tracts, to which may be added silk, indigo, and gdnjd. The imports comprise piece-goods, salt, sugar, gram, brass-ware, kerosine oil, and spices. The local trade is conducted at bi-weekly markets, in the towns and larger villages, and at periodical religious gatherings. The registration returns of river traffic for 1876-77 showed a total export from Rdjshdhi valued at .£907,855, against imports valued at ^439,799. The greater portion of the traffic con verges at the railway stations of Godlanda and Kushtid, but there is some export of rice up the Ganges to Behar. The chief exports were — rice, 899,700 maunds of 82 lbs., and paddy, 394,500 maunds, valued together at ,£219,390 ; jute, 402,303 maunds, valued at ,£120,690 ; raw silk, 7784 maunds, valued at ^389,200; indigo, 1290 maunds, valuedat .£25,800. The imports comprised — European piece-goods, ^63,310; salt, 214,600 maunds, valued at ,£107,300; sugar, refined, 91,600 maunds — unrefined, 84,700 maunds, valued together at ,£143,910 ; coal and coke, 173,139 maunds. Of the local marts, the trade of Rdmpur Beauleah was valued at ,£342,019 exports, and ,£199,161 imports; Goddgdri, ^17,089 exports, and ^193 imports; Ndogdon, ^122,959 exports, and ;£34,378 imports. The single mart of Buridahd exported 206,000 maunds of jute. No systematic registration of District RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. 437 exports and imports is now maintained, and it is not possible to give any more recent trade statistics than those quoted above for 1876-77. The Northern Bengal State Railway, opened in 1877, intersects the whole District from south to north. In 1882, the total length of the District roads (exclusive of village cart-tracks) was returned at 279 miles, maintained at a cost of ,£10,803. But the chief means of communi cation are the natural watercourses, by which nearly every village in the north and east of the District can be approached during the rainy season. Administration. — In 1870-71, the net revenue of Rdjshdhi District amounted to ,£136,808, towards which the land-tax contributed ,£103,456, or 75 per cent. ; the net expenditure was ,£46,438, or just one-third of the revenue. It would be misleading to compare these totals with those for earlier years; but it may be mentioned that in 1793-94, when the area of the District was fivefold larger than it is now, the net revenue was ,£175, 734, and the net expenditure ^£19,815. In 1883-84, the six main items of Government revenue aggregated .£123,099, made up as follows : — Land revenue, ,£88,584 ; excise, ,£8500 ; stamps, ,£15,128; registration, .£882; road cess, .£7525; and municipal taxes, ,£2480. In 1883-84 there were 1409 estates in the District, owned by 6059 registered proprietors, the average Govern ment revenue paid by each estate being ,£62, 17s. 5d., or by each proprietor, .£14, 12s. 5d. In 1883 there were 3 covenanted officers stationed in the District, and 9 magisterial and 5 civil and revenue courts open. For administrative and police purposes, Rdjshdhi is divided into 3 Sub-divisions and 13 thdnds or police circles, as follows : — (1) Sadr or Rdjshdhi Sub-division, containing the six police circles of Beauleah, Tdnor, Goddgdri, Putiya, Charghat, and Bdghmdra ; (2) Ndogdon Sub division, with the three police circles of Ndogdon, Mandd, and Pdnch- gdon; and (3) Ndttor Sub-division, with the four police circles of Nattor, Singrd, Burigram, and Ldlpur. In 1883, the regular police force numbered 426 men of all ranks, of whom 67 were employed on town or municipal duties, maintained at a total cost of .£7880. In addition, there was a rural police or village watch maintained by the villages and landholders, numbering 4683 men, and costing an estimated sum, in money or lands, of ^16,995. The total machinery, therefore, for the protection of person and property consisted of 5109 officers and men, giving 1 policeman to every 0-46 square mile of the area or to every 262 persons of the population. The estimated total cost was .^24,875, averaging ^£io, 10s. 8|d. per square mile, and 4d. per head of popula tion. In that year, the total number of persons in Rdjshdhi District convicted of any offence, great or small, was 1805, being 1 person to 438 RAJSHAHI DISTRICT. every 742 of the population. By far the greater proportion of the convictions were for petty offences. The District contains one jail, which has recently been converted into a central jail for the neighbouring Districts, and two Sub-divisional lock-ups. In 1883, the average daily number of prisoners was 677, of whom 36 were females; the labouring convicts averaged 653. The above figures show 1 person in jail to every 1977 of the population. Education has widely spread of recent years, chiefly owing to the • reforms of Sir G. Campbell, by which the benefit of the grant-in-aid rules has been extended to the pdthsdlds or village schools. In 1856 there were only 2 Government-inspected schools in the District, attended by 209 pupils; by 1870 these numbers had grown to 174 schools and 4862 pupils. In the latter year, the total expenditure on education was ,£5225, towards which Government contributed ,£2714. In 1876 the schools had further increased to 319, and the pupils to 10,051. By 1883-84, nearly all the schools in the District had been brought under the Government system of education. In that year the primary schools alone, under inspection by the Education Department, numbered 605, with 16,194 pupils. In 1881, the Census returned 14,265 boys and 933 girls as under instruction ; besides 29,914 males and 1458 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. The chief educa tional establishment is the Rdjshdhi College at Rdmpur Beauleah, with its attached collegiate school, established through the liberality of a local zdminddr, who has endowed it with an estate worth ,£500 a year. At the end of 1883-84, the Rdjshdhi College had 81, and the collegiate school 414 pupils on its roll. Medical Aspects. — The climate of Rdjshdhi does not differ from that common to all Lower Bengal. The rainy season sets in about the middle of June and lasts till the end of October. The annual rainfall for a period of 25 years averaged 61-36 inches, the monthly mean being as follows : — January, 0-30 inch ; February, 1-07 inch ; March, 1-22 inch ; April, 1-87 inch; May, 5-61 inches; June, 11-22 inches; July, 12-07 inches; August, 11-25 inches; September, n-i6inches; October, 5-23 inches; November, 0-31 inch; and December, 0-05 inch. The year 1883 was one of greatly deficient rainfall, and only 33-06 inches fell, or little over half the average. In 1868 the mean temperature for the year was returned at 78-3° F. No later thermometrical statistics are available. The endemic diseases include fevers, both remittent and intermittent ; hepatic affections, splenic enlargement, dysentery, and diarrhcea. It is said that cholera is never absent from the neighbourhood of the Chalan bil, whence it occasionally spreads throughout the District, being pro pagated by contagion at the religious gatherings. Outbreaks, also, of epidemic small-pox are not uncommon. The vital statistics for 1883 RAJSHAHI— RAMACHANDRAPURAM. 439 show 43,990 registered deaths in the year, being a death-rate of 32-86 per thousand. There were, in 1883, seven charitable dispensaries in the District, at which 340 in-door and 21,855 out-door patients were treated during the year. [For further information regarding Rdjshdhi, see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. VV. Hunter, vol. viii. pp. 1-126 (London, Triibner & Co., 1877); the Bengal Census Reports for 1872 and 1 88 1 ; and the several annual Bengal Administration and Depart mental Reports up to 1884.] Rajshahi. — Sadr or head-quarters Sub-division of Rdjshdhi District, Bengal. Lat 24° 3' 15" to 24° 56' n., and long. 88° 21' to 89° 11' e. Area, 944 square miles, with 2 towns and 2215 villages; number of houses, 101,418, namely, occupied 97,683, and unoccupied 3735. Total population 599,547, namely, males 297,166, and females 302,381. Average density of population, 635 persons per square mile ; towns and villages, 2-35 per square mile; persons per village, 270; houses per square mile, 107-4; persons per occupied house, 6-14. Classified according to religion, Muhammadans number 484,816; Hindus, II4)562 ; Christians, 101 ; Buddhists, 55 ; Jains, 4 ; Jews, 2; and non-Hindu aborigines, 7. This Sub -division comprises the 6 police circles (thdnds) of Rdmpur Beauleah, Goddgdri, Tanor, Bdghmdra, Putiya, and Charghat. In 1884 it contained (including head-quarters courts) 4 civil and 5 criminal courts ; a regular police numbering 257 men of all ranks, and a village watch or rural police of 1472 chaukiddrs. Rakabdev. — Village in the State of Udaipur, Rdjputdna. Situated 45 miles south of Udaipur city, and 10 north of Khairwdrd. The famous Jain temples of Rakabdev, sacred to Adinath or Rakabndth, are supposed to have been built in 1375, over the spot where the effigy of Rakabndth — brought originally from Dungarpur in Baroda in 1260 — was discovered buried in the ground by a devout banker, to whom the fact was revealed in a dream. The temples are famed for their sculpture, and are a great resort for pilgrims from Gujarat and elsewhere. Raldang (or West Kailds). — Mountain in Bashahr (Bassahir) State. Punjab. Lat. 31° 29' n., long. 78° 21' e. Thornton states that it rises from the Kundwdr valley, and divides the basin of the Baspa from that of the Tidang. The highest peak (according to Thornton) has ar elevation of 21,103 feet above sea-level. Ramachandrapuram. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Godavari Dis trict, Madras Presidency. Area, 400 square miles. Population (1881) 220,780, namely, 109,427 males and 111,353 females, dwelling in 163 villages, containing 39,559 houses. Hindus numbered 217,221; Muhammadans, 3505 ; Christians, 48; and 'others,' 6. Land revenue (1883), ,£84,754. 44° RAMALLAKOTA—RAMANMALAI. This tdluk, the largest and most important in the District, is a portion of the amply irrigated Goddvari delta. Six anicut main channels run through it, all of them admitting of navigation. Lands thus watered pay a cess of 8s. an acre for wet crops, 4s. for dry crops, and 1 6s. when water is supplied all the year round. The tdluk is productive and healthy, except in the cold season, when it is feverish. Criminal courts, 2 ; police circles (thdnds), 8 ; regular police, 76 men. The head-quarters of the tdluk are at Ramachandrapuram, situated in the centre of the tdluk, and north of the Mandapeta canal. Popula tion (1881) 2992, occupying 560 houses. Ramallakota. — Tdluk of Karndl (Kurnool) District, Madras Presidency. Area, 834 square miles. Population (1881) 94,698, namely, 48,393 males and 46,305 females, dwelling in 1 town and 106 villages, containing 19,029 houses. Hindus number 77,138; Muhammadans, 17,005; Christians, 548; and 'others,' 7. Civil courts, 2 ; criminal courts, 2 ; police circles, 13 ; regular police, 297 men. Land revenue, .£15,158. Ramanada-puram (or Ramnad). — Chief town of Ramnad zaminddri in Madura District, Madras Presidency. — See Ramnad. Ramandriig. — Hill sanitarium in Sanddr State, Bellary District, Madras Presidency. — See Ramanmalai. Ramanka. — Petty State in the Gohelwdr pranth or division of Kdthidwdr, Bombay Presidency. Seven miles north of Dhola junction, on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Area, 2 square miles. Population (1881) 509. Rdmanka consists of one village, held by two separate shareholders. The revenue is estimated at .£150; tribute of ,£57 is paid to the Gaekwdr of Baroda, and ,£10 to the Nawdb of Jundgarh. Ramanmalai (Ramandriig, Rdmadurgam). — Hill sanitarium in Sanddr State, Bellary District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 15° 6' 30" n., long. 76° 30' 30" e. ; 38 miles west of Bellary town. Population (1881) 568. In the year 1846, the Madras Government obtained permission from the Chief of Sanddr to establish a Convalescent Depot for the European troops, serving in the Ceded Districts of Madras Presidency, on the plateau of Rdmandrug in the Sanddr territory. The station is built at a height of 3150 feet above the sea-level, 1660 above Bellary, and 1200 above the surrounding plain. The plateau is from a mile to a mile and a half long, by half a mile to three-quarters of a mile broad. The average temperature of the hill very much resembles that of Bangalore, but the climate is much more equable, and the variation of the thermometer less. From its solitary position, even in the hottest seasons, the air reaches it fresh, being rarified in its .passage over a lofty table-land. There are several well laid out riding-paths on both sides of the plateau, which afford from all points beautiful views of the RAMAS—RAMDR UG. 44 1 surrounding country. On the plateau itself there are upwards of 3 miles of broad level road practicable for vehicles. Many good bridle roads have been cut along the sides of the hills to the north and south. The depot can accommodate 60 single men and 10 families. The residents of Bellary have 15 houses on the plateau. ' Ramas.— Petty State in Mahi Kantha, Bombay Presidency. Esti mated area under cultivation, 2562 acres. Population (1881) 1745. The revenue is returned at ,£244 ; tribute of ,£15, 16s. is paid to the Gaekwdr of Baroda. The Chief of Ramds, Midh Kdld, is a Muham madan. Rambha. — Village in Ganjdm District, Madras Presidency. Situated on the banks of the Chilkd lake, and on the trunk road from Madras to Calcutta, about 23 miles north-east of Ganjdm town. Popu lation (1881) 3222, occupying 597 houses. A large two-storied house built in 1792 stands in a beautiful situation overlooking the lake. Post-office. Rambrai. — Petty State in the Khdsi Hills, under the presidency of a stem named U Amar Singh. Population (1881) 2202; revenue, ,£44. The products are rice, chillies, millet, Indian corn, ginger, job's tears, etc. Cotton cloth is woven. Ramdas. — Town and municipality in Ajndla tahsil, Amritsar (Umritsur) District, Punjab; situated in lat. 31° 58' N.,long. 74° 58' E., near the Kirran stream, 12 miles north-east of Ajndla town. Popula tion (188 1) 4498, namely, Muhammadans, 2549 ; Sikhs, 264; and Hindus, 1685. Number of houses, 959. Municipal income (1883-84), .£143, or an average of 7^d. per head. The town was founded by one Bddha, a disciple of Baba Nanak, the apostle of the Sikh faith, but derives its present name from Guru Ram Das. Hand some Sikh temple, to which the town owes its chief importance. School. Ramdrug. — Native State under the Political Agency of the Southern Maratha Country, Bombay Presidency. Bounded on the north by the Torgal Sub-division of Kolhapur State, on the south by Nargund in Dharwdr District, on the east by the Bddami Sub-division of Bijdpur District, and on the west by the Nawalgund Sub-division of Dhdrwdr District. Area, 140 square miles. Population (1872) 38,031 ; (1881) 29,570, namely, 14,576 males and 14,994 females, dwelling in 1 town and 37 villages, containing 6440 houses. Hindus number 27,623; Musalmdns, 1903; 'others,' 44. The general appearance of the country is that of a plain surrounded by undulating lands, and occasionally intersected by ranges of hills. The prevailing soil is rich black. The river Malprabha flows through the State, and is utilized for irrigation. Indian millet, wheat, gram, jodr, and cotton form the chief agricultural products. Coarse cotton 442 R AMD RUG TOWN— RAMESWARAM. cloth is the principal manufacture. The climate is the same as that of the Deccan generally; the heat from March to May is oppressive. The prevailing diseases are cholera, small-pox, and fever. Nargund and Rdmdrug, two strong forts in the Karndtik, were occupied by the Mardthds in their early struggles ; and by favour of the Peshwds, the ancestors of the present Rdmdrug family were placed in charge of them. About 1753 the estates yielded ,£24,725, and were required to furnish a contingent of 350 horsemen. They were held on these terms until 1778, when the country was brought under sub jection by Haidar Ah'. In 1784, Tipd Sultdn made further demands. These were resisted, and, in consequence, the fort of Rdmdrug was blockaded by Tipd. After a siege of seven months, Venkat Rao of Nargund surrendered, and, in violation of the terms of capitulation, was carried off a prisoner with his whole family into Mysore. On the fall of Seringapatam in 1799, Venkat Rdo was released; and the Peshwd restored to him Nargund and lands yielding ,£12,711, and granted to Rdm Rao the fort of Rdmdrug, with lands yielding ,£2600. The two branches of the family continued to enjoy their respective States till 1 810, when the Peshwd made a new division of the lands, in equal shares, to Venkat Rdo and Ndrdyan Rdo, the sons of Ram Rdo. On the fall of the Peshwd in 1818-19, the estates were continued to these two chiefs by an engagement. Nargund is now a lapsed State, being included in the Nawalgund Sub-division of Dharwdr District. In 1881-82, the chief of Rdmdrug, a Hindu of the Brahman caste, was a minor, and the State was under the direct management of British officers. The Rdjd ranks officially as a ' first-class ' Sardar in the Southern Maratha Country, and has power to try his own subjects for capital offences without the express permission of the Political Agent. He enjoys an estimated gross revenue of ,£12,360, and maintains a military force of 547 men. The family of the chief hold a title author izing adoption, and follow the rule of primogeniture. The State con tained in 1882-83, 9 schools, with a total of 591 pupils. The dispensary at Ramdrug was attended by 2805 patients in 1883. Ramdrug. — Chief town of Rdmdrug State, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 15° 56' 40'' n., long. 75" 20' 35" e. Population (1881) 6810, namely, Hindus, 6012; Muhammadans, 764; and Jains, 34. Rameswaram (incorrectly Ramisseram). — Island and town in Rdmnad zaminddri, Madura District, Madras Presidency. Lat 9° 17' 10" n., long. 79° 21' 55" e. Population of island (1871) 13,767; (1881) 17,854, namely, 9184 males and 8670 females, occupying 3193 houses in 9 villages. Hindus number 10,655 j Muhammadans, 561 1 ; and Christians, 1588. Rameswaram is a low sandy island, situated in the; Gulf of Manaar, the passage that separates the mainland of India from Ceylon. It is about 1 1 miles long by 6 wide, and was probably at one RAMESWARAM. 443 time connected with the mainland. The eastern half is merely a narrow strip of sand. Rdmeswaram island contains one of the most venerated Hindu shrines in India, founded, according to tradition, by Rdma himself. It is associated with Rdma's journey to Ceylon in search of Sftd, and plays an important part in the Rdmdyana. For centuries this temple has been the resort of thousands of pilgrims, who come from all parts of India through Rdmnad to the crossing ; and it is to their control of the passage from the mainland that the chiefs of Ramnad owe their hereditary title of Setupati, ' Lord of the Bridge or Causeway.' The island is to a great extent covered with babul (Acacia arabica) trees. Cocoa-nut palms and a few gardens make up all the culti vation. It is principally inhabited by Brdhmans and their followers, who are supported by the profits derived from the temples. South of the great temple is a fresh -water lake, about three miles in circumference. The great temple, or coil, stands on rising ground in the northern part ofthe island, in a quadrangular enclosure 657 feet broad by about 1000 feet long, and is entered by a gateway 100 feet high. The height ofthe temple is about 120 feet; and, with its majestic towers, its vast and gloomy colonnades, and its walls encrusted with carved work and statuary, it exhibits a grand example of the Dravidian style. The best and oldest portion is built of a dark and hard limestone, to which there is nothing similar in the rest of the building. Local tradition asserts that it was erected by the Vara Raja Sekkarar of Kandy, with stone cut and polished in Ceylon. The inner prdkdram or corridor is ascribed to the exertion and piety of an early Madura Ndyak; and it is known that the sokkatan, or magnificent mantapam outside, was the work of two of the Ramndd Setupatis. The stone of this latter building is a species of friable limestone quarried on the island, requiring a thick coat of plaster to preserve it from decay under the action of the sea-air. Its cost is said to have been defrayed by the seaport dues of all the coast towns of the estate during the year that it was building. The most striking features of the temple are the massiveness of the workmanship (slabs of 40 feet long being used in the doorways and ceilings), and the wonderful pillared halls which surround the inner shrine. Mr. James Fergusson, in his History of Eastern Architecture (ed. 1876), thus describes this celebrated shrine: — 'If it were proposed to select one temple which should exhibit all the beauties of the Dravidian style in their greatest perfection, and at the same time exemplify all its characteristic defects of design, the choice would almost inevitably fall upon that at Rdmeswaram. In no other temple has the same amount of patient industry been exhibited as here ; and in none, unfortunately, 444 RAMESWARAM. has that labour been so thrown away for want of a design appropriate to its display. It is not that this temple has grown by successive increments, like those last described ; it was begun and finished on a previously settled plan, as regularly and as undeviatingly carried out as at Tanjore, but on a principle so diametrically opposed to it, that while the temple at Tanjore produces an effect greater than is due to its mass or detail, this one, with double its dimensions and ten times its elaboration, produces no effect externally, and internally can only be seen in detail, so that the parts hardly in any instance aid one another in producing the effect aimed at. ' Externally, the temple is enclosed by a wall 20 feet in height, with 4 gopuras, one on each face, which have this peculiarity, that they alone, of all those I know in India, are built wholly of stone from the base to the summit. The western one alone, however, is finished. Those on the north and south are hardly higher than the wall in which they stand, and are consequently called the ruined gateways. Partly from their form, but more from the solidity of their construction, nothing but an earthquake could well damage them. They have never been raised higher, and their progress was probably stopped in the beginning of the last century, when Muhammadans, Mardthds, and other foreign invaders checked the prosperity of the land, and destroyed the wealth of the priesthood. The eastern facade has two entrances and two gopuras. The glory of the temple, however, is in its corridors. These extend to a total length of nearly 4000 feet. Their breadth varies from 20 feet to 30 feet of free floor space, and their height is apparently about 30 feet from the floor to the centre of the roof. Each pillar or pier is compound, and richer and more elaborate in design than those of the Pdrvati porch at Chidambaram, and certainly more modern in date. ' None of our English cathedrals are more than 500 feet long, and even the nave of St. Peter's is only 600 feet from the door to the apse. Here the side corridors are 700 feet long, and open into transverse galleries as rich in detail as themselves. These, with the varied devices and modes of lighting, produce an effect that is not equalled certainly anywhere in India. The side corridors are generally free from figure- sculpture, and consequently from much of tbe vulgarity of the age to which they belong, and, though narrower, produce a more pleasing effect. The central corridor leading from the sanctuary is adorned on one side by portraits of the Rdjds of Ramndd in the 17th century, and, opposite them, of their secretaries. Even they, how ever, would be tolerable, were it not that within the last few years they have been painted with a vulgarity that is inconceivable on the part of the descendants of those who built this fane. Not only these, but the whole of the architecture, has first been dosed with RAMESWARAM TO WN—RAMGANGA, WESTERN. 445 repeated coats of whitewash, so as to take off all the sharpness of detail, and then painted with blue, green, red, and yellow washes, so as to disfigure and destroy its effect to an extent that must be seen to be believed. ' The age of this temple is hardly doubtful. From first to last its style, excepting the old vimdna, is so uniform and unaltered, that its erection could hardly have lasted during a hundred years ; and if this is so, it must have been during the 17th century, when the Ramnad Rdjas were at the height of their independence and prosperity, and when their ally or master, Tirumala Nayak, was erecting buildings in the same identical style at Madura. It may have been commenced fifty years earlier (1550), and the erection of its gopuras may have extended into the 18th century, but these seem the possible limits of deviation. Being so recent, any one on the spot could easily ascertain the facts. They could, indeed, be determined very nearly from the photographs, were it not for the whitewash and paint which so disfigure the details as to make them almost unrecognisable.' The temple, its ceremonies, and its attendant Brdhmans are main tained from the revenue of 57 villages, yielding an annual income of about ,£4500, granted by former Rajas of the Rdmndd zaminddri. The lingam is supposed to have been placed here by Rama ; and the symbol is washed with Ganges water, which is afterwards sold. Rameswaram. — Town in Rdmndd zaminddri, Madura District, Madras Presidency; situated on the eastern shore of Rdmeswaram island. Population (1881) 6119, namely, Hindus, 5467; Muham madans, 236 ; and Christians, 416. Number of houses, 416. Ramganga, Eastern. — River in Kumaun District, North-Western Provinces. Rises on the southern slope ofthe main Himdlayan range, at an elevation of about 9000 feet above sea-level ; holds a generally southerly course for about 55 miles, and falls into the Sarju at Rdmeswar. The united stream often bears the name of Ramgangd as far as its junction with the Kali. Ramganga, Western. — River in Kumaun and Rohilkhand Divisions, North-Western Provinces, and in Hardoi District, Oudh. Rises among the outer Himalayas, in lat. 30° 6' N., and long. 79° 20' e. Flows for about 100 miles through the hills of Garhwdl and Kumaun, with a very rapid fall; enters the plains at Kdldgarh in Bijnaur (Bijnor) District, already a large river; 15 miles lower down it receives the Koh, a considerable tributary; thence passes into Moraddbdd District, through which it flows in a south-easterly direction, but with a very devious course through the alluvial lowland ; runs past the town of Moraddbdd, on its right bank ; enters the State of Rampur, which it crosses in the same general direction, with an equally tortuous course, into Bareilly (Bareli) District— here it becomes navigable during 446 RAMGARH COAL-FIELD AND HILL. the rains for country boats, but remains fordable during the dry season ; thence, flowing through Buddun into Shdhjahdnpur, it ceases to be fordable at Jaldldbdd, and becomes navigable for boats of considerable burden, which carry on a traffic in cereals and pulses, in the hands of traders from Cawnpur; it next crosses into the Oudh District of Hardoi, and finally joins the Ganges, nearly opposite Kanauj, after a total course of about 373 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Kusi, the Sanka, and the Deoha or Garah. During its whole course through the plains, the Ramgangd flows in a shifting and uncertain channel. It changed its bed about the middle of this century, so as to run into the Dajora and pass Bareilly city; but in the rains of 1871 it returned to its old channel, about 10 miles distant During floods, the river spreads out widely on either side, and deposits a fine alluvial mud ; though in places where the current runs fiercely, it leaves instead a layer of barren sand. Its waters are little used for purposes of irrigation. Ramgarh. — Coal-field in Hazdribdgh District, Bengal ; in the Ddmo- dar valley, near the old village of Ramgarh, whence the field takes its name. Its total area does not exceed 40 square miles ; the greatest length from east to west being 14 miles, and the greatest width from north to south about 8 miles. The southern boundary is formed by a fault ; and owing to the peculiar way in which this has cut off the rocks, it is extremely difficult, except in the case of the ironstone shales, to estimate with any degree of certainty the thickness of the several formations. The following is as near an approximation as can be made: — (1) Tdlcher series, 850 to 900 feet; (2) Ddmodar series, Bardkhar group, 3000 feet; ironstone shales group, 1200 feet; Rdnfganj group, unknown. The boulder conglomerate occurring at the base of the Tdlcher rocks is considered by geologists to be a shore deposit, formed from silt gradually accumulating as the waters advanced over the sinking surface, upon a talus composed of boulders and weathered masses of gneiss resting on the flanks of the metamorphic hills. The usual carbonaceous ore of iron is found in the ironstone shales ; but it is of inferior quality, and its proportion is below the average obtained in other fields. The Rdmgarh field is of but small value in an economic point of view. The coal in the eastern part occurs generally in thick seams, some of them having low dips ; but the quality is so variable, thin bands of coal frequently alternating with strong carbonaceous shale, that it is improbable that the former even under the most favourable conditions of market and carriage could ever be extracted with profit. Ramgarh.— Hill in Sargdja State, Chutid Ndgpur, Bengal. A rectangular mass of sandstone rising abruptly from the plain, about 8 miles west of Lakhanpur village. It is descended from the northern RAMGARH TAHSIL AND TO WN. 447 side by a path, which follows the ridge of an outlying spur nearly as far as the base of the main rock. Here, at a height of 2600 feet, is an ancient stone gateway, the lintel of which is sculptured with an image of Ganesha. A little west of this, but at the same level, a con stant stream of pure water wells out, in a natural grotto, from a fissure in the massive bed of sandstone. A second gateway crowns the most difficult part of the ascent. Colonel Dalton considers this to be the best executed and most beautiful architectural antiquity of the entire region, which abounds in remains indicating a previous occupation of the country by some race more highly civilised than its present inhabit ants. Though the origin of these gateways is unknown, the second is unquestionably the more modern work, and belongs to that description of Hindu architecture which bears most resemblance to the Saracenic. On Ramgarh Hill are several rock-caves with roughly cut inscriptions, and ruins of temples containing figures of Durgd with twenty arms, Hanuman, and other deities. But the most striking feature is the singular tunnel in the northern face of the rock, known as the Hdthpor. Mr. V. Ball, of the Geological Survey, attributes its formation to the trickling of water through crevices in the sandstone, and it certainly bears no sign of human workmanship. At its mouth this tunnel is about 20 feet in height by 30 in breadth ; but at the inner extremity of its course of 150 yards, it is not more than 8 feet by 12. [For further details concerning the temples on Rdmgarh Hill and in its neighbour hood, and its cave-tunnel, see Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xvii. pp. 236-240.] Ramgarh. — North-eastern tahsil or Sub-division of Mandld District, Central Provinces. Area, 2677 square miles; number of villages, 791 ; houses, 26,793. Population (1881) 129,962, namely, males 66,554, and females 63,408. Average density, 48-5 persons per square mile. The total adult agricultural population (male and female) numbers 62,418, with an average of 17 acres of cultivated and culti vable land to each. Of a total area of 2677 square miles, nearly two-thirds, or 1762 square miles, are held revenue-free. Total area assessed for Government revenue, 915 square miles, of which 264 square miles are returned as under cultivation ; 45 1 square miles as cultivable ; and 200 square miles as uncultivable waste. Total amount of Govern ment assessment, including local rates and cesses levied on the land, ,£3507, or an average of sd. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by cultivators, including rates and cesses, ,£5389, or an average of 7fd. per cultivated acre. The Sub-division contained in 1884 a tahsilddr 's court; strength of regular police, 116 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 326. The head-quarters of the Sub-division are at Dinddrf. Ramgarh.— Town in Mandld District, Central Provinces ; situated in lat. 22° 47' N., and long. 81° e., on a rocky eminence, below which 448 RAMGARH FORT AND TOWN. flows the Burhner, separating Ramgarh from the village of Amarpur, the site of an encamping ground. In 1680, Ramgarh, with the title of Rdjd, was bestowed by Rdjd Narendra Sd on a chief who had assisted him in recovering his dominions, from which he had been expelled by a cousin, aided by a Muhammadan force. The quit-rent was fixed at .£300, and was still in force at the British occupation in 1818. On the execution of Rdja Shankar Sa — the descendant of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla — at Jabalpur (Jubbulpore) for rebellion in 1857, the Rdm, who then represented the family on behalf of her lunatic son, Amdn Singh, seized Ramgarh in her son's name. She headed her troops in several skirmishes with the English, but was at length compelled to take to flight. When the pursuit grew warm, she dis mounted and plunged a sword into her own bosom. She was carried into the English camp, where she soon afterwards expired. Amdn Singh and his two sons then surrendered. The former was deprived of his title -of Rdjd, and of his estate, a stipend being assigned to the family for their support. Ramgarh village was formerly the head quarters of Ramgarh tahsil, which has now been shifted to Dindari village, 16 miles to the north. Rdmgarh is now simply a police outpost station. Ramgarh. — Fort in Hindur State, Punjab. Lat. 31" 5' n., long. 76° 51' e. Stands on a steep ridge which runs from the Himalayan range to the left bank of the Sutlej (Satlaj). During the Gurkha war of 1814, General Ochterlony invested the fort, and succeeded in con veying guns up the steep and pathless slopes of the hillside; upon which, after a short cannonade, the garrison capitulated. Elevation above sea-level, 4°54 feet. The fort is very substantially built in several compartments, and is supplied with masonry reservoirs for the storage of rain water. About a mile down the hill, on the north slope, is a monument erected to the memory of Lieutenant G. T. Williams of the 3rd Native Infantry, who fell in the action fought here with the Gdrkhas on the 26th November 18 14. Ramgarh. — Guaranteed Thdkurate under the Bhopdl Agency of Central India. The Thdkur receives through the Political Agent the following tankhas or pecuniary allowances in lieu of rights over lands, viz.— from Holkar, .£100 ; from Sindhia, .£681; from Dewds, .£10; from Bhopdl, ,£70 : total, .£861. Ramgarh. — Town in the Shaikhdwati district of Jaipur State, Rdjputdna; situated 100 miles north-west from Jaipur city. Population (1881) 11,313, namely, 5488 males and 5825 females. Hindus number 8936; Muhammadans, 2320; and 'others,' 57. Contains many palatial edifices belonging to wealthy bankers, by whom it is largely peopled. Possesses a most imposing appearance as it is approached from the north. Post-office. RAMGHAT—RAMKAIL. 449 Ramghat. — Town in Andpshahr tahsil, Bulandshahr District, North- Western Provinces. Situated on the right bank of the Ganges ; distant from Andpshahr 20 miles south-east, from Bulandshahr town 42 miles south-east. One of the sacred ghdts to which pilgrims in the neighbour hood resort to bathe in the Ganges. Population (1881) 2903. The population of the town has largely decreased of late years, as Rajghat, with its station on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, and its permanent bridge over the Ganges, has become a more popular place of resort. The river also has taken a new course, which threatens entirely to wash away the town. A bridge of boats conveys the Aligarh and Isldmnagar road across the Ganges for eight months of the year. Trade with Rohilkhand ; and, by boat, with Benares and Mfrzdpur. Village school, girls' school, police station, post-office. The Mardthds were defeated here in 1763 by a combined British and Oudh force. Numerous Hindu temples, none of architectural importance. A small house-tax is raised for police and conservancy purposes. Ramgiri. — Hill in Bangalore District, Mysore State, on the left bank ofthe Arkavati. Lat. 12° 45' n., long. 77° 22' e. Crowned with the ruins of fortifications, captured by the British in 1791. On the foundation of CloSepet in 1800, the inhabitants of Ramgiri removed to the new settlement. Ramia Bihar. — Village in Kheri District, Oudh ; situated on the south side of an old channel of the Kauridla, now closed up and form ing a lake. Population (1881) 2103, namely, 1852 Hindus and 251 Musalmans. Picturesquely situated between fine groves east and west of the village. Small market. Ramisseram. — ¦ Island and town in Madura District, Madras Presidency. — See Rameswaram. Ramkail. — Fair held annually on the last day of the Hindu month of Jaishtha (about the middle of June), within the precincts of Old Gaur, in the immediate neighbourhood of the great Sdgar Dighi, Maldah District, Bengal. Pilgrims and others, chiefly Hindus of the Vaishnav sect, flock hither to the number of 30,000 from all parts of Maldah, and from the neighbouring Districts. The ceremonies consist in performing worship, and giving feasts in honour of Krishna. Advantage is also taken of this occasion by the Vaishnavs to get married in strict accordance with the rites prescribed by Chaitanya. This religious gathering continues for five days. The place is well supplied with tanks, containing abundance of wholesome water. Some rows of houses are kept in repair solely for the purposes of this fair. It com memorates the retirement from public life of two Brdhman brothers, Rdp and Sandtan Goswdmi, ministers of Husain Shah, King of Gaur (15 15 a.d.), who became Bairagis or religious mendicants, and followers of the Vishnuite reformer Chaitanya. vol. xi. 2 F 450 RAMKOT— RAMNAD. Ramkot. — Pargand in Sitdpur District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Sftapur pargand, on the east by Khairdbdd, on the south by Machhrehta, and on the west by Misrikh. A small pargand with an area of 20 square miles, of which 11 are under cultivation. Population (1881) 7666. The incidence of the Government land revenue is at the rate of 3s. 4|d. per acre of cultivated area, 2s. 3d. per acre of assessed area, or is. nfd. per acre of total area. The village of Ramkot, from which the pargand derives its name, is said to have been founded by Rdma himself during his wanderings in exile. It is situated 7 miles from Sftapur town ; noted for its fine tanks, and a favourite resort of the European residents of the civil station. The talukddrs are Janwdr Rajputs, the descendants of a chief who acquired the tract in 1707 by conquest from the Kachheras. Ramman. — One of the tributaries of the Great Ranjit river in Darjfling District, Bengal. It rises under the Phalalum mountain in the Singdlild range, which separates Ddrjiling from Nepal. The Ramman first touches upon the former District in its extreme north-west portion, whence it flows along the northern boundary from west to east until it falls into the Great Ranjft, in lat. 27° 8' n., and long. 88° 19' e. The banks of the river are abrupt and covered for the most part with forest and jungle, its bed is rocky, and it is not fordable at any season of the year. The principal tributaries of the Ramman within Ddrjiling District are the Ratho and Sri. Ramnad. — Zaminddri estate in Madura District, Madras Presi dency ; lies between lat. 9° 3' and 10° 2' n., and long. 78° and 79° 24' e. Bounded on the north by Sivaganga zaminddri and Tirumangalam tdluk; on the east by Tanjore District and Palk's Strait; on the south by the Gulf of Manaar ; and on the west by Tinnevelli District. The chief is the head of the Maravar caste. Pokalur, now a small hamlet on the Madura road, 10 miles north-west of Rdmndd, was formerly the family seat; but about the commencement of the 1 8th century they moved their capital to the present town, and fortified it. The fortifications (now destroyed) consisted of a wall 27 feet high and 5 feet thick, surrounded by a ditch, now filled with rubbish. In the centre of the fort is the royal palace. Amid the general anarchy which followed on the death of Tirumala in 1659, the Setupati (the old title of the Rajas of Rdmndd) succeeded in main taining the integrity of his ancestral dominions. But in the beginning of the 1 8th century a succession of famines desolated the country. These were aggravated by internal dissensions; and in 1729 the king dom of Rdmndd was dismembered. Three-fifths were left to the legiti mate heir, while two-fifths were assigned to a rebellious vassal, whose descendant now bears the title of Rdjd of Sivaganga. The treaty of 1792 provided that the pdlegdrs dependent on the Subahddri or Governor- RAMNAD TOWN— RAMNA GAR. 451 ship of Arcot should be placed under the British Government. On this occasion Colonel Martyn was sent with a small force to occupy Rdmndd, and to arrange for the punctual collection of the revenue due from the estate. In 1795 tne zaminddr was deposed for rebellion, and sent as a prisoner to Madras. In 1803 the Government made over Rdmndd to the elder sister of the deposed zaminddr, the assessment being fixed permanently at two-thirds of the gross revenue, as then estimated. The estate is now in the hands of the Court of Wards, the zaminddr being a minor. He will not come of age till 1889. The general appearance of the country is flat and uninteresting. Large groves of palmyra palms form the only feature in the landscape. The Vaigai river, which waters Madura, supplies the large tank at Rdmndd, capable of irrigating over 6000 acres of land. The total number of tanks in the zaminddri is about 2000. The population was returned by the Census of 1871 at 500,653 persons. The Census of 1881 returned a total of 432,542, namely, 201,990 males and 230,552 females, dwelling in 80,797 houses. Hindus number 344,188 ; Muham madans, 60,436; Christians, 27,910; and 'others,' 8. The area is about 2400 square miles; the total revenue is estimated at ,£74,174 ; the peshkash, or tribute payable to the British Government, is ,£31,400. In 1769, the famous Jesuit, John de Britto, was put to death by the Rdjd of Rdmndd. Ramnad (Rdmandtha-puram, Rdmandda-puram). — Chief town of Rdmndd zaminddri, Madura District, Madras Presidency; situated in lat. 9° 22' 16" n., and long. 78° 52' 9" e. Population (1871) 15,442 ; (1881) 10,519, namely, 4853 males and 5666 females, residing in 2027 houses. Hindus number 8532; Muhammadans, 1693; and Christians, 294. Within the fort, the majority of the inhabitants belong to the Velldllar and Maravar castes, depending for their livelihood upon service about the palace. Outside live a great number of Chettis and Labbays, in whose hands is the whole coast trade. There is a neat Protestant church, belonging to the Society for the Pro pagation of the Gospel, who have a mission here ; two Roman Catholic churches ; and several large rest-houses, which are the resort of the pilgrims passing through Rdmndd on their way to Rdmeswaram. The town was captured by General Smith in 1772. The old Rdmndd princes claimed the title of Setupatis, or Lords of the Bridge or Causeway, in allusion to the legendary invasion of Ceylon by Rama, vid Adam's Bridge and Rdmeswaram. Ramnagar.— Town in Chandaulf tahsil, Benares District, North- Western Provinces. Lat 25° 15' 47" N-> long- 83° 4' 20'' e. Situated on the Ganges, about 2 miles above Benares city, of which it may be considered a suburb, and on the opposite or southern bank. It is the 452 RAM NAGAR TOWN AND VILLAGE. residence of the Mahardjd of Benares, who has a palace in the town. Interesting old fort ; handsome temple, tank, and garden, commenced by Chait Singh, and finished by the present Mahdraja. Population (1881) 11,859, namely, males 6060, and females 5799. Hindus number 9382, chiefly Brdhmans and Bhuinhars ; and Muhammadans, 2477. Two broad and well-kept roadways bisect the town, dined with masonry shops and several ornamental private buildings. In the streets leading off from the principal roadways, the houses are mostly built of mud, arid are tile-roofed. Rdmnagar is a considerable com mercial centre. The gold or grain mart, situated near the fort, is a small square with busy grain shops. Rdmnagar also enjoys a speciality in the manufacture of riding-whips, and wicker-work stools and chairs. The public buildings consist of a police station, post-office, and an English school. On the southern outskirt of the town is a well-kept sarai or native inn. A small house-tax is levied for police and con servancy purposes. Ramnagar. — Town and municipality in Wazirdbdd tahsil, Gujran- wald District, Punjab ; situated below the high bank of the river Chenab (Chinab), 22 miles south-west of Wazirdbdd, and 28 miles north-west of Gujrdnwdld town, in lat. 32° 19' n., and long. 73° 50' e. Population (1881) 6830, namely, Muhammadans, 4609; Hindus, 1845; Sikhs, 331; and Jains, 45. Number of houses, 1481. Muni cipal income (1883-84), ,£514, or an average of is. 6d. per head. The town, originally known as Rasdlnagar, was founded by Ndr Muhammad, a Chattah chieftain, who possessed great power in the Punjab during the first half of the 18th century. It rapidly grew into importance under his family. It was stormed in 1795 by Ranjit Singh, after a gallant resistance made by Ghuldm Muhammad, the reigning Chattah chief, and received from the Sikhs its new name of Ramnagar. The population has decreased of late years. Manufacture of leathern vessels, used as sacks and bottles. Annual fair on ist of April, attended by 25,000 persons. Several fine buildings, erected during the Chattah supremacy, still remain. During the second Sikh war, Lord Gough first encountered the Sikh troops of Sher Singh near Ramnagar in 1848. Ramnagar.— Village in the District of the Twenty-four Pargands, Bengal. Market twice a week. Ramnagar. — Village in Champdran District, Bengal. Lat. 27° 9' 53" n., long. 84° 22' 2" E. ; 13 miles north-west of Bettid. Only note worthy as the residence of the Rdjd of Rdmnagar, whose title was first conferred by the Emperor Aurangzeb in 1676, and confirmed by the British Government in i860. His revenue is principally derived from the produce of the Rdmnagar jungles. The village has a very bad reputation for fever. RAMNAGAR PARGANA— RAMP A. 453 Ramnagar. — Pargand in Fatehpur tahsil, Bara Banki District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by the Chaukd river ; on the east by Bado Sardi pargand ; on the south by the Kalydni river; and on the west by Fatehpur pargand. Area, 112 square miles, or 71,716 acres, of which 50,732 acres are cultivated. Population (1881) 80,559, namely, males 42,649, and females 37,910. Of the 168 villages which com prise the pargand, 138 are held in tdlukddri, 2 in zaminddri, and 28 in pattiddri tenure. Government land revenue, ^6850, at the rate of 3s. 4d. per cultivable acre. The principal proprietor is a Raikwdr Rajput, Rdjd Sarabjit Singh. Communication is afforded by a metalled road with the great timber mart of Bahramghat, which lies within the par gand, and by the main road from Faizabdd (Fyzabad) to Sftapur and Kheri. The pargand contains 6 village schools, 2 post-offices, police station, and registration office. Ramnagar. — Town in Bara Banki District, Oudh; situated about 4 miles from Bahramghat, in lat. 27° 5' n., and long. 81° 26' 40" e. Population (1881) 5376, namely, Hindus 4398, and Muhammadans 978. Number of houses, 956. Formerly the head-quarters of a tahsil or Sub-division, but this has been recently removed to Fatehpur. Police station, registration office, and branch dispensary. A small house-tax is levied for police and conservancy purposes. Ramnagar. — Town in Mandld District, Central Provinces; 10 miles east of Mandld town. Situated in lat. 22° 36' n., and long. 8o° 33' e., at a lovely spot on a bend ofthe Narbadd (Nerbudda) river. The capture of Chaurdgarh by the Bundelds, and the growth of the Mughal Empire on the one hand, and of the Deogarh Gond kingdom on the other, made it advisable for the Garhd-Mandld kings to select a more retired stronghold than Garha or Chaurdgarh. Accordingly, in 1663, Hirde Sa, 54th of the line, fixed on Rdmnagar, which remained the seat of government for eight reigns, until Narendra Sa removed to Mandld. During that period Rdmnagar was a large and important place ; and a bdoli or well, now 4 miles east of the palace, is said to have then been in the heart of the town. The ruins are very extensive, the most remarkable being those of a palace built by Bhagwant Rdo, the prime minister of Hirde Sd. It was five storeys high, and overtopped the palace of the king, who accordingly ordered its walls to be lowered. The palace consisted of a quadrangle round an open court, with a small tank in the centre, supplied by fountains from the river. Close by, a small temple bears a Sanskrit inscription, recording the names of the Gond dynasty for thirteen centuries from Samvat 415, or 358 a.d., to the time of Hirde Sa. Rampa (Rumpah). — Hill division, constituting a portion of what is known as the 'Agency Tract' of Goddvari District, Madras Presidency. Lat. 17° 18' 40" to 17° 49' N., and long. 81° 34' 30" to 82° e. Popula- 454 RAMPA. tion (1871) 13,958; (1881) 10,899, namely, 5443 males and 5456 females, occupying 2410 houses. Hindus number 10,879; Muham madans, 12 ; and Christians, 8. Rampd is a wild tract of country on the north bank of the Goddvari — commencing about 20 miles above Rajdmandri, and extending almost to the Sileru river, which forms the southern boundary of Jaipur. Bounded on the west by the Rekapalli tdluk of Goddvari ; on the east by portions of the Golconda tdluk of Vizagapatam ; and on the south by the Rajdmandri tdluk. It contains 373 nominal villages, but it is very thinly populated, as the area is estimated at over 800 square miles. It yields a revenue to Government of only ,£123, 1 6s. Originally it was granted to the mansabddr as a jdgir for military service. Disturbances broke out in 1858, and lasted until 1862, arising from the unpopularity of the mansabddr, and troops were sent against the rioters. A police force was in consequence recruited from the hillmen. In 1879, Rampd became the scene of another rising, which again involved the employment of troops. It lasted in an intermittent way until December 1880, when Chendriah, the rebel leader, was killed, the rebels dispersed, and the mansabddr was deported to Gopdlpur as a State prisoner, his mansabddri tenure being cancelled. A fresh settle ment has recently been made with the muttddars, who hold groups of villages on condition of paying a quit-rent to Government, and of loyally assisting to preserve the peace. The country presents a succession of hills from two to four thousand feet high, covered with dense jungle, and separated by valleys. The highest peak is Damakonda, 4478 feet above sea-level. There is a good made road from Rajdmandri to Choddvaram (33 miles); a rough road, made by the Madras sappers during the Rampd revolt, from Choddvaram to Kota (14 miles) ; and a third from Choddvaram to Mdredapalli (14 miles). The rest are jungle tracts. A passable road, two miles long, connects Choddvaram with the village of Rampd, which gives its name to the region. The products of the country are bamboos and tamarinds, which grow to an enormous size. The cultivation is principally of the nomadic kind locally termed podu, in which the forest is burned down, and the seed sown among the ashes. A little tobacco is grown to satisfy local wants. The hills are infested with tigers, leopards, bears, bison, and wolves. A strong police force is maintained at Choddvaram, and a weaker one at Kota. Both stations are stockaded. The deputy tahsilddr of Rotha- pilli has charge of Rampd under the sub-Collector, and is also invested with a limited civil jurisdiction. The climate is very cold in the winter months. Fevers are common, and malaria is prevalent thoughout the year. The inhabitants are chiefly Koyas and Reddis. They speak the Telugu and Koi languages. Their bamboo huts are stockaded to keep RAMPAILI— RAMPUR. 455 out wild beasts. Two small schools— one at Choddvaram, and another at Kota. Rampaili. — Town in Tirord tahsil, Bhandard District, Central Provinces. Population (1881) 2157, namely, Hindus, 1696; Muham madans, 207 ; and non-Hindu aborigines, 254. Ramparda.' — Petty State in the Jhdldwdr prant or division of Kdthidwdr, Bombay Presidency. It consists of 1 village, with two separate holders. Area, 5 square miles. Population (1881) 423. The revenue is estimated at .£103 ; and tribute of £j, 10s. is paid to the British Government. Rampur. — Native State in Rohilkhand, under the political super intendence of the Government of the North-Western Provinces ; lying between 28° 25' and 29" 10' n. lat, and between 78° 54' and 79° 28' e. long. Bounded on the north and west by the British District of Moraddbdd, and on the north-east and south-east by the District of Bareli (Bareilly). The area is returned by the Census Report of 1881 at 899 square miles, but the North- Western Provinces Gazetteer puts it at 945 square miles. Population (1881) 541,914. The chief town, and the residence of the Nawdb, is Rampur. Physical Aspects. — Rdmpur State is a level, fertile tract of country, abundantly supplied with water in its northern division by the Kosila and Ndhal rivers. Both of these streams hold a generally southerly course nearly parallel to each other, the Ndhal flowing about ten miles east of the Kosila. The southern division of the State is watered by the Ramgangd, which, after receiving the Kosila, flows in a south easterly direction into Bareilly District. The general slope of the country is from north to south and south-east. Rudrapur, on the northern frontier, has an elevation of 630 feet above sea-level ; while at the town of Rdmpur, a few miles farther south, the elevation is but 546 feet. The country in the vicinity of the capital is exceedingly rich ; and the thriving cultivation bears testimony to the industry and intelligence of the Pathdns, the chief occupants of the soil. Game is fairly abundant in the State. Leopards are not uncommon, and tigers have been frequently killed along the northern frontier. Pig, antelope, nilgai, hares, partridges, quail, wild duck, floriken, and small sand-grouse abound more or less throughout the territory ; but snipe are scarce. Rdmpur is celebrated for its breed of hounds, originally introduced from Southern India. These hounds are generally of a grey colour, with a smooth coat, and larger than English greyhounds. They are, however, difficult to train. Pathdn dealers carry these hounds as far as Rdjputdna, Central India, and Lower Bengal, where a pair will sometimes fetch as much as ,£20 or ,£30. History. — The first Rohilla Afghdns who settled in this part of India were two brothers, Shdh Alam and Husain Khan, who in the latter part 456 RAMPUR. of the 1 7th century came to seek service under the Mughal Emperor. The son of the first of these, Ddud Khdn, distinguished himself in the Mardthd wars, and received a grant of land near Buddun. His adopted son, Alf Muhammad, obtained the title of Nawdb and a grant of the greater part of Rohilkhand in 17 19. Having offended the Subahdar of Oudh, Safdar Jang, who was jealous at his rapid rise to power, Alf Muhammad was compelled to surrender all his possessions in 1746, and was kept a close prisoner at Delhi for six months, after which he was released and appointed governor of the Mughal Province of Sirhind, where he remained for a year. But taking advantage of the confusion consequent on the invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali, he regained supremacy over Rohilkhand in 1747, and eventually obtained a confirmation of this territory from the son of the Emperor Muhammad Shah. After the death of Alf Muhammad, the estates were divided among his sons, and the jdgir of Rdmpur Kotera fell to Faiz-ulld, the younger son. On the incursion of the Mardthds, the Rohilld Sarddrs, as the chiefs of the family were termed, applied for aid to the Nawdb Wazfr of Oudh. This was granted on the promise of a payment of 40 lakhs of rupees. The Rohillas, however, failed to fulfil their pecuniary obligations, and the Nawdb Wazir turned his arms against them and defeated them in the battle of Mirdnpur Katra in Shahjahanpur District, in which Nawab Hafiz Rahmat Khan was slain. By the intervention of the British authorities, a treaty was concluded in 1774, by which Faiz-ulld Khan was secured in the estate of Rdmpur on condition of military service to the Wazir. This obligation was afterwards com muted for a cash payment of £1 50,000. On the death of Faiz-ulld in 1793, dissensions broke out in the family, the eldest son was murdered, and the jdgir usurped by a younger son. As the State was held under British guarantee, the aid of British troops was given to the Nawdb of Oudh in ejecting the usurper and installing Ahmad Ali Khdn, son of the murdered chieftain. On the cession of Rohilkhand to the British Government, in 1801, the family were confirmed in their possessions. For his unswerving loyalty during the Mutiny of 1857, Muhummad Yusaf Alf Khdn, the Nawdb of Rdmpur, received a grant of land assessed at .£12,852 in perpetuity, in addition to other honours and an increase of guns in his salute. He was succeeded, in 1864, by his son, the present chief, Nawdb Muhammad Kalb Alf Khan, G.C.S.I., C.I.E., who at the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi received a standard, and an addition for life of two guns to his salute, which is now 15, the salute of the chief- ship being 13 guns. The Nawab has been an invalid since 1875, but still continues to administer the most important affairs of the State. His son and heir-apparent, Nawdb Mushtak Alf Khdn, is now (1885) 27 years of age. RAMPUR. 457 Population.— In 1872, a Census taken concurrently with that of the North-Western Provinces returned the population of Rdmpur State at 507,004 ; the Census of 1881 showed a population of 541,914, being an increase of 34,910, or 6-9 per cent, notwithstanding that in the nine years' interval the State suffered, in common with the rest of Rohilkhand, from the severe scarcity of 1877-78, and epidemics of malarious fever in 1878 and 1879. The details of the Census of 188 1 may be thus summarized : — Area, 899 square miles; number of towns 3, and of villages 1070; houses, I03>179- Total population 514,914, namely, males 285,359, and females 259,555. Average density, 603 persons per square mile ; persons per town or village, 480 ; persons per house, 5-2. » Religion. — The population is entirely divided between Hindus and Muhammadans, the former numbering 302,989, and the latter 238,925. Among the Hindu castes, Brahmans number 16,029; Rdjputs, 8802 ; Kayasths, 6487 ; and Baniyds, 9341. Of the lower castes, the most important numerically are the following: — Chamdr, 47,362; Lodh, 40,125; Kurmi, 35,319; Mdli, 20,879; Kachhi, 17,951; Kahdr, 16,065; Ahar, 15,193; Bhangf, 9374; Gadarid, 6770; Kumbhar, 5136; Dhobf, 4857; Juldha, 4546; Nai, 4166; Bhurjf, 3758; the remainder being made up of castes numbering less than 3000 members each. Out of a total Muhammadan population of 238,925, only 528 are returned as Shids ; the remainder, 238,397, belong to the Sunnf sect of the Hanafi rite. They are said to be strict in the observance of their religious duties, and rather bigoted. The majority of the Muhammadans are the descendants of Afghan immigrants who joined the standard of Dddd Khdn and Ali Muhammad in the first half of the 18th century. Sayyids are held in great veneration by the other classes of Muhammadans, as the reputed lineal descendants of the Prophet ; they and the Pathdns occasionally intermarry. Shaiks, on the other hand, who are largely composed of the descendants of low -caste Hindu converts, are looked down upon by the other Muhammadans, and they and the Pathdns never intermarry. There are but few Mughals in the State. Three towns contain a population exceeding five thousand inhabitants — namely, Rampur town, 74,250; Tanda, 9860; and Shahabad, 8200. Agriculture. — The total area of Rampur State is 899-2 square miles, of which 593-4 square miles are returned as under cultivation; 281-6 square miles as uncultivated ; 21-6 square miles as rent-free; and 2-6 square miles as the area of Rdmpur town. All the crops grown in the neighbouring District of Moraddbdd are also grown in Rdmpur, with the exception of indigo and poppy. A considerable advance in tillage has taken place during the last forty years. A large proportion of the grass jungles in the northern tahsils of Sudr and Bilaspur is now under 458 RAMPUR. cultivation, and it is believed that at no very distant period nothing but absolutely barren tracts will be left uncultivated. A decrease in the cultivated area has, however, recently taken place in a few villages on the tarai border, owing to the malaria that prevails there; and in a few other villages along the banks of the Rdmgangd and Kosi rivers, owing to unusually heavy floods. The Bahgul Canal irrigates portions of the Bildspur tahsil. An irrigation canal from the Kosila to the Rdmgangd, a length of 37 miles, is under construction by the State. Commerce and Trade, etc. — The principal exports of Rdmpur State are sugar and rice, sent to the west ; hides to the east, chiefly to Agra and Calcutta; and khes (a kind of damask), for which the capital is famous, to all parts of India. The imports comprise piece-goods from Calcutta, salt from Rdjputdna, and spices for local consumption. There is a considerable trade in elephants and horses, and enormous numbers of goats are brought from the western Districts for food. Besides sugar-refining and khes-weaving, the only other manufacture worthy of note is a rough glazed pottery, which has recently attracted much atten tion. It differs from the blue and white pottery of Mdltdn, the blues used being much lighter in shade and tinged with green. It is said that the peculiar clay of which alone this pottery can be made, is only found in a tank near Rdmpur town. Eight firms were employed in this industry in 1881-82. Administration. — The total income ofthe State in 1880-81 amounted to .£158,657, of which .£155,805 was derived from the land; the expenditure in the same year was ,£151,184, including ,£59,057 for civil administration, ,£35,218 for public works, ,£26,693 for troops and police, and .£15,562 for the personal expenses of the Nawdb and his family. There are 3 courts in the State, following the principles of Hindu or Muhammadan law, according to the religion of the parties. In criminal matters, the provisions of the Indian Penal Code are carried out as far as practicable. All sentences of death require confirmation by the Nawdb. The civil -courts of first instance are of two kinds — one for suits for debt, and the other for claims relating to inheritance, etc. There are 2 appellate courts, while a final appeal lies to the Nawdb in person. The military force of Rdmpur ordinarily consists of 28 guns, with 300 artillerymen; 570 cavalry; 300 military foot police ; and 730 ' miscellaneous foot' The State contains a jail, with a daily average of about 400 prisoners ; 2 post-offices ; 5 dispen saries; and 10 State schools, with 316 pupils in 1881, besides 152 indigenous schools (maktabs), with 1048 pupils. Rdmpur is famous for its religious instruction, and many students come from Bengal, Afghdnistdn, and even Bokhdra. No tuition-fee is taken from these visitors ; on the contrary, if they live in a mosque, the people of the RAMPUR CAPITAL AND TOWN. 459 neighbourhood support them, and they always receive a share of the public charities. Medical Aspects. — No regular meteorological observations are taken in Rdmpur ; but it is believed that the rainfall, owing to the proximity of the State to the hills, is greater than in the neighbouring British Districts of Moraddbdd and Bareilly. The climate is also said to be cooler for the same reason. The northern part of Rdmpur adjoins the tarai at the foot of the Himalayas, and shares its characteristics. This part of the country is a marshy forest, overrun with jungle and grass of such luxuriant growth as to conceal a man on horseback. The air in consequence is pestilential, except in the coldest period of winter, and during the heaviest rains. Rampur. — Capital of Rdmpur State, North-Western Provinces, and the residence of the Nawab, situated in lat. 28° 48' 30" n., and long. 79° 5' 3°" E-> on the left bank of the Kosila river, about 18 miles due east from Moraddbdd town, with which it is connected by a metalled road. Another metalled road runs south-east to Bareilly. Population (1881) 74,250, namely, males 36,355, and females 37,895. Muhammadans number 56,166, and Hindus 18,084. The town is enclosed by a broad, dense, nearly circular bamboo hedge, from 8 to 10 miles in circumference ; it has only eight openings, at which military guards are stationed. The Jama Masjid or cathedral mosque, and the small but crowded Safdarganj square, are situated in the centre of this circular area. To the north-west are the Diwdn-i-Am, or reception hall ; the Khurshid Manzil or sun-palace, where European guests are accommodated ; the Machhi Bhawan, or the Nawab's private palace, and the zandna buildings. The old fort built by Nawdb Faiz-ulld Khdn is now used for native guests. The tomb of Faiz-ulld Khan, situated north of the town, consists of a raised masonry terrace, shaded by trees. Rdmpur has all the appearance of a thriving town. The people have a well-to-do look ; the streets are crowded with busy passengers ; and the bdzdrs are lined with prosperous-looking shops. The streets were formerly paved with brick, but the principal thoroughfares have now been metalled with kankar, at a considerable cost. The trade in and manufacture of pottery and damask (khes) have been alluded to in the article on Rdmpur State. The only other manufactures are sword- blades and jewellery. Elevation above sea-level, 546 feet. Rampur. — Town in Deoband tahsil, Saharanpur District, North- Western Provinces. Lat. 29° 48' 15" N., long. 77° 29' 35" e. Stands on a low site, 14 miles south of Sahdranpur town, on the old Delhi road. Population (1881) 7951, namely, Hindus 4240, and Muham madans 371 1. A metalled and well-drained road runs through the town, but the lanes are narrow and uneven. The town contains 460 RAMPUR VLLLAGE AND ZAMINDARI. numerous brick-built houses, with handsome fronts, especially those belonging to the Jain merchants known as Saraugis, who carry on an active trade in grain. Handsome new Jain temple, with gilt spire. The town is said to have been founded by Rdja Ram, and captured by Sdldr Masaud. Manufacture of glass bangles, which employs 6 large ovens. Religious fair in June, at the tomb of a Muhammadan saint, Shaikh Ibrdhim, attracts a large number of devotees. Pargand school, police station, post-office. The town contains several gardens, and is surrounded by numerous groves. A small house-tax is levied for police and conservancy purposes. Rampur. — -Village in Ah'ganj tahsil, Etah District, North-Western Provinces. Distant from Alfganj 4\ miles north, from Etah town 32 miles east. Busy little trading town, but chiefly remarkable as the residence of Rdjd Rdmachandra Sen, a lineal descendant of the last Rahtor Rdjd of Kanauj, and tenth in descent from Raja Rdm Sahai, who founded the town in 1456 a.d. The Rdjd of Rdmpur ranks as head of the Rahtor clan in this part of India. The village is com monly known as Rdmpur Rdjd. Population (1881) 4670, principally Brdhmans and Kachhis. Market on Sundays and Wednesdays. A small house-tax is levied for police and conservancy purposes. Rampur. — Town in Bashahr (Bussahir) State, Punjab, and the winter residence of the Rdjd. Lat. 31° 27' n., long. 77° 40' e. Mentioned by Thornton as standing at the base of a lofty mountain, overhanging the left bank ofthe Sutlej (Satlaj), and 138 feet above the stream. Cliffs surround the town and confine the air, so that during summer the radiation from the rocks renders the heat intolerable. The houses rise in tiers, many of them being built of stone. The town is famous for its fine shawls, the well-known Rdmpur chadars. The Rdja's palace, at the north-east corner of the town, consists of several buildings; with carved wooden balconies, exhibiting marks of Chinese style. The Gdrkhas did much damage to the town and its trade during the period of their supremacy ; but it has begun to recover under British protection. The Rdjd resides at Rdmpur during the winter, and retires to the cooler station of Sarahan for the hottest months. Elevation above sea-level, 3300 feet. Rampur. — Zaminddri estate attached to Sambalpur District, Central Provinces. Area, 190 square miles; villages, ior; houses, 3910. Population (1881) 13,248, namely, males 6776, and females 6472 ; density of population, 69-7 persons per square mile. Chief products — rice, oil-seeds, pulses, etc. Sdl, sdj, dhdurd, ebony, and other timber trees grow in the forests; iron-ore is found in many parts. The estate was originally granted by Chhatra Sd, Rdjd of Sambalpur, in 1630, to Prdn Nath, a Rdjput. In 1835, some relations of Rdjd Ndrdyan Singh were murdered by the brothers Surendra Sa RAMPUR PARGANA— RAM PUR A. 461 and Udant Sa, who were condemned to imprisonment for life. While undergoing their sentence at Hazdribagh, they were released by the mutineers in 1857, and at once stirred up rebellion in Sambalpur. Darids Singh having joined the rebel forces of Surendra Sd, was out lawed and his estate confiscated. He, however, came under the terms of the amnesty, and the estate was restored to him. On his death in 1870 he was succeeded by his grandson, Bakhtawdr Singh, the present chief. The annual income of the chief is estimated at ,£180 ; tribute of £70 is payable to the British Government. Rdmpur village contains a school, with an average attendance of 40 pupils. Rampur. — Pargand in Behar tahsil, Partdbgarh (Pratdbgarh) District, Oudh, extending from the river Sai on the north almost to the Ganges on the south. Area, 179 square miles, of which 79 are under cultiva tion. Population (1881) 73,962, namely, males 36,374, and females 37,588. Number of villages or townships (mauzds), 191, all held in tdlukddri tenure ; forming two estates, owned by the Bisen Kshattriya Raja of Rdmpur, and the Kanhpuria Kshattriya Rdjd of Kaithaula. Rampura. — Walled town in Tonk State, Rdjputdna, now known as Aligarh-Rampura. Lat. 25° 57' 53" n., long. 76° 7' 26" e. ; 70 miles south of Jaipur (Jeypore), 90 south-east of Nasfrabad (Nusseerdbdd), 145 west of Agra. Captured by the British in 1804, restored to Holkar in 1805. In 18 18, when Holkar's dominions had been conquered by the British, Rdmpurd was added as a free gift to the possessions which had been guaranteed in 181 7 to Amir Khan, the founder of the Tonk family. Population (1881) 3378. Rampura. — Petty State in Rewa Kdntha, Bombay Presidency. Area, 4% square miles. There are 8 shareholders. The revenue is estimated at .£558 ; and tribute of ^142, 4s. is paid to the Gdekwar of Baroda. Soil rich, yielding the better kinds of crops. Rampura. — The site of famous Jain temples, situated in the Sadri Pass, on the western border of Udaipur State, Rdjputdna. The temples, which comprise two buildings sacred to Parasnath, are said to have been erected by Dharma Seth in 1440, during the reign of Rana Kumbhu, at a cost of 75 lakhs of rupees G£75°>°00)- The)' are built of sandstone from the quarries at Narlai, 13 miles distant. The first or smaller temple consists of an oblong building raised high above the ground, with only one door, opposite which is the image of Pdrasndth, carved 'out of black marble, the only one of that colour in the place. The outside is handsomely carved and covered with figures. The larger temple covers a rectangular piece of ground, measuring 260 by 244 feet enclosed by an outer wall, having 86 sikras or shrines, each con taining an image of Pdrasndth, built against its internal face. The entrance is at the west, with a flight of steps up the plinth about 12 feet high whence a beautiful view of the interior is obtained. Immedi- 462 RAMPUR BEAULEAH— RAMPUR HAT. ately in front is the largest and most finely carved dome, three storeys in height, with a figure of Indra and eleven others, suspended, as it were, from the roof. Underneath is a figure of Ganesh. In the centre is an open colonnade, with no less than 420 richly- sculptured pillars, supporting a roof with a shrine at each corner, each of which also contains a figure of Pdrasndth. This colonnade surrounds an open space in the centre of the entire enclosure in which stands the principal shrine, beautifully carved both inside and out. It has four doors, opposite each of which is a life-sized figure of Pdrasndth, carved out of white marble. There are said to be huge vaults underneath the temple, containing many more images of Pdrasndth. Upwards of ten thousand pilgrims meet at these temples during the fairs held in March and September. Rampur Beauleah. — Chief town and administrative head-quarters of Rdjshdhi District, Bengal ; situated on the north bank of the Ganges, in lat. 24° 22' 5" N., and long. 88° 38' 55" e. The seat of administra tion was transferred to this town from Ndttor in 1825. Rdmpur Beauleah was first selected by the Dutch, in the early part of the last century, for the establishment of a factory ; and subsequently for many years it was the head-quarters of an English commercial Residency. The town is of modern growth, and is built for the most part on river alluvion ; it is liable to encroachments of the Ganges, and has suffered severely from inundations. Population (1881) 19,228, namely, males 10,210, and females 9018. Hindus number 9522 ; Muhammadans, 9632; and 'others,' 74. Municipal income (1876-77), ,£1111: 1883-84, ,£1909, of which .£1741 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, is. sfd. per head (20,024) of the population within municipal limits. Rampur Beauleah conducts a large traffic by river with the railway station of Kushtid on the opposite bank of the Ganges. In 1876-77 the total exports were valued at ,£342,000, chiefly silk (£'251,000), rice (,£21,000), oil-seeds (£7000), hides (.£6000), and indigo (.£3000). The total imports were valued at ,£199,000, including sugar (,£109,000), salt (,£24,000), and piece- goods (^£i 8,000). Owing to a change in the system of registration, no later trade returns are available. Rampur Hat. — Sub-division of Birbhdm District, Bengal, transferred from the neighbouring District of Murshiddbdd in January 1873. Area, 669 square miles; number of villages, 1368; houses, 65,782. Popu lation (1881), males 148,266, and females 162,241 ; total, 310,507. Classified according to religion, there were — Hindus, 220,328; Muhammadans, 80,797; Christians, 9 ; Santdls, 9146 ; other aborigines, 227. Average density of population, 464 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, 2-04; persons per village, 227; houses per square mile, 106 ; persons per house, 4-7. This Sub-division com- RAMPUR HAT HEAD-QUARTERS— RAMRI. 463 prises the 3 police circles (thdnds) of Rdmpur Hat, Maureswar, and Nalhdti. In 1883 it contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court, with a regular police force of 57 officers and men, and 2670 rural police or village watchmen. Separate cost of Sub-divisional administration, ;£6o43. Rampur Hat. — Head-quarters of the Rdmpur Hat Sub-division, Birbhdm District, Bengal ; situated in the north-east of the District, in lat. 24° 9' n., and long. 87° 49' 30" e. Station on the East Indian Railway, 136 miles from Howrah. Rampur Khanpur.— Village in Hdta tahsil, Gorakhpur District, North-Western Provinces, 38 miles from Gorakhpur town. Rampur Mathura— Town in Sftapur District, Oudh; situated 1 mile east of the Chauka and 3 miles west of the Gogra river, 44 miles south-east of Sitdpur town. Population (1881) 2315, residing in 383 mud-built houses. Market ; Government school. Ramri. — Island off the coast of Lower Burma, included in Kyauk- pyd District, Arakan. It contains the townships of Ramri and Kyauk-pyu, in the latter of which is Kyauk-pyu Town, the head quarters of the District. The island is crossed by a range of moun tains, with a general north-north-west and south-south-east direction, and an elevation above the plain of from 500 to 1500 feet; highest point, 3000 feet. The chief products of Ramri are timber, rice, indigo, salt, and sugar. Limestone and iron are also found on the island. Ramri and Cheduba originally formed a tract known as Ramri District, but both are now incorporated with Kyauk-pyu District. Lat. 18° 51' to 19° 24' n., long. 93° 28' to 94° E. Ramri. — Township in Kyauk-pyd District, Arakan Division, Lower Burma. Area, about 426 square miles, occupying the southern portion of the island of the same name. Chief products — rice, indigo, and sugar ; in the manufacture ofthe last, 252 mills were employed in 1874. Lime stone is found on the northern and western coasts, and petroleum on the eastern. This township comprises 23 revenue circles, viz. Nga- ko-byin, Thin-ga-nek, Hun-taung-bek, Hun-myauk-bek, Kha-maung- kyaung, Kyauk-kyaung (South), Kyauk-kyaung (North), Le-daung, Kan-daing, Ran-bauk, Kan-gaw, Alay-kyaung, Ran-bai Myo-ma (East), Ran-bai Myo-ma (South), Ran-bai Myo-ma (Central), Ran-byeh-ngeh, Kyauk-twe, Nrg-yaung-det, Rabadin, Ran-thek, Thin-ba-kaing, Zi-kywon, and Sa-gd. In 1876-77, the population, composed mainly of Arakanese, numbered 46,838. Population (1881) 43.329; gr°ss revenue, ,£9604. Head-quarters at Ramri Town. Ramri.— Chief town of Ramrf township, Kyauk-pyu District, Lower Burma; situated in lat. 19° 6' 30" n., and long. 93° 53' 45" e., near the eastern coast of Ramri Island, about 13 miles up the Tan, a tidal river, navigable thus far by good-sized boats. The town stands on the eastern 464 RAM SANEHI. side of an amphitheatre formed by numerous low ranges of partially wooded hills, separated by small hollows and ravines. During the existence of the Arakan kingdom it was the seat of the governor of the island, and was then, and is still, called by the Arakanese 'Tan-myo.' After the Burmese conquest, it was retained as the head quarters of the governor, but was • known to the Burmese as ' Yan-bai-myo,' and to the Arakanese as ' Ran-breh-myo,' which name has been corrupted by Europeans into Ramri. Ramri town was probably in its most flourishing condition about 1805 a.d., when its inhabitants carried on an extensive trade with Bengal, Bassein, and Tavoy. A few years later, it suffered much from the rebellion of Khyin-bran and from the retaliatory measures of the Burmese. Khyin-bran appears to have had many adherents in the town ; and, after his defeat, large numbers of the inhabitants were killed or forced to fly the country. During the first Anglo-Burmese war, the place was occupied without resistance by the troops under General Macbean, the Burmese having evacuated the judiciously constructed defences before the arrival of the British force. One of these defences was an unusually strong stockade,' within which all civil and military business had been carried on. On ; the conquest of Arakan by the British, Ramri was made the head-quarters of a District of the same name, and so remained until 1852, when, in con sequence of An and Ramri being joined together, Kyaukrpyd,\tMLthen the head-quarters of An, became the chief town of the new District. In 1853 the population was estimated at about 9000, of whom nearly two-thirds were Arakanese. On the removal of the head-quarters" to Kyauk-pyd, Ramri sank to the position of the chief station of a township, and has decreased in importance. In 1876-77 it had only 4028 inhabitants, who carried on a coasting trade with Chittagong, Sandoway, and Bassein. In 1881 the population was 3461. The public buildings include a court-house, police station, and an old and new market-place. Ram Sanehi. — Tahsil 'or Sub-division of Bara Banki District, Oudh ; bounded on the north by Rdmnagar, on the east by Nawdbganj, on the south by Muzaffarkhana, and on the west by Haidargarh and Bara Banki tahsils. Area, 588 square miles, of which 375 are cultivated. Population (1869) 385,410; (1881) 354,706, namely, males 177,477, and females 177,229. Decrease of population in nine years, 30,704, or 8-4 per cent. Classified according to religion, there were in 1881 — Hindus, 296,464 ; Muhammadans, 57,862 ; Jains, 373 ; and ' others,' 7. Of the 625 towns and villages comprising the tahsil, 374 contain less than five hundred inhabitants; 174 from five hundred to a thousand; 75 from one to five thousand; and 2 upwards of five thou sand. This tahsil comprises the 5 pargands of Surajpur, Darydbdd, RAMTAL—RAMTEK. 465 Rudauli, Basrohi, and Mawai Maholdra. In 1884 it contained 1 civil and 2 criminal courts ; police circles (thdnds), 5 ; and a regular police force of 67 officers and men, besides a rural police or village watch. Ramtal. — Lake on the Rdmthi nadi in Ddrjiling District, Bengal. As measured on the map, it is 550 yards long, by about 200 yards broad. For 30 or 40 yards from each bank, in the upper part of the lake, dead stumps- of trees in situ appear above the surface of the water, showing that the Ramtdl has increased in depth within the time that such timber can remain under water without falling to pieces. For more than a quarter of a mile extends a delta of comparatively modern formation, composed of slate shingle, yearly encroaching on the area of the lake, which, on account of its recent origin, cannot be assigned to glacial action in any form. It seems most probable that both the lake and the huge blocks of sandstone filling its bed are due to landslips from the hill above, which have dammed up the original bed of the stream. Ramtek. — North-eastern tahsil or Sub-division of Ndgpur District, Central Provinces. Area, 1 1 1 2 square miles ; number of towns and villages, 445 ; houses, 28,858. Population (1881) 147,351, namely, males 74,460, and females 72,891. Average density of population, 132-5 persons per square mile. The total adult agricultural population (male and female) numbers 57,481, with an average of 8 acres of cultivated and cultivable land to each. Of a total area of 1 1 1 2 square miles, 47 1 square miles are held revenue free. Total area assessed for Government revenue, 641 square miles, of which 395 square miles are returned as cultivated ; 114 square miles as cultivable ; and 132 square miles as uncultivable waste. Total amount of Government assessment including local rates and cesses levied on the land, ,£19,815, or an average of is. 6fd. per cultivated acre. Total rental paid by culti vators, including cesses, etc., ,£35°>030> or an average of 2s. 3gd. per cultivated acre. In 1884 the Sub-division contained 2 criminal and 2 civil courts, with 2 police stations (thdnds), and 1 1 outposts (chaukis) ; strength of regular police, 105 men, besides a village watch or rural police of 863 chaukiddrs. Ramtek. — Town and municipality in Ndgpur District, Central Provinces, and head-quarters of Ramtek tashil. Lat. 21° 24' n., long. 79° 20' e. ; 24 miles north of Ndgpur city. Situated on a gravelly soil, south of a ridge separated by only a few miles of cultivation from the hill and jungle extending to the Sdtpuras. Population (1881) 7814, namely, Hindus, 6978; Muhammadans, 614; Jains, 101 ; non-Hindu aborigines, 121. Municipal income (1882-83), ;£6i8, of which £594 was derived from taxation, chiefly octroi duties ; average incidence of taxation, is. 6£d. per head. Noted for its cultivation of pan, which was introduced three centuries ago by an ancestor of the present owner of VOL. xi. 2 G 466 RAMTEK. the gardens ; large quantities are exported to Seoni, Chhindwdra, Jabalpur, Berar, and (since the opening of the railway) to Bombay. The trunk road between Jabalpur and Ndgpur runs 4 miles west of the town ; and from Mansar, on that line, a good road leads through Rdmtek to the village of Ambdla, where the fair held every November, on the banks of a small lake, attracts nearly 100,000 persons. An excellent bungalow stands on the hill 500 feet above the plain. The official buildings are at the west end of the town. Rdmtek has always been held a holy place. The oldest temple appears to be that on the north side of the hill, built of uncemented stones, and, like many ruins in Ndgpur and Bhanddrd Districts, referred to Hemdr Panth, a Brahman, or, as some say, a Rakshasa. Near it are the modern Parwar temples, a handsome group, enclosed in well- fortified courts. The centre of interest, however, is at the west end of the hill, where the temple of Rdma (Rdmchandra), the tutelary god, stands conspicuous above the rest, overtopping the walls of the citadel. On the south and west the hill is naturally scarped. The north side has a double line of defence. The inner line belongs to the citadel ; the outer one turns towards the south, and, crossing a narrow valley which leads down to Ambdla, is continued along the edge of the hill till it joins, at the extreme west point, the more recent walls of the citadel. This outer line, now in ruins, was strongly, though rudely, built by piling ponderous stones on one another. Within it was a considerable village, of which a few traces yet remain. The citadel is at the western extremity of the enclosure, with the chief temples at the apex of the angle. The Ambdla road runs under a small wooded hill, crowned by a fortified summer palace, the work of a Rdjd of the Sdrya-Vansf or Solar race. Then, passing through the town, it winds round the southern ridge of the hill till it is confronted by the embankment of the tank, along which Raghuji' 1. built a line of defences, with strong bastions flanking the gateway. Within this lies Ambdla, with its lake, bathing ghdts, and temples, each belonging to an old Maratha family. From the western corner of the tank, flights of stone stairs, half a mile in length, lead up to the citadel, passing through the ruined outer line by a narrow gateway. By these steps all pilgrims ascend to worship at the temples. Near the top, on the right, is an ancient open bdoli or well, with a dharmsdla or rest-house attached. To the left stand two old temples of Krishna in the form of Narasinha, and opposite to them a plain mosque, built in commemoration of a courtier of Aurangzeb. A flight of steps then leads up to the outer gate, a massive building constructed, like all the outer walls belonging to the citadel, by the first Marathd ruler. Inside, on the right, are Hindu temples of Ndrdyan ; on the left, temples to which Parwars annually resort. Within the second line of walls, pierced by the RAMU—RANASAM. 467 Singhpur gate, which is said to have been built by the Surya-Vansis, the Mardthds had their arsenal, of which only some ruins of the wall remain. The third court is reached through a fine gateway called the Bhairava Danvdza ; in this part the walls and bastions restored by the Mardthds are in good repair. The innermost court has on either side the dwellings of the servants of the temples ; and at the farther end, the Gokul Darwdza, a. fantastic building leading to the shrines of Ganpati and Hanuman ; and lastly, built on the edge of the bluff, the temple of Rdma. From this inner court another series of stone steps lead down into the town of Rdmtek. In the early Maratha times, two fine old bdolis, or wells, were discovered here, which had for ages been covered over with earth. Ramu. — Village and police outpost station in the Sub-division of Cox's Bazar, Chittagong District, Bengal; situated in lat. 21° 25' n., and long. 92° 8' 25" e., upon the Chittagong and Arakan road. Large mart for local trade. Telegraph station; distant 85 miles from Chitta gong town. Ranaghat. — Sub-division of Nadiya District, Bengal. Lat. 22" 53 to 23° 20' n., and long. 88° 22' 30" to 88° 48' e. Area, 427 square miles; towns and villages, 511; houses, 52,287. Population (1881) 241,205, namely, males 118,430, and females 122,775 > proportion of males in total population, 49-1 per cent. Hindus numbered 141,132; Muhammadans, 99,032 ; and Christians, 41. Average number of persons per square mile, 565 ; villages per square mile, 1-20; houses per square mile, 129 ; persons per village, 472 ; inmates per house, 4-9. This Sub-division comprises the four thdnds or police circles of Rdna- ghdt, Santipur, Chagda, and Haringbata. In 1883 it contained 2 civil and 9 magisterial courts, with a regular police numbering 193 officers and men, and a village watch numbering 560. Ranaghat. — Town, municipality, and railway station, situated on the Churni river, Nadiyd District, Bengal, and head-quarters of Rdnaghat Sub-division. Lat. 23° 10' 40" n., long. 88° 36' 30" e. Population (1881) 8683, namely, Hindus 7318, and Muhammadans 1365. Municipal income (1883-84), .£655, of which ^£"579 was derived from taxation : average incidence of taxation, is. 4d. per head of population. Ranasam. — Native State within the British Political Agency of Mahi Kantha, Bombay Presidency ; situated in the Rehwdr Sub-division. Population (1872) 5329, and (1881) 4840. Area cultivated, 16,612 acres. The principal agricultural products are millets and pulses. Transit duties are levied in the State. The chief is descended from the Rdos of Chandravati, near Mount Abu. His ancestor, Jaipal, migrated from Chandravati to Harol in Mahi Kantha in 1227; and thence, in the 13th generation, Thdkur Prithwi Raj moved to Ghorwdra, havino- received a grant of the neighbouring tracts, which in the course 468 RANCHI— PANDER. of time were divided among the different branches of the family. The present (1884) chief, Thdkur Hamir Singh, succeeded his father Waje Singh, a Rehwdr Rajput of the Pramdra clan, who died in 1879. He administers the State in person. Estimated revenue, .£1500; tribute is paid of ,£37 to the Gdekwar of Baroda, ,£75 to Edar, and 6s. to the British Government. The family of the chief follow the lule of primogeniture in matters of succession. There is one school in the State, with 27 pupils in 1883. Ranchi. — Chief town and administrative head-quarters of Lohdrdaga District, and residence of the Commissioner of the Chutid Ndgpur Division, Bengal ; situated on the high central plateau of Lohdrdaga, in lat. 23° 22' 37" N., and long. 85" 22' 6" e., with a general elevation of 2100 feet above sea-level. Population (1881) 18,443, namely, males 10,101, and females 8342. Hindus number 9205 ; Muhammadans, 5392; and 'others,' 3846. Municipal revenue (1883-84), ,£1032. Average incidence of taxation, 9|d. per head of the population (15,566) within municipal limits. Rdnchi is simply a cluster of hamlets, from one of the smallest of which the station takes its name. The soil, being a mixture of clay, gravel, and sand, is well suited for the growth of European vegetables, fruits, and flowers. A considerable money-lending business is carried on by bankers from Mdrwdr ; the town also forms a distributing centre, for Lohdrdagd and the Tributary States, of large quantities of cotton goods imported from Calcutta. Chief buildings — Commissioner's and Deputy Commissioner's offices, court-houses, jail, school - house, and small library maintained by public subscription ; circuit house and ddk bungalow ; two churches and a charity hospital. Rander. — Town in the Chorasi Sub-division, Surat District, Bombay Presidency; situated in lat. 21° 12' n., and long. 72° 51' e., on the right bank of the Tdpti, 2 miles above Surat city. Population (1872) 10,280; (1881) 9416, namely, Hindus, 5133; Muhammadans, 3457! Jains, 661; and Pdrsis, 165. Municipal income, ,£1589 in 1882-83. Rander is supposed to be one of the oldest places in Southern Gujarat It is said to have been a place of importance about the beginning of the Christian era, when Broach was the chief seat of commerce in Western India. In the early part of the 13th century, a colony of Arab merchants and sailors is stated -to have attacked and expelled the Jains, at that time ruling at Rdnder, and to have converted their temples into mosques. Under the name of Nayatds, the Rdnder Arabs traded to distant countries. In 1 5 14, the traveller Barbosa described Rdnder as a rich and agreeable place of the Moors (Ndyatas), possessing very large and fine ships, and trading with Malacca, Bengal, Tawasery (Tenasserim), Pegu, Martaban, and Sumatra in all sorts of spices, drugs, silk, musk, benzoin, and porcelain. In 1530, the Portuguese, RANDHIA—RANGAMATI. 469 after sacking Surat, took Rdnder. With the growing importance of Surat, Rander declined in prosperity, and, by the close of the 16th century, became a port dependent on Surat. At present, Borahs of the Sunni sect carry on trade westwards with the Mauritius, and east wards with Rangoon, Moulmein, Siam, and Singapore. By the opening of the Tdpti Bridge in 1877, Rdnder was closely connected with Surat city. Post-office and dispensary. Randhia. — Petty State in the Gohel war prant or division of Kdthid wdr, Bombay Presidency; situated 18 miles south-west of Babra. Area, 3 square miles. Population (1881) 539. Randhia consists of 1 village, with 1 tribute-payer. Estimated revenue, ,£250. Raneh.— Town in Hatta tahsil, Damoh District, Central Provinces. Population (r88i) 3037, namely, Hindus, 2787; Muhammadans, 165; and Jains, 85. Rangamati. — Ancient town in Murshiddbad District, Bengal ; situated in lat 24° 1' 10" n., and long. 88° 13' n" e., on the right bank of the Bhdgirathi, 14 miles below Barhampur. The yellow clay here rises into bluffs 40 feet high, which form the only elevated ground in the neighbourhood, and are very con spicuous from the river. Few remains have been found except pot tery and the traces of buildings, tanks, and wells; but Rdngamati is rich in traditional history. The legend respecting the origin of the name, which means 'red earth,' is that Bibisan, brother of Ravana, being invited to a feast by a poor Brahman at Rangamdti, rained gold on the ground as a token of gratitude. By others the miracle is referred to Bhu Deb, who, through the power of his tapasyd, rained gold. Captain Layard, Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, 1853, says : — ' Rangamdti, anciently named the city of Kansonapurf [sic], is said to have been built many hundred years ago by a famous Maharaja of Bengal, named Kurun Sen, who resided chiefly at Gaur. Many interesting spots, connected with legends and traditions of the ancient city, are still pointed out, such as the Demon's Mount and the Rdjbdri, or palace of Kurun Sen. The remains of the greater part of the Rdjbdri are distinctly traceable on three sides, although now under cultivation ; the fourth has disappeared in the river. On the eastern face of the Rdjbdri, there stood, a few years ago, the ruins of a very old gateway, with two large entrances, called by the people of the neighbouring village of Jadupur, the burj, or tower. It has now entirely disappeared, having crumbled away with the falling bank into the rapid stream below.' Captain Layard also gives the name as Karn-sona-ka-ghar. This would correctly represent Karna-suvarna, the name of an ancient kingdom in Bengal, visited by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang (circ. 639 A.D.). This kingdom apparently included Bardwan and Birbhdoi. The name is the same, though Captain Layard's site is 47° RANGAMATI—RANGANAD1. probably that of a later capital. See also Fergusson, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, new series, vol. vi. p. 248 ; and Captain F. Wilford, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, ix. p. 89. Mr. Long, in his essay on ' The Banks of the Bhdgirathi,' states that Rdngdmdti formed one of the ten faujddris into which Bengal was divided under Musalmdn rule. Its Hindu zaminddr was a con siderable person ; and on the occasion of the great Punyd at Mutijhil in 1767, received a khildt worth Rs. 7278, or as much as the zaminddr of Nadiyd. The site of Rdngdmdti was at one time selected, in preference to Barhampur, as being a healthy spot for the erection of barracks. In 1846 it was still resorted to as a sanitarium, and was a favourite place for picnic parties and shooting excursions ; snipe and partridge abound. The undulations of the land and the general scenery reminded Mr. Long of England. In 1881-82, however, Rangamdti was declared to be the most unhealthy spot in the whole of the District ; the great majority of the inhabitants being struck down by malarial fever. The East India Company once had a silk factory at Rdngdmdti, which was sold in 1835, together with 1500 bighas of land attached to it, for ^£2100. Rangamati. — Administrative head-quarters of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bengal, as well as the head-quarters of the Bengal frontier force; pleasantly situated on the banks of the Karnaphulf river. A Gurkha settlement established here in 1872-74 proved a failure, owing to the climate, and the colony was broken up in 1877. The country round has been cleared of jungle within the last few years. A number of native gentlemen have formed themselves into an agricul tural company, and taken up lands close to the station. The land is being rapidly reclaimed, and brought under cultivation; and it is hoped that, in the course of a few years, by these means, the sanitary condition of the place will improve considerably. Government middle-class English school. The telegraph line between Rdngdmdti and Chitta gong was closed in May 1875. Lat 22° 41' 5" n., long. 91° 49' 50" e. Rangamati. — Village in Godlpard District, Assam ; situated in lat. 26° 19' n., and long. 90° 48' e., on the north or right bank of the Brahmaputra. An important outpost of the Muhammadans at the beginning of the last century. The ruins of their fortifications can still be seen. An old mosque near the village is still in perfect con dition, with a deep well containing at least 20 feet of water at all seasons of the year. A flourishing tea-garden has been recently established here, and the old mosque is now used as the residence of the planter. Ranganadi. — River in the north of Lakhimpur District, Assam, RANG ASWAMI— RANGOON 471 which rises in the Daphld Hills, and, flowing south, empties itself into the Subdnsiri below Goramur. It is navigable by small boats all the year through, and is largely used by traders from Gauhati and Goal- pard, who come up in the cold season to buy rape-seed and mejdti, as well as by tea-planters in the north of the Sub-division for exporting their tea. Rangaswami. — Peak in the Nilgiri Hills, Madras Presidency ; situated near the Gazzalhdthi Pass. Lat. 11° 27' 20" N., long. 77° 20' E.; height above sea-level, 5937 feet. Rangi. — Zaminddri estate in Brdhmapuri tahsil, Chdnda District, Central Provinces, comprising 39 villages. Area, 112 square miles. Population (1881) 4562. The soil is sandy, producing rice, and in some places sugar-cane. The eastern portion is hilly, with a good deal of teak,'besides sdj and mahud trees. Rdngi, the principal village, situated in lat. 20° 21' n., and long. 80° 13' e., has a weekly market; and at Ingara, an ancient temple contains a sculpture of a warrior with a short straight sword and shield. Rangia. — Village in Kamrdp District, Assam ; on the Bardliya river, about 20 miles north-north-west of Gauhati. Lat. 26° 26' n., long. 91° 40' e. A centre of local trade. The village is on the line of route to Diwdngiri in Bhutan, and was the head-quarters of the military force engaged in operations against the Bhutids in this direction during the campaign of 1864-65. Rangir. — Ancient village in Sagar (Saugor) District, Central Pro vinces ; 2 2 miles south-east of Sdgar town. The fair, held every March, attracts nearly 70,000 persons. Rangmagiri. — Village in the Garo Hills District, Assam, on the southern slope of the Mimanram mountain. The scene of the murder ofthe Survey coolie in March 1871, which led to the Garo expedition of the following year, and the ultimate subjection of the hill tribes to British rule. The path from the station of Tura, communicating with the police outpost at Rayak, passes through this village. Rangoon (Ran-kim, now called Hanthawadi). — British District in the Pegu Division, Lower Burma; occupying the seaboard from the mouth of the Sittang (Tsit-taung) river westwards to the To or China Bakir mouth of the Irawadi; situated between 16° and 17° N. lat, and between 95° and 960 e. long. Known to the ancients as Bokhdradesa, a name which survives in China Bakir. Area, 4236 square miles. Population (1881) 427,720 persons. Bounded on the north by the Districts of Tharawadi and Shwe-gyin, on the east by Shwe-gyin, and on the west by Thonegwa. On the first formation of Rangoon District it included Bhaw-ru, a strip of country extending along the eastern slopes of the Pegu Yoma Hills from the Bhawrugale stream to Taung-ngd. In 1864, Bhaw-ru was added to Taung-ngd, and in 1866, transferred to 472 RANGOON. Shwe-gyin ; subsequently the Kawliya circle was joined to Shwe-gyin, and the Thongay circle to Henzada ; still later, a large tract in the west was cut off to form portion of Thonegwa; and in 1883 the eastern and south-eastern townships, Pegu, Hlaygu, and Syriam, were taken from it and formed into the new District of Pegu. The head quarters of Rangoon or Hanthawadi District are at Rangoon City. Physical Aspects. — Rangoon District consists of a vast plain extending along the sea-coast, and gradually rising towards the north, where it is broken about the centre by' the lower slopes of the Pegu Yomas. South of the Pegu river, in the greater portion of the Hlaing valley, and for some distance above Rangoon city, the country is intersected by numerous tidal creeks, many of which are navigable by large boats and some by steamers. The chief of these are — the Baw-lay, with its branch, the Pa-kwun, communicating with the Irawadi, and practicable during the rains for river steamers ; the Pan-hlaing, which leaves the Irawadi at Nyaung-don and joins the Hlaing a few miles above Rangoon city, forming in the rains the usual route of river steamers from Rangoon ; the Tha-kwd-pin (popularly ' Bassein Creek '), which con nects the Rangoon river with the To or China Bakir, and is navigable at all seasons, river steamers using it in the dry season when the Pan- hlaing is closed. The Pegu Yomas attain their highest elevation, viz. 2000 feet, in the extreme north of Rangoon District, and, a few miles lower down, divide into two main branches with many subsidiary spurs. The western branch, which has a general south-south-west direction, separates the valleys of the Hlaing and Pagan-daung rivers, and except in the extreme south marks the boundary between Rangoon and Pegu Districts. After rising into the irregularly shaped limestone hill called Taung-nyo, a little south of lat. 17° n., it forms the laterite hills round the great Shwe-Dagon pagoda ; and beyond the Pegu river, it merges into the alluvial plains of the delta in Pegu District, being last traceable in the rocks in the Hmaw-wdn stream. The eastern branch of the Pegu Yomas has a south-south-east direction, and finally disappears south of the Pegu river. The slopes of the main range are, as a rule, steep, and the valleys sharply excavated. The principal river in the District is the Hlaing, which rises near Prome as the Zay, and, entering Rangoon District in about lat. 17° 30' n., flows south-south-east, falling into the sea, in about lat. 16° 30' n., under the name of the Rangoon river. It is navigable at all seasons by the largest sea-going vessels as far as Rangoon city. Its chief tributaries in Rangoon District are the Ok-kan, Magoyi, Hmaw-bf, and Lien-gun. On the west, the Baw-lay, Pan-hlaing, and other tidal creeks connect it with the Irawadi. The Pugun-daung rises in the southern spurs of the Pegu Yomas, and falls into the Pegu river at the city of RANGOON. 473 Rangoon, after a south-easterly course of 53 miles through a valley rich in valuable timber, and well cultivated towards the south. The Pegu River rises in the eastern slopes of the main range, and falls into the Rangoon river at Rangoon city; it is navigable during the rains by river steamers up to Pegu, and the tide is felt for some miles above that town. It is connected with the Sittang (Tsit-taung) by a canal with locks. The principal trees found in the District are the mangrove, largely used for fuel ; pyin-ma (Lagerstrcemia hypoleuca) ; ka-nyin (Diptero- carpus alatus) ; or in (Dipterocarpus tuberculatus) ; pyin-ka-do (Xylia dolabriformis), etc. There are two small teak 'reserves,' both on the western slopes of the Pegu Yomas, the Maguyf, and the Kyet- pydgan. The area of reserved forests in Rangoon District in 1884 was 554,540 acres, or 867 square miles; revenue, ,£10,464; expenditure, ;£i6,752. History. — Local legends, said to be confirmed by Tamil and Telugu traditions, state that in some unknown century before Christ, the in habitants ofTelingana or Northern Madras colonized the coast of Burma, finding there a Mun population, by which designation the Peguans still call themselves, whilst Telingana appears in the modern word Talaing. The Palm-leaf Records assert that the Shwe-Dagon pagoda was founded by two brothers, who had met and conversed with Gautama Buddha in India. But the first notice of the country that can be considered as historical is given in the Singhalese Mahawanso, which mentions the mission of Sono and Uttaro, sent by the third Buddhist Council (244 B.C.) to Suvarna-bhdmi ('Aurea Regio ') to spread the Buddhist faith. It seems clear that the delta of the Irawadi did not escape from the contest between the followers of the Brahmanical and Buddhist faiths, which lasted for hundreds of years, until about the end of the 8th century the victory eventually passed to the one body in India, and to the other in Burma. One of the results of these religious differences was the foundation of the city of Pegu in 573 a.d. by Tha-ma-la and Wi'-ma-la, two sons ofthe King of Tha-htdn by a mother of Naga descent, who were excluded from the throne of their father. Tha-ma-la was anointed King, and would seem to have extended his dominions considerably to the east ward, as he is said to have built Martaban. He was succeeded by his brother Wi-ma-la, who founded Sittang, and during whose reign the country was unsuccessfully invaded (in 590 a.d.) by the King of Bij-ja-na-ga-ran. Thirteen kings are said to follow between this period and 746 a.d. ; and by the latter time the kingdom included the whole country of Rama-gnya, from the Arakan Mountains on the west to the Salwin river on the east, including the former capital, Tha-htun, which had much declined in importance. Even at this time, Buddhism was 474 PANGOON. not generally accepted -in the country ; and the tenth king of Pegu, Pun-na-rf-ka (Brdhman heart), and more especially his son and successor, Tek-tha, appear to have at least inclined towards Hindu traditions. With the death of Tek-tha ended the third dynasty of Pegu, for the succession had been more than once disturbed by usurpers. The length of time during which these three dynasties occupied the throne is doubtful, and it is by no means clear when Tek-tha died. A gap now occurs, owing to the unwillingness of Taking historians to disclose the religious revolutions in their country during the 9th and 10th centuries, and its conquest by A-naw-ra-hta, King of Pagan in 1050. After this date, it remained subject to the Burmese for two centuries. The gradual disintegration of the Burmese kingdom, the capture of its capital by the Chinese army of the Mongol Emperor, Kublai Khan (1283-84 a.d.), and the flight ofthe king to Bassein, were taken advantage of by the Takings, who rose in rebellion. A man named Wa-rf-yd killed the Burmese Governor of Martaban, and made himself master of that town and the surrounding country. A-kham-won, who had headed a rising in Pegu, now leagued himself with Wa-ri-yd, and their united army defeated the forces of the King of Burma, and pursued them as far as Pa-daung, a few miles below Prome. The Takings then retired to Pegu ; but disputes ensued, which ended in the death of A-kham-won or Ta-ra-bya, and in his rival being declared ruler of the entire country. Shortly after this, Wa-ri-yd was killed by two sons of A-kham-won, and was succeeded in 1306 by his brother, who only reigned four years. From 1385 to 142 1, Raza-di-rit was on the thione. He repelled a formidable invasion of the Burmese, and in 1388 regained possession of Martaban and the country to the eastward, which had been lost in a previous reign. The history of Rangoon District during this period is nothing but a series of internecine struggles and wars with the Burmese. It was probably during the reign of Raza-di-rit that the country was first visited by Europeans. Nicholas Conti was in Pegu, ' a very populous city, the circumference of which is 12 miles,' in 1430. Antonio Correa made a treaty at Martaban in 15 19 with Bya-gnya-ran, the tenth monarch after Raza-di-rit ; and from this time onwards, there was considerable intercourse between European soldiers of fortune and the kings of Pegu, who sought their aid. For the local history of Rangoon town, see the next article. In the 16th century (circa 1538), Pegu was conquered by Ta-bin- shwe-htf, King of Taung-gd, and thus ended the dynasty founded by Wa-rf-yd. Ta-bin-shwe-hti took Martaban, and, returning to Pegu, was crowned king ; and to mark his assumption of that rank, placed new ' umbrellas ' on the Shwe-hmaw-daw and Shwe-Dagon pagodas. Later on, he gained possession of the country as far as Lower Pagan ; in 1549 RANGOON. 475 he defeated the Siamese army, and forced the King of Siam to pay- tribute. But in 1550, Ta-bin-shwe-hti was assassinated by the Governor of Tsit-taung, who proclaimed himself king. After some disturbance, Bhdrin Naung, the heir-apparent, obtained his rights. He took Taung- gd, and in 1554 declared war against Burma, and in March 1555 captured Ava. His dominions extended from Tenasserim to Arakan, and from the sea-coast northwards to the Shan States. Bhurin Naung died suddenly in 158 1. He was more than a great warrior; he enlarged his capital and strengthened its walls, and he founded in the neighbourhood another town of which the massive remains still exist. He was observant of religious rites, and obtained from one of the kings of Ceylon a relic of Gautama, which he enshrined in a pagoda. Bhurin Naung also abolished the annual sacrifices to the Nat or spirits. Bhurin Naung was succeeded by his son Nanda Bhdrin, to whom all neighbouring rulers did homage, with the exception of the Burmese monarch, against whom Nanda Bhurin advanced up the Irawadi in 1584-85, and forced him to escape into China. Meanwhile the King of Siam revolted; and four expeditions, all equally unsuccessful, were despatched against him in 1585, 1587, 1590, and 1593. These failures seem to have embittered Nanda Bhdrin, and to have rendered him wantonly cruel. The Taking Buddhist monks especially incurred his enmity, and numbers were put to death or forced to fly the country. The delta became depopulated, and utter anarchy ensued. The Arakanese seized Syriam ; in 1599 Pegu was taken, and Nanda Bhdrin sent captive to Taung-gd. The kingdom was for a while left without a ruler. In 1600, Philip de Brito, then in the service of the Arakanese sove reign, was commanded to hold Syriam. He, however, proved faithless, and sided with the Portuguese viceroy at Goa. Being accepted by the Taking inhabitants, he declared himself master of Pegu, of which he took possession in the name of the King of Portugal. He erected a fort and church at Syriam, and laid out a new city. The forces of the kings of Taung-gd and Arakan were routed, and the commander made prisoner. Philip de Brito now entered into treaties with his former enemy, the King of Taung-gd, and also with the ruler of Martaban ; but having treacherously attacked the former, was himself captured by the King of Burma in 1612, and impaled. The Portuguese power in Pegu was thus finally destroyed. Pegu remained subject to Burma till 174°; and it: was during this period that the English commenced trading with Rangoon. In 1695, application was made for permission to establish a factory at Syriam; and from 1709 to 1743, English traders were settled there. But the Burmese Government, owing partly to invasions from the north, and partly to internal dissensions, was falling to pieces; and in 1740 the Peguans rose in open rebellion. Syriam was twice seized, and in 476 RANGOON. 1 743, in consequence of English aid being refused, our factories were burnt down. Ava was in the hands of the Peguans for a short time ; but in 1753, Maung-aung-zaya, Myo-thii-gyi of Mdt-tsho-bo, regained the capital, and proclaimed himself king under the title of Akung-paya (or Alompra), thus founding the dynasty that reigned till 1885. Within four years he had conquered Pegu, Tavoy, and Mergui, and had advanced into Siam. The British sided with neither party ; but, unfortunately, some of our officers were suspected by Akung-paya of having favoured the Peguans. In 1824 the first Anglo-Burmese war broke out, and a British force entered the river, and took Rangoon. At the close of the campaign, the British restored Pegu to the King of Burma. Disputes on matters of trade led to the second Anglo-Burmese war of 1852, at the close of which the District of Rangoon, with the rest of the Pegu and Irawadi Divisions and part of the present Tenasserim Division, was annexed. Population. — The continual wars between the Burmese, the Peguans, and the Siamese, together with internal dissensions, almost depopulated the once flourishing Taking kingdom, of which this District formed part Nanda Bhdrin, who reigned over Pegu and Ava from 1581 to z599i by his cruelties forced numbers to abandon the country, and the delta became utterly deserted. The Burmese, after the conquest in 1757, set themselves steadily to extirpate the Taking language; and after the first Anglo - Burmese war, they drove thousands into the British Provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim. In 1855, including Rangoon city, the total number of inhabitants was returned at 137,130. The Census of 1881 disclosed, exclusive of Rangoon city, a population of 427,720, namely, 239,018 males and 188,702 females, occupying 72,115 houses, in 1 town and 1393 villages, on an area of 4236 square miles. Number of persons per square mile, 10 1 ; villages per square mile, 0-33; houses per square mile, 17-8; persons per house, 5-9. Nearly 56 per cent of the population are males ; owing mainly to the existence of a large foreign element, in which the males largely preponderate. Classified according to age, there were — under 15 years of age, boys 89,137, girls 83,115; total children, 172,252, or 40-2 per cent, of the population : 15 years and upwards, males 149,881, and females 105,587; total adults, 255,468, or 59-8 per cent, of the population. Classified according to religion — Buddhists number 408,016; Nat- worshippers, 470 ; Hindus, 7908 ; Muhammadans, 4085 ; Christians, 7227; Brahmos, n; and Pdrsfs, 3. Classified according to race as shown by the language table — Burmese, 324,817; Taking, 25,986; Karen, 50,702; Shan, 11,282; Chinese, 2013; Hindustdni, 8193; Telugu, 1836; Tamil, 797; Taungthu, 1090. The Muhammadan population according to sect consists of— Sunnfs, 3244; Shids, 634; RANGOON. AVI Fardizis, 36; and 'others,'i7i. Ofthe Christian population— Europeans number 163; Eurasians, 137; and Natives, 6927, of whom 6246 are Baptists. The number of Takings seems small, but it is probable that many shown in the returns as Burmese are really pure Takings, and still more of mixed Burmese and Taking blood. The Karens belong to the Pwo and Sgaw families, and are industrious agriculturists. Many have been converted to Christianity, and the remainder profess Buddhism. The Shans are immigrants from the north, and are settled in colonies. In the Than-lyin township are several villages occupied by the descendants of captives brought from Zin-mai by Akung-paya after his invasion of that country, about 125 years ago. The Census of 188 1 distributed the population into six main groups : — (1) Professional class, including State officials of every kind, 4371 males and 313 females; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, 1225 males and 2522 females; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, carriers, etc., 14,469 males and 3663 females ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 88,504 males and 44,894 females ; (5) industrial class, including all manufacturers and artisans, 17,605 males and 17,996 females; and (6) indefinite and non-productive class, comprising labourers, children, and persons of unspecified occupation, 112,844 males and 119,314 females. The chief towns (exclusive of Rangoon city, which forms a District by itself) are — Pegu, situated on the Pegu river, once the capital of a flourishing kingdom, but now merely a large village with 5891 inhabitants ; Twan-te, also formerly important, but now an insignificant village ; Pyawbhway, with 2043 inhabitants ; and Tanma-naing, the head quarters of Pyawbhway township, with 1603 inhabitants. Of the 1394 towns and villages in the District, 601 contain less than two hundred inhabitants; 594 from two to five hundred; 149 from five hundred to one thousand; 45 from one to two thousand; 4 from two to three thousand ; and 1 above five thousand inhabitants. Antiquities. — The principal pagodas in the District are — the Shwe- Dagon and the Shwe-hmaw-daw at Twan-te. The Shwe-Dagon is the most celebrated object of worship in all the Indo-Chinese countries, as enshrining several hairs of Gautama Buddha. The Shwe-hmaw-daw is the great pagoda of the Takings. Not far from Twan-te stand a few ancient pagodas, indicating the site of Khappanganagara and Minskdon Hmaw-bi. Hlaing and Tdnbd are sites of more modern, but still ancient towns. Agriculture.— The District is said to have once been highly cultivated ; but the continual wars with the Siamese on the one hand, and with the Burmese on the other, the cruel persecutions by Nanda Bhdrin at the end of the 16th century, and the measures adopted by the Burmese conquerors, depopulated the land. The British annexation gave a new 478 RANGOON. stimulus, and the area under rice (the exportation of which had been prohibited in the Burmese time) commenced at once to increase. The richest rice tract is that lying between the To, the Hlaing, the Pan- hlaing, and the sea, which now forms the Twan-te and Pyawbhway townships. The out-turn varies from 40 baskets (about 12 cwt.) to 30 baskets (9 cwt.) per acre. Towards the north the soil becomes much poorer. The country to the south and south-east is annually covered with so much water that cultivation can only be carried on in patches. Considerable damage was caused in former times by the leasing out of tidal streams as fisheries, the lessees having erected weirs and embank ments which caused the channels to silt up, and thus become unable to carry off the rainfall. This leasing is now prohibited. In 1876-77, the total area under rice was 669,313 acres; and in 1882-83, 984,814 acres, out of a total area under cultivation of 1,013,019 acres. By the constitution of Pegu as a separate District in 1883-84, the area under rice in Rangoon has been reduced to 383,308 acres. Mixed fruit-trees, as mangoes, jacks, plantains, and mayan (a kind of acid plum), occupied a total area of 25,375 acres in 1882-83. At Twan-te is a small grove of Sapodilk plum-trees, producing the royal fruit of the Takings. In 1868, a pair of buffaloes or plough bullocks cost ,£10; by 1883-84 the price had doubled. The average holding of an agriculturist is larger in Rangoon than anywhere else in the Province ; in 1852 it was found to be about 10 acres ; in 1881 it was, in the case of rice land, nearly 24 acres. Every owner of upwards of 8 acres hires labourers, who are paid by the season, and live with the farmer. The engagement includes ploughing, sowing, reaping, thrashing, and garner ing ; but in some parts natives of India are engaged in gangs at the harvest season. The average number of a cultivating family is 5-68, and their average yearly cost of living is about ,£18, 10s. ; the average cost of cultivation per acre is ,£1, os. 9d., or ,£24, 18s. for an average- sized holding. This, with the cost of living, brings the annual expendi ture up to ,£43, 8s. The out-turn would be about 850 baskets, selling at £l Per IO° baskets, or .£59, 10s., giving a net gain of about ,£17. The District contained in 1883-84 the following agricultural stock and implements : — Cows and bullocks, 28,066 ; horses and ponies, 112 ; sheep and goats, 549; pigs, 7708; elephants, 8; buffaloes, 33,998; carts, 8230; ploughs, 15,794; boats, 4757. The average rent per acre of land fitted for rice is 6s. iod., and the average produce per acre, 864 lbs. The prices ruling in the District in 1883-84 per maund of 80 lbs., were — for rice, 13s. 9d. ; for cotton, 26s. ; for sugar, 33s. ; for salt, 5s. 9d. ; for tobacco, 33s.; for oil-seeds, 56s. ; for cocoa-nut oil, 44s.; for earth oil, 13s. Skilled labourers in 1883-84 earned 2s., and unskilled labourers, is. i^d. a day. Natural Calamities. — West of the Hlaing river the country is liable RANGOON. 479 to inundation. The embankments along the west bank of the Irawadi, which protect large areas of good land in other Districts to the west ward, cause the floods — which formerly spread west and east — to flow eastward to a far greater extent than before, thus not only increasing the flooded area, but also making the floods higher than formerly. The flood water enters by the numerous creeks connecting the Irawadi with the Hlaing, and, passing down the Pan-hlaing, forces back the Hlaing, causing much mischief. In 1876-77, the crops were ruined over no less than 171,000 acres, entailing much suffering on the people, serious remissions of land revenue, and an extensive emigration. Again, in 1877-78, 65,339 acres of rice land were irretrievably damaged by inundation. Manufactures, etc. — The principal articles manufactured in Rangoon District are salt, pottery, nga-pi or fish-paste, mats, and silk and cotton cloth. The pottery and fish-paste alone are exported. Salt is made during the hot weather at various places along the sea-coast, and in the Syriam and An-gyi townships, partly by solar evaporation and partly by boiling in iron or earthen pots. The boiling season lasts for about two months, and the average out-turn from each pot may be taken at 250 viss, or about 8 cwts., which would sell for £1, 16s. or £1, 18s. The quantity manufactured is decreasing year by year, owing to the cheap ness of the imported English salt. Pots for salt-boiling are made at Kwon-chan-gun, and in the adjoining village of Taw-pa-lway in the Pyawbhway township. The price per hundred varies from £4, 10s. to £9. A party of four good workmen will turn out from 100 to 125 pots per diem. The cost of a hundred baskets of sand is 16s. ; of earth, 5s. The mixer gets 2s. a day ; the wheel-turner, fashioner, and finisher, each get 6s. per hundred pots. The expenditure during a season for manufacturing 1250 pots is estimated at ,£50, and the net profit at ,£25. Ordinary cooking pots cost from 12s. to 16s. per 100 in the cold season, and 10s. in the rains. At Twan-te are made large water or oil vessels, glazed outside with a mixture of galena and rice-water, and commonly known as ' Pegu jars.' Nga-pi and coarse mats, used for ships' holds, are made chiefly in Pyawbhway. Silkworms are reared in the Hlaing township, and silk and cotton cloth are woven in almost every house. The trade of the District centres in Rangoon City. . Communication is carried on mainly by the numerous tidal creeks of the District. The total length of water-way is 492 miles. A new canal has recently been cut from the Rangoon river opposite Rangoon city to To near Twan-te. There are 112 miles of made road m the District the principal being that from Rangoon city towards Prome, now taken up by the Irawadi Valley State Railway ; and the Rangoon and Taung-gd road from Tauk-kyan to Pegu, crossing the Pegu river by a 480 PANGOON wooden bridge, and proceeding northwards along the eastern foot of the Pegu Yomas. The Rangoon and Irawadi Valley State Railway runs nearly due north for 6oJ miles to the Mi'-nin river, with stations at Kemendine, Pauk-taw, Hlaw-ga, Hmaw-bf, Wanetchaung, Taik-gyi, Palon, and Okkan. The line is single, with a gauge of 3-28 feet. The Sittang line strikes north-east via Pegu to Taung-gd. Revenue. — No records exist showing the exact revenue raised in the District before British annexation. The amounts were fixed in viss (3 -65 lbs.) of Gwek-ni silver, each of which is equivalent to about ,£13. The total sum paid by the people in what is now Hanthawadi, Pegu, and a part of Thonegwa Districts, has been estimated at about ,£114,560. In 1853-54 the net revenue was .£54,5°9 I m l85S-56. £9(1,040. The gross revenue in 1877-78, excluding sea customs, but including the imperial revenue of Rangoon city and the income derived from local funds (exclusive of Rangoon city), was .£323,251. The gross revenue in 1883-84 (excluding the city of Rangoon) was £115,316 ; and the land revenue, ,£88,519. The land capitation tax, fisheries, and sea customs yield the largest portion of the revenue. The fisheries are leased out for a term of five years by auction, and only bona fide fishermen living near can bid. Administration. — Under Burmese rule, Rangoon and Pegu Districts consisted of several townships, each under an officer ; and the whole was controlled by a governor with the power of life and death, who was in direct communication with the Government at Ava. When the British took possession, the local jurisdictions were to a great extent retained. And a myo-ok was appointed to each township with limited judicial, fiscal, and police powers ; with thiigyis in charge of circles, and gomys under them in charge of villages. Since then little alteration has been made in the general principles of administration, with four exceptions — (1) the formation in 1861-62 of a regular police; (2) a few years later, of an independent prison department ; (3) later still, of an educational department ; (4) the gradual division of the District, as revenue, population, and ad ministrative labour increased, culminating in the complete separation of Rangoon city, and the formation in 1883 of three out of the seven townships into a new District called Pegu. All statistics, however, population and otherwise, given in this article, refer to the District before the separation of Pegu. Rangoon District now comprises 2 Sub-divisions, each containing 2 townships. The number of revenue circles is 29. There were 6 courts in the District in 1882-83, presided over by 26 officers exercising civil, criminal, and revenue powers. The Deputy Commissioner, as magistrate, can try all offences not punishable with death, and he hears all civil appeals. The average distance of a village from the nearest court is 26 miles. Gang - robberies, RANGOON. 481 which were very frequent for several years after the annexation, are now of rare occurrence. The police force in 1881-82 consisted of 2 superior officers and 53 subordinate officers and 512 men; total, 567 : total cost in that year, ,£14,268, of which ,£14,094 was paid from imperial and .£174 from local funds. The total cost in 1877 was ,£12,304. The Central and District prison is situated in Rangoon city. Schools were opened many years ago by both Roman Catholic and Baptist missionaries ; but for long they were confined to the city, the education of the rural classes being left entirely in the hands of the Buddhist monks. In 1867 there were 54 village mission schools aided by Government, chiefly for Karens. In 1873 a cess school was established in Pegu. In 1883-84 there were 358 monastic and lay indigenous primary vernacular schools, with 10,134 pupils. The Census Report of 1881 returned 28,091 boys and 5225 girls as under instruction, besides 97,063 males and 2946 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. Climate. — The climate is generally depressing, though December and January are cool bracing months, with little rain. The rains last from about the beginning of May till the middle of November, and are usually accompanied by considerable electrical disturbance. The average annual rainfall at Rangoon, which may be taken as the same as that of the whole District, is 98-71 inches; the rainfall at Rangoon in 1883 was 82-3 inches. In the same year the temperature ranged between 99-30° F. as the maximum and 59-50° as the minimum. Fever, rheumatism, and pulmonary complaints are prevalent. The dispensary and hospital are situated in Rangoon city. Rangoon. — The capital of the Province of Lower Burma, is situated in lat. 16° 46' 40" n., and long. 96° 13' 15" e., on the left bank of the Hlaing river, at its junction with the Pegu and Pd-zun-daung streams, 2 1 miles from the sea, with a small suburb, the Da-la quarter, on the opposite bank. Area, 22 square miles. Population (1881) 134,176. According to Taking tradition, the first village on the site of the modern Rangoon was founded about 585 b.c. by two brothers, Pu and Ta-paw, who had received some of Gautama's hairs from the Buddha himself, and, acting on his instructions, enshrined them in the famous Shwe-Dagon pagoda. Pdn-na-ri-ka, who reigned in Pegu from 746 to 761 A.D., is said to have re-founded the town, and called it Aramana. Afterwards it regained its name of Dagon. The Taking records relate how it was occupied by the Burmese in 141 3; how Bya-nya-kin, the son of Raza-df-rit, was appointed its governor ; and how Shin-tsaw-bd, his sister, in whose memory a national festival is celebrated every year, built herself a palace here in 1460. The town gradually sank into a collection of huts. Da-la, now an unimportant suburb on the right vol. xi. 2 H 4S2 RANGOON. bank of the Hlaing, and Syriam, on the opposite side of the Pegu river, are repeatedly noticed ; but of Dagon little or nothing is said. Gaspar Balbi, who came to Pegu in 1579-80, thus wrote of Dagon : 'After we were landed, we began to goe on the right hand in a large street about 50 paces broad, in which we saw wooden houses gilded and adorned with delicate gardens after their custom, wherein their Takpoins, which are their .Friers, dwell and look to the Pagod or Varella of Dogon. The left side is furnished with portals and shops, . . . and by this street they go the Varella for a good mile straight forward, either under paint houses or in the open street, which is free to walk in.' The English, Portuguese, Dutch, and French had factories at Than-lyin, better known as Syriam, on the other side of the river. The officers in charge communicated with the Taking court at Pegu though the governor of Dagon, who, in order to be able to suppress the quarrels between the European factors, each of whom strove to oust the rest for the benefit of his own nation, was eventually promoted, by the sovereign of Pegu, to the first rank in the kingdom. In the wars between the sovereigns of Burma and Pegu, Dagon fre quently changed hands; and when, in 1763, Akung-paya, or Alompra, drove out the Talaing garrison of Ava (then the Burmese capital), and eventually conquered the Taking dominions, he came down to Dagon, and repaired the great pagoda. Akung-paya for the most part rebuilt the town, gave it the name of Ran-kdn (lit. ' the end of the war ') or Rangoon, which it has ever since borne, and made it the seat of a viceroyalty. Rangoon, however, remained little more than a group of hovels, just above the level of low tide. Until 1790 it was the scene of incessant struggles between the Burmese and Peguans. In that year the place was captured by the latter, but the rising was speedily quelled by Min-tara-gyi or Bo-daw Paya, the Burmese monarch. The more general aspects of the native history of Rangoon have been dealt with under Rangoon District. About this period the English obtained leave to establish a factory in Rangoon, and the British colours were hoisted over it. In 1794, differ ences arose in Arakan and Chittagong between the East India Company and the Burmese Government, and Colonel Symes was sent on an embassy to Ava, one of the results of his mission being the appointment of a British Resident at Rangoon in 1798. Symes thus described Rangoon as he saw it : 'It stretches along the bank of the river about a mile, and is not more than a third of a mile in breadth. The city or myo is a square, surrounded by a high stockade, and on the north side it is further strengthened by an indifferent fosse, across which a wooden bridge is thrown ; in this face there are two gates, in each of the others only one. On the south side, towards the river, . . . there are a number of huts and three wharves, with cranes for landing goods. RANGOON. 483 A battery of 12 cannon, six and nine pounders, raised on the bank, commands the river, but the guns and carriages are in such a wretched condition that they could do but little execution. . . . The streets of the town are narrow, and much inferior to those of Pegu, but clean and well paved ; there are numerous channels to carry off the rain, over which strong planks are placed to prevent an interruption to intercourse. The houses are raised on posts from the ground. ... All the officers of Government, the most opulent merchants, and persons of consideration, live within the fort ; shipwrights and people of inferior rank inhabit the suburbs. . . . Swine are suffered to roam about the town at large ; . . . they are servants of the public, common scavengers. . . . The Burmese are also fond of dogs, numbers of which infest the streets.' During the first Anglo-Burmese war (1825), Rangoon was taken by the British and held till 1827 ; it was evacuated in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Yandabu. In 1840, the appearance of Rangoon was described as suggestive of meanness and poverty, quite dispelling the interest excited by the narratives of travellers. In 1 84 1, King Kdn-baung-min, better known as Prince Tharawadi, ordered the town and stockade to be removed about a mile and a quarter inland to the site of Ok-ka-k-ba, and to be called by that name. The royal order was to a certain extent obeyed ; the prin cipal buildings and Government offices were placed in the new town, and were there when the British force landed at and cap tured Rangoon in April 1852, on the outbreak of the second Anglo- Burmese war. From this time the place has remained in possession of the English. Within six months, steps were taken for laying out regular streets, for raising the general level, and for keeping out the river. The work of improvement has gone on steadily, and the Rangoon of to-day has practically been created since 1852. A raised strand road runs along the southern reach of the Hlaing, and the space between it and the old ditch is divided into square blocks by broad and regular streets. To the north is the military cantonment, and within its limits stands the great Shwe-Dagon pagoda, the terraced hill from which it rises being now fortified. A little to the east of this edifice is the ' Great Royal Lake,' a fine sheet of water, with a carriage- road all round. The Rangoon and Irawadi State Railway has a station in the centre of the city, which is divided into 11 quarters. On the right bank of the Hlaing is the Da-la quarter or suburb, a narrow tract extending along the margin of the river, in which are situated the private dockyards and docks. The main portion, or Rangoon Proper, contains the public buildings, the principal of which are the law courts, telegraph and post offices, Bank of Bengal, Roman Catholic 484 RANGOON. and Anglican churches, custom-house, etc. The Tsu-lai pagoda is in Fytche square, an open space with a large tank in the centre surrounded by trees and shrubs. The point of junction of the Pd-zdn-daung and Hlaing rivers in the east, known as Monkey Point, is crowned by a battery ; along the bank of the former stream are the chief rice-husking steam mills, and on the Hlaing are numerous sawmills. The other buildings of note in Rangoon are — the lunatic asylum ; the jail, which is the main central prison for the Province, and contained in 1883, 8005 prisoners, of whom 128 were females, and 270 Europeans; the hospital and charitable dispensary, east of the Agri - Horticultural Society's Gardens, with the Phayre Museum ; the high school ; St. John's College ; the Diocesan school, etc Immediately north of the railway, which runs behind the high school, jail, and lunatic asylum, is the military parade-ground, with an iron Anglican church on its northern border. The military cantonment extends behind this in a line running east and west ; the east overlaps it and reaches down southwards for some distance. In 1885 the garrison consisted of one battery of artillery, one battalion of European and one of Native infantry, with a detail of Sappers, all belonging to the Madras army. The judicial work of the town is entrusted to a Recorder and subordinate magistrates. In certain cases, such as con firming sentences of death, the Recorder and the Judicial Commissioner of the Province, who otherwise has no jurisdiction in Rangoon, sit together as the 'special court' The police in 1883 numbered 605 officers and men. A municipal committee for Rangoon was first appointed on 31st July 1874; the elective system and an extension of municipal self- government were introduced in 1882-83. The municipal committee have erected fine markets, supplied the town with good water from the ' Royal Lakes,' and lighted the streets with kerosene lamps. They have also carried out a scheme for an improved water-supply from an artificial reservoir near Kokaing. Since November 1883, water has been abundantly supplied to the town. The municipality has recently granted a concession for the laying down of street tram ways^ Municipal income (1883-84), ^£160,802. The strand bank, with its wharves and moorings, is under the management of a special body. In 1795 the population of Rangoon was estimated at 25,000; in 1812, at 8250. In 1852 the number of inhabitants was returned at about the same as in 1795. Long previous to 1795, Rangoon was the asylum of insolvent debtors and of foreigners of desperate fortunes, and apart from these, was inhabited by persons of almost every nationality. The Census of 1872 returned the population at 89,897, inclusive of the shipping and travellers. Burmese numbered 56,918; Hindus, RANGOON. 485 15,261; Takings, 7451; Europeans and Eurasians (including Americans and Australians), 4016; Chinese, 3181; Shans, 1217; Karens, 525; and 'others,' 1328, including Muhammadans of different nationalities, Armenians, Arakanese, Kathays, Malays, Jews, Pdrsfs, and Siamese. In 1878 the population was estimated to have increased to 110,700, dwelling in 13,389 houses. In 1881 the Census returned the total population at 134,176, namely, 91,504 males and 42,672 females, dwelling in 20,655 houses. Hindus number 35,871 ; Muhammadans, 21,169 > Christians, 9741 ; Buddhists, 67,131; Nat-worshippers, 34; Jews, 172; and Pdrsfs, 58. Natives of Burma number 63,136 ; natives of India (Arabs, Bengalis, Hindu stanis, Uriyas, Punjabi's, Persians, Suratis, Tamils, and Telugus, etc.), 57iT53; Takings, 181 2; Europeans and Eurasians (including Americans and Australians), 5659; Chinese, 3752; Shans, 1556; Karens, 167; and 'others,' 941. The population is divided into three parts — the municipality, 115,136 ; the cantonment, 9652 ; and the port, 9388. The density of the population within municipal limits, excluding the space covered by water and the port population, is 8857 persons per square mile. In the cantonment the density is 4826 persons per square mile. The population of the port was enumerated on board 77 steamers and sea-going vessels, as well as in small boats. Trade. — When Arakan and Tenasserim were ceded to the English after the first war, the commerce of Pegu found an outlet at Maulmain, and rapidly raised that town to a large commercial port. But when Pegu was annexed in 1853, trade began to advance with gigantic strides. Not only was the whole customs system changed, and numerous restric tions removed, but the country in the interior was gradually developed. Rangoon now ranks as the third port in India. In early days, the largest business was done with Calcutta, owing to the great demand in that market for teak, and the facility with which the Burmese were thence supplied with British and Indian piece-goods. No direct trade existed between Burma or Pegu and any European country. The nature of the land on the banks of the river, the accessibility of the town from the sea, the great rise and fall of the tide, the low rates of wages, and, as it seemed, the inexhaustible supply of teak timber, gave Rangoon great advantages for shipbuilding. The European principles of construction appear to have come from the French. No information regarding vessels constructed before 1786 is available, but in that year two vessels, one of 680 tons, were launched. And from 1790 to 1821, 106 vessels were launched, the tonnage ranging from 50 to 1050. For some time before the commencement of hostilities this industry was checked, and when war actually broke out it ceased entirely, but was resumed soon after the signing of the treaty of Yan- dabu (1826), until war was again declared in 1852. During this 4S6 RANGOON. interval 24 vessels, with a total tonnage of 5625, were built.- Only one small vessel was built in 1883-84. The total number of vessels that cleared annually from Rangoon to all ports for many years prior to 181 1 was from 18 to 25; from 1811 to 1817, 36; from 1817 to 1822, 46; and from 1822 to 1825, 56. In 1822, it was calculated that the maximum tonnage likely to find employment between Calcutta and Rangoon was 5400. In the three years. 1820-21 to 1822-23, 22 vessels, aggregating 9404 tons, entered the port of Calcutta from Rangoon, and 5 vessels, aggregating 630 tons, the port of Madras. Under Burmese rule, the port charges were always high; and up to 1813 the dues and presents for the principal officials claimed from all masters, without distinction, amounted to ,£126. The cost of clearing was about .£175. In 1813, certain changes were effected; in 1820, the demands for a ship of 420 tons amounted to .£196. A new ship built in the river was exempt from charges on her first voyage. Commanders on landing had to go first to the custom-house to be searched, then to the port officer, after this to the place for delivery of the manifest of all cargo, fire-arms, ammunition, etc., then to the governor, and lastly to the Ye-won. Up to a few years before 1824-25, all square-rigged vessels were obliged to unship their rudders and land their guns, etc. ; ultimately, they were relieved from this humiliation on paying a sum of £4 to the local authorities. At this period, the duty charged on all imports was 12 per cent; on all exports (except timber), 5 per cent; and on timber, 1 per cent. Ships' stores paid half-duty. The exportation of rice and precious metals was strictly prohibited, and it was only by adroit smuggling that the latter were carried away. In 1805, exclusive of treasure, the imports were valued at .£24,523 ; the exports, at ,£65,360. In 1821, the total value of the imports, also exclusive of treasure, into Rangoon was ,£9544; of the exports, ,£19,744. The. chief imports from Calcutta were piece-goods, raw silk, cotton, indigo, saltpetre, sugar, rice, pepper, and opium. From 1826 to 1852, the average annual number of arrivals and departures was — English vessels from 100 to 1000 tons, 20; Chulia vessels (or those owned and navigated by natives) from 200 to 600 tons, 25 ; coasting schooners bound westward, 60; Chinese junks and small boats, 20 : total, 125. A royal present of one piece of cambric, one piece of Pakmpur, and a Pulicat handkerchief, was made by the master of each ship arriving. The port charges had been reduced, and varied, according to the tonnage of the ship, from ,£1 to .£50. These went into the coffers of the local government, while the anchor age dues were assigned to one of the queens. The amount remitted annually to the capital on account of custom dues was about .£2 1,000. After British annexation, in 1858-59, the imports' amounted to Rangoon. 487 ;£I>274>374, and the exports to .£856,681; total, ,£2,131,055. By 1868-69, 'he value of imports had risen to ,£2,346,460, and of exports t0 -£x, 954,°55; total, ,£4,300,515. In 1877-78 the imports rose still further to £3,777,724, and the exports to ,£4,414,301; total, ,£8,192,025. In 1883-84, the imports increased yet more to -£7,065,465, and the exports 10^6,108,630 ; total, .£13,174,095, of which the foreign trade was valued at £7,830,158, namely, imports, £3,627,222, and exports, £4,202,936. The chief imports were cotton twist, yarn, and piece-goods, jute manufactures, provisions, silk goods, spices, tobacco, coals, machinery, metals, treasure, apparel, salt seeds, and woollen goods. The principal exports were rice, timber^ raw cotton, hides and horns, gums and resins, mineral oil, stone (jade), lac, ivory, precious stones, and drugs. In 1877-78, the total value of customs duties levied on exports and imports was .£291,773. Although the abolition at the close of 1881-82 of most of the import duties reduced the customs revenue on imports from £167,467 to ,£96,034, the large increase in the exports of rice almost made up the deficiency. The gross customs revenue amounted in 1882-83 to £'652,057. In 1877-78, the gross tonnage of vessels entering the port was 559,051 ; of vessels clearing, 540,904: total, 1,099,955 tons. In 1883-84, 939 vessels of 711,513 tons entered the port, and 893 vessels of 696,349 tons cleared; total, 1832 vessels, of 1,407,862 tons, of which 1134 were steamers, of 994,438 tons. The price of unhusked rice or paddy in the Rangoon market in 1819 was about R. 1, or 2s., for 10 baskets (bushels). In 1855-56 it was threefold, and that of husked rice twofold, what it had been before the annexation. Since 1855-56, the increase in the supply, great as it has been, has not kept pace with the demand, and prices have again doubled. The rice season commences about February and ends in May. The prices of rice in the husk at the mills in Rangoon in 1881 were, per 100 baskets — in January, Rs. 100, or .£10; in April, Rs. 80, or £&; in July, Rs. 85, or ;£8, 10s. : and in October, Rs. 70, or £i. Each firm has one or more brokers and several buyers, the former as a rule residing on the mill premises. At the beginning of the season, the firm advances money to the buyer, and takes a mortgage on his boat, the broker also standing as security. The buyer then purchases rice in the country as cheaply as he can, and sells it to the millowner at current rates, receiving cash payment. Towards the end of the season, the advances are gradually called in by the ' short payment ' system— that is, the buyer is paid for a portion only of his cargo, the rest being taken as against the advance. Many of the cultivators, however, bring down the grain themselves and sell it to brokers in the Pegu and Rangoon rivers, and the 488 RANGOON RIVER— RANGPUR. cargoes are delivered at the mills on the banks of the Pd-zun-daung. The brokers are paid by a percentage on every basket. The rice is measured at the wharves, and then taken to the mills, where it is winnowed, carried to the top stores, passed between two stones which revolve at a distance just sufficient to grind off the outer husk. It is then re-winnowed (a blast carrying away the loosened husk) and shot into bags — all by steam machinery. Perfectly cleaned rice will not stand the long voyage to England, and the grain as exported has still on it an inner pellicle, and is mixed with about 20 per cent of un- husked rice, known technically as 'cargo rice.' Since the opening of the Suez Canal, however, the quantity of cleaned rice exported to England has increased considerably. As competition is keen, and as each firm has only a limited extent of the river bank on which to discharge, a practice has sprung up of taking delivery in cargo boats in the Pegu river. This has led to the employment of steam launches for towing purposes ; and probably before long, small light-draught steamers will be used to go up the Pegu and other rivers, and meet the rice boats coming down. Rangoon River. — The name usually given to the lower portion of the Hlaing River (q.v.), Pegu Division, Lower Burma. Rangpur. — British District, occupying the central portion of the Rdjshdhi Division, under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. It lies between 25° 2' 50" and 26° 18' 45" n. lat, and between 88° 47' and 89° 55' 30" e. long. Bounded on the north by Jalpaiguri District and Kuch Behar State ; on the east by the Brahmaputra river, separating it from Godlpdrd and Maimansingh ; on the south by Bogra ; and on the west by Dindjpur and Jalpdigurf. Area, 3486 square miles. Population (according to the Census of 1881) 2,097,964. The administrative head quarters are at Rangpur Town. Physical Aspects. — Rangpur District is one vast plain, without natural elevations of any kind. The rivers dominate over the topography of the country. Towards the east, the wide valley of the Brahmaputra is annually laid under water during the rainy season ; and the remainder of the District is traversed by a network of streams, which frequently break through their sandy banks, and plough for themselves new channels over the fields. These river changes have left their traces in the numerous stagnant pools or marshes which dot the whole face of the country, but do not spread into wide expanses as in the lower delta. Under such circumstances, agricultural industry has taken full advantage of the natural fertility of the soil, which is composed of a sandy loam. Three-fourths of the total area are under continuous cultivation, the staple crops being rice, jute, oil-seeds, tobacco, potato, sugar-cane, and ginger ; and even the patches of waste land yield a valuable tribute of reeds and cane. RANGPUR. 489 The river system is constituted by the Brahmaputra and its tribu taries. The Brahmaputra itself only skirts the eastern frontier ; but its mighty stream exercises a great influence over the District, by the fertilizing effect of its inundations, and also by its diluviating action. The chief tributaries are the Tista, Dharla, Sankos, Karatoya, Gangadhar, and Dudhkumar, of which the Tista is by far the most important. This river, indeed, owing to the extreme variations which have occurred in its course, has more than once modified the entire hydrography of Northern Bengal. At the time of Major Rennell's Survey in the third quarter of the last century, the Tfsta flowed due south and finally fell into the Ganges, by what is now the channel of the Atrai. But in 1787, a season of excessive rainfall caused the river to break away in a south-easterly direction, and discharge itself into the Brahmaputra. Old channels and offshoots of the Tista abound through out the District, the largest of which are known as the Karatoya, Ghdghdt, Manas, and Gujaria. These all afford valuable water com munication during the rainy season. There are no embankments or artificial canals in the District, nor does the alluvial soil supply any mineral products. Forests, Jungle Products, etc. — There are no important forests in Rangpur District yielding a revenue to Government. A private sdl forest about six miles in circumference is situated a short distance south of Baripara village, in the Phuranbdri police circle. Another forest, called the Pangd jhdr, is situated close to the village of Panga in the Barabari police circle. It is 8 miles in circumference, and is composed of chdmd and other trees ; it contains also thick canes, which are sold for sticks. Canes and reeds abound throughout the District. The canes are of inferior quality, the principal being the gardl bet (the best), the jdli bet, and the harkati bet. Reeds are of more importance ; but with the exception of the ulu thatching reeds, few of the reeds or grasses pay any rent. All the tenants on an estate are usually allowed to cut whatever reeds they wish. In some parts, however, where the quantity is great, strangers come from a distance to cut the reeds, and usually pay a trifling sum for each sickle or person employed. In the cultivated parts of the District, many plants grow wild, or nearly so, of which the fruit, seeds, or roots are used as articles of food. The principal jungle products are honey, beeswax, and shell- lime. Wild Animals.— -Tigers and leopards are numerous, especially m the chars or sandy islands of the Brahmaputra, and appear to have increased in numbers during the present century. Wild buffaloes, wild hog, and deer of many varieties are common, and foxes and jackals are found in every part of the District. Of game birds, peacocks, pigeons, partridges, pheasants, quails, plovers, snipe, and wild ducks are found in abund- 490 RANGPUR. ance. Fish swarm in all the rivers and streams, and fishing is carried on to a large extent by many of the poorer cultivators all over the Dis trict, as well as by professional fishermen. Porpoises (really dolphins) are numerous in the Brahmaputra, and are killed for the sake of the oil, by a class of fishermen known as Gonrdrs. History. — In ¦ the earliest days of which tradition preserves any record, Rangpur formed the western outpost, of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Kdmrdp. The capital was situated far away in the Assam valley; but the great Rdjd Bhagadatta, whose defeat is recorded in the Mahdbhdrata, had a country residence at Rangpur, locally interpreted to mean 'the abode of pleasure.' Apart from these legends, which are the common property of Hinduism, genuine local traditions have preserved the names of three dynasties that ruled over this tract of country prior to the 15th century a.d. The earliest of these is associated with Prithu Rdjd, the extensive ruins of whose capital are still pointed out in the present District of Jalpaiguri. Next came a dynasty of four kings, whose family name of Pdl recurs in other parts of Bengal, and also in Assam. The founder, Dharma Pal, has left the remains of a fortified city, which also lie within the limits of Jalpdiguri. Rdjd Bhava Chandra, the third of this Pdl dynasty, and his minister, are the heroes ofthe Hindu nursery version ofthe wise men of Gotham, and are renowned far and wide throughout Bengal. The Raja and his minister were bereft of common sense by the curse of the Raja's favourite goddess, whom he offended by visiting her temple at a forbidden time. They did nothing like other people — slept by day, and kept awake throughout the night. The minister took up his abode in a box, and only emerged from his retreat when called upon by the Rdjd to deliberate with him on some hard matter. One or two of these judgments may be noted. The Raja and his minister, in the plenitude of their wisdom, sentenced the potters to compensate the merchants for loss by wreck, on the ground that the high mounds raised by the former brought the clouds which had caused the storm. On another occasion, the people brought a fine wild hog to the Rdjd and his minister, that they might decide what strange animal it was ; and, after deep cogitation on the knotty point, they concluded that it must either be an overgrown rat or an elephant gone into a consump tion. But their last judgment gives the climax to their fame. Two travellers were discovered one afternoon digging a cooking-place in the ground by the side of a tank, for the preparation of their evening meal. The Rdjd, who discovered them, at once concluded that the men were engaged in effecting a burglarious entry in order to steal the tank, and he sentenced them to be impaled as robbers. The poor travellers, driven to desperation, made each of them seemingly frantic endeavours RANGPUR. 491 to be impaled on the taller of the two poles; and when the Raja inquired the reason of their extraordinary rivalry, they informed him that they had learned, by the power of their enchantments, that who ever was impaled on the taller pole would in the next birth become the sovereign of the whole world, while the other would be his minister. Bhavd Chandra, thinking that it would be far from consistent with justice that such low people should acquire supreme dignity, forthwith had himself impaled on the coveted pole, and his faithful minister followed his master, and expired on the shorter one. Bhavd Chandra's suc cessor, Pdk, was the last of the line. The third dynasty had three kings, Niladwaj, Chakradwaj, and Nikmbhar. The first of these founded Kamdtdpur, the ruins of which, situated in Kuch Behar territory, are 19 miles in circum ference. All these successive capitals were built upon the same principle — enclosure within enclosure, the royal palace occupying the centre of the whole. Raja Nikmbhar is said to have been a very great monarch ; but unfortunately he was brought into collision with the Afghdn king of Gaur, who captured his capital by stratagem, and carried him away prisoner in an iron cage. This Afghan conqueror is identified with Husain Shah, who reigned from 1499 to 1520. But the Muhammadans did not retain their hold upon the country. A period of anarchy ensued ; and among the wild tribes from the hills of Assam that overran Rangpur, the Koch came to the front and founded the dynasty which still exists at Kuch Behar. The first Raja, Visu, was a conqueror who extended his arms eastwards up the Assam valley, and southwards over Rangpur. On his death, however, the kingdom was divided ; and as soon as the Mughal Emperors had established their supremacy in Bengal, their viceroys began to push their north-eastern frontier across the Brahmaputra. By 1603 the Muhammadans were firmly established at Rdngdmdti in Goalpara, which continued to form their outpost against the incursions of the Ahams. Rangpur proper was not annexed till 1687 by the generals of Aurangzeb. In the extreme north, the Kuch Behar Rajas were able to offer such a resolute resistance, that in 17 11 they obtained a favourable compromise, in accordance with which they paid tribute as zaminddrs for the pargands of Bodd, Pdtgrdm, and Purubbhag, but retained their independence in Kuch Behar proper. This was the condition of things when the East India Company received possession of the diwdni of Bengal in 1765. At first, the British continued the Muhammadan practice of farming out the land revenue to contractors. But in 1783, the exactions of a notorious farmer, Rdjd Debi Singh of Dindjpur, drove the Rangpur cultivators into open rebellion; and the Government was induced to invite the 492 RANGPUR. zaminddrs to enter into direct engagements for the revenue. In 1772, the banditti, increased by disbanded troops from the native armies, and by peasants ruined in the famine of 1770, were plundering and burning villages 'in bodies of 50,000 men.' Rangpur was then a frontier Dis trict, bordering on Nepdl, Bhutdn, Kuch Behar, and Assam. The enormous area of the jurisdiction, and the weakness of the adminis trative staff, prevented the Collector from preserving order in the remote corners of his District, which thus became the secure refuges of banditti. The early records of Rangpur and neighbouring parts of Bengal are full of complaints on this head, and of encounters between detachments of sepoys and armed bands of dakdits and saniydsis. A small British force sent against them received a check ; in 1773, Captain Thomas, the leader of another party, was cut off, and four battalions had to be employed. In the year 1789, the Collector conducted a regular campaign against these disturbers of the peace. They had fled to the great forest of Baikunthpur, within which he blockaded them with a force of 200 barkanddzs. At last they were compelled to sur render ; and within a single year no less than 549 robbers were brought to trial. In recent times, Rangpur has had no history beyond the mere recital of administrative changes. The entire tract east of the Brahmaputra has been formed into the independent District of Godlpdrd, and annexed to the Province of Assam. The three northern pargands now constitute part of the new District of Jalpdigurf ; and a considerable portion in the south has been transferred to Bogra, over the whole of which District the Judge of Rangpur continues to exercise civil jurisdiction. Of the area of the present District, about 300 square miles, which pay revenue into the Rangpur treasury, are under the criminal supervision of the Magistrate of Maimansingh. Population. — In the beginning ofthe present century, Dr. Buchanan- Hamilton, in the course of his statistical inquiries, arrived at a most elaborate estimate for the population of Rangpur. Making allowance for the reduced area of the District, his calculations show 1,268,000 Muhammadans and 816,000 Hindus; total, 2,084,000 souls. These figures, both in the aggregate and in their classification, approximate marvellously to the results of the Censuses of 1872 and 1881 ; but it seems incredible that the population should have remained stationary during the long intervening period of prosperity. The Census of 1872 disclosed a total population of 2,153,686, on an area corresponding to the present District The last Census in 1881 returned the population of Rangpur District at 2,097,964 ; showing a decrease in population since 1872 of 55,722, or 2-58 per cent, in nine years. The decrease is ascribed to the ravages of malarial fevers, which, with their sequela;, caused heavy mortality in the years immediately preceding the Census of 1881. RANGPUR. 493 The results of the Census of 1881 may be summarized as follows : —Area of District, 3486 square miles ; towns 16, and villages 6721 ; number of houses, 342,298, namely, occupied 337,096, and unoccu pied 5202. Total population, 2,097,964, namely, males 1,067,701, and females 1,030,263. Average density of population, 602 persons per square mile, varying from 436 per square mile in Pfrganj police circle to 762 in Maiganj police circle, both within the head-quarters Sub-division. Towns and villages per square mile, 1-93 ; persons per town or village, 311; houses per square mile, 98-19; persons per occupied house, 6-22. Classified according to sex and age, the Census returns show— under 15 years of age, males 423,967, and females 389,191 ; total children, 813,158, or 38-7 per cent, of the population: 15 years and upwards, males 643,734, and females 641,072 ; total adults, 1,284,806, or 61-3 per cent. Religion. — The majority of the population are Muhammadans by religion, the faith of Islam being professed by 1,279,605 persons, or 6o-i per cent. ; while the Hindus number 816,532, or 38-9 per cent. The remainder consists of Jains, 274 ; Christians, 86 ; Buddhists, 60; Brahmos, 8 ; and non-Hindu aborigines, 1399. There can be no doubt that in Rangpur, as in the rest of Eastern Bengal, the great bulk of the people are of aboriginal descent ; and that the majority became willing converts to the conquering faith of Islam, in preference to remaining out-castes beyond the pale of exclusive Hinduism. This latter fact is attested by local tradition. The only circumstance that might excite surprise, is that the Musalmans should have exercised so great a proselytizing influence during the brief hundred years of their rule in Rangpur. The tribes now ranked as aboriginal are very poorly represented ; the most numerous being the Telangd, a wandering race of gipsies. The total number of aboriginal tribes still professing their old faiths in Rangpur District is returned by the Census of 1881 at x399- The semi-Hinduized aborigines of the Census Report, who are considerably more numerous than the Hindus proper, mainly consist of the cognate tribes of Koch, Pali, and Rajbansi, whose home is in the adjoining State of Kuch Behar, and who are known to be still more largely represented in the general Muhammadan population. These three tribes number collectively 432,498 among the Hindu population. The number of Muhammadan Kochs is unascertainable. The higher castes of Hindus are but poorly represented. The Brdhmans number 12,075, mostly belonging to the two clans called Mithila and Kdmrdpi Vaidik, whose settlement in Rangpur is known to have taken place in historic times, dating from the 13th or 14th century. These Brdhmans act as priests and spiritual instructors to many of the lower castes, and are looked down upon by the more orthodox Barendra and Rarhi Brdhmans, who are chiefly found in the 494 RANGPUR. south of the District, and who would lose their purity by administering to Sudras. The Rdjputs of Rangpur number only 2325, and are employed in military service, and as guards, policemen, and door keepers. They claim to be Kshattriyas, the second or warrior caste in the ancient Hindu fourfold classification. The Kayasths, or writer caste, number 11,449, and include apparently many of the correspond ing class known as Kolitas in Assam. The Baniyds, who claim to represent the Vaidya or trading caste of ancient India, number 3609. Among the Sddras or low-caste Hindus, the following castes may be mentioned as the most numerous: — Tior, 92,790; Chanddl, 36,795; Kaibarttd, 30,612 ; Madak, 25,180 ; Ndpit, 13,041 ; Jaliya, 8387 ; Goald, 6331 ; Lohar, 5714; Hari', 5658; Kumbhar, 4966 ; Sunrf, 4939; Tanti, 4562 ; Jugi, 4561 ; Kurmf, 4297 ; Kahdr, 3933 ; Chamdr, 3660; Mdlf, 2905 ; and Teli, 2537. Caste-rejecting Hindus are returned at 27,245, of whom 26,974 are Vaishnavs. The Muhammadans, according to sect, are divided into — Sunnis, 1,225,544 ; Shias, 39,540 ; and unspecified, 14,521. The great bulk of the Muhammadans do not differ ethnically from the rest of the popula tion, and are the descendants of converts made from the aboriginal tribes and low-caste Hindus by the early Muhammadan governors. Of recent years, the reforming Fardizi spirit has manifested itself among the higher classes of Muhammadans in the District. The Fardizi's, or Shards, as they are here called, adhere strictly to the law of Muhammad as laid down in the Kuran, and abstain from the ceremonies and processions of the Muharram, which they consider not to be enjoined by the sacred law. They do not, however, display any active intolerance. The Jain population appears to be confined to the Kayds or Mdrwdrfs who come from North-Western India, and have settled in Rangpur District. Most of them are wealthy merchants carrying on a considerable trade in country produce and piece-goods, or as monev- lenders. Since 1879, the Wesleyan Missionary Society have had a station in Rangpur town, with a total of 26 native Christian converts in 1881, out of 39 in the whole District. The Roman Catholics number 16 ; Baptists, 20 ; and Church of England and other Protestants without distinction of sect, 17; besides 33 of other denominations or unstated. Town and Rural Population. — The population of Ran°pur District is entirely rural. Although the Census Report returns 16 towns as containing upwards of five thousand inhabitants, with an aggregate population of 124,711, these are not towns in the ordinary acceptation of the term, but merely clusters of villages and hamlets (mauzds), grouped together for purposes of fiscal administration. Even the town of Rangpur itself includes within its municipal limits the lands of the three agricultural villages of Mahiganj, Dhap, and Nawabganj. The RANGPUR. 495 sixteen so-called 'towns' are the following — Rangpur, population 13,320; Barakhata, 11,393; Bhogdabdrf, 10,892; Dimlah, 10,503; Gorgram, 9616; Chhatndi, 9501 ; Bamonf, 6895 ; Kapdsi, 6556; Salmari, 6401 ; Khdnbdritapa, 6151 ; Bagdogra, 5747; Nautaritapa, 5679; Baragarf, 5668 ; Magurd, 5642 ; Jhunagdchh Chaparf, 5454 ; and Bhatbacha- gari, 5293. Ofthe 6737 'towns' and villages in 1881, the Census returned 4280 as containing less than two hundred inhabitants ; 1480 between two and five hundred ; 554 between five hundred and a thousand; 274 between one and two thousand; 89 between two and three thousand ; 44 between three and five thousand ; 1 2 between five and ten thousand ; and 4 between ten and fifteen thousand inhabitants. As regards occupation, the Census Report divides the male popula tion into the following six classes : — (1) Professional class, including all Government servants, civil and military, 12,829; (2) domestic servants, inn and lodging-house keepers, etc., 22,922 ; (3) commercial class, including bankers, merchants, traders, carriers, etc., 29,491 ; (4) agricultural and pastoral class, including gardeners, 538,168 ; (5) manu facturing and industrial class, including all artisans, 43,758; (6) inde finite and non-productive class, comprising general labourers, male children, and persons of unspecified or of no occupation, 420,533. Material Condition of the People. — The great bulk of the population is composed of the lowest classes of Hindus and Muhammadans. They are described as indolent and superstitious, but their material condition has considerably improved of late years. The ordinary dress of a well-to-do shopkeeper consists of a dhuti or waist-cloth, a cotton sheet or shawl (chddar), and a pair of shoes. The clothing of an ordinary cultivator is nearly the same, except that he does not wear shoes, and the cotton is of a coarser quality. Bamboo matting, straw, and grass are the only materials used for house-building. A comfortable homestead usually consists of four apartments within a square enclosure, surrounded by a fence of woven bamboos or grass. A well-to-do culti vator would have two such enclosures for his dwelling, one being reserved for the female members of the family. The only furniture found in such a dwelling consists of common brass and pewter plates, cups, and pots for cooking and eating ; a bamboo machdn or platform, which serves as a bedstead ; and a wooden chest. The ordinary food of the people, shopkeepers and agriculturists, is much the same, and consists chiefly of common rice, pulses, kdchu (a species of yam), vegetables of different sorts, salt, oil, fish, and occasionally milk. Milk is more a luxury than an ordinary article of food. A late Collector some years ago estimated the living expenses for an average-sized household of a well-to-do shopkeeper at about 10 rupees, or £1, per month, and the expenses of a similar family of ordinary peasants at 8 rupees, or 16s., a month. This latter amount, however, represents the 496 RANGPUR. cost which would be required if everything was purchased by the culti vator. As a matter of fact, the money cost is considerably less. His fields supply him with rice and vegetables, and most of the fish used for food is caught by himself or by some member of his family. Agriculture, etc. — Rice constitutes the staple crop throughout the District. Of the total food supply, the dman or winter crop, grown on low lands and usually transplanted, affords from 70 to 85 per cent. ; the remainder is furnished by the dus or autumn crop, which is generally grown on high lands. Elaborate agricultural statistics were collected in Rangpur, through the agency of a native Deputy Collector, in 1873. Out of a total area of 2,360,294 acres, he estimated that 1,737,950 acres, or 73 per cent, were actually under cultivation. Rice occupied 1,263,000 acres ; fibres, 117,000; oil-seeds, 68,000; tobacco, 66,000; wheat, 31,000; inferior food-grains, 44,000; vegetables, 15,000; indigo and sugar-cane, 11,000 acres each. About one-eighth of the total area is capable of producing two crops in the year. The staples grown for export are rice, jute, tobacco, oil-seeds, potatoes, and ginger. Indigo cultivation is no longer conducted under European supervision, but native planters have taken over the deserted factories. Among miscellaneous crops may be mentioned pan or betel leaf, supdri or betel-nut, and mulberry for silkworms. Jute is grown in all parts of the District, but thrives best on the banks and islands of the larger rivers ; the annual out-turn is more than 700,000 cwts. Tobacco is principally cultivated in the high-lying northern tracts ; the leaf is bought up by Maghs from Chittagong and Arakan for the purpose of being manufactured in Burma. Manure, in the form of cow-dung or oil-cake, is applied only to the more valuable crops. It is also a common practice to burn stubble or jungle on the fields in order to renovate the soil. Land is occasionally permitted to lie fallow ; and it is known that certain crops cannot be raised in two successive years. Artificial irrigation is required only for tobacco fields for a few days when the plant has become fully developed. Spare land, capable of cultivation, can hardly be said to exist. The average produce of an acre of good rice lands renting at 9s., is 15 cwts., valued at ,£1, 4s. Land yielding two crops, and renting at 18s., may produce as much as 9 cwts. of dus rice, together with a second crop of pulses, oil-seeds, or tobacco, the whole valued at from £2, 10s. to .£6. The Deputy Collector above referred to has estimated the total annual out-turn of all the crops in Rangpur District as worth ,£4,000,000 sterling. In ordinarily good years, about one-half of the rice crop is consumed by the local population, and the balance exported. The rate of rent paid for rice land varies from is. 4d. to 1 is. an acre ¦ land suited for tobacco or sugar-cane pays from us. to 14s. ; and pan gardens as much as £2 or .£3 an acre. There is little that is peculiar RANGPUR. 497 in the land tenures of the District, except the large degree to which the superior landlords have parted with their rights in favour of intermediate tenure-holders. Among such intermediate tenures may be mentioned the upanchaki, which was originally granted for charitable or religious purposes at a quit-rent, and the mazkuri. It is also noteworthy that the term jotddr, in this part of the country, is applied to a substantial middle-man, who holds for a term, but does not cultivate with his own hands. Very few of the actual cultivators have won for themselves rights of occupancy by a continuous holding of over twelve years ; the majority are mere tenants-at-will. From 27 to 33 acres is considered a very large holding for a single husbandman in Rangpur District. To cultivate a farm of this extent would require from eight to ten ploughs ; and even though there were four or five adult male members of the family, an equal number of hired labourers would need to be employed. A cultivator's holding not exceeding i| acre in extent is considered a very small one. A farm consisting of about 8 acres is a fair-sized, comfortable holding, and requires about three -ploughs for its proper cultivation. It is estimated that about 30 per cent, of the peasantry of Rangpur cultivate only a single plough of land. The extent comprised in a ' plough ' of land varies according to the nature and condition of the soil and of the crop, but on an average may be taken at from 3^- to 3§ acres. The poorer husbandmen with only a single plough generally cultivate mixed crops on their holdings, as being more remunerative than rice alone. A husbandman with a farm 5 acres in extent, if he cultivated only rice, would be about in the same position as a man drawing a fixed pay of 1 6s. per month ; but his condition would be considerably better if his land admitted of his cultivating mixed crops. Both socially and materially, these small farmers, with holdings of 5 acres of all descrip tions of land, are quite on a level with respectable village shopkeepers and retail dealers. A considerable proportion of the cultivators are in debt, but not to the extent that prevails in certain other parts of India. The cause of debt most frequently arises from the misfortunes of a single season, from extravagance on the occasion of marriages and other festivals, or from speculation. This last cause chiefly affects the larger husbandmen (jotddrs), who frequently set up as merchants for buying up country produce, and occasionally meet with heavy losses. Ordinary rates of wages have approximately doubled within the past twenty years. Agricultural day-labourers now receive about 3d. a day; blacksmiths and carpenters, about 16s. a month. The prices of food-grains do not seem to have risen in equal proportion. Common rice fetched is. 6d. per cwt. in 1786 ; 4s. in i860 ; 5s. sd. in 1870 ; and 4s. 2id. in 1872. The average price of common rice for the five years vol. xi. 2 1 498 RANGPUR. ending 1882-83 was 2o£ sers -per rupee, or 5s. 6d. per cwt In 1883-84, a year of deficient rainfall and scanty harvests, the price was 1 6| sers per rupee, or 6s. iod. per cwt. The highest price reached in 1866, the year ofthe Orissa famine, was 12s. 6d. per cwt. Rangpur is not specially liable to either of the calamities of flood or drought. It is common for the crops in certain tracts to be injured by the overflow of the rivers ; but on only one occasion in history, in 1787-88, has the inundation been so excessive as to affect the general harvest of the District. In that memorable year, when the river Tista was borne in a torrent across the arable fields, one-sixth of the population are estimated to have perished from want, disease, or drown ing. In 1873, the insufficiency of local rainfall was suchkas to demand the institution of relief operations by Government. The completion of the railway has now saved the District from any danger of isolation. If the price of rice were to rise in January as high as 13s. 6d. per cwt, that should be regarded as a sign of approaching distress. Manufactures, etc. — There ' are few special industries in Rangpur. Paper is manufactured from jute in certain villages. Other products are — satrdnjis or striped cotton carpets ; silk cloth called endi woven from the cocoon of a worm fed on the castor-oil plant ; baskets and mats ; brass-ware ; ornaments carved in ivory and buffalo horn. Silk culture is now almost extinct in Rangpur. River traffic is brisk in all parts of the District. Agricultural produce is brought from the interior and stored in warehouses on the river banks until the rising of the streams in the rainy season. The chief exports are rice, jute, tobacco, potatoes, and ginger ; the imports are cotton cloth, salt, hardware, and miscellaneous goods. From the north are received timber, ponies, blankets, and ghi. The centres of trade are — Mahiganj and Lalbagh, suburbs of the civil station ; Goramdra, Kankind, and Kaonia on the Tista ; Nisbetganj on the Ghdghdt ; and Kaliganj, a stopping-place for steamers on the Brahmaputra. The registration returns of river traffic for 1876-77 show a total export from the District valued at ,£932,442, against imports valued at ,£480,046. The chief exports in that year were — jute, 1,155,000 maunds, valued at ,£346,560 (placing Rangpur second to Maimansingh in the list of jute-producing Districts) ; tobacco, 557,400 maunds, valued at ,£278,700 ; rice, 145,900 maunds, and paddy, 45,000 maunds, valued together at ,£37,392 ; hides, 93,000 in number, valued at £¦18,591. The imports comprised — European piece-goods, ,£162,970 ; salt, 199,508 maunds, valued at .£99,750; raw cotton, 58,400 maunds, valued at ,£87,600 (chiefly received at Chilmdri from Goalpdra District and the Gdro Hills). The chief centre of registered trade was Gordmara, where the exports in 1876-77 were valued at ^"163,932, chiefly jute (246,000 maunds) and tobacco (148,500 mautids) • the RANGPUR. 499 imports were valued at ^£44, 113, chiefly salt (54,900 maunds). Next in order is Kalidaha, with an export in 1876-77 of 151,100 maunds of tobacco, and Jdtrdpur with 123,000 maunds of jute. Since the opening of the railway, registration of river trade has given way to that of rail- borne traffic, so that no means exist of showing the exact amount and value of the District trade, which, however, has very largely increased since 1879, when the railway was first opened. The quantity of jute exported in 1881-82 was estimated at 2,100,000 maunds, valued at ,£630,000 ; tobacco, 700,000 maunds, valued at ,£630,000 ; and rice, 1,400,000 maunds, valued at ,£350,000. The Northern Bengal State Railway, opened in 1879, cuts through the western half of the District from south to north. A branch line from the Northern Bengal line at Parbatipur north-eastwards to Rangpur town, and to Kaunia, whence it is continued across the Tfsta by a steam ferry, and the Kaunia and Dhark Railway, on to Dhubri in the Assam District of Godlpdrd. A second short branch line of 14 miles starts from the Tista station, on the left*bank of that river, to Mughal Hat, and is intended to be ultimately carried on to Kuch Behar town. In 1882, the total length of the District roads was returned at 1328 miles, maintained at a cost of ,£2852. In the same year there were 128 ferries, at which ,£1928 was collected in tolls. Administration. — In 1875-76, the gross revenue of Rangpur District was returned at £"144,159, towards which the land-tax contributed ,£100,008, or 70 per cent. ; the total cost of officials and police of all kinds amounted to ,£24,994, or little more than one-sixth of the revenue. In 1883-84, the six main items of District revenue aggregated £165,165, made up as follows: — Land revenue, £"102,248; excise, £"17,522 ; stamps, ,£29,361 ; registration, £"2147 ; road cess, .£12,940 ; and municipal taxes, .£947. The total cost of civil administration, as represented by the cost of officials and police, amounted in the same year to .£23,992. The land revenue in 1883 was derived from 622 estates, owned by 3094 registered proprietors ; average payment from each estate, £164, 7s. 8d., or by each proprietor, .£33, is. In 1883 there were 3 covenanted civil servants stationed in the District, and 11 magisterial and 9 civil and revenue courts open. In 1883, the regular and town police force numbered 499 men of all ranks, maintained at a total cost of .£8942. In addition there was a rural police or village watch of 4683 men. The total machinery, therefore, for the protection of person and property consisted of 5182 officers and men, giving 1 policeman to every 0-67 square mile of the area or to every 405 persons in the population. The estimated total cost of the regular police and village watch was ,£21,678, averaging £6, 4s. 4^. per square mile and 3§d. per head of the population. In the same year, the total number of persons in Rangpur District convicted of any 500 RANGPUR. offence, great or small, was 1513, being 1 person to every 1386 of the population. By far the greater proportion of the convictions were for petty offences. The District contains one jail at Rangpur town, and three Sub-divisional lock-ups. In 1883, the average daily number of prisoners was 266, of whom only 7 were females; the labouring convicts averaged 220. These figures show 1 person in jail to every 7887 ofthe population. Education has widely spread of recent years, owing to the changes by which the benefit of the grant-in-aid rules has been extended, first to. the vernacular middle-class schools, and finally to the village schools or pdthsdlds. In 1856 there were only 21 schools in the District, attended by 971 pupils. .In 1870 these numbers had risen to 230 schools, and 5361 pupils; and by 1875 (after the introduction of Sir George Campbell's educational reforms) the schools had still further increased to 525, and the pupils to 1 1,090. In 1883, when those reforms had received full development, the number of schools under inspection by the Education Department had increased to upwards of 860, and the pupils to about 17,000. There are 3 higher or middle-class English schools at Rangpur, Saidpur, and Gaibandha. The Rangpur zild school had 332 pupils on its rolls on the 31st March 1884, and the normal school 47 pupils. According to the Census of 1881, there were in that year 22,819 boys and 876 girls under instruction ; besides 49,843 males and 1423 females able to read and write, but not under instruction. The District is divided into 4 administrative Sub-divisions and 16 police circles (thdnds), as follows: — (1) Rangpur or Sadr Sub-division, with the six thdnds of Mahiganj, Kalfganj, Nisbetganj, Kumdrganj, Mithdpukur, and Pirganj. (2) Nilphamdri or Baghdogra Sub-division, with the three thdnds of Dimk, Jaldhdkd, and Darwdni. (3) Kurigram Sub-division, with the three thdnds of Barabdri, Nageswari, and Ulipur. (4) Gaibdndha Sub-division, with the four thdnds of Govindganj, Bhawaniganj, Sadullapur, and Sundarganj. Medical Aspects. — The climate of Rangpur does not differ materially from that common to all Lower Bengal. Diseases of a malarious origin are prevalent in the rainy season and winter, but during the remainder of the year the atmosphere is clear and dry. The average annual rainfall for a period of 25 years ending 1881 is returned at 86-52 inches, the fall from January to May averaging 1 5 -oo inches ; June to September, 66-03 inches; and October to December, 5-49 inches. In 1883-84 the rainfall was only 57-92 inches, or 28-60 inches below the average. The mean annual temperature is returned at about 81 -5° .F., but no thermometrical returns are available. The endemic diseases include fever, cholera, and elephantiasis. The two former sometimes exhibit epidemic outbreaks of great severity. RANGPUR. 501 The fevers are lingering, being usually attended with spleen and liver complications. There were, in 1883, twelve charitable dispensaries in the District, at which 342 in-door and 56,984 out-door patients were treated during the year. [For further information regarding Rangpur, see The Statistical Account of Bengal, by W. W. Hunter, vol. vii. pp. 155-352 (Triibner & Co., London, 1876) ; Dr. Buchanan- Hamilton's MS. Statistical Survey of Rangpur, conducted 1809-13; Report on the District of Rangpur, by Mr. E. G. Glazier, C.S. (1873) ; Report on the Agricultural Statistics of Rangpur, by Babu Gopal Chandra Das, Deputy Collector (1873). Also the Bengal Census Report for 188 1 ; and the several annual Administration and Departmental Reports ofthe Bengal Government up to 1883-84.J Rangpur. — Sadr or head - quarters Sub-division of Rangpur District, Bengal. Area, 1151 square miles; villages, 2436; houses, 130,525. Population (1881), males 344,436, and females 328,226 ; total, 672,662. Classified according to religion, there were — Muham madans, 427,004; Hindus, 244,205; Christians, 39; Buddhists, 22 ; Brahmos, 7 ; Jains, 153; and 'others,' 1232. Average density of popu lation, 584 persons per square mile ; number of villages per square mile, 2-12; persons per village, 276; houses per square mile, 115; persons per house, 5-1. This Sub-division comprises the 6 police circles (thdnds) of Mahi'ganj, Kaliganj, Nisbetganj, Kumdrganj, Mithdpukur, and Pirganj. In 1883 it contained 6 magisterial and 4 civil and revenue courts, a regular police force of 272 men, and a rural con stabulary of 1638 men. Rangpur. — Chief town and administrative head-quarters of Rangpur District, Bengal ; situated on the north bank of the Ghaghat river, in lat. 25° 44' 55" N., and long. 89° 17' 40" e. Population (1881) 13,320, namely, males 8011, and females 5309. Muhammadans number 6648 ; Hindus, 6476 ; and ' others,' 196. Rangpur is a municipality, and consists, besides the civil station, of the hamlets of Mahi'ganj, Dhdp, and Nawdbganj. Municipal revenue (1883-84), ,£1598, of which £"947 was derived from taxation ; average rate of taxation, is. 5d. per head of population. The town contains the District head-quarter courts and offices, police station, jail, and a dispensary. The name of Rangpur — ' the abode of bliss '—is said to be derived from the legend that Rdjd Bhagadattd, who took part in the war ofthe Mahdbhdrata, possessed a country residence here. Rangpur was captured by the Afghdn king, Husain Shah, who ruled at Gaur from 1497 to 15 21 a.d.— See Rangpur District. Rangpur.— Ruins in Sibsagar District, Assam, immediately south of Sibsdgar town, marking the site of the residence of the Aham kings during the 17th century. The palace and the neighbouring temple of Jaisagar are both said to have been built by Rdjd Rudra Singh about 502 RANGUN—RANIBENNUR. 1698. The place is now buried in deep jungle ; and the walls remain firm, though the roof has partly fallen in. Arrangements are now being made to clear away the jungle and open up access to the palace. The temple on the banks of the Jaisdgar (a large artificial lake nearly equal in area to the Sibsdgar lake) is of great beauty and in good preservation, though religious worship is no longer performed there, and the idol has been removed. Before Rangpur, Garhgaon, in the immediate neighbourhood, was the Aham capital; and after 1784, Rdjd Gaurindth moved his residence from Rangpur in Jorhdt. Rangun (Ran-kim). — District and town in Lower Burma. — See Rangoon. Rania. — Town and municipality in Sirsa tahsil, Sirsa District, Punjab. Lat. 29° 28' n., long. 74° 54' e. Situated on the right bank of the river Ghaggar, 13 miles west of Sirsa town. Population (1881) 4626, namely, Muhammadans, 3257; Hindus, 1186; Jains, 162; and Sikhs, 21. Number of houses, 530. Municipal income (1883-84), £"131, or an average of 6fd. per head of the population. The town was formerly the head-quarters of the freebooting Bhalti Nawabs of Rdnia, whose last representative was executed for complicity in the Mutiny of 1857, and his estates confiscated. Little trade ; manufacture of leather-work, hukds, and coarse cloth. Ranibenmir. — Sub-division of Dhdrwdr District, Bombay Presi dency ; situated in the extreme south - east corner of the District. Bounded on the north by the Karajgi Sub-division, on the east and south by the Tungabhadra river, and on the west by the Kod Sub division. Area, 405 square miles. Population (1872) 86,601 ; (1881) 74,213, namely, 37,538 males and 36,675 females, occupying 13,068 houses, in 3 towns and 119 villages. Hindus number 67,985 ; Muhammadans, 6172; and 'others,' 56. The country is generally flat with a low range on the north, and a group of hills in the east ; well supplied with water. Soil black in the low-lying parts, and red on the hills and uplands. The Harihar branch of the South Maratha Railway traverses the Sub -division, with three stations — Baiadgi, Ranfbennur, and Chelgiri. In 1881-82, of 110,137 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 15,077 were fallow or under grass. Principal crops — cereals and millets, 95,060 acres; pulses, 11,580 acres; oil-seeds, 2894 acres; fibres, 23,120 acres; and miscellaneous crops, 7604 acres. The Sub-division contained in 1884 — criminal courts, 4 ; police circle (thdnd), 1 ; regular police, 38 men; village watch (chaukiddrs), 190. revenue, £"15,804. Schools, 24. Ranibenmir. — Chief town of the Rdnfbenndr Sub -division of Dhdrwdr District, Bombay Presidency ; situated on the road from Poona to Madras, about 80 miles south-east of Dhdrwdr town, in lat. 14° 37' 10" n., and long. 75" 40' 20" e. Population (1881) 10,202, namely, RANIGAM— RANIGANJ. 503 5061 males and 5141 females. Hindus number 8387 ; Muhammadans, 1804; and Jains, n. Municipal revenue (1883-84), ,£484; incidence of taxation, 9 \d. A thriving town, noted for the excellence of its silk and cotton fabrics, and with a considerable trade in raw cotton. In 1800, while in pursuit of the Mardtha freebooter Dhundia Wagh, Colonel Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington), being fired on by the garrison, attacked and captured the town. In 18 18, a party of 'General Munro's force occupied Rdnfbenndr. Post-office, travellers' bungalow, four boys' and one girls' schools. Station on the Harihar branch of the South Marathd Railway. Weekly market on Sunday. Ranigam. — Petty State in the Gohelwdr prant or division of Kdthidwdr, Bombay Presidency ; consisting of 1 village, with 2 separate shareholders or tribute-payers. Situated 6 miles north-west of Jesar. Area, 3 square miles. Population (1881) 738. Estimated revenue, £"2556; tribute of ,£71, 8s. is paid to the Gdekwdr of Baroda. Raniganj. — Sub-division of Bardwdn District, Bengal; situated between 23° 23' and 23° 52' 45'' n. lat, and between 86° 50' 30" and 87° 37' E. long. Area, 671 square miles; towns and villages, 712; number of houses, 57,298, namely, occupied 52,633, and unoccupied 4665. Total population (1872) 238,105; (1881) 284,414, namely, males 139,754, and females 144,660. Increase of population between 1872 and 1881, 46,309, or 19-45 per cent, in nine years. Average density of population, 423-9 persons per square mile; villages per square mile, i-o6 ; persons per village, 400 ; houses per square mile, 85-39; persons per house, 5-4. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 261,778; Muhammadans, 15,473; Christians, 742; Jews, 3; and non-Hindu Santdls, 641,8. This Sub-division comprises the 3 police circles of Rdniganj, Assensol, and Kaksa. In 1884 it contained 1 civil and 4 criminal courts, a regular police force of 78, and a village police of 1650 men. Raniganj. — Town, municipality, and head-quarters of Rdniganj Sub-division, Bardwdn District, Bengal ; situated on the north bank of the Damodar river, in lat. 23° 36' 30" n., and long. 87° 8' 30" e. Population (1881) 10,792, namely, males 6124, and females 4668. Hindus number 8794; Muhammadans, 1828; and 'others,' 170. Municipal income (1883-84), ,£883, of which ,£766 was derived from taxation; average incidence of taxation, is. s£d. per head. Raniganj town is the centre of the Rdniganj coal industry ; and its prosperity dates from the discovery and working of the mines, and also from the time when it was made a station on the East Indian Railway, 121 miles from Howrah. It is now one of the principal seats of the District trade. Dispensary. , Raniffani —Coal-field in Bardwdn District, Bengal. Lat. 23 35 to 23° 45' N., long. 86° 40' to 87" 15' E- Area, about 500 square miles. 504 RANIGANJ. Situated at a distance of from 120 to 160 miles north-west of Calcutta, and extending a few miles east of Rdniganj town to several miles west of the Barakhar river ; the greatest length from east to west being about 39 miles, and the greatest breadth from north to south, 18 miles. The greater portion of the coal - bearing strata lies between the Ddmodar and the Ajai, the former river receiving the principal drainage. The surface is undulating, and the dense jungle which formerly covered it has now been cleared nearly throughout. The soil is generally clay, in some parts alluvial, but in others formed from the decomposition of rocks. South of Mangalpur, in the Singdran valley, are the mines of Harishpur and Bdbusol, where the seam is 25 feet thick, with 16 feet of excellent quality. The coal of the Rdni ganj field, like most Indian coals, is a non-coking bituminous coal, composed of distinct laminae of a bright jetty coal, and of a dull, earthy rock, with a large proportion of volatile matter and ash, the amount of the latter averaging about 15 per cent, (as against 2| per cent, in English coal), and ranging from 8 to 25 per cent. A sample of a very pure coal from Sidrsol gave the following results : — Volatile, 40 per cent. ; fixed carbon, 57-5 per cent. ; ash, 2-5 per cent. Mr. Blandford, in his Report on the Geological Survey, 1858-60, states that in the Rdniganj bed nine seams (perhaps eleven), with an aggregate thickness of 120 feet, are worked in the eastern portion; in the western, eleven, with an aggregate thickness of about 100 feet ; and in the Lower Ddmodar section of the field, four seams, with an aggregate thickness of 69 feet. But more extensive underground explorations are necessary in order to fix the absolute thickness of the coal seams in this tract. The principal drawbacks to the extended employment of Rdniganj coal in India, and the reasons why the expensive English coal is still generally employed, especially by sea going steamers on long voyages, are the following: — ist The non- coking property of Ranfganj coal : 2nd. The small proportion of fixed carbon, upon which the value of coal for heating purposes depends : 3rd. The large proportion of ash ; a larger quantity of Rdniganj coal is therefore required to perform the same duty as good English coal: 4th. Its liability to spontaneous ignition, which is mainly due to the large quantity of iron pyrites in the coal ; but this disadvantage may to a certain extent be avoided by shipping direct from the mine, with out exposing the coal to any lengthened action of moisture. Dr. Oldham, in his report on 'The Coal Resources and Production of India ' (1867), states that ' the very best coal of Indian fields only touches the average of English coal' Practical results also attest the inferiority of the former. The two most heavily-worked lines of railway in India, viz. the East Indian (Bengal) and the Great Indian Peninsula (Bombay), use respectively Indian and English coal ; and their relative consump- RANIGANJ. 505 tion is 150 tons per mile in the former, as compared with 75 tons in the latter. The price of Rdnfganj coal varies from £1, 2s. 3d. to ,£1, 5s. 7d. a ton in Calcutta. 'The Rdniganj coal-field is the largest and most important of the areas in which coal is worked in India. Its proximity to the main line of railway, and also to the port of Calcutta, tends to give it pre-eminence over less favourably situated localities. In the year 1774, coal was known to occur there, and so long ago as 1777 was actually worked. In 1830 several collieries of considerable extent had been opened out, and were, we have reason to believe, in a flourishing condition. The total area of coal-bearing rocks which is exposed is about 500 square miles ; but it is possible that the real area may be even double that, since on the east the rocks dip under and are completely concealed by alluvium. Throughout this area a central zone includes the principal mines, and the chimneys which dot this tract constitute it the black country of India. At the present time (1879) there are about six principal European companies engaged in the extraction of coal, while many minor firms and native associations contribute to swell the total amount raised. ' Formerly a large proportion of the coal was obtained by open work ings and quarries ; but at the present day most of the seams which were accessible in this way have been exhausted, and regular mining is now carried on with more or less system. The miners are, however, individually, in some cases, allowed a degree of freedom, or rather licence, which would never be permitted in European mines. They chiefly belong to two races, the Bauris and the Santdls ; the former using the pick, while the latter cannot be induced to work with any other tool than a crowbar, with which they produce an altogether dis proportionate amount of small coal and dust. 1 he " pillar and stall " is generally practised in preference to the " long wall " system of " getting " the coal. None of the mines are of great depth ; and a perfect freedom from fire and choke-damp renders it possible to carry on the work with out its being necessary to adopt the precautions which in England only too often fail to secure the object aimed at. Many of the seams are of considerable thickness ; one which is worked contains nearly 40 feet of coal. As a rule, however, the thick seams, especially those in the lower measures, do not contain the best coal. Compared with ordinary- English coal, the Rdniganj coal, and Indian coal generally, are very much inferior in working power ; still they are capable of generating steam in both locomotive and other engines.' The latest official return gives the average annual out-turn of 50 out ofthe 53 mines in Bardwdn District (Rdniganj coal-field), for the three years previous to 1883, at 574,930 tons ; the output in 1883 being 603,591 tons. For 5 mines no returns were given, and no information 506 RANIGANJ TOWN—RANIKHET. was available. The 50 working mines in 1883 afforded employment to 11,770 men, women, and children. Raniganj. — Small town and municipality in Purniah District, Bengal ; on the river Kamla, in lat. 25° 51' 40" N., and long. 87° 57' 55" E., 16 miles due west of Basantpur. Population (1881) 5978, namely, Hindus 5780, and Muhammadans 198. Municipal income (1883-84), ,£123 ; average incidence of taxation, 4-|d. per head of population within municipal limits ; municipal police, 12 men, besides 13 maintained for the protection of the surrounding country. Seat of trade in rice, indigo, jute, tobacco, etc. Rdnfganj contains a primary school, attended by about 50 boys. - Ranigat (or ' Queen's Rock '), ancient fortress in the independent Khddd Khel hills, adjoining Peshawar District, Punjab, identified with the Aornos of Alexander's historians. In 1848, General Cunningham suggested that the 'vast hi.ll fortress of Ranfgat, situated immediately below the small Sayyid hamlet of Nogrdm, about 16 miles north by west of Nogrdm, corresponded in all essential particulars with the description of Aornos, as given by Arrian, Strabo, and Diodorus, excepting in its elevation, the height of Rdnigat being not more than 1000 feet, which is, however, a very great elevation for so large a fortress.' The ascent from Nogrdm village to the summit of the hill is steep, and the distance about three-quarters of a mile. In 1854, General James Abbott suggested the Mahdban hill as the true identifica tion ; and in 1863, Mr. Loewenthal brought forward the claims of Rajd Hodi's fort, opposite Attock, a site first suggested by General Court. After a full reconsideration of the whole case, General Cunningham has again urged the identification of Ranigat with Aornos. The ' Queen's Rock ' is a huge upright block on the north edge of the fort, on which Rdjd Vara's rdni is said to have seated herself daily. The chief objection to the identification is the difference in height, — Rdnigat being only about 1000 feet high, while the Aornus of Arrian was said to be 6674. For a complete statement of the case, see General Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India, pp. 58-78 (1871). Ranikhet. — Military sanitarium in Kumdun District, North-Western Provinces. Lat. 29° 39' 50" n., long. 79° 33' e. Ranikhet has of late grown into importance as a sanitarium for European troops. It has several advantages over the other Himdlayan sanitaria, as regards level land for building purposes, and accessibility from the plains, and is also a favourite summer resort for European civilians and others. Some years ago it was proposed to move the military head-quarters of the Indian army from Simla to Rdnfkhet Population (February 1881) 5984, namely, Hindus, 3313; Muhammadans, 1090; Christians, 1573; and ' others,' 8. A special Census taken in the height of the season in September 1880 returned the population at 6638, namely, Hindus RANINUR. 507 3243 ; Muhammadans, 1293; Europeans, 2072; Eurasians, 7; Native Christians, y, 'others,' 16. If the water-supply and other questions connected with the accommodation of Europeans are satisfactorily solved, Rdnikhet may yet become one of the most important of our Indian hill stations. Its elevation is sufficient to render it a most salubrious retreat from the plains. Rani-mir ('The Queen's Palace'). — Rock cave in Khandgiri Hill, Puri District, Orissa. One of the most modern of a series of cave- temples with which Khandgiri and the neighbouring hill of Udayagiri are honeycombed. The earliest of these excavations exhibit what are believed to be the oldest memorials of Buddhism, and the first human dwellings yet discovered in India. The Rdnf-ndr is the latest and most elaborate of these excavations, to which dates have been variously ascribed from 200 B.C. to 1000 a.d. It consists of two rows of cells, one above the other, shaded by pillared verandahs, with a court-yard cut out of the hillside. Two stalwart figures, in coats of mail down to the knees, stand forth from the wall as guards. One of them wears boots half-way up the knee ; the other seems to have on greaves, the feet being naked, but the legs encased in armour. The court-yard opens towards the south, and is lined on the other three sides with rows of chambers. On the right and left appear to be the cooking-room and common dining-hall. The verandahs are commodious, and the rock brackets, which extend from the pillars to support the intervening roof, are finely sculptured. The upper storey contains four large cells, each 14 feet long by 7 broad, and 3 feet 9 inches high. The verandah out side is about 60 feet long by 10 broad, and 7 in height. Each cell has two doors, and at either end-is a lion, hewn out of the rock. The upper verandah of the Queen's Palace is adorned with a sculp tured biography of its founder. The first tableau, worn almost level with the rock, seems to represent the sending of presents, which pre ceded the matrimonial alliances of the ancient dynasties of India. A running figure stands dimly out, apparently carrying a tray of fruit. The second appears to be the arrival of the suitor. It delineates the meeting of the elephants, and a number of confused human forms, one of whom rides on a lion. From the third tableau the biography becomes more distinct. It represents the courtship. The prince is introduced by an old lady to the princess, who sits cross-legged on a high seat, with her eyes averted, and her arms round the neck of one of her maidens below. The fourth is the fight. The prince and princess, each armed with swords and oblong shields, engage in combat. The fifth is the abduction, depicting the princess defeated and carried off in the prince's arms, her sword lost, but her shield still grasped in her hand The prince holds his sword drawn, and is amply clothed. The princess is scantily draped, and her hair knotted in a perpendicular 508 RANIPE1. chignon, rising from the top of her head, and a long tress falling over her bosom to her waist. She wears heavy anklets. The sixth is the hunt. A tree forms the centre of the piece, on one side of which the prince and princess are shooting at a bounding antelope ; while a led horse stands near, and attendants armed with clubs. The prince draws his bow in the perpendicular fashion of English archers. It is about two-thirds his own height. A lady looks down upon the chase from the tree. A court scene follows, in which the prince sits on a throne on the left, with attendants holding fans on either side. Dancing girls and musicians are grouped in front, and the princess appears on a throne on the extreme right. The eighth and ninth tableaux are effaced. Three scenes of dalliance between the prince and the princess follow, and the series in the upper storey ends in a mysterious running figure with a snake twisted round him. The lower verandah exhibits the sequel. A convent scene discloses the princess retired from the vanities of life, sitting at her cell door in the upper storey of a sculptured monastery, with her ladies, also turned ascetics, sitting at separate doors in the lower one. The remaining tableaux, four in number, represent the prince, princess, and courtiers as hermits, with their hands on their breasts in an attitude of abstraction, freed from human passion, and wrapped in contemplation of the Deity. Throughout, the prince is generally fully dressed, with a cotton garment falling from his girdle, but leaving the leg bare from the knee. The lady wears a head-dress something like the Prince of Wales' feathers, with her hair done up in a towering chignon. A scroll of birds and beasts and leaves runs the whole way along. The battle and hunting scenes are given with much spirit, the animals being very different from the conventional creatures of modern Hindu art. The sculptured legend of the princess is now much worn by climatic action, and its episodes are to a large extent conjectural. Ranipet. — Town in Wdldjdpet tdluk, North Arcot District, Madras Presidency; situated on the north bank of the Paldr river, in lat. 12° 56' n., and long. 79° 23' 20" e. Population (1881) 3697, namely, Hindus, 221 1; Muhammadans, 1183; and Christians, 303. Number of houses, 556. Rdnfpet comprises the European quarter of Arcot town. A village founded opposite Arcot, about the year 1771, by Saadat-ulld Khan, in honour of the youthful widow of Desingh Rdjd of Gingi, and named after her Rdnipet The place was of no importance till constituted a British cantonment. It then rapidly extended and absorbed the adjacent village of Hassandlfpet Rdnipet is the head quarters of the Sub - Collector, and was formerly a large cavalry station, now abandoned. The barracks, however, are still in good preservation, and are occupied as a hospital, and as quarters for the families of sepoys on foreign service. The Roman Catholics and RANIPUR— RANJIT, LITTLE. 509 the American Mission have churches in the town. A large dispensary, supported by the local fund committee, but under the management of the head of the American Mission. Every Friday a fair is held on the parade-ground north of the town, where a larger number of cattle are bought and sold than in any other place in the District. The ' Nine Ldkh Garden,' an extensive grove of mangoes, is near Ranfpet About 32 per cent, of the population are Muhammadans, consisting largely of sepoys and their families. Ranipur. — Town in Jhdnsi District, North - Western Provinces ; situated on the old Jhdnsi and Nowgong (Naugdon) road, 3 miles west of Mau(Mhow), with which it forms one municipality. Lat. 25° i4'4o"n., long. 790 10' 45" e. Population (1881) 6846, namely, Hindus, 6101 ; Muhammadans, 406 ; and Jains, 339. Municipal income of the united towns Mau-Rdnipur (1883-84), .£1459, of which .£1229 was derived from taxation, mostly octroi duties ; average incidence of taxation, is. ofd. per head of the population (22,827) within municipal limits. Considerable manufacture of Mania and kasbi cloth, dyed red with the root of the al (Morinda citrifolia). The principal inhabitants are Jains, who compose the wealthy merchant class, and have a very hand some temple, with two high steeples and numerous cupolas. Fine bdzdr and sarai or native inn, with old and picturesque stone-built houses, and two small but pretty Jain shrines. Metalled roads and masonry drains. Founded in 1678 by Rdni Hird Devi, widow of Raja Pahdr Singh of Orchha State. Police station, post-office. Ranipur. — Town in Khairpur State, Sind, Bombay Presidency; situated on the main road from Haidardbdd (Hyderdbad) to Rohri, 45 miles south-west of Rohri, and 15 due west of Diji fort. Lat. 27° 17' n., long. 68° 31' 30" e. Population (1872) 6310, chiefly Muham madans ; not separately returned in the Census Report of 1881. Said to derive its name from the circumstance of the Rdni or queen of Jdm Daria Khan, a prince who reigned at Tatta, in Lower Sind, having fled hither after her husband had been killed in battle. Once the seat of a considerable manufacture of cotton cloth. Ranjit, Great— River of Bengal, which rises in Independent Sikkim and enters Ddrjiling District from the west, forming part of the northern boundary. After a short course from west to east, it falls into the Tista (lat 27^ 6' n., long. 88° 29' e.). Its affluents above the point of junction are the Rangnu and the Chhota or Little Ranjit. The Ranjit, although not navigable, being purely a mountain stream, is not fordable within Ddrjiling at any time of the year. It has shelving banks gene rally clothed with forest, but with patches of cultivation at intervals , the bed is stony and sandy. . Raniit, Little.-River of Bengal, rising in the Singdhla range on the borders of Sikkim and Nepdl. It flows generally in a north-easterly 510 RANPUR TOWN AND STATE. direction, and falls into the Great Ranjit on its right bank. In the dry and cold months it is everywhere fordable. The principal tributaries of the Little Ranjit are the Kdhel, the Hospital Jhord, the Rilling, and the Serjang. Ranpur. — Town in Dhandhuka Sub-division, Ahmaddbdd District, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 22° 22' n., and long. 710 45' e. Situated on the north bank of the Bhadhar river, at its meeting with the Goma. Population (1881) 5726. On the raised strip of land between the two rivers is a large District bungalow; and near it, an- old fort partly in ruins, the chief ornament of the town. Ranpur was founded about the beginning of the 14th century by Randji Gohel, a Rajput chieftain, the ancestor of the Bhaunagar family. Here his father, Sekdji, had settled, and named it Sejakpur; but the son having strengthened Sejakpur with a fort, called it Ranpur. Sometime in the 15th century, the ruling chief embraced the Muhammadan religion and founded the family of the present Ranpur Molesalams. About 1640, Azam Khan built the castle of Shdhdpur, whose ruins still ornament the town. In the 18th century, Ranpur passed to the Gdekwdr, and from him to the British in 1802. A station on the Bhaunagar-Gondal Railway. Post-office. Ranpur. — Native State of Orissa, in the Lieutenant-Governorship of Bengal; lying between lat 19° 52' 45" and 20° 12' n., and between long. 85° 9' 15" and 85° 29' 15" e. Bounded on the north, east, and south by Purf District ; and on the west by Naydgarh State. The south-west part of Ranpur is a region of hills, forest-clad and almost entirely un inhabited, which wall in its whole western side, except at a single point where a pass leads into the adjoining State of Naydgarh. Area, 203 square miles; villages, 308; houses, 6572. Population (1881) 36,539, namely, males 18,382, and females .18,157. Average density of popu lation, 180 persons per square mile; persons per village, 168; persons per house, 5-6. Classified according to religion, there are — Hindus, 34,260; Muhammadans, 186; and non - Hindu aborigines, 2093, principally Kandhs. The only town is the Rajd's place of residence, situated in lat. 20° 3' 55" n., and long. 85° 23' 26" e., which consists of one long and wide street, containing about 600 houses. The country products are here bartered at markets twice a week for iron, cotton, blankets, cotton cloth, silk, wheat, and clarified butter, brought from Khandpard ; and for fish from the Chilkd Lake. The revenue of the Rdjd is estimated at about .£3000; the tribute paid to the British Government is ,£140. The Rajd's militia consists of 8, and the police force of 94 men. Forty-one schools are scattered through Ranpur. Tradition affirms that this State was founded 3600 years a°-o by a hunter called Bdsara Bdsuk; its name is said to be derived from a giant Randsur. RANTHAMBHOR—RAPTI. 5 1 1 Ranthambhor. — Fort in Jaipur (Jeypore) State, Rdjputdna. Lat. 26° 2' n., long. 760 30' e. ; situated on an isolated rock, the summit of which is surrounded by a massive wall, strengthened by towers and bastions. Within the enclosure, says Thornton, are an ancient palace, the resi dence of the Governor ; a mosque, with the tomb of a Muhammadan saint ; and barracks for the garrison. East of the fortress is the town, connected with it by a long flight of steps. Ranthambhor was besieged without success in 1291 by Jaldl-ud-dfn, the Khilji king of Delhi; in 1299, by the Wazir of Allahdbdd; and shortly afterwards captured by Ala-ud-dfn, who put the garrison, with the Rdjd and his family, to the sword. The fort was subsequently wrested from the sovereign of Delhi ; and in 15 16 is mentioned as belonging to Mdlwd. After the expulsion of Muhammad Shah from Delhi by Humayun in 1553. it surrendered to the Rdjd of Bundi, who transferred it later on to Akbar. It probably fell into the hands of the Rdjd of Jaipur on the decay of the Empire, in the middle of the 17th century. The ancient ruins within the fort are now, with the permission of the Jaipur Darbdr, being archseologically surveyed. Raojan. — Village and police station in the head-quarters Sub-division of Chittagong District, Bengal. Lat. 22° 32' n., long. 91° 57' 50" e. Population (1881) 5560. Rdojdn, with the adjacent police circles of Fatakchari and Hdthhazdri, has been recently formed into one large Government estate (Mas mahal), and placed in charge of a tahsilddr. Rapri. — Village and ruins in Shikohabdd tahsil, Mainpuri District, North-Western Provinces ; situated among the wild ravines on the left bank of the Jumna, about 44 miles south-west of Mainpuri town. Population (1881) 714, namely, Muhammadans 422, and Hindus 292. Numerous remains of Hindu and Muhammadan times exist in the neighbourhood. Local tradition ascribes the foundation of the ancient city to Rdo Zorawar Singh, also known as Rdpar Sen, whose descendant fell in battle against Muhammad Ghori in 1194 a.d. Mosques, tombs, wells, and reservoirs mark its former greatness ; and several inscriptions found among the ruins have thrown much light upon the local history. The most important of these dates from the reign of Ala-ud-dfn Khilji. Many buildings were erected by Sher Shah and Jahdngir, and traces of the gate of one of the royal residences still exist, indicating that Rdpri must at one time have been a large and prosperous town. The present village is connected by good fair-weather roads with the railway station and town of Shikohabdd and with Sarsaganj ; and a bridge of boats crosses the Jumna to Batesar on the opposite bank, where one of the largest fairs in the North-Western Provinces is held every year. . Rapti— River of Oudh and the North-Western Provinces. It rises among the outer Himdlayan ranges of Nepdl, in lat. 28° 19' n., and 512 RAPUR—RASALGARH long. 82° 53' e., and flowing round a long spur of mountains, first southerly for 40 miles, and then north-westerly for 45 miles, enters British territory in Bahraich District, Oudh, in lat 28° 3' N., and long. 81° 55' e. It then traverses the plains for 90 miles, passing through Bahraich and Gonda Districts, till it reaches the North-Western Provinces in Basti District. Thenceforth its course becomes extremely tortuous, winding at its will through the soft alluvial soil. Throughout, it possesses two channels, the older lying to the north and remaining dry except in the rainy season. It is also liable to frequent changes of its bed. Numerous lakes in Basti District communicate with the Rdpti, the chief being the Tdl Bakhira, Tdl Pathra, and Chaur Tdl. It then enters Gorakhpur District, flows past the town of Gorakhpur, and finally joins the Gogra (Ghagra) in lat. 26° 15' n., and long. 83" 42' e., after a total course of 400 miles. The, last 85 miles below Gorakhpur are navigable for large boats, and considerable quantities of grain and timber are sent down to the Ganges ports. In the rains, the stream has a breadth of a quarter of a mile, and flows at the rate of 5 miles an hour; but during the hot weather it shrinks to 150 yards, with a velocity of only 2 miles 'an hour. The current often cuts away large pieces of land and transfers them from one village to another. Its principal tributary is the Burhd Rdpti, which joins it on its left bank in Gorakhpur District. Rapur. — Tdluk or Sub-division of Nellore District, Madras Presi dency. Area, 596 square miles. Population (1881) 49,774, namely, 25,639 males and 24,135 females, occupying 9911 houses in 109 villages. Hindus number 47,584; Muhammadans, 2172; and Christians, 18. Rapur is the most southerly of the inlying government taluks of the District. It is watered by two small streams, the Kandleru and the Kolleru ; these supply a few tanks in their course. The irrigated area is small, but the Penner canal, passing through the north-east portion of the tdluk, has made a marked increase in this respect. The soil in the north is chiefly black, and in the south red. Towards the south are low rocky hills, chiefly trap, on which garnets and other crystals are found. The western portion of the tdluk consists of dense jungles, extending from the slope of the Ghats for an average breadth of six miles. Land revenue, ,£10,262. In 1883 the tdluk contained — criminal courts, 2 ; police circles (thdnds), 8 ; regular police, 54 men ; village watch (chaukiddrs), 12. Rapur. — Town in Nellore District, Madras Presidency, and head quarters of Rdpur tdluk. Lat. 14° 11' 35" n., and long. 79° 36' e. Population (188 1 ) 2423, occupying 497 houses. Hindus number 1967 ; Muhammadans, 442 ; and Christians, 14. Rasalgarh.— Fort in Khed Sub- division, Ratndgiri District, Bombay Presidency. Situated 8 miles from Khed, at the south end of a spur of RASAN—RAS MUARL 513 the irregular chain of hills which forms the eastern boundary of the District. Rasdlgarh is approached by an easy ascent Narrow in the north, the fort gradually widens, dividing in the south into two spurs, of which the south-west is of greater strength. The fort is entered from the north by a massive gate guarded by a tower and high battle ments. About 80 yards inside is a second gateway similarly guarded. Temples, pools, ruins of a magazine, store-house, and other buildings a-e in the fort Rasan (or Rdsin). — Village in Badausa tahsil, Banda District, North- Western Provinces. Distant from Bdnda town 30 miles south-east, from Kalinjar 17 miles north-east. Situated at the foot of a rocky hill, crowned by the ruins of an old fort. An ancient temple, probably of Chandel date, and now disused, stands in the centre of the enclosure. Mounds surround the village, pointed out by tradition as the remains of a large town called Rajbansi. Population (1881) 2833. Local legends affirm that about the 15th century Ballabh Deo Ju fought against the Delhi troops on this spot ; and that the imperialists, being victorious, plundered and burnt the old town, which has remained in ruins ever since. One Rdm Krishna then founded the present village of Rdsan near the deserted town and fort of Rdjbansi, and his descendants are still zaminddrs in the village. Head-quarters of a pargand under Akbar. Village school. Rasauli. — Town in Bara Banki District, Oudh ; situated 4 miles east of the civil station of Nawabganj, on the Faizabdd road. A Musalman settlement of some antiquity. Population (1881) 2793, namely, Muham madans 1473, and Hindus 1320. Rasdhan. — Village in Derapur tahsil, Cawnpur District, North- Western Provinces ; situated 42 miles from Cawnpur city, a little to the north of the old Mughal road. Population (1881) 3146. Bi weekly market on Tuesdays and Saturdays. A small house-tax is raised for police and conservancy purposes. Rasin. — Village in Badausa tahsil, Banda District, North-Western Provinces. — See Rasan. Rasipur (or correctly Ghdzipur). — Town in Salem tdluk, Salem District, Madras Presidency ; situated at the entrance of the valley east of the Salem-Namakal road. Lat. 11" 27' 30" n., and long. 78° 13' 47" e. Population (1881) 7969, namely, Hindus, 7486 ; Muhammadans, 373; and Christians, no. Number of houses, 1336. The station of a sub-magistrate. Principal industries— silk-weaving, brass work, iron- smelting, and sugar-boiling. Ras Muari (or Cape Monze, Pas Movari, etc. ; called Rasjil by the Baluchi's). The frontier promontory between Sind and Baldchistdn, at the south-eastern extremity of the estuary of the Hab River. Lat. 24 50' n., long. 66° 43' e. This headland, well known to mariners, forms vol. xi. 2 K 5i4 RASRA TAHSIL AND TOWN. the extreme southern offshoot of the hills which, under the name of Brahuik, Hak, etc., separate Sind from Baliichistdn. Pottinger speaks of it as ' springing abruptly to a conspicuous height and grandeur out of the sea.' As a matter of fact, it rises as a gradually sloping bluff, with a low, rocky point, to a height of 1 200 feet. The Hab river washes its eastern base ; and on the Baluchi or western side of the Hab estuary, rise the Jebel Pab Mountains, with peaks as high as 2500 feet. A rocky bank projects about 2\ miles into the sea from Cape Monze to the south and south-west, with from 3 to 5 fathoms of water. Cape Monze, with the Jebel Pab on the Baluchi or western side of the river, form well-known landmarks for making Kardchi during the south-west monsoon. No vessel should, however, round Ras Mudri in less than 15 fathoms, as there are shoals, not yet thoroughly surveyed, deposited by the silt brought down by the Hab and by the deltaic distributaries of the Indus. Rasra. — Western tahsil of Ballia District, North-Western Provinces, comprising the pargands of Lakhnesar, Bhadaon, Sikandarpur, and Kopachit. Area, 398-6 square miles. Population (1881) 292,038, namely, males 146,922, and females 145,116. Hindus number 266,707, and Muhammadans 25,331. Of the 636 villages, 452 con tain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 116 between five hundred and a thousand ; 66 between one and five thousand ; and 2 upwards of five thousand inhabitants. Total area assessed in 1881 for Government revenue, 393-3 square miles, of which 254-2 square miles were culti vated; 75-3 square miles cultivable; and 63-8 square miles uncultiv able waste. Total Government land revenue, .£18,259, or including rates and cesses, .£23,547. Total rental paid by cultivators, including local cesses, .£57,903. In 1884, Rasra tahsil contained 1 civil and 1 criminal court; number of police circles (thdnds), 4; strength of regular police, 53 men ; village watch or rural police (chaukiddrs), 403. Rasra. — Town in Ballia District, North-Western Provinces, and head-quarters of Rasra tahsil. Lat. 25° 51' 20" n., long. 83° 53' 55" E. Distant from Ghdzfpur 28 miles north-east, from Ballia town 21 miles north-west. Population (1881) 11,224, namely, males 5444, and females 5780. Hindus number 7600, and Muhammadans 3624. Rasra is a thriving, well-laid-out town, and is commercially the most important place in Ballia District. A bi-weekly market is held, and a large trade is carried on in cloth, sugar, hides, iron, spices, and sajji. Communica tion with the towns of Ballia, Ghdzipur, and Nagrd is maintained by means of unmetalled roads, almost impracticable for wheeled traffic during the rainy season. The trade of the town during the rains is carried on by the Sarju, a river navigable by large boats for five or six months of the year. For the rest of the year, the traffic is by road to Ghdzfpur and Buxar. The tahsili, munsifi, and police station are built RASSA—RASULABAD. 515 in one block, as a fortalice, with towers at the angles, on the north side of the town at the entrance from the Ghdzipur road. The town contains five large and about twelve small masonry mosques ; dispen sary ; Anglo-vernacular school ; and a post-office. Rassa. — Village in the District of the Twenty-four Pargands, Bengal. Noted as the residence of the descendants of the Mysore princes. Central prison for female convicts. Rastam. — Village in Shikdrpur District, Sind, Bombay Presidency ; 12 miles north-east of Shikdrpur town. Lat. 270 58' n., long. 68° 51' 30' e. Population (1872) 1114, of whom 653 were Muhammadans and 461 Hindus; not returned separately in the Census Report of 1881. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture. Police station, travellers' bungalow, and dharmsdla. Rasiilabad. — Central western tahsil of Cawnpur District, North- Western Provinces, lying in the middle of the Dodb uplands, and conterminous with the pargand of the same name. The soil is a fertile loam, changing to a reddish sandy soil on the banks of the Rind, and stiffened into a hard clay wherever water lodges. Irrigation is plentiful, both from a canal distributary, and from wells. In the north, water is also afforded by several large swamps or jhils, on which grow extensive crops of rice. The tahsil is drained not only by the Rind, but by the Chhoya and Siydri watercourses, and in its extreme northern corner by the Pdndu. Unmetalled roads connect it with Bilhaur, and with the Jhfnjak station on the East Indian Railway. Area of the tahsil, 226 square miles, of which 116 square miles are under cultivation. Population (1881) 102,168, namely, males 55,342, and females 46,826. Classified according to religion, Hindus number 97,178, and Muhammadans 4990. Of 128 villages, 55 contain less than five hundred inhabitants ; 46 from five hundred to a thousand ; and 27 from one to five thousand. Government land revenue, .£19,571, or including local rates and cesses, ,£21,920. Rental paid by cultivators, including cesses, .£34,129. Number of police circles (thdnds), 2 ; strength of regular police, 21 men; village watch or rural police (chaukiddrs), 209. Rasiilabad— Village in Cawnpur District, North-Western Provinces, and head-quarters of Rasdldbad tahsil; situated 40 miles north-west of Cawnpur city, and 9 miles north of Jhfnjak railway station. Population below 5000. Besides the usual Sub-divisional courts and offices, Rasulabdd contains a police station, post-office, and Anglo- vernacular school. The fort, in which the tahsili offices are located, was built by Govind Rdo Pandit, the Mardtha governor, between 1756 and 1762. Rasiilabad.— Town in Unao District, Oudh; situated 14 miles north of Unao town, in lat. 26° 50' n , and long. 80° 30' e. Population 516 RASULABAD VILLAGE— RATANPUR. (1881) 3338, namely, Hindus 2673, and Musalmdns 665. Four mosques, 5 Hindu temples, 2 weekly markets. Has some reputation for goldsmiths' and jewellers' work. The village contains 2 sardis or native inns, post-office, and primary school. Rasiilabad. — Village in Arvi tahsil, Wardhd District, Central Pro vinces. Population (1881) 2552, namely, Hindus, 1942; Muham madans, 362; Jains, 67; and non-Hindu aborigines, 181. The village lands are rich and well cultivated. Large weekly market held every Friday. Prosperous Government school. Rasulpur. — River of Bengal, which, with the Haldi, is the only tributary of the Hdgli within Midnapur District. Rises in the south west of that District, under the name of the Bagda, and flows eastwards and south-eastwards till it falls into the Hdgli below Cowcolly lighthouse, a short distance above the embouchure of that river into the Bay of Bengal. Rasiilpur. — Town in Faizdbad (Fyzdbdd) District, Oudh ; situated on the bank of the Gogra river, 4 miles from Tanda. Population (1881) 3360, namely, Hindus 2066, and Muhammadans 1294, in cluding 20 Shids. Raswas. — Town in Bhopdl State, Central India Agency. Popula tion (1881) 5171, namely, Hindus, 3826; Muhammadans, 1163; and 'others,' 182. Ratangarh. — Town in Bikaner (Bickaneer) State, Rdjputdna. Population (1881) 7580, namely, Hindus, 5823 ; Muhammadans, 1 1 84; and 'others,' 573. Bdzdr and well-built houses. Post-office; and 16 temples. Ratanmal. — Petty State in the Bhil or Bhopdwar Agency of Central India. Population (1 881) 468, of whom 227 are Bhils. Country hilly and covered with jungle. Estimated revenue, ,£60. The State receives no allowances from, nor does it pay any tribute to, the British Government. It derives its name from a high flat-topped hill, Ratanmal (about 4000 feet above sea-level), situated in the southern portion of the State. The present Thdkur, named Dhirap Singh, was born about 1878. Ratanpur. — Town in the Native State of Rajpipla, Rewa Kdntha Agency, Bombay Presidency. Lat. 21° 24' n., long. 73° 26' e. The town stands on the top of one of a series of small round hills, about 14 miles north-east of the city of Broach. In 1705 the Mardthds gained a complete victory here over the Mughal army under Safdar Khdn Bdbi and Nagar Ali Khan. At the foot of a hill, in an uncultivated tract, about 5 miles south-west of Ratanpur, are the celebrated carnelian mines ; the top of the hill is crowned by a tomb of Bdwa Ghor, a miracle-working saint. Annual fair. Ratanpur (Ratndpur). — Town in Bildspur tahsil, Bildspur District, RATANPUR DHAMANKA—RATH. 517 Central Provinces, 15 miles north of Bildspur town ; situated in lat. 22° 16' 30" n., and long. 82° n' e., in a hollow surrounded by the Kendd offshoots of the Vindhyan range. Ratanpur was the capital of the Haihai-Bansf kings of Chhatisgarh. Since the death' of Rdjd Bimbaji Bhonsk, in 1787, the town has steadily decayed, though the crumbling arches of the old fort, the broken walls of the ancient palace, and the half-filled up moat which surrounded the city, recall its former grandeur. Population (1881) 5615, namely, Hindus, 4765 ; Kabirpanthis, 142 ; Satndmis, 92; Muhammadans, 502; and non-Hindu aborigines, 114. Among the residents are many traders, who deal in lac, cloth, spices, and metals with Mi'rzdpur ; and also a large section of lettered Brdhmans, the hereditary holders of rent-free villages, who are the interpreters of the Hindu sacred writings, and the ministers of religious rites over a great portion of Chhatisgarh. The town covers an area of 15 square miles, and contains within its limits a perfect forest of mango-trees, with numerous tanks and temples scattered amid their shade. Mixed up with temples, great blocks of masonry of uniform shape commemo rate distinguished satis. The most prominent of these is near the old fort, where a large building, gracefully adorned on all sides with arches and minarets, records that there, two hundred and forty years ago, 20 Rdm's of Rdjd Lakshman Sahi devoutly fulfilled the duty of self-immolation. Ratanpur Dhamanka. — Petty State in the Gohelwar prant or division of Kdthidwdr, Bombay Presidency; consisting of 3 villages, with 3 separate shareholders. Area, 3 square miles. Population (1881) 921. Estimated revenue, ^£585 ; tribute of .£75, 6s. is paid to the Gdekwdr of Baroda, and ,£15 to the Nawdb of Jundgarh. Ratesh. — Petty State in the Punjab, subordinate to Keunthdl. Area, 3 square miles. The population, estimated at about 500, is included in the Census returns with that of Keunthdl. Estimated revenue, .£70. The chief is styled Thdkur. Rath. —North-western tahsil of Hamirpur District, North-Western Provinces ; consisting of a level plain, lying along the rivers Dhasan and Betwd, and conterminous with Rath pargand. Area, 383J square miles, of which 261 are cultivated. Population (1881) 106,013, namely, males 54,147, and females 51,866. Hindus number 97,797, and Muhammadans 8216. Of 135 villages, 66 contain a population of less than five hundred; 33 from five hundred to a thousand; 35 from one to five thousand ; and 1 upwards of ten thousand. Total Government land revenue, ,£18,081, or including local rates and cesses levied on land .£21411. Total rental paid by cultivators, .£23,413. The tahsil contained in 1883-84, 1 civil and 1 criminal court; number of police circles (thdnds), 3 ; strength of regular police, 42 men; village watch or rural police (chaukiddrs), 255. Rath.— Ancient but decaying town in Hamirpur District, North- 518 RA-THAI-MYO—RATIA. Western Provinces, and head-quarters of Rdth tahsil; situated in lat. 25° 35' 35" N-, long. 79° 36' 55" e., about 50 miles from Hamirpur town. The place probably derives its name from the Rahtor clan of Rajputs. It is said to have been refounded in 1210 a.d. by Sharaf-ud- di'n, who called it Sharafabdd after himself. Rath was formerly of con siderable importance, but is now declining through its remoteness from modern trade routes. Population (1881) 14,479, namely, Hindus 10,482, and Muhammadans 3997. The town contains several mosques, temples, and tanks, together with the remains of some ancient Chandel buildings south of the town, and the ruins of two forts, built by the Rdjas of Jaitpur and Charkhdri during the last century. Mosque and well bear inscriptions of Aurangzeb's reign. Tomb of Bard Pir, west of town, built over a sacred brick brought from Bagdad from the shrine of Shaikh Abd-ul-Kadir Jilani. Handsome bdzdr. Trade in grain, cotton, and molasses. Manufacture of country cloth, dyes, and salt petre. The public buildings comprise the lahsili, police station, post- office, dispensary, school, and spacious sarai or native inn. During the Mutiny of 1857 the tahsilddr and the kanimgo were killed, but not by the people of Rath, who bear an excellent character as orderly and well-disposed subjects. A municipality was established in 1867, but abolished two years later. For police and conservancy purposes, a small house-tax is levied. Ra-thai-myo (correctly Ya-the-myo). — Ancient capital of Prome, British Burma. — See Ya-the-myo. Ratia.— Town and municipality in Fatehdbdd tahsil, Hissar District, Punjab ; distant from Hissdr town 40 miles north-west. Ratid is now scarcely more than a Jat agricultural village, but bears marks of former importance, like so many other places in the desolated tract once watered by the Ghaggar and Saraswati (Sarsuti). It was originally held by Tuar Rdjputs, then conquered by the Pathdn invaders. Devas tated by the great Chalisa famine in 1783-84, and colonized since British occupation by its present Jdt inhabitants. Population (1881) 3212 — Hindus, 1472; Sikhs, 1348; Muhammadans, 386 ; and Jains, 6. Number of houses, 407. Municipal income (1883-84), £"96, or an average of 7d. per head. Small trade in grain, leather, and wool, and considerable manufacture of raw hide jars (kupds). end of volume xi. MORRISON AWD GIBB, EDINBURGH, PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.