.fM-'- 'I ^iv:eihff}f; SjHo^iii^ Gift of PROFESSOR EDWARD E. SALISBURY isaaiaa; F IiMf nf feni %ml MULT/E TERRICOLIS LI9iGi3J£, CCELESTI BUS UNA. C|p %iW of imx^ lani. A HISTORY OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURES IN EVERY LANGUAGE AND DIALECT INTO WHICH TRANSLATIONS HAVE BEEN MADE; ILLDSTRATED WITH SPECIMEN PORTIONS IN NATIVE CHARACTERS; Series of ^lp(|abet$; COLOURED ETHNOGRAPHICAL MAPS, TABLES, INDEXES, ETC. DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO HIS GRACE THE ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY. nOAAAI MEN GNHTOIS TAQXTAI, MIA A'AeANATOISIN. LONDON: SAMIEL BAGS TER ANI) SONS, 15, PATERNOSTER ROW; AVAEEHOTJSE POK BIBLES, NEW TESTAMENTS, PEATEK BOOKS, LEXICONS, GKAMMABS, CONCOEDANCES. AND BSALTEKS, IN ANCIENT AND MODEEN LANGUAGES. I "6 6 0 TO HIS GRACE THE LORD ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC. My Lord, It is with peculiar pleasure I avail myself of the permission to dedicate the ^' Bible of Every Land" to your Grace. The high honour of having extensively promoted the general spread of the Sacred Scriptures belongs in an especial manner to your Grace, and renders the association of this Work with your Grace's name truly gratifying. I rejoice in placing my humble effort in the same great cause under your Grace's patronage. My gratitude for this distinguished favour, so kindly bestowed, will increase my endeavour to attain the highest possible degree of completeness and accuracy in the prosecution of the Work. I have the honour to subscribe myself, My Lord, Your Grace's much obliged and very humble Servant, SAMUEL BAGSTER. 15, Pateenosteb Row, 1848. CONTENTS., PAGK Pkefatoet Remarks ....... ix A Classified List of the Languages into which the Scriptures have been translated xi An Alphabetical List of Typographical Specimens . . xiii The Plates of Engraved Specimens An Expository Description of all the Ethnographical Maps . . . xvii The Comparative Series of Alphabets . . . xxix Alphabetical Index to the Memoirs of the Versions . Ixi MAP iUustratiire of the UONOBYLLABIC Lsngaages Memoirs of Class I. — The Chinese Languages .... 1 MAP abowing tbe ExtensioD of tbe SHEMITIC LariguageB Memoirs of Class II. — The Shemitic Languages . . . 19 MAP Ulustrative of tbe MEDO-FEESIAN Family, Memoirs of Class III. — Medo-Persian Family . ¦ 51 MAP lIlustratlTe of tbe SANSCRIT Family Memoirs of Class III. — Sanscrit Family ... 71 MAP of EUROPE, showing the Distribution ot the CBIiTIC, TEUTONIC, GRECO LATIN, THRACO ILLYBIAN, and SCLAVONIC Families Memoirs of Class Ill.-^Celtic Family . .129 Teutonic Family . 147 Greco-Latin Family . . 1 89 CONTENTS. Memoirs of Class III.— Thraco-IIlyiian Family . Sclavonic Family MAP of the FINNQ.TARTARIAN Family of Language^ PAGE 239 240 261 264277 279 282 Memoirs of Class IV. — Euskarian Family . . • - Finnish Family . - - ¦ Tungusian Family . - - - " Mongolian Family Turkish Family Caucasian Family . ^^^ Samoiede FamUy . . .295 Eastern Asian and Corean Languages 296 MAP illustrative of the POLYNESIAN and NEGRITIAN Languages Memoirs of Class V. — Polynesian Languages . 299 MAP showing the Distribution of the Native Languages of AFRICA. Memoirs of Class VI. — African Languages . . 326 MAP of the Languages of NORTH and SOUTH AMERICA Memoirs of Class VII. — American Languages ..... 359 Memoirs of Class VIII. — Mixed or Patois Languages .... 394 MAP exhibiting the imeient Difihsion of the HEBREW Languages, Supplementary Memoir of the wide Difiiision of the Hebrew Language (1) Supplementary Information of the Versions generally .... (5) A Classified Table of the Languages of the entire Earth, illustrating the necessity for continued exertion in the spread of the Scriptures . (10) PREFATORY EEMAEKS. It is remarkable that, among all the branches of history, religious, political, social, literary, and scientific, which have from time to time obtained such numerous and such able exponents, the history of the Oracles of God has hitherto, in the form at least of a complete and unbroken narrative, remained unwritten. The materials for such a work have, however, been accumulating from century to century ; fragmentary portions of this history enter into the composition of many profound and learned treatises, while facts and incidents connected with or illustrative of the subject have been supplied even to profusion by writers of almost every age, creed, and nation. To collect from all sources, ancient and modem, the multitudinous details bearing on that history which above all others involves the temporal and eternal interests of mankind, and thus to produce a clear and condensed account of the means by which the Scriptures were transmitted from generation to generation, — of the circumstances under which they have been translated into the predominant languages of every land, — and of the agencies by which copies of the inspired writings in these divers languages have been multiphed and dispersed among the nations and tribes and kindreds of the earth, — is the object of the present work. The arrangement of the whole work is in strict conformity with the latest dis coveries in ethnology ; for, although the one grand object of displaying the history of the Scriptures has never been departed from in these pages, the origin and condition of the nations to whom special versions have been vouchsafed, and the distinguishing characteristics of the languages into which have been transferred the words of Him who " spake as never man spake," have passed under careful review. The elements of these languages, the stock or stocks from which they sprang, and their affiliation with other languages, have been examined more or less in detail ; and the singular precision with which all languages range themselves, according to the order of their mutual affinities, into classes, families, and subdivisions, is exhibited by means of our Tables of Classification, perhaps the first of the kind comphed in our language. The work has thus in some degree assumed the character of an ethnological manual, and as such it may possibly prove a stepping-stone to those who desire to pass from PEEFATOEY EEMAEKS. the study of two or three isolated languages to the enlarged consideration of lan guage in general, and of the laws upon which all languages are constructed. Such investigations, if laboriously, patiently, and honestly conducted, can lead but to one result, the affinities by which famihes and even classes of languages are hnked together being so close and intimate, that the more deeply they are examined, the more profound becomes the conviction of the truth of the theory respecting the original imity of language. This volume is hlustrated by specimen portions of aU the extant and attainable versions of the Scriptures, printed in their own proper characters. The maps appertaining to the several sections of the work exhibit the geogra phical location and extent of each language, and hkewise show how far the divine light of the Holy Scriptures, in the vernacular languages of the natives, shines over the world. It has been attempted, also, from the mass of missionary and epistolary evidence existing, to draw conclusions respecting the effects which may have followed the perusal of special versions of the Scriptures. AU reasonings on this subject, however, even with the most ample opportunities of forming as far as possible a correct judgment, can at hest he but approximations towards the truth. Known only to God is the number of His spiritual worshippers. The Word of God is still quick and powerful, in every tongue and among every nation, and it cannot return unto Him. void: therefore let us "in the morning sow our seed, and in the evening withhold not our hand." The question which shaU prosper, this or ^Aa^, or whether they shall hoth ahke be good, is one of the secret things which belong unto the Lord most High. The Pubhshers would fain express their deep obhgation, individually, to the numerous friends who have taken part in the preparation of this laborious work, were such an enumeration suitable ; but they cannot refrain from recording the particular value of the aid afforded by the British and Foreign Bible Society, the American Bible Society, the Missionary Societies of this country and of America. They would also render a becoming tribute to the munificence of the Emperor of Austria, who has been pleased to supply, for the due completion of this work, the entire series of Native Alphabets with which it is enriched. Lo'ndori, 15, Paternoster Bow, 1851. A LIST OF THE LANGUAGES INTO WHICH THE SCRIPTURES, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, HAVE BEEN TRANSLATED. VOTE. — TBE NAMES OF LANGUAGES IN WHICH VERSIONS OF SCRIPTURE IIAVE BEEN CONTEMPLATED OR PROJECTED, BUT NEVER COMPLETED OR CIRCULATED, ARE PRINTED IN ITALICS. Chinese Burmese Arakanese or Ruhheng Siamese Laos or Laiu Cambojan Anamite CLASS I. MONOSYLLABIC. Peguese, Talain, or Mon Karen MunipooraKhassee Tibeta-n Lepoha. CLASS II, SHEMITIC. Hebrew of the Old Test. Hebrew of the New Test. Samaritan Chaldee SyriacSyro-Chaldaic Modem Syriac Garshun Arabic Mogrebin or African Arabic Ethiopic Tigre Amharic. CLASS III. INDO A. Medo-Pbrsian Famelt. Persic Pushtoo or Aifghan Belochee or Bulochee Ancient Armenian Modern Armenian Ararat- Armenian Kurdish Ossitinian. B. Sansobit Eamilt. Sanscrit PaUHindustani or Urdu Hinduwee Bruj or Brij-bhasa Canoj or Canyacubja Kousulu or Koshala EUROPEAN. JBhojepooraHurriana £undelcundeeBughelcundee Oojein or Oujjuyunee Harrotee Oodeypoora Marwar Juyapoora Shekavmtty Bikaneera Buttaneer Bengalee MagadhaTirhitiya or MithiU AssameseUriya or Orissa Cutchee Sindhee Class iii. — Indo-Eueopean — (continued). Moultan, Wuch, or Ooch Punjabee or Sikh D ogura or Jumboo -p CashmerianNepalese or Khaspoora PalpaKumaon Gurwhal or Schreenagur Gujerattee MahrattaKunkuna Eommany or Gipsy Tamul or Tamil Telinga or Teloogoo Kamata or Canarese TuluMalayalimCingalese Maldivian C. Celtic Family. Welsh Gaelic Irish Manks Breton or Armorican. D. Teutonic Familt. Gothic Ancient Low Saxon Anglo-Saxon EnglishFlemishDutch Alemannic or Old High German German Norse or Icelandic Danish Swedish Faroese. Geeco-Latin Family. Ancient Greek Modem Greek Latin French Spanish PortugueseItalianDaco-Romana or Wal- lachian Provencal or Komaimt VaudoisPiedmonteseRomanese or Upper and Lower Enghadine Catalan Dialect of Toulouse. F. Thbaco-Illybian Family. Albanian. G. Sclavonic Family. Sclavonic KussLettish or Livonian Polish Lithuanian Samogitian Wendish, Upper Wendish, Lower Wendish, Hungarian Bohemian CamiolanCroatian or Dalmatian- Servian Bulgarian Bosnian. A LIST OF THE LANGUAGES, ETC. CLASS IV. UGRO-TARTARIAN. A. Euskarian Family. French Basque Spanish Basque or Escuara. B. Finnish Family. Finnish Proper Lapponese Quanian or Norwegian Laplandish Hungarian Karelian Dorpat Esthonian Reval Esthonian Tscheremissian Mordvinian or Morduin Zirian or Sirenian Olonetzian Wogulian Ostiacan or Ostjahiari Wotagia-n or Wotjdkian. C. Tungusian Family. Mantchou Twngusiaii Proper. D. Mongolian Family. Mongolian Proper Calmuc Buriat. E. TuBKisH Family. Turkish Karass or Turkish Tartar Orenburgh Tartar Crimean Tartar Trans-Caucasian Tartar Tschuwaschian. F. Caucasian Family. Georgian. G. Samoiede Family. Samoiede. H. Dialects or the Is lands ofEasteen Asia, AND or CORBA. JapaneseLoochooanAleutian Corea-n. CLASS V. POLYNESIAN OR MALAYAN. Malay Low Malay FormosanJavanese Dajak BattaBi-ma B-ugis Macassar Hawaiian TahitianEarotonga MarquesanTonga New Zealand or Maori Malagasse Samoan Feejeean New South Wales, Aboriginal. CLASS VI Coptic Sahidic BashmuricBerber Ghadamsi MandingoJalloof Susoo Bullom Sherbro Tarriba or Yoruba Haussa TirnmaTiee Grebo AFRICAN. AccraFariteAshantee or Odjii Dewalla Isubu Femandian Mpongwe SechuanaSisuta Caifre NamacquaGalla KisuaheliKikambaKinika. CLASS Vll AMERICAN. Esquimaux Greenlandish VirginianMassachusett Indian MoheganDelaware CreeChippeway or Ojibway Ottawa PottawattomieMicmao Abenaqui Shawanoe Mohawk Seneca CherokeeChooktaw Dacota or Sioux Iowa PavraeeMexican Otomi TerascoMisteco ZapotecaMayaiiMosquito Peruvian or Quichua Aimara Guarani Brazilian Karif or Carib Arawack. of CLASS VIII. MIXED OR PATOIS LANGUAGES. Maltese Negro Dialect Judeo- Spanish Surinam Jevidsh-German Negro Dialect of Judeo-Polish Curacoa Creolese Indo-Portuguese. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF typog:raphical specimens. Accra . Adiyah Affghan . Aimara Albanian Alemannic . Amharic Ancient Greek Anglo-Saxon . Arahic Arawack Armenian : Ancient . AraratModem . Assamese plate PAGE . 342 346 . 58 389 . 239 171 48 189 . 153 39 . 392 61 . 6161 XI 97 Bashmuric . . 330 Basque French . 261 „ Spanish . 263 Bengalee plate vx 92 Berber . . 331 Bohemian . . 248 Breton . . 145 Bulgarian plate vm 254 Bullom . . .337 Buriat plate yttx 280 Burmese plate x 6 Caffre . . 351 Calmuc plate vm 279 Canarese plate vi 120 Camiolan . . 252 Carshun . . 44 Cashmerian plate v 102 Catalan or Cataloiuan 237 Chaldee ... 31 Chinese . . 1 page Chippeway . . 371 Chocktaw . . 379 Cingalese plate vx 126 Coptic . . . 326 Cree ... 369 Creolese . . . 402 Curacoa . 404 Cutchee or Catchee . 99 -Uaco - KOMANA or Wallachian plate vi 229 Dacota or Sioux . 381 Dajak ... 308 Danish . . .180 Delaware . . 368 Dorpat Esthonian . 272 Dualla . . 344 Dutch . . .168 JliNGLISH : Wiclif, 1380 . 157 Tyndale, 1534 . 157 Coverdale, 1535 . 157 Matthew, 1537 . 157 Cranmer, 1539 . 158 Tavemer, 1549 158 Geneva, 1557 . 158 Bishops', 1568 . 158 Rheims, 1582 . 159 Douay, 1847 . 159 Authorised, 1611 . 159 Blayney, 1769 . 159 Esquimaux . . 359 Esthonian, Dorpat . 272 „ Keval . 273 Ethiopic ... 45 h AROBSE . . 188 Feejeean . . . 323 Femandian . 346 Finnish . 264 Flemish . 165 French . 214 Le Frevre's Version 216 Olivetan's n 216 Geneva )7 216 De Sacy's )5 217 Ostervald's )T 217 Swiss JJ 217 French Basque 261 Ctaelic . . .135 Galla ... 355 Georgian : plate ix 293 CivU character . 293 Ecclesiastical „ 293 German : Luther, Leipsic, 1825 173 Van Ess, Sulbach, 1842 . . 173 Gosner, Munich, 1836 . . 174 Kistemacker, Munster, 1848 174 Ghadamsi . . 333 Gipsy . . . 112 Gothic . . .147 Grebo ... 341 Greek, Ancient : Textus Receptus . 189 Griesbach, with va rious readings . 194 Septuagint . 197 Greek, Modern : Maximus Calliopoli- tan's Version, 1638 201 Hilarion's „ . 201 page Greenlandish, 1799 362 „ 1822 362 Gujerattee plate v 105 JbLAKARi plate IV 68 Harrotee . . 89 Hawaiian . 311 Hebrew . . .19 New Test., Green field's Version 25 Society's „ . 25 Hindustani . . 78 In the Devanigari character . . 79 In Roman . 80 Hinduwee . . 84 Hungarian . . 269 „ Wendish 257 Icelandic . .177 Indo-Portuguese . 405 Irish : In Irish character 137 In Eoman . 137 Isubu . . .345 Italian : Malermi's Version 227 Diodati's „ 227 Martini's „ 227 Japanese plate x 296 Javanese plate xi 307 Jewish-German . 399 Judseo-Persio . . 57 Judeo-Polish . 400 Judeo- Spanish : Old Testament, with Hebrew Original 396 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF TYPOGRAPHICAL SPECIMENS. PAGE Judeo-Spanish (conf-) : New Testament . 397 Karaite-Tartar 290 Karass : Seaman's Version, 1666 . . 287 Brunton's Version, 1813 . . 287 Karelian plate vm 271 Karen, Sgau plate xi 13 „ Sho or Pwo plate XI 13 Karif or Carib . 391 Karnata plate vx 120 Katchi plate v 99 Khaspoora . . 103 Khassee plate i 15 In Eoman ^toe m 15 Kunkuna . .110 Kurdish plate rv 68 Jjapponese . 267 Latin Versions of the Old Testament : Ante-Hieronymian Version . . 205 Vulgate Version 205 Pagninus's „ . 205 Munster's „ . 206 LeoJuda's „ . 206 Castalio's „ . 206 Junius and Tremel- lius's „ . 207 Schmidt's „ . 207 Dathe's „ . 207 Latin Versions of the New Testament : Ante-Hieronymian Version . 211 Erasmus's Version 211 Beza's „ .211 CastaUo's „ . 212 Schmidt's „ . 212 Sebastian's „ . 212 Schott's „ .213 Goeschen's „ . 213 Lepcha plate xi 18 Lettish or Livonian 257 page Lithuanian . . 259 Loochooan plate x 297 Mahratta . 107 Malagasse . . 320 Malayalim alphabets (xlix) 124 Malayan : Eoman,Oxford,1677 300 „ Brower, 1668 301 Arabic, Calcutta, 1817 . . 299 Arabic, Eobinson' s, 1823 . . 305 Eoman, Serampore, 1814 . . 303 Arabic, Singapore, 1831 . . 304 Maldivian alphabets (1) 128 Maltese, 1829 . 394 „ 1847 . 395 Mandingo . . 334 Manks . . .142 Mantchou plate ix 277 Marathi . . 107 Massachusett . . 366 Mayan . . 386 Mexican . . .283 Modern Greek . 200 Mohawk 375 MongoUan alphabets (lv) 279 Mongrebin, or African or Moorish Arabic 43 Mordvinian plate x 274 Mosquito . . 387 Moultan or Wuch alphabets (xhv) 100 Is AMACQUA . . 354 Napalese or Khaspoora 103 New Zealand . 318 Norse . . . 177 Ojibway . . 370 Old Saxon . . 151 Orenburg-Tartar . 289 OrissaOtomi PAGE plate IV 98 385 plate IV 76 i ALI Peguese alphabets (xxxv) 51 Persian . . .51 Piedmontese . 234 Polish . . .246 Portuguese : Almeida's Version 223 Pereera's „ 223 Boy's „ 223 Provencal or Romaunt Lyons MS. . . 230 Paris MS. [8086] 230 Paris MS. [6833] 230 Dublin MS. . 231 Grenoble MS. . 231 Zurich MS. . 231 Pushtoo . 58 ixAROTONGA . . 314 Reval Esthonian . 273 Romanese or Upper and Lower Enghadine 235 Rommany . .112 Russian plate vu 244 SahidicSamaritanSamoanSamogitianSanscrit . 329 28 321 260 71 Dr. Carey's Version 74 Saxon, Old . . 151 Sclavonian plate vn 240 Sechuana . . 348 Servian plate vn 250 Siamese . . lo Sindhee alphabets (xliv) 99 Sioux . . . 381 Sirenian plate vm 274 Sisuta or Sesuto . 350 Spanish : Eeyna's Version . 220 Scio's „ 220 Amat's „ 220 Spanish Basque . 263 Surinam Negro- EngHsh . Susoo . Swedish . Syriac, Peshito „ Philoxenian 403336 185 33 33 Syro-Chaldaic plate n 37 Tahitian . .312 Tamul plate v 113 Telinga plate rv 118 Tibetan plate n 17 Tigre ... 47 Tongan . . . 316 Toulouse . . 238 Trans-Caucasian Tartar . . 292 Tscheremissian plate x 274 Tschuwaschian /ifate IX 291 Turkish . . 282 Turkish-Armenian . 286 Turkish-Tartar : Seaman's Ver. 1666 287 Brunton's „ 1813 287 Turko-Greek . 285 Drdo . . . 78 Uriya plate rv 98 V AUDOIS Virginian 232 365 VV ALLACHIAN^toe VI 229 Welsh : Salisbury's Version, 1567 . . 129 Dr. W. Morgan's Version, 1588 . 129 Bishop Parry's Ver sion, 1620 . 129 Wendish or Sorabic, Upper and Lower 255 Wendish, Hungarian 257 X ARRIBA . . 338 Zirian plate vm 274 FACSIMILE SPECIMENS. PLATE III, SPECIMEN OF THE KHASSEE VERSION IN EOMAN LETTERS, Consisting of St. Matthe-w, chap. V. v. 1 to V2. ' Haba u ioh ih ia ki paitbah, u la kiu sha u lum ; haba u la shong ruh, ki la wan ha u ki synran jong u : ' u la ang ruh ia la ka shintur, u la hikai ruh ia ki, u da ong, ' Suk ki ba duk ha ka mynsiim ; na ba jong ki long ka hima ka byneng. * Suk ki ba sngousi ; na ba yn pyntyngen ia ki. ' Suk ki ba jemniit ; na ba kin ioh ia ka kyndeu. *' Suk ki ba tyngan bad ba sliang ia ka hok ; naba yn pyndap ia ki. ^ Suk ki ba isnei ; na ba yn isnei ia ki. ' Suk ki bakuid ha ca doniit ; na ba kin ioh ih ia TJ Blei. ** Suk ki ba pyniasuk ; na ba yn khot ia ki, ki kiin U Blei. '" Suk ki ba ioh pynshitom na ka bynta ka hok ; na ba jong ki long ki hima ka byneng. " Suk maphi, ha ba ki leh bein ia phi, ki pynshitom ruh, ki ong ki ktin bymman baroh ruh ia phi na ka bynta jong nga, ha ba ki shu lamlher : " Phin kymen, phin sngoubha eh ruh ; naba kumta ki la pynshitom ia ki Prophet ki ba la mynshiwa jong phi. ON THE KHASSEE VERSION IN EOMAN LETTERS. The system of substituting Roman letters for the native characters of Indian alphabets in printed editions of the Scriptures and of other books, has -of late years been extensively adopted in India; and the advantages of tbis system, especially with reference to the Khassee (which in the former edition of the New Testament had been printed in Bengalee characters, see Specimen, Part I), cannot be better stated than in the words of an eminent Missionary, Dr. Duff, of Calcutta. In a letter addressed to Mr. Jones, the Missionary of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Society at Cherra, when the first books used in connection with the mission were about to be published, the doctor thus writes—" Thoroughly and absolutely do I approve of your determination to print your translated works in the Roman characters. It is a strange delusion of Satan that men should strive to uphold varieties of alphabetic characters anywhere, provided they could without violence be superseded by one, at once uniform and effective, seeing that such variety is a prodigious bar and impediment to the diffusion of sound knowledge, and especially Divine truth. But, in a case like yours, where the natives had really no written characters of their own at all, to dream of introducing a clumsy, awkward, expensive, and imperfect character like that of the Bengali, in preference to the clear, precise, and cheaper romanised alphabet, would seem to me to be voluntarily raising up new ramparts to guard against the invasion of Truth. No, our object ought ever to be to facilitate, and not to obstruct, the dissemination of true knowledge of every kind; and one of the ways of doing so is everywhere to encourage the introduction and the use of the Roman alphabet in place of the native alphabets, which are linked, and associated, and saturated with all that is idolatrous." 1000 copies of the Gospel of St. Matthew have been carried through the press by the Calcutta Bible Society, and the book of Acts has been prepared.' ' Reports 1847, p. 90 ; 1348, p. 84. ^ C57 i^ o; •^ CS'^ 0= W ~ U> Qr ^ § g ^ f^ G9 ^ S §' i ^ g Co' ^, ^^ )= Ct/ ll fl G^ ^ S c? qJ CS^ W Cj or ^ (S) O - s ^ ^ cr -^ cs ^ ^ C>? (g" CJ! ^ ^ Cp ^ cy Q" V CF CJI or Of OO C3> Cd CS C9 or Gr ^ 5P, Oi' _ CP 0=* Co C6 CO &/ t;?^ «^, OS _ .r Cff Cs Q, a CO '^ Co D^ C?5' 0= cs ^ 0= _ Cfi G? on- C5 ^ - I o ? ^ J <^ p ^ Co- ("S. Q^ (25 C3^ )o 96 q\ Co- Q' 2 ff ^ Q, cs CW (5 ^ O ,J W Ci) ^ CO 2f O'* fn Co ^ ^^^ ^"^ c^ c^ * CD ^ p ^ oA Cp- O- Co GT ^ Co Cp- ££ CS CO ^ o; Co 0= Cs O ^ '^ CS) Co Ul (fi Q- ^ CS C5 ^ C? Oi !^ G? 07 (p Co TZ!) Cs Co CO CP p? V3 ^ ^:) ^ 3 fQ ^ (51/ b c =1 f ^ ^ I Vo ^ ^ ^ (5^' ^ -^ fe i? £ ^ (2^ ¦^ c/p Vo c3 o ft3 -3.1.,.^ 5- ^ M^ ,->. J 1)-; o ^ogo R g 8 R 8 S 8 P§-|388§oSS IS o ¦8 « is p (J CT"~ °R UJ I I ^#J §|^§ rs 8) b g ^o^ gs R g oc^ g R^3^rG^r8 C9n L9 ¦ ¦ 8 33-.^5^ 5H^ 3 it O n 8 ^ Deo 3 "-^i^ 1 C9 3 '^ U t9 G SR8ggo8^^8 artLIMLlN Ul- IHE GUJERATTEE VERSION, Consisting of ST JOHN, Chaf. I.v.l to 5. v3 'snRcn'Hi H^'H 3LIH^ SLU24 ^ni* Hzft SLlHi H ^n*i >ilv3jisLiig° ^>\<^Hi^i i4^^^ ^^^ SPECIMEN OF THE CASHMERIAN VERSION, Consisting of ST J OH N , Chajj. I. v. I to 7. •3 JfMftO: ^fy^ft^T fg 3 ?M=3 3^t H^ ^V =1 ^ '\ ^H ^im g^=l z ^? ^^t ^T^tH»Q^=l 3flT3 g? ^J=ft 3M15 Mf3=lt HaBt I SPECIMEN OF THE TAMUL VERSION, Consisting of ST JOHN, Cha.p I «. I to 12. JJJ ^0^.ff^£ii€VTLnes^^(r^etrii-^UJ (o^ettliu rr tiSl ,S m ^eijgio/ruj.^lu-'Qj/ev^. [l)c£5 S'^eiin^Ln^Qfffrrs^^^pQs'^ts^rr !T ^QJ^iB(^S^Q(^rrrr)^\MCT6tTrcy^(SGfT c^euG/DfT Gujn:)^ 1 3 f j Ul °IJ z I UJ E ^2 ,VlO ^ (0 ^ ^ g « ^ eg sC SD ^ (QG ^2 <3 O V3 vi yo ^ ^ "J K3G b= ^ g2 %i ^ ^ T< %3 o <§ ^^ ^ 2 o V2 ^'2 X3 o Q fflg 3) ^ J IS 1^ jt'o PII^ E(r)2"S ^8 iS'-t^ ^ss V^l OOT^ ij. "5.'^. ISs® ^^^r? ffl (9 .^ffl fo f! CD 8 © 8 !Q(X) H> a OT, ffl(OT8 (°^ OT s ^ « Sr Sp© »3 e, Q C9e/3 ^^ ^ 'i t) Q a-"© 8 g (=' a So S ^6J 8 tJ C « Soj:)'^1(2) I -s (i; >S •fa H I J « .? •5 N < < M ^ *^ < «,^ ••« '*= a: ? "g _ I E- ""^ ic 4'S < < 't6 ^ pa UJ •Mv-O I < >S « X < UJ I ip < UJ T) UJ < < "S 'iL 5 ^ il 1-1 sc ^ u> < "g X UJ J3 J V X ¦ fr > M !£ C« IS u X 3: X " -« -ID N o '"«.x « 3- "3 ;£ SPECIMENS OF THE SCLAVONIAN 8c RUSSIAN VERSIONS, fram tha Edition pn'ntsd at S^ f^rersbur^, Bvi),ia22. Consisting of ST J O H N. Chaf.l.v.l to 12. SPECIMEN OF THE SERVIAN *h>m iJio E,l,t,on primal U- Leipzig IZnio.lBSO Consisting of STJOHN, Chsp.l.v.l to 9. VERSION, (SCLAVONIC) Ea HAHAAt Kt CaOBO, H CaO- KO K* * K Kri^5 H Ef Z K* Caoeo, K. Cefi Et HCKOHH + + K KfjJ. f. ECA TtAlZ BblUld, H Ke3 Herd) HHHTOJKe EhiCTb, ejKe EkICTb . X- Ez TOAAZ JKHKOTZ B*, H JKHKOTZ Et CBtTZ MAKtKlU/V\Z. e. H CKtTZ KO TMt CKtTHT- CA, H TMd ertr He iueatz. S. KbICTt HAE'^KZ noCAdHZ UJ KrA, HMA cm^tJ Iuuahhz. 3. Cefi npiH;!i,e ko cKH,i,'^TeAE- CTKO, ^A CEHA^TeAbCTE^eTZ Ul CK-^Tt, * + + ,>sA ECH sip?? H- Pi . He st TOM CEtTZ,^ HO A^ CKHAtxeAhCTEJ^eTZ UJ CEtrt. ^. Et CfitTZ HCTHHHblH, HIKf npOCBtlJJAeTZ KCAKAPO MAEtKd rpAA??UJAro k Mipz. T. Ez mfpt Bt, H Aiipz Ttmz BhicTh, H Mipz erb hs hobha. Hi. Eo CKOA Mp'lHAe, H CKOH ero He npiAuia. Kl. GAHUbi xe npiAQJA erb, ,\&Ae H/V\Z OEAdCTL HAAU)/V\Z KJKiHAAZ Eb'lTH, K'^pi^KDljJbl/WZ KO H/v\A erii). ? Y" Kfa, t • y Era. * * * A^ ^^^ yB*p!5iOTa Mp£3Z Herd). (RUSS) BTj HaMa.At 6bI./IO C^OBO, H C/IO- Bo 6bi^o y Bora, h Bon. 6bi- JIO CLiOBO. 2. Oho 6biao Bt Hana^* y Bora. 3. Bee Hmtj noJij^vL/io Cbimie, H 6e3-b Hero ne no^yiHJio 6bi- miH HHHino, qmo hh nc^y^H^o 6bimie. 4. Bt. Hewb 6bi.4a sKHSHb, h SKHSHb 6bl^a CBtinT) HeJIOB'tKOB'b. 5. H CB'fenn. bo nibivrfe cBt- rnHm-b; ho mbMa He o6'bii./ia ero. 6. Bblc/ITj ^C/IOB-bKlj, HOCt/iaH- HbiH oiHTa Bora, HMeHeMT. loaHHT). 7. CeS npHiiiejiTj a^ss cbha*- me^bcmBa, Hnio6bi sacBHA'fenieJib- cniBOBanib o CBtmt, Aa6bi bc* yBtpoBa./iH npesTj nero. 8. He coMb ohTj 6bi.i'b cBtinT), HO 6hijib noc/iaub, Mnio6bi aa- CBHAtnie^bcinBOBarab o cB'bm'fe. 9. BbMT. CBtniTj HCHIHHHblH, KomopbiH npocB-bmaenTb BcaKaro 'qe^oB'feKa, npHXOAiUi^aro btj Mipi.. I O. BbI.AT. BT) Mipt, H Mip-b HmTj no.yiyHH.Tb 6bimie, ho Mipi) Ero He no3Ha./n.. II. npHIUe./rb Kt CBOHMT), HO CBOH Ero He npHHii^H. 1 2. A m-feM-b, Komopbie npn- Hii.AH Ero, B-fepyioiUHMrb bo HMa Ero, Aa.^'b B.Aacinb, coAt./ibiBanib- cfl HaAaMH Bo^KinMH. y noqeniK.y e 6wao C.;iobo, h C.\obo e (ibT.io 1 Ko^t Bora h BoTt e 6bio Ciobo. Oho e 2 Gwjvo J noHeniR.y KO,a,T3 Bora. Cse e Hhmtj 3 nocmaAO, h 6e3'b Hira nie HH^rao nooraa.io, Hino e nocniajio. y HiMy e 6i)io ^KHBoni-b, 4 H .yKHBomi) e 5bio CBim-b ne-iOBtKOMb. H o CB'bm'b ce CBiin.Tio y thmh, ho mMa ra Hie npiHMH.;ia. Bmo e MCJiOB'feK'b HocjiaHt omTj Bora, no G HMCHy loaniTb. OsaH e ,40inao, sao cBn^a-fe- 7 mcjib, ^sl CBH,z\'ime.icraBye o OB'femy, ^a 6bi CBH B-fepoBaJiH Hpest lAra. Ohi. nie 6bio 8 CBtra-b, HO noc.;iaH'b caMO, ,4a CBH,zi,'brae.icinBye o CB'feniy : o CBtniy wcmnHnoMb , koh npo - 9 CB-femaBa CBaRora leAOBtKa, koh ,ao.ia3n y OBaH Mip-b. SPECIMEN OF THE BULGARIAN VERSION, from th« Ed,tjon printed at Smyrn,L Sie IMO Consisting of S"' J 0 H N . CliAp I. v. I to 8 yjfj HaHAAO to KCLUI CAOBO TO, H CAOBO TO BELUE Ci Kr A, M CAOBO TO KEUJE Kr"a. 2 Tom KtujE w KfAH fh Kp'a. 3 Gh'hkh Tt (tbajh) Mpt3a NtrO KklAOJC* (cOTBOpENKl), H KE3"Z, HtrO NHLJJO HE EUA' (cOTBOptMO ) W CDNKIA l^OTO KiJAOXA. 4 Ra Ntro kehie jKHBoV-i, m ajHBOTO Ktmt CB'^T'a NA Mt- AOB-fellw te: 5 H CR'^TO B"i TEmHUNA"^ T.\ cb'Kth, h temnhna ta tone a!Er;RpNA\ 6 BklA^ N'^KOM HEAOR'^K'a "-17 - " i, npATEWi uu ilPA, MME TO \\T< luJANH-a. 7 Toh ao*^A^ ^'^^'^''A'^'''^'^' CTBO, A* crma'^teactrSba uj CB'^T'b, 3A A* nOB'tspSBAT-i CHMKM TE 4pE3"i NETO. 8 He EEOlt TOM CB'^T-a, NO AA CBHA'^TEACTbSbA uj CB'^T'b. Engraved -for THE BIBLE OF EVERY land" Saniuel Bagster & Sons, Patef^ioster Row, London If i-, UJ c4 J. ^ < cd :o >3 < Cw «U :o M :o IS X 3- tfl :o = X ;o < >3 ISJ o «^ s •6 :o < ¦2 'o:o E-o •.o 2- "3 :o it v/^ O d -: :o -a -5 X _• < 53 on< 00 SI sa OCO < O E ,2 zLiJs o "3 ¦•5- o *5 •^ (-1 5 E as OJ «1 E I— I :i— ( O B pQ « Oh S O 5? s {!i E •Oos E ? 5 •• 9^ P^ Ss ^^^^n sEE EE e o 6? N to S • E E rQ S rt E =2 .§.5 2 2 «^ E Es oa :0? E rt inE K 60.43a cyMaxTj cjMan>, ma Topa 6a^tHii So^iaa, cyMan> ma 60.1- 2 3a lopa. Lnrra 00^ 3a iyMiopb4,eHb 5 Topa 6/i,bHfl. Ilopb /i,a 0M6a 6oji3a, OH3bipT) J\a. HHMHHb 6o^MaHTj, MHHb 4 6oji3a. OhT) ^HRH-fe 6oji3a 6opHa3b, 6opHa3b ma 6o^3a cio^b CHH-bsaMa. 5 Cfo/i,!! miomroMT} pa CK)/i,mapainb, 6 mionnoMTj ^a ona xonjiaMaHT}. Bo^isa CHH-b Toppan-b hhw loaHHij flm.ibi. SPECIMEN OF THE GEORGIAN VERSION, (IN CIVIL CHARACTERS) from the EdWon printed at 3^ RrtBraburgh, 1819. Consisting of ST JOHN, Chaf. 1. v. I to 3. »i Olnqdbi J 504 0^20 <^1"^ onus 4rt>/i4 f\rncnn rni nciooi nn4 cvvrooon mi oflO- SPECIMEN OFTHE GEORGIAN VERSION, (IN THE ECCLESlASTICftL CHARACTER) ftom the Edrtion printed at Mnacow 1616. Consisting of ST J 0 H N,Chap. I. v. I to S. n; ij*tin»|i3fi'? ) S*? ttit\htiih ^tUni '^tit^t} t\ihm't jii*tj S nifiS^n} tht; mSf^^n th*i} tijiMii * 5inU m^^t^ Gs^mnftihtiu^t; ttfuii ^*tf Gi^iutp^tii^n; \%n ni\m t\ ^tftn'ri'm \i;\imt; -» ?fi? fi*^mtftn't rwt uRtptiht} y*^ iw/ifi'^^Ii ? Ztfufinpn^ ftp 8*t;h iji'^^ i/fnirTSf* hn^navBd for "TH F RIRIF OF FVFfJ LAND*; SajTiuel Ba^ster & Sons, Paternoster Row, London, E E a c^ B NO " - s .4 E -B '=3 OJ '^ M *Q ^^ w B E "^ ¦WJ o ^ p- fi *-E " o ^ 0) ^« I "rt "2 '^ m B 1^ pq M . CO rt -O E s^ g ^ ~ o "K| -J pq B OB . a; ^ re A -o E '^ t pqfi V E ^<2 " 5 ?* B:| NO >q PQ O VO lid K SPECIMEN OF THE LOOCHOOAN VERSION. con3.s1.ns of THE lord's prayer. trajislalod by DCP I.Bpttellieim SPECI MEN OF TH >5 \ iz 0 V 7 a )• r '' 2 r yy-^ /; 4 N 3" t7 A f ^ r ^d-iO «5 I>00 ll JAPANESE VERSION, STJOHN, Chip l.v 1 fcc. 11 f -« i V A o \ V \ il V ;^ o t, 7,. y t3 V ::» -^ •/ >{^ 7 A PlaKi XI ^( i^ if i^ m^-i. i\ i- i gi) f «^ ^ ti 1 1 iJ g. 7 - ^'^ - ^' -^ -3 g- 5 ^ & I i I t^ I % I z > 'n < L- m S w OT rn J^ (J /^ 5»go= gI-9 p! ^ r^ rf. '^ ^ * fi ^. «^ 8^" s 5. i: 6 5 ^ Si o o SPECIMEN OF THE ASSAMESE VERSION. Cons, sting of PSALM LXVII, .. 1 to 4 5R J\W5 C^aliJM f^T^^R SRI ^ \ ^a C^ t^. C5Tl7Ff?^TtW C«W^ >2|5T\3n ^r?t^; 5RJ^ C^ftr^ CvaNl CD O o^ C_D - (J O 9o » Q_ oo 3G Or^ O ^ oo OS C _5o _Jo 03 oao cS cao tji m 1 ¦8o3 o6 e»8oC 3 ^ b 8 Co 8 8 £o & -cn O u3 ?§&.3 |»^^co^3 &§ '°-8o & oo?^ 3 ^ & ^-T^^-^ 3oCBo '?S]|^t|S]|8j8& ^ ^ ^S^ ^^^^ 8 So o8 8 ^ S^^«3 8 ^^ ¦ ^-^ O -JO -JO 8 ^o8 g -iO '4 ^3 O _jO EXPOSITORY INDEX TO THE MAPS. I.— MAP OF THE MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. The Monosyllabic languages are spoken exclusively in the south-eastern angle of the continent of Asia : their area is little inferior iu point of extent to the whole of Europe. The various nations by whom these languages are employed all belong to one stock or family, and are distinguished, in a more or less modified degree, by the Mongolic type of physical conformation. The religion which has obtained the widest acceptance among this race is Buddhism, but other forms of belief are also received. The religion of Confucius, for instance, prevails to a considerable extent in China ; and a rude species of idolatry, said in some instances to resemble that practised by the Esquimaux, is predominant among the wild, untutored tribes of the mountains, who still preserve their independence in the very midst of the civilised nations of this race. The Monosyllabic languages are referable, geographically and philologically, to three grand divisions, namely, the languages of China, the languages of the Indo-Chinese or Transgangetic peninsula, and the languages of Thibet and the Himalayas. I. LANGUAGES OF CHINA. CHINESE is the language of China, an extensive country, of which the entire surface forms a kind of natural declivity from the high steppeland of Central Asia to the shores of the North Pacific. The moun tain chains which traverse this region are not re- markahle for extent or altitude, the chief physical characteristic being the broad water sheds, with their corresponding fertile, alluvial valleys, whereby this large portion of the earth's surface is rendered a peculiarly fit abode for an industrial, agricultural people. Various dialects (according to Leyden, about sixteen in number) prevail in the different provinces of China, but they are merely local varieties of Chinese. Distinct languages are spoken among the mountain and forest districts by uncivilised tribes, who are supposed by some to have been the original possessors of the country. II. LANGUAGES OF THE TRANS GANGETIC PENINSULA. ANAMITE is predominant in a line of country border ing on the Chinese Sea, and extends inland as far as the westernmost of those longitudinal ranges of mountains of which, with their corresponding valleys, this peninsula is composed. The Anamite language is spoken, with little variety of dialect, by the Tonquinese and Cochin Chinese, two nations who evidently at no very remote period formed one people. In moral and physical characteristics they closely resemble the Chinese, and they are said by some of the neighbouring tribes to have been originally a Chinese colony. CIAMPA, or TSHAMPA, is still spoken in the very south of Cochin China by a people who, before their annexation to the empire of Anam, formed a separate and independent nation. CAMBOJAN is the language of Cambodia, a country in the south of the peninsula, lying between two paraUel ridges of mountains, and divided into two nearly equal parts by the river May-kuang or Mekon. The Cambojans, who are akin to, if not identical with, the Khomen, are supposed to derive their origin from a warlike mountain race named Kho, the Gueos of early Portuguese historians. SIAMESE is more widely difiused than any other Indo-Chinese language ; its various dialects prevail EXPOSITORY INDEX TO THE MAPS. over more than half the peninsula, and are spoken, with little interruption, in a northerly direction, from Cambodia on the south to the borders of Thibet on the north. This wide diffusion may in part be accounted for by the early conquest of As sam by Siamese tribes. The dialect of the ancient Siamese or T'hay tongue, which is now convention ally designated the Siamese, is spoken in Siam, an extensive kingdom south-west of Burmah. LAOS, or LAW, is a Siamese dialect pervading the very interior of the peninsula; it is conterminous with Cambojan, Anamite, Siamese, Burmese, Chinese, and Shyan. The Laos people boast of an ancient civilisation ; and their country, noted for the vestiges it contains of the founders of Buddhism, is the famed resort of Buddhistic devotees. SHYAN is another Siamese dialect, and is spoken to the north of Burmah, between China and Munipoor. AHOM, an ancient Siamese dialect, is not marked on the Map, because extinct, or only preserved in the books of the Assamese priesthood. It is remarkable that not a single trace of Hindoo influence, either Buddhistic or Brahministic, can be found in Ahom literature. KHAMTI, though the most northern of Siamese dialects, varies but little from the dialect of Bankok, the capital of Siam. It is spoken by a small moun tainous tribe in the north-east corner of Assam, on the border of Thibet. SINGPHO is the language of the most powerful of the mountain tribes, and prevails in the north of the Burmese empire, almost on the confines of China. It is conterminous with Khamti and Shyan on the north and south, and with Chinese and Munipoora on the east and west. PEGUESE prevails in the Delta of the Irawady, to the south of the Burmese empire. BURMESE is the language of the dominant people of the empire of Burmah. Including its cognate dialect, the Arakanese, it extends from the Laos country to the Bay of Bengal, and from Munipoor to Pegu : it is also predominant throughout the maritime province of Tenasserim, in the south-west of the peninsula, which is now British territory. ARAKANESE, as we have before observed, is an elder dialect of Burmese : it prevails through a narrow strip of country along the Bay of Bengal, from Chittagong to Cape Negrais. SALONG, or SILONG, is the name of an assemblage of small islands in the Mergui archipelago, between the Andaman Isles and the south-west coast of the peninsula. These islands are about one thousand in number : the predominant language is a peculiar one, and little is at present known concerning it ; yet it is generally referred to the Monosyllabic class. KAREN is spoken in three diversities of dialect, by uncivilised tribes irregularly distributed over the regions lying between the eleventh and twenty-third degrees of north latitude, but chiefly to be found among the jungles and mountains on the frontiers of Burmah, Siam, and Pegu. Some of these tribes are designated red Karens, from the light colour of their complexion, a circumstance supposed to result from the great elevation of their mountainous abodes. KHYEN, or KIAYN, perhaps more generally called Kolun, is spoken by some wild tribes dwelling in North Aracan, and on various mountain heights west of the Irawady. These tribes are of more importance in an ethnographical than in a political or historical point of view. According to their own tradition, they are the aborigines of Ava and Pegu. It was the opinion of Ritter, that the Khyen and Karen tribes are descended from the mountainous races of the chains of Yun-nan, dispersed, probably since the Mongolic conquest of China, in a southerly direction. KOONKIE is a wild, unvn-itten dialect, said to resemble the Arakanese. It is spoken by the Kukis, a people who have been identified with the Nagas and Khoo- meas. They dwell to the north of Aracan, on the frontiers of Munipoor and Cachar. MUNIPOORA is predominant in Munipoor, a small kingdom forming part of the northern boundary of Burmah. CACHARESE is spoken by a numerous tribe in a district of considerable extent, lying east of the Bengal district of Sylhet. This language is con terminous with Munipoora on the east, and Khassee on the west. KHASSEE is spoken on a range of hUls forming part of the southern border of Lower Assam. The people to whom it is vernacular are called Cossyahs or Khasias. *** The interposition of Assamese (wliich is a Sanscritio language nearly allied to Bengali) in the area otherwise exclusively occupied by Monosyllabic languages has given rise to much conjecture ; but it is now generaUy believed that the natives of Lower Assam originally employed a Monosyllabic dialect, but were led by their contiguity to Hindustan, and, by political and other cu-cumstances, to adopt a language of that country. Upper Assam is still peopled by various tribes speaking Mono syllabic languages. IIL LANGUAGES OF THIBET AND THE HIMALAYAS. LEPCHA is spoken by a tribe apparently of Tibetan origin, dwelling on the south side of the Himalayas, on and near the eastern frontier of Bootan. ABOR and MISHIMI ai-e the languages of uncivilised tribes inhabiting an extensive range of hiUy country on the borders of Bootan and Thibet, between the ninety-fourth and the ninety-seventh degrees of east longitude, TIBETAN is spoken by the widely-difiused race of Bhot, in Thibet, Bootan, Ladakh, and Bultistan or SHEMITIC LANGUAGES. Little Thibet. This extensive range of country lies among the Himalayas, in the south-eastern angle of the plateau of Central Asia. The geographical position of the Bhotiya, and likewise some of their moral and physical characteristics, would appear to connect them with the nomadic nations of that vast plateau, if their language, which approximates in many respects f o that of China, did not indicate their relationship to the Chinese ; and this affinity, on the one side with the Chinese, and on the other with the Turkish, Mongolian, and Tungusian tribes of Central Asia, has caused this remarkable race to be regarded as the connecting link between these two great divisions of the human famUy. IL— MAP OF THE SHEMITIC LANGUAGES. The Shemitic languages are remarkably, few in number, although (as is shown in the accompanying Map) they are spread over a yast portion ofthe world, extending from Persia and the Persian Gulf on the east to the Atlantic'on the west, and from the Mediterranean on the north to an undefined distance into the interior of Africa on the south. There are, in fact, but three or, at most, four distinct Shemitic languages at present spoken: and although the history of this wonderful class of languages leads us far back into remote antiquity, yet a much greater diversity of dialect does uot appear at any time to have existed. It has been shown in a previous memoir that the Phoenician, once pre-eminently the language of civilisation, was substantially the same as the ancient Hebrew ; and this con formity of language between two races of different origin (the Phoenicians being a Hamite, and the Hebrews a Shemitic people) is a phenomenon which yet remains to be explained. The Shemitic languages now disused as mediums of oral communication, and which are therefore not represented on the Map, are the following :— Samaritan, originally identical with Hebrew. Ancient Syriac and Chaldee, whioh, however, have their representative in Modem Syriac. Pehlvi, the ancient tongue of Media, a compound probably of Chaldee and Syriac with Zend. Various Arabic dialects ; Himyaritic, the parent of Ekhkili. Gheez, or Ethiopic, now superseded by its modem dialects, Tigre and Amharic. In perfection of physical conformation, the Shemitic race is considered by eminent physiologists to egual, if not surpass, aU other branches of the human family. Yet their characteristics are by no means invariable. The Syrians, who stUl preserve their lineage pure and unmingled among the mountains of Kurdistan, have a fair complexion, with gray eyes, red beard, and a robust frame. The Bedouins, or Arabs of the Desert, are thin and muscular in form, with deep brown skin and large black eyes ; the Arabs iu the low countries of the NUe bordering on Wubia are black, while other tribes of this people dweUing in colder or more elevated situations are said to be fair. The Arabs in the vaUey of Jordan are reported to have a dark skin, coarse hair, and flattened features, thereby approximating to the Negro type. The Jews differ from the nations among whom they are located by a peculiar cast of physiognomy : in Cochin they are black, in the south of Europe they are dark, whUe in the north of Europe, and occasionaUy in England, they are xanthous, with red or light hair. The Shemitic nations have been most peculiarly honoured in being chosen as the race of whom, according to the flesh, the Messiah was bom. To them also was given the knowledge of the one true God ; and to the Hebrews in particular was committed the sacred trust of the divine oracles. Monotheism, although defaced by human inventions, is the religion of this race : the recognition of a false prophet prevails among the Arabs ; yet, in common with the Jews, they acknowledge the existence of God. Two people of this race, the Syrians and Abyssinians, have embraced Christianity as their national religion. ARABIC, originaUy the language of a few wandering tribes in the desert of Arabia, is now one of the most widely-diffused of existing languages. It prevails in Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Khuzistan, Egypt, Nu bia, and Barbary. It is extensively employed as the language of religion and commerce on the eastern and western coasts of Africa, and it is supposed to penetrate far into the interior of that great continent. As might be expected from its vast extension, this language branches out into dialects as many in number as the countries in which it is spoken. EKHKILI is a modem dialect of Himyaritic, the southem branch of the Arabic language. It is spo ken by an uncivilised mountainous tribe of Hadra- mant, in the south-east of the Arabian peninsula. Ekhkili is of especial value in an ethnographical point of view, as it furnishes the link between the Shemitic languages of Asia and of Abyssinia. The ancient Himyarites are believed to have been Cushites, of the race of Ham. TIGRE, a dialect immediately derived from the ancient Ethiopic, is predominant in a small portion of the kingdom of Abyssinia. The resemblance stUl to be traced between Tigre and Ekhkili has corroborated the hypothesis that Ethiopia was originally peopled by a colony of Himyarite Arabs. XX EXPOSITORY INDEX TO THE MAPS. AMHARIC is a more corrupt dialect of Ettiopic than Tigre, having sufi'ered greater changes from foreign admixture. Amharic is predominant throughout nearly aU Abyssinia, but various other languages are likewise spoken in that kingdom. These lan guages, partaking as they do of a Shemitic element and of the African character, form so many connect ing links between Shemitic and African languages. MODERN SYRIAC, the only living representative of the ancient Chaldee and Syriac tongues, is preserved among mountain fastnesses between Mesopotamia, Ar menia, and Persia. What relation this language may bear to the idiom of ancient Babylon and Nineveh is not yet precisely known ; but light is arising upon the ruins of these ancient cities, and the arrow-headed characters are in process of being deciphered. With the capture of Babylon, in the commencement of the sixth century before our era, the early political supremacy of the Shemitic race departed ; and the govemment of the world passed into the hands of the Japhetic nations, by whom it is stiU maintained. And thus the fertile plains of Western Asia, the proper home of the Shemitic race, is governed and chiefly inhabited by people of the Japhetic stock, in literal fulfilment of the prophecy, that " Japheth shall dwell in the tents of Shem." Other prophecies are in progress of fulfilment, by which more than their archaic glory will be restored to the sons of Shem. IIL— MAP OF THE MEDO-PERSIAN LANGUAGES. The Medo-Persian languages form a branch or family of that great class of languages which has been variously denominated by ethnographere Indo-European, Japhetic, and Iranian or Arian. The first of these appellations indicates the geographical distribution of this class, one of its btanches (the Sanscritio) being vernacular in India, while other of its branches, though connected in origin and in structure with Sanscrit, are prodominant in Europe. The term Japhetic is sometimes applied to the languages of this class, because the nations by whom they are spoken are supposed to be descendants of Japheth ; and the designation Iranian, or Arian, refers to their connection with the land of Iran, or Persia, the Ariana of Greek The area of the Medo-Persian languages includes about one-tenth part of the entire surface of Asia : the countries now comprehended within this area are Persia, Khorassan, Turcomania, the greater part of Turkestan, Affghanistan, Belooehistan, and Luristan; also Kurdistan, Armenia, and a district among the Caucacus Mountaina. The origin of the Medo-Persian nations has never been ascertained : they advanced at one step from obscurity to empire. Their very existence was scarcely known beyond the elevated plateau which from time immemorial they appear to have occupied, untU their future greatness was depicted in the prophecies of Daniel and Ezekiel. Suddenly they emerged from their mountainous abodes, captured the " Great Babylon," and founded an empire which, in point of extent, exceeded even that of Kome itself The physical conformation of the Medo-Persian nations, which is decidedly of the European type, corroborates the testimony afibrded by their languages as to their affinity with the principal nations of Europe. A Shemitic language, the Pehlvi, is supposed to have been predominant at some very remote period in Persia, but it originated in the provinces bordering on Assyria ; aud under wlat circumstances it became the general language of Media is stUl matter of conjecture. A yet more ancient language is the Persepolitan, a true Medo-Persian idiom, vestiges of which are preserved in arrow-headed, or cuneiform characters, Uke those of Assyria, on the monu mental inscriptions which have of late years been discovered among the ruins of ancient Persian cities. The Zend, another Medo- Persian language, now extinct, and therefore not represented on our Map, is preserved in the sacerdotal books of the Guebres and the Parsees. The earUest religion of the Medo-Persian race appears to have been that of fire-worship. They are now, with few exceptions, foUowers of Mahomet, the Armenians being the only nation of this stock by whom Christianity has been received. PERSIC, although marked in the Map as predominant in Persia and part of Turkestan, is only one of the many languages spoken in that wide territory. It is remarkable that all the countries properly belonging to the Medo-Persian race are likewise inhabited by tribes of foreign origin, who dwell side by side with the original inhabitants. Even the throne of the great Cyrus is occupied by a monarch of the Turkish race, and the whole country is overrun by nomadic nations of Turkish, Arabic, and Mongolian origin. Some of these wandering tribes, however, as the Hazarehs and Eymauks on the north of Afighanistan, speak dialects of the Persic language. PUSHTOO is the language of Affghanistan, a moun tainous tract of country lying between Persia and Hindustan. The Hindkees, an Indian people speak ing a Sanscritio dialect, form part of the population. BELOCHEE is one of the languages of Beloochistan, a country situated between Affghanistan and the Indian Ocean. Many Tajiks, or Persians, reside in Beloochistan, and hence Persic prevails in some of the districts, especially at Kelat. The Brahooes, and other nations speaking Sanscritic dialects, also occupy part of this country. KURDISH is the language of the Kurds, wild nomadic SANSCRITIC LANGUAGES. tribes, known in history as the Carduchi and the Parthians. They are chiefly located in Kurdistan, a mountainous tract of country between Armenia and Persia. They likewise form the bulk of the popu lation of Luristan, in the east of Persia. OSSITINIAN is spoken by the Ossetes, a Median colony, who, in concert with Caucasian tribes here after to be mentioned, occupy the central portion of the chain of the Caucasus Mountains. ARMENIAN is spoken by about one-seventh part of the population of Armenia, a country chiefly com posed of mountainous chains, of which Mount Ararat forms, as it were, the nucleus. The language of the Armenians, and their traditions respecting their mythical heroes and ancestors, which are - almost identical with those of the Persians, prove them to be of the Persic stock ; and it has even been thought that they were once one people with the Persians. Like the Jews, however, whom they resemble in other respects, the Armenians are scattered as traders and merchants among all the nations of the world ; so that the language of Armenia, in one or other of its dialects, is heard in all the trading cities of the East. IV.— MAP OF THE SANSCRITIC LANGUAGES. LAireuABES more or less aUied to the ancient Sanscrit prevaU through the whole of Hindustan. These languages are resolvable into three distinct divisions. I. — The languages which appear to be derived inimediately from the Sanscrit, and whieh are spoken by the Hindoos, properly so caUed, in the northern provinces of the peninsula. — In this division, the three [dead or learned languages of Hindustan, Sanscrit, Pracrit, and Pali, are included. That the race to whom these Sanscritic idioms are vernacular is connected with the Medo-Persian nations is evident, from the close simUarity between Zend, an ancient Median-Persian language, and the idiom of the Vedas, an archaic form of Sanscrit, referred by some Sanscrit scholars to the fourteenth or fifteenth century before our era. Another proof of the original affinity of the Medo-Persian and Brahminical people Ues in the fact, that some of the arrow-headed inscriptions in the PersepoUtan language have been deciphered chiefly, if not solely, by the aid of the Sanscrit language. It seems probable that the Hindoo race, at some remote epoch of history, separated from the Medo-Persian stock, and quitted the Iranian plateau for the plains of Hindustan. Their physical conformation appears to confirm this hypothesis, notwithstanding the sUght variations from the original type which the peculiarities of the climate may have induced. With this race originated the two false reUgions which are now most widely disseminated through the Eastem world — Brahminism and Buddhism. II. — The languages of the Deccan, or southem parts of the peninsula.— The race to whom these languages are vernacular appear to have preceded the Hindoos in the occupation of Hindustan. They were, perhaps, driven to the south by the Hindoo invaders, and were subsequently compeUed to submit to the conquerors of the coimtry, and to receive from them their laws, reUgion, and civiUsation. It is weU known that the Hindoos subdued the Deccan at a very early period, and the languages of that region stUl bear the impress of Hindoo influence. So many Sanscrit words have been engrafted on their vocabularies, that these languages tUl recently were considered to be merely Sanscritio dialects ; their grammatical structure, however, stUl maintains the original non-Sanscritic character. The physical appearance of the nations of the Deccan approximates to the MongoUc, rather than to the Hindoo type ; and their religion, though nominaUy Brahministic, retains traces of their ancient Pagan superstitions. III. — The languages of the vrild, imconquered tribes of the mountains.— It is supposed that these tribes were among the original inhabitants of the country, and that they sought refuge in their present mountainous abodes with the view of preserving their independ ence. In language and in physical appearance they present tolerably clear indications of their original community of origin with the civilised nations of the Deccan. These tribes, though exceedingly interesting and important in an ethnographical point of view, are at present Httle known, and their languages are as yet unwritten. Some of their vocables (as those of the Kol, Bhumij, and RajmahaU of Orissa) have been examined, and several curious instances of affinity have been detected between them and the MongoUan, and other languages of Central Asia. I. LANGUAGES OF SANSGEITIC ORIGIN. HINDUWEE, the most general language ofthe Hindoo race, prevails in the upper provinces of Hindustan, 8ind is said to be understood even far beyond these limits. As is shown in the Map, this language branches out into a great variety of dialects, namely, the Canoj or Canyacubja, the Bruj or Brij-Bhasa, the Kousulu, Bhojepoora, and several others, aU of which, however, are merely provincial varieties of the original Hinduwee. A distinct language, called Hindustani, prevails in the towns and villages of the Hinduwee area, and is spoken by the Mahommedan section of the population throughout the whole of Hindustan. It is the result of the intermixture of Hinduwee with the Persian and Turkish languages spoken by the Mahommedan conquerors of India. EXPOSITORY INDEX TO THE MAPS. BENGALEE may be said to be the predominant lan guage of the province of Bengal, although Hindustani is spoken in the towns. Two languages, the Tirhi tiya or Mithili, and the Maghudha, prevail in the eastem part of this province. The former nearly resembles the Bengalee, and the latter is a derivative of the ancient Pali. ASSAMESE, the language of Assam, is supposed to be merely a form of Bengalee, which has superseded the original monosyllabic language of the Assamese nation. URIYA, a dialect very analogous to Bengalee, is spoken to the south of the province of Bengal, in Orissa. NEPALESE, or KHASPOORA, is the prevailing dialect of Nepaul, an independent state to the north of Bengal, occupying part of the southem declivity of the Himalayas. This dialect exhibits the phe nomenon of a Hinduwee element engrafted on a language of monosyllabic structure. A colony of Hinduwees is said to have settled in Nepaul at an early period, and to have commingled with the native inhabitants. Their descendants are called Parabatiya, or Parabutties ; and hence the Khaspoora, their vernacular dialect, is sometimes designated Parbutti, or Mountain Hinduwee. PALPA, KUMAON, and GURWHAL are border dialects, closely allied to Hinduwee, and prevailing to the north of the Hinduwee area. CASHMERIAN is the most northerly of Sanscritic languages, with the exception of the Brahooe, in Beloochistan. Cashmere is a mountainous country north ofthe Punjab. DOGURA, or JUMBOO, is an uncultivated dialect spoken in the hilly country north of the Punjab, but rather resembling Cashmerian than Punjabee. PUNJABEE is the language of the Sikhs, the dominant people of the Punjab : it is said to be derived immediately from Pracrit, formerly the vernacular language of this region. MOULTAN or OOCH, SINDHEE, CUTCHEE, and GUJERATTEE are languages closely allied to Hinduwee, and are spoken on the western border of the area occupied by the Hinduwee dialects. Moultan is said to be the language to which Rom many, the singular dialect of the Gipsies, most closely approximates. KUNKUNA, another language nearly resembling Hin duwee, is spoken in the Concan, a strip of country bordering on the Indian Ocean. MAHRATTA may be ranked either with the languages of Northern India or of the Deccan, for it partakes of the character of both. The extensive region in which it is vernacular is bounded on the north by the Sautpoora Mountains, east by Gundwana, and west by the maritime district called the Concan. On the south it is conterminous with the Telinga and Canarese languages. II. LANGUAGES OF INDIA OF NON-SANSCEITIG ORIGIN. TAMUL, or TAMIL, with its cognate dialects, the Malayalim and the Tulu, or Tuluvu, occupies the southern extremity of the peninsula, and a con- siderable portion of the Malabar coast. These lan guages are sometimes designated the Dravirian, for Tamul was the language of the ancient kingdom of Dravira. TELINGA, or TELOOGOO, a language radically con nected with Tamul, is spoken through the greater portion of the Coromandel coast, and extends inland till it becomes conterminous with Mahratta and Canarese. CANARESE occupies an extensive area in the eastem portion of the Deccan. It is conterminous with its cognate languages, the TamD. and Telinga on the east, and with the Tuluvu and Malayalim on the Avest and south, while on the north it extends as far as the Mahratta area. CINGALESE is spoken in the south of Ceylon, Tamul being the language of the northern district. Cinga lese appears to be connected with the languages of the Deccan rather than with those of Upper India. MALDIVIAN is spoken in the Maldive Islands, east ward of Ceylon, and is supposed to be a branch of Cingalese. The dialect of the Laccadive Islands is believed to be very similar to the Maldivian. III. EUDE & UNWEITTEN LANGUAGES OF NON-SANSCEITIC OEIGIN. GONDEE, or GOANDEE, is spoken by a barbarous race in the northern part of the Deccan. The pro vince of Gondwana is of great extent, stretching from Orissa on the east to the Mahratta coimtry on the west, and from Hindustan Proper on the north to the Telinga country on the south ; but the Gonds inhabit only the forest and mountain districts of this region, and the Mahratta language is predominant, especially in the western part, among the civiUsed classes of inhabitants. The Gonds have embraced Brahminism, but retain their peculiar Pagan rites. In language, customs, physical conformation, and mode of life, they resemble the Pulindas (a Sanscrit term equivalent to barbarian) of Orissa, the Bhils or Bheels of the Vindhya chain, and the various tribes of wild mountaineers scattered throughout the penin sula, but principally found among the mountain chains of the Deccan. v.— MAP OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES OF EUROPE. The Asiatic branches (Sanscritic and Medo-Persian) ofthe Indo-European class of languages are exhibited in the two preceding Maps. The present Map comprehends aU the languages of this widely-extended class whieh are spoken in Europe. These languages, whUe they aU adhere in a greater or less degree to the Medo-Persian and Sanscritic type of grammatical structure, yet possess certain individual eharacteristics of their own. Hence it is that they diverge iuto distinctive groups or families, without however losing the evidences of their original connection with each other, and with a long-lost and now unknown common parent stem. The famiUes of this class, by whom Europe is to a great extent divided, are the Celtic, Teutonic, Greco-Latin, Thraco-IUyrian, and Sclavonic. The phenomenon of the intersection of the area apparently belonging to this class, by languages of the Basque and Fumish famiUes, will hereafter be explained. CELTIC. — The Celts were the flrst people of this class by whom Western Europe was colonised. At the time of the Romans, we flnd them the occupants of Gaul, of the British Isles, of part of Spain and Germany, and of North Italy. Pannonia, Thrace, and even Asia Minor were at one period occupied by them ; and the Cimbri of Denmark are supposed to have beei^ a Celtic tribe. The time of the first immigration into Europe is wholly unknown. After reaching the extreme verge of Western Europe, they appear in some instances to have partly retraced their steps to the eastward; at least, the Celts of Germany and Italy were considered emigrants from Gaul. The Celts were compelled by the Romans to recede from every country in which they had established themselves, and afterwards they were more effectually subjugated by the Teutonic tribes. In the vast majority of instances, they became amal gamated in language and manners with their con querors ; and not a single trace of their religion (Druidism and Bardism) is now to be found, except in the ruins of their sacred places, as at Stonehenge. On the continent of Europe, where their language was once predominant, it has now altogether dis appeared, except on a small strip of the coast of Brittany. In the British Isle, however, the Celtic language is still preserved. The following are the cognate dialects into which it is now developed : — I. — The Welsh or Cymric branch, spoken in Wales, in part of Brittany, and formerly in CornwaU. II. — The Gaelic branch, spoken in the Highlands of Scotland, in Ireland, and in the Isle of Man. TEUTONIC— After the Celts, and the Greco-Latins hereafter to be mentioned, the next great tide of population which roUed from Asia into Europe was the Teutonic. The Teutonic tribes, as their language indicates, were in a special manner connected with the Medo-Persian race, but the circumstances under which they separated from the parent stock are involved in impenetrable obscurity. When they first appeared upon the page of history, they were mere barbarians, destitute of the arts of social life ; yet, even then, the inherent energy of this race was apparent : the Celtic nations were rapidly displaced by them, and in the fourth century they achieved no less a conquest than that of the Boman empire. Under the name of Franks, Burgundians, Alemans, and Visigoths in Gaul, of Heruli, Goths, and Longo- bards in Italy, and of Suevi, Vandals, and Ostrogoths in Spain, they rendered themselves conspicuous in the history of the middle ages ; and, unlike their predecessors, the Celts, they have to the present day retained their principal territorial possessions in Europe. In Spain, France, and Italy, indeed, they became mingled with other races, and merely con tributed their quota to the formation of the languages of those countries; but Germany, England, Denmark, and the Scandinavian peninsula still form the strong hold of the Teutonic race. A great change, however, at least in Germany, has taken place since the com mencement of the historic era in the physical con formation of this people. The early Germans, as described by Roman writers, were a fair, xanthous race, with blue eyes, and light or yellow hair. These characteristics are still preserved in the Scandinavian peninsula ; but in Germany itself, the dark or melanic variety of complexion has now become almost uni versal. This remarkable change has been attributed to the alteration produced in the climate of Germany by the uprooting of its vast forests. The languages now spoken by the Teutonic race are referable to two primary divisions : — I. — The Teutonic or Germanic, properly so called, comprising the German, Flemish, IDutch, and English. II. — The Scandinavian, including Icelandic, Swe dish, Danish, and Faroese. For a detailed account of each of these languages, as like wise of the now extinct Teutonic languages, Gothic, Alemannic, Old Saxon, and Anglo- Saxon, the reader may consult pp. 147-188 of this work. XXIV EXPOSITORY INDEX TO THE MAPS. GRECO-LATIN. — The Greco-Latins appear to have preceded the Teutonic tribes in the colonisation of Europe, at least, of the southern parts. The Pe- lasgic or Hellenic Greeks were probably the first inhabitants of Greece, especially of the inland parts. The Lydian and other languages of Lesser Asia, and perhaps the ancient languages of Macedonia and Thrace, were allied to this stock. Italy appears to have been peopled by several different nations ; and the origin of some of these nations has given rise to much conjecture. The origin of the Etruscan race, for instance, is a question of much interest, still awaiting its solution. The old Italic languages, comprehending the Latin, Umbrian, Oscan, Siculian, and some others, were in course of time absorbed in one language, which, under the name of Latin, became eventually the predominant language of the Roman empire. The wide diffusion of the Greek language at the commencement of our era, and of the Latin during the middle ages, has been already mentioned. On the destruction of the Roman empire by the Teutonic tribes, Latin still continued the language of the learned ; but the vernacular of the populace, which probably had previously abounded in provincialisms, became mixed with the dialects of the Teutonic invaders ; and thus a new language was produced, which, from the predominance of the Roman element, was designated the Romaunt or Romance. Up to the twelfth century this language, in its several dialectic varieties, was the prevailing vernacular language of Europe. In Spain it was called Catalan ; in South France it was known as the Languedoc, Provengal or Romanese ; and in Italy it went by the general name of Romance. Each of the dialects of this widely-diffused language was subsequently subjected to further changes, by the commingling of other elements induced by political vicissitudes. Thus gradually arose the Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and the Daco- Romana or Wallachian languages. It will be seen, however, in our Map, that the language of the Troubadours has not wholly disappeared, dialects of this language still forming the vernacular of the Vaudois, Piedmontese, and Enghadine nations. For particular details concerning each of the nations and languages belonging to this important family, the reader is referred to pp. 189-236. THRACO-ILLYRIAN.— A people known in history as the lUyrians, and with whom the Thracians are con sidered bysome historians to havebeen connected, were probably the first inhabitants of the eastern shore of the Adriatic. They are supposed to have been of kindred origin with the Pelasgi of Greece ; and their language, though a distinct and peculiar idiom of the Indo-European stem, bears some affinity to Greek. This language is still spoken by the Albanians or Arnauts, the supposed descendants of the Illyrians, in the ancient Epirus, on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. A particular account of this language and people is given in pp. 239, 240. SCLAVONIC— The origin of the Sclavonic tribes, and the date of their first appearance in Europe, are involved in much uncertainty. They are generaUy supposed to be descended from the Sarmatae, who in the time of the Romans occupied a region of Northern Europe, east of the Vistula, then known by the name of Sarmatia. Some writers are of opinion that the Sarmatae derived their descent fi:om a Scythian tribe ; but in the present state of know ledge this is a problem which must still remain unsolved. The writers from whom we obtain the earliest accounts of the Sclavonic nations, describe them as differing both from the Scythian and from the Teutonic tribes. The Sclavoni appear to have had more elevated conceptions of religion than their Asiatic neighbours ; for although they worshipped a multitude of deities, they recognised the existence of one Supreme Being. On the other hand, unlike the Germans, they were possessed of the most vicious characteristics of Orientalists — polygamy, tyranny, and servility. Their physical conformation and their language, however, connect them with the Indo- European stock. They now occupy a considerable section of Europe, extending from the north-eastern extremity into the very centre of that continent. In some of the countries of Central Europe, particularly in Bohemia, nations of this race live intermingled with Teutonic nations, yet retaining their peculiar language and customs. The ancient language of Prussia was a Sclavonic tongue, but it is now com pletely extinct, having been superseded by the Ger man. The Old Prussian language, so far at least as can be judged from its scanty store of literature, was closely connected with the Lettish and Lithuanian languages, while in many important respects it differed from other Sclavonic tongues. By some writers, these three cognate languages are referred to a distinct and separate branch of the Indo-Euro pean stem. For further details concerning the Scla vonic tongues, see pp. 240-258. VL— MAP OF THE FINNO-TARTARIAN LANGUAGES. AnoNa the latest results of ethnological investigations is the discovery that only three distinct classes of languages prevaU throughout the two continents of Europe and Asia. Two of these classes, the Shemitic and the Indo-European, have already passed under review. All the languages of Europe and of Asia which are not either Shemitic or Indo-European, belong to a third and equaUy important class, with which it is thought that even the Seriform or Monosyllabic languages wUl eventuaUy be proved to be connected. This class, by some authors designated the Turanian, and by others the Einno-Tartarian stem, is spread over the whole of Northern and Central Asia, and extends into Northern, Central, and even Western Europe. It includes the Finnish and Samoiede languages in the north ; the Georgian and other languages of the Caucasus region ; the Turkish, MongoUan, and Tungusian famiUes of Central Asia ; the Japanese, Loochooan, and Corean in Westem Asia ; and the Euskarian or Basque in Westem Europe. It is supposed that Europe was first colonised by nations belonging to this race, and that their descendants, after having been settled in the more fertUe regions of that continent, were driven to the extreme north and west, where we at present find them, by the successive tides of invaders, Celtic, Pelasgic, Teutonic, and Sclavonic, who subsequently passed from Asia into Europe. FINNISH. — The Finnish languages prevaU through a large portion of the Russian empire, occupying the northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula, and extending from Lapland and the Baltic, beyond the Urals, as far as the Yenisei. The origin of the various tribes and nations by whom these languages are spoken is imknovni, but they appear to have been established from time immemorial in their present abodes ; and they are early spoken of in history under the several appellations of Tschudi, Ougres or Ugri, and Jotuns. The Hungarians, who fumish the only instance upon record of a Finnish people taking a conspicuous place among civilised nations, are located far from their brethren, in the very heart of Europe. This isolation from the rest of their race is the residt of the inroads of some Turkish hordes upon their original country to the south of the Uralian Mountains. About the ninth century, the Magyars or Himgarians were driven westward by these Turkish invaders. In their tum they dis possessed the Slovaks, a Sclavonian race, ofthe fertile plains of Hungary, and they have ever since con tinued the dominant nation in that country. SAMOIEDE is the language of an abject, degraded race, dwelling among the tu-ndras or marshy swamps of North Siberia, along the inhospitable shores of the Icy Ocean. The other nations inhabiting the dreary regions of North Asia to the westward of the Samoiedes are, as will be seen on the Map, the lukagires, the Tchukchis, the Koriaks, the Kam- chatkadales, and the Aiuos of the Kuriles, Jesso, and Sagalien Isle. These nations aU speak languages belonging to the class now under consideration. GEORGIAN. — The Georgian is the predominant lan guage between Armenia and the Caucasus : the following languages, closely connected in vocabulary and structure with the Georgian, are likewise spoken south of the Caucasus : Mingrelian, Immiretian, Suanic, and Lazian. These languages, together with the Abassian, Circassian, Inguschi, and some others spoken in the heights and valleys of the Caucasus, were, till very recently, regarded as completely dis tinct from each other. Recent researches, however, have brought to light many links of mutual affinity ; and it has even been proved that, in aU these lan guages, there Eire points of analogy connecting them with the Samoiede and Finnish languages on the one hand, and with the Chinese and Monosyllabic tongues on the other. TURKISH. — The Turkish nations occupy the westem portion of that vast region, formerly known by the name of Great Tartary, which lies directly north of the civilised nations of antiquity, the empires of Assyria, Persia, India, and China. In the eastem parts of their wide area, the Turkish tribes stUl wander about, as of old, with their flocks and herds ; but in the empire which they have established in Europe and in Asia Minor, the Turks, though stUl Mahommedan, are a civUised and polished people. MONGOLIAN.— The Mongolian area lies between the Altai Mountains on the north and China and Tibet on the south, whUe on the east it is conterminous with the Mantchou, and on the west with the Turkish area. Some of the most fierce and warlike hordes by which the world has been desolated have issued from this region; yet the Mongols stUl continue a nation of shepherds. TUNGUSIAN. — The Tungusian and Mantchou lan guages are spoken by two closely-aUied nations to the north and east of Mongolia. _ The Tungusians retain their nomadic, pastoral habits ; but the Mant- chous, who are the present lords of China, have adopted the Chinese system of civilisation and re ligion. EUSKARIAN. — The Euskarian or Basque area, lying along the shore of the Bay of Biscay, between France and Spain, is exhibited in Map V. The Euskarians are now generaUy believed to have been the flrst inhabitants of the Spanish peninsula. VIL— MAP OF THE POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. This Map requires Uttle or no explanation, only two varieties of language being spoken through the large portion of the earth's surface whioh it represents. These two varieties are the Polynesian and the Negritian. The former is spoken in a great variety of dialects in the islands of the Indian and Pacific Ocean ; and the Malayan peninsula is the only continental region in which it has ever been known to predominate. The Negritian may be caUed with equal propriety a strictly insular language : one of its dialects prevails, indeed, in the centre of the Malayan peninsula, but, with this exception, it is spoken only in certain islands of the Indian and Pacific. It is chiefly predominant in the isles of New Guinea, Elores, Timor, Louisiade, New Britain, New Ireland, New Caledonia, and New Hebrides (as indicated on the Map by the red tint) ; but some of its dialects are Ukewise spoken in the interior of islands where the Polynesian or Malayan variety of language is otherwise predominant. The Polynesian islanders approximate, in their physical conformation, to the Mongolian variety of mankind ; whereas, those to whom the Negritian languages are vernacular resemble in some respects the negro race. By some recent writers, however, a community of origin is assigned to aU the natives of those widely-distributed islands ; and the difference in their personal appearance is attributed to the influences of eivUisation, and of various incidental circumstances. VIIL— MAP OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES. The pecuharities and affinities of the African languages having been foUy discussed in the subjoined memoirs, the Map before us needs Uttle explanation. Eour varieties of language have been shown to prevail in Africa : — I-— The Coptic, a language derived from the Ancient Egyptian, forming a link between the otherwise disconnected Shemitic and Japhetic classes. II-— The Berber, which, as weU as the Amharic, GaUa, and other Abyssinian languages, is clearly connected with the Shemitic class. III.— The Nigro-Hamitic languages, so caUed by Dr. Krapf, because spoken by the descendants of Ham along the banks of the Niger and its tributary streams in Westem Africa. These languages are spoken by the Negro race, properly so caUed. IV. — The NUo-Hamitic languages, so named by the same eminent philologist, because he supposed that the original home of the race by whom they are spoken was near the sources of the White Nile. These languages, in their various dialects, prevaU throughout the whole of Africa south of the equator. For a particular description of the languages composing this division, see pp. 347 ¦ 358. IX.— MAP OF THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES. NoTWlTHSTASDiNfl the persevering researches, the zeal, and the leammg which have of late years been brought to bear upon the lan guages and antiquities of America, the great question respecting the origin of the first inhabitants of that vast continent stUl remains as far from solution as ever. Physiology affords no aid in determining this question ; for in the reddish colour of thefr complexion, in the deeply-marked outUne of thefr features, and in other physical pecuharities, the American Indians difier more or less from aU other classes ofmen. That the natives both of North and South America are, however, descended from one and the same branch of the human famUy, has been inferred from the obvious coincidences iu the grammatical structure of thefr languages. But with this similarity in stmcture, great variety exists between the respective roots or vocables of these languages ; and these glossarial differences have led to the division of the American languages into numerous groups or famiUes, of which the foUovring are the principal :— ESQUIMAUX is spoken along the entire northern coast of North America by a people who, in physical conformation, appear to be intermediate between the natives of North Asia and the hunter tribes of America. For a description of this nation, and of the Greenlanders who are of cognate origin, and who employ a dialect of the same language, see pp. 359- 364. o & ' fl- ATHAPASCAN, or CHEPEWYAN, is a language spoken in several different dialects by numerous tribes who occupy a broad belt of country, stretching from east to west, south of the Esquimaux area. ALGONQUIN is the collective name of numerous distinct American nations, who, at the flrst period of European colonisation, occupied (together with the Iroquois) the greater part of Canada, and all the northern and middle portion of the territory of the United States. The northern branch of this race borders on the Athapascan area, and reaches from Hudson's Bay to the Rocky Mountains : it includes AMERICAN LANGUAGES. the Knistineaux or Crees, the Algonquins Proper, the Chippewas or Ojibways, the Ottawas, the Potta- wattomies, the Missinsig or Mississagis, and the Montagnais. The north-eastern branch comprehends the Abenaquis, the Micmacs, and some smaUer tribes. The Algonquin idioms spoken along the Atlantic, and generaUy designated the New England or Virginian tongues, were the Massachusett, Narra- gansett, Mohegan, Susquehaimok, and Delaware. The tribes to whom these languages were vernacular have long been driven by European settlers from their original territories, and some of them are extinct. Delaware is, however, spoken by a stiU powerful nation. It may here be observed, that in this Map the origi'nal as well as Represent distribution of the several languages is indicated. The Westem Algonquin branch includes the lUinois, Shawanoe, Black-feet Indian, Shyenne, and some other tribes. The Bethucks, who were the aboriginal inhabitants of Nev?foundIand, and who are probably now ex tinct, have lately been proved to have been an Algonquin nation, and to have employed a dialect of that language. IROQUOIS is the name of a race dwelling among and encompassed by Algonquin tribes. The Iroquois country, it wUl be seen on the Map, lies in the midst of the Algonquin area, and is divided into two parts. The Northern Iroquois division lies in the region near Lakes Huron, Ontario, and Erie, and comprises the Five Nations, namely, the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagoes, Senecas, and Cayugas. The Hurons or Wyandots also belong to this division. The Southern Iroquois division occupies the country now caUed North Carolina, and comprised the Tuscaroras and several inferior tribes, as the Tuteloes, Notto- ways, and Meherrins. The Iroquois, though occupy ing a territory inferior in extent to that of the Algonquins, have enacted a more conspicuous part in history ; and at the time of the discovery of America, they were found greatly to surpass the Algonquins in mUitary courage, civUisation, and intelligence. No remarkable difference in physical conformation appears, however, to exist between these two races. SIOUX, or DACOTA, is the third great division of the American Indians, and comprises the tribes in habiting the prairie country of the interior, from the Mississippi to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The principal nations belonging to this division are the Dacotas, the Winebagoes, the Assiniboin, the Osages, the lowas, and the Upsaroka or Crow Indians. The Sioux tribes are more barbarous, and preserve the primitive habits of their race more perfectly than the eastem tribes. FLORIDIAN, or APPALACHIAN, is a name which has been applied by some philologists to the lan guages originally belonging to the Southern United States. Some of these languages are now extinct, and their relations to each other are in some instances difficult to be discovered. The languages included in this group are Natchez (now all but extinct). Muskogee or Creek, Lower Creek or Seminole, Chocktaw, Cherokee, and Catawba. The Cherokee nation is now increasing rather than decreasing in numbers, and is apparently progressing towards a higher stage of civUisation than has yet been attained by any other native tribe of America. PANIS-ARRAPAHOES is a designation which has been employed by recent writers to comprehend a vast number of hitherto unclassified languages, pre dominating westward ofthe United States, in Oregon, and in California. The term itself is compounded of Pawnee and Arrapahoe, the two principal languages of this division. These languages have as yet been little studied, and, with the exception of the Pawnees, the barbarous tribes to whom they are vernacular are comparatively little known. CENTKAL AMEEICA. MEXICAN was the language of the senii-civiUsed tribes of Mexico, at the time of the Spanish conquest of the country. This language was, and is stUl, spoken by the Aztec race in the dioceses of Mexico, Mechoacan, New GaUcia, New Biscay, Oaxaca, and Guatemala. The other principal languages now spoken in the ancient empire of Mexico, and in Central America, are the foUowing : — Otomi, spoken to the north of the Mexican area. Terasco, in the diocese of Mechoacan. Mayan, in Yucatan, Tabasco, and Merida. Misteco, in Oaxaca. Totonac, in Puebla de los Angeles. Huasteca, in Huastecapan, a part of Mexico. Zapoteca, Mixe, and six other languages in Oaxaca. Mame, Quiche, and six other languages in Gua temala. Pira, and seven others (almost unknown to Euro peans), in New Mexico. The numerous other languages of central America are Uttle known, and stUl unclassifled. SOUTH AMEEICA. Less is known respecting the ethnology of South America than perhaps of any other region in the world. The Catholic missionaries have furnished us with grammars, dictionaries, vocabiUaries, catechisms, and works of devotion in many of these languages ; but it yet remains to examine in detaU the structure of this multitude of dialects, and to classify them according to their several affinities. As a provisional method of classification, some recent writers have proposed to include the almost innumerable tongues and dialects of South America under three grand divisions : — I. — The Andian, or Ando-Peruvian languages, spoken by all the nations dweUing on or near the great mountain chain in the west of South America. In cluded in this division are, therefore, the foUowing languages : Peruvian or Quichua, and Aimara, spo ken in the ancient empire of the Incas in the north ; EXPOSITORY INDEX TO THE MAPS. and in the south, the Araucanian or Moluche lan guages of the Southern or ChUian Andes : closely allied to this branch are the languages (as Tehuel) spoken by the Patagonians. II. — The languages of Eastem South America, of which the principal branches are the Guarani and Tupi, of Paraguay and the Brazils, and the languages of the Caribbean group, so caUed because spoken on or near the shores of the Caribbean Sea : this group includes the Karif and Arawack, of which an account is given in pp. 391, 392. III. — The languages of Central South America, spoken by tribes who inhabit the interior forests and llanos or plains between the regions of the CordiUera and of the Parana. Little has been yet effected in ex amining the structure of these languages, or the pecuUarities of the nations to whom they are ver nacular. The only languages of South America, in which versions of the Scriptures have been given or attempted, are the Peruvian or Quichua, Aimara Guarani, BrazUian or Tupi, Karif, and Arawack ; and of these a description will be found in pp. 388-393. THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. THE ALPHABETS. After Specimen portions of the different Versions of the Scriptures had been procured and prepared for this Work, it appeared desirable, in order to fumish every available aid towards the examination and comparison of these Specimens, to provide if possible a series of Native Alphabets. But here a serious difficulty presented itself. Many of the characters in which the Specimens are given are little known even to the learned in Europe, and some of them have never before perhaps appeared in print in this country. There is therefore no work to which the student can refer, if he wishes to ascertain the relative value of the widely-differing Alphabets in which these Specimens are printed. Every effort was made to procure a complete series ; but as it was found that very many Alphabets could not be obtained, the design of supplying the comparative Tables was about to be relinquished. It being however well known to philologists that in the Imperial Printing-office at Vienna there exists an unrivalled coUection of foreign types, formed by the skill and untiring diligence of the Imperial Commissioner, M. Alois Auer, the Publishers ventured to represent to the Imperial Govemment the diffictilty experienced in enriching the Bible oe Every Land with the necessary Alphabets, and solicited permission to purchase from the Imperial Printing-office the Alphabets not procurable in England. This appeal was immediately responded to ; and with great liberality. His Majesty the Emperor at once directed a complete series of the Alphabets of all the types used throughout the work, together with the powers of each letter, to be prepared and forwarded free of cost for the use of the present work. The Alphabets, therefore, which the Publishers have the satisfaction to include in their work, are printed from types cast and prepared in the Imperial Printing-office at Vienna, and presented by the Emperor of Austria as a contribution to the completion of the Bible oe Evert Land. AN ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ALPHABETS CONTAINED IN THIS APPENDIX. PAGE PAGE PAe: Ahom .... xhii Greek Ui Old EngHsh . lii Albanian liii Gnijerattee xlv Orissa Tliii Amharic . TTTXTiii Anglo Saxon li Hebrew xxxvi Pah . . xiii Arabic . . xxxvii Rabbinical . xxxvi Peguese xxxv Hinduatani Signs xxxvii Hindustani-Arabic . xxxvii Persic .... TYTIT Persian „ . xxxvii Persian-Arabic xxxvii Pushtoo _ „ xxxvii Irish U Maldivian 1 Malayan „ . xxxvii Pushtoo-Arabic . xxxvii Moorish „ xTTxvii Japanese : Armenian xl Chinese Signs lxi, lxii Rabbinical Hebrew . xxxvi Assamese . xliii Eirokana . Katakana . Iviii— lxiilvii Russian hii Bengalee xliii Javanese lxiv Samaritan . xxxvi Burmese . xxxiv Arabic Signs . lxiv Sanscrit xli Cashmerian xhv Kamata xlviii Sclavonic . Servian . hv hii Chinese . xxxiii Cingalese . Coptic .... Uncial . 1 lxiii lxiii Mahratta . Malayan Arabic Letters xlvi lxiii xxxvii SiameseSindhee . Syriac — Estrangelo xxxiv xhv xxxvi xxxvi English U Malayalim . xlix Old . ¦ . lu Maldivian . 1 Tamul xlvi Estrangelo-Syriac xxxvi Persian Signs 1 TeKnga .... xlvii Ethiopic . xxxviii Arabic „ Mantchou 1 lv Tibetan xxxv Georgian lvi Moeso-Gothic li Uriya . . , . xliii Ecclesiastical lvi Mongolian . lv Q-erman lii Moorish- Arabic Letters . xxxvii Wallachian . liii Old . . lii Moultan xliv Wuch xliT A KEY TO THE PEONUNCIATION OE THE ALPHABETS. THE FIRST TABLE APPLIES TO THE NITMBEES PLACED OVEE THE EOMAN EQUIVALENTS OP THE LETTEES OF THE FOLLOVFING LANGUAGES : Albanian Burmese Gujerattee Amharic Coptic Japanese Arabic Ethiopic Javanese Armenian Greek Mantchou 1. Represents the ordinary acute (') accent. 2. Represents the ordinary grave (') accent. 3. and 9. Represent the ordinary circumflex (') accent, used to lengthen the sound. 4. Represents the cedilla 5. r Over t, d, n, z signifies the cerebral sound of those letters. 1 Over h marks a simple aspiration. 6. Distinguishes guttural sounds. 7. Marks a lengthening of the guttural sound. Mongolian Pali Peguese Russian Sclavonic Servian SiameseTibetan Wallachian r Over ¦m is guttural. ' I Over n is cerebral. 9. and 3. See 3. 10. The French sound oi j. 11. Adds an r sound to I. 12. Marks the French u sound. 13. Marks a combined long and short 1 14. The ordinary short vowel sign ("). 17. Distinguishes palatal n. AhomAssameseBengalee Cashmerian THE SECOND TABLE INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING ALPHABETS ; CingaleseKamataMahratta Malayalim Moultan Orissa 3. and 9. Represent the ordinary circumflex (*) accent. 4. Represents the cedilla ?. 5. Over t, d, n represent the cerebral sounds of those letters. r Over r a guttural sound. ' L Over I an additional r sound. 5. Over h denotes a simple aspirate. SanscritSindhee Tamul TelingaUriya Wuch r Over m is guttural. ' I Over n is palatal. 9. See 3. 10. French pronunciation oi j. 11. Over I denotes the additional sound of r. 12. Marks the French u sound. Genebal Rule. — The vowels are to be pronounced as in Italian or German. c throughout the alphabets is to be pronounced as cA in chaff. ch is to be pronounced gutturally, as in LocA Lomond. sch like English sh. j like English y. For a full explanation of the Chinese Figures, see Evdlicher's Chinese Gram-mar. COKKECTIONS. Burmese, column 1, line 3, for i, ie, read i, ei Russian, Mongolian, 2. 0, " 6, (a), 12 0, " (a). 3 O. Sanscrit, 5. " 1, tu, " tn. „ „ 8. .. 21, dua. " dna. Cashmerian,Telinga, 2,3, " 29,20, 3 CU, 13 na. " 3 cu. S3 na. Persic, column 1, line 11, for s. read As. „ 1, „ 13, s. „ z- „ 1, „ 17, dh, „ ta. „ 3, „ 6, dhr. tsr Siamese, 1. „ 6, u. „ ii. " 2, „ 22, ba, ,. la. After the printing of these Alphabets, it was found desirable to re-arrange, in some measure, the system of notation adopted for the explanation of the sounds of the various letters. It is hoped that the inconvenience arising from the change of some of the figures used as references to the Explanatory Tables of sounds will be very slight; and that, although it is impossible to convey a precisely accurate representation of the intonations of foreign speech, enough has been done to render these Alphabets intelligible and useful. CLA.SS I.] ALPHABETS. [Monosyllabic. CHINESE RADICALS. — 1 I ^ X 3 7 L 4 ^1 A A n u 71 n c: L + n r ^ 29 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 P 30 ± ^ 35 32 33 34 36 37 38 39 f fl, 40 ^ 41 yj^ 42 P 44 tp 45 Jll {{ 43 47 48 49 -^ 52 r 535455 58 57 58 59 60 161 62 I) 0 S 64 66 69 70 72 73 74 76 78 79 80 ^ 82 ..^ 84 Cj 85 86 ^1* X 88 ^ 89 tI 90 A 91 ¦^ 95 } 02 93 94 96 4 7E r JUL B tm 97 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 .08 ¦109 1*1 5^ no 111 112 113 114 115 116 1 117 119 120 121 /LJ it pa] nil 122 ^ 5 1*1 24 .25 26 27 28 30 31 32 Effi J 33 34 35 36 37 38 e P ^ Pi P ft t ^ 188 ^ 190 H 191 192 lati Fa ^ Hfl XXXUl Class I.] ALPHABETS. [Mono STIL ABiCi BURMESE. SIAMESE. 33 a ?9 tha ILtpturea. © a ^J ya 330"1 a 6 da Oo oo 8 Idiii ® Jjha ^ n Iq nca •i dam @ pra 07 3 a <9) da , t^ 8?lO i,ie gf ? I O . u OD 00 'dfa 5 na ta "2 OO 3 ku 1 kae 9 byo ^ bya (25^ m 0 i 3 i 9 i13 u Q - •u ¦ tha' ©I- @ kra O di X niya 9 u y ba O 1 3 8"- " 00 tha ' 3 kri 1_) dham /¦ mha o 9 J/ 3 u CJ papha GCg e 3 da @ krva 0)5 ^ o j ^ 6 r cJ fa 33 e, ai gQo o,au dhana "3 o -kyva f j;j nna OO tta 5t mhu % mhu w J) pha fhapha 6@5"aii o pa 8 OC]_ thu ^ rae i9 e « ma a ^3 pha 3 kham o sl rva Hq ai £/ ya o Ul \ khu 88 "^"^' ?a 3 0 ? ra 8 h o ba % khya °§ thva ^ rha L'sn au 8 m ^9 lava OO ka 00 bha O 3 CO 1^ b (8 khrva 3 di IL ' h Si sa 33 kha ® ma ^ du C^ lya n ka ?^ ha O ga 00 ya gu 0 ddha 0 -^a =b " 27 ba W gha 6 C na CO ra la c 6h 6 8 namc 8 cam lit ^^y° V»JL dhrim §. 'ai Cai en 1)f) n • kha TT) ao 3 kaki O C3 30 olia 0 o vaca 8 8 3 8 cum ig dhri ^1 . Irve v3 s na 3 ki 9 ki •^l,© ^« 0 sha cca cva § nhaik . cha T) o ka ku (jJ j&a 00 sa A 0 cho » ndi "J ya Oi sa f) 3 ku P na 00 b ^ j S una 1 ("half 1 1 pause I Jofael i Sips. ^ 'ta 8 11 la a m L nn II r whole i pause 'S <( =^ Ov * 1 '3 kva ¦5 du « yn 1 ssku •^ kh,kg O m Ov ^ na g kya ^ -dva ^ ru i fiskya C n OO y 151 - ^ pa g kyu ? dra S rkya % sskra *N ^ pha ^ kra ^ dm 1 rgya ^ Bsga PQ ch,j q r |^ • e ^ ba i kru ^ nu 1 rgyu i ssgya •s SI kla g pn ^ ma 1 Esgyu -p: co> 15» ^ ma |3 khu S pya 5 rea ^ ssgra -r' k za R khva ^ pra ^ Ija 3 -^ ssgm OO t,d O ' Bk ¦ 0 k zha 1 ka ^ phu ^ 8 ma ^ 6 ssna 8 -r^ 5 p khya f phya f rta 1 Bsna OO th,dh YU 8 *t a' a s za p khra 1 phyu ^ rda 1 s ssnu ^ n ^ va il khni ^ phyva ^ ma ! ssta V n QO b 3 'u '^ 10ja g ga ^ phru 5 rha ^ ssda O P.b -W a 'H ka 1 a za 1 gva 5 bu S rma 1 ssdu r kha 1^ 'a 5 gyagyn 9 bya byu Sf rmyarcva ^ ssnassnu 3Ltsa turts. 'I ga « ya ^ gra ^ bra ^ rva 1 ssnra =; na Iv ra 3 gru 5 bss § rla 1 sspa 75 ka STT^ ko 7 ca ni la ^ grva 1 bru 51 Iga sspu ^ka ^ ko s cha ^ sha Sl ?! 5 giagasa 1 bla bin S§ 6 Ina lea 1 1 sspya sspra ^ ^ ^8^^ ja 8 na ^ 5 ssa ba 6 nu 6 nss 5 mu mya ^ ^ Ija tta 1 Bshra ssma ^ k? T) kai 5 ta BI a 3 eu i myu ^ Ida 1 ssmya ^ chu 1 mss 10 ?i Ipa ^ ssmra .O^ku 'no kau Jtflt trc0. f chva ^ ju 10 ^ Iba f ssza 9 S. i J «' y^ I 5 ju ^ jva 1 Ibu ^ ssra -r^k^ ^ kau 1 2 3 4 5 8 nu 1 za ^ Iva ^ ssla «T) ''^ T)6 keu vs 6 7 8 9 o 0 '^ 8 nva f zva ^ Iha =9 hva 5 tu 1 zla 5 shu ^ bra 610 ke ^ "^^ M i Beetle n.| Pause. tra zlu shva 1 hni xxxv Class II.] ALPHABETS. [Shemiiic n HEBREW. RABBINICAL SAMARITAN. SYRIAC. ESTRANGELO SYRIAC. JA r spirit " 1 lenis f. A (•spirit lenis r spirit *¦ 1 lenis ^J2. il ¦s b, V ^ ^ {£ 3 b, bh 3 3 b, bh ^ ^nnn b 3 g. gli :i t &gli T ' ^ d T d, dh 7 ^ m ou u cp. he n h 9 d,dh o 0- V7, n Cl a w, n 1 w, n ) ^ b 1 > ds "-¦ ch ? ds ! t w, u WM "-^ -^ *« ch, hh V . n ch p; ^ ds -i ^ .^ .i t 1 ^ ^ j ta t u ''•^ VA .& .» i -^ ^ C^ c.k > j,i » M cb ¦f t = = k, ch 3 1 k, ch 3 1 V t \ v :i. i» 1 1 fn m m *? 5 Jc ia. io m 23 D m J5 D (n j.l V ^ i J n ^ 1 a { n 3 i ^ k, ch uo OS ffl i; g ii^ D s P z 1 "5i ^ :i i. n A p, ph Jf gh tf ¦Jif m ^a 3 s p,f ^ ts,z 11 n JD k a f) p,ph P 9 ? n ^.D ^A a .0 k n. It f ts i r ^ i r ^ s r ^ Z SLk Z. Z^ sch p "^ P >-A ¦» ¦*" ^*' sch 1 r 2? sch D V 3 gh 2. 2. i^ th A. V V t,tb ¦ ¦' p, ph ILtgaturea. Higaturea, ett. n t, th P . r aleph ^ I lamed •ffl ts % '^ ^ ^ u lil la ^ k X y -^ -^ gg \> U Foinel anb otJicr Stana. 3 n p /"spirit 1 lenis V^ .. T -• >*¦ V r • i: 1 UJt sch ITofciJel Signs. rLVk tha o q D * " .J Jl. Q ,,.."' "'^^ a ' » J 1 A t, th — - :; : ? S XXXVI Class II.] ALPHABETS. [Shemitic. ARABIC. aipljaliet. Etgatuns. PERSIAN ARBITRARIES. Final. Medial. Initial. . ¦(. 1 - J p t IL 1 1 a,e,i,o,u ^'^ se" schdsch ^mch » » » « • » Ct ^ '^'T »=<=" v_» t- <>¦ - J b c*.r bm sC^'schh ^ mdsch r J J French \<^ g O i^ *. i i 1 1 J t v-r ^1> ¦^ schch v:«inh » * * ¦>. i. ' J s, th ^ bj ¦s^ schh if nm PERSIAN LIGATURES. Ct Ct C t «- 1=^ =»- dsch ¦^ tdsch i kjdsch ^nr ptsch 1 '¦£. pch 1 ' <: btsch •s- »->• h' ii tch Xkjh Wl ndsch i/; pr ^ stsch ^ ttsch d ^ tr cif tm Xkjch i-Um ^ nmh Pj ) Ty. P'h i ¦• I sstsch si*'~j " , j-schtsch j- stsch ^ kjtscb j Jv ds j^ tr tl" ^ tj *^8'h•tf^ sflsch 4£ nmch -^ h'h i. Irtsch sir 1 mtsch «¦«- Itsch ^ -> J^ A 4^ Sh ¦^ ssh .^ hdsch ' 4 ij'ch 1 ^ nmstch <^ ^ ntsch 2 J- sr t '- " f Af sm ^o es ..<2 ^ .0.9 z, dh J' ^ ^ hh iilh i Ich ^ ts J -L j^ ch MALAYAN LETTERS. ).i. k W t ^ hdsch i Idsch ^^ jj ^ £ « P n,ng ^ (J 1 9 1" tt tt « * a, '0, 'u '^ hhdsch ^ nun iii lam-elif » t £ -. ^ ^ i % c '- I ' o , -^ - _^ i_i i 9 f MOORISH LETTERS. „ iFigawa. ^ ,i^ d J (i £ 9 k . ^ A V A (J f 1 r V I ;^ ^ ds iJ jL £=,'i: 4=.f m, k 0 9 8'- 6 5 4 3 2 1 il Jt C r ng tT J^ "^ .-n , ^ ss J= J=^ ^ ^ J HIN 3USTANI VOWELS. J J 1 ! 1 l\ rh, d 7 8 i> n, n •^ ; r'(d) 4^ gU 4^ kh ^ ^ ^ -"jdh cf i> -^ ^ > ^ 0 < i I J B 4^ k'h C "^ 4^ gh .A j£.' tL ^ th p- J J 3^ 43 dJ- •3 -i- O >^t 4- P" * ^ p 4* bh 3 A _9 f t.^c?c> X < w J j, i 4^ th C» t' 4J th X. X ^ XXXVU Class II.] ALPHABETS. [Shemitic.: ETHIOPIC AND AMHARIC. U ha UJsa ^ka ¦^ cha Tl ka H za * ;?dja n pa T pa U- hu Uhsu Ikku f. chu Tb ku \h zu A. dju rv pn T pu y, hi I«.si tki 1 Chi Uti K 2i * j? dji /^ pi ¦i:pi y ha Ulsl fM 5 3 cha Vl ka H za *ff dja A pa J pa y he Ulsl ^ ke -i 3 che Uke H, zl *S ajl A> pe JL pe M he ^ se ^ ke -f che •Jl ke H. ze *;?^ dge ^ pe T pe If ho A la A- lu ^P so Z: ra A. I'U •f" ko ft ba fhbu cho na nu U ko *'U cba ? "T^ chu H zo *"H"ja *'H^ju *;? ma * fl scha *^ tja A a 0 a J? da *nT tscha A. fa U i^e (J> mu * Ip schu * ^" tju ^ u 0 u A du *TrT^ tschu 3! fu Tv*. kue CKJ_^ mi * H. schi * ^ tji <\ i ^ ' J^ di *nX tschi A. fi 7° gua ; (y\ ma * "^ scha *3^tja A 3 a Oj a .? da **Tf tschl 4 fa % gui ; cK), me * rt sche *^tje A, 3 e q^ e .^ dl *Tn> tsclil ^ fe X g«^ ' ^ me * Tn sche *^ tje 7^ e 6 e .e de *'*5* tsche 8 ) r y yi' y. y^ ie » j A J' j yy schssdh t O Vv f^- C/ a, i. 0, u w9 f j/ ki,k r - C/ n .> w, u »» h, t ¦— *" j, i rr 4 A A A J' u babdbk bm brpd prpk p'h sr shr sb' sbBj tb tbthtr tm thtj h'b h'p brbm bbbj cbmsa sdscb 't y^ I. •¦ y^ y > ILtgatureg. stschsb > > i sr schr 3dhrtr srsh ab 'as br ghrchrndsch frfm (j fy / i J r r J J kr km kj kk klmkkm kj Ih Id Ip ) lr ^ Ij (JLi) la U Ima ti im J lb ^i ma > ms A Id V;v nh > nm (j I'J ^" htd ^ ha ..f" hnd -t hsd _^ -hp A jd - jb 4 bIh /^y, jr. ir yeyc smr g^ sdh tmr y^y ^ cbdscb '^ chr / shm ^ bkk X pbir > thr T ap ^ 'apr r sm s- gbj >/ ghr ^ gbjr 1^ sh'ma / pkk -} lib PJ, ndh /, nhr nmrhtd / 4 jr J. J; j"' i bj .mcbdscbb'dsch stschb k-gbjph'r XXXIX Class III.] ALPHABETS. [Indo-Ettbopean. ARMENIAN. Homan. Italic. n- ^ \y^^ ds Al^ dsh l> a \)^> ds a^-.L dsh r^pp p un g \Y "- tb r-fp p un g fb «- rh *h 'tt ^ A^ h \]" « *ht* k ^4 i> D- « ^Yfh t a^ ^ WjL'L. 'brr t ^j^ ^ iKl^w 1?^ ie 'Kt-t gh 8" J •- b,j 1^ - n, V fa.^/?tb ^-U n (|> ^ ^ P (hard) p^riti tb ^1,1 n <|> ^ 4 p (hard) cl-/' "" f^2_2- sch ^K -^ -^ k (hard) (]. r sh (. ,L ^ sch 4*»+ k(hM:d) b^^ « J] n no ()« 0 bH i n " uo ()* 0 1,/^- ' i2 ^ ^ tsh I|>^ ^ U^ . 12 -L t tsh il>§ ^ ]ll lu fu cb xl Class III.] ALPHABETS. [Indo-Eubopean. SANSCRIT ^ a 5 5 tha ILiflatutES. ^T a I fi da ^ k W cca a ^ tu ? ^ o V ^ dha m kha ^ cna ^ tna T ""^ ^ vra UT rT 5 na ta kta ktya era cva 5r tra tva ^ uta ^ ntr ?" JT , 4 ¦ c 4 3>i ° Ml r ^4 " ST tha dadha na ktraktvakna knyakma chma chyachrachva j I th dudu 5 dr dga ^ ntrya 7^ ntva ^ nua ^ nr. C P ir cca 4 cna 4 era 4 cla 4 cva C^4 1 q" pa m kya 5i 8 jna ^ dgya c pt c sh 5 ^? ai- ^1 ^" pha ba Wi krakrya kla ^ o¥ jra 8 n s noa ^ ^% dgi-adgha dghra CT Pta g pna ^ pra ^ Pla 12 shta 5 shtya 5 shtha H bha m kva ^ s nja c dda W Bhthya 5 ^ maya T^ ksh ksha ^3 nnasttsa ^ % ddra ddva Cf Pva ¦gj pvya sr slina shva ^ ka ra- kha I ra khkhna ^H 6tpa6tma .ddha qq phlna s sna JT e* q- gba ^ na la va 4 . ca H J I khra khva g 51 5 tyatsha 6 tsa 5 % ^^^ ^ dflhnaddhyaduadha ^ bra JT bhra strasrsra sia ^ ca 3^ - ar gna ^ thmaG dbra b ^ cha ^ sha z gr thya 5 5 ^ dbha ^ hu sT j* ^ ^ gra dda fi5 ^ dbhya ^ nma ^ 3 hu ^ jha sa E gn ¥ ddha & ^ dbhra ^ mra ^ 5 to oT na ^ ha ^ ghna ^ dbha 5 ^ dma ^ mla ^ 16 to J ta 3S 1] la ^ ghra ST dya 5 5 2^ dya 7^ mva ^ 5 hna 1 6 nka i dhna 5 ?: dra E y ^ hua Jiflnres an B Points. f nksha W dhma ^ di7a r r. bma \ ^ ^ 1 2 3 ^ to t; 6 7,8 4 9 M 5 O 10 f nkha 6 na 6 ngha 66 nua F dhya 6 n 55 nna t dvadvya dwadh ^ ru bya toa hrya \ 6 nma fT tta y dhna r 1 hia • ^ ^ 6 nya if ttra ^ dhra ^ hia ^ hva 1 II w r c w ttva g dhva ^ Ua P hvya xli Class III.] ALPHABETS. [Indo-Eueopean. PALI. ai^Ja&et. Etflatures. N a m ka % da •IJJ ^^ Oil- 3 ¦ta m a ¦ ma Ml a a 3 ga O ^B dha gt ga «. m. taa gba ^ na llP gl ol ti i| mu ? -_ 6 2 B na il pa SJii s''^ *^e *^ B ""•* 5J) g ca CO cha t3 pha a ^ tva •^ mbu. e " C 6 ja B ba OB ¦ci ^ tvl un ya 1 ' II bha OB J Gt jba ^ ddha *^ yya n ma fi cca e ^ na III ya fj§ ccha (0 dva # ru Ifi ta K nu •P ^' n ae 5 It ra tI cya ^" C^ 0 ¦1 tha & da W^ ¦la S JJIa Ol nta J»] 3 ¦ si 5 iM ^ ^B nca ^^ ndha •nJ tl dha Gi« 0 fifl na B O va e '. J^ nna Ml ''» ' 8 /^ division # m Ol ta II sa & ttha 3 bha : h a tha in ba a nda g* bha £^^ ' xiii Class HI.] ALPHABETS. [Indo-Euuopean. BENGALEE. AHOM OR ASSAMESE. URIYA OR ORISSA. v3T a O 8 na y^ k,g \X) ph, bh 2| a -^ > ta ^t1 1 ?: ta if i i 6tha A\ I a 0 tha t;-^ i ^ 6 da VD kh, gb ¦w m "5 -Q i ® da tx ^ ^ 5 dha 5 na ta V 6 n \w y "5 7 \ S- u s 51 dha s na 5it tha da m ch, j ^ r s ta » 1 3c 2J tha ^CC e 4t ai dha na pa pha 6 n t, d 1 b a G- e Ci. ai *~3 da dha (^C^ *» ^ ba 13 I 0 5? na ¦^ ka jU kha bha ma TOO th, dh w s 13G G-1 au El pa ft ga ¥ ya 8 £f pha •^ gba ¦§• na T^ rala ^ n Y\ b i r ^ ba P ca 't 4 ca % ka ^ bha S cha ^ sa \3 P b r^ a TSl ja ^ sha '^ kha Fl ma ^ jha ^ ha ILigatures. 'SI ga ^ gba 5 ya ra SLiflat *^ kta tttcs. 4 pra y^ ka / Y^ ko gM na ^ la ;^ kra a bhra 3 S ca ^ va ^ ksha ?t gna T— * ¦ya -ra n 3 ka r^b ko g cha ^ 4 ca ^ jna (£6 8 oi' nca "tR nja r- ru -la J ki y^b 12 ku Si ja ^ jha sha sa €. t ^ Ua 4 y^ 3 ki r^ kai \5 na K ha i^ tra 2t era W dda '^ dru cva 5 shta n ku r^f 12 kau ILiga taws. ^ dhva ¦^ shna & kra 5 tra TT -na ^ ntu W ^ sta stha n 3 ku >f kau ^ ksha q § ¦yastha £> ntha ^ ndha ^ ^ sma sva J y^ ke r^b keu n § Chi % 5 shta gj nma ^ stra 8 <^ nka ?fe mbha ^ nva '^ pta 0- 1 mpause /rV ke '1 koi EJ thi U pause xliii .^1 Class III.] A.LPHABETS • [Indo-Eueopean. SINDHEE. MOULTAN OR WUCH. CASHMERIAN. i n) a YT a h dba ^ a 3 TD" jba • i __ 8 . • O i ^ a n na @ n C?f i U ta a. ka 6 i '^ na n '^ *» da ' ^ kha 3 ¦ If dba' ! i\ ga @ u ^ pa ¦!>¦=;« ^ ba P^ .n e qr ua vS na 3 ta "L tha -JC ^ •»> ai Tf P* ^ ma F 0 ¦p* au 23 Pi«> j 7 ba da ^l ga m TS bha >i^ na ^ ya : b ^ ma ^ ta 0 "^a ^ ka ^ ya "i tha O ra "PT kha J ra •Tl da 2 cha IT g* FT la 5 dlia Uf gha •^ va >S^ na ^ la 6 rt if ca ., M pa 31 ja JT ca ¦^f sha H* pha C. va n^ sa ^ cha X sa '»a ba ''^ bha vT da m ja ?J ha iLtgaturcg. 'H ma j)\ na ^ kya Ij; pra "t^ ya S ha ^ cu Hf mpa 2. ra 3 ta ^ jya =5 Jja 12 la ^ tma 3 73^ cu O va \*\ sa ^ tha ^ tra "S tu ^ sma 'SJ neu ^ sva ^ ha ¦^ tra ^ da *, pause ^ nu 'S" nya H bya :; .f r vowel \ 1 omitted xliv Class HL] ALPHABETS. [i^ do-Ettkopean. • GUJERATTEE. 51 1 Jl jha Hfgatttrrg. la 2 3 ta ^ ki ¦.3U jM S thu ^ 511 -) 1 3 ^ tha ^ ku ¦^ jhu ^ thu ^. •bhu r ft 2Al. t$ 5 da 5/s^ ku ^ jhn 4 di '^ 3 ^ * e dha o(i khi ^ li S> *i • ^ -bhu @ u Ul 9 na ^ khu ^ tu ^ du ^ Vi ^ ^ rt ta ' % ^u ^ tu £(l dhi 3 ^ ^ -r ai tha o([ gl 61 thi % dhu '^ TO an. " '^ da ^ gu ^ thu 1. <^u' .«r Class I] [I.] A LPH. A.BETS . pNDO-EirKOPEAN. TELINGA. e a ^ oa ^ va -a oi ^ ddu o^ 3 ra t? 3 a f cha ^. 4 ca ^ cu W ddha 0 ri S} 1 2S ja sha ^ ce ^ dha 6 3 ri ^ 3 i 1 jha ^ sa 005^ 3 jha ^ 3 na t33 ru 4S n zt 8 na ^ ba ^ 3 JM t> ni n 1 ^ 3 u &» s ta r 11 la 1 3 jhu ^ 3 ni €) U IOO:* 5 r (6 tha ta rha af- 83 na ^ nu €0 lu "UOS" IS r d da I pause a> 8 nu ^ ne O" lo JG) 9 1 ^ dha ¦^ ka SJ^ 83 nu ^ nna CO Ua qJ&-«> 16 1 e3 5 na ss ku ¦& 5 te §r» po 00 Hi J e ^6 tatha ^cr> 3 ku ss s du 53 23i ppu > ba pa ge ^ te S)} mi ^ 3 sha 0 8 m ^ pha ^ gau e3J o ttu o33 mn s ?? 6 b <2;b ba 1 gha (§5 tra a me ¦§- shta i ^ sa ka S5S bha .y cyj da ^ mo V kha ma Oiii ghu a di ^ mma ^ 3 ssa K ga a$^ ya OVTJ' 3 ghu T^ du cS3Ji 3 ya e rt' 005 I ^ oS s e IX> £0 ai 2o 0 CO? 1. 5 0, ^ ¦-•— B 2o au ^ o 8 m 25* 6 b JiS- ^ ka i 2D kha ?S gi cha ja jha ta tha da dha S> pha •Jli ba ¦tp bba •6 ra e) la S> va ^ ca .y cja sha ^ sa To* ba lis 8 ^ 11 la na ta aa ra tha ^ ku da 4 ke dha ^UT> 3 ko ua S ksha pa J« gn de do tu te ttu tte tra c5^ da a> di ¦6 de (^ dri T? gjo e5v3 '" ^ -ya 53^ va ^ vu o^ sha Si shta xlviii ^ ua ?) ni Po/E 3 ho 5^ nu - 9 a 1 ne c-S 3 0 ^ nna -r-o 0 ^ pu 9 1 ^ pra ^ r sign of 1 duplication 1^ bhu T sr S 16 1,1 Class HI.] ALPHABETS. MALAYALIM. j (G»B a ers) 8 na Etgatutts. (S^-0 3 a S 6 6 ta, da =63 ku m 3 tu ^ bra ^ Ua ^?| 1 o tha ^ 3 ku ® 3 tr §. bhu ^ Uu cvo 5 da t) 5 kr (U'O) tta (@ bhu -I -Va otooH 3i CUP dha ceft kku 3 fOJg) ttu i bhr ^ TU ^ n 3 ern 5 na ^ kku (sa tma (S bhra ^ 5 vr £ tru ^ 3 mu (^ 4 CU ^ 16 r a da ddS^ ksha (Cro tsa @ 5 mr a^sLi 4 cca SYO ft I CO dha ^ ksa § 3 du (M mma (OS), 4 cru *» 16 1 00 na ^ gn s 20 dr 5^ mla ^ 44cca "€) e a_J pa, ba g) 5 gr «jo ddha ^ -ya ^ 5 shta Iffl 3 e an pha 03 gda S dya '^ yu £% shtha G"^) al eoj ba OD gna nt n % yka ^ shp a 3 0 (S bha ($9 gra CYd nu TOT) ykka ^ 3 su «9 0 Q ma (Og^ ghra 6 ® 6 nr ka, ga BA la asg nna 3 (Qg) ntra C2J21 ., ¦ yma ^ sma QJ kha QJ va ^ CU 03 nda ^ . OO ga c/a 4 ca ^ ccha CYXO ndha na nma ( tha ^ kra © b Ty '"^ f^ i 9 da cJ? n r - d^fL 3 i f£> dha ix^ ksha «§ bhu O r yx: r Cu j~ n <^ 5 na oJ g 8 8 © mi C2J i) Co Ji7 3u €> ta k y ' eb ® 1 e d tha Q s ti @) mba '^ - T> ' 6®\1 3 e 9 da 9 53ti -iS ya ^^ m ©a ©§ 1 ai O dha ^ t -® I'. <^ f ^ d a® io 0 f Z Z z Xx Xx Zl 1 m rr 0 w ©sl ¦dh, th Yy Yy mm m S 0 I't Zz Zz Class III.] ALPHABETS. [Indo-Etjeopean, Ui CERM AN , OLD ENCLISH. CREEK. ©ntcnfierg. (Common. j4 a a flj^ita a ar ¥ ha W quod 21 a as i ^0 |5 b 5/3 b 3h " a an, am ¥ he q) que 6 c • Mb ^7 g Cr « 5 ao ip ho ^ quoque S) b % f i > © t J3 d Biit d te ba ^ h, etc flj quam E€ ¦* Jtt e fe be bo I in, im I r ® S '} j cv re SH ^ k k bet f il R I f I ee V, I5g g cb * m mm nd tr 9 rerum S I SJi m 91 n 11 n ® 0 It 1 Kk k Ifiit ' A ct 51 f s O 0 J. A 1 JKk >^ 5 con ft. . nn ff ss iG. q m r M ll m IU ' ^ cha fl fSt I ^ f0 iVTz/ n a an -st ® fS € t /IHm ¦" /Rntt ° lb che cho 5 9 on pre fl- se 3: t U u SS t) it n ^p P iDq « m ir co dade R pripa pe t t ter ta tb Sffi to 3 3 Jl a # 0 ilTT p Pp r _ JJcry s Tt t JRrr ^ i.-] den ff PP ^ the it t u !K u u It t demdo ppe pro u u uerum a ft ff ir #0 ph Xx ch tB^ua u F est, en S per tt uer ft1 ff !Pl/f ps Uu ' t .fi 1 re, er fi u ua fi CO 0 SK to w fiffl * n propque 93 ub us ff accenta. r y § gi n qua m va u dl V V vv 2^ 2 § gra q qui * (f ? 9 .p .. .^ A* vvvvv Class III.] ALPHAB ETS. [Indo-Eueopkatt. ALBANIAN. RUSSI AN, SERVIAN AND WALLACHIAN. .- i&o. I • i^o. 2. Eoman. Italic. tt* a V a f, ngb A a a I^ I^ z(c) A a a IJ^t{ 2(C) mi - e i e i gj B6 b 4h tsch B6 b y tl tsch A i i 1 1 S ngj B B w,v TTT m sch Be W, V Jll iU sch Co 0 0 0 V Y Tr g.h TT^ m schtsch re g,b niu{ schtsch r V y 6 u IA tv 12 u Jl- 12 6 ps h Aa d t It (mute) Aa d It 1) (mute) ^% w • u E e ye,e H LI y Ee ye. e bihl s ^^fe b )¦ - X cb HI % sh (z) b fa (soft) Mh sb(z) h Jl (sofl) ^& g > e 3 cb ^4 j i s 1 t 33 s ' Ge 1 3 3 s eel Il U dh V i A d Mh i • je Hu i •je tot. d il th I ts >X nd Hh j H) IO ju Hu j 10 to iv C9«. z 7 ds i e Ii i rr " H H ja (a) It i rr w Ii n ia. (a) G, a. k kj t nds /»\ b Kk k 0 e tb Kk ]j 0 0 tb tT,' e w S mh ¦1 A A 1 V V y.w A ^ 1 V 'y y, w tT^ H I a P 55 m i Ij V n Mm m Jb Jb ij Mm m ^ .;& ij ^^ n X « ¦) tsch Hh n lb H. nj Hh n Httb ^i '^n ng a^ P c k 3 dsch Oo 0 Hh tj Oo 0 Tin ti lo b r 8 z y ndsch Hn p TB ^ dsch Hn P B ^ dsch 19 IS s 4 r 5 st 'V) ^ ss f rr X sch Pp r I^ I^ ddsch Pp r -(/ ^ ddsch \{ t a f J j Cc s Hs u Cc s S S Vl ^Si,^ f U ch V 1, }• schtte Tt t IS k iu Tm t Mis iM cp elf!. X yy u Sl /"& ia yy u A Jfi ia. ^ m » nj i tz tzi 3 j V- as a>* f •f-T^ mg ^0 f »Jl JJl ung H z h gh v&l (U Xx cb IA ia ia Xx ch Mia ii liii Class I n.] ALP] EABET s. [iNDO-EtTEOPEAifi SCLAVONIC. 1 ©lagoltttaji. ©lb StMontr, ^a. I. (©It) Scla&om'c, i^o. 2. ifl rfl a \P\a p n a ¦^ u fid a 041 f Be b Bb ¦ B b " Ma /W m K) J° H H n Oo ° ¦ja [fl] [fl] i tf ff . schtsch H n bA 'j* A A __ (\A(V\ •" "" tf 0 0 ^ ° Hn p GDw 3 ^ 0 IPp I 1 (soft) n P l7^ io Pp r Oo . iJ ¦ n P r X ^ Gc ^ ^ § (soft) Fp . 03 & je Tt t c s 111- PSi ^\|r psi aa 1 JDP ju ov| • 0 T t TGr t" ov u 0A th aa OV u V y ^8 . Vir V CiAss rv.] ALPHABETS. [Ugro-Tabtakian. MANTCHOU. a^ a^ CJ ^ ^ 3 - J^ 1' - 1- - ^ - "- J- kh b (soft) ¦p ^ ^ ^ ^ sch j^ f . ^ a^ t 1 * * - d ^ 4* .» - k gkh ts ths sch (soft) ss tschh dschh Htgatureg. ^ 3> $? ^ •'' 8) 8) $ © bo ©' g)> 6)' ©' '"' J) ^ ^ J) bo, ^ ^ ^. ^ pi ^ ^ :> ^ i^i ¦^ -^ -^ -^ ku ^ :jt^ J 4?^ me li i ^. gge ^ gk Jl ma j>imi ^^mc ^mu % >' ti al A ' re ml *1» ye MONGOLIAN. r^ -1 -J A A ^ c Cj <»> c d ^ -1 d <>> i d *> chgh o o - ^ +1 n ^ ™ 4J -P -M ^ .?! ^ 3:) ^ V -^^ 1^ * H |> - ¦^. (is u U - ts > 4. ^ ss ^ ^ _ sch /I ^ - ^ lv CiASS IV.] ALPHABETS. [U BEO-TAETAEIAlf. GEORGIAN. ffii&il. fficcIesiaBttcal. 6 a 3 k (3 t a ts ?n; a ?e t S b 2P 1 ^ u ^ ds ^S " Ol IU{ u 3 g 9 m I wi ? ' q.7}g 4 l| wi(u,ou) d e 6 .2, ni ?] ph l\ ¦ dsch ^y d Ttp ph 3 w m- 0 cc k h\ Til e *^ k 2 8 (soft) l P ^ gh Ij kh ^ "»p w, v fl Tl gh I h (mute) ^ sh ^ q <5 kkh "bTl z(.>oft) HtI q 00 th &^ r ^ sch /b dsh P p h (mute) u g sch o i I s h tsch _^ h (mute) Ct m th -In I I» {) tsch (x( Q ts %i^l ituwg. dS am f, es nu is y^ sa \\ k m HI ds c5^ ar aif ewn ^ ikh Uu ss 1. c^ as # ekh J ve "1 u. T)-rm K pi ths ak IP wa # keb OTt 3 m ?(i kh s agh # was # kn Kfi n Vrj, ki-i s^ akh 1 we # ks °!f) Phe t) O i «* ?f{ (Frencii) ;: 4 ad ^ wl 1^ kwa ^ Pbw Qj m 0 Tj tu h(mute) 1^ edeg k'lo, vlo wgh #^ kwn la \jTi P £ Il e Class IV.] ALPHABETS, [Ugeo-Taetaeian. JAPANESE. - KATAKANA CHARACTER. •a ro )\ fa J- ;tx° P" Ibe ^J '\o P^ to do r Y i i' 4-* dzi tsi 5 :}¦ tI nu :J wo VI wa -^ ka jf ga 3 yo ^ ta jf' da \y \, -re 1^ - y 80 r tsu dzn f7 >7 ku ^gu ^ ya *r ¦? ¦z >r ke y ge T fu 7" bu 7° pu 3 ko 3* go Z e J- te J* de 71 ¦ a 7l . ^^ sa ^1 . za t -^ ^* gw yn y 1 I I 1 I J i^ t? iz. ye bi pi ze su Htgatarcg. _ 3 "Z^ iu, i-i )t"" domo -y> tama A tsudza ? 1 tsumi kuri kumi yami fumi •f mama ? t mina 5iouIiIins <* JFtgnrjs. I 1 -1 ^ (fConjnnctions antJ iSleaiittg Signs. 1 f 5S0eti in ti&e aino Slanguage. 7° tu lvii Class IV.] ALPHABETS. [Ugk( )-Taeta BIAS. JAPANESE.- FIROKANA CHARACTER. ~| (TV - a " ^ ;d 'f 1 ^ ¦ i ¦to - nu 6* Jr " ¦ga . so ^ - j\ - . ro 3. ¦ ni h ¦ do 6 • ru X • yo ¦ zo ¦ne X. ^ %? ^ ^ 2J^ I •fo ¦ ta ft 5 t -fa ¦tsi iy t 0 . or wb ¦tsu ^ ^ ^ ¦ na A ^* t^ ¦dzi 'b: ^^^ " h iJ^J t 1? ¦bo ^ . n «A" ? da 6 k 1 0 1 k\ ^/. > 1 ¦fe I 1 5 > wa 0 h 0 ^ J J I'i ¦ ra ^^ I- ba X J ¦ ri ^ - re h i »be 6 . ka ^ 6^ > dzu \ ^' -^ ^ i?> ^ />- J? 5- 1 t ^_ ^> 1 1 ^. 1 H\ 1 1 lviii Class IV.] ALPHABETS. [Uqeo- Taetaeian. JAPANESE. - F IROKANA CHARACTER. ^ ] K) 1 i Z4 - ¦iS> ^ ] ^ 1 ¦ mu 5^ 1 t 1 - sa ¦me 1 ^ i ^ 1 ^ •fi t -r -A ^ ^ -ko 1^ 1 ^ 1 Ip t 3 ") b u • or WU 1 L i i ^ ^ . 1 4? t ¦ su b sb t "i !'^ 1 ^ - ^ i ^^ ^* u -bi 1 T t i ^ 4* 1 ^ ¦go ^' ¦za ,^ ] 4 4: ^ • wi 1 ^ ^' i^ J : ( ¦si 9 1^ h 1 . ^^ i ^ 1 1 1 ^ n T ^ - ^ ) ;^ I ^ J 9 oy ¦ no t ¦ke ¦ ^ 1^ ¦ te ^ ¦ki : ^ ] 1 * ¦ i t ^^ Zl ! IS 1 ¦ mo 0- i T 1 ^ 1* 0- . I ^ ^ i^ r i . n J A- 1 ^ ^ : ' % ^ >iv • zu c ' r .gho 1 "^ 1 ^ ^ 1 -^ 1 ^^ < /i* T* 1 r ¦ghi ^ t ^ Tf A. ¦ku -4> is : t- J ¦ fu ¦ de ^^ J X •ye ; < ¦ se < > J 1 ® i. i 1^ : -^ 1 c , A. ? n A' -^^ 1 ^ ^a |(^ ?yu I !¦ ze /C J -gn >bu 1 ^ ^ J i O point lix Class IV,] .ALPHABETS. [Uc jeo-Taetaeian, JAPANESE.- FIROKANA CHARACTER. Etgatureg. I2 rosi ^ kai. e" ' dzusi (g. uzi r II Y mezi (> fasi ^ kajesi e. ^\ - koto (1^, misi 1^ basi (/^ kavasi fe" li ¦kusi 1 l^ nisi ^ kasito IS r\ kosi 7 \ ¦ si : L^ -*_ ^ nasi V E" t 12 tuzi f] ¦goto ^ siwo fe. ¦fosi r. >¦ gasi 1I ^ kuru T gusi S^ a f simo 1^ bosi it" ^¦^ bi- ]^ asi 11; y''» ¦ yosi (C_ dosi 4 j 1^ ¦ nazi li^ ¦^V sa Z^ fl 1^ risi 1^ tasi (\\ i. ¦masi 1^ sasi ^* bisi (^ rusi JZ^ rubesi ' ^ Ig. sazi ^ mo ]i mosi g dasl ^ naru a. ' ^x mazi ]|^ zasi 11^ ¦ resi 1^' (^ gesi II kisi 11* zusi 2^ wowo iv. li ¦rasi (^ fuzi fe ]^ nsi yA.% •mesi Y wosi "^ tsudzu li- ^^ busi ?^ It -^l ISouliImg Signs. 4 ( < <^ <^ <. 4> ^ < lx Class IV.] ALPHABETS. [Ugeo-Taetaeian. JAPANESE.- FIROKANA CHARACTER. itsi iye •^ ima isl i^ inu ^ roku % fan fana 1^. /^ fasti fawa fatsiziu ban =. nl ^ 1 • mn K nitsi fei be to tori tosi tokoro do do tsi tsitsl tsiu (a:!)inE0e Signs. h 1^) )»1 wotoko waka kadzi kado kawa y^ kage |{ kadzu- mura 4- kane a, yo ¦Itt k yori 1^ yosai te yotsu X taro V tara tama tamon n ^ tamai * ] tai • dai ^ tatsi 51 5 ^ J ¦ tsuki . na ^ nari ^ muro Jlj utsi Ji. nye I ugenda no-yama no-tsikai ^1 ¦ ku kuni kuru k k ya lxi Class IV.] ALPHABETS, [UGEO-TAETAEIAlf; ^ 1 n J yama ¦ mata mato ¦ matsi matsu fu futa JAPANESE. - FIROKANA CHARACTER. bu ^ 1 'J? ** J a> 1 ko kokoro kono koto y^ kome dj&iwsc Signs. A 1 I -&f saka ^ goto gorosai ^te tei ten aki san '? sakitsi sai-gio % • kitsi Jcj kin lxii yemon ^1 _ VK midzu mid- zuma 5fc Eg yo If ^ J M fito fiakurio sitsi { simano- suke "i" ziu moto r ^ moku sUke Class V.] ALPHABETS • [PoiTNESIAK OS Malatak. MALAYAN. COPTIC. 11 SEncial. 'A 'a \ Th Ha. L> Aa a Pp r A. a A a T Tl tl ii Bb b,v Cc s B h,7 r g 1 'i * E n rr g Tt t,d A d 'U u i \ t Aa d Tr i,y e e B b >-J Gh gh ' t 6h e ^ ^ ph t. z H i,e Ngig t Z.Z z A) ?C ch, sc 1 ' j e th T t Cj Ff o Hh i, e \J/\J/ ps 1 i I1 Tz tz Pp Jj 0e tb 0)0) J ' K k Dj cy ^ Kh kh ll i qq r U m Tj ^ S' J Kk k 2ix g 1 X Kk ^ AA 1 ffllh t .-. 8s h O 0 Gg ^ Mm m n p,b Ch ch t *^^ bj3 hh P r L 1 J Nn n C s D d J Mm 55 X 6' 6' sk, sc T t, d Dz dz j TVT f Oo 0 CD© sch -i- i,y 4> ph R r J N n t W (L> nn p,b tt ti X ch, sc •h ps Z z J^ ¦ J %ttzv.ii. 3 to 0 Ssf w d w . 3 a i^ii en q f s g Sj 9 l> H h > 6e I 2 e i 06 0 cr s :3 sch Tftstf l;^ iJij c5 ft 2 i P d) er 2 h Dl dl 1 Njnj 1 1 Ntft em cb 0 tj hh + ti lxiii Class V.] ALPHABETS. [Polynesian ob Malayan. JAVANESE. 6 _* (cin Q. i 2: J u 14 O e 21 —2 0 xm ha (Kl na 00) ca TO ra (Kin ka (10 da (I5in ta (}J) sa O "a (inJl la O pa (Ul da OS Ja OJUI ya (Oin na (EH ma cinn ga (Ol ba «? ta (Cl Ha O re (q » dapital ILettras. nnnn na ja Gi ju OJUI J . A . yu dl 0 am ga OJlJ gu Q) J Cl) ta bu ARABIC SIGNS. (Km (L» l__5 OS onn iFtgures. *5 (cn OK re na ca (3I ta ~3v pa 14 6 C5^ en 4 '^ a a om OOJI (13» 7 8 (UUI 0 g 0 lxiv ALPHABETICAL LIST OF MEMOIES. PAGE PAGE PAGE PAGE A -RENAQUl 374 Bima .... . 309 -Daco-Romana or Wal German, OldHigh, or Ale- Accra .... 342 Bohemian 248 lachian . 229 manic 171 Adiyah or Femandian 346 Bosnian 253 Dacota or Sioux 381 Ghadamsi 333 A ffghan or Pushtoo 58 Brazilian and Guarani . 390 Dajak .... 308 Gheez or Ethiopic . 45 African or Moorish Arabic Breton or Armorican 145 Dalmatian-Servian or Gipsy or Kommany 111 or Mongrebin . 43 Bruj or Brij-bhasa 87 Croatian . 251 Gothic 147 Aimara .... 389 Bughelcundee . 88 Danish 180 Grebo . 341 Albanian 239 Bugis and Macassar . 310 Delaware 368 Greek, Ancient . 189 Alemannic or Old High Bulgarian . . 254 Dialect, Negro, of Curacao 404 Modem 201 German 171 Bullom 337 Negro, of Surinam 403 Greenlandish . 362 Aleutian or Aliout-Liseyeff 297 Bulochee or Belochee 60 Dialects, Bengalee . 96 Guarani and Brazilian . 390 Amharic .... 48 Bimdelcundee 88 ^— Cognate, Siamese 12 Gujerattee . 105 Anamite 12 Buriat 280 Hinduwee 87 Gurwhal or Schreenagur 104 Ancient Armenian . 61 Burmese 6 India, Central 89 Haeeotee Greek . 189 Buttaneer or Virat . 91 Dogura or Jumboo . 102 90 Anglo Saxon 153 Dorpat Esthonian 272 Hanssa . 339 Arabic . 39 Oaj'PEE or EafBr . 351 DuaUa or Dewalla 344 Hawaiian . 311 Moorish or African Calmuc . 279 Dutch .... 168 Hebrew— Old Testament 19 or Mongrebin . 43 Cambojan 12 New Testament 25 Arakanese or Enkheng . 6 Canarese or Kamata 120 Eu&HAiinrE, Upper and Memoir descrip Ararat, Armenian 65 Canoj or Canyacubja 87 Lower, or Komanese . 235 tive of . Sttpplement (1) Arawack . 392 Carib or Karif . 391 English .... 157 Hindustani or Urdu 78 Armenian, Ancient 61 Carniolan 252 Escuara or Spanish Basque 263 Hinduwee 84 Ararat . 65 Carshun . 44 Esquimaux 359 Dialects 87 Modem 66 Cashmerian . 102 Esthonian, Dorpat 272 Hungarian or Magyar 269 Armorican or Breton 145 Catalan or Catalonian . 237 Eeval . 273 Wendish . 257 Ashantee or Odjii . 343 Catchee or Cutchee 99 Ethiopic or Gheez 45 Hurriana 88 Assamese .... 97 Central India Dialects . 89 XoEiANiic or Norse . Australian, New S. Wales 324 Chaldee .... 31 Jd autee .... 343 177 Aztec or Mexican 383 Cherokee . . 378 Faroese .... 188 India, Central, Dialects of 89 Chinese . 1 Feejeean . 323 Indian, New England . 365 Bashkubic . 330 Chippeway or Ojibway . 371 Femandian or Adiyah . 346 Indo-Portuguese 405 Basque, French 261 Chocktaw 379 Finnish .... 264 Iowa 382 Spanish or Escuara 263 Cingalese . 126 Flemish .... 165 Irish ... 137 Bassa 340 Coptic 326 French 214 Isubu 345 Batta- .... 310 Corean . 298 Basque 261 Italian .... 227 Belochee or Bulochee 60 Ci-ee 369 Formosan . 306 Jaxloob Bengalee .... 92 Creolese . . 402 335 Dialects 96 Croatian or Dalmatian- GtaeI/IC 135 Japanese .... 296 Berber .... 331 Servian . 251 Gana . . ¦ ¦ 355 Javanese 307 Bhojepoora 88 Curacao Negro Dialect . 404 Georgian 293 Jewish-CS-ennan 399 Bikaneera 91 Cutchee or Catchee . 99 German 173 Judseo-Arabio 42 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF MEMOIRS. PAGE PAGE PAGE PAOE Judffio-Persio . . 57 Mayan .... 386 Peruvian or (Juichua . 388 Susoo 338 Judeo-Polish . 400 Mexican or Aztec 383 Piedmontese 234 Swedish .... 185 Judeo-Spanish . . 396 Micmao .... 373 Polish .... 246 Syriac . . . . 33 Jumboo or Dogura 102 Misteco . . . . 385 Portuguese 223 in Hebrew characters 36 Juyapoora . 91 Mithili or Tirhitiya 96 Pottawattomie 373 Modern . . 37 Modem Armenian . 66 Provencal or Eomaunt 230 Syro-Chaldaio ... 37 TC APEIE or Caffre . 351 Greek . . 20] Punjabee or Sikh . 100 Tahitian ... 312 Karaite-Tartar . . 290 Syriac . 37 Pushtoo or Affghan . 58 Karass or Turkish-Tartar 287 Mohawk .... 375 Talain, Mon, or Peguese g Karelian . 271 Mohegan . . . . 366 QuANiAir or Norwegian Tamul or Tamil . . U3 Karen, Karayn, or Karieng 13 Mon, Talain, or Peguese 9 Laplandish 268 Teliuga or Teloogoo . lis Karif or Carib . 391 Mongolian Proper 279 Quichua or Peruvian 388 Terasco . . . .335 Karnata or Canarese . 120 Mongrebin, or African or Tibetan .... 17 Khaspoora or Nepalese 103 Moorish Arabic . 43 JiAEOTOlf&A . 314 Tigre 47 Khassee . 15 Mordvinian or Morduin 274 Beval Esthonian . 273 Timmanee ... 340 Kikamba . 358 Mosquito 387 Eomaunt or Provencal . 230 Tirhitiya or Mithili . 96 Kinika . 358 Moultan, Wuch, or Ooch 100 Eomanese or Upper and Tongan .... 316 Kisuaheli . . 357 Mpongwe 347 Lower Enghadine . 235 Toulouse . ... 238 Kousulu or Koshala 88 Munipoora 14 Eommany or Gipsy . 111 Trans-Caucasian Tartar 292 Kumaon . . 104 Bukheng or Arakanese 6 Tscheremissian . . .274 Kunkuna 110 Namacqua . 354 Eussian .... 244 Tschuwaschian . . 291 Kurdish . 68 Nepalese or Khaspoora . 103 Tulu or Tuluvu . , 123 Negro Dialect of Curacoa 404 Sahidic . . . . 329 Tungusian Proper . 278 JjAOS or Law 12 Dialect of Surinam 403 Samaritan 28 Turoo-Greek and Turkish- Lapponese . . 267 New England Indian 365 Samoan 321 Armenian . . .285 Latin 205 New S. Wales Australian 324 Samogitian 260- Turkish .... 282 Lepcha . 18 New Zealand or Maori . 318 Samoiede . . . . 295 Tartar or Karass 287 Lettish or Livonian 257 Norse or Icelandic 177 Sanscrit .... 71 U PPEE and Lower Engha Lithuanian . 259 Norwegian Laplandish Saxon, Anglo 153 Loochooan . 297 or Quanian 268 Old . . . 151 dine or Eomanese . 235 Low Malay . 304 Schreenagur or Gurwhal 104 Upper and Lower Wendish 255 Odjii or Ashantee 343 Sclavonic . 240 Urdu or Hindustaru . 78 Macassab and Bugis 310 Ojibway or Chippeway . 371 Sechuana 348 Uriya or Orissa . . 98 Magadha or Magudha . 96 Old Saxon . 151 Seneca 377 Vatt'dois .... 232 Magyar or Hungarian 269 Olonetzian 275 Servian .... 250 Mahratta or Marathi . 107 Oodeypoora . 90 Sesuto or Sisuta 350 Virat or Buttaneer . 91 Malagasse 320 Oojein or Oujjuyunee 90 Shawanoe 374 Virginian . . .365 Malay, Low Malayalim . 304 124 Orenburgh-Tartar . Orissa or Uriya 289 98 ShekawuttySherbro-BuUom . 91 337 VV ALLACHIAlf or Daco- Eomaua . . .229 Welsh .... 129 Wendish, Hungarian . 257 ¦ Upper and Lower 255 Wogulian . . . 275 Malayan . . 299 Ossitinian 70 Siamese .... 10 MaldivianMalteseMandingo 128 394334 Ostiacan or Ostjakiau Otomi .... Ottawa .... 275385373 Cognate Dialects Sikh or Punjabee . Sioux or Decota 12 100 381 Manks . 142 Oujjuyunee or Oojein . 90 Sindhee .... 99 Mantchou 277 Sirenian or Zirian 274 Wotagian or Wotjakian . 276 Maori or New Zealand . 318 J: AXI 76 Sisuta or Sesuto . 350 Wuch, Ooch, or Moultan 100 Marathi or Mahratta Marquesan 107 . 315 Palpa .... Pawnee .... 104 382 Slovakian .... Spanish .... 253220 Xaebiba or Yoruba . 338 Marwar . 90 Peguese, Talain, or Mon 9 Basque or Escuara 263 Zapoteca . . .385 Massachusett . . 366 Persic .... 51 Surinam, Negro Dialect of 403 Zirian or Sirenian . . 274 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. CLASS I.— MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. CLASS IL— SHEMITIC LANGUAGES. CLASS IIL— INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. CLASS IV.— UGRO-TARTARIAN LANGUAGES. CLASS v.— POLYNESIAN OR MALAYAN LANGUAGES. CLASS VL— AFRICAN LANGUAGES. CLASS VIL— AMERICAN LANGUAGES. CLASS VIIL— MIXED OR PATOIS LANGUAGES. I hi -I j^ hinng P5 THE LORD'S PRAYER IN CHINESE, From Adelung's Mithridates, revised by Dr. Pfizmaier. ff hiu |Sg hien -f yu yai ^A kan 7) "'^ Meu ^ ^ fu ngo '|g_ chay ;:^ tche >^ yeu JH yum jjtg Uang ^^ mien ngo -(# tchay # JU ngo ¦iX °2" •S: teng 1-^ vang /^ Mn 0 je m yu $C ngo ^ "go ^ tshy ^ tschi ng Yt 1^^°S idity j(Pju ^y« ^/^ tien M yen /^ ming Men ^ shing gj kue P^ "" ke ^ Tsai 7^ tien ^g tsche $]( ngo ¦^ teng 3^ fa ^ ngo ¦^ teng J^ tchhi ^ ya8 )]^ kuai THE LORD'S PRAYER IN CHINESE CRASS WRITING, From Adelung's Mithridates, revised by Dr. Pfizmaier. 3? P" ^ jin ^ ngb ^ pa ]^ mi >5i hoe i^ thsing ^ ngb )f ye ^ sche A, Jiu <^ yed ^^ Mfln $a siii ^ yen J^ yeu 4^ thsing ^^ Mfln ^ sohe ^^ mein ^ tschi Ji^ kua fa J^ thsmg Miin 0-j' =^ ngb -1%- 1^ schi T ngb Mfin tang thien thi ^ mmg ?c 2P tang tschi scMn Mfln j^ tsching ^ ling tang 7X ^«' ¦^ tschi 5 kifln .^ tsai ^J tsing "7 thifsn :^ tsche THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. CLASS L-MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES. CHINESE. SPECIMEN OF THE CHINESE VERSION.— St. JOHN'S GOSPEL, Chap. i. v. 1 to 13. FBOM Da. MOEEISON'S TEAlfSLATION ISSUED FEOM THE ANGLO-CHINESE COLLEGE, IN 21 VOLUMES, IX 1823. m, z w, f^ M Z. Vj % Z fi ^ ^, m P ^n ^^ ^ M ifc M Th m ^ A ^ /^^ /^^Q ^*-» M Tfe ft Z A «o :s:+ # ftiE PJI6 m Tfc A # z h^' ^^Tfco n.lH -tL. A ^ m ^ M Pi T m m m m ^ PI m Bf ^ z ^ . n Vj iTD /w ra *f{ -^ ^ M - A. n n n ^ JSfp Tfn # ^^ J :^ ^" I*. £( ti K ^ i!i[ ^ ON THE CHINESE LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. Geogeaphical Extent, and Statistics. — The Chinese empire, including within its area about a third of the Asiatic continent, occupies little less than one-tenth part of the whole habitable globe. China proper, in which alone the Chinese language is vernacular, comprises eighteen provinces, each of which is equal in extent and population to some European kingdoms ; it forms about a fourth part of the entire region generally regarded as tributary to the Chinese emperor, and contains an area of 1,348,870 square miles. According to the last census, taken in 1825, China proper, exclusive of the colonies, has a population of 352,866,012; but this estimate is considered by recent authorities rather to under-rate the number of inhabitants. It is generally admitted that there are about 288 inhabitants to every square mile in China, which is somewhat more crowded than in England.' Hence thousands 1 Martin, Vol. I. p. 447. Abdeel's CMna Introd. p. 19. 2 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class I. annually migrate frora China to the shores of the Indian Archipelago ; and Mr. Crawfurd, the late resident at Singapore, estimated the number of Chinese dispersed throughout the Philippines, Borneo Java, Singapore, Malacca, Penang, Siam, Tonquin, and adjacent districts, at 734,700. Characteeistics op the Language. — The language used by this vast population exhibits certain afSnities with some of the idioms of Central Asia, yet is distinguished by some remarkable characteristics peculiar to itself. The first grand peculiarity is the remarkable fact, that in the written language of China the words or characters are not, as with ourselves, representatives of spoken sounds, but symbols of abstract ideas. It contains no alphabetical letters in our sense of the term ; and every written character is an entire word, with a uniform meaning in all parts of the empire, independent of its conventional sound in the various local dialects. This constitutes a great difficulty in the acquisition of the language ; not however, to the extent that has been generally supposed. It is true that in the standard national Lexicon, published by command of the emperor Kang-he in the seventeenth century of the Christian era, there are found as many as 30,000 distinct characters. Most of these, however, are either obsolete or of very rare occurrence ; so that in the penal code of China, translated by Sir George Staunton, and in the Chinese Version of the New Testament, the result of a careful collation has proved that there are only about 3000 characters in very general use. The Chinese characters have been sometimes compared to the hieroglyphics of Egypt. The resemblance, however, must not be extended too far as Chinese writing was never confined to a priestly caste, and is moreover a more artificial and inge nious system of ideographic combinations. There are 214 original characters or roots, into some of which every one of these 30,000 characters may be resolved by the process of dissection or analysis, and which form the foundation of the rneaning as well as the basis of the lexicographic arra-ngement of each compound character. The written symbols of the Chinese may be divided into four kinds. The first class comprehends those which appear to have been originally mere rude pictorial representations of visible objects, although in process of time the original resemblance has been almost lost; as e.g. the symbols for a field ^ , a man /| , a horse ^ , a sheep ^ . The second class consists of symbols of complex ideas, which were formed by an ingenious com bination of those more elementary symbols which they already possessed; as e. g. the character ^|] le, is made up of two elementary characters, that for grain on the left, and that for a knife or sickle on the right. The entire symbol thus compounded has the general meaning of gain or projit; an idea taken fi-om reaping the fruit ofthe soil. A third class comprises those symbols which we may suppose would be required by their national progress in civilisation, and the necessity for an increase of terms for expressing their continually enlargmg number of ideas. These may be termed phonetic characters (inasmuch as a portion ofthe character afibrds a help or guide to its spoken sound), in which there is a slight analogy to our alphabetic system of compounding words. The existence of this class of symbols proves that the present elaborate and extensive system of Chinese written words is the result of gradual additions and successive invention. There are about 1500 primitive characters in very common use, which we may imagine to have been the whole stock of symbols at a very early period of history, and which had not only a definite idea, but also a definite sound attached to each. As every character in Chinese is pronounced in speaking as a monosyllable, it would come to pass that their ideas, and the written characters by which they expressed those ideas, would increase far beyond what they would be able to pronounce by separate sounds amid the monosyllabic poverty of their spoken language. Many Ideas would all be expressed m speaking by one and the same monosyllabic sound. Instead of selecting an entirely new character, they would take some well-known character in general use, having tiie same sound ; and by merely adding one of the 214 roots or simple elements to influence the meaning, they would form a new combination, the whole being in eflect a new written symbol, of which one part influences the sound, and the other the sense. Thus, to take the example of f,\] le, profit, which was employed for illustrating the principle of the second dass of symhoh; we may suppose this to have become one ofthe 1500 primitive characters, having Its definite sense and estabhshed pronunciation. There is another le in the spoken language, Mono-Stllabic Languages.] CHINESE. 3 meaning a pear-tree. They simply took the character ^|] profit, having the soimd of le, and adding the radical character ^ muh, loood, they formed a new combination, ^ Ze, a jomy-^ree, of which the upper part gives the sound, and the lower the sense. So again on the same principle, by combining the same primitive ^|] le, with the radical, having the sense of disease, a new character is virtuaUy formed ^ pronounced Ze, but having the sense of dysentery. So again for writing the word le having the sense of hatred, they combine the same primitive ^(J with the radical bearing the meaning of Aea?-^, the whole forming a new symbol 7m le, hatred, of which the upper part gives the sound, and the lower influences the sense. And on the same principle, there are in all ten phonetic derivatives from the same primitive ^|J Ze, all ha-v-ing the same sound of Ze, but haviug different meanings according to the radical character with which Ze is combined. The fourth class comprises those symbols which may be considered of arbitrary formation, and are found, in no inconsiderable number, uninfluenced by any principle of classification in their origin. We now proceed to notice some of the peculiarities of the spoken language. The absence of an alphabet has deprived the Chinese of an important means of pieserving a uniformity of spoken language through every part of the empire. A native of China would be altogether unintelligible, speaking his local patois at a distance of 200 miles from his home ; and yet, like the Arabic figures of arithmetic in western countries, the written character is everywhere the same throughout the whole of China, though in reading and speaking the local pronunciation becomes in fact a separate language. Thus the symbols for twenty-two, though written the same, are spoken by a native of Peking urh-shih-urh, by a native of Ningpo gne-a-gne, by a native of Canton e-shap-e ; in the same way as 22 would convey the same idea but have a difierent sound in each language of Europe. The dialect of the capital, commonly called the mandarin or court dialect, is used as the medium of intercourse between the govemment officers and the Hterati in all parts of the country, to obviate the inconve nience of the local dialects. The great difficulty of the spoken language consists in the fact already adverted to, the mono syllabic nature of Chinese words. Two great difficulties are connected with this, viz. the system of tones, and the redundancy of the colloquial style. There are less than 400 monosyllabic sounds of which the Chinese organs of speech are susceptible; and these have to be divided among 30,000 written characters. By means of intonations of voice each monosyllable is capable of considerable variations which respectively influence the meaning. But with all these contrivances of varied tone, a large number of ideas will be expressed by the same sound and the same tone. No difficulty is pro duced thereby in the written language, as each word is a different character, having a different visible form ; but great perplexity is frequently caused in speaking, and hence a redundant style is employed in conversation, which is altogether unnecessary, and is considered very inelegant in a written com position. A well known Protestant Missionary, now labouring in China, has been known to make a challenge that he could write a moral treatise in Chinese, of which each character would have only the sound of e, or ih, or yih. The impossibihty of understanding the meaning of such a composition when read aloud to a person who has not the writing itself before him, will be apparent to every one, unless, in reading it aloud, an additional number of sounds are employed for each character to prevent con fusion. Hence has arisen the practice of employing two or more monosyllabic sounds in speaking, where one would have been sufficient in writing. Thus the spoken language becomes in one sense no longer monosyllabic. This addition is made either by reduplication of the sound, by using two synonymous words, or by forming some other conventional compound. Thus, for instance, the character for father and that for axe are both pro nounced /oo. In speaking they employ /oo-fam (a father-relative), a.ni foo-tow (an axe-head)._ When it is borne in mind that the Chinese aim at great brevity and conciseness in their written compositions, and that breach of the rules of literary taste is a great offence in the estimate of Chinese scholars, it wiH easily be seen that it requires no common skill and industry in a foreign student to place the Holy Scriptures before the minds of this civilised but benighted people in a style at once adapted to the taste of the educated, and suited to the understanding of all classes of the native population. ' Chinese Versions op Sacred Scripture. — It has been related, though upon disputed authority, that in the Chinese province of Shense, in 1625, a curious monument was discovered, bearing 4 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class I. inscriptions relative to a translation of the Sacred Scriptures into Chinese, supposed to have been executed at a very remote period. It would appear that in A.D. 637, Olopen, a Christian missionary, arrived in China, and succeeded in obtaining an interview with the Emperor : the_ result, it is said, was highly favourable, for the Emperor commanded Fam-hiven-lim, the prime minister, _ one ofthe most learned of Chinese scholars, to translate the sacred books brought by Olopen.' But if this edict was ever issued or executed, it is certain that not one of the copies of the version thus produced is now in existence. A few portions of the Sacred Scriptures appear to have been translated at various times by the Romish missionaries in China, but no successful efibrts were made by them towards the production of an entire version. In 1806 a translation was commenced ia Bengal under the superintendence of the Rev. David Brown, Provost of the College of Fort William ; he employed for this purpose Joannes Lassar, who was an Armenian Christian but a native of China ; and in 1807 a copy of Matthew in Chinese, translated and beautifully written by Lassar, was sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury for the Lambeth Library.^ In 1808 the Rev. D. Brown transmitted to the Secretary of the British and Foreign Bible Society the first sheet of this translation that had passed through the Chinese press.' It had been printed from wooden blocks, cut by the chintz pattern makers; but early in 1811 metal types were used in printing the Scriptures at Serampore, and this mode of printing Chinese is now generally adopted by our missionaries, in preference to the native method of printing from wooden blocks. The preparation of the version, from about the year 1808, was taken up by the Serampore missionaries: Dr. Marshman and his son, in conjunction with Lassar, completed and printed it at Serampore in 1822,* under the liberal patronage of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Each sheet of this version was subjected, by the indefatigable translators, to an almost incredible number of revisions, and the whole was diligently conferred with Griesbach's text. Another version was made by Dr. Morrison, who about the year 1807 was sent to China by the London Missionary Society. Prior to his departure from England he had obtained some knowledge of the language, and in aid of his important imdertaking he took with him the copy of a Chinese MS. belonging to the British Museum, and admirably executed by some unknown hand ; it was apparently a translation from the Vulgate, and from the beauty of the style was judged to be the production of a native. It was written by order of Mr. Hodgson, in 1737-8; he presented it, in 1739, to Sir Hans Sloane, through whom it came into the possession of the British Museum. It contained a condensed harmony of the Gospels, and hkewise the Acts, and all the Epistles of St. Paul, with the exception of that to the Hebrews, of which the first chapter only had been translated, when death, or some other cause, arrested the hand of the translator. Dr. Morrison says, concerning this MS., that in translating the New Testament, he at the commence ment derived great assistance from the Epistles, but that afterwards they caused him much labour in verifying, and in effecting such alterations as his judgment suggested. In the translation of the Old Testament, Dr. Morrison made considerable use of Bishop Newcome's version of the twelve minor prophets, and of Lowth's Isaiah ; he also referred continually to the original Scriptures, the Septuagmt, Vulgate and French Versions: he never appears, however, to make any remarkable departure from the sense of the authorised Enghsh version. Dr. Morrison alter labouring alone for some years in China was provi-ded with a, valuable coadjutor in Dr. Milne, who was sent to aid in the work of translation by the London Missionary Society. The historical books of the Old Testament, and the book of Job, were translated by Dr. Mike, and he died while employed in their revisal. The entire version was completed in 1823.^ At the anniversary of the Bible Society in 1824, Dr. Morrison presented the sacred volume atthe meeting, and Mr. Butterworth related the following incident : — " It is now many years ago, that in visiting the library of the British Museum, I frequently saw a young man who appeared to be deeply occupied m his studies; the book he was reading was in a language and character totally unknown to me. 1 asked theyoung man what it was, he replied modestly, the Chinese, and said, I am trying to understand it, but It is attended with singular difficulty ; if the language be capable of being surmounted by human zeal and perseverance, I mean to make the experiment. Little did I think," continued Mr. Butter worth, " that I then beheld the germ, as it were, of that great undertaking, the translation of the sacred Scriptures into the Chinese language." The production of this most important version, and of the numerous successive editions through which it has passed, is mainly if not entirely due, under Pro vidence to the generous aid ofthe British and Foreign Bible Society, who, from first to last, advanced more than ten thousand pounds in furtherance of the translation and circulation of the Chinese ' ^TMlnicWrcf u'- ''°'- '• "¦ '"• ^"' ''' Beansobre Histoire 3 Miss. Reg. for 1841, p. . 35. 2 Owen's Hist. Vol. il v 467 1 Eightli Mem. of Translations ofthe Seratap. Missionaries, p. 24. ' Home's Introduction to the Holy Scriptures, Vol. V. p. 135. Mono-Syllabic Languages.] CHINESE. 5 Scriptures. About the year 1836, a revised edition of the New Testament was produced by the joint labours of Messrs. ]\Iedhurst, Gutzlaff", Bridgman, and J. R. Morrison. But this work, although in idiomatic correctness a great improvement on preceding versions, has been considered by some as loose and paraphrastic. Leang Afa said that it was a coUection of phrases from different classic authors, thrown together to express the meaning ofthe Sacred Scriptures. In comparing the version of Dr. Marshman with that of Drs. Morrison and Milne it is difficult to determine which possesses the highest value. Dr. Morrison, says Remusat, is less hteral, but more Chinese ; and in the construction of his phrases he does not so habituaUy conform to the Greek or EngUsh idiom. Dr. Marshman adheres scrupulously to the very letter of the text, but there is a great degree of constraint, and a foreign air in his style. There are excellences in both which could scarcely have been expected in first translations ; and the possession of two independent versions of the Scriptures in so widely difiused a language as the Chinese is a matter of deep thankfulness, as upon their basis a more accurate and idiomatic translation wiU some day be elaborated. Messrs. Medhurst and Gutzlaff' have been long intent upon this work; but notwithstanding their strenuous and laborious efforts, a standard version of the Chinese Scriptures, acceptable to all sects and parties, is still a desideratum, and, in concert with the other Protestant missionaries in China, they are now engaged in revising and retranslating the sacred volume.' To forward the multipUcation of copies of the Chinese Scriptures, the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1847, granted £1000 towards a cylinder Printing Press, and an additional quantity of Chinese type, and also towards defrajdng the expense of sending assistance from this country for print ing the Scriptures in China. The printer who has gone out is a man peculiarly qualified for this particular service. About four years ago, employed as he was in useful secular pursuits, he com menced the study of the Chinese characters; and with scarcely more than two hours a day, without the help of a teacher, and with a very Umited number of books, he has acquired the power of reading Chinese. Increased Openings for the Dippusion op the Holt Scriptures. — The recent war between Britain and China was terminated by the treaty of Nanking, in August, 1842; by the terms of which most important facihties have been gained for the work of Christian missionaries. Missionary labourers are now enabled to reside in five important and populous cities, spread over 1000 miles of coast, to which natives from the remotest provinces of the empire continuaUy resort. At each of these cities, except the city of Canton, to which foreign intercourse was formerly Umited, and where a strong anti-European feeling has been excited by the insolent intolerance of the old system, the missionaries make visits for twenty or thirty miles into the surrounding country, and experience a friendly recep tion from aU classes of the native population. Further insight into the customs and character of the people by recent missionary travellers^ has proved that there is very Uttle reUgious bigotry amongst the Chinese ; that there is nothing Uke the system of Hindoo caste known in their civil institutions ; and that their idolatrous priests do not (Uke the Hindoo Brahmins) exercise any influence on society, or possess any respect in the minds of the people. The state reUgion of Confucius is more a system of poUtical ethics than of reUgious morals. The reUgion of the people is generally the more modern religion of Buddhism. In other words, a speculative atheism appears to be the beUef of the sage, the statesman, and the scholar : idolatry, stripped indeed of Hindoo obscenity and blood, is the system received by the uneducated classes. Irreligious apathy, with godless indifference to every thing concerning a future Ufe, appears to be the main characteristic of this people, and the principal obstacle to the success of Christian missions. Education is, however, greatly encouraged and patronised by the govemment, as the usual road to the honours and emoluments of the state. Books are everywhere in great requisition. _ The Holy Scrip tures are in aU parts received with avidity; and a desire of knowledge, and a spirit of curiosity and inquiry are extensively prevalent amongst the people. Except the worship of the spirits of ancestors, there is no form of superstition universally and strongly enthroned in the affections of learned and unlearned. The imperial government are evincing a more Uberal poUcy towards foreign nations, and a more tolerant disposition towards their Christian subjects and Missionary teachers. An edict of imiversal reUgious toleration made its appearance in the beginning of 1845, to mitigate the rigorous severity of former penal laws, and to beckon onward the Christian church to a more vigorous assault on the powers of pagan darkness in China. ' See Forty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, 2 See an Exploratory Visit to the Consular Cities of China, by thc p. dx, and Forty-fourth Report of ditto, p. ci. Rev. George Smith, M.A. 6 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class I. About fifty Protestant missionaries are now engaged in preaching or in distributing the Chinese Scriptures in the five cities of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai, and m the British settlement of Hong Kong. The greater part of the missionaries, however, have not as yet attained an extensive acquaintance with the language. The senior missionaries, who are able to preach fluently and intelligibly, easily attract numerous assembUes of attentive hearers, and in a few cases conversions have foUowed. The converts are generally from the lower classes at the present time, but a few cases have occurred in which native scholars have been admitted to Christian baptism. Present appearances lead us to the belief that with the increase of labourers, the increased diffusion of the Holy Scriptures, and more earnest prayer for the effiision of the Holy Spirit on the work, we shaU speedily see Christian churches raised in China, and the gospel producing its blessed results among this benighted though highly civiUsed race of mankind. The names of Leang Afa, and of other 'Chinese converts, are first-fruits (it is to be hoped) of an impending harvest of more extensive missionary success in the empire of China. BUHMESE, INCLUDING ITS COGNATE DIALECT ARAKANESE. (For Specimen of the Burmese Version, by Dr. Judson, see Plate L) Extent and Statistics. — The Burman Empire lies south of Assam, from which it is separated by the little kingdom of Munipoor, and extends over more than one-fourth of the Eastern Peninsula of India. Although the boundaries are not very clearly defined, it is generally supposed to comprise an extent of territory about equal to double the area of the British Isles. According to Crawfurd, the total amount of population in Burmah and Ava amounts to about 4,000,000, but this number appears to comprise no fewer than eighteen different tribes and nations. The Burmans constitute the bulk of the population in the British provinces of Martaban, Ye, Tavoy, and Mergui or Tenasserim, which include an area of 32,800 square miles, and a population of 112,405 persons. Throughout these provinces Burmese is the langu.age of the court, of official pro ceedings, and of general conversation. Characteristics op the Language. — The tyrannical nature of the government, and the degraded, servile character of the people, are legible in the structure of the Burmese language. Although this language, like the Chinese, is totally destitute of inflection, yet, by means of suffixes and affixes, not only are the relations of case, of mood, tense, etc., determined, but even the rank both of the speaker and of the auditor is indicated. A distinct set of words is used in reference to the common acts of life, when performed by the great or by priests. Thus the term expressive of eatiri^, when the action is performed by ordinary individuals, is tsah ; but if a priest is said to be eating, the term is pong-bay. Again, the word in common parlance for boiled rice is ta-men ; but a priest's boiled rice must be distinguished as soone.^ These distinctions add precision to the language, but greatly augment the difficulties of its acquirement. It has been conjectured that the Burmese language was originally merely a dialect ofthe Chinese,^ and that it was moulded into its present form by admixture with the PaU, which, with the worship of Boodh, was introduced into the Indo-Chinese countries from Hindoostan, by the circuitous route of Ceylon. The Chinese origin of many of the Burmese words is still apparent; and of the four peculiar tones pertaining to the Chinese, two are in use among the Burmans. Nearly all the abstract and metaphysical terms of the Burmese language are, however, derived immediately from the PaU, and in Dr. Judson's Dictionary, it is said, the number of Pali words amounts nearly to four thousand. AU pure Burmese words are monosyllabic, and even the polysvUabic terms engrafted on the language from the Pali, are, in general, subjected to certain ortho graphical changes, and pronounced as if each syllable were a distinct word; this circumstance, together 1 Chinese Repository, Vol. H. p. 504. a FeUx Carey's Burman Grammar, Preface p. 7. Moko-Stllabic Languages.] BURMESE. 7 with the frequent recurrence of guttural, sibilant, and nasal sounds, renders the language monotonous and unmusical to the ear of a stranger.' Words closely alUed in signification (as an adjective and the noun it quaUfies) are, however, united in writing so as to form one word, and sometimes six or eight words are thus strung together, forming words of such formidable length as to remind us of the polysynthetic dialects of America. As many words have two, three, or even ten significations with the same ortho graphy, this manner of connecting words is of important service in removing ambiguity.^ Numerals are generally combined with a word descriptive of the form, or some other quality of the noun to which they belong, and in that state they are joined to the noun, and constitute one word.' In this pecuUarity the Burmese language resembles the Siamese.'* The Burmans, Uke the Germans, delight in long and highly involved periods: in a simple phrase the agent is generally put first, then the object, and lastly the verb ; and as compared with the EngUsh idiom, the words of a Burmese com position may be said to stand directly in an inverted order. " The character of the language," says Dr. Leyden, "has a very considerable effect on the style of the compositions which it contains. Re petitions of the same turn and expression are rather affected than shunned, and a kind of native strength and simpUcity of phrase, with short sentences full of meaning, are the greatest beauties of which the language admits."' Although the Burmese language can boast of numerous literary pro ductions, it was comparatively Uttle known to Europeans until the establishment of the Baptist Mission at Rangoon. Alphabetical System. — The Burmese Alphabet is derived from the Sanscrit, through the PaU, the Sacred language of the empire. It consists of ten vowels and thirty-two consonants. In point of form, it surpasses all the alphabets of Westem Asia in simplicity, and most nearly resembles the alphabets of Canara, TeUnga, and Ceylon. Although the sounds in some cases are different, the same system of classification prevails as in the alphabets of Hindoostan. The first twenty-five con sonants are distributed into five classes, viz., the gutturals, the palatals, the cerebrals, the dentals, and the labials. The first letter of each class is a simple articulation, smooth and soft, the second is the aspirate of the first; the third letter has a corresponding rough and hard sound, and the fourth, according to the Sanscrit system, is the aspirate of the third, but the Burmese do not distinguish it in sound from the third : the fifth letter is the corresponding nasal. The cerebrals in Burmese are pro nounced like the dentals. Of the consonants, not included in the above classes, five are called liquids, one is termed an aspirate, and another though pronounced th, is properly a sibilant.® Vowels, when they enter into combination with consonants, are represented by certain abbreviated forms, called symbols, placed before or after, above or below, the consonant. Four of the consonants also combine under symboUc forms with other consonants, and thus the compound consonants are formed. These various combinations, with their respective sounds, require to be carefully committed to memory, which adds considerably to the difficulty of learning to read the language. The accents offer a still further impediment, as words which are the same in orthography, vary greatly in signification accord ing to the accent they receive. The Ught accent is denoted by the sign (°) placed under the letter; the heavy accent by (§) placed after the letter. Two small parallel lines ( || ) are used to separate sentences, and sometimes the clauses of sentences. Versions op the Scriptures. — Three MS. translations of small portions of Scripture were made by Roman CathoUc missionaries prior to the establishment of a Protestant mission in this empire, but the first attempt to procure a complete version in this language was made by the Baptist mission aries of Serampore. About the year 1807 Felix Carey, the son of Dr. Carey, settled in Burmah as a missionary ; he applied very diligently to the study of the language, and in conjunction with Mr. Chater, who resided for a short time in the country, he produced a translation of two or three Gospels. In this work great aid was derived from a book of Scripture extracts, afterwards printed at Serampore, containing accounts of the Creation, the Fall, the history of Our Lord, and the main doctrines of Christianity ; the MS. was written in Burmese by an ItaUan missionary then residing at Ava ; he had studied Burmese and held daily intercourse with the natives for twenty-five years, and yet he declared that he still continued to find something new and complicated in the language.^ In 1815, 2000 copies of the Gospel of St. Matthew, by Messrs. Chater and Carey, were printed at 1 Crawford's Emhassy to the Court of Ava, Vol. II. ^ Asiatic Researches, Vol. X. p. 233. 2 Chinese Repository for 1834. ^ Judson's Gram. Notices, 6. See also Latter's Burmese Gram. 8 Judson's Gram. Notices of the Burmese, p. 31. ' Periodical Account of Baptists, IV. p. 32. * See Low's Siamese Grammar, p. 21. 8 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class I. Serampore; but this is a very imperfect translation, and is said to be quite unintelligible to the Bur- mans.i Mr. Carey had studied medicine in Calcutta, and he introduced vaccination in Burmah; this led to an interruption of his labours as a translator, for in 1813 he received a summons to the court of Ava, to vaccinate the royal family. Not having sufficient virus in his possession, he was sent with almost regal honours to Bengal to procure a further supply. On his return in 1814, when proceeding from Rangoon with his family to Ava, the royal residence, he was shipvn-ecked, and his wife and children aU perished. Yet shortly after, leaving his missionary work, he accepted the office of Ambassador from the Court of Ava to the Bengal govemment. The translation upon which he was engaged was transferred to the Rev. Dr. Adoniram Judson, who had a short time previously arrived in Burmah under the auspices of the American Baptist Board. Dr. Judson recommenced the version, and in 1816 was joined by Mr. Hough, with whose aid, andthe present of a press and types from Serampore, the Gospel of Matthew was printed at Rangoon in 1817, as introductory to the entire New Testament. In 1821, Dr. Judson gives the foUowing account of his progress in the trans lation, which he appears to have made immediately from the Sacred priginal. "I have engaged Moung Sheva Gnong (a convert) to assist me in revising the Acts, but he is so particular and thorough that we get on very slowly, not more than ten verses a day, though he is with me from nine in the morning tiU sunset."^ During the Burmese war in 1825, Mr. Hough repaired to Serampore with various books of Scripture revised and prepared for the press ; and under his superintendence 21,500 copies of different portions of the New Testament were there printed. Never, in modem times, have Christian missionaries been subjected to such bitter sufferings and privations as those which have been endured for the sake of the Gospel of Christ in Ava. The bonds, and imprisonments, and sufferings of Mr. Hough and Mr. Wade at Rangoon, and of Dr. Judson and Dr. Price at Ava, at the close of the Burmese war, are fresh in the recoUection of Christians. These events greatly retarded the work of translation. More than once the mission was entirely suspended ; but eventuaUy all tumed out for the furtherance of the Gospel, inasmuch as many territories by this war were placed under British protection. The first complete version of the Burmese New Testament was issued from the press in December, 1832.' The edition consisted of 3000 copies, and was printed under the patron age of the American and Foreign Bible Society. In 1834, Dr. Judson completed the translation of the Old Testament, which has since been pubUshed by him in handsome quarto. On this subject he has the following touching entry in his journal: " Jan. 31, 1834. — Thanks be to God ! I can now say ' I have attained.' I have knelt down before Him, with the last leaf in my hand ; and imploring His forgiveness for all my sins that have poUuted my labours in this department, and His aid in future efforts to remove the errors and imperfections, which necessarily cleave to the work, I have com mended it to His mercy and grace : I have dedicated it to His glory. May He make His own inspired word, now complete in the Burman tongue, the gTand instrument of filling aU Burmah with songs of praises to our great God and Saviour, Jesus Christ." Results of the Distribution op this Version.^ — -The fruits of the Rangoon translation were not first manifested in Burmah itself, nor even among the Burmans ; the Gospel, it has been well remarked, is like a spring of water ; if it cannot find a passage in one direction, it forces its way in another.* At the very time that no perceptible effect seemed to result from the reading of the Burmese Scriptures in the special country for which the translation was made, this version was especially blessed in a tract of country bordering upon Chittagong, inhabited by the Mughs, a people of Aracan, who at the close of the last century had from poUtical causes migrated from their own country, and placed themselves under British protection. Their language, which is sometimes caUed the Bukheng, varies only from Burmese in pronunciation, and a few provincial forms ; and is in fact merely the oldest dialect of the Burmese language.^ In 18 15 De Bruyn, a devoted Missionary, commenced the distribution of portions of the sacred volume among them ; and shortly after his death it was found that there were no less than ninety baptized Mughs united in Church fellowship. For three years they had no minister or missionary resident among them ; yet during all this period, the perusal of the Scriptures being duly persevered in, they were enabled to maintain the worship of God, and to edify one another ; and those brethren from distant stations who occasionally visited them, bore testimony of their faith and good works. ^ The American Baptists have since written portions of the New Testament in the Arakanese, or proper dialect of this interesting people ;' but the Burmese Scriptures are likewise fully 1 Baptist Magazine Vol. X. p. 57. , 6 chuiese Repository, Vol. II. p. 505. 2 Missioiiaiy Register for 1832, p. 32. 6 Annual Report of Baptists foi 1819, p. 19. 3 Chinese Repository, Vol. II. p. 440. 7 Home's Introd. Vol. V. p. 135. 4 Periodical Accounts of Baptists, VI. p. 1 12. y u . v . 1,. .00. Mono-Syllabic Languages.] BURMESE. 9 inteUigibie, and much prized among them. We have an account of the first convert in Burmah from the pen of Mrs. Judson. She says, — " A few days ago I was reading with him (the first Burman convert) .Christ's sermon on the Mount. He was deeply impressed. ' These words,' said he, ' take hold on my very heart, they make me tremble. Here God commands us to do every thing that is good in secret, not to be seen of men. How unUke our reUgion is this ! When Burmans make offerings at the Pagodas they make a great noise with drums and musical instruments, that others may see how good they are ; but this religion makes the mind fear God ; it makes it of its own accord fear sin.' " ' Although Burmah at one time presented to Dr. Judson and the first Missionaries a continued scene of discouragement, yet it afterwards became an example of the ease with which God can arrest the attention of a whole people to the Scriptures. Writing in 1831, Dr. Judson said, that one of the most remarkable features of the Mission was the surprising spirit of inquiry then spreading everywhere, through the whole length and breadth of the land : he stated that during a great national festival held that year, no less than six thousand appUcants came to the Mission-house. " Sir," said they, " we hear that there is an etemal heU. We are afraid of it. Give us a writing that will tell us how to escape it." Others came from the frontier of Cassay, a hundred miles north of Ava. — " Sir ! we have seen a writing which teUs about an etemal God. Are you the man who gives away such writings ? If so, pray give us one, for we want to know the truth before we die." Others came from the interior of the country, where the name of Jesus is a little known. — " Are you Jesus Christ's man ? Give us a writing that tells about Jesus Christ." ^ Dr. Judson's subsequent account of the character of the Burmans is equally hopeful. They are, he says, a careful, deliberative people, who tum a thing many times over before they take it. They are not disposed to give much credit to the words of a Missionary, but when a tract is put into their hands, they wrap it up carefully, deposit it in a fold of the waistcloth or turban, carry it home to their viUage, and, when a leisure evening occurs, the family lamp is produced, the man, his wife and relations gather round, and the contents of the new writing receive a fuU discussion. Instances have not been wanting of the blessing of God having followed this careful study of His word. Mr. Kincaid relates that during a journey through Burmah, a youth who had previously appUed for books came to Uim, and besought him, before he quitted the city to visit an old man who was anxious to see the teacher. Mr. Kincaid followed the lad home, and was surprised to find in the object of his visit an old man full of faith and hope in Christ, though he had had no other teacher than John's Gospel and a tract, called The View, accom panied by the Holy Spirit. He said that he had loved Christ for about two years, and his language, Mr. Kincaid relates, was that of a man acquainted with his own heart.^ Narrating a voyage up the Irawaddy, from Rangoon to Ava, this Missionary describes the people as most eager to hear and to get books. One man said that he had got a book in Rangoon that told him about the Etemal God who made all things, and about Christ who died to open a way for the forgiveness of sins. He said the more he thought of this, the more sure he felt that it was true. Many such instances convincingly show that a wide field is opened in Burmah for the diffusion of truth, and in a printed form.* To account for such large issues of the Scriptures as have taken place in Burmah, it should be stated that the Burmans are generally able to read, and a smattering of education is more common among them, perhaps, than any other people of the East. PEGUESE, MON OR TALAIN. The Peguese language is still spoken in Pegu, a country whicli occupies all the sea-coast and the mouths of the rivers of the Burman empire : it comprises an area of 22,640 square miles, with a population of 48,000.* Great numbers of the agriculturists in Siam are Peguans. Pegu was formerly a great and powerfiil state, and governed by its own monarchs, but in a contest with Burmah and Siam it fell, and the Peguans are now the slaves of both empires. The Peguese language is supposed to be more ancient than the Burmese, it abounds in gutturals, and is simple in construction. The alphabet is the same as the Burmese, except two additional consonants. Since their conquest of the country, the Burmans have done their utmost to extirpate the language, and to render their own predominant, but they have not as yet succeeded. A translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, and of St. John's Epistles has been made into Peguese from the Burmese by Ko-man-poke, a learned native, but no copy of this version appears to have reached Europe.' A translation of the whole New Testament, by Mr. Haswell, is now in the press at Maulmein, but it is hoped that a specimen will be obtained in time for insertion in this work. The edition is of 3,000 copies.' 1 Account of the American Baptist Mission to Burmah, by < Baptist Missionary Register, 1834. A. H. Judson, p. 146. 5 M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary. 2 See Missionary Regi^tc^ fot 1832, pp. 177, 178. s Chinese Repository, Vol, II. 504. 3 Baptist Missionary Register for January, 1836. ^ Missionary Register for 1848, p. 118. SIAMESE. SPECIMEN OF THE SIAMESE VERSION.— St. JOHN'S GOSPEL, Chap. i. v. 1 to 13. ^Qm^m^^'^'mS mmmimmmm^ w5s^^^Q6r)?/^a» ^ 4^^^991011^ ^^^??i ootri53J tw£)% ^mm&im '^nuvnQ'iu^^ V ON THE SIAMESE LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Siam is the largest of the three empires com prised in the Eastern peninsula of India. The Bay of Bengal, the Burman Empire, and the British province of Tenasserim form its Westem boundary. Its area, according to Crawfurd, is 190,000 square miles, but according to Berghaus it includes nearly 290,000 square miles. Its amount of population has been estimated at from 2,790,500 to 3,000,000 souls ; but the number of Siamese in Siam is thought not to exceed 1,260,000, the remainder of the inhabitants being chiefly natives of Laos, Pegu, Cambodia, Malacca, China, and Hindoostan. The Siamese language is, strifitly speaking, confined to Siam proper, which forms but one province of the Siamese Empire. The other provinces are, a large portion of Laos or the Shan country, a considerable section of Cambodia, a portion of Pegu or the Mon country, and the peninsula of Malacca, from the head of the gulf down to latitude 7° North. ' Characteeistics op the Language. — The language of the Siamese is sometimes caUed Thay or Tai, and in their own tongue they assume this name as their proper national appellation. The 1 HamUton's East India Gazetteer in voce. Mono-Stllabic LAifGUAGES.J SIAMESE. 11 Siamese language possesses considerable affinity with some of the provincial dialects of China, more especiaUy the JMandarin or Court dialect, from which many of its radical words and numerals are obviously borrowed.' Several fundamental terms, appertaining to Malay, are also found in Siamese, which has hence been regarded as the connecting Unk between the Chinese and Malay languages. The deUcate intonations of the Chinese exist in Siamese, and it is more strongly accented than any other language of Indo-China. The political institutions of Siam, in point of despotism and tyranny, are akin to those of Burmah, and have had great effect in moulding the language and the Uterature. The rank of the speaker may in Siamese, as in Burmese, be inferred from the pronouns he uses ; and phrases expressive of adulation and flattery are very numerous and varied. The words which sub serve the office of pronouns are hence particularly numerous, and attention to the rules regulating their distinctive use is so rigidly exacted from all classes, that the misapplication of a single pro nominal is considered indecorous and disrespectful.^ The alphabet, though formed on the model of the Pali and Devanagari characters, possesses several original elements, whence it has been con jectured that an ancient style of writing was known in Siam prior to the introduction of Buddhism iand the PaU language in the fourth century. There are thirty-five consonants and the vocalic a ; this latter is often placed in a word as a sort of pivot on which the vowel points are arranged, forming, as it were, the body of each of the simple vowels. There are sixteen simple vowels or finals, besides twenty-nine distinct and complex final vowel combinations. The nasals are quite as diversified as the Chinese; the letters b, d, r, which are rejected by the Chinese, are adopted in this language, but on the other hand the letters ts, sh, tch, fh, hh, which belong to Chinese, do not exist in Siamese. Words are not generaUy divided in writing, and a smaU blank suppUes the place of our colon and semicolon.' Siamese differs from most of the Eastern languages, in admitting but Uttle inversion of the natural order in the construction of sentences; the words follow each other much in the same way as in EngUsh; for instance, the nominative almost invariably precedes the verb, and verbs and prepositions precede the cases which they govern. ¦* No orthographical changes whatever mark the variations of number, case, or person, but prefixes and affixes are in constant use. The language has been represented as copious ; yet it rather, says Crawfurd, possesses that species of redundancy which belongs to the dialects of many semi-barbarous nations, and which shows a long but not a useful cultivation.' Siamese Versions of Scripture. — In 1810, the design of providing Siam with a version of the four Gospels was entertained by the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society, and Dr. Leyden undertook to superintend the translation ; but he died before this important project had been carried into execution. Perhaps the first attempt at translating the Scriptures into Siamese was made by Mrs. Judson, of the American Baptist Mission, who with the aid of her Burman pimdit produced a version of the Gospel of St. Matthew.^ Owing, however, to the death of that lamented lady, a stop was put to further translation till 1828, when Messrs. Gutzlaff and TomUn visited Siam in the capacity of missionaries and physicians, and appUed sedulously to the study of the language with a view to the translation of the Scriptures ; after a residence of nine months, Mr. TomUn was compeUed by ill health to reUnquish the undertaking, and Mr. Gutzlaff prosecuted his important labours alone. Part of the MS. translation of the New Testament was forwarded to Malacca as early as 1829 ; but the missionaries connected with the Malacca press proceeded with the utmost caution, and made a practice of printing no portion of the version until they had ascertained, by actual experiment, that it could be read and clearly understood by natives of every capacity, from those of the first Uterary rank to the commonest readers. ^ Mr. Gutzlaff, being remarkably favoured with the best native assistance, subjected the translation to several revisions ; and after labouring night and day for a long period, he, in 1833, sent a revised copy of the New Testament to Singapore.^ The work of revision was continued by Mr. Jones, one of the Baptist missionaries in Burmah, who, from his having previously studied the cognate language of the Shans, was weU quaUfied for the task ; he was sent to Bankok (the capital of Siam) at the instance of Messrs. Gutzlaff' and TomUn in 1834. Mr. Robinson, another missionary at Bankok, also engaged in the work, and in 1841 produced a translation of Genesis and Daniel, and a new or amended version of several books of the New Testament. The pubhcation was aided by a 1 Leyden in Asiatic Researches, Vol. X. ^ Crawford's Emhassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochincliina, p. 335. 2 Low's Grammar of the T'hai* ^ Judson's Account of the American Baptist Mission to Burmah, p. 128. 3 Low's Grammar of the T'hai! ^ Thirtieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. ixxviii. * Calcutta Christian Observer, Vol. VII. « Missionary Register for 1833, p. 32. 12 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class I. grant in 1843 from the American Baptist Bible Society. In 1846, Mr. Jones completed the transla tion and pubhcation ofthe entire New Testament in Siamese.* Results op the Dissemination op this Version. — Siam affords comparatively few instances of conversion following the perusal of the Word, yet in no country perhaps has the intervention of Providence been more manifested in opening a wide door for the general distribution of the Scriptures. The American Board of Missions and the American Baptists have missionaries in Siam, by whom the Scriptures are circulated among the people without let or hindrance from king, nobiUtjr, or priesthood.^ The priests have even frequently sent to the missionaries requesting to be suppUed with copies of the holy volume, and have on some occasions expressed a degreeof dissatisfaction with their own religion, and an apparently sincere desire to examine the tenets of Christianity. _ In fact, one of the missionaries stated, in 1842, that no class of people are more importunate in begging_ for books than the priests, and this too in pubUc, and on aU occasions. This dissemination of Scripture has had the effect in Siam of considerably narrowing the original ground of controversy. The Siamese now declare, that were they but fally satisfied as to the existence of a future state, they would gladly embrace Christianity as the only system which provides for the forgiveness of sins; for they have been brought to acknowledge the sinfulness of their own nature and practices, and they clearly perceive that Buddhism, which is in fact practical Atheism, offers no means or hope of pardon. The first appearance of the missionaries in Siam spread a general panic among the people, for it was weU known by the predictions ofthe PaU books, that a certain religion of the West would vanquish Buddhism ; but upon the breakmg out of the late war, the EngUsh remaining neutral, the people were reassured, and many instances occurred in which deep interest was expressed in the perusal of the Scriptures. There are, however, peculiar impediments to missionary labours in Siam, arising partly from the character of the people, which is so fickle that an opinion they may embrace to-day they will be ready to reject to-morrow,^ and partly from the regularly organised system by which idolatry is supported : the pagodas are the schools of learning in which the youth of the empire are trained ; every educated Siamese, from the emperor down to the lowest of his subjects, is compeUed at some period or other of his Ufe to enter the priesthood, and " he who refuses to become a priest, must remain ignorant."* It has been ascertained that the great majority of Siamese, male and female, are able to read ; and even in Siam instances have unexpectedly been brought to light of the Divine blessing having accompanied the private study of Scripture. On one occasion, for instance, a missionary was caUed to the bedside of a sick man, whom he had never before seen. After applying the remedies for the disease suggested by his medical skill, the missionary began to discourse on the glad tidings of the Gospel. The sick man immediately interrupted him, and said, with much earnestness and seriousness, that he himself knew Ayso (Jesus), and worshipped him every day. Surprised and dehghted, the missionary asked for an explanation, and was informed that a brother of the sick man had read in his hearing portions of Scripture and Tracts distributed by the missionaries, and that the precious seed thus sown by the way-side had been blessed by God.* COGNATE DIALECTS. It is worthy of observation, that Siamese is properly only one dialect of an ancient and widely extended language called Tai; the other dialects are the Laos, Khamti (almost identical with the ancient Ahom), and Shyan. Little has been done in these three dialects towards the translation of Scripture. The Laos people are described by Dr. Bradley as being in a pecuUar sense ripe for the Gospel harvest. Several apphed to him for books written with their ovra characters ; they said they could read Siamese looks stammeringly, but their own with ease. A Laos man pleaded with Dr. Bradley not to forget him and his people, but to fumisl them speedily with a version of the holy books in their own dialect. Although the Laos has been described by most travellers as a totally distinct dialect from the Siamese,^ yet such is the similarity between the two dialects that Captain Low states from his own experience, that it is easy for a person who understands the Siamese tongue, to travel safely (in so far as language is concerned) throughout North Laos. The Laos dialect has, however, an alphabet exclusively appropriated to it, which is more aUied to the Peguese or Mon than to the Siamese alphabet. CAMBOJAN. The Cambojan language is spoken in Cambodia, once an independent and powerful state, but now divided between Siam and the empire of Anam. The language differs materially from the Siamese, being more harsh, but at the same time more copious.' Gutzlaff commenced a version of the New Testament in Cambojan, but it would appear that he afterwards discontinued it, Throughout the other provinces of the empire of Anam, a monosyUabic language denominated the Anamite or Anamitic is spoken, in which, however, no translatibn of the Scriptures exists. I HJfnt°=*TK,'^f nT ^J'V^*^' ^' "^' ' Tomlin's Missionary Journal in Siam. 3 S'eVe S"os1t°o°i!^.%^i:Tri'7'- '"^ ' ^''^ j^J^ ^°"^''^ - ^^-"^ ^^^^"*-' ^^ '^^""^"'^ 4 Chinese Repository, Vol. I. p. 468. 7 Chinese Repository, Vol. II. p. 52. KAHEN, KAEAYN OU KAUIENG. (A Specimen of this Version will be given in a future Part of the Work.) Extent and Statistics. — The Kareens, Karenes, or Careians, are a wild and simple people, scattered over aU parts of the Burman territories, and of the British provinces of Tenasserim : they are also found in the Westem portions of Siam, and northward among the Shyans.' Their residences are in the jungles and among the mountains, and are most numerous on the mountains which separate Burmah from Siam. The number of these people, owing to their nomadic habits and wide dispersion, is difl&cult to be ascertained, but it has been estimated at about 33,000. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The Karen language possesses several original elements, and in many respects varies in genius and structure from the Burmese, Siamese, and Peguese languages, though it freely borrows words from each.^ It has five tones, some of which appear different from those of any other monosyUabic tongue. The Karen language is remarkably harmoni ous, and well adapted for poetry : a final consonant never occurs, but every word terminates with a vowel sound. TiU a comparatively recent period, however, Karen was totally unknown to Europeans. About 1835, two Missionaries ofthe American Baptist Missionary Society, Messrs. Wade and Mason, acquired the language, and for the first time reduced it to writing. For this purpose they employed the Burmese alphabet, with a few additional characters to express the peculiar sounds of the language. The system of teaching reading, adopted by Mr. Wade, is so admirably conceived, that a person ignorant of a single letter can be taught to read a Karen book with ease in a few weeks. Mr. Mason afl&rms that the alphabetical powers of the Karen alphabet are of Arabic or Hebrew origin.^ This fact, together with the personal appearance and physical peculiarities of this singular people, and a series of very remarkable traditions current from time immemorial among them, has led him to form the idea of their being descendants of the lost tribes of Israel. Veesions of the Sceiptuees in this LalNGUAGE. — The Missionaries were induced to Undertake a version of the New Testament in Karen by the eamest and repeated entreaties of the people themselves for books. As early as 1828, Mr. Boardman, of the American Baptist Society, was visited frequently at Savoy, one of the missionary stations, by great numbers of the Karens, and had ample opportunities of proclaiming the Gospel to them. Among the most interesting of his visitors was a native chief, who appeared particularly anxious for instruction in the way of righteous ness. " Give us books," he said, " give us books in our own native language! then all the Karens wiU leam to read. We want to know the true God. We have been lying in total darkness — the Karen's mind is Uke his native jungle."'' The translation of the entire New Testament into Karen was accordingly accompUshed by Messrs. Wade and Mason ; yet during several years, for want of adequate pecuniary means, no attempt was made at printing, but each book as soon as completed was copied and circulated in MS. In 1842, the American and Foreign Bible Society granted £625 towards the printing of the New Testament, and an edition soon after issued from the press at Savoy, under the superintendence of Mr. Bennett. Mr. Mason has since translated the Psahns into Karen, including both the Sgau and Sho dialects of that language. Results op the Dissemination op this Veesion. — This version of Scripture appears to have been attended in a remarkable degree with the Divine blessing from the _ very first period of its execution. The Karens were in a manner prepared to welcome Christianity, not only by their reUgious tenets, which formed a noble contrast to Buddhism, but by a singular prediction of their ancient seers, which caused them to look for reUef from Burman oppression to "the white foreigners.'"^ In 1839, when the Karens had no books, few living teachers, and only a MS. copy of Matthew, they were gathered together in considerable numbers from aU parts by the > Malcom's Travels in S. E. Asia, Vol. II. p. 228. * Calcutta Christian Observer for 1833, p. 522. ' Calcutta Christian Observer for 1833, p. 620. ' Asiatic Journal for 1844, p. 282. » Cidcutta ClrisUan Observer for 1836, p. 111. 14 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND, [Class I. sound of the Gospel, and settUng down in a district about two days' journey from Savoy, they formed a Christian viUage, the heads of every family being members of the Chui'ch. Ciyihzation foUowed Christianity. CleanUness (by no means a native Karen virtue) was substituted for their former depraved habits, and various industrial arts were learnt and steadily pursued. The power of the Scriptures upon these simple and unlettered people is shown hj various anecdotes related by the Missionaries. " Once Mrs. Wade had occasion to read the chapter in Matthew concerning visiting Christ (as represented in his disciples) when sick or in prison. They immediately perceived how regardless they had been of persons in sickness and sorrow, and began thenceforward to perform services for the sick, which they had never thought of before. A poor widow suffering under a leprous disease, who had a, young child similarly afdicted, was visited by many the next day. They performed various_ repulsive ofiices for her and the child, brought water, cleaned the house, gave them rice and other articles, and so enriched and comforted the poor creature that she was bewildered with deUght. These attentions they con tinued constantly. Another person, bedridden with loathsome sores, was attended to in the same way. Since that time no one has been suflfered to want any thing wliich the rest enjoy, and their acts of kindness are done with studied concealment." ' MUNIPOOEA. (A Specimen of this Version will be given if possible in a fliture Part of the Work.) Geogeaphical Extent. — Munipoora is the language of Munipoor, a small independent king dom, which Ues south of Assam. Great confusion has arisen from the various names given to this country ; the Burmans call it Kathe, and the Shyans Cassay, and geographers have distinguished it sometimes by one and sometimes by another name. It is not much above sixty miles in length, and Ues somewhere between Iat. 24° and 25° North,^ and long. 93° and 96° East. The central part of the country consists of a rich and fertile valley, including an area of 650 square miles; the remainder of the territory is occupied by an encircling zone of mountains and hills, inhabited by various tribes subject to Munipoor.' The amoimt of population is probably about 70,000:* Pemberton, however, estimates it at only 20,000. Brahminism was imposed on the people little more than half a century ago, hy command of the Rajah, but it is by no means firmly rooted. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — It appears from their language and physical pecuHari ties, that the Muniporeans are the descendants of some Mongol or Chinese colony. Like most mono syllabic languages, Munipoora is inartificial in structure, and uninflected. It has a close afSnity with Khassee. Veesions op Sceiptuee. — A version of the New Testament was undertaken by Dr. Carey in 1814: he procured some learned natives from Munipoor, and superintended their labours. This trans lation was completed, and an edition of 1000 copies printed in the Bengalee character in 1824, at Serampore : it was aided indirectly by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Results op the Dissemination op this Veesion. — Little is known concerning the effect produced on the Muniporeans by the perusal of Scripture, for they have as yet no mis sionary among them. 2 r»t;?t?»''f^H7Hl' n,?- ^' ^*' ™- '• "^'F' ' Pemberton's Report of the Eastern Frontier, p. 21. Calcutta Clinstian Observer for 1834, p. 263. 4 Malcom'e Travels in S. E. Asia, Vol. 11. p. 244 s KHASSEE. (For Specimen of this Version in the Bengalee Character, see Plate I.) (Tor a Specimen of this Version in the Koman Character, see Plate TTT.) Geogeaphical Extent.— Khassee is the language of the Cossyahs, Cassias, or Khasias, a race of Tartar or Chinese origin ruled by a number of petty rajahs, who form a sort of confederacy. To some degree they stiU preserve tUeir independence, but they are under the supervision of a British agent for Cossyah affairs. ^ The Cossyahs inhabit a ridge of hiUs extending from SUhet (a town on the easternmost extremity of Bengal, latitude 25°) to withia a himdred leagues of China. This region averages from 4000 to 5000 feet above the level of the sea, and is about 70 mUes long by 50 wide; it comprises 3500 square mUes; it is bounded on the South by the plain of SUhet, North by the vaUey of Assam, East by Kachar, and West by the Garrow hUls.^ The amount of popuktion has never been con-ectly ascertained. The people, though unciviUzed, are manly, upright, and sincere, and regard with detestation the falsehood and deceitfulness of the neighbouring Hindoos. They are, however, remarkably indolent and filthy, avaricious, ignorant, and extremely superstitious. Their religion has been represented to be a species of Brahminism, but they seem to have only a vague notion of some spuit or spirits to which they offer sacrifice, and their altars may weU bear the inscrip tion, " to the unknown God : " the country is the extreme limit of the predominance of the Brahminical sect to the eastward, for beyond these hiUs Buddhism is almost universal. Chaeacteeistics op the Language.— This language is uninfiected and simple in grammatical constmction ; and although strictly monosyUabic, it possesses none of those varied tones which appertain to other languages of this class. Some words of Sanscrit origin are to be found in Khassee, but it is difficult to recognise them on account of the monosyllables prefixed or added. There is no alphabet, the few among the Cossyahs who can read or write use the Bengalee character. But their adoption of this alphabet is merely owing to their frequent intercourse with Silhet, for their language bears internal marks of having been at some distant period aUied with the Chinese ; this is evidenced by the personal pronoun, and by the frequent recurrence of the sounds ming, eng, ung, etc. as in Chinese. Veesions op Sceiptuee. — A lady was honoured by God to be the main instrument in preparing the first version of Scripture in this language. She was the widow of one of the rajahs or chieftains of the country, and Dr. Carey, pleased with her inteUigence, avaUed himself of her aid in translating the New Testament. Dr. Carey had also recourse to the advice of his Assamese pundit, who, from the vicinity of the Cossyah hiUs to his own country, had had opportunities of acquiring a tolerable acquaintance with the language. ' The preparation of this version occupied ten years ; it was printed in Bengalee characters, and an edition of^ 500 copies lefi the Serampore press in 1824. For about seven years it remained a sealed book, for no opportunity occurred of distributing it among the people for whom it had been prepared. In 1832 some of the missionaries at Serampore, being in iU health, visited Cherrapoonjee, a place in the Khassee country noted for its salubrity. Here their attention was drawn afi'esh to the spiiitual destitution of the wild inhabitants of the hiUs, and great exertions were made for the establishment of a mission among them.** Mr. Lish, the first missionary who entered upon the work, turned his attention to the revision of the Khassee version, and in 1834 he produced a new or amended translation of St. Matthew, which was printed at Serampore in Roman characters. In 1840 a Missionary Association was formed by the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, and finding this station unoccupied by any other society, they sent the Rev. Thomas Jones as their missionary to these hiUs. He reached Cherrapoonjee in 1841, and after applying with diligence to the study of the language, he executed a new translation of St. Matthew's Gospel in Roman characters, which in 1845 he offered to the British and Foreign Bible Society. The Committee ordered a smaU edition to be printed as an experiment, and its value and fideUty have been fuUy attested by competent 1 Malcom's Travels in S. E. Asia, Vol. II. p. 245. = Missionary Register for 1833, p. 307- 2 Calcutta Christian Observer for 1846. * Periodical Accounts of Baptists, No. X. 16 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Ciass I. persons,^ through the medium of the Auxiliary Society at Calcutta. Since then a translation has been made of the Acts of the Apostles, and other portions wiU foUow by the instrumentahty of the missionaries engaged on the above station. Results op the Dissemination op this VeesiOn. — Some very interesting accounts have been received of the recent progress of Divine truth among these people. Mr. Lish, theu: first mis- sionary, was welcomed joyfully; they laughed heartUy when they heard him speak in their own language ; but when he began to open to them the truths of Scripture, they were so forcibly impressed that they exclaimed that "he was a God, and they but cows and goats." ^ When the mission was re-estabUshed by Mr. Jones, a chief from a viUage which he had not yet visited, thus addressed him : — " If you have any thing from God to say to us, come quickly; otherwise we may he dead, and what you have to say wiU be of no use to us. What will then become of us?" Mr. Jones and his coadjutors have prepared elementary and religious books in the language^ Several schools have been estabUshed, and conducted by the missionaries, their wives, and a few native teachers. Many hundreds have abeady learnt to read, and are truly anxious for books. A desire to read and understand EngUsh is universal. Some of the natives have been led to abandon their super stitions, and to embrace Christianity. Since their baptism they have endured much persecution from their relatives, and in the most trying circumstances have manifested strength of principle worthy of an apostoUc age. One of the missionaries writes thus: — " I have received the Gospel of St. Matthew from Cal cutta, and the Cassias in the schools are diUgently employed in committing it to memory. This task they will accompUsh by the time this letter reaches you. I perceive already the great utihty of supplying them with the Holy Scriptures; for it is evident they understand and remember much better when they read themselves than when they listen to another : I see this very clearly in the case of my young converts." science The missionaries testify that the baptized natives " increase in knowledge, tendemess of con- ce, and godly simpUcity." One of these converts said to the missionary, " The word of God is truly wonderful, for I have some new thoughts whenever I look into it. I do not find it so with any thing else; but the word of God is like a fountain which sends forth fresh waters every day: they are not the same ; but although they differ, they are all very good. Even the same verse says something new whenever I look into it."^ 1 British and Foreign Bible Society's Report for 1846, p. ixxxv. Report of the Calvinistic Methodist Missionary Society for 1846 and 2 Penodical Accounts of Baptists, No. X. 1847. Also " Y Drysorfu," for April and May 1848. TIBETAN. (Tor a Specimen of Tibetan Character, see Plate II.) Extent and _ Sta.tistics. — The vast and mountainous tract of country in which the Tibetan language is spoken Ues directly north of Hindoostan, from which it is separated by the Himalayan mountains. Its eastern frontiers border on China ; to the west, it extends as far as Cashmeer, Afghani stan, and Turkistan, whUe on the north, it is bounded by the countries of the Turks and the Mongols. It is for the most part comprised within the Chioese empire ; the westem parts, however, appear to be independent of China. On account of the extreme jealousy of the Chinese govemment, Thibet has hitherto been almost inaccessible to foreigners, our knowledge of the country is in consequence ex tremely limited, and no correct estimate appears to have been ever formed of its area or population.' Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — Tibetan is sometimes called Bhotanta or Boutan, because spoken in the country of Boutan as weU as in the adjacent regions of Thibet; it is supposed by some to be a link between the Monosyllabic and Shemitic classes. In the Mithridates, Adelung un hesitatingly ranks it among the monosyUabic languages, but Remusat does not altogether assent to this classification, for while he admits that there are many monosyllabic sounds in Tibetan, he contends that there are likewise compound and polysyUabic words. Some of the very fundamental words of the lan guage, as well as almost aU the derivative terms, are of undoubted Chinese origin, and in many cases, the original Chinese vocables seem to have undergone but sUght alteration. In the construction, too, of sentences, the Tibetans appear to foUow the Chinese idiom.^ If compared with EngUsh, the words of a Tibetan phrase wfll be found to stand exactly in a reverse order. The sentence " ik a book seen hy ¦me," would be rendered in Tibetan (if translated word for word) in the foUowing manner : "?we by seen book a in." The articles both definite and indefinite always follow the noun, the nouns in general precede their attributes, and the verb for the most part, stands at the end of a sentence. The several cases of a declension are formed by suflSxes, and the place of prepositions in EngUsh is suppUed by postpositions. ^ The language is rendered difficult by the numerous impersonal verbal expressions ; the general mode of conjugating verbs is by prefixing or affixing certain letters, which are, however, most frequently silent :¦* but the grammatical forms are in general few, vague, and seldom used. The alphabetical character is evidently borrowed from the Devanagari, and is written from left to right. There are thirty consonants divided into eight classes, and four vowel signs. There are Ukewise com pound consonants, representing sounds not strictly occurring in their alphabet.^ Although a single letter often constitutes an entire word, yet the orthographical system is, for the most part, clumsy and burdensome, for initial, quiescent, subscript, and final letters are introduced upon every possible occasion, and though completely disregarded in the articulation of words, they add materiaUy to the labour of reading and writing the language. Version op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — An attempt was made by the Church Missionary Society, in 1816, to fumish the inhabitants of this vast region with a version of the Scrip tures in their own language, but unhappUy this important undertaking ultimately proved abortive. Mr. Schroeter, a Missionary of that Society, after having devoted himself with much stedfastness and success to the acquisition of the language, was cut off by death at the very moment that he was pro ceeding to the translation of the Scriptures. Mr. Le Roche, another Missionary of the same Society, was appointed to succeed him, but the cUmate of India proved fatal Ukewise to his constitution, and he died on his retum homewards.® Major Latter, who had been chiefly instrumental in originating the mission, died in 1822, and since that event, no further attempts towards the preparation of a Tibetan version appear to have been made. A Dictionary, however, Tibetan and ItaUan, executed by ' M'Culloch's Geog. Dictionary, i-n voce. * Calcutta Christian Observer for 1840, p. ?33. 2 Remusat's Reeherches sur les langnes Tartares, p. 368. ' SclircBter's Bhotanta Dictionary. 3 Csoma de EorSs, pp. 106 115. ° Long's Hand Book of Bengal Missions, p. 23?. 18 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class I. some Roman Missionary, and collected and arranged by Schroeter, has been printed at Serampore with a fount of types cast for the purpose. It consists of nearly 500 quarto pages, and was completed in 1826. Dr. Hseberlin, an agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, after journeying through Thibet in 1843, again enforced the necessity of a Tibetan version upon the attention of Christian Societies, and his suggestions appear to have been met by the American Missionaries, who, it is said, have now this work in contemplation.' Dr. HaeberUn states as the result of his observations and inquiries in Thibet, that " as far as the Tibetan language is spoken, and the Lamas have any sway, so far literature exercises an important influence upon the people. If there were a version of the Scrip tures," continues he, " in the Tibetan language, thousands of volumes might annually be sent into the interior of Asia from five different points, along the immense frontier of British India ; and the mUUons of people speaking that language, and inquisitive as the Chinese are, might thus have an opportunity, and it is to be hoped profit by it, to be made acquainted with the things that pertain to their salvation."^ LEPCHA. Thb Lepcha language is spoken by the Lepchas, the undoubted aborigines of the mountain forests near Darjeeling.' The district they occupy is perhaps about 120 miles in length, from N.W. to S.E., extending along the south face ofthe Himalayan mountains, until its limits become undefined in the mountains of Bootan. Little is known in Europe concerning the Lepcha dialect, but recent researches have shown it to be alUed to, if not derived from, the Tibetan language. The Rev. W. Start, of Darjeehng, has com menced a translation of the New Testament in this language, and has recently caused 1000 copies of the Gospel of St. Matthew to be printed at his own expense. It is hoped that a specimen of this version may be obtained for insertion in the present edition of this work. Fortieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xcv. s Forty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xc. Calcutta Cliristian Observer for 1840, p. 640. ,"/. s ^.s I "ft Js R r/s% o ]ir«: h ^b Is ^ibillh r=b / ! ,'fy. CLASS II.-SHEMITIC LANGUAGES. HEBEEW. SPECIMEN OF THE HEBREW OLD TESTAMENT SCRIPTURES. EXODUS, Chap. xx. v. 1 to 17. h'mf\T} ^pa. TnSx nin* bix' d x^mh n'^xn nnn'in-Sa nx o^n'^x '\'2T^ I 5' "I -i*"." ¦: I AV v: Jt : v it i •• v v t ^' t : - t i)- ¦ v: J- - : - i'3d3 ^S na^n-x)?* rJs-Vj; onnx D^n^x ^'^ n^n^-x"?' jDniy n^att Dn^fz: pkfi VJ*.' jy| : Jv 'L; I- Jl -iTT '^ V " -: J* v: 3): J>-.- : i* Ji i- t ^: jj-- • • v- : - | vA- " -nS' {px'? nnna I D*»3 nB'Ni nnntj pxa ib'ni "^ysa i bwa ij^n n'iian-S^i I \ -.'IT T -J>- • 'J*.-- j/i- —I- -AT • I -AT T A- -:i- K. - • -J- t - Jiv -: t : t : D^ja-'^y nhN jiV "ipis «3p Sn Tn'pN nin* ^Shx *3 Dtayn xSi anS t\t\t\^t\ 3* T "^ It ( •'-: I" t|- J" ) V v: ¦^t : -it j* A" : ^ it j ; v.- t JA--: i- : n'p" d :*nisi5 *ia£j''p!i \5nN^ Q'fi'?^?!? ^PD ^^^Vr 'l*?^^*? Q'Pt'^5?! ^'^^P'^V. jNiJS'S i«2E'-nN NB^'-nsyN nx nin* npy n'^ *3 n^^S ^*n'?x nin^-Dty-nN xEJ'n :iT - *. : V JT • V -; 5" t ¦ |v- : "^ J' :At'- ( v.- v: Jr : i- v j)t • DiV" j^pxSa-'^i ri*K^i nij^n h'pi r\m' *i^^p^ r^l^''!' t^T^^ ^^?r ^ ^mnai ^naxi ^"^nj; '^^?^"!I??^ i nnx nSN^a-S? n§^n-N'p ^^fh^ r^ph \ naa' *v*iB'n -h^-m] bri-m nxn-nxi D^a^'n-nN nin* r\pv^ h'iii-nm *3" •'T'^V^^ W V?^. ^*3N-nN naa ^ d j ^'np^p'} na^'n ni*-nN nin* ^la ja-Vj; *^.*a^'n Di*a ni»i DT^fii tm-fi iih'' D t^^S inJ ^*nSN njn*-na'N nb-txri Sy, '^*b* paix* jyaS ^»N-nNi xS" D lyp -1^ ^yia njj?n-xS"' d taH^n xS^= d :P)N^ri nS" d •15?."'.^ T^ '^Pl ^'^^'n) i'liB'i 'inoNi i^a^l ^5^1 hk^n nfinn-xS d ^^;i n*a ibm This Specimen portion exhibits the twofold use of the Hebrew accents. The one series is employed when the Decalogue is read by itself, and the other series is used when these verses, are read as a continuation of the preceding section of the Pentateuch. The accents are also used in this twxffold manner in Deuteronomy, where the Decalogue is repeated. ON THE HEBREW OLD TESTAMENT SCRIPTURES AND LANGUAGE. Peedominance of the Language. — The Hebrew language, honoured by God as the first medium of written revelation, had in ancient times predominance over a far greater extent of territory than is commonly supposed. It may be inferred from various passages of Sacred History that the Canaanites or aborigiaal inhabitants of Canaan conversed freely in Hebrew or some closely allied dialect with Abraham, and, many years subsequently, with the tribes of Israel under Joshua. Thus, the spies, for instance, sent by Joshua to survey the country, had no recourse to the aid of an interpreter in their intercourse with Rahab and others. Moreover the Canaanitish names of places and persons, both in 4 20 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II, the time of Abraham and in that of Joshua, are pure Hebrew terms ; Melchisedec, Abimelech, Salem, Jericho, and in fact all names recorded in Scripture of persons, cities, and towns, in Canaan might be cited as examples. (See Joshua, chapters 15 to 22). That the Canaanites formed part and portion ofthe people known in profane history by the name of Phoenicians, has been clearly proved by the ethno graphical researches of Gesenius ' and other German scholars ; and in the Septuagint, the words Phoenicians and Canaanites, Phoenicia and Canaan are indiscriminately used: compare Exod. 6. 15 with Gen. 46. 10, and Exod. 16. 35 with Jos. 5. 12. Hence the obvious inference that Hebrew was the vernacular of the Phoenicians, and that it was therefore the idiom of Tyre, of Sidon, of Carthage, and of all the numerous colonies estabhshed by that enterprising people. We may thus trace the use of Hebrew as a vernacular tongue, or as a medium of communication aU round the coast of the Mediterranean, with the exception of Italy and (in part) of Greece. When the Old Testament was written, probably no language was so widely difiused as the Hebrew : it occupied just such a place as Greek did in the days of the Apostles. With the sole exception of the Jews, however, the nations by whom Hebrew was spoken have either passed away from the face of the earth, or have become amalgamated with other races. The number of Jews now dispersed throughout the world is generally estimated at about 4,000,000;^ of these there are only 175,000 in Palestine and Syria. In England there are 30,000 Jews, of whom 20,000 reside in London, but they are still more numerous in some parts of continental Europe ; at Warsaw, for instance, they form one-fourth part of the population. In the following graphical description of the present state of the Jews, by Professor Gaussen, it will be perceived that the statistical calculations are founded upon different data from those above adduced. " The restless feet of God's ancient people are pressing at this very hour the snows of Siberia, and the burning sands of the desert. Our friend Gobat found numbers of them in the elevated plains of Abyssinia, eighteen hundred miles to the south of Cario ; and when Denham and Clapperton, the first travellers that ventured across the great Sahara, arrived on the banks of the lake Tchad, they also found that the wandering Jew had preceded them there by many a long year. When the Portuguese settled in the Indian Peninsula, they found three distinct classes of Jews ; and when the English lately took pos session of Aden in the south of Arabia, the Jews were more in number there than the Gentiles. By a census taken within the last few months in Russia, they amount to 2,200,000 ; so that their population in that immense empire exceeds that of our twenty-two cantons. Morocco contains 300,000, ¦ and Tunis 150,000. In the one small town of Sana, the capital of Arabia Felix, they assemble together in eighteen synagogues. Yemen counts 200,000 ; the Turkish empire 200,000, of which Constantinople alone contains 80,000. At Brody, where the Christians who are 10,000 in number have only three churches, the Jews, 20,000 in number, have 150 synagogues. Hungary has 300,000. Cracovic, 22,000. In a word, it is imagined that, were all the Jews assembled together, they would form a population of 7,000,000 ; so that, could you transport them into the land of their fathers this very year, they would form a nation more powerful and more numerous than our Switzerland."^ Characteristics op the Language. — Wliether Hebrew was or was not the primeval tongue of the human race has been the subject of much discussion, and is a question which, with our present means of knowledge, it is impossible satisfactorily to resolve. Certain it is, however, that the Hebrew language bears many internal marks of antiquity. The majority of Hebrew words, for instance, are descriptive ; that is, they specify the prominent or distinguishing quahty of the person, animal, place, or thing, which they designate : and the vocabulary, though comparatively poor in abstract and metaphysical terms, is rich in words having immediate reference to those objects of sense with which a nomadic people might be supposed to be most conversant. Thus, there are no less than 250 distinct_ botanical terms in the Old Testament ; and synonymous forms of expression for the common actions and occurrences of Ufe are numerous and varied. Among these synonymes have been counted no less than fourteen different words of which each signifies to break; there are ten words answering to the verb to seek; nine express the act of dying, fourteen convey the idea of tnist m trod, nine signify remission of sms, and eight denote darkness ; and to express the observance ot the laws ot God there are no less than twenty-five phrases.^ The language appears to have attained its utmost possible development at a very early period, and to have remained subsequently for ages in the same stage, without progression or retrogression. This is evidenced by comparing the \ ^S^fA^lZl^^tfT^:^- ' "^""i -sermon Preached at Geneva, by Professor Ganssen, 1843: ^ see Hoole's Year Book of Missions, p. 51. ¦I Davidson's Lectures on Biblical Criticism, p. 265. Shemitic Languages.] HEBREW. 21 books of the Pentateuch with those of the later prophets : the latter diOer from the former only by the disuse of a few words, which in the course of centuries had become obsolete, and by the intro duction of sundry terms which had been engrafted on the language by intercourse with the Assyrians and Babylonians : there are, however, 268 verses of pure Chaldee in the Old Testament. A certain stiiEiess of construction, joined to great energy and simphcity, appears to be the most prominent feature of Hebrew and its cognate dialects. The fundamental structure of these dialects bears the impress, if we may so speak, of premeditation and design. Unlike all other idioms, the roots or elementary words are dissyllable and triliteral ; they are for the most part the third person singular, preterite tense, active voice of the verb, and seem to have been originally framed for the express pur pose of representing ideas in the simplest possible form, while the apphcation of these ideas to denote the varied circumstances of life (such as time past, present, or ftiture, personal agency, passion, or feeling,) is effected generaUy by mere changes of the vowels placed above, within, or below, the letters of the root; for instance, ^P? expresses a simple fact — "he learned," but IS? denotes an additional circum stance, viz. : that he learned diligently : so 1?'^ he spake, by the simple change of a vowel sign (l?'^) comes to denote the thing spoken, that is, a ¦word. Besides the vowels, a certain set of consonants set aside for this ofiice, and hence called Serviles, are sometimes used in modifying the meaning of the roots. With respect to the alphabetical system of the Hebrews, it has generally been the custom to attribute the introduction of the square character to Ezra. It has lately, however, been shown that the square characters had no existence tiU probably two or three centuries after the Christian era. Kopp (in his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit) traces the gradual formation of these characters from the inscriptions on the bricks at Babylon, down through the Phoenician or Samaritan letters on the Maccabean coins, and thence to the Palmyrene inscriptions found among the ruins of Palmyra ; and Gesenius, in the last edition of his Grammar, admits that the square or modern Hebrew character is descended from the Palmyrene. The rabbinical style of writing now in use among the Jews, is merely a cursive modification of the square character, adopted for ease and expedition. ' History op the Hebrew Text op Scripture.— From the first promulgation of the written word, special provision seems to have been made for its careful preservation. (See Exod. 25.21; — 40.20). A distinct command had reference to the place in which the book of the law was to be deposited, namely, in the side of the Ark of the Covenant. (Deut. 31. 26). The multipUca tion of copies also was provided for by a Divine decree, (see Deut. 17. 18); and a copy of the law of Moses was made by Joshua. (See Jos. 8. 32). On the erection of the Temple, Solomon caused the Ark to be brought " into the oracle of the house, to the most holy place, under the wings of the Cherubim ;" and from that period the books of holy writ were guarded within the walls of the Sacred edifice, as is evident from such passages as 2 Kings 22. 8 ; — 2 Chron. 34. 14, &c. That these divine records did not faU into the hands of the enemy when the Jews were led away captive to Babylon, may be inferred from the fact that in the Ust of the spoils carried away from the temple, detailed as that list is, (see 2 Ki. 25, — 2 Chron. 36 and Jer. 52), there is no mention whatever of the Sacred books. The captives, at the very moment that they were compelled to abandon the gold and silver of their temple, must have concealed and carried with them these most valued treasures ; — for Daniel, who wrote during the captivity, made distinct reference to two difierent parts of Scripture as documents weU known to his countrymen, (see Dan. 9); Ezra when he went up from Babylon to Jerusalem was " a ready scribe in the law of Moses which the Lord God of Israel had given," (Ezra 7. 6), and immediately on the return from captivity, the people called for the book of the law of ]\Ioses, which was opened and read to them. (Neh. 8. 1). The completion of the Canon of the Old Testament is referred to about the time of the completion of the Second Temple ; and there can be no doubt but that the inspired men who lived at that period, namely Malachi, the last of the Old Testament prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, Ezra, and Nehemiah, coUected all the books that had been given by inspiration of God, and deposited them in the Temple. When the Temple and the city of Jerusalem were destroyed by the Romans, the characteristic faithfulness of the Jews to the sacred charge originaUy committed to them, remained the same. Some of the learned Jews opened schools in various parts of the East for the cultivation of Sacred Uterature ; one of these schools, estabUshed at Tiberias in Galilee, is mentioned by Jerome as existing in the early part of the fifth century ; another school of almost equal note was established at Babylon, and at both frequent transcriptions of the Scriptures were made. And the hand of Providence is to be traced in this multipUcation of copies 1 See Professor Stuart in Biblical Repository for 1832. 22 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. at different places and by distinct institutions, for the comparison of copies afterwards formed a ready mode for the correction of such errors as had crept in through the negUgence of copjrists. The most stringent laws, however, were in force among the Jews to ensure accuracy in their copies of the Scriptures ; the preparation of the parchment, of the ink, and even of the state of mind of the copyist, were all prescribed by rule ; and such has ever been their reverence for antiquity, that when in an ancient exemplar they have met vsdth the accidental inversion or misplacing of a letter, or when one letter has been made larger than the rest or suspended above the line, they have scrupulously refrained from rectifying even what was so manifestly erroneous, under the superstitious notion that in the original formation and location of every letter some mystery is involved. Still ftirther to ensure the perfect integrity of the text, the Jews at some period between the fourth and sixth century carefully collected into one book all the grammatical and critical remarks on the letter of Scripture that had been current at different times and places since the time of Ezra. To the volume thus formed, which in process of time became larger than the Bible itself, they gave the name of Masora, that is tradition, because the criticisms it contained had been handed down by tradition from father to son. But besides being a collection of grammatical annotations, the Masora reaUy was, as the Jews emphaticaUy styled it " the hedge of the law," for it contains a multitude of the most minute calcula tions concerning the number of verses, Unes, words, and letters, in the Sacred volume ; so that the number of letters in every verse, and even the middle letter of every verse having been ascertained with some exactness, it was anticipated that no interpolation or omission in the text could for the fiiture pass undetected. The further influence of the Septuagint and other ancient versions in securing the early copies of the Hebrew Scriptures from the possibility of corruption will be subsequently noticed. Eight particular copies seem to have been especially honoured among the Jews on account of their strict fideUty and accuracy, and to have been regularly used as exemplars from which all other copies were made. These eight copies were — 1. The Codex of HiUel, an ancient MS. no longer in existence, but it was seen at Toledo in the twelfth century by the Rabbi Kimchi ; Rabbi Zacuti who Uved about the end of the fifteenth century declared that part of the MS. had been sold and sent to Africa. This copy contained the vowel points invented by the Masorites. 2. The Babylonian Codex, supposed to contain the text as revised under the care of Rabbi Ben NaphtaU, President of the Academy at Babylon. 3. The Codex of Israel, supposed to exhibit the text as corrected by Rabbi Ben Asher, President of the Academy ahove mentioned at Tiberias ; this MS. is imagined to have been the same as that of Jerusalem. Lastly, the remaining five Codices were, the Egyptian Codex, the MS. of Sinai containing only the Pentateuch, the Pentateuch of Jericho, the Codex of Sanbuki, and the book of Taygun. All the MSS. now in existence can be traced to one or other of these exemplars. The MSS. executed by the Jews in Spain foUow the Codex of Hillel, and are more valued than those made in any otlier country, on account of their accuracy and the elegance with which they are written, the letters being perfectly squa,re, and having the appearance of print. German MSS. on the contrary are not elegantly written, and the characters are rudely formed, but they are valued on account of their contaming readings coinciding vnth the Samaritan Pentateuch and the ancient versions. The ItaUan MSS. are neither so beautiful as the Spanish, nor so rude in appearance as the German, and they do not follow the Masora so closely as the former, nor deviate from it so frequently as the latter. ' Of the Hebrew MSS. now known to be in existence, the most ancient of which the date has been duly attested is not much above seven hundred years old. It formerly belonged to Reuchlm, and is now preserved in the Library at Carlsmhe, whence it is famiUarly known as the Codex Carlsruhensis : it IS m square foUo, its date is A.D. 1106, and its country is Spain. It contains the Prophets with the largum. There are two or three MSS. to which an earUer origin is assigned, but the date of their execution is very doubtful. There are only five or six MSS. extant which were made so early as the twellth century; we have about fifty MSS. vnitten in the thirteenth century, eighty in the fourteenth, and 110 m the fifteenth. ^ The Jews who have been located for several centuries in the interior of China do not possess any MSS. of earUer date than the fifteenth century. The black Jews on the coast ot Malabar, who are supposed to have emigrated to India about the time ofthe Jevrish captivity, possessed a Hebrew MS. which was brought to England by Buchanan in 1806, and is now carefully preserved at Cambridge. It is a roU of goats' skins dyed red, and measures forty-eight feet long by 1 Home's Introduetion, Vol. II. 2 Davidson's Lectures on Biblical Criticism. Shemitic Languages.] HEBREW. 23 twenty-two inches wide. It only contains part of the Pentateuch, Leviticus and a portion of Deu teronomy are wanted. The text, with a few sUght variations, accords with the j\Iasoretic. As is the case vnth all the more ancient MSS., there is no division of words ; an old rabbinical tradition says that the law was formerly one verse and one word. The division into verses is generaUy attributed to the compilers of the Masora. The division into chapters is more recent, and was first adopted in the Latin Testament. A more ancient division of the Pentateuch was into parashioth, or greater and less sections for the regular reading in the synagogue, a division stiU retained by the Jews in the roUs of the Pentateuch.' Printed Editions op the Hebrew Bible. — The first portion of the Hebrew Scriptures committed to the press was the Psalter, with the Commentary of Rabbi Kimchi, it appeared in 1477, but it is not certain at what place it was printed. In 1482 the Pentateuch was pubUshed at Bologna, and other parts of Scripture were subsequently printed at various places. But the first complete Bible that issued from the press was that printed in 1488 at Soncino, a smaU town of Lombardy, between Cremona and Brescia. Copies of this edition are now so scarce that only nine are known to exist, one of which is in the Library of Exeter CoUege, Oxford. It has points and accents, but from what MSS. it was pruited is unknown. It formed the text of another edition, pruited, vnth a few corrections, at Brescia in 1494. The printers of both these editions were of a family of German Jews who had settled at Soncino ; they are noted for having been, in point of time, the first Hebrew printers. The Brescia edition is famous for having been that from which Luther made his translation of the Old Testament, and the identical volume used by him is still preserved in the Royal Library at Berlin. This edition forms one of the three standard texts from which aU subsequent editions have been executed; the other two being the Hebrew text of the Complutensian Polyglot (pubUshed 1514 — 17, and for which seven MSS. were consulted), and the second edition of Bomberg's Bible. ^ Bomberg printed in aU five editions, of which the first appeared at Venice in 1518 ; but the second edition, pubUshed at Venice 1525 — 26, is the most valued on account of its superior correctness, and its text stiU forms the basis of modem printed Bibles. It is pointed according to the Masoretic system, and was pruited from the text of the Brescia edition, corrected by reference to some Spanish MSS., under the care of Rabbi Ben Chajim, a Jew of profound acquaintance with the Masora and rabbinical erudition. AU the editions above mentioned were executed by Jews or Jewish converts. The first Hebrew Bible pubUshed by a Gentile, was that printed in 1534 — 35 at Basle, with a Latin translation in a paraUel column, by Munster, a learned German ; in a second edition pubUshed 1536, he introduced critical annotations and portions of the Masora : he used the Brescia edition of 1494 as his text, but seems to have consulted Bomberg's Bible and several MSS. In 1569 — 72 the Hebrew text of the Antwerp Polyglot was pubUshed ; it is compounded of the Complutensian text, and that of the second edition of Bomberg's Bible. The next most celebrated editions, in point of time, of the Hebrew Bible were those of Buxtorf: he pubUshed an 8vo. edition at Basle in 1619, and his great Rabbinical Bible (so caUed because accompanied by the Masora and the Commentaries of five Jewish rabbis) appeared in 1618 — 20. About this period the Samaritan Pentateuch was first introduced into Europe, and a new era commenced in the history of Hebrew criticism. Hitherto both Jews and Christians had rested secure in the supposed uniformity of Hebrew MSS. Origen, who as wiU hereafter be shown, had certainly attempted to collate the Hebrew text vrith the Septuagint version, seems to have taken Uttle or no pains in the comparison of Hebrew MSS. ; and though in some of the editions of the Bible, as above mentioned, several MSS. had been consulted, a general and systematic coUation of aU the MSS. of the Old Testament had never been deemed requisite. Now, however, the attention of the learned was drawn to the variations between the Hebrew text, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Septuagint version ; the controversies thence arising happily led to the examination of the MSS. themselves, and the various readings there discovered were discussed by the same laws of criticism that had long been in force vrith respect to profane writings. Two most important critical editions of the Bible, pubUshed in 1661 and 1667 at Amsterdam by Athias a learned Rabbi, were among the first fruits of these researches : the text was founded on MSS. as weU as on a coUation of previous printed editions, and one MS. was said to be 900 years old.^ So highly were the labours of Athias appreciated, that ' Butler's Horse Biblicee, p. 150. ' Bishop Marsh's Lectures on tlie CriUcism and Interpretation of ' Davidson's Lectures on Biblical Criticism. the Bible. 24 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. in testimony of public admiration, the States General of Holland presented him with a gold chain and medal appendant. Athias was the first editor who numbered the verses of the Hebrew Bible,- every fifth verse had in previous editions been marked with a Hebrew numeral. His text, with some few alterations, was beautifully reprinted by Van der Hooght in 1705 at Amsterdam ; this edition is celebrated for its typographical elegance, and the clearness of the characters, especiaUy of the vowel points. It has some few Masoretic notes in the margin, and a coUation of various readings from printed editions at the end. It was reprinted in London 1811 — 12, under the editorship of Mr. Frey. Among other reprints of Van der Hooght's text, with corrections by various editors, the splendid edition of Houbigant appeared at Paris in 1753. In this edition the text is divested of vowel pomts, all Masoretic appendages are omitted, and several readings from the Samaritan are inserted in the margin of the Pentateuch. In the same year that Houbigant printed his edition, Kennicott pubhshed his first dissertation on the state of the Hebrew text, in which he clearly demonstrated the necessity of collating all the MSS. of Scripture that were known to be yet extant. To defray the expense of so important an undertaking, a large subscription, headed by George III, was raised in England, and the work of collation, commenced by Kennicott and his coadjutors in 1760, continued tiU 1769. Kenni cott collated 250 MSS. with his own hand, (most of which, however, were only examined in select places), and the total number coUated by him and under his direction was about 600. In 1776 — 80 he published a splendid edition of Van der Hooght's text at Oxford, with various readings collected from Hebrew and Samaritan MSS., from printed editions, and from the quotations of the Bible occur ring in the works of ancient rabbinical vnitings, and especially in the Talmud, of which the text belongs to the third century. An important supplement to this great work was published by M. de Rossi at Parma, 1784 — 87, consisting of additional readings from Hebrew MSS. and other sources. De Eossi added a volume of SchoUa Critica in 1798. Up to the present moment about 1300 Hebrew MSS. have been collated in whole or in part ; but each MS. very rarely contains the whole Bible, some being confined to the Pentateuch, others to the Prophets, while others comprise but a single booh. It is a remarkable fact, and a proof of the continued interposition of Divine Providence, that after all the laborious researches that have been made among MSS. belonging to different centuries and to various countries, not a single reading has yet been detected which affects the power of any one doctrine, precept, or consolation, contained in that holy volume which has been received during so many ages by Jews and Christians as the Word of God. Discrepancies to the amount of several thousands exist in different MSS. as to the insertion or omission of a letter, the use or rejection of a synonymous term, and similar minor details ; nor are these without their use, for it is obvious that such errata, though they affect only the orthography or mere diction of the text, subserve the double purpose of aiding in the grammatical elucidation of certain difficult passages, and of proving the general integrity of the Sacred Canon. Van der Hooght's text, with which aU Hebrew MSS. hitherto coUated have been compared by Kennicott and others, is esteemed the most correct of the printed editions : the typographical and other errors which encumbered the first editions have been removed by Hahn and later editors, and it now forms our Textus Receptus. It is not, however, appreciated by some of the Jews, merely on account of Roman figures and sundry marks in the margin which have appeared in the editions of this text. To meet their prejudices the London Society for the Conversion of the Jews caused an edition to be printed immediately from the text of Athias as exhibited in his second edition of 1667, and which is the edition most prized by the Jews. The Society's Bible was edited by Judah D'AUemand, and pubUshed in London 1828 ; and special evidences of the blessing of God upon the Old Testament Scriptures, in preparing the minds of his ancient people for the fuUer revelation of the New Testament are to be found in the Reports of the Society. HEBREW, AS A TEANSLATION. SPECIMEN OF THE HEBREW VERSION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, BY im. WILLIAM GREENFIELD, AND OF THE VERSION EXECUTED FOR THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE JEWS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. gkeeneield's veesion. TT TT-: TT- TT T T T T - T T • ¦¦ -*.•:? • n;n3 n*3 Sin : D^nSxn-nK n^mii im r\'T\ ^ nriN Dii f)N vny^aai nix vn n^nm ? vn D^»n \i x T\'r\:i T . - _ . T • - T : • ijB'nni ? n^Nn '^m^ nixni : Dnxn nx^ ni'?^' EJ'^N ^np. : %p ^ inx ns?S xa xn : pnv i^sjj'ii • tD^nSxn •¦ : T Itt : ••.it tiT3 Sb iy;bNt isjaS ^ nixn-Sy n^ynS n^y^ tyzsS dx ^3 ? nixn r\'7\ nS Nin ¦t)--: • - T TT n^Nten nJ3Nn nix n-'n Nin t niNn-Sy ¦ •¦ T :• :-. T T T T - n^n chm x oSiys xan b^^n-S^S TT TT, TT TT 'T: : ii^3n nS DSiym ? in^a n^nj oSiyni ¦¦ tt: t: t:* tt: nS iHN 'h-im) ? iS nB'N Sn n^ Nin PdSb' 1313 QnS inSsj? na'Ni : Sap iBfN : iaa'a D^J*,;bN;bS D^riSN *J3 nvnS nSi • ib'sn niNna nSi • Q^wa nS wni : nSij D^riSNtt dn-'3 k'^n «iNsa •i-iba-nN nNn3i ?luina pB^*i n^n i^:h i V V : • ~ " : I : • " t t t t : : nj&Ni non nS^ ? 2nS n^n*n ninss society's VEESIOK". SxN n^n ni'^ni nnnn n^n n^^Nns V" tt TT-: TT- TT * " t n^n Nin :D*nSNn n^n nnnm D\n'SNn^ T T • v: T T T T T - : • v; It n^nj nirSa t»riSNn h-aa n'mi:i'' T : • TTT • v: T V ¦¦ • •¦ ; jn^m im nnn n^n^ nS mj^Saai b T : • V -: T T T : • t^t: - ¦ jtDnNn niN vn Q^»nni CD»*n vn i3' TTT T •--: •- T fl nnS|S? nS '^mn] w? Tj^n? niNnv :pnv iaEJ'i d^hSn mti nhp E'^n ^n^v IJ^fiS niNn-Sy n^j^nS nx?S j^;i Nin- n^n nS riT : in^-Sj? qS^ ly^N* ' T T T '^ T \ • -.- Kin J niNn-Sy i'VD't!"^^ '^ ^^**0 ' ^Nr-S^S n^Nsn *ri??Nn niNn njn iT-Sj; oSiyni rrn oSiya toSiyn' t'- t^t: TT t'^t t'^t K5 >«in : iyn*^ nS oSiyni^ n^^: ' :inN rh:ip nS inSjDi inS^D-SN T ; I ¦ T ¦-. : T '.. . nvnS niEJ^n |n3 inN iS^p n^N rhi^hy nS im xW^ n'Tfp^jh arh^ ':^' niNriD nSi^ nb'sn r\)mp nSi D^ana n^n nnnni tinSii D^riSNa-DN ^3 nir T T T T - : T ••'. .V innrnN nNnsi mr\^ pm n^nS tnzpNi npn nSs inS n^nj ni353 ON THE HEBREW VERSION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT SCRIPTURES. Hebrew Versions of the New Testament. — We have no certam information concerning the translation of any portion of the New Testament into the language of the Old Testament Scriptures, prior to the year 1537, when the Gospel of St. Matthew was published m Hebrew by Sebastian Munster, at Basle. Great attention was excited by this book at the time of its appearance, on account of an ancient tradition which prevailed in the Church that St. Matthew originally wrote 26 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. his Gospel in Hebrew. ' It was very evident, however, that Munster's pubhcation had no pretensions to be regarded as the text of the sacred original, nor even as an ancient version, for the language in which it was written was not the Syro-Chaldaic current in Palestine at the time of our Lord, but the rabbinical Hebrew in use among the Jews of the twelfth century ; it was moreover fuU of solecisms and barbarisms, and bore indubitable marks of having been translated either directly from the Vulgate, or from an Italian version of the Vulgate. The translation was probably made by an unconverted Jew, at some period subsequent to the twelfth century. In an Apology for this work, dedicated to Henry VIII of England, Munster states that the MS. from wliich he printed was defective in several passages, and that he was compelled to supply the omissions as he best could from his own resources. This circumstance may serve partly to account for the errors which abound in the work. It passed through several editions, and a Hebrew version of the Epistle to the Hebrews was appended to it. Another edition of the same translation of St. Matthew, but printed from a more complete and correct MS. brought for the purpose from Italy, was pubUshed by TUlet, Bishop of St. Brieux, at Paris in 1555, with a Latin version by Mercerus. A translation of the four Gospels into bibUcal Hebrew was made by Joannes Baptista Jonas,^ a converted Jew, and Professor of Hebrew at the University of Rome: he dedicated it to Pope Clement IX, and it was published at Rome in 1668, at the expense of the Congregation de Propa ganda Fide. The first translation of the entire New Testament into Hebrew was made by EUas Hutter, a Protestant divine, born at Ulm in 1553. He was Professor of Hebrew at Leipsic, and first dis tinguished himself by his ingenious plan of printing a Hebrew Bible, in which he had the radical letters struck off with solid and black, and the servile with hollow and white types, while the quiescents were executed in smaller characters and placed above the Une ; thus exhibiting at a glance the root or elementary principle of each word. Hutter's success in this undertaking led him to project a Polyglot Bible : he commenced with the New Testament, but found himself utterly at a loss for want of a Hebrew version. He therefore determined upon supplying the deficiency himself, and in the course of one twelvemonth he produced a translation of the New Testament. He then proceeded with Ms original design, and completed his Polyglot Testament in twelve languages, at Nuremberg in 1600. This Hebrew version was afterwards detached from the Polyglot, and repeatedly printed. In 1661 it was revised and pubUshed in London, in 8vo., under the superintendence of WiUiam Robertson; but the greater part of this edition was consumed ha. the fire of London, 1666, so that copies are now rarely to be met with. Another edition, but in 12mo., was pubUshed in London in 1798, by the Rev. Richard Caddick, B.A., for the benefit of the Jews. It became, however, apparent that this version, although entitled to some measure of commendation in consideration of the short time in which it was executed, is unsuitable for general circulation. The Jews were prejudiced against it on account of its not being in pure biblical Hebrew: they objected to the frequent introduction of rabbinical words, and it was proved to be full of grammatical inaccuracies and solecisms. It had no sooner, therefore, been brought into use, than a new translation became a desideratum. In the meantime Dr. Buchanan brought from India a translation of the New Testament, executed in Travancore, among the Jews of that country, to whom allusion has been made above : the translator was a learned rabbi. The MS. was written in the small rabbinical or Jerusalem character; the style is elegant and flowing, and tolerably faithful to the text. Dr. Buchanan deposited the MS. in the University Library at Cambridge; but it was previously transcribed by Mr. Yeates, of Cambridge, in the square Hebrew character. ^ A copy was presented to the London Society for the Conversion of the Jews, and it was at one time thought that it would greatly promote the object ofthe Society to print and circulate the' production of a Jew so evidently master of his own ancient language. After much deUberation, how ever, a more strictly Uteral translation was stiU deemed desirable; and accordingly, in 1816, Mr. Frey and other learned Hebraists executed, under the patronage of the Jews' Society, a new version of the New Testament. In 1818 nearly 3500 copies left the Society's press, and tliis edition was speedily followed by another issue. The British and Foreign Bible Society assisted materially in this work, by purchasing at various times to a large amount. After this version had been in circulation some time, complaints from_ Hebrew readers in various parts of the world were laid before the Jews' Society Com^ mittee, _ concerning the rendering of certain passages. To ensure minute accuracy, the Committee determined on a thorough revision. They consulted some of the most eminent men in Europe, and Professor Gesenius was recommended to them as the first Hebrew scholar of the age. To him, there- ' "'^ata?iV^^i'H,?™,°.1;j^''n?t^°*'l' ^1^ Testament, Vol. I., con- 3 a MS. of the four Gospels in Hebrew, mitten by Mr. Yeata, = fiimon"s raSj^a^Sorfn? v^^^^^^ =" '805, is now in the British Museum, No. 11,659 of tte Simon s Critical History of Versions, p. 175. additional MSS. Shemitic Languages.] HEBREW, AS A TRANSLATION. 27 fore, they confided their version, requesting from him a critique upon it, and suggestions as to alterations. Gesenius went carefully through the work as far as the Acts, and Ukewise through the book of Revelation, when his numerous engagements compeUed him to resign the task. The work, with aU Gesenius's notes, was then transferred by the Jews' Committee to Dr. Neumann, a converted Jew, lecturer on Hebrew at the University of Breslau. Dr. Neumann commenced the work anew, and his revision when completed was acknowledged to bear the stamp of " diUgence, accuracy, zeal, and profound scholarship." The Umited funds of the Society, however, prevented them from giving this valuable revision to the pubUc, and it therefore remained some time in MS. At this very period the pubUsher of the Modern Polyglot Bible (Mr. Bagster) requiring a Hebrew version of the New Testament for the Polyglot, appUed to the Society for the Conversion of the Jews for the critical emendations they had been amassing : the important notes of Gesenius and Neumann were in consequence handed to him, and were incorporated in the new version executed for the Polyglot by ilr. Greenfield, and published in 1831.' In 1839 the Society issued an edition of 5000 copies of another version, executed by the Rev. Dr. M'Caul, Rev. M. S. Alexander, Rev. J. C. Reichardt, and ilr. S. Hoga. This work, a specimen of which accompanies this memoir, was afterwards stereotyped, and is the version now circulated by the Society. Results of the Dissemination of this Version. — In the Reports of the Society for the Conversion of the Jews, are many affecting and weU authenticated instances of the Divine blessing having attended the perusal of the Hebrew New Testament. One fact in connection with this subject requires notice here, as showing the power of the New Testament over the heart of a Jew. The learned rabbi, mentioned above as the translator of the Travancore Testament, engaged in the work solely with the design of confuting Christianity. That his triumph might be more complete, he endeavoured in his translation to keep as near to the original as possible, for he never doubted but that with his scholarship and logical abiUties he would find it easy to refute the statements of the text. By the time, however, that he had gone through the life of Jesus, his confidence was shaken, and as if afraid, says Dr. Buchanan, of the converting power of his own translation, he inserted a paragraph at the close of the Gospels, in which he took heaven and earth to witness that he had undertaken the work with the express design of opposing the Epicureans, as he termed the Christians. A cloud hangs over his subsequent history ; but there are abundant reasons for beUeving that he feU a martyr to the bigotry of his people, and that after embracing the reUgion of Jesus, he sealed his testimony with Ms blood. Mr. Greenfield informed Mr. Bagster, that lie never engaged in the important work of this translation without previous supplication for Divine assistance and guidance. S A M A 11 1 T A N . SPECIMEN OF THE SAMARITAN VERSION FROM WALTON'S POLYGLOT. EXODUS, Chap. xx. v. 1 to 17. • ismAPa/f*^ • a^Z/f ' st^m • miHiu- * : ^arrraz • l^aZ/f • snrZa • za • Am • afiraZ/f • ZZa? ** ¦ aiTT'^v • Zv • >iim':i.'\-K'^ • ^am^ih- • az • ^m^ttt • a-Z * ' iism'^av • Amaa • am^ma • v^/f • ia • ^frrtas'^t : v^za • ^v^A-as? • ivi'ii • B[fTria^»"3'^ • ^^"^ * Za^ • Z-^3 • az ' 'savA • az * • Z7f • a^ZA- • 3?3m • fira!iA • ^¦l^ : ;j.'?:3*'"a"^A ¦ AZt • :^?Z * "^Ii^a • aZ * : 3(V'\aZ * vsza • "^gv? * • firA:^.s^z • amvma^ • Zvt ' airrAAmZA • zvt • amia • Zv • i^tsA • 3?v • '^va • a:^? • a^ZA : ^x^m • a"* • art • Z9^a • az * ' rrr'^vta • fTr^v5^z^ ' m'ii,-^'\l ' aoraZAZ • "^M • ia?rrr - Aor • 'w * * — : : l^iaZ * 5fa^ • Am • za-^m°f • Am : at^tm • ma^^m • aZ * aZ?! ¦ !iiaz • sAvma"^ • ^'nxmx * • aA^mav • za • '^avA'? • "^^"^a • ams'tm • aa"^ * • ^"^'^vl • ^Aa^" • • • • aA^At • a^av • aA^a? • a'^at • ?(aa • ^t^rmav • za • sta • -^avA • az ' a^tZA • st^tmz • sia*" : ^v^A • Am? • ^nt'nx'^ • Am • 3f?3(m • "^av • amatm • a"^"^ • AZ?t * * am^tva'^ * H'^xmx • Am • 3?^m • a^a • ia • Zv • 3vma"^ • Bta^ma • -eiiA? • ita^ • Za • Am? • aam • Am? ¦ am!a?m • ita'SAm • zm'^az • a^A • Am? • a?aA • Am • '\v?a * * — : : g^^'^p? • stAa*" ¦ a?iir • ailA • AZ * : '^?1A • AZ * • ZWA • AZ * : az ' asm • a^cZA : 3?Bfm'^ • stv^A • Zv • AAA • '^^¦^A- • AZ? • a'^a'^ * Ama • '^a^A • aZ * • ^v'"'^ * ?'^v^ • avsa • '^m^A ¦ AZ* — : : a^a¦^Z'^ • Za?- 3'\»3'^? • 3t^?A • sasa? • s-^av • aZvv : a^a'^ ON THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH AISTd SAMARITAN VERSION. Predominance of the Language. — The Hebrew language (in which the Samaritan Penta teuch is written) was predominant, as we have shown (pp. 19, 20) in many countries of antiquity. It has long ceased to be the vernacular of Samaria, the inhabitants now speak Arabic, but the Sacred books and liturgy belonging to the few remaining descendants of the ancient Samaritans, are written m a dialect called the Samaritan, which has never obtained extension beyond the Umits of Samaria itseu. The Samaritans have lost all political importance, they have dwindled down to a few famihes, and merely constitute a small religious sect. They dwell on the site of Shechem their ancient capital, now called Nablous or Naplosa, a corruption of the Greek word NeapoUs, the new city. The houses occupied by them are said not to be above fifty or sixty in number ; the total amount of inhabitants has not been exactly ascertained, but in 1824 there were only about sixty among them who paid the capitation tax. They still go up three times a year to Mount Gerizim to worship, but from fear of the Turks they offer sacrifices privately in their own city. Languages of Samaria. — Up to the period when the ten tribes of Israel were carried away captive into Assyria, Hebrew was the language of Samaria. The characters employed by the ten tribes in writing Hebrew were however totally different from those now in use among the Jews. The Samaritan letters, as they are called, are closely allied to the Phoenician, ' and appear originally to have been employed by the whole Jewish nation, for the characters on the Maccabean coins are very similar to the Samaritan, and these coins, of which the series probably commences about 150 years before Christ, were struck by Simon, Jonathan, and other members of the Maccabean dynasty. The mixed nature of the dialect which became predominant in Samaria on the removal of the ten tribes, may be inferred from 2 Kings 17. 24, where we are told that " the king of Assyria brought men from Babylon, and from Cuthah, and from Ava, and from Hamath, and from Sepharvaim, and 1 See Bayer's De Nummis Hebneo-Samaritanis. Shemitic Languages.] SAMARITAN. 29 placed them in the cities of Samaria instead of the children of Israel ;" moreover, a Hebrew Priest was appointed as the pubUc teacher of religion to this mixed multitude, and hence, as might have been expected, a dialect^ partly Aramsan and partly Hebrew, became in process of time the general medium of communication. Arabic being at present the language spoken in Samaria, this dialect has now no existencebut in books; it is greatly venerated by the Samaritans, and they afiirm that it is the true and original Hebrew in which the law was given, and that the language formerly spoken by the Jews was not Hebrew but Jewish. ^ History op the Hebr^o- Samaritan Pentateuch. — The date, copyist, and origin of this transcript of the Hebrew Pentateuch are involved in inextricable mystery, yet after aU the dis cussions that have taken place on the subject, the most probable conjecture seems to be, that when the ten tribes under Jeroboam seceded from their alUance with Judah, they possessed this copy of the Pentateuch, which they ever afterwards .carefuUy preserved, and transmitted to posterity. It is written throughout in pure Hebrew, and corresponds nearly word for word with our Hebrew text, so that the mere acquaintance with the Samaritan characters is aU that is requisite to enable a Hebrew scholar to read this ancient document. It is rather remarkable that in about two thousand places where the Samaritan differs from the Hebrew text, it agrees with the Septuagint, and among the various hypotheses that have been started to account for this circumstance, it seems most reasonable to suppose with Gesenius, that the Samaritan copy and the Septuagint version were both made from some ancient Hebrew codex which differed in a few minor particulars from the more modern Masoretic text. The variations of this Pentateuch do not, however, affect the force of any doctrine, the two chief discrepancies between the Samaritan and Hebrew texts being, the prolongation of the period between the deluge and the bfrth of Abraham in the Samaritan, and the substitution of the word Gerizim for Ebal in Deut. 27. In these cases it is impossible to say whether the Jews or the Samaritans were guilty of corrupting the original text. The Septuagint represents the contested period as even longer by some centuries than the Samaritan, and it is followed by the Roman Catholic Martyrology ; but in the Latin Vulgate, the computation of the Hebrew text has been adopted. ^ The chronology of the Samaritan has been vindicated by Dr. Hales, but generally, where various readings exist, the authority of the Hebrew is considered paramount. These occasional readings do not however diminish the value of the Samaritan Pentateuch as a witness to the integrity of the Hebrew text. That the same facts and the same doctrines should be transmitted in almost precisely the same words from generation to generation by nations, between whom the most rooted antipathy and rivalry existed (as was notably the case between the Samaritans and the Jews), is a strong argu ment in proof of the authenticity of the books ascribed to Moses ; the purity of the text handed down to us through these two separate and independent channels may likewise be argued from the fact, that no coUusion to alter passages in favour of thefr own prejudices is ever Ukely to have taken place between two such hostile nations. The Samaritan Pentateuch was studied by Eusebius, Jerome, and other fathers of the Church, and in their works several citations of the various readings existing between it and the Hebrew occur. Yet singular enough, this valuable text for about a thousand years was quite lost sight of by the learned, and it was unknown, and its very existence almost forgotten in Europe, when ScaUger, in the year 1559, suddenly instituted inquiries respecting it, and at his suggestion a negociation was opened by the learned men of Europe with the remnant of the Samaritans, for the purchase of copies of this Pentateuch. In 1616 Pietro deUa VaUe effected the purchase of a complete copy, wliich was bought by De Sancy (afterwards Bishop of St. Maloes), and sent by him in 1623 to the Library of the Oratory at Paris. In the meantime efforts were being made in England for the possession of copies, and between the years 1620 and 1630, Archbishop Usher obtained six MSS. from the East, of which some were complete and others not. Five of these ilSS. are stiU preserved iu England, but one copy which the Archbishop presented to L. de Dieu seems to have been lost. At various times other copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch have been since received in Europe, and there are in aU about seventeen which have been critically examined ; of these, six are in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and one in the Cotton Library in the British Museum. They are aU written either on parchment or on silk paper, there are no vowel points or accents, and the whole Pentateuch, like the Hebrew text, is divided into sections for the service of the synagogue, but while the Samaritan has 966 of these divisions, the Hebrew has only about 52. Some of the MSS. have a date beneath the name of the 1 Fisk in Missionary Herald for 1824, p. 310. 2 Butler's Hora: Biblic^, p. 34. 30 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Ciass II. copyist determining their age. The MS. belonging to the Oratory at Paris is supposed to have been written in the eleventh century ; our other MSS. are more recent, except one attributed to the eighth century, but its date is very uncertain. The Samaritans themselves, however, ascribe extraordinary antiquity to their own copies, and Fisk says that the Kohen or Priest showed him a MS. which they pretended had been written by Abishua, great grandson of Aaron, thirteen years after the death of Moses : it was a roll, in some respects like the synagogue rolls of the Jews, and kept in a brass case ; a copy in another brass case was afiirmed to be 800 years old. Fisk observed a number of MSS. of the Pentateuch on a shelf in the Samaritan synagogue, and he says, that besides the Pentateuch they have copies of the books of Joshua and Judges, but in separate volumes. The first printed edition of the Samaritan Pentateuch was made from the Codex Oratorii (i. e. the MS. belonging to the Oratory at Paris); it was printed by Father Morinus in the Paris Polyglot. This text was reprinted in the London Polyglot, with corrections from three of the MSS. which formerly belonged to Usher ; and so correct is this edition that a Samaritan Priest whom MaundreU visited at Naplosa, esteemed this Samaritan text equally with a MS. of his own, which he could not be prevailed to part with at any price. ' Fisk when in Samaria saw a reUc of the very copy of the Polyglot mentioned by MaundreU. Various readings collated from the Samaritan MSS. were given by Dr. Kennicott in his edition of the Hebrew Scriptures as mentioned page 24: and in 1790, Dr. Blayney published at Oxford the Samaritan Pentateuch from the text of the London Polyglot, in square Hebrew characters ; and the variations of the Samaritan text have likewise been pubUshed by Mr. Bagster. History of the Samaritan Version. — Three versions, of which two only are now extant, have been made of the Samaritan Pentateuch. The first version was made from the Hebrseo-Samari- tan text into the Samaritan dialect, but the date and author are unknown ; by some writers it is ascribed to the period when a Hebrew priest was sent by Esarhaddon to instruct the mixed multitude of Samaria in the service of God ; while others aflSrm that it was executed in the first or second century of the Christian era. This version is in the highest degree exact and Uteral ; it is in fact, a complete counterpart of the parent text. In some instances, however, its resemblance to the Chaldee Paraphrase of Onkelos is very striking, and there are no means of accounting for this singular agree ment, unless we adopt the supposition that it fell into the hands of Onkelos, and that it was inter polated by him. It has been printed in the Paris and London Polyglots, and in 1682, Cellarius pubUshed extracts from it with Latin annotations and a translation. Copious extracts are also' given in UUmann's Institutiones Linguse Samaritanse. When the Samaritan dialect fell into disuse, and the language of the Arabian conquerors became the vernacular of the country, the Samaritans had at first recourse to the Arabic version of Saadias Gaon, at that period in general use among the Jews. A translation into the Arabic language as spoken in Samaria, and written in Samaritan characters was afterwards prepared by Abu Said. It is not known with certainty in what year this translation was made ; Saadias Gaon died A. D. 942, Hnd it must have been made subsequently to that period, as Abu Said made great use of that Jewish rabbi's labours.^ This version is remarkably close and literal, and foUows the Samaritan even in those readings in which it differs from the Hebrew text. Several MSS. of this version stiU exist in Libanus, but the wholehas never been printed. A third version of the Samaritan Pentateuch was made into Greek, but this work, though quoted by the fathers, is no longer extant. The Samaritan and Arabic versions, from their noted fideUty, are of much value in correcting the text of the Samaritan Pentateuch, and in fact form almost the only sources for its emendation. 1 MaundreU's Joumey, p. 83, edit. 1810. 2 Davidson's Lectures on Bibhcal Criticism. CHALDEE. SPECIMEN OF THE TARGUM OF ONKELOS FROM WALTON'S POLYGLOT. '. EXODUS, Chap. xx. v. 1 to 17. ^iri^-s^ s . sri-n?a "'20 Dn.v»i sp^o ^npax »'i ^n^s ^j; wt? a : id^d^ jj^sn N'»anB-^3 n» « V^tol -\rhv. rplp-p?a-"'5? I.'??^ '?i" ¦>!??» ^^p bx ^n^^g ;^* Nji$ "^^ t-ian^^n sSi pn^ TiJpn-xb^ rsp^^ npj^-i 'Dqi^ inn *^a^x^ n't? I'njji^e . pn^n?N~in3 ^enp^ N^ja-pP^B'pniJ »K3b^ ''r>.''3T-irSy» ''n''^ri snaB'i spi'-ni i»3n-\i.n s : xnpK'^ n'ptj'a 'd^i n» " '•'St' k^ nx njjd^ tih^k 'n-KDB'a lo^n ^ ? : n-ipa \.T . . /T j( . . IT . . V . ./ : ^ t: ••-: af xpri w ; tin^uy^b Tayni n^an ppi'' «)??' » : a^n-iEy^j?^ siprn: K:^ix-nn KtP?^-n: |» nas?^ 'ppi* nrb' n^s u : ^np:;i n. \-ii>3'! ^tv?-i ^npt?! ^i?y ^nia-i Tj-ia-i ' m $n| ¦qsN-nn '^•larn! li'l'^ J^'.^l^l '^niK'i novti! ^»j ijna tr^y "^?V'?^ 'l'?'i*? ".?¦! 1^^? T^l""-'! ^n?n| Tnon-N^ w ; ab?ri >6 « : fi-iJO'^^ " : t^a;i ^ippn-x^ is ! i> an; 'nn^K »n x^-is-^s '^pi* i-iairi. ; :ii3n^ 'T Vai i^npni. nnini .Tnpsi n'lavi ^ian nnx Tonn k^ ¦nian rT'a nn:nn k'? w : k-ibb-t sn-nnD IT. , J> \. . T . 1 . ¦ , . <;•:-: ' t: - j- • *¦ ; - jt 'at: - j- v : - rr it': • . jt —.- ON THE CHALDEE LANGUAGE AND TARGUMS. The Aramean or Syrian language appears from the earUest times to have been divided into two grand branches, namely, the West Aramean or Syriac, which was the dialect spoken to the West in Syria and Mesopotamia, and the East Aramean, generally denominated the Chaldee, which was spoken to the East, in Babylonia, Assyria, and Chaldea. But this division of the Aramean language into two branches is rather geographical than philological, for with the exception perhaps of a few words peculiar to each dialect, and some slight variations in the vowels and the position of certain accents, no difference whatever, either in grammatical structure or lexicography can be detected between Syriac and Chaldee. MichaeUs, indeed, has remarked, that the Chaldee of Daniel becomes Syriac if read by a German or PoUsh Jew. The chief, and perhaps the only material point of distinction between the two dialects is, that Syriac is written in characters pecuUar to itself, whereas the square characters, which are also appropriated to Hebrew, are employed in writing Chaldee. Down to the time of Abraham, Chaldea is supposed to have been almost, if not quite, identical with Hebrew, and to have acquired subsequently the peculiarities of a distinct dialect. However this might have been, the dialect spoken in Chaldea was the original language of the Abrahamid^, for Abraham was called from " Ur of the Chaldees," (Gen. 11. 31). Isaac and his family spoke Hebrew, which was the language of Canaan, the land in which they sojourned, and Hebrew continued to be the language of thefr descendants till the time of the Babylonish captivity. During the seventy years passed at Babylon the dialect of the captives seems to have merged into, or to have become greatly adulterated with that of their conquerors, and the great similarity in genius and structure between the two dialects, naturally accelerated the effects of political causes in producing this admixture. On the return of the Jews to Jerusalem, it was the custom of the priests to read the law of Moses pubUcly to the people, and after wards to give an exposition, (see Neh. 8.8, etc.) It is the opinion of many eminent scholars that the law was read as it stood in the original Hebrew, but explained in Chaldee, the only dialect then generaUy intelligible among the Jewish people. However this may have been, it is certain that at least as early as the Christian era, written expositions of Scripture in the Chaldee dialect were in circulation among the Jews. The name of Targums, from a quadriUteral root signifying an explana tion or version, was given to these Chaldee compositions. The most ancient Targum now extant is that written by Onkelos, a disciple of HiUel, who died 60 B. c. This Hillel is by some supposed to 32 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. have been the grandfather of GamaUel, Paul's instructor.' In purity of style Onkelos equals the Chaldaic sections of Ezra and Daniel, and his fideUty to the Hebrew text, which he generally follows almost word for word, is so great, that he deserves to be looked upon as a translator, rather than as a paraphrast. No writings of his are extant except his Targum of the books of Moses, which has been printed with a Latin translation in the first volume of the London Polyglot ; ^ it is esteemed of much service in bibUcal criticism from the fact of its being supported, in passages where it differs from the Masoretic text, by other ancient versions. Besides the Targuni of Onkelos, seven other expositions of Scripture in the same dialect, though greatly inferior in merit, are now_ known to be in existence. The Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel upon the greater and lesser prophets is believed by some authors to have been written about 30 B. C. : though others assign it a later date ; it abounds in allegories, and the style is diffuse and less pure than that of Onkelos. It conforms generaUy to the Masoretic text, but differs from it in some important passages. A Targum written by another Jonathan (hence called the Pseudo Jonathan) made its appearance at some period subsequent to the seventh century: the style is barbarous, and intermixed with Persian, Greek, and Latin words ; it is confined to the Penta teuch, and generaUy foUows the rabbinical interpretations, hence it is of no use in criticism. The Jerusalem Targum is also upon the Pentateuch, but is in a very mutilated state, whole verses being wanting, and others transposed : it repeats the fables contained in the Pseudo Jonathan, and is written in the same impure style ; by many, indeed, it is considered merely as the fragments of an ancient recension of the Pseudo Jonathan. The Targum of Joseph the Blind on the Hagiographa is also written in very corrupt Chaldee, and adulterated with words from other languages. The remaining Targums (on Esther and Canticles) are too puerile and too paraplirastic to be entitled to notice here. The first seven Targums are all printed in the London Polyglot ; the eighth (on the Chronicles) was not known at the time of the pubhcation of that work ; it was discovered in the Library at Cam bridge, and pubUshed at Amsterdam in 1715. Beck had previously pubUshed large fragments from an Erfurt MS. in 1680 — 81 at Augsburg. The great utility of the earUer Targums, for the later Targums are of Uttle or no use, consists in their vindicating the genuineness of the Hebrew text, by proving that it was the same at the period the Targums were made, as it exists among us at the present day. The earlier Targums are also of importance in showing that the prophecies relating to the Messiah, were understood by Jews in ancient times to bear the same interpretation that is now put upon them by Christians. And, it must be added, that, in developing the customs and habits of the Jews, in exhibiting the aspect in which they viewed contested passages of Scripture, and in denoting the mode in which they made use of idioms, phrases, and pecuUar forms of speech, considerable light is derived from the Targums in the study both of the Old and of the New Testaments. ' Davidson's Lectures on Biblical Criticism. 2 Hamilton's Introduction to the Hebrew Scriptures, p. 189. SYHIAC. SPECIMEN OF THE PESHITO VERSION, AND OF THE PHILOXENIAN VERSION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. peshito veksion. JSsj^^jtJS JoCTi oCTio^J )Lj(ti . JJ^-.2i>.^ oqi joqi wOTo5'.,'s.\'y> - Jocn <^i->\^ '"^ . JcttJSs La^ . Jbm )-2-C CTLS . Jbqij ptSs "Loot J^U. Jla) OOTO . I " ' '-' ^ "^ * Jfcn^ V°°^Vi ^^o •> ot3«j 11 )i)Q-«-Co •• jcruL^ )i)aji.XXri jjcnoj . , I . r» . cTL^aj* •• Jot_Ss ^ 'J^Jt VA-'i-^^ Jocn '9 . . ' 9 . ' 9-J, JOOT Sot )J . JCTITDJ* )J) . JJOTQJ jLiii)J»o . JoOT )^V'^^ . )v\s,N )LJ» tnV.fS. . otjS j: U ji-yiNso . JOOT OTJ-iJLs " • * 9 ' * Jy ?J^l . uCTicSN'^o U '^J Jl^ Jil^^ ^ yo ^>*0 . ^p ^_;;^0 JOOT Jlm^i JiJ^O •> JJLuQjao JLcS ^.>,^ Jlroj philoxenian VEESION". «_ioioA_.] [A \V/-, . jA \Vi jooi wOloA*! I «.;^ . \b \Vi ioai >_.oioZ\_ii joL^o . jou^ Z.qX joai ^oi \ o . joiJ^ Z.aX i.A'l.o jooi wiOioAjj jjoi • \rM )laj Z,001 ¦. ,-.010, \ \ "^O . wOOl <7lp_»}_0 j . «.o . jooi v_.oioA-tj 1 - ¦• ouo . Z.OC1) >_adi j;aia_jo -. j a ] • i O; jjoio-} jooi >^aioA-.j .> ^)>j }j ouX j-:3Q-a-MO -. >ai 1 Yi {.30^^.0 7 oiX jV'" -. JolI^ ^ .^uAZUJ; ia.l-,.,0 ^'^s.^ ,aiiiu> {ao.} |Zo;ai£[iX jZ,j }joi . — j] . oi,—.^ ^oiVi.ou ^oiXo; j— 1 — o^j . j>oiaj "^^^io jouaj; !''->•{ Pj . jjoiQj 001 jooi ^oioA..j OOI . If— 'j^ ooj jjoiQj jooi wjOioA_.j .:. jjoioj } V.\V^ . I V^\v\ jZjj |_«_l^ ^s^iA iOLLiC; j V-,\\o .. jooi OlrJ^O j ViNSO ¦. jooi ^OloA^i oiX.; ^Qjoio . jz] oiX.> ,-jul.oiX ¦:• 'v:ij-. JJ oi^ ..OOU •. .^r, .-» fn 1. ^j ^01 •. ^oio o m 1 }] jOoou jou^; ] ¦! n; Jj-^q* ^o^"-^' (OOl ^ai\ ^ .• {io; ^ (A K,ajoi oiX<> j'-^*^ ^ ¦iVi.oi^; •. j-i^! U*o^ ,_iD |]o .• ];jiiii. U*o^ ,_:c }Jo jooi jfmO JA^ 0010 •:• OjA..Z.i joi::^ ^ Pj jZo o .-^ ^ |l-io» .- U^i T'io! U'r'^*-'! r*! ON THE SYRIAC LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. Geographical Predominance of the Language.— The Syriac, also called the Aramean language, from Aram the Hebrew name of Syria, was once predominant over a very extensive territory; and a Hebraic dialect of Syriac is supposed to have been the language chiefly spoken in Palestine during the time of our Lord ; but Arabic has completely supplanted it as the vernacular of Syria and Mesopotamia, and it is now only spoken by a few obscure tribes in two or three confined districts As an ecclesiastical language, however, it stiU retains its importance, and is used m the Jacobite and Nestorian Churches of Syria. It has likewise been for ages the hturgical language of a remarkable people in India who, during a period of about fourteen hundred years, have preserved the name of Christians in the midst of idolatrous nations. They dweU partly within the British terntones, and 34 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. partly in Cochin and Travancore, two states on the Malabar coast, forming the southern extremity of Hindoostan, and tributary to the British. In number they amount to 100,000; and although they have sufiered severe persecutions from the Roman Catholics, especiaUy from the Inquisition at Goa, they StiU possess a regular hierarchy and retain fifty-five of their ancient churches. They were con verted to Christianity about the middle of the fifth century by the Syrian Mar Thomas, who has been confounded by the Portuguese with the Apostle St. Thomas. But prior even to the time of Mar Thomas the Christian reUgion had been estabUshed in India, for a Bishop from that country was present at the CouncU of Nice in A. D. 325. Yet, although the Syriac language was introduced with Christianity among the Malabar Churches, Malayalim has continued the vernacular of the country. Characteristics op the Language. — Although inferior to most of the other branches of the Shemitic class in point of copiousness and variety, the Syriac is of particular importance and utility to bibUcal students on account of its close affinity with Hebrew. Many words are common to both languages, and hence terms which occur but once, or of which the meaning may appear doubtful in the Hebrew Scriptures, often receive elucidation by reference to the mode in which they are used in the Syriac language. The roots of words in Sjrriac, as in the other Shemitic languages, are generally to be traced to the third person singular, preterite, of the first conjugation of verbs. But Syriac roots, whUe they resemble those of cognate dialects in consisting almost always of three, seldom of four letters, have the peculiarity of being mostly monosyllabic, in triUteral roots the vowel being placed imder the second letter, so as to form but one syllable.' In grammatical structure Syriac is closely akin to Hebrew. The adjectives, as in Hebrew, are remarkably few in number, but their deficiency is suppUed by other parts of speech, which take their place, and perform their office. The superlative degree is often formed by the dupUcation of the positive. Pronouns are generaUy expressed by certain particles caUed aflBxes, placed at the end of nouns, verbs, or other particles, and with which they are so incorporated as to form but one word.^ The system of conjugation is conducted upon the same plan as the Hebrew. Verbs expressing modification of a primary idea are connected in conjugation, and are considered to form coUectively one entire and perfect verb. In Syriac there are eight forms or conjugations of verbs, of which four have an active, and four a passive, and sometimes a reciprocal signification. The alphabetical characters in Syriac are the same in number as the Hebrew, but differ considerably in form. The Estrangelo Syriac characters are evidently of the same origin as those on the inscriptions found at Tadmor or PaUnyra. There are several MSS. extant written in this charac ter, some of which are as ancient as the sixth century. The rectilinear character, that is, a character written with a continuous straight connecting Une is now commonly used in our printed Syriac books, and is a modification of the Estrangelo, bearing the same relation to it as the modern Greek and Latin characters do to the Uncial. Another mode of writing Syriac pecuUar to a sect in Syria called Christians of St. John, is the Zamian ; the consonants are formed in the usual way, but the vowels instead of being represented by points above and below the line, are denoted by strokes fastened to the letters, as in Ethiopic and Sanscrit. Syriac Versions op Scripture. — Several very ancient Syriac versions are still extant, and are of considerable service in the elucidation of difficult passages of Scripture, because in time, place, and modes of thinking, the translators were closely approximated to the inspired writers.' Of these versions the most ancient and the most important is caUed the Peshito (signifying clear, literal, exact) on account of its strict fidelity to the text. The period at which this version was made has been much disputed : by some the translation of the Old Testament of this version has been referred to the age of Solomon, while various other traditions have ascribed the translation to Asa Puest of the Samari tans, and to the Apostle Thaddeus. Ephrem, the Syrian, who wrote in the middle of the fourth century of the Christian era, speaks of it as a work in general use ; and there are reasons for beheving that the whole version was completed by the close of the first or commencement of the second century, at any rate we have proof that it was in common use in the year 350 A. D. The disparity of style apparent in different parts of the version has led to the beUef that several persons were engaged ia its execution. The translation of the Old Testament seems to have been made immediately from the Hebrew, but with occasional reference to the Septuagint and to the Chaldee Paraphrases. This version is more particularly valuable on account of its being more ancient than any Hebrew MS. now I PhillinK fl^T ^¦¦™™^'-. ?¦ ^9- 3 Hug's Introduction, Vol. I. ¦= FluUips's Syriac Grammar, p. 40. Shemitic Languages.] SYRIAC. 35 in existence._ It contains aU the canonical books of the Old Testament, but not the Apocrypha. The Peshito version of the New Testament was made from the original text, as appears from the frequent occurrence of Greek words _; the Greek codex used for the translation belonged to no known family of MSS., many of the readings agree with the quotations from the Testament iu the writings of the earUer fathers of the Church.' It is rather singular that in aU ancient MSS. of this version, four epistles, namely, the second epistie of Peter, the second and thfrd of John, and that of Jude, and Ukewise the Book of Revelation are wanting ; they also want the story of the woman taken in adultery, John 8, and 1 John 5. 7. Pococke found the four missing epistles in a MS. belonoino- to the Bodleian Library, and the younger ScaUger obtained possession of a MS. of the Revelation ;°the Episties were pubUshed by Pococke in 1630, and the Apocalypse by De Dieu in 1627: these have been ever since appended to the Peshito in printed editions, but evidently do not belong to that ancient version, being vastly inferior to it in point of purity, style, and fideUty. The Peshito version was not known in Europe tUl A. D. 1552, when Moses of Mardin was sent in the name of the Syrian Church to Rome, to acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope, and to request that an edition might be printed of thefr ancient Scriptures. The late Mr. Rich traveUed in central Asia in search of ancient MSS. : he discovered in Assyria in aU fifty-nine Syriac MSS. now deposited in the British ]\Iuseum; they afibrd abundant evidence of the general integrity of our received text of the Peshito. Next in antiquity to the Peshito, but considerably inferior to it in elegance and accuracy of diction, if superior to it in servile UteraUty, is the Philoxenian version, so caUed from having been executed under the auspices of Philoxenus, Bishop of HierapoUs in Syria, by Polycarp, a.d. 488 — 518. The Philoxenian version was revised and coUated with Alexandrine MSS. by Thomas of Harclea, A. D. 616 ; and this revision was pubUshed by Professor White at Oxford in 1778. There are also three other ancient Syriac versions ; namely, 1. The Karkaphensian, which is Uttle more than a recension of the Peshito made towards the end of the tenth century by David, a Jacobite Monk of Mesopotamia, for the especial use of the Monophysite or Jacobite Christians. It derives its name either from a Syriac word signifying the head, and also the summit of a mountain (Karkupho), or from a town in Mesopotamia. 2. The Palestine- Syriac, or Syrian translation of Jerusalem of unknown date, of which the portions stUl extant, consisting of a greater part of the Gospels, are preserved in MS. in the Vatican Library. It was discovered, and a portion of the text edited, as a specimen, by Professor Adler, about the latter part of the eighteenth century. In language and written characters it differs from common Syriac, and approaches the dialect formerly spoken at Jerusalem. It is supposed to belong to the fifth century, and to have been made from the Greek text, its readings generaUy coincide with those of the Western recension. It is valued on account of its correctness, and Professor Scholz in his last edition of the New Testament, has given readings from it. The story of the woman taken in adultery, which is wanting in the Peshito and the Philoxenian or Harclean, is found among the fragments of this version.^ 3. The Syro-Estrangelo or Syriac-Hexaplar version, which is a translation of Origen's Hexaplar edition of the Septuagint ; it was executed by an unknown author in the beginning of the seventh century, and closely adheres to the Septuagint throughout. The first portion of the Syriac Scriptures committed to the press, was the Peshito New Testament, printed in quarto at Vienna 1555; copies of this edition are now of considerable rarity. The entfre Syriac Scriptures were inserted in Le Jay's Polyglot Bible in 1645, and in Walton's Polyglot, 1657. When Dr. Buchanan in 1806 visited the Syrian Christians in India, he found several important MSS. of great antiquity which he brought with him to England. The last years of his useful and laborious Ufe were devoted to the preparation of a printed edition from these MSS., and he died, so to speak, with the sheets of the Syriac Testament in his hands. A short time prior to his decease, he was walking with a friend in the churchyard at Clapham, and he entered into a minute account ofthe plan he had pursued in preparing the Syriac text. Suddenly he stopped and burst into tears _: as soon as he had recovered his self-possession, he said to his friend — " do not be alarmed, I am not iU, but I was completely overcome with the recoUection of the deUght with which I had engaged in the exercise. At first I was disposed to shrink from the task as frksome, and apprehended that I should find even the Scriptures paU by the frequency of this critical examination. But so far from_ it, every fresh perusal seemed to throw fresh Ught on the Word of God, and to convey additional joy and consola tion to my mind." The four Gospels and Acts were printed in 1815 at Broxbourne in Hertfordshire, under the eye of Dr. Buchanan. At his death, the British and Foreign Bible Society for whom the work had been originaUy undertaken, appointed Dr. Lee of Queen's CoUege, Cambridge, to complete 1 Hug's Introduction, Vol. I. " Davidson's Lectures on BibUcal Criticism, p. 66. 36 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. the New Testament. This was the first introduction of this great orientaUst to the Committee. Dr. Lee objected to Dr. Buchanan's omission of the vowel points, and to his use of the European, instead of the Syriac system of grammatical pronunciation ; and upon these and other representations the Bible Committee agreed that the whole work should be commenced anew under Dr. Lee's super intendence, and that the Gospels and Acts edited by Dr. Buchanan, should be canceUed. Dr. Lee adopted the very accurate text published by Leusden and Schaaf in 1717, as the standard text, and iutroduced emendations from various MSS. The New Testament left the press in 1816. In 1823, Dr. Lee edited the Syriac Old Testament, under the patronage of the Church Missionary, and at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. In preparing this work he took the version of the Polyglots as his text, and collated the MS. brought by Dr. Buchanan from India, a MS. belonging to Dr. A. Clarke, and a MS. of the Pentateuch in the Library of New College, Oxford. In 1826 the Bible Society pubUshed an entire edition of the Syriac Scriptures, the Old Testament being from the text of 1823. In 1829 a Peshito New Testament in 12mo. was edited by the late Mr. WUHam Greenfield, for the PubUshers of this work, from the text of Widmansted_ 1555, with the_ book of Revelation and the Epistles, described above as being wanting in the Peshito version, suppUed, as in previous editions, from the pubhcations of Pococke and De Dieu. Results of the Dissemination of this Version. — Two grand results have foUowed from the early, though Umited, circulation of this version in India. Ffrst, the integrity of our Western copies of Scripture has been firmly estabUshed by the fact of their having been ascertained, on critical examination, to correspond in all important points with the ancient and independent MSS. that had for ages been buried, so to speak, in the East. Secondly, the assumptions of the Church of Rome as to the antiquity of her usages are clearly disproved, by the rejection of Romish dogmas and observances by a Church that was among the fiist to receive, and among the most zealous to preserve the oracles of God: here, indeed, as Bishop WUson justly remarked, "is an ancient Church knowing nothing of the pretended supremacy of Rome, nor of her pecuUar dogmas ; but standing a witness, in addition to the primitive Churches in Haute Dauphin^ and the vaUeys of Piedmont, to the pure Gospel of Christ ; and thus demonstrating the comparative novelty of the superstitious doctrines and usages, and indeed of aU the assumptions of the Church and Court of Rome — a testimony in a day Uke the present of no Uttle value." The boon conferred upon the Syrian Churches in the multipUca tion of copies of Scripture by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the editions of 1815, 1816, and of subsequent years, has been duly appreciated by them; and the Missionaries relate that in several instances the never failing result of the conscientious study of the Scriptures has been manifested, by the substitution of vital godUness for a merely outward orthodox profession. SYRIAC IN HEBREW CHARACTERS. The Syriac New Testament in Hebrew characters was printed for the benefit of the Chasidim and Cabalistic Jews of Poland, Constantinople, and the East. It was published in 1837 by the London Society for the Conversion of the Jews. The Syriac Peshito had previously appeared in Hebrew characters in the fifth part of the Antwerp Polyglot. Before, however, the printing of the Antwerp Polyglot, Immanuel TremeUius had used Hebrew characters in his edition of the Syriac New Testament. He did this in consequence of there not being at that time any place where Syriac types were obtainable except at Vienna. De la Boderie and others have used Hebrew letters in their editions. SYRO-CHALDAIC; AND MODERN SYRIAC. (For a Specimen of the Syro-Chaldaic Version in the Estrangelo Character, see Hate II.) People foe whom this Edition is designed. — The Syriac language is written in Nestorian characters, by a professedly Christian people, of whom some are entrenched among the mountains of Assyria, and others settled in the adjacent plain of Ooroomiah, in West Persia, between 36° and 39° north latitude, and 43° and 46° east longitude : they are supposed to amount, in point of number to about 200,000 souls. They are sometimes caUed Chaldeans or East Syrians from the country they inhabit; but they are more commonly known by the name of Nestorians, which latter appellation, they contend, is not derived from the celebrated Nestorius who was condemned at the third Council of Ephesus, but from Nazareth the city of Mary. It is said that they originaUy fied from the Roman empire during persecution in the reign of Justinian, and that they placed themselves under the protection of the king of Persia, who assigned them an abode in his dominions. They then consisted of 50,000 famUies, each headed by a bishop, and the family of the bishop who then held precedence over the rest, stUl retains the principal civil and ecclesiastical power. During the severe persecutions they subsequently suffered from the Mahommedans, they were driven to their present impregnable abodes. Thefr reUgious tenets are more uncorrupted than those of most oriental churches. They seem never to have practised image worship nor auricular confession ; and so great is their antipathy to popery, that they have a singular and most anti-christian custom of cursing the Pope regularly every day, his grandfather, grandmother, and grandchUdren. Chaeaoteristics of the Language. — The language generaUy denominated the Syro- Chaldaic or Nestorian, differs in no respect from the Syriac, unless it be, indeed, in the occasional variation of one or two grammatical forms, and a difference in the pronunciation of the vowels. Thus a Syro-Chaldaic book if transcribed in Syriac characters, would be pure Syriac. The Chaldean Priest at Khosrova had a copy of the Pentateuch which he had caused to be transcribed, word for word, from the Syriac of Walton's Polyglot, only substituting the Nestorian for the Syriac characters, and it was ascertained beyond doubt by the Missionaries that the language of this Pentateuch was perfectly identical with that of the Church books in common use among the Nestorians. The Nestorian characters may be said to be almost the same as the ancient Estrangelo, only shghtly modified in form ; they are very clear and agreeable to the eye, and Missionaries stationed in the country who have been afflicted with ophthalmia, and thereby deprived of the power of reading EngUsh type without pain, have found themselves able to read books written or printed in the Nestorian character with ease and pleasure. ' The dialect at present commonly spoken among the Nestorians is a very corrupted form of their ancient Syriac : it abounds in contractions, abbreviations, and inversions, and is adulterated by Persian, Turkish, and Kurdish words. In sound it is even harsher than the Armenian. It still, however, retains its character as a Shemitic dialect, many Arabic and Hebrew words are discoverable in it, and it is rather remarkable that the Nestorians and the Jews settled in adjacent viUages are able to con verse together, although the dialect spoken by the Jews is a barbarised form of Hebrew, altogether distinct from the vernacular of the Nestorians. Editions op Sceiptuee in this Language. — Several ancient MSS. of Scripture have been found in the possession of the Nestorians, which from time to time have been brought to Europe. Dr. Wolff during his travels in 1826 purchased of the Nestorians several MSS. of various portions of their Bible ; these he brought safely to England, although on two several occasions he very narrowly escaped shipwreck. The MSS. became the property of the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, and the Committee lent them to the British and Foreign Bible Society for publication. An edition of 2000 copies of the Syro-Chaldaic Gospels was accordingly printed by the latter Society, imder the editorship of T. P. Piatt, Esq. and those passages in which the MSS. were deficient were suppUed from the Syriac version ; for Mr. Piatt had ascertained on critical examination that the Syro-Chaldaic text was identical, or nearly so, with the Society's Syriac version, the character only being different. 1 Biblical Repository, Vol. II. 38 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. The types were cast for the purpose by Mr. Watts, and the edition left the press in 1829. This, how ever, was not the first time that Syriac had been printedin Nestorian characters, for a Syriac hturgical work caUed Missale Chaldaicum, containing the selections from the Gospels and_ Epistles read on Sundays and Festivals, was published in these characters fri 1767 at Rome, accompanied by an interpre tation in Carshun. The Missionaries now among the Nestorians are said to be engaged m the elaborate preparation of a Syro-Chaldaic Old Testament, in which they take the ancient and valuable Syriac version, the Peshito, as their text. An edition of the Scriptures has been projected by the Christian Knowledge Society from valuable MSS. coUectedat the cost of the Societjin Mesopotamia:' but little if any progress seems as yet to have been made in the pubhcation of this important work. Mr. Perkins, of the American Board of Missions, commenced in 1836 a translation from the ancient or ecclesiastical language into the modernised corrupt dialect now vernacular among these people. It does not appear that any portion of this version has yet been committed to the press. Results op the Dissemination op this Veesion. — Dr. Wolff of the London Society for the Conversion of the Jews, traveUed in 1826 among the Nestorian churches, and had frequent interviews with the priests and people. He found them, as they themselves admitted, in a wild and uncivihsed state ; but when questioned on the cause of their want of civiUsation, they acknowledged it to be the result of their lamentable destitution of copies of the Scriptures. They had no printed copies what ever, and the MSS. were extremely scarce and never found in the hands of the common people. " But," said they, " we have heard that the EngUsh are able to write a thousand copies in one day, would they not write for us several thousand copies and send them to us ? we become wild Uke Curi, for we have so few copies of the Bible. The EngUsh have written those of the Jacobites (in Syriac characters) which we cannot read generaUy, why should they not write these of ours?" The expecta tions and desires of these simple people were reaUzed, and soon after they had been put in possession of the Gospels by the British and Foreign Bible Society, the divine seed sprang up and bore fruit to the glory of God. The Missionaries of the American Board of Missions who have for some years been labouring among them, give the foUowing account of them; "the Ught of heavenly truth is rapidly pervading the mass of the people, many of whom appear Uke a person awakened from a deep sleep, unconscious of the darkness in which he has been enveloped, and are inquiring how it is that they have been kept so long in ignorance and self-delusion. To this thefr Priests reply, We ourselves, tiU now, have been dead in trespasses and sins ; and our criminality is even greater than yours for having hidden the Ught so long." 1 Report of Foreign Translation Committee of Christian Knowledge Society for 1 844, p. 83 ; and see Report of the sarae Committee for 1845, p. 41. AEABIC. SPECIMEN OF THE ARABIC VERSION, AS PUBLISHED BY THE BRITISH AND FOEEIGN BIBLE SOCIETY IN 1825. QUARTO. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. jy!i] Jyljj SjI^^ V ^^ * ^ji ^^ ^^ er* J-j^* u^l u^ * 4"^^" (J ^^^b '^'^^^ ^^LjI ji3 j_j4; 4^JJ1 j:«l^ JJ.AJ1 ^^\^ *jyiJ A^^ Jj jyJl ^ j^. jJ * :(Ajj ^j^\ j^jJ * Uc-j i»*j UU/ <_j131 ^^ t^JJl 'V^j!^ J-*^ ^'^«a^ ^'^^5^ ^iiy ^ ON THE ARABIC LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. Peedominance of the Language. — It is almost impossible to calculate with any degree of accuracy the amount of population by whom this language is spoken. The population of Arabia itself has been variously estimated from 10,000,000 to 14,000,000 inhabitants ; but Arabic is also vernacular in Spia, in Mesopotamia, in part of Persia, in some parts of the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, in Egypt, in Nubia, and in Barbary. Arabic is also extensively used as the language of reUgion and commerce in Westem, Eastern, and Central Africa, and before the Missionaries had reduced some of the African dialects to writing, Arabic was the only written language known to the natives of that vast continent. As the language of the Koran, Arabic is venerated and studied from "the Western confines of Spain and Africa to the PhUippine Islands, over 130 degrees of longitude ; and from the tropic of Capricorn to Tartary, over 70 degrees of latitude." ^ Its importance as a medium of communication between distant nations may be inferred from the reason assigned by the Rev. Henry Martyn for undertakiug a new version of the Arabic Testament. " We wUl begin to preach," said that devoted Missionary, " to Arabia, Syria, Persia, Tartary, part of India and of China, half of Africa, aU the sea- coast of the Mediterranean and Turkey, and one tongue shall suffice for them all." Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The Arabic language, in its earUest and rudest state, was the vernacular of a few nomadic tribes who derived thefr descent from Kahtan, the son of Heber, a great grandson of Shem, and from Ishmael (the son of Abraham, by Hagar), who_, by his marriage with a daughter of Morad, of the race of Kahtan, engrafted his posterity on the Arabic stock.^ It was spoken among these tribes in a variety of dialects, concerning which we now know Uttle more than liat the Koreish and the Hamiar were the distinctive appellations of the two predominant dialects. Mahomet spoke the Koreish dialect, and under his influence and that of his successors the other dialects insensibly merged into it. Hence the extraordinary copiousness of the Arabic language ; the result, not of foreign admixture (for Arabia was never conquered), but of the gradual amalgamation of numerous dialects into one. The language is rich both in lexicography and in grammatical forms. It has a complete, though simple, system of declension ; a stock of augmentatives and diminutives ; I M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary. ^ Batter's Horae Biblicse. 40 THE BIBLE OP EVERY LAND. [Class II. thirteen conjugations of verbs, both in the active and passive voice ; two genders, mascuUne and feminine; three numbers, singular, dual, and plural; and also a pecuUar form of the plural which seems to appertain almost exclusively to the Arabic and Ethiopic languages, and which is called the plural of paucity.' There is one article (al or el) answering in many respects to our EngUsh the; it appears in many words which we have borrowed from the Arabic, as in Alcoran (UteraUy the Koran), alcohol algebra, etc. The particles are, as in most languages, indeclinable ; and are divided into two classes the separable and the inseparable ; the former are always used as prefixes, and the latter, though forming separate words, always precede the word they govern. The process of simpUfication which has ever been at work in the modification of aU vernacular languages, has not spared the antique forms of Arabic grammar. There are as many distinct Arabic dialects as there are countries in which Arabic is spoken, and in aU these dialects the inflexions of case, the passive form of the verb, and the dual have more or less disappeared. Words and phrases from other languages have also in many cases been introduced. The Moorish Arabs have adopted a negative form pecuUar to French and its dialects • the phrase il ne vient pas is, in Occidental Arabic, ma yegychi (ma answering to -ne, and chi to pas).^ Yet, amidst aU these local changes, the modern Arabic still preserves a close resemblance to the Arabic of the Koran, which is everywhere rehgiously upheld as the model of classic beauty and elegance. It is uncertain what alphabetical system was originaUy in use among the tribes of Arabia. About the time of Mahomet a style of writing was adopted by the tribe of Koreish caUed the Cuphic, from the town of Cufa in Irak, in which it originated. It is evidently derived from the Estrangelo Sjoiac alphabet. In this character, which is clumsy and inelegant, consisting mostly of straight strokes, Mahomet wrote the Koran ; it was superseded in the tenth century by a character caUed the Nishki, which has ever since continued in use, not only among the nations who write the Arabic language, but also among the Turks and Persians. De Sacy has proved that this character is at least as ancient as the time of Mahomet. It appears that, about the period of the adoption of the Nishki character, three vowel signs were introduced, placed, as in Hebrew, above or below the line, according to the nature of the vowels. There are twenty-eight consonants, and to many of them a different form is appropriated, according to their position in words, as initial, medial, or flnal. Veesions and peinted Editions op the Sceiptuees. — It was in Arabia (as the district east of Damascus was then called) that the great Apostle of the Gentiles commenced his ministrations (Gal. i. 17); but Christianity did not, as in Syria and Egypt, become the estabUshed reUgion of the country ,_ and there arefewif any very ancient versions of Scripture in Arabic. A version, of which no part is now extant, is said to have been made by Warka, the son of Naufel, during the lifetime of Mahomet; and this fact serves to account for the deep knowledge of Scripture displayed by the false prophet. The most ancient of the MSS. that are known in Europe seem to have been executed soon after the conquest of the Saracens in the seventh century. Towards the middle of the eightli century, John, Bishop of Seville, flnding that the Latin knguage was faUing more and more into disuse, executed a translation from Jerome's Vulgate into Arabic. The churches under the Patriarchates of Antioch and of Alexandria also produced translations in Arabic at different periods from their ancient Church versions. Printed editions of some of these MSS. have been pubUshed at internals since the year 1546. The four Gospels were pubUshed at Rome in 1591, the translation is directly from the Greek. In 1616 an entfre New Testament was printed by Erpenius, at Leyden, froman exemplar said to have been executed in Upper Egypt by a Coptic Bishop in the fourteenth century. rhe Gospels of this edition are substantially the same as the Roman text of 1591, but the Epistles bear internal evidence of having been derived fi-om the Peshito, while the book of Revelation is a translation */°^*^e Coptic. _ The flrst Arabic version printed in England was that in Walton's Polyglot, pubhshed 1657. This version is merely a reprint of an Arabic translation of noted inaccuracy pubhshed m 1645 in the Pans Polyglot, but with the omissions suppUed from one of the Selden MSS. The Pentateuch inserted in these Polyglots is said to have been flrst pubUshed in 1546, at Constantinople, by Saadias Ijaon a Jewish teacher of Babylon, and is an unfaithful and inelegant production. It is extremely paraphrastic and though m general it conforms to the Masoretic text, it sometimes follows the Chaldee largum of Onkelos, and sometimes the Septuagint. The other books of the Polyglot editions are, for tne most part by unknown writers; in some books the Syriac version is foUowed so closely that, in tne London l^olyglot, the same Latm translation, with a few marginal alterations, answers both to the Synac and to the Arabic Texts. The Gospels of the Polyglots are nearly the same as the Eoman • see Encyclopedia MetropoUtana. , j^^^ ^^,^^^^^ ,„^ ^^^^_ Shemitic Languages.] ARABIC. 41 and Erpenian texts, but the other books of the New Testament are apparently a translation from the Greek : they were printed from an Egyptian MS., and are supposed by some to have originaUy agreed generaUy with the Erpenian version, but to have been altered by the editors. Erpenius also pubUshed the Pentateuch in Arabic at Leyden, in 1662, in Hebrew characters, from a MS. in the possession of ScaUger, and supposed to have been made by an African Jew of the thirteenth century. It is a dfrect translation from the Hebrew, to which it adieres so closely as to be almost unintelligible to persons unacquainted with that language. The version of Abu Said from the Samaritan Pentateuch has been noticed page 30. An edition of the entfre Bible, in three volumes foho, was pubUshed by the Propaganda at Rome in 1671. Forty-six years were consumed in transcribing and revising the text. It was undertaken by order of Pope Urban VIII, at the earnest request of several oriental prelates. Sergius Risius, the Maronite Bishop of Damascus, was appointed, in conjunction with other learned men, to coUate the various printed copies with the original oriental versions of the Vulgate. The work was completed in 1650, but was subjected to a fresh revisal prior to pubhcation on account of its not being sufficiently conformable to the Vulgate. An important edition of the Psalms in Ajabic was published in London, 1725, by the Society for Promoting Chiistian Knowledge. The text of this edition is attributed to Athanasius, the Melchite Patriarch of Antioch, and is valued on account of its fldeUty. In 1727 an Arabic New Testament was pubUshed by the same Society from the text of the Polyglot, corrected by the Editor, Solomon Negri. Although 10,000 copies of this work were printed, the edition is now extremely rare, for none of the copies were sold in Europe, and but few given to the learned. Two copies are preserved at Cambridge. A great part of the edition was sent to Russia, for distribution in the surrounding Mahommedan countries.' An Arabic Bible is reported to have been printed at Bucharest in 1700, and the Gospels at Aleppo in 1706, but Uttle is known of these editions in Europe. About the year 1811, an edition of the Scriptures in Arabic, from the text of the Polyglot, was printed at Newcastle. This work, projected by Professor Carlyle, was under the patronage of the Bishop of Durham, and the Bible Society lent assistance to its pubhcation and circulation. It was afterwards discovered that the churches of the East, for whom this edition was chiefly intended, are scrupulously averse to the reception of any version except that which they have been accustomed to recognise. To meet thefr case, the Society in 1820 issued 5000 copies of the New Testament from the only text which these churches regard as genuine, namely, that pub Ushed in 1671 by the Propaganda Fide: this was foUowed in 1822 by an edition ofthe Old Testament from the same text, pubUshed under the care of Professors Lee and Macbride. In 1819 the Society had printed an edition of 3000 copies in 12mo. of the Psalter, from the text employed by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, which text was Ukewise adopted at the celebrated press of the Convent of St. John the Baptist on Mount Libanus. An attempt to produce a version of the New Testament in modem Arabic was Ukewise made by the Rev. WiUiam Jowett during his travels in Syria : he employed a learned priest of Jerusalem to commence a translation from the original Greek, on the basis of the Propaganda : the MS. was completed as far as the end of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and sent to Malta, but never printed.^ The need of an improved translation of the Arabic Scriptures, so long and so deeply felt by the Eastern Churches, has at length been met by the Christian Knowledge Society. Thefr agent, the Rev. C. SchUenz, relates, as the result of his personal observations in the East, " that the only two printed versions of the Arabic Bible (the edition of the Polyglot and that of the Propaganda) hiown in Egypt and Syria, were both regarded with rooted antipathy by the Mahommedans ; the Polyglot chiefly for its presumptuous impiety in adopting the phraseology of the Koran, and for its inequaUty of style, and the Propaganda for its vulgarity and inelegancy of language."^ In 1839 the preparation of a new Arabic version was commenced, by the direction of the Society, Under the superintendence of the Rev. C. SchUenz. The translation was executed by Mr. Fares, one of the most learned Arabic scholars of the East, at Malta. He translated from the sacred originals, but with constant recourse to numerous valuable MSS. coUected for the purpose at the expense of the Society. The proofs were sent for correction to scholars of eminence in London and the East. FinaUy, the work was brought to London, and is now being completed under the supervision of Dr. Lee, assisted by Dr. MiU and Mr Cureton. A version ofthe New Testanient in modern Arabic was printed at Calcutta in 1816, designed principaUy for the learned and fastidious Mahommedans in aU parts of the world, who, it was thought, might have been repeUed from the study of Scripture by the anti - quated style of fbrmer versions. This translation was made by a learned Arabian scholar, the unhappy ' Michaelis, Vol. I. p. 599. ' Report of Foreign Translation Committee of Chiistian Knowledge « Researches in Syria and Palestine, p. 409. Society for 1838, p. 120; also the Report for 1839, pp. 158, 159. 42 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. Sabat, under the supervision of the Rev. S. M. Thomason. The lamented Henry Martyn was deeply interested in Sabat, and the production of his version; but he did not Uve to see its completion. A second edition was printed in London in 1825, under the care of Professor Lee ; and a third in Calcutta, by the Rev. S. M. Thomason, in the foUowing year : but the version has not been found generaUy acceptable in countries where the language is vernacular, and it has not since been reprmted. Results of the Propagation op the Aeabic Version. — Wherever the Arabic language prevaUs, there Mahommedanism is predominant ; but among the foUowers of the false prophet, the Arabic version is graduaUy and silently effecting the purposes of God. Perhaps no one version of the Scriptures has been received in so many countries, and blessed to so many different nations, as the Arabic. In Westem Africa, the natives on flrst receiving the copies sent to them by the British and Foreign Bible Society, " were astonished that a white man should have written this book in their favourite language."' The Rev. T. Dove, Missionary at Macarthy's Island, writing in 1835, expresses his beUef that many of the Arabic Bibles, Testaments, and Psalters, had been conveyed hundreds of miles into the interior of Africa.^ " I have seen (said the Rev. Mr. Richardson in 1838) Moors reading our Bible in their shops in broad day, in the midst of business ; . . . I have fallen upon these Moors by pure accident, and I have distributed many an Arabic Testament with my own hands among these devotees of Mahomet.'" " Even the sons of Kedar (says the Rev. Mr. Ewald) have heard the Gospel sound beneath their tents, and have often and wUlingly bought the word of the living God."'' In Egypt, also, the Arabic Scriptures sent by the British and Foreign Bible Society were received with equal readiness, as is attested by the Rev. W. Jowett, in his account of his Mission thither, dated 1819.' In iUustration of the results of the dissemination of the Scriptures in that country, the Rev. Mr. Kruse, of the Church Missionary Society, writes from Cairo : — " Some few Mahommedans are coming to me, and in one or two I begin to hope the Scriptures are unfolding the true Ught. You will easUy conceive how thankful I feel when I hear a Mahommedan relating the history and doctrine of our Saviour. One in particular evidences that he has a clear knowledge of the Scriptures, and I teaUy beUeve that he has received the truth as it is in Jesus." ^ AbdaUah, an Arabian of noble birth, was converted from Islamism by the simple perusal of the Bible. When his conversion became known, AbdaUah, to escape the vengeance of his countrjrmen, fled from Cabul in disguise, but was met and recognised at Bokhara by Sabat: AbdaUah perceiving his danger, threw himself at the feet of his friend, and besought him, by aU the ties of thefr former intimacy, to save his Ufe. "But," said Sabat, ^^ I had no pity; I deUvered him up to Morad Shah, king of Bokhara." AbdaUah was ofiered his life if he would abjure Christ, but he refused. Then one of his hands was cut ofi", and a physician, by command of the king, offered to heal the wound if he would recant. " He made no answer," said Sabat, " but looked up stedfastly towards Heaven, Uke Stephen, the flrst Martyr, his eyes streaming with tears. He did not look with anger towards me ; he looked at me, but it was benignly, and with the countenance of forgiveness. His other hand was then cut off. But," continued Sabat, " Ae never changed, he never changed. And when he bowed his head to receive the blow of death, aU Bokhara seemed to say. What new thing is this ?" JUD^O-ARABIC ; OR, ARABIC IN HEBREW CHARACTERS. The Arabic Pentateuch, pubUshed by Erpenius at Leyden in 1622 was, as we hate seen, printed in Hebrew characters. The necessity of printing an edition of the Arabic New Testament in Hebrew characters was suggested to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society as early as 1820, by a clergyman then travelUng in the East. Nothing, however, appears to have been effected for the many thousand Jews in Egypt, Tunis, and the whole north of Africa, Yemen, Syria, and Mesopotamia (to whom the Arabic is vernacular, but who seldom read or write except in their own characters), until 1846, when the Bombay Auxiliary Bible Society commenced for their use an edition of the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. John, with the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, under the superintendence of the Kev. Dr. "Wilson of Bombay. As it was found impossible to carry on this work 111 India, the parent Society undertook an edition of 2000 copies, which they completed and pubUshed in 1847.' I T^^Xon'^^ ^""* *'"' ^°'''«" ''"^'^ ^°"^'>'' ' See Sixteenth Report, pp. 170-176, 3 Thirty-fourth Eeport. » Forty-second Report. 4 Thirty-third Report ' Forty-third Report of the British and Foreign BiWe Society, p. 91 ) and Forty-fourth Report, p. 95. MONGREBIN, AFRICAN OR MOORISH ARABIC. SPECIMEN OF THE MONGREBIN VEESION, AND OF THE ORDINARY ARABIC SCRIPTURES, AS PUBLISHED BY THE BIBLE SOCIETY.— GENESIS, Chap. i. v. 1 to 8. MOOEISH ASABIC. ^Ji :^1 <^-J Jx ^\ euU(, JU.._, ^jU aUs) ^I JL>j ^ 1j^ ^^l(j ji^l jy ^jjl ¦ * ^^ cy- C^ U^-J L5^ U^-J ^^ AEABIC jl^j * ^Ji\j ^UJl 4J1 jU- ^joll ip-j 1^ ^uUil! (.i^l^j : LJU. ^rlj^ u^^l Jlij * \^\j Ly ^L^ ^^l(, iL^ J^j : Lj 0.1.'^0 . fcCOJ-L^ »QJ vjOT ot)-.wW^O . otJU-^aSs ^Qjsii. . JquLJ:^ JOT-«js^ OTjJOTjijis JL^v J»OT • J-i-wCL. OT.i£S£aJ . OTiSSSk ^ '"'^^jj ^SCU\ ^ ¦A..^ JQ I OOT _>fJ^ ?OI \s »CTLi»jk^ ^^a^ . JQX^ OOT ^ P^O . OTjw uXi ^^oSs ;a:^).^>:Sso ^oi) otju ;Q:i>,]LsK:Sso ^)j3 ;Q:i,JL>fc:Ss. ua . >>^>,).^JS^ u:2s iJ ^sxii) ^^.a^ u^ .-.^ Pot)l^J otoN-md ^.»-^ \^\^ • CTLb>:ij3l. ;Q2i. OTl..)Lao ).^otL jLa oJ^ . OT^t.^ ;q^ ^__s> JJo ) \>» ^ pOT .m/.No . OTvimJLa ^qjjisqu ^«.2^ • OT_iSs, <« i "^ Jo;->_» ^ jliJL,},^ ^^o js-co^v >L OTViNn'^o . ot^ ^ JoJi>,o ^j2ii. ^^s^ oxxji^ ^ )Jo JQ-^u^ ^ocn ON THE CARSHUN; OR, ARABIC VERSION IN SYRIAC CHARACTERS. The Carshun, or Arabic iu Syriac characters, is used (chiefly by members of the Syrian Churches) in Mesopotamia as far as Bagdad, in Mount Lebanon, at Aleppo, and in many other parts of Syria. It has been calculated that the number of individuals who speak Arabic, but use the Syriac character, is about one mUUon. A diglot edition of the New Testament, in which the Syriac Peshito and the Carshun from the Arabic text of Erpenius,' were ranged in paraUel columns, was published in 1703 at Rome, at the press of the CoUege de Propaganda Fide, for the use of the Maronite Christians. Dr. Pinkerton forwarded a copy of this edition from Malta to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1819. About eight years later, the Society undertook a new edition, and there being no suitable type in England, it was printed at Paris. M. de Quatremere and the Baron de Sacy were the editors. An edition of the Carshun alone, and another edition of the Syriac and Carshun, in paraUel columns, had left the press in 1828.2 ' Hug's Introduction, Vol. I. p. 435. 2 Twenty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 29. ETHIOPIC. SPECIMEN OF THE ETHIOPIC VERSION, PUBLISHED BT THE BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY IN 1830. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. q>^imU, : 3.A : OhXls : (DOhYil' : 3>A : in .TxlH.K'nfh.C. : (D-^x-p : a)>»^H.?i'fl ih,C : (D^y^f : 3»A : : (DTnts : X^Df^oo^ : in : f^'^H.^'Tl th^C. : (D-'^t' : : Yt-A- : P f :V«1 : (DH'XTnA.lMl : ?iAP : hTPI : (D?i.9ni^l. -y^TOHYti :: Df : ih^mt- : (D- yxf ¦¦ (DA»^(D^ri : -llC*it : A>i:j.A : "^tro^^ffi^ : (D'Xf : : (D-nC^i^rt : HCD-fl-T : »A or«^ : ynC« : a)jPC?i. = (DJtAOD^l^ : ?^^^^p :: (du^- : ?»ihK, = •n>»a : HT^.^O) : >»9nin :>kTK?i-nfh>C- Hfiow : P-rhTfl :: (D(D'>»T : otJ»2\ : Afl9n0 : rtoqOT : ^ YhT : n>iTr : 1lC*iT = Vitro : Tn^^. : ^"i^aDT : p-j: : -. a)AA.lMn : ?i,l[ii : -flCMi : SjTi owirtOTJOT :.ElrhT: n>iTr : -nC^T :: HOh"?.'!' : -flC*ll = X"^* : H^nC« iAYTA-: fl-nTx : HJEfTOX-X : a^flT : «^A9n :: (Dd^flT : *^A90 : UA" : (DOiA^ni, : Pf: : t^l : (DtiA9nrt : J^.JPX'TOC : : (D-flT : H.Mh : tro»?i : (D>»A.?vU'ri : Yx^VCOYl^q) :: (DA ¦>»An : ^(DVlftg) : (DUptro- : M^A^li : (D-A-^ : 'TxlH.ti^^di.C. : JEVhV : A>kA : ?vgn I. : nHiro^ :: ?iA : ?v.lr>i' : >»9ni : HK9° : (Dh.'^9"d.3'K = ^+(D^ : HJ^:i : (D/S,">»9n ^90^^ : -n'SsiX : ?\A : >k9">i"!H.?v-nth.C = TOOA^, :: (DCD'"?^-!' : ?A : A":J : Inl : (D lE^i : AOAl : (DCM = fl'fl'htlh : Yltro : fl-HrhT : Kth^ : Trhfi" : A^tt-lh : H9«A- >» - X3 : (Dqniri : (DR-^T : : ON THE ETHIOPIC OR GHEEZ LANGUAGE AND VERSION. Geographical Peedominance of the Lajstguage.- — Ethiopia is called by the Abyssinians Lisana Gheez or language of the kingdom, because it was anciently the only vernacular dialect of all Abyssinia. About a.d. 1300, a family from the province of Amhara obtained possession of the government, and since that period Amharic has been the language of the capital and the court, while Ethiopic has become exclusively the ecclesiastical and written language of the country. As no measurements or surveys have been taken of Abyssinia, it is difficult to estimate its precise extent. It formed part of the ancient Ethiopia, and the Arabian geographers first distinguished it by the name of Abyssinia (from Habesch, mixture or confusion), to indicate the supposed Arabic origin of the mhabitants, and their subsequent mixture with African tribes. Abyssinia probably includes about 300,000 EngHsh square miles ; it stretches from 9'^ to 15° 40' north latitude, and from 36° east longi tude to the Red Sea. Its probable amount of population has been estimated, though with Httle certainty, at 4,500,000. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The dialect of the Himyarite Arabs the 'OfMiplrai of Ptolemy, still spoken under the name of Ekhkili on the southern coast of Arabia, is the parent dialect of the Ethiopic. Inscriptions in this ancient, dialect, of whioh the characters bear a striking resemblance to the Ethiopic, have been discovered in South Arabia, by Lieutenant Wellsted and others. The Ethiopic possesses all the characteristics of a genuine Shemitic tongue. It has ten con jugations of verbs, formed upon the same system as those of Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic. In each conjugation there are two tenses, the preterite and the future ; there are two genders, masculine and femiaine, but no dual number. As might be expected from its origin, Ethiopic bears a close affinity to Arabic. According to Gesenius, about one third of its roots and primitive words exist in Arabic, and a large proportion of the remainder in the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac. The Eunuch of Candace reading the prophet Isaiah seems to estabhsh this affinity of the Ethiopic with the Hebrew. Ludolf, 46 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. who first made the Ethiopic language accurately known in Europe, says, that " it approaches nearest the Arabic, of which it seems a kind of production, as being comprehended almost within the same grammatical rules, the same forms of conjugations, the same forms of plurals, both entire and ano malous;" and he adds, that whoever understands Arabic, may with Httle labour^ acquire the Ethiopic. Unlike ah other Shemitic languages, Ethiopic and its cognate dialects are written in the European mode, from left to right. There are twenty-six consonants and seven vowel sounds ; but the vowels instead of being denoted, as in Hebrew and Arabic, by points above and below the lines, are indicated as in Sanscrit by changes in the form of consonants ; so that a single letter in Ethiopic and Sanscrit is equivalent to an entire syUable. Ethiopic Veesions op Sceiptuee. — A very ancient Ethiopic version of the entire Scrip tures mentioned by Chrysostom in his second homily on John,' is still extant, but when or by whom executed is unknown. It certainly was not produced later than the fourth century. By some it ig attributed to Frumentius, who about the year 330 preached Christianity in Abyssinia, and was ordained Bishop of the country by Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria, whence perhaps the depend ence, stiU subsisting, of the Church of Abyssinia on that of Egypt. In this version the books of the Old Testament appear to have been mainly translated from the Septuagint ; in the Gospels, the translator seems to have availed himself of various MSS., and some peculiar readings occur: considered as a whole, however, this version may be said to correspond pretty closely with the Alexandrine family of MSS., as might, indeed, have been expected from the proximity of the countries and the connection between the two churches ; for the Coptic Patriarch of Egypt is the head of the Abyssinian Church, and the Abuna or resident Bishop of Abyssinia is always appointed by him. The Epistles and Book of Revelation belonging to this version are unhappily very paraphrastic; in other respects the Ethiopic New Testament is of considerable use in bibhcal criticism, as it shows the state of the text at a very early period. The entire Ethiopic Bible has never yet been printed. The Psalter, through some mistake erroneously entitled a Chaldee Psalter, was published by John Potken at Rome in 1513 ; and again, in 1657, it appeared in the London Polyglot with various readings and notes by Dr. Edmund Castell. In 1701 another edition of the Psalter was edited by Ludolph, the celebrated Ethiopic scholar. In 1548 the New Testament in Ethiopic was printed for the first time at Rome, by some Abyssinian Priests. This edition, afterwards reprinted in the London Polyglot, is very inaccurate ; the MSS. used on the occasion were old and mutilated, and the editors filled up the chasms that occurred in the text by translating from the Vulgate. The subject of printing this ancient version, was first brought before the Bible Society by a communication transmitted through the Edin- burghBible Society, from the Rev. George Paxton of Edinburgh, concerning the spiritual state ofthe Abyssinians, and the scarcity of copies of Scripture among them. The British and Foreign Bible Society accordingly, in 1815, gave an edition of the Psalter, accurately printed from Ludolf's edition, to Abyssinia ; and as no correct printed edition had been ever issued of the New Testament, strenuous efforts weremade to obtain authentic MSS. The only Ethiopic MS. of importance at that period easily accessible in England was a MS. of the Gospel of St. John brought from India by Dr. Buchanan, and deposited at Cambridge. This was found in collation to differ from the printed copy in ahnost every verse, and its readings were evidently more accurate than those of the printed edition. With the view of inspecting other MSS., Mr. Thomas PeH Piatt visited Paris in 1822, and collated tte valuable MSS. belonging to the Royal Society,^ and in 1826, the Four Gospels were completed under his editorial care. They were printed from a fount of types cast at the expense of the Bible Society, from the matrices which had been presented by Ludolph in 1700 to the Frankfort Library. The entire New Testament was published in 1830. In this edition no one MS. was exclusively followed. The plan adopted by the editor, Mr. Piatt, was, as he himself informs us, first to prepare a correct copy from a MS. of undoubted value, leaving considerable space between the lines ; other MSS. were then carefully collated with the copy, and every variety of reading that occurred was inserted in the space left_ for the purpose, beneath the corresponding words of the copy. Afterwards, these readings were subjected to a rigid examination; the reading which afibrded the strongest marks of being genuine was retained, and the others were expunged. We are indebted to the Abyssinian Church, not only for the ancient and valuable version of Scripture just described, but also for a curious apocryphal writing called the Book of Enoch, which has been found in no other Church; its date and origm are unknown, it ]s by some supposed to be the book quoted in Jude 14, and although it has no claim ' MichffiUs, Vol. I. p. 602. 2 T. P. Piatt's Catalogue of the Ethiopic BibUcal MSS., p. 4. Shemitic Languages.] TIGRE. 47 whatevertobe placed among the Books of Scripture, it has excited much interest on account of its great antiquity.' Results of the Dissemination of this Veesion.— From the pecuhar character of the Abyssinians, and the strange mixture of Christianity, popery and heathenism that prevails among them, few visible^ efiects have as yet resulted from the multipHcation of the Ethiopic Scriptures. The Scriptures have indeed been received with joy, yet Httle can be said as to any permanent change resulting from their perusal._ " One day," said the devoted ilissionary, Mr. Gobat (now Bishop of Jerusaleni), " I am aU joy with the hope that in a short time the Abyssinian mission wiU be crowned with glorious success ; the following day I am cast down to the very dust by the idea that ah attempts will be useless: for the Abyssinians very generally yield to the truth, but it is only for a while ; they cannot make up their minds to quit so much as one of their customs." Thus faith is tried for a time ; yet the promise is sure, that God's word shaU not return to Him void, and the day perhaps is near when " Ethiopia wiU stretch out her arms unto God." TIGRE. specimen of the TIGRfi VERSION, BY MR. PEARCE, COPIED FROM THE APPENDIX TO A CATALOGUE OF ethiopic biblical MSS., BY THOMAS PELL PLATT, Esa.— St. MARK, Chaf. ix. 9 to 15. ' Wer enter worred hom ker el ambar, hu mucker hom inder hi negger er sewi zer reiyer hom negger, shar el Wod der sevxi tennessar ker el mote. '" Wer haz hom zer negger ov wost hom enter tiock hadda mis hadda munte marlet el tennessar ker el mote. " Wer tiock hu hom, Ber negger munte zer bet el sarfe tar Elias mussea feUermer. ^^ Wer hu meUash yver negger hom, Elias be ack zer mussea feUermer wer hu melless coulu negger Mccar, wor comha zer ter sarf ov el Wod der sevvi ender hu carl buze er negger wer sedded hu be yelhem * yeavila. '^ Mai ane zer bel kar, Elias be Ack artou ^ artehu, wer gewer hom zer delleyea ov hum com zu ter sarf ov hum. ^* Wer shar enter mussea ov ariot hum, hu reiyer awiea mergavier cubhe hom, wer el sarfetart enter tiock mis hom. '^ Wer shar shar coulu souart, shar enter reiyer hom ler hum ter gurrem hom, wer weiyer ov hum ignersar * idnersar hum. + A term synonymous, or differing in orthography. ON the tigre version. ly connection with the Ethiopic version of Scripture, that in Tigre requires consideration, for Tigre is httle else than vulgar Ethiopic. The province of Tigre is the most important of the three divisions (Tigre, Amhara, and Showa) of Abyssinia. It hes directly west of Amhara, from which it is separated by the Tacazze, one of the larger branches of the Nile. It has the form of an irregular trapezium, and comprises about four degrees of latitude, and so many of longitude. During Mr. Jowett's residence in Egypt, in 1819, he superintended a translation of part of the New Testament into the vernacular of this extensive proviuce. The person whom he employed to effect this translation, was an Englishman, named Nathanael Pearce, a man of most eccentric character, but of extraordinary attainments in the dialects of the country. He had acquired varied and extensive information by constant wanderings through various countries ; he had roamed through Russia and China ; he had Uved as a Mussulman in Arabia, and afterwards, for fourteen years, had resided as a Christian and a warrior in Abyssinia." He translated Mark and John ; but as, owing to his restless habits, he had never acquired skill iu writing the Ethiopic character, he was consequently obhged to write his translation in Roman characters. The orthography he regulated by his ear, speUing every word according to the sound, just as he would have done in EngHsh. His MS. is in the possession of the British and Foreign Bible Society ; it has never been pubhshed, and its comparative value is stUl unascertained. In 1831, part of Luke was translated by Mr. Kugler, a Missionary of the Church Missionary Societv, and on his death the work was continued by Mr. Isenberg of the same Society. Competent native assistance was obtained, but it does not appear that any part of this version has been committed to the press. The natives employed in this work translated from the Ethiopic Scriptures, and their translation was afterwards revised and corrected by the Missionaries from the Greek original. > See the English translation of this hook by Dr. Laurence, Oxford, 1838. ^ Missionary Register for I819, p. 366. A M H A E I C . SPECIMEN OF THE AMHARIC VERSION, PUBLISHED BT THE BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY IN 1842. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. ACl^9n : ?kAU'19n ; 901711 -. Yllfia)- : U-A- :: (th^(D^ : nCI> = im."^ :: rh^ffll- 7" : Pf\(D- : -flC'^'i : W^.^ "¦ ¦UCS'i^" - nCtlAinj i^O^A :: GGLty"^^ : h?-TF(D' 9" :: rtCD- : Mid. : Yl'T^IH.hrnd^.C • PTAYI : fiaw'?" : P-fhTfl :: ^"Tl : AT^flilC = "° "1 : ATIC^T: A^^rtVlC-U-A: liCff ¦ ^9°^ zH'iKT "¦'^C.ff ¦ -UCWi -.rt^fH^tS,^ :: \lC.:ni ¦¦ TAln : tk'flC^l'i : A^^^VlC = = "i^a^^f ? = 'tlCWT ¦¦im.: AIKD- : U-A : P o^ym. : (DK :*%A9n : A«Riro*¥)(i> :: n^^A?" : in«i:: t^AOO-?" : nCl> = Vi--^ tifoio : ?»A(D'l>(I>'9n :: (DR : (Dir*P : ""rn :: ffllf^Fy" : J^At^'nA'^?" :: ATt HA^ : U-A : "IT : flAniT : rtniTOh : P7t,1H.h:1ldi.C. ¦ A^¥ : ^WY : Hljf :: flfl oo-: pan^gni, ::YiK9ii : (DTJ : ^^^ A : YlA";! : <5.^,K'9n :Yll1(D'7n : ODfD'EJf " nC : ^^ = Yl^^TH.^-flrh.C : TCDAK, : : JfAT" : J^P : ITl : 0^9" : hRd. :: ll-fl^.! OF THE AMHARIC LANGUAGE AND VERSION. Geographical Predominance op the Language. — Amharic is properly only the vernacular dialect of Amhara, a division or kingdom of Abyssinia lying west of the Tacazze, and measuring about 112 miles from east to west, by forty in breadth. From the circumstance, however, ofits being the language of Gondar the capital, and the native dialect of the reigning family, Amharic pre dominates far beyond the Hmits of Amhara, and by its aid a traveUer can make himself understood throughout Abyssinia. Amharic is also extensively used as a medium of intercourse with negro and other tribes from the interior of Africa, who frequent the north of that continent. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — Amharic is a degenerated Shemitic language, having to all appearance lost many of its original characteristics by admixture with African dialects. In grammatical structure it varies considerably from the Ethiopic, but above half the words are still the same in both languages. The Ethiopic alphabet is used in writing Amharic, but seven additional consonants have been adopted to represent the compound Amharic consonants. Amhaeic Version op Sceiptuee. — The earliest attempts to translate portions of Scripture into Amharic were made by the Romish Missionaries, but the date and comparative value of their productions are unknown, for the MSS. have never been seen in Europe, neither is it now known what has become of them. The Gospel of Mark was translated by Mr. Pearce, under the supermten- dence of the Rev. Mr._ Jowett, and this MS., written in Roman characters, is now in the possession of the British and Foreign Bible Society. An Amharic version of the entire Scriptures, which has superseded aU others, was commenced about 1810 by M. Asselin de CherviUe, French Consul at Cairo. Shemitic Languages. J AMHARIC. 49 After many fruitless inquiries for a person competent to aid him in the acquisition of the language, he was providentially directed to an old man named Abu Rumi, whom he eventuaUy engaged to translate the Scriptures. " Imagine," said M. AsseHn, "my surprise in finding in this poor old man a person master of the Hterature of his country; a traveller who had penetrated the most remote regions of Asia; the instructor of Bruce and of Sir WiUiam Jones." Abu Rumi was weU quaUfied for the work of translation by his acquaintance with Arabic, Greek, Persian, and several other lan guages besides his own. He executed his version under the immediate direction of M. AsseHn ; twice a week, during a period of ten years, they secluded themselves from all other occupations, and read together the Arabic version from which the translation was to be made. M. AsseHn explained such terms as were abstruse, difficult, or foreign to the Arabic by reference to the original text, the Syriac version, the Septuagint, and various glossaries, but Abu Rumi also often found the key to them in the Ethiopic itself. In the early portions of the work, M. AsseHn declared that he had often occasion to admire the patience of his aged companion. But when they came to the Epistles of Paul, Abu Rumi's zeal began to cool, the difficulty of the task frightened him, he wanted to set off for Jerusalem, and it was only by dint of time, care, and sacrifices, that M. Asselin convinced him of the necessity of not leaving the work imperfect.' It may not be uninteresting to mention that this poor old man immediately on the completion of his work, executed his favourite project of visiting Jerusalem, and was cut off by the plague soon after his arrival. The version was sold by M. AsseHn to the British and Foreign Bible Society. The Rev. Ish. Jowett was employed by the Society in carrying on the negociation, and in 1820 he undertook a journey from Malta to Cairo to effect the purchase. The purchase money was £1250. The MS. was brought to England in 1821, and was read with much approbation by those acquainted with the language. Dr. Lee, in a letter addressed to the Bible Committee, dated 1822, says, " the work appears to have been executed with uncommon abihty and accuracy. There is no attempt whatever to display the learning of the translator by any of that verbiage so common to aU the languages of the East, but all is precise, easy, and natural." In 1824 the Gospels were carried through the press by Dr. Lee, Mr. Jowett, and Mr. Piatt, and in 1829 the entire Amharic Testament was completed. In 1840 the Old Testament was pubHshed, and in 1842, an edition of the whole Scriptures. In superintending the printing of these editions, Mr. Piatt carefully compared Abu Rumi's edition with the original Greek and Hebrew, and inserted such corrections as seemed indis pensably requisite, leaving a more complete revision for a future opportunity. A second edition of the Pentateuch was afterwards printed, in which, with the assistance of the Rev. C. Isenberg, formerly a Missionary in Abyssinia, such a revision was to a great extent accomplished. Results op the Dissemination op this Veesion. — There are more impediments to the saving influence of the Scriptures in this nominaUy Christian land, than in many idolatrous countries. The moral and mental condition of the people is deplorable. Polygamy prevails to a considerable extent, and they are the victims of many degrading superstitions. All afflictions they attribute to the immediate influence of devUs and of witchcraft. The life of Mr. Gobat was once nearly sacrificed by the prevalence of these superstitious notions ; he was ill, and those among whom he laboured, and who were sincerely attached to him, instead of giving him assistance, crowded round him, some holding his hands, otners his feet, while one amongst them was engaged in thrusting into his ears, mouth, and nostrils, nauseous substances which they caUed medicines. Yet the Abyssinians have not been found unwilhng to confess the absurdity of their opinions when confronted with the light of Scriptural truth. They invariably bow to the authority of Scripture. On one occasion, a monk went to the Missionaries with a very self righteous air, but apparently very ill. The account he gave of himself was as follows : — " Being the son of a Govemor, he said, and somewhat at ease, I lived many years in sin. At length, my conscience was awakened, and I began to fear the wrath of God. My agony and terror increased continuaUy; and I did not know what to do;" (for he dared not to caU on the nameof the Lord, having never heard of the way of salvation by the merits of Christ), " at last, I determined to leave secretly my wife and my children and aU that I had; and to retire into a wilderness which was mhabited only by wild beasts. There I Hved many months upon roots, taking only just as much as was necessary to keep me aHve. As I could find no peace for my heart, I determined to stand in a river of cold water from sunset to sunrise; which I did for a long time. I next bound my ankles so fast with a chain that I have ever since been unable to walk without very great pain. FinaUy, I inflicted a number of stripes every day on my body, the source of my sins, tiU it was covered aU over 1 See M. Asselin's Letters to Committee of Bible Society. 50 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class II. with putrifying wounds. This, he added, has ruined my health ; but I console myself with the idea that I have done aU this for God's sake." When Mr. Gobat told him that aU those self-inflicted sufferings were the result of ignorance and pride, and therefore sinful — and that it was altogether impossible to find true reHef by means of any expedient of that kind — ^he trembled for fear; but wten some passages from the Epistles of Paul and other parts of Scripture were repeated to him, which testify that by grace we are saved through faith, not of ourselves, for it is the gift of God, the poor man was quite astonished, and cried out, " Is it possible? and can I yet be saved?" " I had despaired," he afterwards said, " of finding peace with God: I determined therefore, if possible, to secure a good name among my feUow-men; and for that purpose I have been going about, for some time, exhorting people to Hve better. But now I wiU read the Gospel, and seek for the way of salvation in the Word of God." There are many other instances of the readiness with which the Abyssinians receive the testimony of Scripture. Mr. Gobat, by whom the foregoing narrative is recorded, says that when he first began to distribute copies of the vernacular Scriptures among the people, they evinced httle desire to receive them, being afraid of being deceived. By placing some copies for distribution in the hands of the priests, these suspicions were removed, and people immediately came, earnestly requesting to be fiimished with the Word of God. " If," continues Mr. Gobat, " I had had some thousands of New Testaments, I could have distributed them to eager readers. I know some instances where persons have given aU their property in order to purchase a copy of the New Testament : one man who had two oxen gave them for a copy of the Four Gospels ; and another man gave four oxen in exchange for the Four Gospels." /V CLASS III.-INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. A. MEDO-PERSIAN FAMILY. PERSIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE PERSIC VERSION, By Henry Maktyn, 8to. PUBLISHED BT THE BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY EST 1846. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. JH^y'J * ''^y. ^'^^ ^y ^'^^ y u^ j * '^j^ ^'^^ ''^ ^ j ^y. l J^ ^iy a^ ^ . a^ 1 jJj! j^ iiy j\ jO * u:^Ui Jj^j ^j:^y\ as^i '^yry ^ ij'^^^^j:^ J^ j^ '^^ j^ j^ j^. j -^ "^^Ty* j^ '-^'^y \j*^ y i-^.j^ J '^^^^^^^y<=i is^.j'^ y e^}y^jj u^ j * ^y. u^^ ^^}^jj '•^^'^ u^ j ^^y. c-^Us- i^ oiJ - j^i^'^ it^y*^ j * ii^ iy^]j J '4^.jy j^ Ji i '^y.j'H *'*^ •• ''*-^i^ ""^^ "^j^ i^s^sjj' iJi j j*:'.'^.'^ ^ bj' *l5W j ON THE PERSIC LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. Extent and Statistics. — The kingdom of Iran or Persia Proper Hes between 39° and 26° north latitude, and 44° and 62° east longitude. Its inhabitants are divided into two distinct classes, the Taujiks or aboriginal inhabitants of the country (whose number has been estimated by Fraser at about 7,000,000), and the Ilyats or Eilauts, a coUective name given to the nomadic tribes by whom a considerable part of Persia is occupied. Of these tribes some are of Persian and others of Turkish, MongoUan, Affghan, and Arabic origin; the languages spoken in Rersia are therefore as numerous as the races by whom it is peopled. Turkish is predominant in the northern and western provinces. 52 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. although the natives are likewise acquainted with Persic. _ The Rev. H. Southgate, an American Missionary, remarked that in his travels through these provinces he never once found it necessary to resort to Persian in his conversations with the people. The Taujiks, whose vernacular is invariably Persic, form the main population of Ears, and of almost _aU the towns of Persia. _ But the Persian language is predominant far beyond the regions of Persia Proper. In India it is spoken at aU the Mahommedan courts; and it is, or was tiU very recently, the language adopted by the British Govern ment in aU judicial proceedings throughout Hindoostan. It is the vernacular languageof the ancient Transoxiana, and indeed of the whole of Turldstan, now subject to theUsbec Tartars; in this country the Taujiks possess four independent governments in which pure Persic is spoken. _ Generally speak ing, however, the Taujiks do not dwell together in corporate societies Hke other nations, but disperse themselves over the regions adjacent to their native land, and adopt the dress and customs of the dominant race in the countries in which they sojoum. They are said to be scattered as far as Thibet, and to have been met with in Chinese Turkistan. In Affghanistan they have been calculated by Elphinstone to number 1,500,000, and the Cohistan of Caubul is occupied almost solely by them. The religion of the Taujiks is Mahommedanism ; but Soofeeism or free thinking, a species of iafidehty akin to the rationahsm of Germany, is extremely prevalent among them. There are also about 2,300 famihes of Guebres or fire-worshippers in Persia, and on the western coast of India there are about 200,000 individuals belonging to this ancient sect. These Guebres or Parsees of India now form one of the most valuable classes of the subjects of Britain;' their ancestors are beheved to have fled thither when Persia feU under the Mahommedan yoke, and the books and sacred fire which they brought with them are stiU rehgiously preserved. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The origin of the Persic language dates from the invasion of the Arabs in the seventh century. Prior to that period, various idioms prevailed through out the Persian empire, of which the principal were the Pehlvi, the Farsi or Parsi, and the Deri. The Pehlvi, rude and masculine in structure, was closely aUied to Chaldee, and was the dialect of Media properly so caUed, whUe the Farsi or Parsi was the language of Persia Proper, and its sub-dialect the Deri was the polished idiom of the court. Modem Persic was graduaUy formed during the long dominion of the Saracens in Persia, by admixture of the Parsi and Deri elements with the language of the conquerors. But the primitive type of the whole Persian family is undoubtedly the Zend, a lan guage belonging to the same stem as the Sanscrit. Concerning the period during which this ancient tongue was vernacular, history is silent ; but it appears to have been the language of Zoroaster and of the Magi, and to have been once predominant in the west of India among the worshippers of the Sun. Modern Persic, although greatly adulterated with other languages, still retains abundant evidences of its descent from the Zend. The numerous and important points of affinity which united the Zend with the Sanscrit, are not aU obliterated in Persic. AU the Indian words which occur in Persic are, however, characterised by their abbreviated form, and it is rare in this language to meet with an un- mutilated Sanscrit term, for the final letters are generaUy cut off, and words of two syllables reduced to one.^ The Persic, Hke its parent the Zend, is more allied than any of the other Asiatic languages to the Germanic family; in fact, the entire fabric of the etymology of German and its cognate dialects is based upon the Persic.^ Of the 12,000 radical words composing the Persian language, 4,000 are found with more or less change in the Germanic dialects, and a striking conformity prevails even in the inflections of these languages. The termination of the infinitive of verbs in the Persic is ten and den, the en of the German, and the ei,v of the Greek. The termination of the plural in Persic for men and animated beings is the syllable an, corresponding with the plural termination n ofthe German. Comparatives are formed in Persic as in German by the addition of the syllable ter or er ; for instance, the Persian adjective signifying ^oocf, in the comparative forms hihter, in German besser, and in Enghsh better. The pronouns and numerals in German and in Persic are also etymologically connected. With respect to the personal terminations of the verbs, the Persic sometimes foUows the German, somethnes the Sanscrit, and sometimes the Greek or Latin forms. The future tense is formed as in Enghsh by the aid of an auxiliary, and the passive is formed according to the same analogy, by placing the past participle of the active verb before the different tenses and modes of an auxiliary .* The afibity of the Persic with the other members of the great Indo-European class of languages is to be traced even in the particles of composition.^ The Persian a represents the Greek privative a ; and Von Hammer has not hesitated to say that this same particle also occasionaUy corresponds in meaning with the Greek 2 5J^Jf ^=^f °°f p'i'-f • ^°i'- '•,P- ^¦'^- ' Nouveau Journal Asiatique, Vol. XII., pp. 27, 28. Schlegel, Langue et Philosophie des Indiens, pp. 21-23. 4 Ibraheem's Grammar of the Persian Language, p. 48. Indo-Eukopean Languages.] PERSIC. 53 particles aTro and eVl, and the German an, ab and auf The Persian ba, he says, is the German bey and EngHsh by. The particle pes in Persic he considers equivalent to post in Latin, and the Persian negative particles ne and me, equivalent to the Latin ne and the Greek /j.i]. Persic also resembles Greek, German, and_ EngHsh in its power of compounding words; and in the variety and eleo-ance of its compound adjectives it is said even to surpass these languages. The Persian adjectives are com pounded m three ways; by placuig a substantive before a contracted particle, by prefixing an adjective to a substantive; and, lastly, by adding one substantive to another. The combinations produced according to these three forms are exceedingly numerous, and sometimes highly poetical: they are often used, especiaUy in the plural number, as substantives without any noun being employed, and so melodious are they accounted by the Persian poets, that an entire distich is frequently fiUed with them.' The great beauty of the Persian language consists in its extreme simphcity; its style of phrase- ologyis natural and easy, and cap^able of being reduced to few rules. In this simphcity of construc- tion,_ in harmony of sound, in faciUty of versification, and in consequent adaptation for poetry, the Persian resembles the Itahan. It has been said that the crown of Persian Hterature is its poetry; the same perhaps is true of the Italian ; and in connection with the several points of resemblance between these two languages, both in regard to their present development and to their origin and early history, it is rather a striking fact, and a subject for inquiry to a psychologist, that a remarkable simUarity of sentiment and imagery pervades the works of Persian and Italian poets. This similarity has been repeatedly pointed out, and the sonnets of Petrarch have been compared to those of Sadi.^ Another prominent feature of the Persian language is its intimate admixture with Arabic words and idioms. Turkish words also occur in Persic, but scarcely a Hne or sentence is to be met with free from some words either purely Arabic, or of Arabic origin.' The pecuHar forms of the plural called broken, imperfect, or irregular plurals, wliich characterise the Arabic and Ethiopic languages, are borrowed by the Persic ; and Arabic syntax is sedulously studied by aU who desire to write the Persian language with correctness. Alphabetical System. — The primitive alphabetical system of the Persian empire seems to have consisted of a pecuHar set of characters called from their form arrow-headed, and cuneiform or wedge-shaped. Specimens of these characters have been found in ancient inscriptions on monuments of stone, and sometimes on bricks at Persepolis, and in the west of Persia. The efforts that have been made of late years in the study of the Zend, have tended to facilitate the decyphering of these inscrip tions, the language in which they are written being an ancient and long extinct idiom closely con nected with the Zend. The Persians, since the time of the Saracen conquest, have used the Arabic letters, which they write, like the Arabs, from right to left. Their alphabet consists of thirty-two characters, of which four are pecuHar to their language: on the other hand, eight of the Arabic characters have no corresponding sound in Persian; for instance, the th ofthe Arabs is pronounced Hke s in Persia,^ just as the PoHsh Jews pronounce n : these eight letters are nevertheless retained in Per sian writings, and are useful in showing the derivation of words, for they are seldom or never found in any word not purely Arabic. Veesions op Sceiptuee. — An ancient version of the Scriptures existed in the language formerly spoken in the Persian empire ; but of this version, and even of the particular dialect in which it was written, we have Httle or no information beyond the casual allusions of Chrysostom and Theodoret.' Christianity was early established in Persia, for Constantine the Great wrote to Sapor, king of that country, in behalf of the Christian churches in his dominions. The Elamites present on the day of Pentecost doubtless carried back the Christian doctrine with them, and we are assured of a bishop of Persia being at the Council of Nice. The oldest version existing in the modem Persian language is probably that of the Pentateuch contained in the London Polyglot. This Pentateuch is beUeved to have been translated by Rabbi Jacob, a Jew, who, on account of his having come from a city caUed Tus, was surnamed Tusius or Tawosus. The period of its execution is unknown, but it certainly was translated subsequently to the eighth century, for Babel in Gen. 10. 10, is rendered Bagdad. The translation is supposed to have been made from the Syriac, but it foUows the Hebrew pretty closely. It was first printed at Constantinople in 1546, accompanied with the Hebrew text, the Chaldee Targum of Onkelos, and the Arabic version of Saadias Gaon.^ 1 Sir WUliam Jones's Grammar ofthe Persian Language, p. 102. * Sir WiUiam Jones's Grammar of the Persian Language, p. 24. 2 Ouseley's Persian MisceUanies, Introduction, p. xxi. ^ Chrysos. Hom. II. in Johan. and Theod. IV. 555. 3 Ibraheem's Grammar of the Persian Language, p. 241 . « Waltom Prol. xvi. 7, 9. 54 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. The only other portion of Persian Scriptures contained in the London Polyglot consists of the four Gospels, supposed to have been written at Caffa, a town of the Crimea, about A.D. 1341, by a Roman CathoHc. This translation is evidently from the Peshito, as is proved by many internal evidences, but it is interpolated with readings from the Vulgate, and even from Romish rituals and legends. If it had been free from these glosses and additions, it would have furnished valuable aid in the criticism of the Peshito.' Another edition of the Persian Gospels was commenced under the care of Wheeloc, Professor of Arabic at Cambridge, and at his death superintended by Pierson. This edition left the press in 1657. The editors used the very MS. from which the Gospels in the London Polyglot were printed; and although they possessed two other MSS., of which one is supposed to have contamed a version from the Greek, yet they confounded them altogether, and appealed to the Syro-Persian text in the formation of their own.^ Le Long speaks of another version of the Persian Gospels, which he says was transcribed in 1388, from an original of much older date, and sent by Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit, from Agra to the Collegium Romanum.' Yet it is recorded of this same Xavier that at the request of Akbar, Emperor of the Moguls, to be furnished with the Scriptures in Persian, lie merely feigned compliance, and with the aid of a Persian compiled a Hfe of Christ, partly from the Gospels, and partly from Romish legends, which, when presented to the Emperor, only served to excite derision. This production was printed by De Dieu, at Leyden, in 1639. The next attempt to procure a version of the Scriptures in Persian was made by Nadir Shah. This Emperor was desirous of pro curing a translation of the Gospels, the Psalms, and the prophecies of Jeremiah, on account of the references made in the Koran to the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, and with this view he summoned several Armenian bishops and priests, Romish missionaries, and Persian Mullahs, to Ispahan. The Armenians, from their imperfect acquaintance with the Persian language, were unable to take any efficient part in the translation, the whole of which, in consequence, devolved upon the Romish and Mahommedan priests: between them they effected their work by the aid of an ancient Arabic and other versions, but it was dressed up with all the glosses which the Koran could warrant, and the Romish priests made such use as they could of the Vulgate.'* When the work was presented to Nadir Shah, he turned it into ridicule, and declared that he could himself make a better religion than any that had yet been produced. If this story be true, the version sometimes found in the hands of the Armenian priests in India may be safely conjectured to be the same as that of Nadir: a copy of this version was shown to the Rev. Henry Martyn, who remarked that he did not wonder at the Emperor's contempt of it. As the style in wliich the Gospels of the Polyglot are written has long been antiquated at Ispahan, several efforts have been made during the present century to produce a version in the pohshed dialect now spoken by the Persians. A translation of the four Gospels was made under the superinten dence of Colonel Colebrooke, and printed at Calcutta in 1804.' Our accounts of this work are very meagre, and it never seems to have obtained much circulation. In 1812 the Rev. L. Sebastiani had advanced nearly to the end of the Epistles, in a translation of the New Testament from the Greek,^ and during the same year 1000 copies of the Gospels of this version were printed at Serampore by order of the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society. Sebastiani had been many years resident at the Court of Persia, and his version was chiefly designed for the use of the Christians dispersed in Persia. In the meantime another translation of the whole of the New Testament had been progressing at Dina- pore, in the East Indies, under the superintendence of the Rev. Henry Martyn. The translators were Sabat and Mirza Fitrut: the former had previously been employed in this translation at Serampore, and the latter by Colonel Colebrooke. This version was completed in 1808, but it was found to be so replete with Arabic and abstruse terms intelligible only to the learned, that the Rev. Henry Martp determined upon visiting Persia in person, that he might there obtain the means of producing a clear and idiomatic version. In 1811 he reached Shiraz, the seat of Persian literature, and remained there nearly a year. He was received with much friendship by some of the principal men of the city, who expressed the warmest sympathy for the man of God, as they habitually designated our Missionary. Wheli the weather became too intense for his enfeebled frame to bear the extreme heat of the city, Jaflier AH Khan, a Persian noble, pitched a tent for him in a deUghtful garden beyond the wall, and here he executed from the original Greek a translation of the New Testament, remarkable not only for its strict fideUty to the text, but for its astonishing conformity to the niceties of the Persic idiom. By the Persians themselves this work has been designated " a masterpiece of perfection ;" and while other 1 Hug;s Introduction, Vol. I. p. 349. i Buchanan's Christian Reseaixhes, p. 94. ! Hug's Introduction Vol. I p. 350. 5 Marsh's History of Translations, p 77- 3 Le Long, BibUoth. Sacra, Vol. I. p. 133. c Eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 13. Indo-Etteopeak Languages.] PERSIC. 55 Oriental versions have been superseded by more accurate translations, the Persic and Hindoostanee Testaments of this accomphshed scholar are at this day in higher repute than ever.' On the accom- phshment of his object, he found that his constitution had been completely shattered by the effects of the cHmate and extreme exertion, and he attempted to retum to England, but expired during his journey home wards at Tocat, a commercial emporium of Asiatic Turkey, in 1812.^ Copies of the work which had caused the sacrifice of his valuable Hfe were deposited with Sir Gore Ouseley, the English Ambassador in Persia. One copy was presented to the King of Persia, who, in a letter written on the occasion, expressed his approbation of the work. On retuming to England, by way of St. Petersburgh, Sir Gore Ouseley met with Prince Galitzin, and it was suggested that the Prince, who was the head of the Russian Bible Society, should cause an edition of Martyn's Testament to be printed at St. Petersburgh, for circula tion in the provinces of Western Persia. The impression was completed in less than six months, and consisted of 5000 copies.^ In 1813 a communication was received by the Corresponding Committee at Calcutta from Meer Seid AH, the learned native employed by the Rev. Henry Martyn at Shiraz, in which, with many expressions of regret for the loss of his exceUent master, he informed the Committee that the MS. of the Persian New Testament and of the Psalms (which had likewise been translated at Shiraz) was in his possession, and that he waited their orders as to its disposal. He was directed by the Committee first to take four correct copies of the MS., that no risk might be incurred in the trans mission of so great a treasure, and then to forward the MS. to Calcutta, whither he was invited him self for the purpose of superintending the publication.* The Psalter and New Testament passed through the j)ress at Calcutta in 1816. The Psalter was reprinted in London under the editorship of Dr. Lee in 1824; and the New Testament, edited by the same distinguished scholar, was published in London in 1827. This Testament was reprinted in London in 1837, and an edition of 3000 copies was printed at Edinburgh in 1847, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society,' in order to accompany an edition of the Old Testament, which, as we shaU presently have occa sion to mention, was then passing through the press in that city. Of aU these editions of Martyn's Testament, the most incorrect seems to have been that printed at St. Petersburgh in 1815. This impression was so defaced with errors that the Missionaries deemed it useless, and at their request the issue was stopped by the Russian Bible Society. The Rev. WilHam Glen, of the Scottish J\lission at Astrachan, was in consequence led to undertake a version of the Psahns in Persian for the benefit of the numerous individuals speaking that language who resort for purposes of trade to Astrachan and the South of Russia. In preparing his version, Mr. Glen first made a Hteral translation of the Hebrew text, which he submitted with due explanations to his teacher; it was then the ofiice of the latter to give as exact a representation of the sense as possible in classical Persian ; his production was then revised and compared with the original by Mr. Glen.^ In 1826 the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society made arrangements with the Scottish Missionary Society for the services of Mr. Glen at Astrachan, in making a translation of the poetical and prophetical books of the Old Testament. In the meanwhile, Jlirza Jafiier had been engaged by the same Society to pro duce a version of the historical books of the Old Testament at St. Petersburgh, '^ under the eye of Dr. Pinkerton, and according to specific directions sent out for the purpose by Dr. Lee. The only portion of ilirza Jaffier's version which appears to have been pubhshed, is the book of Genesis, printed in London in 1827, under the care of Dr. Lee. Mr. Glen's version of the Psalms and Proverbs was revised by Mr. Greenfield, assisted by Mr. Seddon, and pubHshed in London in 1830, 31; the edition consisted of 1000 copies,* and another edition appeared in 1836. The entire Old Testament, trans lated by Mr. Glen, was eventually printed at Edinburgh, under the auspices of the Committee of Foreign Missions connected with the United Associate Synod of Scotland, and the British and Foreign Bible Society contributed £500 towards its pubhcation; the edition left the press in 1847.^ In consequence of a grant by the British and Foreign Bible Society in aid of the translation department of Bishop's CoUege, Calcutta, the Rev. T. Robinson (then Chaplain at Poonah, but after wards Archdeacon) appHed for the sanction ofthe Bishop of Calcutta to a projected version ofthe Old Testament in Persian, and on its being ascertained that the design feU within the terms of the grant, the translation was commenced in 1824.'° The Pentateuch was completed and printed at Calcutta in 1830, and in 1838 the entire Old Testament was finished ; the translation is from the original text, and is accounted faithful and accurate. A Persian version of the prophecy of Isaiah was purchased ¦ Missionary Register for 1822, p. 45. « Henderson's BibUcal Researches in Russia, pp. 429, 430. ' Owen's History ofthe British and F. Bible Society, Vol. II. p. 265. ? Twenty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xlviii. 2 Owen's History ofthe British and F. Bible Society, Vol. II. p. 41. s Twenty-seventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 97. ' Eleventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 38. ' Missionary Register for 134/, p. 72. ¦¦ Forty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixxxviu. » Twentieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ui. 56 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. by the British and Foreign Bible Society for the sum of £100 in 1833. This version had been ex ecuted by the Mirza Ibraham of the East India CoUege at Haileybury, and revised by Mr Johnson, one of the Professors of that CoUege. The translator took the EngHsh Authorised Version for a basis, and adliered to it as far as it expresses faithfuUy the sense of the original. Being weU acquainted with both Hebrew and Arabic, he made it a rule to use in his translation an Arabic word of the same root with the original, where such a word had been adopted into Persian; and m rendermg the sense of difficult passages, he first consulted our EngHsh version, then turned to the original Hebrew and compared it with the Arabic, and finaUy discussed the question with some of the members of the CoUege, besides referring to several commentators.' In 1834 an edition of this booh was pubHshed by the Society under the care of Mr. Johnson. In 1841 the attention of the Calcutta Committee was occupied in Hthographing an edition of the Scriptures in the Persian character, a method deemed pre ferable to the former system of Arabic type prmting.'^ In 1842, 5000 lithographed New Testaments of Martyn's version left the Calcutta press, and in 1844, 5000 copies of Genesis and part of Exodus of -Archdeacon Robinson's translation were also Hthographed. Results op the Dissemination op this Veesion.-— The work of distributing^ the Scrip tures has been very extensively prosecuted in Persia : the portion which has there gone into widest circulation is lilartyn's Testament, and a recent traveUer declares that this inestimable work has made its way by single copies into many houses in Persia, and that he found persons acquainted with it in every city through which he passed.' The Scriptures have not yet effected any general change k Persia, but individual instances are not wanting of their blessed influence. A writer in the Matic Journal states, that once, at a convivial meeting in Persia where religious questions were being dis cussed, he chanced to express his opinions with a considerable degree of levity._ He was immediately afterwards startled by perceiving the eyes of one of the guests fixed upon him with a pecuhar and piercing expression of surprise, regret, and reproof On inquiry, he found this person to be by name Mahomed Rameh, a man of great learning and high moral endowments ; he had, it was said, been educated as a MoUah, but had never officiated, and led a life of retirement. The writer obtained an interview with him, in which Mahomed avowed himself a Christian, and related the history of Ms conversion in nearly the following terms: — " In the year 1223 of the Hejira, there came to this city an Englishman who taught the rehgion of Christ with a boldness hitherto unparalleled in Persia, in tte midst of much scorn and ill-treatment from our Mollahs as weU as the rabble. He was a beardless youth, and evidently enfeebled with disease. I was then a decided enemy to infidels, and I visited the teacher of the despised sect with the declared object of treating him with scorn, and exposing Hs doctrines to contempt. These evil feehngs graduaUy subsided beneath the influence of his gentleness, and just before he quitted Shiraz I paid liim a parting visit. Our conversation — the memory of it wiU never fade from the tablets of my memory, sealed my conversion. He gave me a book; it has ever been my constant companion, the study of it has formed my most delightful occupation." Upon this ]\Iahomed brought out a copy of the New Testament in Persian ; on one of the blank leaves was written — " There is joy in Heaven over one sinner that repen teth. — Henry Martyn."* The Persian Scriptures have been Hkewise distributed in the countries adjacent to Persia, where, as has been above stated, vast numbers of people speaking the Persian language are dispersed. The following instance of the blessing of God on this version occurred in Hindoostan in 1844; the narrator is the Eev. A. Sternberg of Arrah. " I am thankful to tell you, he writes, of a Hindu who two months ago was baptized by me, having been brought to a thorough conviction of the truth of our rehgion only by reading, by himself a Persian Neiv Testament which he had got at Cuttak some months previous. He was a Kaith, and was well acquainted with the common creed of Mahomedans and its errors before he became acquainted with Christianity. In the commencement of the year 1844, he undertook a pilgrimage to Jagganath ; on his retum he received a Persian New Testament from a Missionary preaching in a Bazar Chapel at Cuttak ; but he did not touch it for fear. On his arrival at Arrah, he was obHged to stop on account of his wife's and child's Ulness. Now the time was come: he had leisure, and began to read his Persian Testament, and instantly he was struck with the truth of the word. Only one passage made him stop a Httle, the term ' Son of God:' when his Mahomedan pre judices on this subject had been removed, he appHed for baptism; since that period," continues Mr. Sternberg, " he has shown such deep knowledge of aU the principal doctrines of faith, as well as I ^•!2!''""'"'»J'-|I'°''' of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ivui. 3 Southgate's Narrative of a Tour in Persia, &c. Vol. L p. 141. - Thuiy-seventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. isiv. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] JUD.^0-PERSIC. .57 a thorough change of sentiment, that he was and is to me, who was very far from expecting to see a Hindu truly converted, a most seasonable evidence of the mighty power of the written word of God. He has had no teacher; the reading of the word alone has converted him. It is encouraging to find agam the saying true, ' one soweth and another reapeth.' " ^ JUD.^O-PER SIC. specimen of the PERSIC VERSION IN HEBREW LETTERS, AS PRINTED IN LONDON IN 1847, Svo. St. JOHN, Chap. 1. ». I to 14. 'Nn rj TN n ^^n itn n^jni na' y\m in ntoNDU t^^ nni = : nn Nnb nn NnnnN J nn [NDiN "NJEJ'n nN*n jni nn nN^n in nn * : T\hm ni;ii mdn m^ niJi2: nn : Jj'nfiN* 'fti nn nnni n^B'nnn *a nnNn nn ^Nisi'in |ni ' '*Nnn INI ' t Til N^n* jyaoN nn nn^r nnNnons Nnn n:N^ tn nn nn ^-i^^ ' jxa^N IN ntDNon nan nn jn nh ir\i niJ |n nn nnNne' nn |n Nn naN nnNna' : nnnn nnNna' 'NJB'in jn nn nn i)^ nn^N nnSn i)^: 'NiB'in nn ini ^ : njniN : nJNnni *a im n^N ^a nn |Nnjn nn Nn on nn rnn hdn jn ^p^pn ^wB'ini ^ jNSNn 'noni '^ ; nnNi^j' ^aj jy^Nn^i nB':i nns in ntDNon ]NnJi nn jNnj nn pNi " nn nNn nnnp Nn inb^^n tj'njnanns r]:^ nj^r= jjj'njnsnnsj inb^^ni nsN jj'nn TN iNB^'N nSinr^ :njnniN jn^^n EJ'aoNn nn n^nn {ne^^ni niiE'n Nnn fNnjins xi)^ Nnn TN nnjo nnSn nnj 'jndsj a^nNni 'Jn^d.? a'nNn tni iDN^nN INI nnn N23 Nn IN 'Sjni nsnj nNnp nz: |N*a nn nne' nop nd^:^ |ni" : nn *nDNni 'JNnnna tn nsi nn nns 'njNn^ nno^NE' nn nn '':'^n ON THE JUD^O-PERSIC LANGUAGE AND VERSION. Nearly all the Jews who are settled in Persia and in Bokhara speak the Persian language, which they are able to read and write only in the Hehrew character. The Rev. Mr. Pfander, when in connection with the Basle Missionary Society, made apphcation for means to print the Persian Scriptures in Hebrew characters for the benefit of these Jews ; but he was soon afterwards removed from Shushi, in Southem Russia, where he was stationed at the period of his making that request, and for a time, at least, the project was in consequence dropped. In 1841, Dr. Haeberlin applied to some Chiistian friends for aid in imparting the Scriptures to the Persian Jews ; and in reply he received from Herat a copy of Martyn's Persian New Testament, written in Hebrew characters under the care of Dr. Login, who stated that the Jews had frequently asked him for the Scriptures in this form. Dr. H^berhn laid the version before the Calcutta Committee, and they agreed to refer the means of printing it to the consideration of the Parent Society .2 Their application was promptly met by a request on the part of the latter Society to print an edition of 2000 New Testa ments in this form, and it was arranged that the edition should be carried through the press at Calcutta, under the eye of the Rev. Dr. Yates. The death, however, of that lamented Missionary rendered this plan abortive ; and in 1845 the Bombay Auxiliary Society transmitted to London MS. copies of the Judseo-Persic Gospels, of which an edition of 1000 copies was completed in London in 1847,3 under the superintendence of the Rev. Dr. Wilson of Bombay. ' Fortieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, pp. c, ci. 3 Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xcv. - Thirty-seventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lxiii. PUSHTOO. SPECIMEN OF THE AFFGHAN VERSION, AS FEINTED AT SEKAMPOEE IN 1819, Svo. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. j\ Hj i^jd6jj' (j.^ - y^ ij^ * Sj JjJj tijui'i jJiii- ^-^y jl (^5^!^ J^J^i" Ja=-4 b ^.sai^ _^.j''J ''^ * ^ ^^^JJjL' c'^'.^ Jt)^ y^. i-?j*= '''^'^ Asn,»l ttjj 4V» <|J jl ^[ij^i] j\ Syi * iJjJj ON THE PUSHTOO OR AFFGHAN LANGUAGE AND VERSION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The Afighans, a warlike and semibarbarous nation, inhabit Affghanistan, a mountainous territory lying directly south of Hindoo Coosh. They call themselves Pushtaneh, whence, by a corruption of the word, they are styled by the Indians Patans. Their language is termed Pushtoo. They received the designation of Afighans from the Persians, by which name alone they are known ia Europe. According to Elphinstone, the number of AJfghans residing in Afighanistan, and within the limits of the ancient kingdom of Caubul, amounts to 4,300,000. In Afighanistan itself, he remarks, there is scarcely any part in which the whole popula tion is Affghan, the mixture is composed of Tajiks in the west, and of Hindkees in the east.' Sir WUHam Jones, and others, have assumed that the Afighans are of Plebrew origin ; but though this idea may at first sight appear to be countenanced by some of the Afighan traditions, which represent them as lineaUy descended from ancient Israel, yet abundant proofs might be adduced from historical and phUological sources in confirmation of the now generally received opinion, that this people are tne aborigines of the region in or near which they now dwell. Their religion is the Mahommedan, but they belong to the sect of Soonnee, who recognize the first three CaHphs as the lawful successors of Mahomet. Characteristics op the Language. — The structure of the Pushtoo or Afighan language refutes the hypothesis of the Hebrew origin of the Affghan people. It exhibits none of the pecuE- 1 Elphinstone's Cabul, Vol. I. p. 403. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] PUSHTOO. 59 arities of the Shemitic dialects, but, on the contrary, forms an important link in the great Indo- European chain of languages. Many of the words are Persian, and some of the roots can be traced distinctly from the Zend and Pehlvi dialects, whUe others again are from some unknown source. Mr. Elphinstone compared an Afighan vocabulary, consisting of^ 218 words, with the correlative terms in Persian, Zend, Pehlvi, Sanscrit, Hindoostanee, Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, Hebrew, and Chaldaic; and he ascertained that in this coUection of Affghan words, there were no less than 110 which could not be referred to any of the above languages, but appear to be distinct and original. Of the remain ing words, by far the greater number were modern Persian, but some of these could be traced to the Zend, and many more to the Pehhd; other words were proved to belong exclusively to these latter languages, not being employed in modern Persian. The instances in which a similarity was traced between the Affghan and the Sanscrit and Hindoostanee words, are to be accounted for by the con nection, we have elsewhere noticed, which originally subsisted between the Zend and Sanscrit lan guages. Most of the terms relative to science, government, and rehgion, have been engrafted on the Pushtoo language from the Arabic, through the Persian. In its grammatical forms, Pushtoo is more closely aUied to Zend than to Persian, and in its inflections it retains some of the features of that ancient language which are lost in Persian. Although Pushtoo is said not to be unpleasing to those who are accustomed to the rough sounds of Oriental tongues, it is decidedly harsh and unpoUshed, and contrasts strongly in this respect with the soft and musical language of Persia. The Affghans use the Persian alphabet, but they have altered the sound of several of the letters, which changes they in dicate by means of diacritical marks appended to the letters, which in Persian approach the nearest in sound to their own pecuHar enunciation : these distinctive sounds are the hard d, t, r, and csh. Version of the Sceiptuees. — The first attempt to produce a Pushtoo version of Scripture seems to have been made by Dr. Leyden, who in 1811 furnished the Corresponding Committee of Calcutta with a translation of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. At his death the translation was continued by the Serampore Missionaries, with the aid of some learned natives previously in the employ of Dr. Leyden. An edition of the New Testament, consisting of 1000 copies, was printed at Serampore in 1819.' The Missionaries then proceeded with the translation of the Old Testament into Pushtoo, and in 1832 an edition, consisting of 1000 copies of the historical books of the Old Testa ment, was in the press.^ The rest of the Old Testament is in course of preparation. Little encourage ment, however, has as yet been afforded to Christian efforts in this particular sphere of labour, for although some copies of the Pushtoo New Testament have been distributed, and testimonies received from several natives as to the clearness and intelligibility of the style in which it is written, yet no general distribution of any portion of Scripture among the Affghans has ever yet been accomplished, the fierce and warUke character of the people having hitherto formed a bar to missionary labours among them. 1 Nmth Memoir concerning the Serampore Translations, p. 3. = Tenth Memoir concerning the Serampore Translations, p. 61. BELOOCHEE. (A Specimen of this Version will be given, if possible, in a future Part of the Work.) Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Beloochistan, the country of the Beloochees, hes between Affghanistan and the Indian Ocean, and extends along the shores of that ocean from the Indus to Persia. But it is only the westem portion of this country that is inhabited exclusively by the Beloochees, the eastern provinces being chiefly peopled by the Brahooes, a people who speak a dialect of Sanscrit origin, resembUng that of the Punjab. In reUgion the Beloochees are Mahomme dans, of the sect of Omar. In number they are conjectured to amount to about a million, but Mr. Elphinstone considers this too low an estimate; and it is supposed that the entire population of Beloo chistan, including the Juts, Tajiks, Dehwars, and other tribes who dweU among the Beloochees, would together amount to nearly two miUions. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The structure and idioms of the Beloochee language and above half of its words are Persic, and notwithstanding the corrupt and unaccountable pro nunciation of the Beloochees, Lieutenant Pottinger was at length enabled, by his knowledge of Persian, to understand every sentence in Beloochee. The language possesses no literature, and, if we except a translation of part of the Scriptures, it may be said to be unwritten. Veesion of the Sceiptuees. — The history of the Beloochee is in some respects similar to that of the Pushtoo version. Both versions were commenced by Dr. Leyden, and at his death trans ferred to the care of the Serampore Missionaries, who availed themselves of the aid of the learned natives previously employed by Dr. Leyden.' As it is stated that these natives were thoroughly acquainted with the Persian and Hindostanee languages, we may infer that they made the translation direct from the Persian Gospels and Hindostanee Testament (which had been printed at Serampore in 1811), and that their work was afterwards compared with, and corrected by, the Greek original. It is not certain whether the translation has ever been advanced beyond the book of the Acts of the Apostles, but the first three Gospels were printed as early as 1815 : the number of copies of which this edition consisted is not specified.^ The character is Persian, with no variation. It does not appear that the Beloochee version has ever obtained circulation among the people for whom it was designed. • Eleventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 32. ^ Tenth Memoir concerning the Translations at Serampore, p. 61. ARMENIAN, NO. I. COMPARATIVE SPECIMEN OF THE ARMENIAN VERSIONS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 8. NO. I. AXCIENI ARMENIAN. fLUtVL . U. pLuiVb ^p tun^ ilitr « u. in it- ^p p.ui1th x uih- » {j^i/t-'hutjit filtt tun^UMi liniJiUL. bnli- , It- unpus hniL. ii- nsplsf np pitf bnLA X \jndutL. I^lru/Lp l^p f II. Iikuthph qrp l"J" Jiupij-liiuh » (?'- injuh p ^uti-utpli uiltij- fnt-uusi^np ^p t ^ piusL-Ujp uifus ni irnU- \UiunL. x y^nlL. ujjp ^ utn—MuplFiut juij f ujlini-U uJiu ^yVw ^u/tthl^u X U'" ^4^ ^ ^lynL.p-fiL.'h nh •IJl'y.., huql^ Juiuu gni-unju « ap luulruk-ppu ^usi-UJutuMuqb-u linifuiL. t 11/ ^P iut injul , usji_ qji ilfiutjkug^ JuiuL inL.unih x NO. III. MODEEN ARMENIAN. ' auiibuP'b^ hp fLUtup ? nL. /2.ujup uij ontfb 2 {u.-u) hpkp X p^.pe. c}^kl'"P^k^ uij ^n^h ^p X {j^Ji/^lj Ppp u^nJ krnusL- ^ nt— utn^usljn ujunp pppifr^ust ih-nusL- p^i np hnust- ^5- x X^iruMitpp uiunij 5-/? f nL- l^hu/hpn Jiupr^ng inL-ul) i^p X |Ji_ inuup uAt fuusL.utpfii' "k'9C_ ini-uuiL-np c^p f nu. fuuMi-u^pp utupi^uj ^ 'yutul^p^juiL. X U ^4 i/tuprj-Jp b-niuL. uiuuiniJh-^ ug- funpLnJuiO- ^ usunp usuni-up in^u/libi^u x IJ^u/i^ui ilLu/jhinL. k-_ LusL- f np tni-unujj ^usuusp JLuif^ ? np utjil^lipp^ ut^ linJ ^ujuututuju X r*"w (kl^uiiS) np inuuni-U ^ui^ Jlup ^utjk » NO. II. AEAEAT AEMENIAN. yJicJlP-"'- hp p-u/iilt ? u_ p.usult \j^UinnL.a-nj JhuiU ^p ? L- p-uihlt Xj^uuinuui})- ^p X U"* ul£pqp.nulni u uuinL^a-nt UOUtli hp \j^ug-u pui Jinputund ^busl. ^ U- uMn—Ufltq unpuju pubp nt AIr£^ ^^i_ , A^^ np l^luiL. X \jnpuslinJ utruili^s ^p y u_ l£b-usup% t/iupn.i£UMUq injult ^p X (?*- /'?/"" pMUiL-US.^ pni^uh /nju ^p uiuitpu iL. [uuii-UMp^ iptJiuqusL, unpuili x {) Ith iliupri. ^fUiL. ll"„ uinL.utiru/is[i3 ni-nutpliiima- np Tjnput u/ltni-.Vh jo^usi/hl^-u (k'p) * U"' •Ijlutjni-P-k-uth ^uiJlup b-liujL. , np fni-unj ^usJiup ilLutj^ ? np utJ^li^ olr ^npuiljnJ ^ujL-UJUtutu x * 'h'" ihp injul* p."ijg np ini^unjli ^uti/uip ij^utj^ x ON THE ANCIENT ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND VERSION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Armenia is the spot in which the three great powers of the East, the Russian, the Turkish, and the Persian, are brought into direct approximation, and it is now poHtically divided between them. Having been the theatre of many contests, its boundaries have varied at different epochs ; but it may be said to extend from the river Kur on the north to the mountains of Kurdistan on the south, and from Diarbekir in the west to the Caspian on the east. The total number of the Armenian nation is estimated by Mr. Condor at 2,000,000, and by some authors at 3,000,000, but in their own country the Armenians form but one seventh part of the population, while in scattered colonies they are to be met with from Venice and Constantinople to 62 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Canton, and from St. Petersburgh to almost every part of Africa. In Constantinople and its adjacent villages there are computed to be 200,000 Armenians, and an equal number in the Russian and Persian provinces. They are emphatically the merchants of the East, and a large proportion of the trade, foreign and internal, of Turkey, Southern Russia, Persia, India, and of other countries, is conducted by them. The Armenians constitute a section of the ancient Monophysite Church, and beUeve that "the two natures (Divine and Human) of Christ are united in one nature;" they have four Patriarchs, the principal of whom bears the title of CathoHcos of all the Armenians, and resides in Armenia ; their ecclesiastical establishment in Hindoostan vies with that of the English. About one hundred thousand Armenians have joined the Romish Church, and are ruled by their own archbishops. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The ancient Armenian language, though no longer vernacular, is very generaUy studied by Armenian Christians as their national language of rehgion and Hterature. The roots of the Armenian are closely connected with those of the Persian dialects, and many Median words preserved by Herodotus can be explained by means of the Armenian. Its elemental words, such as numerals, pronouns, particles, nouns indicative of objects of sense, and verbs indicative of the common actions of Hfe, have their analogues in the Greek, Latin, and German lan guages, and even in the Finnish dialects of Siberia, and in other idioms of Northern Asia. Several striking coincidences in structure have likewise been traced between the Armenian and the other branches of the Indo-European class; the future tense of Armenian verbs is, for instance, formed by means of the syllables, tzitz, — stzyes, — stze, where the characteristic sound of the Greek and Sanscrit future is distinctly recognized. On the other hand, some Armenian participles in al resemble the par ticiples of the Sclavonic languages, and Schlegel has pointed out other analogies in infiection between this family and the Armenian.' In point of sound, the Armenian is extremely harsh, and overloaded with consonants. Its grammatical forms are complicated ; it has ten declensions of nouns singular and plural, and a corresponding copiousness of infiection in the conjugation of verbs, although in certain tenses the aid of an auxihary is required. In its system of grammatical infiections, this language pre sents several phenomena almost peculiar to itself, and which are thought by Professor Neumann to be attributable in some instances to the remarkable nature of its alphabet ; the k, for instance, the pro fessor remarks, which is habitually used in Armenian as a termination of the plural in substantives and numerals, is probably a transition of the s of cognate languages into k, an occurrence exactly the reverse of the change often observable in the Sclavonic languages of k into s. A further pecuHarity in the Armenian idiom which distinguishes it from aU other Indo-European languages is, that it takes no cognizance whatever of gender; that is to say, the gender of the noun has no influence whatever upon the form of the adjective by which it is qualified, and the grammatical distinction of gender even in the pronouns is unknown in Armenian. Alphabetical System. — Prior to the fifth century, the Armenians seem to have had no alphabet of their own, but to have, used the Persian, Greek, or Syriac characters in writing their lan guage. About the beginning of that century, Miesrob, a learned Armenian, invented a set of charac ters adapted to the language of his nation. Tradition relates that the forms of these characters were revealed to him from heaven in a vision. This style of writing was adopted in Armenia by a royal edict in A.D. 406, and has ever since continued in use among the Armenians. Its elements consist of many signs belonging^ to the alphabets previously used in writing Armenian, combined with other signs of more recent invention. This alphabet had originally only thirty-six characters, but /and ff being subsequently added, increased the number to thirty-eight, of which thirty are consonants and eight are vowels. Armenian, Hke the languages of Europe, is written from left to right. f ¦ iJ^^^^^^ ^^ Sceiptuee. — The ancient Armenian language possesses the treasure of an old and laithtul version of Scripture, which, on account of its exactness and its eloquent simpUcity, has been called by La Oroze the " Queen of Versions." Our information concerning the early history of this invaluable translation is derived from two sources, an Armenian Biography of the Saints, including the Life of Miesrob, preserved m the Royal Library of Paris, and the History of Armenia by Moses Choronensis, printed witii a Latin translation at Cambridge in 1736. From the combined testimony of these two sources, it would appear that the origin of the Armenian version is nearly contemporaneous with the invention ot the Armeman alphabet. Miesrob (who was, as above stated, the inventor of this alpha- 1 See Schlegel, Reeherches sur la Langue et la Philosophie des Indiens. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] ARMENIAN. 63 bet), after communicating his discovery to the king Uram Scavu, and to Isaac the patriarch of Armenia, traveUed throughout the country in order to estabUsh schools for disseminating instruction in reading and writing, and on Ms return he found the patriarch engaged in the appHcation of the newly invented characters to a translation of the Scriptures from the Syriac into Armenian. By the joint efforts of Miesrob and Isaac, a version of the entire Scriptures was effected, but it was executed exclusively from the Syriac, because no Greek MSS. were then attainable in Armenia; Meruzan, a Persian general, had caused aU Greek books to be burnt, and the Persians had prohibited the use of any language for rehgious purposes among the Armenians except the Syriac' At the meeting of the CouncU of Ephesus in 431, Miesrob and Isaac sent two of their pupils to that assembly, to recount the progress that had been made in the translation of the Scriptures. The members of the Council sent back the youths with a complete copy of the Septuagint Bible and the Greek New Testament, for the use of the translators. _ On receiving tMs welcome gift, Isaac and Miesrob, who had already produced two differ ent translations from the Syriac, now addressed themselves for the third time to the formation of an Armenian version. They found themselves, however, impeded by their imperfect acquaintance with the Greek language, and accordingly sent some of their disciples to Alexandria, whicli was then the school of Greek learning and Hterature, to study the language. On the retum of these young men, one of whom was Moses Choronensis the Mstorian, the work of translation was recommenced from the Greek; and when the version was completed, if we may take the word of Bar Hebrseus, Miesrob and Isaac modified it according to the Syriac: on tMs subject, however, there are differences of opinion.^ That it often agrees remarkably with the Sjniac is certain ; it appears as if the previous labours of the translators had some effect on the existing version. A rescension of this version is said by some authors ¦ to have been made by Haitho, who reigned in Lesser Armema from a.d. 1224 to 1270; he belonged to the Roman CathoHc Church, and is charged with having introduced corrupt readings from the Latin Vulgate. But this statement is now very generaUy regarded as incorrect. Printed Editions of the Ancient Aemenian Sceiptuees. — In the seventeenth century MS. copies of the Armenian Scriptures had become so scarce and so expensive, that a councU of Armenian bishops assembled in 1662 to consult on the best means of caUing in the aid of printing, of which art they had heard in Europe; and indeed it would appear, that as early as 1565 an Armeman Psalter had been printed at Rome. The Armeman bishops, it is supposed, appHed in the first place to France for assistance in their design of procuring a printed edition of their Scriptures, but meeting with a refusal from that quarter, Uscan, bishop of Eridan, proceeded to Amsterdam, where in 1666 he pubHshed an edition of the entire Armenian Scriptures, foUowed in 1668 by a separate edition of the New Testament, wMch was reprinted in 1698. In these editions the bishop is accused, and apparently with justice, of having permitted alterations to be made from the Vulgate : the editions pubhshed at Constantinople in 1705 and at Venice in 1733, are in consequence more highly esteemed than those of Uscan. In 1775 a new and corrected edition of the Armenian Scriptures, to be accom panied with a Latin translation, was commenced at Paris by a body of learned men, one of whom was the Abb^ ViUefroy, who had resided many years among the Armenians ; but of tMs edition the book of the prophecy of Habakkuk alone appears to have been pubhshed.' In 1789_ the New Testament was printed at Venice, under the editorsMp of Zohrab, a learned Armenian divine, from MS. autho rities; and this edition, wMch was much esteemed for its correctness, was reprinted in 1816. A critical edition of the Old and New Testament was pubHshed under the care of the same editor at Venice in 1805, at the expense of the monks of the Armeman convent of the Island of St. Lazams, m the lagunes of Vemce. TMs edition was printed from a MS. written in Cihcia in the fourteenth century, and with the aid of eight MSS. of the Old Testament, and twenty-five of the New. The various readings, elucidated by Armeman schoHa, were placed in the margin, and the contested passage in 1 John 5. 7 was expunged, because unsupported by the authority of ancient Armeman MSS. In 1814 a representation was made to the Calcutta Bible Committee, by Johannes Sarkies, on the necessity of supplying the numerous famiUes of Armemans in Calcutta and other parts of Hindoo stan with copies of the Scriptures, and in 1817 an edition was printed for the Society at Serampore, consisting of the entire Scriptures. During the same year 5000 copies of the New Testament, and a separate edition of the Bible, were printed by the St. Petersburgh Bible Society for the use of the Armenians, who, to the number of 50,000, were settled in the South of Russia; every sheet of this 1 Moses Chor. Hist. Arm. 1. iii. c. 54. ' Clement, Biblioth. Curieuse, vol. 3. p. 443. 2 Hug's Introduction to the New Testament, vol. 1. p. 395. 64 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. edition was examined by Joannes, the Armenian archbishop at Astracan. A previous edition of the Scriptures had been pubHshed by the same Society in 1814. In 1818 the British and Foreign Bible Society purchased 1500 copies of the New Testament of the Monks of St. Lazarus for distribution chiefly in Armenia, and in the following year they purchased 1000 Bibles. Further purchases were made by the Society at Venice until 1823, when they ordered an edition of 5000 copies of the New Testament, and 3000 copies of the Gospels alone, to be printed at Constantinople. This edition was carried through the press by the Rev. Henry Leeves, with the concurrence of the Armenian patriarch.' The copies were sent to Tocat, to Julfa near Ispahan, and into Armenia for distribution. About the year 1838 another edition of the ancient Armenian New Testament was printed at Smyrna, at the expense of the American Bible Society. Editions of the ancient Armeman, printed in paraUel columns with the modern Armenian versions, will be mentioned hereafter. The Old Testament in ancient Armenian being made not from the Hebrew text, but from the Greek version of the LXX, has never been printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Results op the Dissemination of this Veesion. — Although the ancient Armenian Scrip tures are now only intelHgible to those who have had the benefits of education and opportunities for the study of this ancient tongue, yet as this class of persons is rapidly increasing, there is a prospect that this version will soon become more generally understood, and more Mghly appreciated, than here tofore. Dr. D wight bears a fitting testimony to its value in a letter addressed in 1836 to the Board of the American Bible Society. " It is astonishing," he says, " to see the power of Scripture truth on the conscience when it comes to men from the pure fountain itself, without note or comment, and without the aid of a Hving teacher. I could point to two young men of the Armenian nation, of whom we have the hope that they have become true disciples of Christ, whose minds were first opened by the simple reading of Scripture, before they even knew there was a missionary in the whole world." ^ And equally gratifying is the statement of the American Missionaries in 1847, when, after giving an account of the recent remarkable awakening among the Armenian people, they ascribe the change, in part at least, to the influence of the ancient version. " Some facts," they write, " have come to our knowledge, showing that the ancient Armenian Scriptures, printed many years since at Venice, and perhaps at other places by your Society during the first years of its operations, have had no small share, by the blessing of God, in awakening the Armenian mind everywhere, and in preparing the people to receive and maintain the doctrine of the sufficiency of the Scriptures as the rule of faith and practice. This is the testimony of Armenians themselves." ' 1 Tvrentieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 70. 3 Forty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Sodety p. Ixxxvii. 2 Missionary Register for 1836, p. 80. ARMENIAN, NO. II. ON THE ARARAT OR EASTERN ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. (For Specimen of the Ararat Dialect, see page 61.) Geogeaphical Extent and Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — Ararat Armenian is the idiom now spoken in the whole of Armenia except the PashaHk of Erzeroom, and derives its name from the venerable mountain which occupies the centre of the country, forming, as it were, the nucleus ofthe adjacent table land. In the Hebrew Scriptures the whole kingdom of Armenia is called Ararat: the word is however rendered Armenia in our version, in 2 Kings 19. 37 and Isaiah 37. 38, while the original name (Ararat) is retained in Jeremiah 51. 27. The dialect of Ararat is spoken not only in Armenia, but in the Georgian provinces, and by the thousands of Armenians who are dispersed between the Black Sea and the sources of the Euphrates, and thence through Persia and part of Mesopotamia, down as far as the Persian Gulf This dialect approaches much nearer the purity of the ancient Armeman tongue than the dialect of Constantinople, but it is adulterated with Persian words. Veesion of Sceiptuee in this Dialect. — No books appear to have been printed in this dialect prior to the efforts made by the German Missionaries at Shushi to supply the Armenians with the Scriptures in an intelHgible form. In 1829 the Rev. Mr. Dittrich was authorised by the British and Foreign Bible Society to prepare a version of the Gospel of Matthew in this dialect. He was aided by some learned Armenian priests, and succeeded so well with the undertaking that, in accordance with the advice of Dr. Pinkerton, their agent in Russia, the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society requested him to proceed with the translation of the whole Testament. An edition of 1000 copies of this version was ordered to be printed at Shushi, but owing to some difiiculties which arose in carrying the work through the press, the printing was transferred to Moscow. In 1835 the proposed edition was completed, and the copies forwarded to Shushi for distribution. A second edition, to consist of 3000 copies, was soon found to be necessary, and was ordered by the British and Foreign Bible Society. In the meantime the missionaries had been proceeding (with the encouragement of the Basle Missionary Society)^ in the translation of the Psalter from the Hebrew; but this work was not pubHshed tiU the year 1844, when it was printed in parallel columns with the ancient Armenian. TMs edition was so much sought after and valued by the Armenians, that the Rev. Messrs. Dwight and Homes, American missionaries, appHed to the British and Foreign Bible Committee for authority to print an edition of the New Testament with the Ararat and ancient Armenian in paraUel columns, and according to the last reports they were preparing to print the edition at Constantinople. Results of the Dissemination of this Veesion. — For an account of the remarkable manner in which the Scriptures in both dialects of Modern Armenian have been used as the means of producing the late revival of rehgion among the Armenians, the reader is referred to page 67. • Twenty-sixth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ix. s Forty-third Report of the British and For. Bible Society, p. Ixxxvii. 2 Twenty-sixth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ix. ARMENIAN, NO. III. ON THE MODERN CONSTANTINOPLE OR WESTERN ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. (For Specimen of the Modern Armenian Version, see page 61.) Geogeaphical Extent and Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The present verna cular of the Armenians is distinguished from their ancient language by numerous local pecuHarities and corruptions, varying more or less in every country in which the members of this scattered race are congregated. These local varieties are, however, all resolvable into one or other of the two predominant dialects of the modern Armenian language, called, from the regions in which they are respectively spoken, the dialect of Constantinople and the dialect of Ararat. The former has Constantinople for its centre, and is spoken in the neighbouring territories, through Asia Minor and in the Pashalik of Erzeroom. Its distinctive features consist in the frequent adoption of Turkish words, and in general conformity to the rules of Turkish syntax. The words of the ancient language are retained in both dialects of modern Armenian in almost an unaltered form, so far at least as respects orthography; but the signification now given to these words is so different from their original meaning that an unedu cated Armenian of the present day is unable to comprehend even the general purport of a work written in the ancient Armenian language. Many changes also have been introduced in grammar and in the most common forms of expression, and the dialect of Constantinople is especially remarkable for its rejection of the concise, energetic style of the ancient Armenian, and its constant use of long, monotonous periods, all constructed upon one and the same model, according to the Turkish mode of writing.' Veesion of the Sceiptuees in this Dialect. — The first attempt on record to produce a version of Scripture^ in modern Armenian was made by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The subject was brought before the Committee by Professor Kieffer, who mentioned that Dr. Zohrab, an Armenian from Constantinople, the learned editor of the ancient Armenian Scriptures, was at Paris, and well quahfied to undertake the translation. During the same year (1821) Dr. Pinkerton passed through Paris in his way to St. Petersburgh, and obtained from Dr. Zohrab, as a specimen, a translation of the Sermon on the Mount. This specimen was printed at St. Petersburgh and sent for inspection to various parts of Turkey.^ Several Armenians who examined it approved of it highly, but the priests, who were probably prejudiced against a modern version of the Scriptures, found famt with the style, which they said was low, vulgar, and degrading to the subject, as compared with the ancient Armenian. Dr. Zohrab, however, continued to prosecute his labours at Paris ; he translated from the ancient Armenian version, and in 1824 completed a version of the New Testament in the modem Armenian dialect of Constantinople. It was revised by M. St. Martin, an Armenian scholar, and an edition of 1000 copies, printed in parallel columns with the ancient Armenian, was pubHshed at Paris in 1825, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. It was afterwards objected to this version that, having been made directly from the ancient Armenian, it was not perfectly conformable to the. Greek, and that, owing probably to Dr. Zohrab's prolonged absence from Ms native city, the style was not exactly in accordance with the idiomatic peculiarities of the modern tongue.' In 1837 a fount of -Armenian type was forwarded to the American Missionaries at Smyrna, and a revised edition of this version of the New Testament was commenced at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society.'' TMs edition, revised by Mr. Adger, was carried carefully and slowly tMough the press, and it was not till 1842 that an impression of 5000 copies of the New Testament was issued.' These copies were in great demand, and were put into circulation as soon as they left the binder's hands. Mr. Adger then proposed to publish an edition of this New Testament in parallel columns with the ancient version, in order that the suspicions of the Armenians might be removed as to the possibihty of the Scriptures having been vitiated in the modern translation:® the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible 1 Klaproth, in Encyclopedie des Gens du Monde. < Thirty-third Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lxv. 2 Nineteenth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xxii. 5 Thirty-eighth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lv. 8 Missionary Herald of American Board of Missions, vol. 33. p. 304. « Thirty-ninth Report of the British and For. Bible Society, p. taxiv. Indo-Eueopean Languages. ] ARMENIAN. 67 Society have resolved to carry this proposal into execution. In the meantime, by the aid of the American Bible Society, the missionaries in Smyrna are proceeding with the translation of the Old Testament into modem Armenian. In 1844 they were deprived by death of one of their assistants in tMs work, a pious Armenian, who had laboured with them during five years, and who was employed inthe translation ofthe Turkish Old Testament of Mr. GoodeU into Modern Armenian. In 1847 the missionaries contemplated commencing the printing of the Pentateuch.' Results of the Dissemination of this Veesion. — The versions of Scripture in both the dialects of modern Armenian have received the manifest blessing of God, in a degree almost unprece dented in the history of other versions. The following are some of the accounts given by missionaries on .the spot, concerning the remarkable effects wrought among the Armenians by the circulation of the modern version. " We might mention," they say, (writing in 1845,) " twenty towns in Turkey where Armenians are found who daily search the Scriptures for the purpose of guiding their Hves according to its supreme teachings." In some of these places, this holy volume, owing to the fact of its being in modern language, is received as a fresh message from heaven ; and in these towns especial assembUes are held on the Sabbath for studying the Scriptures ; and this occurs also in towns where no foreign missionary has ever been. The reading of the Scriptures in an intelHgible language has been the means, by God's blessing, of curing many of their scepticism. They have become convinced that what ever occasion they had had to doubt about the truth of Christianity, from what they were seeing around them, yet that here, in this book, they could see that there is a pure living Christianity. One individual, a banker among the Armenians, said, " Our nation owes, to those who have been the means of making us acquainted with the word of God in an intelligible language, a great debt of gratitude. They have saved not only me, but many others, from infidelity ; for we have found that Christianity has deeper foundations than what we had supposed ; and that there is in the word of God something upon which to anchor our faith." ^ The numerous cases of conversion to God which followed the diligent perusal of the Holy Scriptures in the modern tongue, did not escape the notice of the worldly and unbeUeving clergy at the head of the Armenian Church, and a cruel series of persecutions was com menced against the " Bible," " Evangelical," or " Protestant" Armenians, as all were styled who read and obeyed the word of God. Many of these Protestants (by this name they are now commonly desig nated) were solemnly excommunicated by the Armenian patriarch, but to no purpose, as many more were daily added to their numbers. In a village near the town of Nicomedia, a congregation of Protes tant Armenians had sprung up, having the Scriptures for their rule of faith; no missionary had ever been among them excepting the missionary of missionaries, the Bible : like their brethren elsewhere, they were called to endure persecution, and were at last driven to the necessity of meeting for worship in the fields. On one of these occasions they were attacked with stones, but instead of resorting to violent means of defence against their enemies, they calmly took up the stones and deposited them at the governor's feet demanding his protection, which was accorded.' After enduring many similar out rages in the same Christian spirit, the Protestant Armenians resolved to free themselves from the tyranny of their church, by forming themselves into a separate church, founded on Scriptural principles. To effect this separation they were compelled to appeal to the Turkish Govemment. Their application met with success, and their freedom from the oppressive jurisdiction of their patriarch is now fuUy recognised. " An officer of the government, a Turk, (it is stated by Mr. Barker in 1847,) is appointed to look after all their civil relations, and they are to choose their own representative to confer with him. Their ecclesiastical affairs are entirely free, and all patriarchs and other ecclesiastics are forbidden to interfere in any way with them ; and all officers of government are called upon to see that their rights are respected. Truly the king's heart is in the hand of the Lord, and He turneth it withersoever He wiU."'' In Constantinople alone there are now no less than three hundred Protestant Armenians, of whom eighty-five are communicants ; and from the most recent accounts it appears, that by the blessing of God on the diligent perusal of his word, numbers of the Armenian nation are in various countries being daily added to the Church of Christ. ' Forty-third Report ofthe British and For. Bible Society, p. ixxxiv. 3 Forty-third Report ofthe British and For. Bible Society, p. Ixxxv. 2 Forty-first Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cvii. 4 Forty-foui-th Report of the Biitish and For. Bible Society, p. Ixxx. KURDISH. (For Specimen of the Kurdish Version, see Plate IV.) Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Kurdistan, the land of the Kurds, or Koords, is a mountainous region south-east of Armenia, extending about 300 miles in length by 150 in breadth, and forming a kind of descent from the high table land of Persia to the low aUuvial plains of Mesopo tamia. It is thought by Rennell and others to be the country mentioned under the name of Kir ia 2 Kings 16. 9, Isaiah 22. 6, and in Amos 1. 5 and 9. 7. The Kurds are the descendants of the Carduchi, who are said by Xenophon to have given him so much trouble during his retreat with the ten thousand Greeks through the mountainous passes of Kurdistan. The Kurds afterwards becanie again conspicuous in history under the name of Parthians ; and Crassus, the Roman general, was slain with 20,000 of his troops in an expedition against them, B. C. 53. Saladin, the opponent of Richard Cceur de Lion in the Crusades, was a Kurd by birth. Notwithstanding all these historical reminis cences, the Kurds are comparatively little known in Europe. From the time of Xenophon they have retained their wild and warlike habits ; and though the northern part of their country, as far as Iat. 35°, is nominally subject to Turkey, and the southern portion to Persia, yet they virtuaUy maintain their independence to this day. They are divided into numerous tribes, supposed to number altogether about 800,000 individuals. Some of these tribes have settled in the province of Luristan in Persia, and other hordes have wandered westward, as far as the pashaliks of Aleppo and Damascus.' The Kurds are also in possession of a portion of the mountainous region of Khorassan in Persia, whither, according to Morier, 4000 Kurdish famihes were transplanted by Shah Ismael, for the protection of Persia against the incursions of the neighbouring Turkomans. The Yezides,^ a singular religious sect, who are commonly supposed to worship the Devil, are Kurds, and speak a dialect ofthe Kurdish language: they inhabit different parts of Kurdistan, the hills of Sinjar near the river Chabur, and the plains round Nisibin and Orfu to the west of Mosul ; and they are also found in Arabia among the native tribes. With the exception of this remarkable people, the Kurds in general profess Mahommedanism; but considerable numbers of them are Nestorian and Chaldean Christians. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The Kurdish is in aU probabUity a remnant of the Old Farsi or Parsi language, and notwithstanding the harshness of its sounds, it bears much resemblance to modern Persian. The Rev. H. Southgate relates that this similarity is great, that he could often under stand something of the conversation of the Kurds by the great number of Persian words he heard in it. Like most dialects used merely for oral communication through a large extent of territory, the language ofthe Kurds, having no literature or written standard of appeal, undergoes very considerable alterations and modifications in different places by intermixture with the languages of neighbouriag nations. Thus the Kurds who dwell in the Ottoman empire have adopted many Turkish words, while corrupted Syriac words have crept into the dialects of the tribes who live in the vicinity, or have embraced the rehgion, of the Nestorian Christians. Veesion of the Sceiptueesin this Language. — A proposal to obtain a version of Scrip ture in Kurdish for the benefit of this ignorant and semibarbarous people, was brought before the Com mittee ofthe British and Foreign Bible Society in 1822, by the Rev. Henry Leeves. He experienced some difficulty in meeting with a person competent to undertake the translation, but at length the preparation of the version was entrusted to Bishop Schevris at Tebriz. The bishop accomphshed a portion of this translation in the midst of discouragement and even of personal risk;^ and in 1827, 1 Bitter Erdkunde von Asien i^x. 629. ^ Twenty-third Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 75. 2 Forbes' Visit to the Sinjar HiUs, m Journal of Geographical Society, vol. 9. p. 409. Indo-Exteopean Languages.] KURDISH. 69 Mr. Leeves announced to the Committee that he had received from Tebriz the Four Gospels and the Apocalypse in Kurdish, written in j^^abic characters. This MS. was subsequently forwarded by Mr. Leeves to the Committee. In 1829, the missionaries at Shushi offered their services in correcting, revising, printing, and distributing the portion of Scripture which had been translated into Kurdish at the expense of the Bible Society; and in 1832, the Committee in consequence forwarded the Four Gospels to Shushi, and authorised the engagement of a competent Kurdish teacher as an assistant in the work of revisal. In order to ascertain the critical value of this version of the Gospels, the Shushi missionaries prosecuted the most laborious enquiries at Tebriz; and in furtherance of the same object, the Rev. Messrs. Hornle and Schneider undertook a joumey into Kurdistan. The result of these investigations has been to prove that the version is not intelHgible to the Kurds. The dialect in which the version is written is called the Hakkari, and is spoken in a district of the same name near the Turkish government of Wan ; but the Kurdish language branches out into so many dialects, that it is by no means easy to decide which of the almost endless variety would be most Hkely to prove an intelligible medium in communicating the divine truths of Christianity to the whole Kurdish nation. OSSITINIAN. (A Specimen of this Version will be given, if possible, in a future Part of the Work.) Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The Ossetes inhabit the central part of Caucasus, north of Georgia. In conjunction with several Circassian, Abassian, and other tribes, they occupy the. whole of the hill country (called Kabardah and Little Abassia or Abazia) between the Upper Kouban and Lesghistan to the summits of the Caucasus. They are unquestionably a Median colony : Klaproth supposes them to be the Sarmato-Medians of the Ancient, and the Alani or Ases of the Middle, Ages. According to Dr. Henderson, this tribe numbers about 16,000 individuals,' but this appears to be too low an estimate. A mission was established among them in 1 752 by the Russian priests, with the view of converting them from heathenism, and in 1821 upwards of 30,000 Ossetes had joined the Greek Church. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The language of the Ossetes unquestionably belongs to the Indo-European stem. In a vocabulary of 800 Ossitinian words, one tenth have been traced to one or other of the Indo-European languages. The system of conjugation has some resemblance to that of the Persian and Armeman f the tenses are numerous and varied, but auxiHaries are Hkewise employed. The pronunciation of the Ossitinian greatly resembles that of the low German and Sclavonic dialects; the EngHsh sound th (Greek &) occurs in it. The language is rendered harsh by the frequent concurrence of guttural letters and hissing consonants, such as kkh, dts, dtch, etc' Yet this harshness is modified by the influence of certain laws of euphony, which require some of the con sonants to be softened when brought in contact with others of a different order. In Ossitinian there are six cases ; the plural is formed by adding te, thi, or ton, to the nominative of the singular; and adjectives are formed from substantives by the addition of the syllables thi and ghin at the end of the word. This language is very rich in prepositions and postpositions, and has four different modes of negation. Veesion of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — At the period that so many of the Ossetes were joined to the Greek Church, Mr. Jalgusidse, an Ossitinian nobleman, who held an official appointment under the Russian Government, being anxious to provide his countrymen with a version of the Scriptures in their own tongue, proposed to the Committee of the Russian Bible Society to prepare a translation of the Gospels in the Ossitinian dialect. Mr. Jalgusidse's services were accepted by the Committee, and a correspondence was entered into with the Exarch of Georgia, whose co operation in so important an undertaking was considered desirable. The version was commenced without delay by Mr. Jalgusidse, but he confined it to the Gospels, which he translated chiefiy from Armenian. His production was submitted to the inspection of competent persons, and after having been carefully compared with the original under the immediate superintendence of the Archbishop Jonas, it was presented for examination to the Synod. Its publication was strongly recommended by the Synod, and the Committee of the Russian Bible Society resolved, in consequence, to print an edition of 2000 copies at Moscow, under the inspection of the Branch Committee of that city.* The work was ordered to be put to press in 1824, but from the suspension of the Russian Bible Society, no further intelligence has been received concerning it, and it is doubtful whether it was ever pruited. The Ossitinians are therefore, in all probability, still unprovided with a version of any part of Scripture in their own language. 1 Henderson's Researches in Russia, p. 5.17. 3 Klaproth, Voyage en Mont Caucase, p. 449. 2 Journal Asiatique, third series, vol. 1 . p. 203. < Twenty-first Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 96. tngra^ed for "TH E BIBLE OF EV fRV LAKD" Samut,\ BagSUirA Sons.PatCrn ^s'^fl ]MB©-:EM8©PEAH LAI-lSaASlSS A GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF tho Entensron of THE SANSCRIT FAMILY. ScdU.^ ofJEnpKsh J O so 100 zoo 300 400 TheXsiunuuTf StaAons of In3io..}ieinff too t^nmdj on a. pa^o of Ae leder. prcsi. Eart of GrtOrmeii 8S ^"O"^ « -finjnwoi ¦bs WEu^-iu^ .£l3i7ii. (Jurniberi . ^taa-notUr ILo-n'. LIST OF THE MISSIONARY STATIONS OF INDIA, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DIOCESES, AXD ALPHABETICALLY. KEY TO THE REFERENCE LETTERS. A.B. C.D.E.F.G.H. Church Missionary Society. Society for the Propagation ofthe Gospel. London Missionary Society. Wesleyan Missionary Society. Baptist Missionary Society. General Baptist Missions. Church of Scotland Missions. Free Church of Scotland Missions. I. , Welsh Calvinistic Missions. J. . Irish Presbyterian Missionary Society. K, American Board of Missions. L. American Baptist Missionary Society. M. . American Episcopal Missionary Society. N. American Presbyterian Missionary Society. O. . German Missionary Societies. P. . Jamaica Presbyterian Mission. HINDOOSTAN. Diocese of Calcutta. 1 Calcutta 2 Benares . 3 Chunar 4 Agra 5 Krislinaghur Krishnaghur Chupra Solo Rottenpore Joghinda 9 10 11 12131415161718 202122232425 26 2728 2930 31 3233 343536 37 38 39404142 BurdwanJaunpore Gorruckpore MeerutKotghur . Simla Howra . BarriporeCawnporeNerbudda . TaUygungeTamlook Berhampore Mirzapore Allahabad . Chittagong Cutwa . Burlsohl . DaccaDelhi . Dinagepore Jessore . MonghirMuttra . Patna SevamporeSoory Cuttack . Ganjam Pooree . Midnapore Futtehghur Loodiana SabathooSaharunpore Cherrapoonjee 'A. B. C. E. F. G. "A. C. E. H. .A. E. ^A. A. C. -A. B. E -B. C. C. E. N E. -F. Lat. Long. 1 22°38' 88°29' 25 17 25 6 27 II 83 I 82 ^1 78 -5 23 25 88 37 23 15 25 43 26 45 28 58 31 17 31 5 22 38 22 23 87 54 82 41 83 19 77 44 77 26 77 8 88 29 88 32 26 29 80 21 22 30 22 18 24 4 25 8 25 24 22 21 88 30 87 58 88 20 82 31 81 49 91 55 23 44 28 40 25 35 90 29 77 16 88 45 25 27 86 29 25 36 22 45 85 15 88 26 20 25 19 20 19 47 22 27 27 22 30 54 85 50 85 10 85 52 87 20 79 35 75 55 29 58 77 34 Diocese of Madras. 43 Madras . /A.B. ¦Ih. I, A.B.C.D.E. G. K. 444546474849 505152 53 5455565758596061 62 63 646566676869 70717273 747576777879 80 81 828384858687 Tinnevelly District. Palamcottah SathankooUam KadatchapooramMeignanapooram . Suviseshapooram DohnaTOor . NuUoor . Pavoor . Surrendei Paneivadali . Panneivilei Cottyam Pallam . Mavehcare . AllepieTrichoor Masulipatam Combaconum Negapatam MaduraCanandagoody . Chindadripett Chittoor and Vellore Christianagram Coleroon District Edeyenkoody Nazareth . Poonamallee . Puthukotei & Ramnad SawyerpooramSecunderabad Tanjore VeperyVediarpuram Trichinopoly Bangalore . Mysore Vizagapatam Chicacole CuddapahBelgaum Bellary . Salem . Coimbatoor Nagercoil B. C. B. D. B. K. B. |c. D. C. Lat. 13° 5' 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 8 43 9 35 9 14 9 16 16 10 10 56 10 46 9 55 12 55 17 26 10 48 13 5 10 49 12 57 12 17 17 40 18 14 14 28 15 51 15 7 II 39 II I Long. 8o°2l' 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 77 45 76 35 76 37 76 29 13 26 8i79 79 54 78 II 79 13 78 30 79 14 80 21 78 49 77 38 76 43 83 29 84 I 78 52 74 37 76 58 78 II 77 o MISSIONARY STATIONS OF INDIA. 89 Neyoor QuUon . Trevandrum Manargoody Goobbee . CoonghulNeUore MangaloreDarwhar . Fort Moolky Honore Hoobly . BettigherryCatery . 103 Malagamoodra 104 Tranquebar 105 Mayaveram 106 Eajamundry 107 Ootakamund TelUcherryCananore . 110 CaUcut . 110* Berhampore 90919293949596979899 100 101102 108109 Diocese of Bombay. Ill Bombay 112113 114115116 117118119120121122123 Nassuck Jooneer . Astagaum Ahmedabad Baroda PoonahMalcolm-Peth Ahmednuggur Seroor . llajkotGogo Surat CEYLON. F. A. B. G. K. ] A. B. C. H. B. H. B. C. H. K. 124125 Cotta Kandy . ? A. E. Lat. Long. 8° 5 3' 8 29 76°40'77 I 14 28 12 52 80 3 74 53 13 5 74 5° 11 0 79 55 17 0 II 24 II 45 II 52 II IS 19 17 81 so 76 47 75 32 75 26 75 5° 85 I 18 56 72 51 19 58 19 16 73 51 74 0 23 I 22 17 18 30 72 36 73 15 73 56 19 6 74 49 21 12 72 53 6 S3 7 19 80 3 80 47 A^raAhmedabad Ahmednug^'urAllahabad . Allepie . Ambetannc AstagaumBaddapame . Bangalore . BarodaBarriporeBatticaloaBatticotta . Belfiauiu BellaryBenares . Berhampore . BerhamporeBettigherry . Bombay Burdwan , Burisohl . Byamville CalcuttaCalicut . CalturaCanandagoodyCananore . Catery . Cawnpore . ChavagacherryCherrapoonjeeChicacoleChmdadripett 4 115119 21 58 158114126 79 116 13 139163 8485 2 18 •110 101111 6 24 152 1 110131 64 109 102 14 168 4282 Chittagong . Chittour and Vellore Christianagram . Chunar . ChundicullyCoimbatoor . Coleroon District ColomboCombaconum . CoonghulCopayCottaCottyamCuddapah . CuttackCutwa Dacca Darwhar Delhi . DinageporeDohnavoor EdeyenitoodyFort Moolky . FuttehghurGall al ay a GalalowaGalkisse Galle, &c. GanjamGogoGonawelle . GoobbeeGorruckpore . Han walla 126127 128129 130131 132133134 135 136 137138139 140141142 143 144145146147148 149 150 151152153 154 155156157 158159160161162163164165166167168169 NeUoreChundicullyCopay . Matura , CalturaPutlam . Newra Ellia Mahara, &c. Colombo JaflFna, &c. Point Pedro TrincomaleeBatticaloa , Negombo Seedua Galkisse Morotto Pantura . GaUe, &c. . HanwaUaPittoompy . Khottighawatta ToomboovillaWeUgamina GouaweUe . Byara-riUeHendeUaKalingodaRatnapoora . MateUe . Galalowa Ambetanne Gahalaya Utuan Khandy Plantation Mission TUUpaUyBatticotta . OodooviUe Panditeripo . Manepy . Varany ChavagacheriyOodoopitty . D. ALPHABETICAL LIST. 22G667 3 128 87 68 135 6184 129124 5583 34 2325972627 159 157 142145 35 122151 Hendella . l.W Honore . . 99 Hoobly 100 Howra . . 12 Jaffna, &c. 136 Jaunpore . 7 Jessore . ai- Joonere 113 Kadatchapooram . 46 Kalingoda . 154 Kandy . I'ffi KotRliur HI KottiRhawatta , 14R Krishnaf^hur 5 Loodiana 39 Matiras 43 Madura 63 Mahara, &c. . 134 Malaganiooth-a 103 Malcolm-Peth IIR Manargoody 92 Manepy . 166 Mangalore . 96 Masulipatam 60 Matelle 156 Matura . 130 Mavelicare 57 Mavaveram . 105 Meerut 9 Meignanapooran 1 47 Midnapore .37 Mirzapore 20 Mongliir . 29 Morotto 143 Muttra ... SO Mysore . . . .80 Nagercoil ... 88 Nassuck ... 112 Nazareth ... 70 Negapatam . . 62 Negombo . . . 140 NeUore .... 95 Nellore ... 127 Nerbudda ... 15 Newra Elba . . .133 Nevoor ... 89 Nulloor .... 50 Oodoopitty . . t 169 OodooviUe . . 164 Ootakamund . . 107 Palamcottah . . 44 Pallam ... 56 Panditeripo . . . 165 Paneivadali . . 58 Panneivilei ... 54 Pantura , . . 144 Patna ... 31 Pavoor .... 51 Pittoompy . . 147 Plantation Mission . 161 Point Pedro . . .137 Poonah . . . 117 Poonamallee ... 71 Pooree ... 36 Puthukotei and Ramnad 73 Putlam . . . ,132 Quilon ... 90 Rajamundry . . , 106 Lat. 6" 6' 9 zo 5 58 6 38 7 59 6 50 6 59 9 37 9 46 8 33 7 43 7 17 6 48 6 3 EajkotRatnapoora . Sabathoo . SaharunporeSalem SathankooUam Sawyerpooram . SecunderabadSeeduaSerampore SeroorSimlaSoory . I SuratSurrendei . Suviseshapooram TaUygungeTamlookTanjore • TellicherryTillipally Toomboovilla Tranquebar . Trevandrum , TrichinopolyTrichoor . . Trincomalee . Utuan Khandy VaranyVediarpuramVepery . . VizagapatamWeilgamina Long. 8o°j480 35 80 80 39 I 80 80 4 51 79 SS 80 10 80 14 81 JO 81 48 79 56 79 58 80 17 CLASS IIL- INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. B. SANSCRIT FAMILY. SANSCRIT. SPECIMEN OF THE SANSCRIT VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. t") «)^ ir^HI«1ri 1 ^TITWhmTTSiiT 'iUfHlMI'M Tt^ ^PJ?*. I MI=)ni*H ^1?^ ^??%wr. m.lsfcHMlH|<+*l «i5 ^ v;f^w h^x u^M^i -^f^ TT^ I ^-rf x^^^ ^ rrj^<yM- «)8 H^rftror i ^it^m^ JrirpnuTOT -^r^^rarwra ^avjmam*! ^t^pr^ if^ m?TS^ ttt rMrtl«infi'L X ^'^^ ^ Jj' ^' ^ jjJw» IdX)! jy J}^ * L^ jy ^ U^^ l/^J "3 J3^ y^ U^ C^' l/^J * l/ J^ C^ '^J^J^ J;:^ IjcL j^ lys ^lli j^ cJjI * Lki dJ <-^V.J'^ ce^ «i l^. J^' Jjl i_5''> ^^^^^'^ lifti^ iX[ jb' V.1 cil'^ ^5*!/ ^/ ^y^ J, V AJ jj^ V^ 'i * ^.P J^} c-r^ cJ=-1 4^ ^ b ^j iJ-k ^ U3k^ ^ Jj^i c-^ ^ cl uy^ i^r^ * \^ ^ 1^3^ ^\ ^ uy>i^ Ji^ ^.' '=L3 J3^ * ^ 'zL'^ uW^ j, i*^ c^l >=r e;:^a> t^j .zL3 u^* J^j>' ^1 ^'^ ^^^ l>^, ^ y. Ijoj ^ iA=i. ^ ^ '^-iS ^ ^^Jl Jj ^jl ^ jy\y>. ^ ^.j^ (.-.^ T!TT ^TWnq ^^Tml "g^f^tiT ^^ "ST^qfT ^1 TOTT Sf'N' iq^T ^I^ HT '^ M mftr trf^ ^»n% "^ I ^^ ^incyT% i^vrmn ^nir viirt ^ '^vra% ^^^n^ ^t^t n^ ^ 1 SI 'srat ^ftrtrr -^^f^ f ^t »t^ "? ^rf^rw TY ^ ffif ^rtfti "^ ftr^^ Mnuwi'^i ^^ lien ii m ^t fti ^t t^ ^vrriiT K4i^irii i utj ^^m% nn^ v ft^ TTi^' * ^ ^m»i<4*n m^r^^c^i JTTOTr tinT I WT ^ ^TT^ ttr^R II 9 h^\ ^\misi<*i^ ^tfRt n<>am V trar I ?TOTfT TUT y^sif^miY msj ^tr^h +iiajl«i M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. i. p. 629. 3 Eighth Memoir ofthe Serampore Translations, p. 8. ' Sixth Memou: ofthe Serampore Translations, p. 10. ROMMANY, OR GIPSY. SPECIMEN OF THE EOMMANY, OE GIPSY VEESION. LUKE, Chap. vi. v. 27 to 38. ^^ Tami penelo a sangue sos lo junelais : Camelad a jires daschmanuces, querelad mistos a junos sos camelan sangue choro. ^^ [Majarad a junos sos zermanelan a sangue, y manguelad a Debel por junos sos araquerelan sangue choro ! ^^ Y a 6 sos curare tucue andre yeque mejilla, dinle tambien a aver. Y a 6 sos nicobelare tucue o uchardo, na 6 impidas Uiguerar tambien a furi. ^° Din a os sares ma tucue manguelaren : y a 6 sos ustilare ma sinela de tucue, na se lo pida. ^' Y ma camelais que querelen a sangue os manuces, ocolo matejo querelad sangue a junos. ^^ Y si camelais a junos sos camelan a sangue, i que merito terelareis ? Presas os chores tambien camelan a junos sos os camelan. '^ Y si querelais mistos a junos sos querelan mistos a sangue, i que merito terelareis ? Presas os chores tambien querelan ocono. ^* Y si prestisareis a ocolas, de coines ujarais ustilar, i que merito terelareis ? Presas tambien os chores prestisaran yeques a averes, somia ustilar aver tanto. *° Camelad pues a jires daschmanuces : quere lad mistos, y dinad prestado, bi uj,arar por ocono chichi ; y jire manchin sinara baro, y sinareis chabores e Udscho, presas 6 sinela gacho aun para os sungales y chores. ^ Sinelad pues canreosos, sasta tambien jire Dada sinela canreoso. ^^ Na juzgueis, y na sinareis juzgados ; na sapleis, y na sinareis saplados. Ertinad y sinareis ertinados. ^' Dinad, y a sangue se diiiara : melalo lacho, perelalo, y baro, y costunado diiiaren andre jire chepo : presas sat o matejo melalo con que melalareis, a sangue se volvera a melalar. ON THE EOMMANY, OE GIPSY, DIALECT AND VEESION. Diffusion and Statistics. — The vagrant tribes, known in England by the name of Gipsies, wander in hordes or companies about the plains of Asia, and in certain parts of Africa, as weU_ as in most ofthe countries of Europe. Without historical records, without traditions, without even a rehgion of their own, they are bound together by national habits and customs, by the love of an unsettled hfe, and by a pecuhar language ; and, like the Jews, they exist from generation to generation asa separate people in the midst of many nations. In Germany they are caUed Zigeuner ; in Eussia, Zigdni ; in Turkey and Persia, Zingarri : and these various appeUations, all apparently springing froni the same etymon, may, it has been conjectured, be radicaUy the same as the term Zincah, hy wliich they sometimes designate themselves; a term compounded of two words, and supposed to signify the black men of Zend, or Ind.^ The EngUsh name Gipsy (from E-gypt-ian) and the_ Spanish Gitano, arose from a notion once currently entertained respecting the Egyptian origin of this singular people. In France they are stiU called Bohemiens (Bohemians), either because they first entered that country from Bohemia,^ or else from the old French word boem, a sorcerer, in allusion to the arts they have so long exercised in practising upon the creduhty of the vulgar. They have been known in Europe only since the beginning of the fifteenth century. The most severe legislative enactments have at various times been framed against them, on account of their inveterate habits of petty depredation; yet no degree of persecution has ever succeeded in effectually diminishing their numbers, or in driving them from ' Borrow's Zlncali, vol. i. p. 3. '^ Hoyland's Historical Survey of the Gypseys, p. 10. 16 112 THE BIBLE OF EVEKY LAND. [Class III. countries into which they have once introduced themselves. GreUman computed that in his time the number of Gipsies throughout Europe amounted to between 700,000 and 800,000, of whom, he said, 40,000 were located in Spain, chiefly in the southern^ provinces.' _ Mr. Borrow Ukewise is of opmion that there are at the present moment about 40,000 Gipsies in Spain, but he considers that they were formerly considerably more numerous in that country. There are also great numbers of Gipsies in Hungary and Transylvania, where they are extensively employed in washing gold from the sands of the rivers, and occasionally in other avocations. The Gipsies at present dispersed through England are supposed to number about 20,000. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — In default of all historical evidence conceming the proper country of the Gipsies, their language indicates with tolerable distinctness that their origin is to be traced to India. Their physical conformation, their complexion, and their pecuHar mode of hfe, furnish additional proofs of their Indian descent ; for Captain Eichardson has shown that in these points they bear a very strong resemblance to a sort of people in India called Bazeegurs ; ^ and many writers have attested that in these and other respects they may weU be compared to the lowest caste of Hindoos, particularly to certain thievish castes, who to this day are to be found in various parts of India. To account for their sudden appearance in Europe, Adelung conjectured that they fled thither to escape the cruel war of devastation carried on by Tamerlane, in 1408-9 ;^ but this hypothesis rests on very insufiicient data ; and it is equaUy reasonable to suppose that they may have quitted their country either to evade the laws they had outraged, or in pursuit of further plunder. The language StiU spoken by the Gipsies in all the countries through wliich they are dispersed is a dialect of the Sanscrit : it is called Eommany, from rom, a husband, or a man ; and so close is its affinity with other Indian dialects, that it is by many considered as Uttle else than a corrupt form of Hinduwee.* It is related of Lord Teignmouth, the first President of the British and Foreign Bible Society, that one day chancing to meet with a Gipsy woman, he was struck with her resemblance in form and feature to the natives he had been accustomed to see in India. He addressed her in Hindustani, with which language he was familiarly acquainted, and found to his surprise that she could perfectly understand him. He then invited her and several of the members of her tribe to his house, and induced them to pronounce a number of words in Eommany, which he carefully noted down ; many of these words he discovered to be purely Hindustani, while others were obviously derived fiom Sanscrit roots.* But although the idioms, and almost all the words of the Eommany, are unques tionably of Indian extraction, it has also adopted terms belonging to other famiUes of languages. Several Sclavonic words, for instance, are to be detected in Eommany; and this circumstance seems to have arisen from the Gipsies, in their migration from the East, having passed through the steppes of Eussia, where many of the tribe are still to be met with. Modern Greek words, probably learnt during their passage through Bulgaria, are also occasionaUy to be heard in their language ; and still more abundant is the intermixture of Persic words. The languages of the other countries ui which the Gipsies have estabUshed themselves, have had more or less infiuence in the modification of Eommany. In Spain, its grammatical pecuharities have entirely disappeared ; its syntax, its declen sion of nouns, its conjugation of verbs, being aU subjected to the rules of Spanish grammar.^ In Hungary and Transylvania it is spoken with tolerable purity ; and in England the idiom has suffered far less modification than in Spain, for the EngHsh dialect of Eommany stiU retains its original syntax to a certain extent, and its peculiar methods of conjugation and of declension.^ Veesion of the Sceiptuees in this Dialect. — The whole of the New Testament has been translated into the Spanish dialect of Eommany by Mr. Borrow, who during a long course of years possessed opportunities of familiar intercourse with the Gipsies, never obtained before or since by any individual unconnected with the race. Determined that this neglected people should under stand the Gospel, Mr. Borrow proposed that they should themselves translate it. With this view he assembled some of the Spanish Gipsies together, and commenced with the Gospel of Luke, they rendering into Eommany the sentences which he delivered to them in Spanish. They proceeded in this way as far as the middle of the eighth chapter, when Mr. Borrow found it necessary to complete the translation himself, supplying deficiencies from a version which he had commenced at Badajoz m 1 Versuch Uber die Zigeuner, Gottingen, 1787. s Life of Lord Teignmouth, vol. il. p. 375. 2 Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. e Borrow's ZincaU, vol. ii. p. 123. 5 Mithridates, i. 198 ; iv. 488. j Borrow's ZincaU. vol. ii. second edition, p. S63. * Bischoff 'B Deutsch-zigenerisches Wfirterbuch. Indo-Eukopean Languages.] TAMUL. 113 1836. He printed 500 copies of this Gospel at Madrid in 183^; it was the first book that had ever appeared in Eommany.' Copies of the work were so eagerly sought by the Gitanos of Madrid, that Mr. Borrow remarks he could readily have disposed of the whole edition in a fortnight had it not been for the opposition to its circulation excited by the clergy immediately on its pubhcation. " Sorcery," exclauned one bishop. " There is more in this than we can dive into," said a second. "He wUl con vert all Spain by means of the Gipsy language," said a third.^ In compliance with their entreaties, the Corregidor, or Gefe poHtico, of Madrid gave orders for the seizure of aU copies of the Gipsy Gospel exposed for sale, and the soldiers obtained about thirty copies, which they sold at a high price for their own benefit. The translator was shortly after consigned for three weeks to imprisonment, under the suspicion that he was attempting to revolutionise the country, and annihilate the power of Eome by means of his Eommany version of the Gospel.^ Eesults of the Dissemination of this Veesion. — The Eommany Gospel of St. Luke, the only portion of ilr. Borrow's version that has yet been printed, was found to be perfectly intelHgible to the Spanish Gipsies : many of the men were able to read it, and appeared to set a high value on it, yet it soon became evident that it was the language, and not the heavenly doctrine, which they prized. Even the women, who in general are unable to read, were anxious to possess themselves of copies to use as charms or amulets in preserving them from danger, especially in their thieving expeditions.'' The result of Mr. Borrow's zealous endeavours to disseminate a knowledge of the Scriptures among this singular people, maybe briefly summed up in his own words: — " They listened," he teUs us, " with admiration, but, alas ! not of the truth, the eternal truths I was proclaiming, but to find that their broken jargon could be written and read. The only words of assent which I ever obtained, and that rather of a negative kind, were the following from the mouth of a woman : — ' Brother, you teU us strange things, though perhaps you do not lie; a month since I would sooner have beheved these tales, than that this day I should see one who could write Eommany.' " ' Of late years, efforts have been made in England by Mr. Crabb and others in behalf of English Gipsies ; and a school, in which Gipsy chUdren are instructed in the knowledge of Scripture, where they are at the same time trained for service, and taught various trades, has been estabhshed at Farnham, near Blandford, Dorset.* TAMUL, OR TAMIL. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate V.) Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Tamul, the language of the ancient kingdom of Dravira, is spoken in the extensive country now called the Carnatic, and is the vernacular language from the Dutch settlement of Pulicat in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, and from the shores of the Indian Ocean on the east to the Ghauts on the west. This important territory, which since 1801 has been entirely under British government, includes Madras, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura, Tinnevelly, and Coimbatore. The inhabitants have been estimated at 6,622,474; they are chiefly Hindoos of the Brahminical sect, and there are comparatively few Mahommedans among them. The Tamul language also obtains along the whole northern coast of Ceylon, including the populous district of Jafiha, where it is spoken by a race of people sometimes called the Malabars. Tamul is hkewise the vernacular language of the Moormen of Ceylon; they are dispersed in great numbers through every part of the island, especiaUy at Colombo, and are supposed to be the descendants of Arabs, who, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, conquered several of the seaport towns of India and Ceylon.' Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — It is a question of the highest historical interest whether Tamul and the other languages of the Deccan are to be considered as the daughters of the Sanscrit, or whether their origin is to be traced to some other source. Drs. Carey and Wilkins con sidered them to be undoubtedly derived from the Sanscrit, and Colebrooke was incUned to adopt the 1 Bnrrnw'Q yincali vol i Tl l'sn ' Borrow's Zincali, vol. i. p. 230. Bo^ow's BMeli Inain vof a p P. « See " A Plea for the Education of the ChUdren of the Gypsies," :SSiSSSf""- .Be^^^-^^io^:Mes^i^^s.,p.7. 114 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. same opinion. Mr. EUis, in the Preface to CampbeU's Teloogoo Grammar, was the first to doubt their supposed relationship to Sanscrit ; and Babington, in his Introductory Eemarks to the Gooroo Para- martan, has maintained the same view of the case. The various researches which have been made into the subject have at length led to the conclusion that these southern languages are the remnants of some ancient tongue, which at a very remote period of antiquity probably pervaded the whole of India, as some slight traces of it are yet to be met with even in the_ Sanscrit dialects of the north. But whether this hypothesis be correct or not, it has been satisfactorily proved that Tamul and its cognate languages derive their source fi-om no language at present in existence ; and if in most systems of classification they have obtained a place among the Sanscrit family of languages, they owe their position not to their origin, but to the modification of their elementary structure induced by the superposition of Sanscrit forms; a process which has been carrying on for centuries, dating from the period when the natives of the south received the religion of the north, and bowed to the dommation of the Brahminical sect. Tamul, however, possesses fewer Sanscrit terms than the other languages of the Deccan. It has two distmct dialects, the Kodun, or common dialect, which contains the greatest admixture of Sanscrit words; and the Shen, or poHshed dialect, which, from its long disuse as a collo quial medium, has been preserved in a state of greater purity. A knowledge of the former alone is quite sufficient for aU ordinary intercourse with the natives, but acquaintance with the high, or Shen, dialect is necessary for those who wish to study Tamul Hterature and science.' The chief pecuharities of the Tamul language, as briefly summed up by Anderson, consist in the absence of a relative pro noun, in the smaU proportion of adjectives and particles properly so called, in the power of employing adjectives in an adverbial capacity, in the exact correspondence in termination between the demonstra tive pronouns and the third person of verbs, in the existence of a negative verb, and, above aU, in the conjugation of derivative nouns.^ Some of the characteristics are to be met with in the Telinga, Canarese, and MalayaUm languages; but in the possession of a conjugate derivative, Tamul appears to stand quite alone. This singular grammatical form seems to have arisen from a remarkable interchange of the properties peculiar to different parts of speech, for as in other languages, as weU as in Tamul, verbal nouns are liable to be inflected as substantives, so the derivatives of nouns are liable in Tamul to be conjugated as verbs.^ Tamul nouns have eight cases, three of which are ablative, and are distin guished as local, causal, and social ablatives. Words performing the office of prepositions in this lan guage always stand after the nouns or pronouns which they govern. The verbs possess properly but three moods, the indicative, imperative, and infinitive ; and the third person of each tense denotes the changes of gender by corresponding changes of termination.'' The negative verb, which in Tamul and its cognate languages conveys a negative signification without the aid of particles, is formed by the mere removal (except in the third person neuter and its derivatives) of the usual characteristic aug ments of the affirmative.® A Tamul alphabet which, Hke the Greek, consisted of sixteen letters, is said to have been in use among the natives of the country before the introduction of the Sanscrit language. The characters now employed in writing Tamul are thirty in number, and are evidently, so far at least as form is con cerned, derived from the Devanagari. The order in which they are arranged is similar to that of the Sanscrit alphabet, and even letters representing sounds which do not occur in Sanscrit, are formed by the combination of Devanagari characters.^ All aspirates are ejected from the Tamul alphabet. Veesions op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The honour of executing the first Tamul version of the Scriptures belongs to the Danish Missionaries. Ziegenbalg, the first missionary sent by the Danish Government to their settlement at Tranquebar, commenced the translation of the New Testament in 1708, and completed it in 1711. The printing of this version was delayed in order that it might receive the benefit of a thorough revisal, and this important task was committed to the missionary John Ernest Grundler, who had arrived in India soon after the commencement of the trans lation. Under his care the work was printed at Tranquebar in 1714, at the press and on paper pro vided bj^ the Society for Promoting Cliristian Knowledge. His Majesty George I. of England took an especial interest in the progress of this version, and addressed a letter to Ziegenbalg. The transla tion of the Old Testament was commenced by this devoted missionary in 1717, and in 1719 he had carried it as far as the book of Euth, when he sunk beneath the weight of his manifold labours, at the age of thirty-six. It is not certain whether his translations were executed immediately from the sacred 1 Besclii's Grammar ofthe Shen TamU, p. 1. i Anderson's Rudiments of Tamul Grammar, p. 41- 2 Anderson's Rudiments of Tamul Grammar, p. xix. 5 Anderson's Rudiments of Tamul Grammar, p. 63. 3 Anderson's Rudiments of Tamul Grammar, p. 127. s Nouveau Journal Asiatique, vol. i. p. 285. Indo-European Languages.] TAMUL. 115 originals, or from the German version of Luther. Afber his decease, and that of his feUow-labourer Grundler, which occurred during the following year, the revision of his manuscripts and the prosecu tion of the version of the Old Testament devolved on Benjamin Schultze, a missionary who had arrived from HaUe a short time previously, under the patronage of the Society for Promoting Chris tian Knowledge. Schultze pubhshed the portion of the Old Testament translated by Ziegenbalg in 1723, and completed the version in 1727. He was weU acquainted with Hebrew, and is said to have consulted most of the European versions in the course of his translation. Such was his indefatigable zeal, that in the midst_ of important missionary duties, and in the relaxing cHmate of Southem India, he regularly devoted six hours daily to the prosecution of his work. He Hkewise addressed himself to a dUigent revision of the New Testament, a second edition of which he put to press in 1722, and completed in 1724 at Tranquebar. In 1758 a third edition of the New Testament was printed at the same place; it had previously been subjected to another revision, in which several missionaries took a part. The second Tranquebar edition was reprinted at Colombo in 1741-3, after having undergone some alterations adapting it to the Tamul spoken in Ceylon : this edition was designed for the native TamuUan Christians in that island, and was pubHshed under the auspices of Von Imhoff the governor. In 1777 an important version of the New Testament was published by the Eev. J. P. Fabricius, one of Schultze's successors in the Danish Mission at iladras. This version is far more elegant and classical in diction than that of the Tranquebar translators.' Fabricius Hkewise undertook the revision of Schultze's version of the Old Testament, preparatory to a second edition; but the work as revised by him has every claim to be considered as a new and independent version. He sent the translation, sheet by sheet, for examination and correction to the missionaries at Cuddalore ; from them it passed to the Danish Missionaries, and from them to the native translator to the Danish Government. The notes and corrections thus obtained were carefuUy coUated by Fabricius, and the whole translation was again subjected by him to a searching revision. It was printed at the Mission press at Tranquebar between the years 1777 and 1782, under the especial care of two missionaries, one of whom was Dr. Rottler. Fabricius was esteemed an " unparalleled Tamul scholar," and his translation long held the rank of the standard Tamul version of the Scriptures. The editions of the two versions of the New Testament above mentioned, printed by the Danish Missionaries prior to the commencement of the present century, amount in all to fourteen, besides two versions of the Old Testament. They were assisted by grants of paper and other suppUes from the Eoyal College of Copenhagen, the Orphan House at HaUe, and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Still the number of copies issued was very far from being adequate to the wants of the native Christians; and the deplorable scarcity of the Scriptures in the Tamul country was first pressed upon the notice of the British and Foreign Bible Society in a letter from the Eev. Dr. Buchanan, dated Madura 1806. Dr. Buchanan stated that of the ten or twelve thousand Protestant Christians then belonging to the Tanjore and Tin- neveUy districts, not one perhaps in a hundred had a New Testament; and he described the people in general as " clamorous for Bibles, suppHcating for teachers, and saying, ' we do not want bread or money from you, but we want the word of God.' " ^ In consequence of these and other similar repre sentations, the Corresponding Committee at Calcutta raised a subscription for the purchase of aU the copies of the Tamul Scriptures which could be then obtained, and which bore a price placing them beyond the reach of the poorer Christians. These copies reached Tanjore in 1810, where they were received with the most hvely gratitude; and the supply was acknowledged "not only as a seasonable and acceptable present, but as the cause of abundant thanksgiving to God through Jesus Christ our Saviour, from many who were desirous to know the saving truths which the Bible contains, and to use it for the benefit of their souls." ^ Arrangements were then made by the British and _Foreign_ Bible Society for the pubhcation of another edition, and after due inquiries had been instituted, it was deemed advisable to print it at the Serampore press, from the admired text of Fabricius.^ Notwith- standmg the disastrous fire in which the Tamul fount of types and large suppljr of paper were destroyed, the edition, consisting of 5000 copies, was completed by the Serampore Missionaries in 1813. As great demand for the Scriptures stiU continued throughout the Tamul country even after the cir culation of this large edition, it seemed necessary to take immediate measures for issumg further suppUes. The want of copies of the Scriptures appeared to be particularly felt at Ceylon, where the number of native Christians speaking the Tamul language was estimated at 45,000.^ Besides the edition of the New Testament pubUshed at Colombo in 1743 as above mentioned, a version of the • Eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 15. -i Ninth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 18 2 Christian Researches in India, by Dr. Buchanan, pp. 172, 176- = Twelfth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 24 ' Eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 31 1 . 116 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Pentateuch, translated by Mr. de Milho, had also been printed in Ceylon under the patronage of the Dutch Government in 1790.' These editions, however, had been long exhausted, and the people in general were almost destitute of the Scriptures. It was, therefore, deemed advisable not only to issue another edition, but also to obtain such a revision of the existing version as might render it intelligible to the Tamul population of Ceylon as well as of the adjacent continent. This important revision was committed to the Eev. C. T. E. Ehenius of the Church Mission, subject to the superinten dence of the Eev. Dr. Eottler (who had formerly assisted in carrying the version of Fabricius through the press), and the inspection of the missionaries at Trichinopoly, Tanjore, and Tranquebar. To ensure the greater accuracy of the work, a Committee of Translation was appointed at Madras in I82I, and great hopes were entertained of the success of a version carried forward under such efficient manage ment, and in the midst of the Tamul country. In order, however, to meet the actual demand for the Scriptures, it was found requisite, while the revision was in progress, to issue another edition from the text of Fabricius. This edition appears to have consisted of 1000 copies of the Old Testament, 2500 of the New Testament, and 2500 extra copies of the Gospels and Acts : the Old Testament was printed at the Vepery press of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and the New Testament at the Church Missionary Society's press at Madras; the edition was completed about the year 1824. In 1825 the revision of the Gospel of St. Matthew was finished, and an edition of 10,000 copies was pub Hshed by the Madras Committee. The following year another edition of the Old Testament from the text of the Tranquebar translators was commenced : it consisted of 5000 copies of the Pentateuch, and 2500 of the other Books of the Old Testament, and appears to have been completed about the year 1832. In the meantime the revision of the old version under the care of Mr. Ehenius was rapidly proceeding, and in 1827 an edition of 5000 copies of the New Testament was put to press. In 1828 the Four Gospels were completed, and so rapid was the circulation, that another edition of 5000 copies was immediately ordered, and the part of the New Testament containing the Epistles was extended to 7500 copies.^ Yet, notwithstanding these large issues, the desire of the native population to receive the Tamul Scriptures more than kept pace with the ability of the Committee to supply them ; and it was found that before the last books of an edition could be got from the press, nearly all the first books had been distributed, so that it appeared almost impossible to issue one complete and uniform copy of the Tamul Old and New Testaments.^ The Madras Committee, therefore, determined in 1831 to print 12,000 copies of the Tamul New Testament in small type. This edition was afterwards extended to 15,000, and the revised version was selected as the text on account ofthe numerous testimonies that had been laid before the Committee in proof of its superiority over the version of Fabricius. To expedite the revision and publication of the entire Tamul Scriptures two additional Sub-committees of revision were formed about this period, (the one at Tanjore, and the other at Nagracoil and Palam cottah,) consisting of Churchmen, Wesleyans, Lutherans, and Dissenters of various denominations, who all agreed to set aside party distinctions, in order to promote the publication of the word of truth.'' In 1844 an edition of 6000 copies of the entire Tamul Bible was completed. The Old Testament was the version of Fabricius, corrected as to grammar and orthography; and the New, that of Ehenius: it contained the headings of chapters and the chronology from the English. In printing this edition the Madras Society was assisted by funds from the American Bible Society, and by suppUes of paper from the British and Foreign Bible Society.* During the same year (1844) 10,000 copies of each'of the Four Gospels in 18mo., Fabricius's version, were ordered to be printed at the press of the Christian Knowledge Society, Vepery ; and the same number and size of the revised version at the American Mis sion press, for the use of schools. Other portions of Scripture were printed at about the same period at the Neyoor press, for the use of schools in Tinnevelly and Travancore, and for the purposes of pubhc worship.'' The last Eeport! of the British and Foreign Bible Society (for 1848) announces the com pletion of a second edition of the uniform Tamul Bible, with headings and chronology from the EngHsh, and references from the German version. The edition consists of 6000 copies, and the demand continues large. Among other portions of Scriptures recently printed under the auspices of the Society, it may be noticed that an edition of 3000 copies of the New Testament in 12mo. has been pubHshed, according to rules proposed by a Tamul Sub-committee of revision, for separating the words in printing, and in many cases omitting the usual changes, redupHcation, and eUsion of letters required by the law of Sandhi in the high dialect.'^ Another edition of the New Testament, prmted ffom the 2 ?!^!!lJj"S?r!j ''«P°'^ °4 ?.¦:'?* ""I'i. ''""'Sn Bible Society, p. Ixxiv. 5 Forty-first Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxv. I iZZZ'^^^^t^i °' '^7'i* ?"<» Foreign Bible Society, p. lix. « Forty-first Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxv. I ^T^y^^^\ ^ ^^y.-^u^ and Foreign Bible Society, p. U. 7 Forty-fourth Beport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xc. * Twenty-eighth Report of Bntish and Foreign Bible Society, p. lxiv. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] TAMUL. 117 version of Ehenius at Neyoor, is stated in the last Eeport to be now ready for the large and increasing native church in that section of the Tamul country. It now only remains to mention another revision of the Tamul Scriptures which is at present bein^ carried forward in Ceylon, under the superintendence of the Jaffna Committee, and with the sanction and at the expense of the Parent Society. The missionary by whom this revision is con ducted is Mr. Perceval, of the Wesleyan Mission, in Ceylon. He devotes six hours daUy to the work with his native assistants, in addition to the time occupied in miscellaneous references and general reading connected with the undertaking. The standard authority which he adopts is the original text ; and where various readings occur, he carefully foUows the authorised English version with its marginal readings.' He has recently visited Madras for the purpose of conferring with the Tamul revisors, by whom the revision of the New Testament above mentioned has been prosecuted. A plan of co-operation has been estabhshed between them and Mr. Perceval, and a friendly arrangement has been confirmed between the committees at Jaffna and Madras, for carrying on the undertaking to what it is confidently hoped will prove a satisfactory result.^ Eesults of the Dissemination of this Veesion. — As the Tamul was the first language of India in which the Gospel was proclaimed by Protestant missionaries to the natives, and the first into which the Scriptures were translated for their benefit, so it has been observed that, " for spiritual privUeges, for missionary zeal and enterprise, for the Hght and Hberty which prevail, the Tamul country may weU be caUed the Goshen of India." ^ The rapid circulation of so many large editions of the Scrip tures as above described, is in itself a proof of the alacrity with which the natives have received the word of God ; and individual instances in proof that the precious seed thus gladly welcomed was owned and blessed of God are to be found in great numbers in missionary records, and in the Eeports of the Bible Society. Let one example here suffice. Shunkuru-Llngum was born at Quilon, about 1787, of heathen parents, of the Vellaula or Cultivator caste. After several changes in his temporal circum stances and position, he entered the service of a gentleman holding a civil appointment under the Geylon government. An apparently trivial circumstance was the turning point of his life. Under a tree of the forest he found a copy of the Gospels in Tamul, probably left there by a foUower of the British camp, for it was the time of the Kandyan war, and strangers from Tranquebar had come over to Ceylon with the army. He read the book with eager dehght ; it opened up to him a new region of thought and inquiry, and ultimately was blessed to his conversion. Deeply affected by a sense of the spiritual degradation of his countrymen, and impeUed by love to his Saviour, he sought to make known the truth to others, and became a minister of the Gospel ; and he afterwards underwent much persecution as a setter-forth of strange gods, because he preached Jesus and the resurrection.* The general aspect of the present state of affairs in the Tamul country, as induced by the extensive distri bution of the Scriptures, may be inferred from the foUowing passage in a recent letter from the Eev. J. H. Gray, one of the secretaries of the Madras Bible Society : — "I think I can say, ' that the word of the Lord is running,' and our Lord Jesus Christ is being glorified in Southern India. If it be a proof of this, that we find ' the strong man armed' no longer enjoying a peaceftd possession of his goods, or that we see bitterness and persecution rife among the heathen towards Christians, we are beginning to have these things abound at our doors ; and the so caUed gentle and passive Hindoo is now seen in the streets of Madras, armed with a hatchet to cut down the gate of a missionary's house, and rescue his relative, who had fled thither as to a city of refuge from heathen superstition and uncleanness ; or he is seen casting his son's or his brother's Bible into the fire, lest it should convert him ; and thousands upon thousands can meet together to cry as lustily as ever they did at Ephesus in behalf of Diana, for their gods." * ' Forty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cv. ' Evangelical Magazme for 1847, P- 562. „ . ^ ' Forty.fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. c. s Forty-third Report of Bntish and Foreign Bible Society, p. xciv. * British Friend of India Magazine, vol. in. p. 517. TELINGA, OR TELOOGOO. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate IV.) Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The TeUnga language is spoken within 23 miles of Madras, and prevails for about 500 miles along the coast, from the Dutch settlement of PuUcat to the borders of Orissa. In the interior it extends as far west as Bedar, through nearly the whole of Hydrabad, a part of Berar, and the eastern provinces of Mysore. The portion of the Telinga country subject to the Madras Presidency includes the five Circars — Vizagapatam, Eajahmundry, Masuhpatam, Guntoor, and the Cuddapah and NeUore districts of the Carnatic. The superficial extent of the entire region in which this language is predominant has been estimated at 118,610 square miles. The natives are Hindoos, and number about 10,000,000. The Telinga language is also diffused to a greater or less extent through various countries of Southern India, in which the Tamul and Canarese are the proper vernacular languages. This diffusion in part arises from the early conquests, dating from the fourteenth century, achieved by the people of TeUnga in the south. Like the Eomans, they endeavoured to secure their conquests, and to keep the natives in subjection by the estabUshment of miUtary colonies; and the TeUnga language is stiU spoken by the descendants of the Telinga famihes, who were deputed by the kings of Vidianagara to found these colonies.' The roaming tendencies of the Telinga people also serve to account in part for the diffusion of the language. On this subject the missionaries have remarked that " in intelligence, migratory habits, secular prosperity, and unfrequency of return to their native land, this people are, in relation to other parts of India, what the Scotch are in relation to England and the world." ^ Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — TeUnga is the most soft and pohshed ofthe languages of Southern India, and contains the greatest proportion of Sanscrit words. Yet the Sanscrit terms with which it unquestionably abounds, form no part whatever of the basis of the language, but appear to have been engrafted on the elements of the original Telinga at some period far too remote for inquiry. The grammatical construction of Tehnga is alone sufficient to prove that it has no claims to be regarded as a mere Sanscrit dialect. In the declension of its nouns, effected by means of subjoined particles, in the mode of conjugating the affirmative, and in the possession of a negative verb, in the use of a plural pronoun appUcable to the first and second persons conjointly, and in the pecuHarities of its syntax, it offers obvious points of deviation from the forms of Sanscrit grammar, while at the same time it exhibits decided affinity in these respects with its cognate languages of the Deccan. The TeKnga language possesses no word exactly corresponding with our article ; the indefinite article is sometimes expressed by means of the numeral one, but in general the article is considered as inherent in the noun. Like the Tamul and Canarese, the Tehnga possesses that singular part of speech caUed the relative participle, which displays the combined force of the definite article, the relative pronoun, and the verb.^ It also resembles these languages in the possession of two dialects, the common or popular medium, used for all purposes of business and conversation, and the high or refined dialect, in which the Hterature of the nation, consisting chiefiy of poetry, is written. The dissimilarity between these dialects is so great, that commentaries are requisite in the perusal of native works, even in the case of individuals who have acquired the most complete familiarity with the colloquial dialect. The Tehnga possesses great faciUty in the naturalisation of foreign terms ; yet, with the exception of a few words obtained from the neighbouring provinces of Orissa, Mahratta, and Gujerat, it does not appear to borrow many words from foreign sources. Several technical revenue and official terms derived from the Hindustani were at one time in common use, but they now begin to be superseded by the corresponding EngHsh words.* The Telinga, like other Indian alphabets, is distinguished by the per plexing multiplicity of its symbols, of whicli there are no less than eighty-one : some of these, however, are merely abbreviated forms of the regular initial letters ; others are only used as marks for certain consonants when doubled ; and some are pecuhar to words of Sanscrit origin. " Hence," says Mr- CampbeU, "all native grammarians concur in reducing the characters to thirty-seven, by excluding forty-four, which they acknowledge belong to the language, but which they wiU not admit into the 1 CampbeU's Teloogoo Grammar, Introduction, p. 2. 3 CampbeU's Teloogoo Grammar, p. 42. 2 An Appeal m behalf of S. India, by Rev. J. Smith. < CampbeU's Teloogoo Grammar, p. 75- Indo-Edeopean Languages.] TELINGA. 119 alphabet."' In point of form these letters are round and flowing, and form a striking contrast to the square characters of the Devanagari, although arranged upon the same principle of classification. ' Veesions of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — Schultze, the laborious Danish mis sionary, was the first -who engaged in a Tehnga version of the Scriptures. He commenced his trans lation in 1726, immediately after his completion ofthe Tamul version above mentioned. He translated immediately from the Greek and Hebrew texts, and finished the Telinga version of the New Testa ment in 1727, and of the Old Testament in 1732.^ From some cause or other hitherto unexplained, this work was never printed, although Schultze seems to have taken some steps towards obtaining the assistance of a learned Brahmin, and a fount of types for the purpose. He died in 1760 at HaUe, and it has been thought that his Tehnga MSS. may still be preserved in that city.^ The Serampore ilission- aries commenced another version of the Scriptures in this language in 1805, and in 1809 they had translated the whole of the New and part of the Old Testament. Soon afterwards they succeeded in casting a fount of Telinga types, but owing to various causes of delay, the New Testament was not Printed tiU 1818, when an edition of 1000 copies was issued, aided by a grant from the British and 'oreign Bible Society; and in 1820, the same number of copies of the Pentateuch were pubHshed. But while this Serampore version was in progress, another Tehnga version of the New Testament was conunenced and carried on to the close of the First Epistle to the Corinthians by the Eev. Augustus Desgranges, of the London Missionary Society. He had been stationed at Vizagapatam since 1805, and therefore enjoyed great local facihties for the prosecution of his undertaking: he found, indeed, but few difficulties in the Tehnga language to impede his efforts, and he remarked that " this language richly furnishes the translator -with words, phrases, and sentences for his purpose ;" and that in addition to its acknowledged softness, elegance, and refinement, it is " regular in construction, replete with sentences clear and strong, and abounding with the most beautiful figures of speech."'' Mr. Desgranges was assisted by the Eev. George Cran, who was also stationed at Vizagapatam, and by Anunderayer, a Tehnga Brahmin of high caste, who had sincerely embraced the Christian religion. What our Lord Jesus reqmres from his foUowers, Anunderayer had really done, for he had left his wife, mother, brother, sister, his estate and property, and had suffered reproach and persecution patiently for the sake of the Gospel.' Having acquired an intimate knowledge of the Tamul language, he translated the Scriptures direct from the Tamul version into his own language, and his work was submitted, verse by verse, to Mr. Desgranges, who made such alterations as his critical knowledge of the original text suggested. Mr. Cran died in 1808, and ]\Ir. Desgranges two years subsequently; and it was found on examination that the first three Gospels were the only portions of the translation that were in a state of readiness for the press. Of these three Gospels 1000 copies were printed at Serampore in 1812, under the care of Anunderayer. No alterations whatever were admitted, for it was considered that to give the Gospels as the able translator had left them, would be a tribute of respect to his memory. In the meantime another version of the Telinga New Testament had been commenced. The Eev. Messrs. Pritchett and Lee, agents of the London Missionary Society, arrived at Vizagapatam a short time prior to the decease of the lamented Mr. Desgranges. Mr. Lee undertook soon afterwards a translation of the Book of Genesis, but the preparation of the version afterwards devolved almost exclusively on Mr. Pritchett, who addressed himself in the first place to the translation of the New Testament. In the first three Gospels he is said to have availed himself of the labours of Mr. Desgranges, introducing such alterations as his o-wn judgment suggested. When the version of the New Testament was com pleted, he sent it to Madras for examination, and it was so highly approved by the distmguished Tehnga scholars to whom it was submitted, that the Madras Bible Society readily closed with Mr. Pritchett's proposal to print it for the benefit of the Telinga nation. An edition of 2000 copies was therefore issued in 1819, the expenses of which were defrayed by the Calcutta Bible Society. Mr. Pritchett was proceeding with the translation of the Old Testament when, in 1820, he was arrested in the midst of his work by death.^ In 1823 another version of the Scriptures_ was offered to the Calcutta Bible Society by the Eev. J. Gordon, also of the London IMissionary Society, -who had during many years been stationed at Vizagapatam. Great difficulty was experienced in deciding upon the relative merits of Mr. Pritchett's and Mr. Gordon's translations, and aU printing operations were sus pended untU it could be ascertained which was best calculated for general usefuhiess. At length thefr respective translations of Genesis and of the history of Joseph were cfrculated for comparison, and when ' Campbell's Teloogoo Grammar, p. 2. ¦* Seventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 18. '' Le Long, vol. i part ii * Seventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 80. ' Bishop Marsh's History of Translations, p. 37. « Seventeenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lviii. 120 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III, the opinions of competent judges had been collected, it was found that the result of the investigation was in favour of Mr. Gordon's production, which was unanimously declared to be " clear, inteUigibie, and the more Hteral translation ofthe two." At the same time Mr. Pritchett's was pronounced a good translation, and more grammatical than Mr. Gordon's, but deficient in idiom. The Committee of the Madras Society, therefore, resolved upon adopting Mr. Gordon's version, but they requested him, before he sent it to the press, to compare it carefully with Mr. Pritchett's translation, and " to select therefrom whatever he might think a desirable acquisition to his own." Mr. Gordon's important labours were closed by death in 1827. After his decease it was found that Mr. Pritchett's version was, after all, more correct than had been expected ; certain corrections were accordingly introduced, and an edition of 3000 copies of the New Testament was printed in 1828, accompanied by 2000 copies of Mr. Gordon's version of St. Luke.' Vigorous efforts were subsequently made to revise the versions pre pared by Messrs. Pritchett and Gordon, and further portions were printed, which, notwithstanding their admitted defects, obtained such extensive circulation as to warrant the hope that they were perused with profit.^ Up to the present time the ]\Iadras Committee have been still persevering in their endeavours to procure an acceptable and faithful version of the Tehnga Scriptures. Among other revised editions of portions of the New Testament issued by them from time to time, may he mentioned an edition of 1000 copies of the Gospel of Luke, translated by C. P. Brown, Esq., son of the late Eev. David Brown,' and printed about the year 1839. Five thousand copies of the Tehnga Psahns in 18mo., revised at Bellary, were printed at the press of the American Mission at Madras m 1845."* According to the last Eeport of the Madras Bible Society, only parts of the Tehnga version are even now considered suitable for circulation. The Sub-committee of revision are stUl, it is said, " diligently engaged in the work of revision: when their labours are sufficiently matured, the seed of the word of life will be freely scattered among the many milHons speaking this language, now perish ing for lack of knowledge."' KARNATA, OR CANARESE. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VI.) Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The names by which this language is distin guished, are by no means calculated to convey a just notion of its geographical extension. The term Karnata would naturally lead to the inference that this language is predominant in the Carnatic, which is by no means the case, Tamul, as Yre have aheady shown, being the vernacular language of that country. The other appellation, Canarese, as appHed to this language, is almost equally erroneous, for Tuluvu is the proper and original dialect of Canara, although it has of late years become restricted to the lower classes of that pro-vince. This confusion of terms seems to have arisen from the fact of the Mussulman conquerors of the country having erroneously extended the distinctive appellation of the ancient province of Carnatica to the adjacent districts, namely, to the Carnatic on the one side, and to Canara on the other. The name thus ignorantly extended to these countries has been retained ; while Carnatica itself, which had alone been previously distinguished by this appeUation, no longer exists as a separate province, the territories which it comprised being now chiefiy Tmown as the Mysore and the Balaghaut, or province of the Upper Ghauts. The Hmits of the Kamata (formerly the vernacular language of Carnatica), may be described as co-extensive with those of that ancient province : it may be said to extend from between the 12th to above the 18th degree of north latitude, with an average breadth of 180 miles ; and it may almost be considered to include Canara, where it is rapidly super- l '^-^^:^}^'^°^ °I ^"*'* ^d Foreign Bible Society, p. Ux. i Forty-second Beport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xm. , }^^ ., "^P°" of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixviii. 6 Forty.fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. M- 3 Thirty-sixth Beport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. U. Indo-European Languages.] KARNATA. 121 seding the Tuluvu. The amount of population to whom the Karnata language is vernacular has been estimated at upwards of 7,000,000. These people are Hindoos, and are subject to the Madras Presidency. _ Chaeacteeistics op the Language.— The idioms of the Karnata or Canarese are very simUar to those of the Tamul and Telinga,' with which languages it is radically connected. It possesses, however, an alphabet of its own, consisting of fifty-six letters, and evidently borrowed, so far at least as classification and order are concerned, from the Devanagari. A valuable Canarese and Enghsh Lexicon, in two large quarto volumes, compiled by Mr. Eeeve, one of the translators of the Bible, has been published by the Madras Government. Veesions of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The first attempt to produce a Kamata translation of the Scriptures was commenced at Serampore in 1808 : the work, however, from various causes, appears to have been laid aside from time to time ; and it was not tiU 1822, that an edition of 1000 copies of the New Testament was completed at press. A version of the Old Testament was also undertaken, and partly executed, by the Serampore Missionaries ; but they after wards relinquished the work on finding that simUar efforts were being made by other labourers, who, ftom being stationed in the country where the language is vernacular, enjoyed greater facihties for the successful prosecution of the translation. The Karnata or Canarese version was, in fact, one of the first contemplated by the Calcutta Bible Society. In 1813 they made an application to the Archbishop of Goa concerning the necessity of supplying the native Christians of Goa and its neighbourhood with the Canarese Scriptures. These Christians were Eoman Catholics, and numbered about 200,000. The archbishop, in the true spirit ofhis church, discouraged the undertaking. One ofthe objections which he urged was, however, afterwards found to be correct ; for he alleged, and -with truth, that the Canarese Christians of Goa spoke a mixture of different languages, and that their dialect varied greatly in many districts. No further steps were therefore taken by the Committee till, in 1817, a letter was addressed to them by Mr. Hands, of Bellary, an agent of the London Missionary Society, stating that he had translated the whole of the New Testament into Canarese. As this translation was found on examination by competent judges to be adapted for general usefulness, an edition of 2000 copies ofthe Gospels and Acts was printed at Madras, with the sanction and at the expense of the Society, under the immediate eye of the translator.^ In order that Mr. Hands might not be longer detained from his station, the types and material for printing were afterwards forwarded to BeUary, and the entire New Testament was completed in 1821. At this period Mr. Hands had likewise completed the translation ofthe Old Testament ; and his friend and coadjutor, the Eev. Wm. Eeeve, had engaged in a separate translation of the Pentateuch, with the -view of comparing it with that of Mr. Hands, and of securing by this means a more correct and idiomatic version. In 1822, while these two translators were labouring conjointly in their important undertaking, they were invited by the Madras Bible Com mittee, upon whom the superintendence of this translation had devolved, to associate themselves with Mr. A. D. CampbeU and Mr. E. C. GosUng, so as to form a Sub-committee of translation, calhng in the further aid of such learned men as they should find expedient.' Under the care of this Sub-com mittee, therefore, the revision of the Old Testament was continued ; and every separate portion was again subjected to the careful inspection of the Committee at Madras previously to its publication. The printing of the Old Testament was commenced in 1827 ; and in the foUowing year, Mr. Hands made the foUowing statement concerning his own share in the translation: — "The work was com menced sixteen years ago, and scarcely a day has passed in which I have not laboured therein : it has engaged the best part of my time and strength : many of the books have been revised and re-copied seven or eight times." '' The printing of the New Testament, which had been commenced at Madras m 1820, was completed at BeUary in 1831, by the pubhcation ofthe Epistles and the Book of Eeve lation, under the care ofthe Sub-committee;^ and in 1832 the Old Testament Hkewise left the press, and a Sub-committee was formed for the express purpose of revising the New Testament, prior to a second edition.^ This edition was intended to consist of 5000 copies of the Gospels and Acts, 1000 extra copies of St. Luke and Acts, and 3000 copies of the Epistles : it does not appear, however, that the edition was eventually issued. In the Eeport of the Madras Bible Society for 1847, it is stated that the Canarese Bible Ee-rision Committee had, during the preceding year, been preparing a new ' M'Kcrrell's Carnatic Grammar, p. 157. ¦¦ Twenty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ux. '^ Report ofthe London Missionary Society for 1821, p. 55. = Twenty-eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixvu. ' Nineteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Il6. ^ Twenty-runth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lxi. 122 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IH. translation of the Epistles to the Eomans, Hebrews, Philippians, Colossians, and the First and Second Epistles of Peter ; and that a small edition of the first four Epistles had been printed and circulated in order to elicit further criticism. It is further observed in the same report, that the cause of the work not progressing more rapidly is, that those engaged in it are also employed in the active duties of missionary labour ; and that they are moreover desirous of avaiHng themselves of every advantage afforded by the present improved state of biblical science, and by the increased facUities for under standing the genius and idiom of the Canarese language.' The Epistles to the Eomans, 1 Corinthians, and Hebrews were finally revised by the Canarese Eevision Committee, in the course of the year 1847, and were accepted for the press by the Madras Committee. In forwarding them at the close of that year, the Eev. W. Thompson wrote : — "In a few months, if it should please our heavenly Father to grant health and strength, we hope to present you with the remainder of the Epistles, some of which are afready in a considerable state of forwardness."^ The next reports therefore may perhaps announce the completion of this new version. Eesults op the Dissemination of this Veesion. — In proof of the acceptableness of this version may be cited the observations of the Eev. Mr. Taylor, made during a tour in 1831 : — "While itinerating the country," he writes, " in my journey from Belgaum, I have had opportunities of putting in circulation the sacred volume in whole and parts. Very few instances of imwiUingness to receive the Scriptures have come under my observation, but innumerable evidences of great earnestness and sohcitude to obtain them. I have had opportunities of ascertaining that the word has been read, and its contents tolerably understood ; and the knowledge I found some possessed of concerning Christ, and of what he did and suffered to save sinners, has afforded me both deUght and encouragement."' Omitting other testimonies respecting the influence of the Scriptures on Canarese communities, it may not be uninteresting to quote the following individual instance of the blessing of God attending the perusal ofthe Canarese Bible, as related in the last report received from India: — " When traveUing last year," says the Eev. Mr. Wurth, of Hoobly, in the southern parts of the Dharwar CoUectorate, I met with a man who told me that there was a Lingaite Swamee in a village called Maraulee, who advised the people to throw away the Linga they wear on their breast, and put no confidence in idols, but to beheve in Christ. The Swamee, at my request, came to meet me, foUowed by many of his disciples (Lingaite priests) who carried with them a great number of books. Among these were the New Testament, Genesis, the Psalms, and the Prophets, all in Canarese. After some preUminary con versation the Swamee said openly, ' I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that the Holy Trinity, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost, is the only true God ; and though the people call me a madman, I shall not give up this my conviction.' He has formed a circle of ms- ciples around him, who are to believe that of which their master is convinced. I was quite astonished to hear such sentiments from a Swamee of the Lingaites, who was never in close connexion with a missionary. He had drawn his knowledge partly from tracts, but more especiaUy from the Bible, which in its subUme simpUcity is the best teacher. He did not, it seems, tiU now, seek the remission of his sins in Christ, although he admired the sublime truths of the Christian rehgion. But I enter tain a good hope, that the word of God, which has led him on so far, and which is quick and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged sword, vrill, under the influence of the Holy Spfrit, become to Hm, in this respect also, a lamp unto his feet, and a Hght unto his path."^ ' Forty-thu-d Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xcvu. 3 Twenty-eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lxvii. 2 Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xc. 4 Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xcvii. TULU, OR TULUYU. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Tuluvu is the ancient and proper dialect of the long narrow tract of land now caUed Canara, situated westward of the Mysore, between the range of the Westem Ghauts and the ocean. Canara extends about 180 miles along the coast, and comprehends 7720 square miles. Its inhabitants, in point of number, amount to 657,594, of whom about one-fifth are Brahmins, and the proportion of Jains and of Mussulmans is also rather considerable. Owing to the long subjection of Canara to Kamata princes, the Karnata, or Canarese, language is now chiefiy spoken by the higher orders of the population in that province ; Tuluvu, however, stiU continues the vernacular of the common people, especially in South Canara. The number of individuals who employ the Tuluvu language has been estimated at 80,000.' Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The Tuluvu in idiom and stmcture closely resembles the Malayalim language, and is written in the same character. It contains, however, a great many Mahratta, Gujerattee, Telinga, Canarese, and Tamul words. Veesion of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — In 1834, a missionary station was estabhshed at Mangalore, the capital of Canara, by the German Missionary Society; and since that period some progress has been made, under the patronage of that Society, in the translation of the New Testament into the vernacular dialect of the province. In 1844 the Gospel and Epistles of St. John and the Acts, translated by Mr. Ammann, and the Epistle of James, translated by Mr. Greiner of Mangalore, were hthographed at the Mission press of that station. The editions consisted of from 350 to 400 copies of each book. Two Gospels and ten Epistles with the Acts form the total proportion of the Tuluvu version now in a state of completion.'* The Tulu congregation now consists of 135 mdividuals, many of whom have been baptized, and the missionaries have had cause, before and since theh baptism, to rejoice on thefr account. No dfrect testimonies of the results attending the perusal of such portions of the Tulu-vu Scriptures as have been Hthographed have yet been received. 1 British Friend of India Magazine, vol. ui. p. 192. 2 year-Book of Missions, by EUjah Hoole, p. 84. MALAYALIM. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The Malayalim language is spoken along the western coast of Peninsular India, from Cape Comorin to the borders of Canara, and from the sea to the Western Ghauts. This region, sometimes distinguished by the general name of Malayala, includes an area of 17,760 square miles, and a population of 2,107,575: it comprises the British district of Malabar under the Madras Presidency, and the territories of the several rajahs of Travancore, Cochin, and Coorg. The natives in general are Hindoos. The Syrian Christians who form an important section of the population have already been mentioned. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — Malayalim is a dialect of the Shen Tamul. It has been observed by Mr. EUis, that the peculiar characteristic which distinguishes it from all other Tamul dialects is, that though it is derived from a language superfiuously abounding in verbal forms, its verbs are entirely devoid of personal terminations, the person being indicated simply by the pronoun. The alphabet, as in the other languages of the Deccan, is arranged in the order of the Devanagari, but the form of the characters is peculiar. Veesions of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — Dr. Buchanan, who visited the Syrian Christians of Malayala in the beginning of the present century, found that several attempts had been made by them at different times, though without success, to effect a translation of the Scriptures into Malayahm, their vernacular language.' At the suggestion of Dr. Buchanan the design was at length carried into execution, and the venerable bishop Mar Dionysius engaged to superintend the translation. On his second visit to Travancore in 1807, Dr. Buchanan had the gratification to find that the version of the Four Gospels had been completed by Timapah Pillay and Eembar, a catanar or priest of the Syrian Church, under the direction of the archbishop.^ The translation had been made from the excellent Tamul version of Fabricius, and an edition of 500 copies of these Gospels was printed soon afterwards at Bombay, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Timapah Pillay was subsequently placed under the superintendence of the Eev. Mr. Thompson at Madras, in order to com plete the translation of the New Testament from the version of Fabricius, and he accomphshed the work in 1813. Inquiries, however, instituted by Mr. Thompson among persons versed m the lan guage, soon con-rinced him that this version, originally intended for the Syrian Church, was not calculated for general circulation. It was found to abound with words famihar to the Syrian Chris tians, but almost unintelligible to other classes of the Malayalim population.^ An entirely new trans lation was accordingly projected without delay, and Timapah Pillay was sent to the coast of Malabar for the immediate commencement of it, under the superintendence of a gentleman well qualified for the undertaking. The progress of the work was retarded by the opposition of the CathoHc Archbishop of Crangalore and by various other obstacles, and when at length completed it was still found open to the same objections that had been brought against the original translation. It appeared in fact, on further investigation, that the language of Travancore varies so much from the purer dialect spoken in Travancore, as to render two separate versions desirable, if not indispensable, for the respective parts of the country. Mr. Spring, chaplain at Tellicherry, therefore, proposed to enter upon a complete re-^dslon of Timapah PiUay's version, so as to render it acceptable to the natives of Malabar; while Mr. Bailey, who was stationecl at Cottayam, engaged to execute a new translation for the benefit of the inhabitants of Travancore. Mr. Spring was assisted by two learned natives who translated from Dr. Carey's_ Sanscrit New Testament : their work was afterwards submitted to a Committee of natives aU versed in Sanscrit, and one of them acquainted both with English and Tamul, while Mr. Spring had before him the Greek text and various critical works. Mr. BaUey was assisted in his translation by the _ catanars and nairs of the Syrian Church : it was executed partly in the peculiar idiom of the Syrian Christians, and partly in a medium style adapted for general usefuhiess.^ It was finished in 1 Seventh Keport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 87. a Eleventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, pp. 41. *2. 2 Nmth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 20. i Nineteenth Beport of British and Foreigii Bible Society, p. UO. IlTDO-EuEOPEAN LANGUAGES.] MALAYALIM. 125 1819, and on being submitted to the Madras Translation Committee was preferred to the purer Malayahm version executed by Mr. Spring. In consequence of the great anxiety manifested by the Syrian metropolitan, his clergy, and people, to obtain some portion of the Scriptures in their vernacular language, an edition of ilr. BaUey's version, to consist of 5000 copies, was commenced at Cottayam, at the expense of the Madras Bible Society. The Gospel of St. Luke, the first portion printed, was completed at press in 1827; other portions foUowed, and in the year 1830 the whole of the New Testament had been printed. This edition was printed with types cast for the purpose by Mr. BaUey : he had never even seen a type foundry or its apparatus, and derived aU his information from books; he had no assistants but a common carpenter and two sUversmiths, yet his success was complete.' The translation of the Old Testament was likewise completed by Mr. Bailey in 1830, and this work was submitted to a Sub-committee, formed in 1832 in connexion with the Madras Bible Society, for the pubhcation of a Malayahm version of the Old Testament. About the same period an edition of 3000 copies of the Psalms was begun at press: the translation had been made by the Eev. T. Norton, and revised by Eev. H. Baker.^ In 1834 an edition of 5000 copies of the Gospels and Acts, and 2000 separate copies of St. Luke and the Acts, was printed in London with types belonging to the Church Missionary Society, and at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The edition was carried through the press by Mr. BaUey the translator, who had been compelled to -risit England on account of his health. On returning to Cottayam, he took with him the entfre edition for distribution, together -with a supply of paper for printing the remainder of the New Testament at the mission press.' In 1840 an edition of 3000 copies of the Old Testament was passing through the press at Cottayam, at the expense of the Madras Bible Society,^ and it would appear j^from the last report that this important work is stiU in progress.® Eesults op the Dissemination of this Veesion. — The following affecting history of the influence of the Scriptures over the heart and life of a Syrian of IMalayala, is related by the Eev. Mr. Harley of the Church Mission, in his journal for 1840. Some years ago a Syrian, of the name of Curiatha, was reclaimed from a most sinful course of Hfe by the study of the Gospels, a copy of which he had received from the Eev. S. Eidsdale. In studying this holy book he became quite another man; he abandoned his covetous, worldly, and self-seeking -views, and began to preach the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, with a self-denial, zeal, and boldness seldom to be -witnessed in a native Christian. He traveUed through a great part of South India, preaching the Gospel among the heathen. He was quite careless of worldly emolument, and many times refused pecuniary assistance, traveUing pennUess, and contented to Hve on casual alms. How much he suffered for Christ cannot be kno-wn, for Curiatha never revealed such matters. As in life, so in death, he upheld the honour of the Gospel. He was preaching in the KunnamkooUam Bazaar, when an opposer of the truth, a Syrian, incensed at his zeal, went home for a knife, and returning stabbed Curiatha to the heart. Curiatha put up a prayer to God not to lay this sin to the charge of the murderer, and immediately feU Ufeless. Such was the end of Curiatha. He was faithlul unto death." ^ Concerning the effects of the dissemination of the verna cular Scriptures manifested at the present moment throughout Malayala, we have the following interest ing account from the Eev. J. Hawksworth, in the last report received from that coimtry: — "Although I cannot enumerate many instances of e-vident spiritual benefit and conversion by distribution of por tions of Jlalayahm Scriptures, I am persuaded that great good is being quietly and extensively effected. Besides which, I beheve the careful distribution of the Scriptures here at the present time is the course to be taken to prevent the faUen Syriac Church becoming a prey to her old and designing foe — the apostate Church of Eome. I may mention, that about ten days ago I baptized a famUy of five con verts from heathenism, making now altogether a party of about thfrty souls that have embraced Chris tianity in one -village during the last eighteen months. The conversion of the whole of these is traceable to the gi-ving of a Malayahm Testament as the means."' 1 Report of Church Missionary Society for 1824, p. 133. s Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xci. 2 Tv?enty-mnth Report of British and Foreign Bible Sodety, p. lxi. 6 Missionary Register for 1842, p. 343. „.,,„. ' Thirty-first Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. hdv. ' Forty-fourth Report of Bntish and Foreign Bible Society, p. xcni. > Thirty-slsth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lv. CINGALESE. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VI.) Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The Island of Ceylon lies at the entrance of the Bay of Bengal, between the 6th and 10th degrees of north latitude, and the 80th and 82nd degrees of east longitude. Its area has been estimated at 25,000 square miles, and by the last census in 1835, the returns gave the amount of population at 1,250,000.' The Cingalese language is only pre dominant in the interior of the island, and on the southern coast from Battycola on the east, to the river Chilaw on the west. Tamul, as before mentioned, prevails on the northern coast, and Indo- Portuguese is spoken by the descendants of European settlers in many of the seaport towns. Pah, as we have afready had occasion to state, is the learned and religious language of the Buddhists of Ceylon. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The remarks already made on the peculiarities of the Tamul language are almost equally applicable to the Cingalese, which closely resembles the Tamul in construction and idiom. In Cingalese, as in the languages of the Deccan, there are two distinct dialects ; namely, the dialect employed in books, properly called Elu, but more commonly high Cingalese, and which offers very few points of approximation to the Sanscrit, and the vulgar or collo quial dialect, in which nine out of every ten words are derived either from Sanscrit or Pali.^ The Elu, it is generally supposed, was the language of the aborigines of the island, and the colloquial dialect is thought to be a modification of the Elu, altered by the intermixture of Pali words, and by other causes. The Cingalese alphabet contains fifty letters, arranged very much upon the Devanagari system; but upon examination of their powers, the number of articulate sounds may be reduced to seven vowels and twenty-three consonants. Veesions of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The first Cingalese version ofthe Scriptures was made when Ceylon was in the possession of the Dutch. The Dutch Govemor Von Imhof established a printing press at Colombo in 1737, with the -view of disseminating the knowledge of the Gospel among the natives. In 1739 an edition ofthe Four Gospels in Cingalese was completed at this press, under the care of the Eev. J. P. Wetzel, a minister of the Dutch church at Colombo. The translation had been executed from the original Greek by the Eev. W. Konym, a minister of the same church. It was reprinted at Colombo in 1780, after ha-ving been revised and corrected by the Eev. Messrs. Fybrands and PhiUpsz. These two ministers likewise superintended an edition of the Acts, printed at Colombo 1771 : two learned Cingalese natives had executed this translation, under the direction of the Eev. S. Cat. The Epistles to the Galatians and Corinthians were translated by Mr. PhiUpsz, and printed in 1773 ; he then completed the translation of the remaining books of the New Testament, and committed them to the press in 1776. Ofthe Old Testament, a metrical version of the Psalter was printed at Colombo in 1775, and republished in 1768. The books of Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus were pubHshed in 1783. Mr. PhiUpsz appears to have continued the version as far as the book of Job ; and after his death the manuscript was deposited among the archives of the Dutch church at Colombo. The Colombo Auxiliary Bible Society was formed in 1812, and one of the first measures adopted by the Society was the examination of the state of the Cingalese version of the New Testament. It was found so replete with errors, that a thorough revision, or a new transla tion, was deemed indispensable, and the execution of this important work was intrusted to a Com mittee of Cingalese interpreters, under the superintendence of^ Mr. Armour, an English schoolmaster, well- versed in the language, and W. Tolfrey, Esq., a ci-vil oflficer under government, and an eminent Cingalese scholar. As it had been, however, previously ascertained that a most deplorable scarcity of the vernacular New Testament existed in Ceylon, a reprint of the former text was made by the Calcutta Auxiliary Society: this edition, consisting of 1000 copies, was printed at Serampore in 1813, and was presented to the Colombo Society for the purpose of meeting the urgent wants of the people, while the revised edition was in course of preparation.' As many alterations were 1 Eleven Years m Ceylon, by Major Forbes, vol. i. pp. 12, 15. 3 Tenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. n. 2 Clough's Cingalese Dictionary, Introduction. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] CINGALESE. 127 requisite in the printed text, the work of re-rision progressed but slowly; constant reference was made to the Sanscrit and Bengalee versions, whence many appropriate words and phrases were obtained. The Tamul version was also of much assistance, for owing to the affinity between the two languages, the form of expression in Tamul was often found to run easily into Cingalese. The Pah was Ukewise consulted in order to give clearness and precision to the translation ; and Mr. Tolfrey declared that it was expedient to render every chapter into PaH, before it could be revised with effect in Cingalese.' The whole re-vdsion was conducted -with continual reference to the Greek text and the EngHsh version. In 1815, 200 copies of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were struck off for circulation among Cingalese scholars, and the criticisms and opinions thus ehcited were decidedly in favour of the work, which was declared to be free from the low and familiar words which disfigured the former text, and which, though of constant occurrence in the colloquial dialect, are deemed pecuharly reprehensible in the Cingalese -written composition. The lamented death of Mr. Tolfrey occurred just as the re-rision had reached the Second Epistle to Timothy. The prosecution of the work then devolved upon the Eev. Messrs. Chater and Clough, in conjunction -with Mr. Armour, and by their united exertions a complete edition of 5000 copies of the New Testament left the Colombo press in 1817. They then appHed to the preparation of a version of the Old Testament Scriptures, which they conducted on the same plan as that on which the revision of the New Testa ment had been executed. By the aid of grants received from the Parent and Calcutta Bible Societies, and from the jf^erican Board of Missions, 1000 copies of the book of Genesis were printed at Colombo in 1818; and in the foUo-wing year, a second edition of 3500 copies of the re-rised New Testament was pubhshed. This was soon followed by 2000 copies of the Psalter, and by 1000 copies of each of the other books of the Old Testament, and the entire version was completed at press in 1823. Some assistance to this work was granted by the British Govemment. As the supphes of the Scriptures was StiU found inadequate to meet the urgent demands of the people, another revised and cheaper edition was undertaken with the aid of the British and Foreign Bible Society ; it consisted of 2500 copies of the Old Testament and of 6000 of the New. The Pentateuch and Gospels left the press in 1828, and the entire edition was completed in 1830. Another translation of the Cingalese Scriptures was undertaken by the Eev. Mr. Lambrick, of the Church Mission, at Cotta, a -riUage near Colombo. The, first portion of this version that passed through the press was the Gospel of St. Matthew, 100 copies of which were printed for the use of the schools at Cotta. Other portions of the Scriptures were successively issued, and in 1833 the New Testament was completed at press, foUowed in 1834 by an edition of the Old Testament, printed at the expense of the Church Missionary Society. This translation, which is generally distinguished as the " Cotta Version," differs from the version set forth by the Colombo Bible Society in the foUo-wing particulars : — " 1. All the honorific terminations, that is, peculiar terminations ofthe verbs, nouns, and pronouns, indicative of respect, used in books in the high Cingalese dialect, are omitted in the Cotta version. 2. Those terminations of nouns, etc. in common use in the colloquial dialect are adopted. 3. One pronoun for the second person singular (there are twelve others in use in Cingalese books) is uniformly used throughout the Cotta version, whoever may be the person spoken to, human or divine. 4. Words in common use are invariably substituted for learned ones."^ The aid of the British and Foreign Bible Society has been extended to both these versions ; and m 1838, 2000 copies of the Cotta version were ordered to be printed at their expense.' Although considerable difference of opmion has Mtherto existed among the missionaries respecting the use of honorific terminations, yet it is now felt to be extremely desirable on aU sides, that there should be but one standard version of the Cingalese Scriptures ; and it is hoped that the negociations now pending between the Church Missionaries at Cotta and the members of the Colombo Translation Committee will result in a unity of judgment and feeUng on this important point.^ Eesults op the Dissemination op this Veesion. — Ceylon is the venerated seat of Buddhism, and one of the chief depositaries of Buddhistic learning ; yet in no country of the East has the distribution of the Scriptures been attended -with more abundant manifestations of the di-vine blessing. Many indi-vidual instances of conversion resulting from the perusal^ of the word of God in this language are dispersed throughout the records of the Bible, Church Missionary, a,nd Wesleyan Societies. The foUowing statement by Mr. Clough, one ofthe translators, shows the rapid progress of ' Twelfth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 230. = Thu^-fourUi Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixxiv. ¦' RecoUections of Ceylon, by Rev. Janies Selkirk, p. 344. ' Forty-thurd Report of Bntish and Foreign Bible Society, p. cm. 128 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. truth through the length and breadth of the island :— " The Bible in Ceylon is working a great change in the views and feehngs of the heathen. Formerly the priests and others felt but little at its circu lation ; but since the people have got a more extensive supply, and the effect of their reading is become apparent, the priests have taken the alarm, and have endeavoured to_ thwart the circulation. But the matter has gone too far, and this they now see ; for in our schools in the southem part of Ceylon we have, by the blessing of God, raised up in the midst of the popularion not less than 30,000 native Christian readers, who do read, and wiU read, in spite of the opposition of the heathen." ' And m the last reports received from Ceylon, the Eev. Mr. Gogerly writes—" The number of Cmgalese readers is increasing daily ; there is much more of a spirit of inquiry than was formerly apparent, and a greater wiUingness to read the word of God. In some instances, especiaUy about Morotto, even Eoman CathoUcs apply for the New Testament. Vital Christianity has not spread among the people so much as we desire ; yet, m the Wesleyan body alone, nearly 1000_ sincere Chnstian men and women, without enumerating their children and family connexions, besides the members of other sections ofthe church, daUy receive instruction in the Holy Scriptures." ^ MALDIYIAN. The Maldives are a chain of islands, supposed to be about 1200 in number, in the Indian Ocean, extending between the 1st degree of south, and the 7th of north, latitude, and between the 72nd and 73rd degrees of east longitude.^ Tiiey are of coralline formation, and many of them are httle else than reefs. They have been seldom visited by Europeans, and the amount of population is unknown. The rulers are Mahommedans, but it is thought that the people are pagans. The language is a very mixed one, and contains a far greater number of Cingalese, Hindustani, Sanscrit, and Arabic words, than of Malay, among the dialects of which some have wished to class it. Dr. Leyden considered that it bears a distant relation to Cingalese. The Maldi-vians have an alphabet of their o-wn, said by the Serampore Missionaries to resemble the Persic in name and form.^ The Four Gospels were translated into Maldivian by Dr. Leyden, who presented the MS. to the Calcutta Bible Society. The death of that eminent scholar arrested the further progress of the version, but the native whom he had employed in making the translation was retained at Serampore. A fount of types was cast for the purpose of printing the Gospels, but through some cause now unknown, no portion of the version appears at any time to have passed through the press. 1 Twenty-ninth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lxiv. 4 Balbi's Atias Ethnograpliique. ' Forty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, pp. ciii. cv. s Eleventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. sl s M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 259. Engraved for THE BIBLE QF EVERY LAND' ^^^muel Bagsti 2^S. JTus J/ijp £. t/is tiftJ precedijig on.cv /'die latter eJdlUutg the MeJ^-Fer^ & Ja^ait families ) comprLMe the whol^ of the great Jndo-Suwpean. da.,, of laryua^e,. The Samaiede. Ou Ba,^ue there left uneola„redA a. portion, ef the Tumith . A poTt of the lurTdsh families, ha^e. from, their geogmphiml positimi. tmecmni/ clamed, in^eroatv in this Map. althaugh they do rwt ielmg to the Jhda-JSuropean class. These. mOi theo- ArutOa Irandies . mZ therefore he more fijfy eahUrited tn the Map, af Nor- -'th£m, .Asia. / GympUM- i Sngrayed by Tf.Siiffh^r.jilAna Ouanhau . Fat^mMia- 2te\r. CLASS IIL- INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. C. CELTIC FAMILY. WELSH. SPECIMEN OF THE WELSH VEESIONS.— St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. SALESBURY'S VERSION. London, Folio, 1567. gi^ 2 iierfirae gtib oebt) g ®air, a'r ®att oetiti g ggli a lixifaj, a'r ©air Ijtoitfa ojiJli feuto. 2 f^jDn oeW gn g tijcl&rae ggtj a Iuto. 3 ©H a tonartljptogt trirrg 'r @atr })tonfa, at rfiMato ng innaetijpSDgt iim a'r a fanartl^pingt. 4 gtitjiato gbi flctti figjngt, a'r fcgtogt atisH 'olrant tgnion. 5 ^'t golnini a bgirign gn g tgtoglltorf), a't tgfaglltorfj nib oetiS gn £1 amggffreli. 6 gtli attiii gte a btaniionEgit g pn ISiJuiri, a' zi mto oelil3 loan. 7 f^ton a tibaetlj gn testiolajtf), g bEgttolaetlju o'r goUuni, gn g B^reimt oil tttoglitiato. 8 ^glj dz oeSti g goleunf i^tonto, eitfir E titianfonestt g tiESttoIaetlju o'r golEuni. 9 ?^6&ni>& oetilj g gtntr 'olEum g sg gn golcuo pop lign 'sgn gn bguot tr bgli. 10 gn g hgb gtib OEtti Ef, a'r iigS a tonaEtiiptogt trtogibato Ef: a'r ip ngi atinabu Wm a ijanato. 11 ^t gr Ets'lJiiato g ]^un g tiaEt|[, a'r Ef^'btiafa gf)un ng 's tiijeri)gn£= 8ontEf. 12 ^' tfignnittEr bei tiEtiigntEgont Ef, lijoES g=ttitognt iitaint g &ot gn iiEtiion t Wbuia, 'gEf tr aaSnl a CTEliant gn g CEnto Ef, 13 gr El a anEt ngt) o toaEt, nae 0 Etogligs g enatot, na'r a 'togligs Stor, Ett^r 0 libuto. 14 a'r ©air |&&&ni)& a tona£t]^= ptogt gn gnafat, at a btigiafatli gn Ein pUtJf, (a' gtoElsam zi 'ogontant, ^Efi'S gogontant bn ganEik bap gbfartl) g iJaii) gn raton'iat a' fltoirionEM. DR. W. MORGAN'S YERSION. London, Folio, 1588. ^i^' g iJErfjrEuati gr OElib g gatt, a'r gait OEtti ggti a Huto, a Buto oetib g gait. 2 l^ton OEliti gn g liEcfirEuati ggti a IButo. 3 SCrtogiito Ef g gtonaEtljptogti poi) petf), ac IjEitiljo Ef ni tonaeti bim a'r a fanaEtljptogti. If. gntitfo Ef gr aztsb bgtogb, a'r bgtogt oztsts aleuni tgnion. 5 ^'r goleuni a letogrc^otiti gn g tgtoglltocl), a'r tgtoglltoclj nib OEbb gn Ei amggffrEb. 6 gr gboEbb ginr tosbt Ei anfon obbi tort!) JBbufa, a'i Ento loan. 7 f^ton a bbaEtlj gn bEattoIaEtlj, fzl g tEStioIaEtl)E eIe am g golEunt, fEl g CTEbe patob trtogbbo ef. 8 ^ii) kt OEbb g golEunt I)bm= nto, zitijx i bEstioIaEtJ^u am g golEuni. 9 [l^tonnto] OEbb g gtoir olEunt, gt l)ton sgbb gn golEUo pob bgn a'r g sgbb gn bgfob i'r bgb. 10 gn g bgb gr OEbb EfE, a'r figb a tonaEtj^ptogb trtogbbo Ef : a'r bgb nib abnabu rf. U ^t Ei eibbo Et Ijun g baEtfj rfE, a't Et'bbo Et l)un ni's berignniasant rf. 12 ©nb cgnnifEt a'r a't bEtigns ntasant zt, ztz a robbEg tbbgnt allu i fob gn fEtbton t 5Bbwto, [grf] i'r gaJnl a gtEbEnt gn Et Euto Ef, 13 g rfjai nt aneb o toaEb, nae o Etogligg g cnatob, nae o Etogligg ginr, zitiix 0 libuto. 1^ ^'r gatr a tonaEt|)ptogb gn gnatob, ac a bttgobb gn Ein plitj ni, (ac nt a toElgom ct ogontant rf, mcgis gogoniant gr &nic=ganEbir [iFab gn bgfob] obbi torti^ g 3Cab) gn Ilaton gtag, a gtotriouEbb. BISHOP PARRY'S VERSION. Londo-n, Folio, 1620. g0 g bEcfitEuab gr ocbb g (iatr, a't @ait OEbb ggb a Huto, a ISuto OEbb g @ait. 2 l^ton OEbb gn g bEri&tEuab ggb a Buto. 3 2Crtogbbo cf g gtonaEtljptogb pob pEt|^ ; ac fjEbbbo Ef, ni tonacfl)= jptogb bim a't a tonartfjptogb. ^ gnbbo Ef gt ocbb bgtogb, a't bgtogb OEbb olEuni bgnion : 5 ^'r goIcuni ggbb gn Ilctogrri^n gn g tgtoglltocl), at tgtoglltocl nib OEbb gn Ei amggfftEb. 6 gt gboEbb gffit toEbt zi anfon obbi tottlj ©buto, a'i Ento loan : 7 l^ton a bbartlj gn bggtiolart]^, fEl g tgatiolaEtljEt am g golcnnt, IeI g crcbEi patob trtogbbo Ef. 8 0.10 EfE ocbb g golEuni, ziiist [rfE a anfonagib] fel g tgstiolarfljEt am g golEuni. 9 ?|ton gboEbb g ginit olEuni, gt l)ton ggbb gn golcuo pob bgn a't g ggbb gn bgfob ft bgb. 10 gn g bgb gr ocbb cfr, a'r i^t a tonartfjptogb trtogbbo rf; a'r bgb nib abnabu zt U ^t Ei cibbo zi Ijun g bart^f, a't cibbo zi })un ni bbEtbgniasant rf. 12 ©nb cgnnifEt ac a't bEtbgn= iasant rf, Efc a tobbcg t'bbgnt alln i fob gn fEibion i IBbuto, [grf] ft gatol a grcbant gn ei Ento rf. 13 g xi)ai ni auEb o toaEb, nae o Etogligg g cnatob, nae o etogligg gtnr, ziiijx 0 Sbuto. X^ ^t @ait a tonartfjptogb gn gnatob, ae a bttgobb gn ein plitj nt, (ac ni a toelgom zi ogontant ef, gogoniant megis gt S)rag=anEbtg obbitott^ g 2Cab) gn Uafan gtag a gtoitiottEbb. ON THE WELSH LANGUAGE AND VERSIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The Welsh, sometimes called the British lan guage, on account of its former predominance in Britain, is a dialect of the Celtic, an ancient tongue 130 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. once difiused throughout the greater part of Europe, although now confined to certain sections of the British Isles and a portion of Brittany. According to the last census taken in 1 84 1, the population of Wales and Monmouthshire was estimated at 1,045,958; but a very large proportion of this popula tion, particularly in Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, consists of EngUsh and Irish immigrants. It is believed that, throughout the whole of Wales, the natives of the principality, to whom the Welsh language is vernacular, do not number above 700,000 individuals; an amount of population which is less by one half than that of either Yorkshire or Lancashire.' In estimating, however, the number of individuals by whom Welsh is spoken, it must be taken into account, that from fifty to seventy^ thou sand Welshmen are settled in various towns of England, particularly in London, Liverpool, Man chester, Chester, Birmingham, and BristoL^ Characteristics of the Language. — One grand distinctive feature which runs through the Welsh, and all the other dialects of the Celtic language, is the incompleteness of the grammatical system of inflections, as compared with the complex and elaborate systems of the Sanscrit, Teutonic, and other families. This circumstance, viewed in connection with the generally received opinion, that Europe was first colonised by tribes of Celtic origin, leads to the inference that the separation of the Celtic family from the parent stock in Asia took place at a period prior to that in which the language then common to the Asian race had attained its fuU maturity of development. The study of the Celtic dialects has, therefore, a bearing more or less direct upon all questions connected with the early history and origin of nations ; for the remarkable analogies stiU preserved by those dialects with other famUies and classes of languages, lead us back to the most remote epochs that can possibly be inves tigated by the aid of comparative philology. In Celtic may still be traced some faint indications of the ancient relationship, if not of the original identity, of the Indo-European and Shemitic classes. The Celtic, like Hebrew and other Shemitic languages, has two sets of personal pronouns; namely, the full or unmutilated forms used chiefly in the nominative case, and the abbreviated forms employed in regimen; the latter often found in conjunction with a preposition, so as to make but one word.' The Celtic pronouns also point to the solution of a problem that has long occupied the attention of philologists, for it has been satisfactorily ascertained, that the personal terminations of Welsh verbs are neither more nor less than a series of pronominal suiExes ; so that, as Dr. Prichard has justly observed, the long-debated question respecting the origin of these terminations may now be considered as set at rest, so far, at least, as the Celtic is concerned.'' In the number of its tenses in the active voice, and especially in the possession of a passive voice, the Celtic dialects are richer than any of the Teutonic languages except the Mceso-Gothic, which alone retains any remnant of its ancient passive form, and that only in the present tense of the indicative and subjunctive moods. ^ In the laws of euphony regulating the permutation of consonants when brought together in composition, the Celtic offers many points of resemblance to other languages of its class ; but, with this distinctive pecuUarity, that, while in Greek and in most of the Indo-European languages one consonant has no power in modifying another, except when joined thereto in one and the same word, the Celtic alone resembles the San scrit in the modifying influence possessed by the final and initial consonants of words in sequence. The principles upon which these changes in the consonants of distinct words depend are, in Sanscrit, comprised in what is technically caUed the law of Sandhi, and are purely euphonic in their nature. In Welsh and its cognate dialects, on the contrary, these characteristic changes of initial consonants seem to have a more especial reference to the meaning of the preceding word, or to some rule of grammatical construction; yet there are many cases in which the alteration of the initial letter seems in Welsh to depend mainly, if not solely, upon euphonic principles.^ The Welsh differs in several respects from the other Celtic dialects : it is derived immediately from the Cymric branch of the Celtic language anciently spoken through Germany to the ocean, whereas Gaelic, Erse, and Manx probably owe their origin to the ancient language of Celtic Gaul. The Welsh is remarkable, hke the Folic Greek, for its habitual substitution of hard palatine and guttural consonants for the soft palatine and sibilant letters of the Sanscrit in such radicals or elementary words as are common to both languages. In this peculiarity it is followed in some degree by the Teutonic languages, although they often incline more strongly to the introduction of an aspirate.^ The great number of Latin words which enter into the Welsh vocabulary may in part be accounted for by the long supremacy of the Eomans in Britam: to ' Wales, by Sir Tliomas Phillips, p. 7. 5 Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 180; see alao Grimm's Deutsche 2 Wales, by Sir Thomas Phillips, p. 567. Grammatik, p. 855. 3 Dr. Meyer, m the Seventeenth Report of the British Association, p. 317. » Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 34. » Eastern Origm of the Celtic Nations, p. 130. 7 Eastem Origin ofthe Celtic Nations, p. 42. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] WELSH. X31 which cause may also be traced the adoption, by the Welsh, of the Eoman characters, which took place at an early period, as is evident from ancient inscriptions and legends on coins.' To account, however, for the numerous Celtic words which are to be detected in the Latin and Greek languages, we must resort to the hypothesis that the Umbri, the Osci, and perhaps some of the other primitive colonists of Italy and Southern Europe, were of Celtic descent. In many words, of which Lhuyd gives a detailed list, (Arch.Brit. p. 269),_ the Celtic and Greek approximate so closely as to leave no room for doubt respecting the identity of their origin, whUe the corresponding terms in Latin evidently proceed from an entirely distinct source. Such words as in Latin commence with sc, sp, or st, have the letter y prefixed in Welsh (e.g. Lat. scelere, PFel. ysceler; Lat. spiritus, JVel yspryd ; Lat. status, Wel. ystad);^ and a simUar pecuUarity is exhibited by the French language, which also inserts a vowel before Latin words commencing with these letters, as in espece, from Lat. species; esperer, from Lat. sperare. The form of conjugation in the Welsh verbs is immediately derived from the Latin, as wiU appear by exhibiting some of the forms of a verb common to both languages : e.g. IVel. canu, to sing, Lat. cano, or canto ; TVel. canaf, or canav, Lat. cantavi ; PFel. canaist, Lat. cantavisti, contracted cantasti ; Wel. canodd, Lat. canit ; Wel. imperative, caned, Lat. future, canet ; Wel. canasom, Lat. contr. cantfissemus, for cantavissemus. The form of the second person plural is pecuhar to the Welsh: canasoch, you sang ; the ch is derived from chwi, you ; a personal pronoun used in Welsh as a distinct word ; Wel. canasent, Lat. cantassent. It appears from these examples that the Welsh is as intimately connected with the Latin as the Italian is, as far, at least, as the conjugations are concerned : for the Itahan terminations deviate from the Latin as much as the Welsh, and nearly in the same manner, with the exception of the second person plural already noticed ; as -amus in Latin is -amo in ItaUan, and in Welsh -om, as in the above examples. Versions op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The earhest mention of a Welsh version ofany part ofthe Scriptures occurs in an epistle prefixed, by Dr. Eichard Davis, bishop of St. David's, to the first printed edition of the Welsh New Testament (that of 1567), in which he states that there , was a version of the Pentateuch extant about the year 1527, and that he himself saw a copy of the work in the possession of a learned gentleman, a relative of his own : he does not, however, give any in formation respecting the translator, or the period at which the version was executed.* Several short detached portions of Scripture were translated into Welsh, and printed during the reign of Edward VL, probably for the use of the Liturgy or Service Book compiled during that period. In 1562, a law was enacted by parliament enforcing the translation of the entire Scriptures into the Welsh language, under the superintendence of the Bishops of St. Asaph, Bangor, St. David, Llandaff, and Hereford. In consequence of this enactment, William Salesbury, a Welshman of Uberal education, and a good linguist for the age, was appointed by the bishops to take the oversight of the projected edition;^ and by him the entire New Testament was translated, except the Book of Eevelation, which is ascribed to Huet, a chanter or prsecentor of St. David's, and five of the Epistles (2 Timothy, Hebrews, James, and the two general Epistles of Peter), which were translated by the above-named Dr. Eichard Davis, bishop of the same place. The whole version was made from the Greek collated with the Latin : its general fidelity has never been disputed, but it is faulty in style and orthography. It is divided, hke our present Testaments, into chapters, but has no distinction of verses except in some books towards the end.^ It was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and was printed in 1567 in London, at the expense of Humphrey Toy. The edition, which consisted of 500 copies, was in quarto, and printed in black letter. More than twenty years elapsed after the publication of the New Testament, before a version of the Old Testament was bestowed upon the people of Wales. This boon was at length conferred by Br. WilUam Morgan, originally a vicar of Llanrhaiadr-mochnant, in Denbighshire, and raised in 1595 to the see of Llandaff, and in 1601 to that of St. Asaph. With the aid of several eminent scholars, lie prepared a version of th? Old Testament from the Hebrew,' and revised Salesbury's version of the New Testament. He was not nominated to this important undertaking by the bishops, but engaged * A Welsh version of the Bible was preserved in MS. at Celydd Ifan, near Bridgend in Glamorgan : it appears to have been executed from the Latin Vulgate, by an ancestor of the family residing in that place, about the year- 1470. A considerable portion of the MS. was still extant a few years ago, and in all probability it is still preserved. It may have been a MS. of the Pentateuch of this version to which Dr. R. Davis referred. We may, however, also mention that it has been stated that the translation of the Pentateuch into English, by William Tyndale, was the basis of a Welsh version. ' Historical and Critical Remarks on the British Tongue, by Dr. 3 Historical Aceountof the Welsh Vers ofthe mWe by Dr. Llewelyn, p. 8. Uewelvn II 41 ' Histoncal Account of the Welsh Vers, ot the Bible, by Dr. Llewelyn, p.b. 2 Lhuyd's Archsolo^a Brit. p. 8. * Historical Account of the Welsh Vers, of the Bible, by Dr. Llewelyn, p. 60. 132 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. in it spontaneously. In 1588 he printed both Testaments with the Apocrypha in one volume foho. The work was divided into verses throughout, and, Uke the former edition of the New Testament, was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. This edition also consisted of 500 copies, and was printed in black letter : a copy, presented by the translator himself, may be seen in the library of the dean and chapter at Westminster, and another in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Dr. Morgan afterwards subjected the New Testament to a second revisal, and the corrected version was ready for the press in 1604, when he died: it does not appear ever to have been printed. The important work which had occupied so many years of this prelate's life, was not discontinued after his decease. His successor in the see of St. Asaph, Dr. Eichard Parry, manifested equal zeal in the preparation of a faithful version of the Welsh Scriptures. Of his own accord, and in concert with his chaplain, the celebrated Dr. John Davies, Dr. Parry undertook a complete revision of the Old and New Testaments, in the course of which he introduced so many corrections and alterations, that the work is deservedly regarded as a new and independent version, rather than as an amended translation. It has always been held in such high estimation, that it has been used as the text of all succeeduig editions; and the few variations that from time to time may have been made from it, are chiefly of an orthographical nature : it is, in fact, the standard version of the Welsh Scriptures. It was pubhshed for the first time in 1620, by Norton and Hill, his Majesty's printers in London, and contained a dedication to King James. The copy which was presented to the king is now in the British Museum. The edition, however, only consisted of 500 copies: like the two previous editions, it was printed in black letter and in folio, and the total want of copies of the Scriptures printed in a more accessible form was at this period severely felt in Wales. In consequence of this lamentable deficiency, some noble-minded citizens of London combined together to furnish a portable edition of the Welsh Bible at their own expense. Their edition, which was pubhshed in 1630 in London, was in small octavo, and contained, besides the Old and New Testaments, the Apocrypha, the Book of Common Prayer, and a metrical version of the Psalms. Pr^s, archdeacon of Merioneth, was the translator of this psalter, which is now used in the Welsh churches. Another metrical version of the Psahns, by Captain Middleton, had been printed by Salesbury in London as early as 1603. The other principal editions of the Scriptures, issued during the 17th and 18th centuries, may be briefly enumerated as follows : — 1647. The New Testament in I2mo., without headings to the chapters; 1000 copies. 1648. Second edition of the Metrical Psalms, by Archdeacon Pr;^s, in I2mo. 1654. The whole Bible in 8vo.; 6000 copies. This is sometimes called Cromwell's Bible. 1654. A separate edition ofthe New Testament, also in 8vo., 1000 copies; printed in larger type than the Bible of the same date. 1672. The New Testament with the Psalms, both in prose and metre. This edition was pub lished by means of subscriptions collected in Wales and England: it was printed in 8vo., and consisted of 2000 copies. 1678. The whole Bible, with the Book of Common Prayer, in 8vo., printed in London. Of this edition, which consisted of 8000 copies, 1000 copies were distributed gratis among the poor, and the rest were sold at a price below the cost of printing. Mr. Thomas Gouge, a man of noted benevolence, was the principal promoter of this edition: it passed through the press under the care of his friend, the Eev. Stephen Hughes, who formerly held the living of Mydoim, in Caermarthenshire, but was ejected at the passing of the Act of Uniformity. The corrections in orthography and punctuation, introduced by Mr. Hughes, were numerous and important ; and this edition, though not without its defects, has in consequence been held in high estimation. 1690. Bible in 8vo., 10,000 copies. This edition was published by the Eev. David Jones, the ejected minister of LlandisiUo, under the patronage of Lord Wharton, and with the assistance of some ministers and citizens of London. 1690. Bible in folio, 1000 copies, printed at Oxford, for the use of churches. This is sometunes called Bishop Lloyd's Bible, because he is beUeved to have had some hand in the pub hcation, and to have suppUed the chronology and references.' It was printed under the superintendence of Mr. Pierce Lewis, a gentieman of Anglesea. This was the first edition printed in Eoman characters ; it varies from preceding editions in the ortho graphy of many words. 1 Historical Account of the Welsh Version of the Bible, by Dr. Llewelyn, p. 35. ^ Indo-Eueopean Languages.] WELSH. 133 I7I8. Bible in 8vo., 10,000 copies, printed in London. This is often caUed " Moses WiUiams' Bible," because that gentleman, then vicar of Dyfynog, in Brecknockshire, was the curator of the press. This edition was the first pubUshed under the patronage of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge : it has the Apocrypha, the Psalms in metre, some hymns and forms of prayer ; also marginal references and the contents of chapters. 1727. Bible in 8vo., 5000 copies, London. This edition was pubhshed under the same patronage as the last, but without the references or the headings of the chapters: on account of this omission it was never so highly valued or sought after by the people. 1746. Bible in 8vo., 15,000 copies, Cambridge. This was the third edition brought out under the superintendence of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. It contains nearly aU that was printed in the edition of 1718, and passed through the press under the care of Mr. E. Morris, of the Navy Office, a distinguished Welsh scholar. In this and the following edition the orthography of Bishop Lloyd's Bible was adopted. 1752. Bible in 8vo., 15,000 copies, London. This, Uke the edition of 1746, was printed under the superintendence of Mr. Morris, at the expense of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge: these two editions cost the sum of £6000.' 1752. New Testament and Psalms, in 8vo., 2000 copies, London : printed from the edition of 1672 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Several reprints from this edition have been made at Shrewsbury. 1769. Bible in 8vo., 20,000 copies, London; pubUshed by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The orthography is that of Bishop Lloyd's Bible. 1770. Bible in quarto, Caermarthen, with Notes by the Eev. Peter WiUiams. This has been reprinted at least twelve different times at Caermarthen, and similar editions have issued from other Welsh presses. The same Bible has been printed in folio size, with plates, by Fisher and Co., London. 1789. Bible in folio, London. This was a small edition, printed for the use of churches by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1790. Bible in 12mo., with Mr. John Canne's Eeferences, printed at Trevecca, in Brecknockshire, under the superintendence of Mr. Peter Williams. An edition of the same Bible was subsequently printed at Caermarthen. 1799. Bible in 8vo., 10,000 copies; and New Testament printed separately (also in 8vo.), 2000 copies. These editions were published under the care of Eev. John Eoberts at Oxford, by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The editions above enumerated, with the exception of 10,000 copies of the New Testament in various sizes, printed in the year 1800 at Salop,^ were all that appeared prior to the formation of the British and Foreign Bible Society. At the close of the last, and commencement of the present century, great scarcity of the vernacular Scriptures prevailed in Wales. The large edition of 1799 was no sooner published than sold, and the last copy was disposed of before one fourth part of the country was supphed.' Several urgent applications were made to the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, entreating them to grant further suppUes of the Welsh Scriptures, but the state of their funds debarred the Society from giving efficient assistance. At this juncture, when no aid seemed attainable from any existing source, the Eev. Thomas Charles, of Bala, formerly a clergyman of the estabUshed church, but then officiating in connection with the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, suggested the idea of forming a great printing society among Christians, for the purpose of supplying the prin cipality with Bibles. Several influential individuals co-operated in carrying out this scheme, which, after being further developed, and receiving a more comprehensive character, ultimately resulted in the formation of the British and Foreign Bible Society.^ As the scarcity of Bibles in Wales had thus been the proximate cause of the origin of this noble institution, so one of the first measures of the Society, when estabUshed, was an attempt to meet the urgent demands of the Welsh people for copies of the Scriptures. The Society resolved in 1804 to print an edition of the Welsh Bible_ and Testament on stereotype plates: the number ordered was 20,000 Bibles in 12mo., with 5000 additional Testaments in a larger type. The text selected was the Oxford edition of 1799, and the proffered services of Mr. Charles were accepted in revising and preparing a copy for the press. WhUe this 'HistoricalAccountoftheWelshVers.oftheBible,byDr.Llewelyn,p.54. 3 Mernoir of Rev. IJomas Charles, of Bala, Merionethshire, p. 317. = Anderson's Historical Sketches, p. 257. * Owen's History of British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. 1. p. 126. 134 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. revision was being vigorously carried on, a communication, emanating from the Eev. J. Eoberts of Tremeirchion, Flintshire, was conveyed, through the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, to Lord Teignmouth, the president of the British and Foreign Bible Society, impeaching the accuracy of certain orthographical alterations introduced by Mr. Charles. A Sub-committee was appointed to investigate the validity of these complaints ; and after a lengthened controversy it was proved, that though Mr. Charles had in his revised copy ventured on the adoption of certain orthographical changes, chiefiy in accordance with the system of Dr. Pughe, yet that he was guiltless of innovation so far as the general sense or meaning of the sacred text was concerned. The expediency of the alterations in orthography adopted by Mr. Charles formed the next subject of inquiry; and as the Sub-committee, from their imperfect acquaintance with the language, felt themselves incompetent to decide the question, the matter was referred to the arbitration of the Eev. Walter Davies, vicar of Meifod, Montgomery shire. This gentleman declared his opinion to be in favour of the old system of orthography, which the Society accordingly determined to adopt in their forthcoming edition; and it must be mentioned to the honour of Mr. Charles, that he liberally gave his services to the correction and_ revision of the text by which his own was superseded. In 1805 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge announced their intention of printing 20,000 copies of the Welsh Bible from the text of 1746; to which, however, they afterwards gave the preference of the text of 1752. To avoid the serious evil of discrepancy between their versions, the British and Foreign Bible Society resolved that they hke wise would adopt this latter text; and their edition, prepared from this standard, left the press in 1806. Including this their first edition, the number of copies issued at successive intervals by the British and Foreign Bible Society from the year 1806 to the present year (1849) may be briefiy stated as follows' : — Bibles 329,131 Testaments 384,209 Diglots, Welsh and EngUsh . . 1,986 Total . . 715,326 Other large editions besides those above described have been published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge: of these the principal was that printed at Oxford in 1809, for which coUations were made from previous editions, typographical errors were corrected, and the orthography of proper names was restored according to the text of 1620.^ Facts eelative to the Dissemination of this Veesion. — The manner in which the Bible Society's first edition of the New Testament was received in Wales is thus described by an eye witness : — " When the arrival of the cart was announced which carried the first sacred load, the Welsh peasants went out in crowds to meet it, welcomed it as the Israelites did the ark of old, drew it into the town, and eagerly bore off every copy as rapidly as they could be dispersed. The young people were to be seen consuming the whole night in reading it. Labourers carried it with them to the fields, that they might enjoy it during the intervals of their labour, and lose no opportunity of becoming acquainted with its sacred truths." ' The increase in the issues and circulation of the Scrip tures in Wales since that period is highly encouraging. Adding the circulation of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and that of private printers, to the number issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society, the total number of Welsh Bibles and Testaments printed at different times, and in different places, cannot be far short of ONE million copies. ' Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 51. 2 Knight's Remarks, Historical and Philological, p. 14. 3 Christian Observer for July 1810. GAELIC. SPECIMEN OF THE GAELIC VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Anns an toiseach bha am Focal, agus bha 'm Focal maille re Dia, agus b'e 'm Focal Dia. ^ Bha e so air tiis maille re Dia. ^ Rinneadh na h-uile nithe leis ; agus as eugmhais cha d'rinneadh aon ni a rinneadh. * Annsan bha beatha, agus b'i a' bheatha solus dhaoine. ' Agus tha 'n solus a' soillseachadh anns an dorchadas, agus cha do ghabh an dorchadas e. * Chuireadh duine o Dhia, d'am b'ainm Eoin. ' Thainig esan mar f hianuis, chum fianuis a thoirt mu'n t-solus, chum gu'n creideadh na h-uile dhaoine tridsan. ' Cha b'esan an solus sin, ach chuireadh e chum gu d'thugadh e fianuis mu'n t-solus. ^ B'e so an solus fior, a ta soillseachadh gach uile dhuine tha teachd chum an t-saoghail. '" Bha e anns an t-saoghal, agus rinneadh an saoghal leis, agus cha d'aithnich an saoghal e. " Thainig e dh'ionnsuidh a dhucha fain, agus cha do ghabh a mhuinntir fein ris. '^ Ach a mheud 's a ghabh ris, thug e dhoibh cumhachd a bhi 'nan cloinn do Dhia, eadhoti dhoibhsan a ta creidsinn 'na ainm : '^ A bha air an gineamhuin, cha'n ann o f hull, no o thoU na febla, no 0 thoil duine, ach o Dhia. " Agus rinneadh am Focal 'na f heoil, agus ghabh e cbm- hnuidh 'nar measgne, (agus chunnaic sinn a ghlbir, mar ghlbir aoin ghin Mhic an Athar) lan grais agus firinn. ON THE GAELIC LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geogeaphical, Extent and Statistics. — The GaeUc is spoken in the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland, and pervades a region not much less in extent than the half of all North Britain. The people to whom this language is vernacular has, in round numbers, been estimated at 400,000 individuals.' Antiquarians are not agreed as to whether the progenitors of this population were the ancient Britons, or merely colonists from Ireland. Characteristics of the Language. — The characteristics of the GaeUc are essentially the same as those of the Erse dialect. One point of difference however is, that the Gaehc, unlike the Irish, verbs possess but two simple tenses, the preterite and the future. The substantive verbs " bi," to be, and " Is," 1 am, form perhaps the only exception to the rule, as they both possess a present tense : such forms as " Creidim," L believe" " Guidheam," L pray, now occasionaUy to be heard in the High lands, do not properly belong to the GaeUc, but seem to have been introduced from Ireland.^ In this smgular defect of possessing no simple present tense, the GaeUc (hke the Welsh, the Manks, and the extinct dialect of CornwaU) resembles the Hebrew and Shemitic class of languages, to which, as has aheady been observed, the Celtic class makes several notable approximations. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — The venerable Bede informs us that, in his time, the Scriptures were read in Great Britain " in five dialects then vulgarly used, viz. those of the Angles, Britons, Scots, Picts, and Latins.^ But if a version of Scripture in the language we caU Gaehc reaUy existed in Bede's time, it is certain that no fragment ofit is now extant; nor has any allusion to its existence been made by any other early writer. Scotland, indeed, appears tohave been left longer than almost any other part of Europe improvided with a version of the Bible in the vernacular language. In 1686, 200 copies of the Irish Bible, printed, as is subsequently mentioned, ' Anderson's Historical Sketches, p. 126. = Stewart's Elements of Gaelic Grammar, p. 97. ^ Hist. Eccles. lib. i. p. 4). 136 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. at the expense of Mr. Boyle, were transmitted to Scotland for the use of the Highlanders, and owing to the similarity between the two dialects, were found to be generally intelligible. This edition was, however, printed in the Irish character, with which the Highlanders were but imperfectly acquamted, whereas they had been taught to read, although they could not understand English. For their benefit, therefore, an edition ofthe Irish Bible was issued in Eoman characters in 1690: the work was printed in London under the superintendence of the Eev. Eobert Kirk, minister of Aberfoyle, and was promoted chiefly by the Eev. James Kirkwood, of Astwick, and assisted by Mr. Boyle. Another small edition of the Irish New Testament (consisting of about 500 copies) was published in Glasgow in 1754, but it was not till the year 1767 that a New Testament in the GaeUc tongue was provided for the Scotch Highlanders. For this important translation, alike creditable to the venerable translator, and gratifying to aU capable of understanding and appreciating it, Scotland was indebted to the Eev. James Stuart, of KilUn : the work was published at the expense of the Society in Scotland for promoting christian knowledge, assisted by a grant from the London Society. The flrst edition consisted of 10,000 copies in 12mo., and a larger edition of 21,500 copies was issued by the same Society in 1796. Encouraged by the evident acceptableness of these editions, the next measure ofthe Society was to obtain a Gaelic version of the Old Testament. Several ministers cooperated in this translation, which they agreed should be made directly from the Hebrew text. To facihtate the work, the Old Testament was divided into four parts, two of which were aUotted to the Eev. Dr. John Stuart, minister of Luss, the son of the learned translator of the New Testament. A third part, also, afterwards fell to his share, although it had in the first instance been executed by another hand. The remaining fourth part, consisting of the Prophetical Books from Isaiah to Malachi both inclusive, was translated by the Eev. Dr. Smith, of Campbeltown, and, on its completion, was found to differ altogether in style and execution from the other portion of the Bible translated by Dr. Stuart. The translation of Dr. Stuart was remarkable for its simplicity and its close adherence, so far as the idiom of the Gaehc language would permit, to the letter of the sacred text ; whereas the Prophetical Books are translated in a style which is at once free and poetical, resembling in some respects Bishop Lowth's translation of Isaiah.' The work was published in parts : the first part, containing the Pentateuch, appeared in 1783, and 5000 copies of the whole version were completed at press in 1801, at the expense ofthe Society. In consequence of many complaints concerning the discrepancy in style between the prophetical and the other books, the Society resolved, in their next edition, to subject the former to a thorough revision, that they might be rendered conformable to the other parts of the version. This plan was carried into effect in 1807, when an edition of 20,000 copies of the Old together with the New Testament was printed at Glasgow, under the care of the Eev. Alexander Stewart, of Dingwall.^ Many opposed this version as fearing it would encourage the existence of the GaeUc language (which some desired to extinguish, as identified with Jacobitism). Dr. Johnson did much to encourage the version. One of his letters shows the deep interest which he took in the subject. In the meantime, representations having been forcibly brought before the British and Foreign Bible Society respecting the deplorable scarcity of copies of the Scriptures in the Highlands, and the inadequacy of the means employed for their supply, the Society agreed to furnish an edition of the Gaelic Bible, from the text adopted by the Scottish Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. This edition was published in London in 1807, nearly at the same time as the Edinburgh edition above noticed : it consisted of 20,000 Bibles and 10,000 Testaments. It was received with the utmost joy and gratitude by the Highlanders, but their demands for more copies still continued so urgent, that the British and Foreign Bible Society, from time to time, have issued other editions ; and the total number of Gaelic Bibles and Testaments printed by them up to the present year (1849) is 65,696 Bibles, and 77,949 Testaments. The following list of editions published by other Societies is given by Mr. Anderson': — 1810. By Scottish Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge 10,000 Bibles, I2mo. 1821. By ditto ditto ditto 10,000 Tests. 12mo. 1827. By ditto ditto ditto 1,000 Bibles, 4to. 1827. By ditto ditto ditto 2,000 Tests. 8vo. 1828. By Edinburgh Bible Society 7,500 Bibles, 24mo. 1828. By ditto 5,000 Tests. 24rao. 1829. By ditto 10,000 Bibles, 12mo. 1829. By ditto 5,000 Bibles, 8vo. 1 Second Report of the B. and P. Bible Society, p. 176. 2 Tovmley's lUustratious, vol. iii. p. 463. ' Hist. Sketches, p. 259 IRISH. SPECIMEN OF THE lEISH VEESIONS. St. JOPIN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. [London, 1844. J WH TA COj-AC bo b] AT) Bljlt1ACA|t, 1 bo bl AT) BbniACA|t A bpocAiTt i|teA8 b>?r)e 6 iR, bO CVIIJ 50 ij&feAUA& yh ^i^ftuviR bou TfoUf, louuf 30 Sctteibpibif [cac] \;le cji^b. 8 M|o)tb&ii*eAU AU Solttf db, Acb [bo c>?|teA8 6] 10UVC 50 u8eAUA8 x^ Vl^^^^^n ^°^ ¦C]*olur to. 9 4)0 b& fo AU Soluy* i;i|t]ueAC, foiUfijeAf 54c vie S-vjije bA. bq5 a]x a ci-AogAl. 10 Do bl i*e Aiit A cfA^05Al, 1 citibi*eAU bo ItlUftAft AU x^o^^l, ACb uiofi Aiqu AU 1*A05aI 6. II 'l)(our'vi5e A cobA F&iu c^iuic y&, i uiop JAbAbAlt A S^oiue p&lU CVCA fe. 12 2lcb AU nj^ib bo JAb cvca 6, zr^ i*fe criij- Ac&A &6ib beic ua 3cloiu A5 'Ci]^, [g8ou] bou bftoius civeibgi- au a AiutUl*eAU : 13 Mac bpvil a|i ua useiueArijAiu 6 ^\il, uA 6 coil UA coUa, rji, 6 coil pi ft, Acb 6 Obi A. 14 Stjup bo itiuf 8 pfeoil boij Bblteicip, 1 bo coiuu^s r^ ©Abitviue, (t bo cvijcAnjAit a 5I0111- rioo, njAp sloiti &iu5eiue [2t)bic] au 21cai|i), Uu bo 5itAi-v?b T bpiitiue. [London, 1824.] Ann sa tosach do bhi an Bhriathar, agus do bhi an Bhriathar a bhfochair D^, agus do bd Dia an Bhriathar, 2 Do bhi so ar tiis a bhfochair D6. 3 Leisean a tdid na huile neithe deunta, agus gan 6 ni bhfuil finni deunta, da nddarnadh. 4 Ann san do bhi beatha, agus dob 1 an bheatha solus na nddoine : 5 Agus soillsighidh an solus sin ann sa dorch adas, agus ni'or ghabh an dorchadas chuige 6. 6 Do cuireadh duine 6 Dhia, dar bhainm Eoin : 7 Tainic an t6 so mar fhiadhnuisi, do chum go nddanadh se fiadhnuisi don tsolus, ionnus go gcreidfidis cdch uile thrid. 8 Nior bhesean an solus ud, achd do cuireadh e ionnus go nd&nadh s6 fiadhnuisi don tsolus ud. 9 Do be so an solus fi'rinneach shoUlsigheas gach uile dhuine dd dtig ar a tsaoghal. 10 Do bhi se air a tsdoghal, agus tridsean do rinneadh an sdoghal, achd nior aithin an saoghal 6. 11 Dionnsuighe a choda fdin thainic s6, agus nior ghabhadar a dhdoine fein chuca 6. 12 Achd an mheid do ghabh chuca 6, tug s6 cumhachda dhoibh bheith na gcloinn ag Dia, eadhon don droing chreideas ann a ainmsean. 13 Nach bhfuU ar na ngeineamhain 6 fhuU, nd 6 thoil na coUa, nd 6 thoil fir, achd 6 Dhia. 14 Agus do rinneadh fdoil don Bhreithir, & do chomhnuigh s6 eadruinne (agus do chunnca- mar a ghl6irsion, mar ghl(5ir dingheine mic 6n athair) Idn do ghrksuibh agus df irinne. ON THE lEISH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Except in large towns and their vicinity, the Erse or Irish language is stiU spoken more or less in almost every part of Ireland, but it prevaUs more 138 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Cxass III. especially in Munster and Connaught. There are no less than 600,000 individuals who can speak no other language. The English language has been partiaUy acquired by about three miUions of the native Irish, but so imperfectly that they are unable to receive religious instruction through its medium.' The entire population of the island, including EngUsh settlers and those famihar with the English language, amounts to 7,943,940; and of this population it has been computed that there are 6,427,712 Eoman Catholics, 852,064 members of the EstabUshment, and 664,164 individuals belong ing to other denominations ; so that, in round numbers, out of every hundred souls eighty-one are Eoman Catholics, eleven belong to the AngUcan church, and eight are Protestant Dissenters.^ Yet, although Eoman CathoUcism has at present this preponderating influence, a pure form of Christianity existed in Ireland until the yoke of Popery was imposed upon it by England. This subversion of the ancient faith of the Irish people dates from the period when Pope Adrian IV., himself by birth an Enghshman, bestowed on Henry II. of England the papal sanction for the annexation of the island to the British crown. Characteristics of the Language. — Although the Erse or Irish is now Uttle known but as the vernacular of an ilUterate population, it was once the language of Uterature and science : " the Enghsh Saxons," observes Camden, " anciently flocked to Ireland, as to the mart of sacred learning :" and themonu- ments of Irish philosophy, poetry, and history have been handed down from the tenth, and in some in stances, probably, from the sixth and seventh centuries.^ Erse belongs to the GaeUc branch of the Celtic language ; but in what country it originated is unknown, for Gaul, Spain, Scythia, and even Troy, have aU laid claim to the honour of having first sent colonists to Ireland, and the question will probably long remain undecided. It is, however, certain that this dialect of the Celtic has preserved its original purity from the period of its first predominance in Ireland, so that no elements which are not strictly Celtic can be detected in its composition. The few words of Teutonic origin, occasionally to be met with in Erse, may be ascribed to the influence of the Scoti, a tribe of Scandinavian or Belgic origin, who, about the time that the Eomans quitted Britain, acquired so much power in Ireland that the country itself became known by the name of Scotia ; which name it retained untU the Scoti transferred it to their settlements in North Britain towards the end of the eleventh century.* The Gaehc or Celtic dialect of Scotland and that of Ireland are still closely allied, yet they now diverge far more widely from each other than in former times. From the fact that more than 200 copies of the Irish Bible were sent to the Highlands in 1686, and were found to be generally intelligible to the people, we may infer that at that period the two dialects were almost identical. As compared with Welsh, the Erse dialect presents many points of difference, especially in the regular substitution of the letter A or c for the Welsh p in words common to both dialects: thus, the Welsh Pasc (Easter) is in Irish Kasg; and the Welsh pen (a head) is in Irish keann.* Indeed, it has been remarked by Lhuyd, that there are scarcely aUy words in Erse, except a few borrowed from the Latin, that commence with p ; and he states that in an ancient alphabetic vocabulary of the language, that letter is entirely omitted. The letter n, on the other hand, takes a very prominent part in Irish orthography, especially in its influence on that transmutation of initials which we have already described as a characteristic of the Celtic dialects. The influence of n in this respect probably arises from its having been the old Celtic pre position denoting the genitive. This letter, however, like the final vowels, is generally suppressed, both in Welsh and Erse, where the transmutation of the initials has taken place, so that the effect only is visible, while the cause is concealed. The changes incident to initial consonants, when preceded by final n, are classed by Irish grammarians under the general name of eclipsis; a word probably derived from the fact of the altered consonant being placed before the radical or original one, which latter may properly be said to be eclipsed by the former. The Eoman letters are often used in Erse compositions, but the Irish have an ancient alphabet of their own, for which they feel a truly national predilection. The origin of this alphabet is very uncertain; it bears some resemblance to the Anglo-Saxon, and it has even been questioned whether the Saxons derived their alphabetical system from the Irish, or the ' Irish from the Saxons. In the dedication of the Irish Prayer-book of 1608, it is confidently asserted that the Saxons borrowed their letters from Ireland.^ The native Irish alphabet consists of eighteen letters,^ of which five are vowels. Nine of the consonants are called mutable, because when a mark of aspiration is placed over them, they either lose their primitive sound, or are suppressed altogether in pronunciation; in this state they are technically said to be mortified. This change in pronunciation 1 Report ofthe Irish Society of London for 1847, p. 23. ¦• Moore's Ireland, vol. i. p. 98. 2 M'CuUoch's Dictionary of Geography, vol. u. p. 47. 5 Archieol. Britannica. 3 Rerum Hibernicarom Scriptores Veteres, vol. i. « Ingram on Anglo-Saxon Literature, p. 42. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] IRISH. 139 by means of a point, is in some respect analogous to the effect which the dagesh point has upon some of the letters in Hebrew.' Versions or the Scriptures in this Language. — It has been conjectured that the Scrip tures were translated into Irish soon after the introduction of Christianity into the island, but we possess no definite account of any early version. The MS. containuig the life of Moses and the patri archs, described by VaUancey, although of unquestionable antiquity, is rather an historical compendium than a direct translation from the sacred text.^ There is no positive evidence of the existence of the Scriptures in Erse tiU the age immediately preceding that of WickUffe, when a version of the New Testament is stated to have been in tlie possession of Eichard Fitzralph, a native of Dundalk, raised in 1347 to the see of Armagh, and hence frequently caUed Eichard Armachanus. Fitzralph is generally sup posed to have been himself the translator of this version; and in his autobiography he relates " how the Lord taught him, and brought him out of the profound subtleties of Aristotle's philosophy to the study of the Scriptures of God." Although he was remarkable for the boldness with which he opposed the corruptions of the Church of Eome, yet he was compeUed by the troubles of the times to conceal his New Testament. He deposited the precious volume inside one of the waUs of his church, and wrote the following note on the last leaf: — " When this book is found, truth wiU be revealed to the world, or Christ will shortly appear."^ About 170 years after his death, that is to say, about the year 1530, the church of Armagh was repaired, and the MS. was discovered. No vestige of it, how ever, exists at the present time, although Fox in his " Actes and Monumentes," published 1570, says, " I credibly heare of certayne old Irish Bibles translated long since into the Irysh tong, which if it be true, it is not other lyke, but to be the doing of this Armachanus:" and he adds that "this was testified by certayne Englishmen, who are yet alyve, and have seen it."* Usher, also, speaks of frag ments of an Irish version being extant in his time. In the year 1571 a printing press and a fount of Irish types were provided by Queen Ehzabeth at her own expense, " in hope (as it is stated in the dedication of the Irish New Testament) that God in mercy would raise up some to translate the New Testament into their mother tongue." The trans lation was soon afterwards undertaken by three distinguished individuals — John Kearney, treasurer of St. Patrick's, Dublin; Nicholas Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's, and afterwards bishop of Ossory; and Nehemiah Donellan, a native of Galway, who in 1595 became archbishop of Tuam. Walsh was murdered in his own house in 1585, while engaged in the prosecution of the work. The translation was not suspended after his decease, as his two fellow-labourers proceeded diligently with it. Little, however, is known conceming the result of their labours, except that they prepared the way for the completion of the version of the New Testament eventually pubhshed in 1602. WUliam Daniel, or O'DonneU, archbishop of Tuam, by whom this version was completed and carried through the press, was assisted by Mortogh O'Cionga, or King, a native of Connaught. The translation was made from the Greek, " to which," says Dr. Daniel in his epistle dedicatory to King James, " I tied myself as of duty I ought." The edition, printed in 1602, was in the Irish character, and in foho, and consisted of 500 espies : the expense was defrayed by the province of Connaught, and by Sir WUUam Usher, clerk of the council. With the exception of the passages of Scripture inserted in the Book of Common Prayer, which had been translated into Irish and printed by Dr. Daniel in 1608, no portion of the Old Testament existed in this language until the venerable Bishop Bedell undertook to procure a translation. Although appointed in 1629 to the see of Kilmore and Ardagh, he was an Enghshman by birth, and unacquainted with the language of his new diocese. His first step towards the accomplishment of his important design was, therefore, the acquisition of the Erse dialect, which he commenced to study at the age of fifty-seven. His next measure was to secure the services of a native Irish scholar, and with the advice of Primate Usher, his choice fell on Mr. King, who had, as before mentioned, been employed by Dr. Daniel. He likewise avaUed himself of the assistance of the Eev. Dennis O'Sheriden, and with the aid of these two individuals, the version of the Old Testament was completed in 1640. Mr. King being ignorant of Hebrew, the translation was made in the first place fromthe EngUsh version. To Bishop BedeU the Hebrew and the Septuagmt were as famiUar as the EngUsh, for the Scriptures had for years been his favourite study. It was his custom, says his biographer, every day after dinner and supper to have a chapter ofthe Bible read at his table, whoever might be present; when Bibles being 1 Grammar of the Irish, by Dr. Monck Mason, p. 3. ^ Balaeus, Script. Brit. p. 246. (Edition 1659.) 2 Townley's niustrations, vol. i. p. 195. * Fox's Acts and Monumenta, p. 381 . (Edition, 1596.) 140 THE BIBLE OP EVERY LAND. [Ciass III. placed before each individual, the Hebrew or Greek was laid before himself. As he compared the Irish translation with the EngUsh, so he compared both with the Hebrew, the Septuagint, and with the ItaUan version of his friend Diodati, whom he highly valued.' Every portion of the Irish Bible was thus tested by direct comparison with the original text; and for this task Bishop BedeU was peculiarly qualified, having resided many years at Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, where he had studied Hebrew under Eabbi Leo, the chief chachan of the Jewish synagogue. For some cause or other, however, Mr. King, then above eighty years of age, incurred the enmity of Usher and some other bishops, in fact of the very persons by whom he had been recommended as a translator, and great opposition was made to the translation: the old man sank beneath these unjust persecutions, but Bishop Bedell remained firm in his determination of pubUshing the version, and finally resolved to print it at his own expense, and in his own house. But while he was making preparations for the undertaking, the rebelhon broke out; his palace was attacked, and he and his family were sent prisoners to the Castle of Lochwater. He was soon afterwards removed to the house of his friend Dennis O'Sheriden, where he closed his career of usefulness in 1641. After the death of this excellent prelate, the circulation of the vernacular Scriptures was utterly neglected by the bishops and clergy of Ireland ; the version of the Old Testament was suffered to remain in MS. ; no attempt was made to reprint the New Testament ; and even the types that had been provided by Queen Elizabeth, after being handed about from one printer to another, were bought up by the Jesuits, and were carried by them to Douay, to be used as the vehicle of disseminating their own sentiments among the native Irish. At length, when the New Testament was completely out of print, another edition was conferred on Ireland by the munificence of a private individual, the Hon. Eobert Boyle. A new fount of Irish types was cast by order of Mr. Boyle in London, with which, in 1681, a second edition of the New Testament, consisting of about 750 copies in 4to., was published in 1681. This was foUowed by the printing of Bishop Bedell's version of the Old Testament, chiefly at the expense of Mr. Boyle. The MS. had been confided by Bedell to the care of his friend Dennis O'Sheriden, one of the translators, from whom it had passed to Dr. Henry Jones, bishop of Meath: this latter communicated with Mr. Boyle on the subject, and the MS. was placed in the hands of Dr. Andrew Sail for examination; the sheets were found in much confusion, and defaced in some parts. Dr. Sail, therefore, undertook to revise the work, which revision he continued to prosecute till his death in 1682. Mr. Higgins, the Irish lecturer in Trinity College, who had assisted Dr. SaU in preparing the corrected copy for the press, completed the revision in conjunction with Mr. Reilly, under the general superintendence of Dr. Marsh, afterwards primate of Ireland. An edition con sisting of 500 copies of the entire Bible, in 2 vols, quarto, was printed in London in 1686, under the care of Mr. Eeilly. Above 200 copies of this edition, as has already been stated, were sent to Scotland for the benefit of those to whom the Gaelic tongue was vernacular. More than a century was suffered to roll away before any efficient measures were taken to reprint the Scriptures in Irish. A second edition ofthe Bible was certainly printed in 1790; but this edition was in Eoman characters, and designed chiefly for the Highlanders of Scotland. In 1799, Dr. Stokes published 2000 copies of St. Luke and the Acts, followed in 1806 by an edition of the Four Gospels and the Acts, in paraUel columns of Erse and English ; but these small portions of Scripture were far from sufficient to meet the wants of the Irish nation, and were moreover printed in the Eoman character. The honour of flrst supplying Ireland with Bibles, after so long a period of destitution, belongs to the British and Foreign Bible Society. " In 1809," says Mr. Owen, " after a discussion, alternately suspended and renewed, for flve years, and a correspondence of considerable extent with prelates, scholars, and public bodies in Ireland, an edition of the New Testament of 2000 copies, con formable to the accredited version of Bishop Bedell, was put to press by the Society.^ This edition was in Roman characters, and was followed in 1813 by another edition from the same stereotype plates, of 3000 copies. Another edition of 2500 copies was struck off in I8I6, and again another of 3000 copies in 1817. An edition ofthe complete Irish Bible, in Eoman characters, was issued by the Society in 1817 ; the version of Bedell was employed as the text of the Old Testament. The edition was in octavo, and consisted of 5000 copies. In the course of the following year, 3000 copies of the New Testament, in the Irish character, were struck off from stereotype plates. At length in 1828 the entire Irish Bible appeared in the vernacular character, from the version of BedeU and Daniel. The edition was published under the superintendence of a Committee, and consisted of 5000 copies in 8vo., besides 20,000 copies of the New Testament. The editor on this occasion was Mr. M'Quige; but the 1 BedeU's Life, p. 93. -i Owen's History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. i. p. 459. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] IRISH. 141 sheets were hkewise examined by Dr. Monck Mason and others. The total number of Irish Bibles and Testaments that have been pubUshed by the British and Foreign Bible Society up to the present year (1849) is as foUows : — Bibles 15,000 Testaments 84,523 Separate Books 18,020 Total . . . 117,543 Results of the Dissemination of this Version. — Notwithstanding the calamities with which Ireland has recently been visited, the sacred Scriptures have been diligently disseminated throughout the length and breadth of the country ; and though the results may not yet appear, it is certain that the precious seed thus scattered will ultimately take root, and bear fruit to the glory of God. At the last anniversary of the Hibernian Bible Society, it was stated that the issues during the past year were 99,464 copies of the Scriptures.' One result of the circulation of the Irish Bible has been the extensive perusal of the English version. The Irish version is remarkably faithful and accurate, but contains many difficult, and some obsolete, words. The meaning of several passages is thus greatly obscured, and this has served to rouse the naturally enquiring spirit of the native Irish. In cases of perplexity they have acquired the habit of seeking in the EngUsh Bible an elucidation of the Irish text. The study of the English language has in consequence greatly progressed in Ireland, and in some places the English Bible is known by the famihar designation of " the constr uer."''' Dr. Monck Mason mentions that after the circulation ofthe Irish Bible, 700 copies of the English Testament were sold upon one occasion in the course of a few hours in the same place, where, but a dozen years previously, one of these very volumes had been pubhcly and triumphantly burnt. Owing to the benevolent efforts of the Sunday and other School Societies, the Irish peasantry have the means of learning to read the Scriptures very generally within theh reach. At the commencement of last year, the schools connected with the Sunday School Society for Ireland amounted to 2,964, which were reported to be attended by 224,132 children and adults; and 135,174 of the scholars were stated to be reading in the Bible or Testament.^ The following remarks, occurring in a collective address of eight Irish teachers, written in the year 1845, are too appropriate to our subject to be omitted : — " What a living Eonge has effected in Germany, the immortal BedeU may yet effect in Ireland. ' He being dead, yet speaketh' — yet speaketh in the Irish Bible ; which, under the blessing of the Almighty, has already brought thousands from darkness to light — from bigotry and superstition to Christian knowledge and liberahty of mind. Though persecution and anathema deter many from uniting with us, stiU the Irish Bible and the Irish school have raised up intelhgent men, who will not be prevented fi-om reading the Holy Scriptures. These men know that for centuries past their brethren in Ireland, speaking the Irish language exclusively, have been allowed to live and to die without the Scriptures in their own tongue — they know that the Church of Eome, until this day, has not provided a translation of the Scriptures in Irish — they know, if it had not been for the Irish Society, they themselves must have been as the neglected generations departed. They feel then most grateful for Irish Schools and the Irish Bible. _ They have read it — they are reading it — they wiU read it, and hand it down to their children's chUdren as the most valuable gift that Ireland ever received." 1 Forty.flfth Report of British aud Foreign Bible Society, p. cbatxiv. 2 ffistory ofthe Irish Society for Promoting the Education of the Irish, ' Forty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cbcxxiv. by Dr. M. Mason, p. 35. MANKS. SPECIMEN OF THE MANKS VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. [London, 1819.] Ayns y toshiaght van Goo, as va'n Goo marish Jee, as va'n Goo Jee. ^ Van Goo cheddin ayns y toshiaght marish Jee. * Liorishyn va dy chooilley nhee er ny yannoo ; as n'egooish cha row nhee erbee jeant va er ny yannoo ; * Aynsyn va bea, as va'n vea soilshey deiney. ^ As ren y soilshey soilshean ayns y dorraghys, as cha ren y dorraghys goaiU-rish. ^ Va dooinney er ny choyrt veih Jee va enmyssit Ean. ' Haink eh shoh son feanish, dy ymmyrkey feanish jeh'n toilshey, liorishyn dy voddagh dy chooilley ghooinney credjal. * Cha nee eh va'n soilshey shen, agh v'eh er ny choyrt dy ymmyrkey feanish jeh'n toilshey shen. ^ Shen va'n soilshey firrinagh, ta soilshean ayns dy chooilley ghooinney ta cheet er y theihll. '" V'eh ayns y theihll, as va'n seihll er ny yannoo liorishyn, as y seihll cha dug enney er. " Haink eh gys e vooinjer hene, agh cha ren e vooinjer hene soiaghey jeh. '^ Agh whilleen as ren soiaghey jeh, dauesyn hug eh pooar dy ve njm mee dy Yee, eer daues}ra ta credjal ajms j\i ennym echey : '^ Va er nyn ruggey, cha nee jeh fuill, ny jeh aigney ny foalley, ny jeh aigney dooinney, agh jeh Jee. '* As ghow yn Goo er dooghys ny foalley, as ren eh baghey nyn mast' ain (as hug shin my-ner yn ghloyx echey, yn ghloyr myr jeh'n ynrycan Mac er-ny-gheddyn jeh'n Ayr) lane dy ghrayse as dy irrinys. ON THE MANKS DIALECT AND VEESION. The Isle of Man, the ancient Mona, is situated in the Irish Sea, almost in the centre of the United Elngdom, and comprises an area of 280 square miles. The feudal sovereignty of the island was conferred by Henry IV. on the House of Stanley in the fifteenth century, and was held by that family and their successors, the Dukes of AthoU, till purchased by ParUament in 1765 for the sum of £70,000: the island, however, still continues to be governed by its own laws,' and the estabUshed reUgion is that of the Church of England. The bishopric of Sodor and Man is the most ancient in the United Kingdom, and was founded early in the fourth century. Much labour has been expended by anti quarians to discover the precise meaning of " Sodor," but in vain. " The byshop" is mentioned as early as 18th January, 1417-18.^ According to the census of I84I, the amount of population is 47,986. English may now be said to be the predominant language : it is spoken familiarly by aU the young people, and in the elementary schools is the exclusive medium of instruction. It is heard from the pulpit in aU the churches of the towns ; and even in the country parishes of the island, pubhc worship is seldom conducted in Manks more frequently than on alternate Sundays, and in some places only once a month. In several instances, service in Manks is desired by the people, but cannot be obtained, as the minister is unacquainted with it. Yet, although the knowledge of English is so generaUy diffused, Manks is still spoken by the adults of the working class, and in rural districts by their children. The old people in particular are much attached to their ancient tongue, and many of them understand no other. Characteristics of Eace and Dialect. — The island appears to be inhabited by two races : the one, with Ught hair, fair and florid complexion, dweUing chiefly in the north ; the other, with > Lord Teignmouth's Scotland and Isle of Man, vol. ii. p. 227. ^ The Constitution of the House of Keys, by J. C. Bluett, pp. 9, 10. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] MANKS. 143 dark hah and complexion, in the south. Manks is more employed by the former than the latter race, and with greater purity of diction and of pronunciation. It has scarcely any resemblance to Welsh ; it contains a few words Uke Irish, but to GaeUc it bears a striking affinity, many words being identical in meaning and sound, and frequently in orthography. Manksmen caU their own dialect Gailck (from Gilk). It is highly expressive, being at once matter of fact and metaphorical. A frequent rhythm is observable, especially in the Liturgy, owing to vowel terminations. It abounds in guttural, foil sounds, of broad pronunciation. The verb has few inflections, but by the preposition in composition undergoes a surprising change in meaning. Manks is characterised by the incorporation of many Scandinavian words, which were doubtless introduced during the successive sway of the Danes and of the Norwegians, who succeeded the Saxons in the government of the island. There is no written Hterature except the Bible, Prayer Book, and a small volume, now very rarely met with, a translation of part of MUton's Paradise Lost, by Eev. I. or T. Christian. Versions op the Scriptures in this Dialect. — It is currently reported that a Manks version of the entire Scriptures was executed as early as the commencement of the seventeenth century, yet not the smallest vestige of the MS. is now to be met with; and, what is still more singular, no portion of it appears to have been in existence even during the last century. The translator is said to have been Dr. John PhiUps, bishop of Sodor and Man. He was born in North Wales, and before his elevation to the bishopric was rector of Hawarden, in FUntshire. His famiUarity with his native language greatly facihtated his acquisition of the Manks dialect, and he devoted himself during the space of twenty-nine years to the translation of the Bible and of the Common Prayer Book into Manks.' He was assisted by Sir Hugh CavoU, vicar of Kirk-Michael, and others ; but he died in 1633, leaving his translations completed, but not printed, and no portion of them appears to have been committed to the press after his decease. The present version of the Manks Bible was produced by the christian zeal of two other bishops of Sodor and Man. It was commenced in the gaol of Castle Eushen, by the exceUent Bishop Wilson, in concert with Dr. Walker, one of his vicars, when unjustly imprisoned by the governor of the island. This was in the year 1722. The Gospel of St. Matthew was translated by Dr. Walker, and printed under the direction and at the expense of the bishop in London, in 1748. The other Gospels and the Acts were left in a state of readiness for the press by this venerable bishop, who died in 1755, at the advanced age of ninety-three, after having held the bishopric of the island fpr fifty-ei^t years. Dr. Mark Hildesley, his successor, entered with the utmost ardour and anxiety on the prosecution of the translation. " My whole heart," said Dr. Hildesley, in a letter to a correspondent, "is set on the Manks translation."^ He was however deterred, by his imperfect acquaintance with the language, from taking any part in the work beyond that of general supervision. After untiring application to the study of Manks, he at length quaUfied himself to conduct the services of the Church in that language ; yet, notwithstanding his praiseworthy efforts, he never attained a higher reputation than that of being " a very pretty Manks :" on one occasion he himself observed, that " he would give five hundred pounds were he enough master of Manks as to be able to translate."^ It is not certain whether Dr. Walker completed the translation of the New Testament, or whether Bishop Hildesley availed himself of the service of some other Manks scholar. The version was pubUshed in 1767 in London, chiefly by the aid of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. About the time of the completion at press of the New Testament, the bishop made arrangements for the translation of the Old Testament, dividing it for this purpose into twenty-four parts, which he distributed among as many different individuals. The twenty-four persons thus selected as translators were nearly aU residents in the island, and, with one exception, they aU held clerical appointments. After passing through their hands, the work was committed for final revision to Dr. Moore and Dr. Kelly: the latter was then only eighteen years of age, but he had displayed such proficiency in the critical knowledge of Manks, which was his native language, as to justify his engaging in this important undertaking : he transcribed the whole version, from Genesis to Eevelation, for the press, and in conjunction with Dr. Moore corrected and revised the proof sheets. Dr. Moore was aided by the advice of Bishop Lowth and Dr. Kennicot, both of whom took a deep interest in this version. The feehngs with which Dr. Moore regarded his work may be inferred from his last wiU and testament, where he blesses God "/or all the comforts ofhis existence, but above all that he had a capital hand and concern in the Manks Scriptures." He died in 1783, but not tiU he had witnessed the completion at press ofthe entire version. The first part of the Old Testament was printed in 1770 at Whitehaven; ' Townley's mustrations, vol. iii. p. 349. - Anderson's Historical Sketches, p. 190. ' Anderson's Historical Sketches, p. 189. 144 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. the preservation of the second part was entirely due to the intrepidity of Dr. Moore and Dr. Kelly. They were proceeding to Whitehaven for the purpose of superintending the press, taking with them the second portion of the MS. : a storm arose, in which they were shipwrecked, and almost every article on board was lost except the MS., which they preserved by holding it above the water during the space of five hours. In 1772, the Old Testament, to the great joy of Bishop Hildesley, was completed and pubUshed. This good bishop had frequently said, " I wish but to see the sacred volume finished, and should then be happy, die when I may." On the last sheets of the work being placed in his hands, he very emphaticaUy sang, " Nunc Domine, dimittis" in the presence of his congratulating family. This happened on Saturday, November 28th, 1772. On the following day he preached with more than usual fervour on the uncertainty of Ufe, and resumed the same subject in his family circle in so affecting a manner, as to draw tears from all present. Thus in " something like prophetic strain " did he prepare the minds of others for his approaching end, for on the very next day he was suddenly attacked by apoplexy, which deprived him in a moment of his inteUectual faculties : he Ungered but a week, and then entered into rest. The second edition of the Manks Scriptures was pubUshed by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1775 : in this edition the entire Bible was in quarto, and separate copies of the New Testament were printed in octavo. Other editions have since been issued by the same Society. In 1810, a stereotyped edition of 2000 copies of the New Testament, in I2mo., was pubUshed by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The Bishop of Sodor and Man having, through his clergy, ascertained the want of the Scriptures in the several parishes of the island, appUed for 1326 Testaments, which were promptly supplied by the Society, at reduced prices, for the accommodation of the poor.' An additional supply of 250 copies was struck off from the same plates in 1815, and another edition of 5000 copies ofthe entire Bible was printed by the Society in 1819. Since then no further editions of the Manks Scriptures have appeared, and it is probable that the edition of 1819 is the last that will ever be published. English Bibles are now in general demand in the island, and with the increased cultivation of the English language, are daily getting more and more into use ; indeed, so far back as the year 1825, the Bishop of Sodor and Man informed the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, that there was no longer any necessity for impressions of the Bible in the Manks language, and that the islanders were eager to be supplied with English copies.^ The Manks translation of the Old Testament has been esteemed nearer the Hebrew than is the English authorised version, and is frequently of a paraphrastical character. A remarkable variation between the English and Manks Bible occurs in 1 Kings xvii. 3 — 6. Instead of " ravens," the reading is " Cummaltee Oreb," inhabitants of Oreb. Eesults op the Dissemination of this Version. — Atthe period of thefirst publication of the Manks Scriptures, the English language was comparatively Uttle cultivated in the island, and the English Bible was unintelligible to the mass of the inhabitants. The benefit of the Manks version to the generation for whom it was executed can, therefore, only be estimated by taking into account their inabihty to read the Scriptures in any other language. A poor Manks woman, on hearing her son read to her for the first time a chapter of the new version, cried out, in great exultation, " we have sat in darkness (dorraghys) until now." And when the first books of the Manks New Testament were brought into circulation (in 1763), Dr. Hildesley wrote: — " The vast eagerness and joy with which the first specimen has been received and sought after have amply convinced me of the utility of the undertaking, had I had no previous persuasion in my own mind ofthe real benefit it must needs be to the souls of the far greater part of the people of my charge." That the Manks version is even now valued by those to whom the language is vernacular is evident from the fact, that only last year (1848) 300 copies were dispatched to the island by the British and Foreign Bible Society ; yet there is every probability that the prediction of a recent writer will be literally fulfilled, and that in the course of another generation, " the Manks tongue, regarded with dislike by the utilitarian phUosophy of the nineteenth century, will be a venerable reUc of past times, interesting only to the phUologist and antiquary."' 1 Owen's History of British and Foreign Bible Societj-, vol. ii. p. 65. 2 Wales, by Sir Thomas PhiUips, p. 663, 3 Wales, by Sir Thomas Phillips, p. 664. BEETON. SPECIMEN OF THE BEETON, OE AEMOEICAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. [Bkest, 1847.] Eb gommansamant e oa ar Ger, hag ar Ger a oa gand Doue, hag ar Ger a oa Done. ' He-ma a oa er gommansamant gand Doue. ^ An hoU draou a zo bet gred drezan, hag hepzan n'eo bet gret netra hag a zo bet gret. * Ennan e oa ar vuez , ar vuez a oa goulou an dud. ^ Hag ar goulou a ra scleria en devahen , hag an devahen n'e deus ked e resevet. * Bez' e oe un den caset gand Doue , hanvet Ian. ' He-ma a zeuaz da desteni , evit rei testeni diwarben ar goulou, evit ma credche an hoil drezan. * Ne ket hen a oa ar goulou , mes cased e oa evit rei testeni diwarben ar goulou. ^ Hen a oa ar guir c'houlou , pehini a sclera an hoil dud , en eur zond er bed. ^^ Er bed e oa , hag ar bed a oa gred drezan , hag ar bed n'en deus ked e anavezet. " Deued eo d'e re , hag e re n'o deus ked e resevet. '^ Mes da gemend hini en deus e resevet , en deus roed ar gaUoud da veza bugale da Zoue ; d'ar re a gred en e hano ; '^ Pere n'int ket ganet eus ar goad , nag eus a volonte ar c'hig , nag eus a volonte an den , mes eus a Zoue. '^ Hag ar Ger a zo bet gret kig , hag en deus choumed en hon touez , (hag hon eus gueled e c'hloar , ur gloar evel eus a Vah unic-ganet an Tad) leun a c'hras hag a ouirionez. ON THE BEETON LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Breton, the language of the ancient independent kingdom of Armorica, is now spoken in Lower Brittany. Its exact geographical diffusion has been minutely described by the Eev. Thomas Phillips, to whose personal observations, during his active exertions in the cause of the British and Foreign Bible Society, we are indebted for much information conceming this interesting country. " In Nantes and the surrounding country," says Mr. PhiUips, " Breton is unknown. It is, therefore, whoUy confined to Bas Bretagne, comprising the three westerly departments of Finisterre, Morbihan, and C6tes-du-Nord. A line drawn from the north to the south coast, so as to pass a Uttle to the west of St. Brieux, through Pontivy to Vannes, wiU show the extent of country in which this language is spoken. On the west side of this line, and from Vannes along the seashore in a southerly direction, towards the department of Lower Loire, it continues to be the prevaihng language, while on the eastem side of this supposed Une you hear both Breton and French for some distance." ' Deducting the French part of the population, Mr. PhiUips estimates the number of persons in Lower Brittany ordinarily employing the Breton language at 800,000 : of these he considers that upwards of half a miUion are unacquainted with French, and unable to read or converse in any language but Breton. The reUgion of Brittany is the Eoman CathoUc, and Latin is therefore the hturgical language ; but the priests in the country districts preach in Breton. French is now the only language used in aU the elementary schools : it is also the language chiefly employed in commerce and in the courts of law, and appears likely soon to supersede the native Breton in the larger towns. The priests however, from a principle, it is thought, of ecclesiastical conservatism, oppose the encroach ments of the French language ; and Breton wiU, in aU probabiUty, continue to be for ages the vernacular of the uneducated section of the population. Characteristics op the Language. — The affinity between Breton and Welsh is so close, as to adinit little room for doubt concerning their original identity. After the capture of BeUe Isle by the EngUsh in I76I, such of the soldiers as were natives of Wales were able to make themselves I Wales, by Sir Thonias Phillips, p. 573. 146 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. intelligible to the Bretons, and to act as interpreters for their English comrades ; and it is found at the present day, that a Welshman requires but little study to enable him to converse, read, and even write in Breton. An old and current tradition represents the country of Brittany as having been peopled by a colony of ancient Britons, who fled thither to escape from the aggressions of the Saxons, while others of their countrymen sought refuge from the same enemy in Wales. If this account could be satisfactorily attested, there would be no occasion to seek further for the cause of the remarkable similarity that exists between the languages of Wales and Brittany; but Niebuhr rejects the whole story as fabulous, and there certainly is a total want of all contemporaneous evidence on the subject. Still, the testimony of early writers, who mention the tradition as an undoubted historical fact, is entitled to some weight ; and the resemblance between the names of many places in Brittany and in Wales is a further proofthat some connexion anciently existed between the inhabitants ofthe two countries. It is also rather remarkable that the same kind of antiquities, supposed to be druidical remains, should be found in Brittany, Wales, and Cornwall, particularly as these antiquities are distinguished by the same names in each country.' These and other indications, together with the similarity of language, clearly establish the fact that Britain and Brittany were colonised by the same branch of the Celtic race; although as to the period and mode of this colonisation, and the nature of the intercourse which undoubtedly existed in very ancient times between the Bretons of Armorica and the Britons of Wales, history is silent. Breton resembles Welsh not only in the Celtic elements common to both lan guages, but also in the large stock of Latin words with which they are both intermixed.^ Some difference has, however, of late years sprang up between Welsh and Breton, owing to the multitude of French words which the latter has admitted into its vocabulary, especially in the neighbourhood of towns: but these additions have not affected the structure of the language, which remains in all essential points precisely the same at the present time as at the most distant epoch from which written compositions in Breton have been transmitted.^ Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — As early as the year I8I4, an application was made by the Antiquarian Society of Paris to the British and Foreign Bible Society, on the subject of procuring a Breton version of the Scriptures. Another representation of the same purport was laid before the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1819; and in 1824 they authorised the Eev. Dr. Jones to proceed to Brittany, there to institute inquiries concerning any version or versions of the Bible in Breton that might be in existence. After a diligent search in all the libraries of the country. Dr. Jones ascertained that no portion of the Scriptures, either in print or MS., existed in the Breton language, with the exception of such scriptural extracts as had appeared in various Eomish books of devotion. With the concurrence of the British and Foreign Bible Society, Dr. Jones, therefore, engaged the services of Legonidec, a Breton of considerable learning, to prepare a translation of the New Testament Dr. Jones died during the progress of this work, but the sheets were regularly forwarded by Professor Kieffer of Paris to the Eev. T. Price, of Crickhowel, an eminent Celtic scholar. After having been care fuUy revised and corrected by Mr. Price, an edition of 1000 copies of this version of the New Testament was completed in 1827, at Angouleme, where Legonidec then resided : the copies were deposited in the Society's warehouse at Paris.^ This translation was made from the Vulgate, for Legonidec was a Catholic : it possesses many excellences of style and diction, yet at the same time is scarcely suitable for general circulation. Legonidec's great object was to restore the language to its pristine purity, by the rejection of all foreign words and phrases that had, in the process of time, been commingled with it. But in his efforts to attain to classical correctness, he unconsciously adopted a style of writing that appeared obscure, and almost unintelligible, to his less educated countrymen ; and moreover being, like Dr. W. Owen Pughe in Wales, the inventor of a new system of orthography, he unadvisedly introduced his system into this version, and tlius rendered it still more unintelligible to the mass of the people. When Protestant missionaries first commenced their labours in this country (about the year 1834), they were greatly discouraged to find that this New Testament, the only version possessed by the Bretons in their own language, was but imperfectly understood by them. Mr. Jenkins, of Morlaix, a native of Glamorganshire, and agent of the Baptist IMissionary Society, therefore undertook a new translation, in which he was assisted by a native Breton. He translated from the Greek original, and consulted the Welsh and Enghsh authorised versions, and Martin's and Osterwald's French versions.* This work, when completed, was found to be intelligible to the whole Breton population, except the 1 Dr. Prichard's Researches, vol. iii. p. 311. « Twenty.fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p.xxix. 2 Schlegel, Essais Litturalres et Historiques, p. 313. s Baptist Examiner, vol. ii. p. 112. 3 Legonidec, Giramraaire Celto-Bretoiine, pref. vii. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] GOTHIC. 147 inhabitants ofthe neighbourhood of Vannes, who speak a pecuUar dialect of Breton.' Attestations of its accuracy and faithfulness having been laid before the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society, they resolved on publishing an edition of 3000 copies. The edition was printed at Brest, beforethe close ofthe year 1847, and depositaries have been estabUshed both at Llorlaix and Quimper. Noedition of the_ Old Testament has yet been published ; but a version executed by Legonidec, and revised by Mr. Price, is preserved in MS. in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Eesults op the Dissemination of this Version.— The ignorance of the people, and the bigotry of the priests, have hitherto retarded the circulation of the New Testament in this country ; but the recent sale of upwards of 1800 copies of the last edition, by the instrumentality of Protestant nunisters and colporteurs, is a hopeful circumstance, and likely to lead to important results. CLASS III.-INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. D. TEUTONIC FAMILY. GOTHIC. SPECIMEN OF THE GOTHIC VEESION. ST. JOHN, Chap. xv. v. I to 12. Ik im veinatriu thata sunjeino. jah atta meins vaurstvja ist. ^ all taine in mis unbairan- dane akran goth usnimith ita. jah all akran bairandane gahraineith ita. ei managizo akran bairaina. *ju jus hrainjai sijuth in this vaurdis. thatei rodida du izvis. visaith in mis jah ik in izvis * sve sa veinatains ni mag akran bairan af sis silbin. niba ist ana veinatriva. svah nih jus. niba in mis sijuth. ik im thata veinatriu. * ith jus veinatainos. saei visith in mis jah ik in imma. sva bairith akran manag. thatei inuh mik ni maguth taujan ni vaiht. ^ niba saei visith in mis. usvairpada ut sve veinatains jah gathaursnith jah galisada jah in fon galagjand jah inbranjada. ' aththan jabai sijuth in mis. jah vaurda meina in izvis sind. thatawah thei vileith. bidjith. jah vairthith izvis. ^ in thamma hauhiths ist atta meins. ei akran manag bairaith. jah vairthaith meinai siponjos. svasve frijoda mik atta. " svah ik frijoda izvis. visaith in friathvai meinai. '"jabai anabusnins meinos fastaid. sijuth in friathvai meinai. svasve ik anahusnins attins meinis fastaida jah visa in friathvai is. ^' thata rodida izvis ei faheths meina in izvis sijai jah faheds izvara usfuUjaidau. '^ thata ist anabusns meina ei frijoth izvis misso svasve ik frijoda izvis. ON THE GOTHIC LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Location. — The Goths formed an important section of the Teutonic or Germanic race, but their idiom is now extinct, and what httle we know concerning it is deduced from the immortal work of UlphUas, and a few other existing monuments. The earUest mention of the Goths by name occurs in some fragments of the Periplus of Pytheas, the renowned navigator from 1 Wales, by Sir T. PhiBips, 673. 148 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Marseilles. From these fragments we may infer that they inhabited the coasts of Jutland about 325 years before the Christian era; but it is probable that they had arrived in Europe several centuries prior to that period. Many authors are of opinion that their first seat in Europe was Scandinavia. It appears from the statement of Tacitus that they were settled in Pomerania and Prussia, near the mouth of the Vistula, about the year a.d. 80. Sword in hand they gradually extended their dominion in Eastern Germany until the age of the Antonines (about A.D. 180), when suddenly, from some unknown cause, they began to migrate in vast hordes towards the northern coast of the Black Sea. From this point they made frequent incursions into the Eoman empire, and possessed themselves of Dacia, and some of the neighbouring states. As their dominions increased, they became distinguished, according to the geographical position of the territories they occupied, by the appeUation of the Eastern, Ostro, or Austro-Goths, and of the Western or Visi-Goths. About the year A.D. 377, the inroads of the Huns caused some of the Visi-Goths to implore the protection of the Eoman Emperor Valens. In comphanee with their request, he assigned them the province of Moesia, the present Bulgaria and Servia ; and it was on account of their long residence in that province that some have called the language the Mceso- Gothic. They subsequently revolted from their allegiance to the imperial government, and in 409, under Alaric, they took and pillaged Eome. Their next migration was to the South of France ; and then, crossing the Pyrenees, they established themselves in Spain, where they reigned nearly three hundred years, until finally subdued by the Saracens. In the meantime the Eastern or Austro-Goths had established a monarchy in Italy, which continued from the time of Theodoric the Great, A. D. 493, until the power of this nation was crushed by Belisarius and Narses, under Justinian, the emperor of the East. These ItaUan Goths used the same language as those in Mcesia, as is proved by the monuments of the language at Arezzo and Naples. Characteristics op the Language. — Although the Gothic is by no means the oldest Teutonic language, being nearly cognate with Saxon, Friesic, Alemannic, and other ancient branches of the Germanic family, yet it is especially interesting to the philologist, because, owing to its preservation in the precious version of UlphUas, it affords means for the examination of one of the earliest stages through which the speech of the great Germanic family has passed. Many of the elements of the modern Germanic languages are traceable in the Gothic, and it is through the medium of this ancient language that their original connection with Sanscrit, Persic, Greek, and Latin is most clearly to be demonstrated. The Gothic retains several ancient forms which have wholly disappeared in modern languages. Like the Sanscrit and the Greek it possesses a dual number and a passive form of the verb, and it forms its past tense by means of a reduplication. It is also remarkable for uniformly exchanging the p of Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit words for/; thus, the Latin word joes, in Greek 'jrov'i, and in Sanscrit padas, is in Gothic _/be gelyfa'S on his naman : '^ ]>a ne synd acennede of blodum ne of flsesces willan, ne of weres willan ; ac hig synd of Gode acennede. " And Jjset Word wses flsesc geworden, and eardode on us, (and we gesawon hys wuldor, swylce an-cennedes wuldor of Fseder,) Jjset wses ful mid gyfe and so'Sfsestnysse. ON THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Origin. — Anglo-Saxon was the language introduced into England with the Saxon domination by three distinct tribes of the Saxon Confederacy; namely, the Old Saxons properly so caUed, (of whom mention is made in the foregoing memoir,) the Angles from Anglen in the south-east of Sleswick in Denmark, and the Jutes from Jutland. The whole of England was divided between these three tribes: the Old Saxons established themselves in theWest and South, forming the kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Wessex; the Angles obtained large dominions in the North and East of England, and the South of Scotiand ; and the Jutes possessed a smaU territory in Kent and the Isle of Wight. Of these tribes the Angles appear to have been most numerous; in fact, they flocked to our island in such numbers as to leave their native country almost destitute of inhabitants. But from the time of Egbert, a.d. 827, the power of the West Saxons became predominant, and although the Angles gave their name to their adopted country, (Angle or Engle-land,) yet their descendants are to the present day termed, not Angles, but Saxons by the Irish and the other Celtic nations. One and the same form of paganism prevailed among Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from the period of their first arrival in England, a.d. 449, tUl the end of the sixth century, when Christianity was introduced among them by Augustine and the forty monks sent by Pope Gregory from Eome. Characteristics of the Language. — The three Saxon tribes who thus established their eight separate kingdoms in Britain, aU spoke dialects of one language. The dialect of the Angles was broader and more° harsh than that of the West Saxons, and was distinguished by the name of the Dano-Saxon, whereas the dialect of the West Saxons was caUed pure Anglo-Saxon. These two dialects remained distinct as long as Anglo-Saxon was the language of England, yet the difference between them probably was not greater than that which now exists between the dialects of EngUsh 154 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. spoken in different counties. Alfred the Great, a West Saxon king, gave predominance not only to the power but to the dialect of his countrymen ; he patronised learning and learned men, devoted himself to literature, and produced several translations from Latin into his vernacular tongue. _ Under his auspices, therefore, the language of the West Saxons became the cultivated dialect of Anglo-Saxon, though afterwards modified more or less by the infiuence of the other dialects. The supremacy of the Danes during twenty-six years in England, under Canute and his two sons, had some slight effect in altering the language of the Anglo-Saxons. The Norman-French, introduced in 1066, had a still further influence on Anglo-Saxon, which afterwards, by gradual and successive alterations, insensibly merged into the English. The Anglo-Saxon ceased to be spoken during the reign of Henry III., about A.D. 1258 ; it then took its place among the dead languages. In some degree, however, it still lives in the English language, of which it forms the very groundwork and substratum ; nor is it possible, without some acquaintance with this ancient language, to understand thoroughly the structure of our own. Anglo-Saxon itself however is, as we have just shown, but a scion of the Old Saxon language described in a preceding memoir: among other evidences that it is not an original language may be cited the singular fact, that no less than five different fragments of verbs, of which the principal terminations appear in other languages, are huddled together in the conjugation of the substantive verb.' As compared with its cognate languages, Anglo-Saxon bears the nearest resemblance to the ancient Friesic, and it is more than probable that many of the Friesians accompanied their Saxon neighbours in thc invasion and colonisation of England. In its grammatical forms, Anglo-Saxon presents comparatively few deviations from the early branches of the Germanic family. It has two numbers, singular and plural, and three genders. The gender of nouns is chiefly determined by their terminations, and the adjectives have variable terminations to correspond with their nouns in gender, number, and case. There are- four cases, and three declensions. Adjectives have a definite and an indefinite form of declension ; the latter (of which the inflections are the same as those of nouns of the second declension) is used when the adjective has a definite article, a demonstrative, or a possessive pronoun before it.^ In nouns the final syllable ing is sometimes patronymic, like tSiy? in Greek: in the Anglo-Saxon version ofthe Bible, the servant of Elisha is called Elising:^ from this source arise our words duckling, gosling, nestling, etc. But, perhaps, one of the most remarkable characteristics of Anglo-Saxon is the multipUcity of its synonymous words. It has ten synonymes for the word man, and as many for woman : it has eighteen different words to denote persons in authority, besides ten compounds, and several official titles. It has also eighteen words expressive of the mind, and fourteen to denote the sea ; and to express the name of the Supreme Being, it has more terms and periphrases than perhaps any other language. The Anglo-Saxons possessed a strong partiality for metaphor and periphrasis : thus, to describe the Ark, the poet Csedmon used no less than thirty consecutive phrases, such as, " the sea house," " the ocean palace," " the wooden fortress," " the building of the waves," etc. This poetical combination of words was so continually resorted to, especially in poems, that many of the words thus combined became current in the language as compound terms. The Anglo-Saxon language displayed extreme aptitude in the formation of compounds, but, like most ancient languages, it drew its materials from its own resources, and formed its compound words by the combination ofits own roots, without drawing, like modern English, from foreign vocabularies. " Great, verily, observes Camden, "was the glory of our tongue before the Norman Conquest, in this, thatthe Old English (or Anglo-Saxon) could express most aptly aU the conceits of the mind without borrowing from any." Alphabetical System. — The Teutonic and the Celtic nations possessed an alphabetical system, of which the origin and the history are lost in remote antiquity. This system was styled the Kumc, from the Teutonic word Eiln, denoting a mystery, because the Eunic characters were used in pagan rites. " The heathen Teutons," says Sir Francis Palgrave, " believed that the Euns possessed magical influence, could stop the vessel in her course, divert the arrow in its fiight, cause love or hatred, raise the corpse from the grave, or cast the living into death-like slumbers."'' The Eunes, however, of the Teutons and of the Celtic varied in form; and even the Eunes of the Anglo-Saxons and the Scandi- navians_ differed from each other as much as the languages themselves.' On account of the idolatrous veneration with which Paganism invested these Eunes, the early preachers and missionaries of 1 History of the Anglo-Saxons, by Sharon Tumer, vol. iv. p. 510. i History of the Anglo-Saxon Period, by Sir F. Palgrave, p. 146. z Bosworth s Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, p. clxxxvi. 5 Kemble in Archffiologia, vol. xxviii. p. 327. 2 Latham's English Language, p. 259. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] ANGLO-SAXON. 155 Christianity endeavoured to set them aside, and to introduce the use of the Latin characters in their stead. It was doubtless, from this cause, that UlphUas refrained from writing his version in the Eunic letters employed by the Germanic tribes, and adopted a modification of the G°eek and Latin alphabets. The Anglo-Saxons, who had brought their Eunes with them from Germany, as is evident from several ancient inscriptions, continued to use them tUl the time of Augustine, when they were induced to substitute the Latin characters. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet, however, has preserved a relic of the Eunes m its two peculiar characters p, ]>, and D, ¦§, the former of which had the hard sound of th as in thmg, and the latter the soft sound of the same letters as in ^Mne. The other Anglo-Saxon letters, though very dissimilar from the Eoman letters of the present day, are precisely the same as those used at Eome during the age in which Augustine flourished. Five letters of our English alphabet, J, k, q, V, and z, are not found in genuine Anglo-Saxon, but c and cw are invariably placed where 'a 'and q would be used by us. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — It is very doubtful whether the entire Scriptures have ever been translated into Anglo-Saxon. We have no traditionary account of a complete version, and all the biblical MSS. in Anglo-Saxon now in existence contain but select portions of the sacred volume. The poems on sacred subjects usually attributed to Casdmon, afford the first feeble indications of an attempt being made by our Saxon forefathers to convey the truths of Scripture in their vernacular tongue. Csedmon lived in the seventh century ; he was a monk in the monastery of Streoneshalch in Northumbria. It is said that he could neither read nor write, but that some of the other monks used to teach him portions of sacred history, and that he afterwards sang his lesson to his instructors in poetical strains. His poems have been strung together so as to form a sort of metrical paraphrase on some of the historical books of Scripture. He commences with the fall of the angels, the creation and fall of man, and proceeds to the history of the deluge, carrying on his narrative to the history of the children of Israel, and their wanderings in the desert. He also touches on the history of Nebuchadnezzar and of Daniel. The authenticity of this work has been doubted, some writers being of opinion that it was written by different writers at various periods ; the striking similarity between some of the poems and certain passages in Milton's Paradise Lost has been repeatedly noticed. Two editions have been printed ; the first by Francis Junius at Amsterdam in 1655, and the second, with an English translation and notes, by Mr. Thorpe, in London, in 1832. The hteral versions of such portions of the Scripture as have been translated into Anglo-Saxon have chiefly been transmitted to us in the form of interUneations of Latin MSS. A Latin Psalter, said to have been sent by Pope Gregory to Augustine, is still preserved among the Cottonian MSS., and contains an Anglo-Saxon interlinear version, of which the date is unknown. Aldhelm, bishop of Sherbom, and Guthlac, the first Anglo-Saxon anchorite, translated the Psalms soon after the com mencement of the eighth century, but their MSS. are lost, and nothing is known with certainty respecting them. The same may be said concerning the portions of Scripture reported to have been translated by the venerable Bede. At the time of his death, this renowned historian was engaged in a translation of the Gospel of John, and almost with his latest breath he dictated to his amanuensis the closing verse of the Gospel. Alfred the Great also took part in the translation of the Scriptures. He translated the Commandments, in the twentieth chapter of Exodus, and part of the three following chapters, which he affixed to his code of laws. He likewise kept a " hand-hoc," in which he_ daily entered extracts from various authors, but more especiaUy verses of Scripture translated by himself fiom Latin into Anglo-Saxon. ' There are three different versions of the Four Gospels at present known to be in existence. The most ancient of these is the famous Northumbrian Gloss, or Durham Book, preserved among the Cotton MSS. in the British Museum. This MS. is one of the finest specimens extant_ of _ Saxon writing. The Vulgate Latin text of the Four Gospels was written by Eadfrid, bishop of Lindisfarne, ahout A.D. 680 : his successor in the see adorned the book with curious illuminations, and with bosses of gold and precious stones; and a priest named Aldred added an interUnear gloss or version, probably about the year 900. The second Anglo-Saxon version of the Gospels belongs to the tenth century, and was written by Farmen and Owen at Harewood, or Harwood, over Jerome's Latin of the Four Gospels. The Latin text was written about the same period as that of the Durham Book, having been made during the seventh century. This valuable MS. is in the Bodleian Library, and is called the Eushworth Gloss, from the name of one of its former proprietors. The other translation of the Gospels 1 History ofthe Anglo-Saxon Period, by Sir F. Palgrave, p. ITS. 156 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. was made by an unknown hand, apparently not long before the Norman Conquest, and is thought to have been translated from the Latin version which was in use before Jerome's time. These important MSS., with the version of .^Ifric hereafter to be mentioned, were for two or three centuries thrown aside as useless lumber. With the disuse ofthe Anglo-Saxon language they ceased to be understood and were consigned to the shelves of monasteries. At the time of the Eeformation, some Anglo- Saxon MSS. on doctrinal subjects were drawn from their places of concealment, and placed before the world in testimony that the early Saxon Church withstood the growing heresies of the Church of Eome. The Eeformers, aware that the translation of part of the Scriptures into Anglo-Saxon was a precedent in favour of their own translation into the vernacular tongue, collected the fragments of the Anglo-Saxon version, and in 1571 issued an edition of the Four Gospels with an English paraUel version. The text of this edition was a late MS. belonging to the Bodleian Library at Oxford: it was edited by Archbishop Parker, and a preface was written by John Fox, the martyrologist. This edition was carefully collated with four MSS. by Francis Junius, jun., and pubUshed by Dr. Marshall at Dort, in 1665, in paraUel columns with the Moeso-Gothic version. Some copies of this edition were provided with new titlepages, bearing the date, Amsterdam, 1684. The most complete edition of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels is that of Mr. Thorpe, printed in London, 1842. Two Cambridge MSS. form the basis of this text, which in all doubtful passages is carefuUy collated with other MSS. Two editions of the Anglo-Saxon Psalter have been published. The first appeared in 1640 : it was printed in London under the care of Spelman, from an ancient MS. by an unknown translator, and collated vnth other MSS. of equal antiquity. This version was undoubtedly made from the Latin Vulgate.' A splendid edition of the Psalms was published in 1835 at Oxford : the MS. which forms the text formerly belonged to the Duke of Berri, the brother of Charles V., king of France, and was preserved in the Eoyal Library at Paris. Mr. Thorpe, the editor, attributed this MS. to the eleventh century; and by some it is supposed to be a transcript of the version executed by Aldhelm, bishop of Sher bom, in the early part ofthe eighth century. It is, however, rather a paraphrase than a version, and is written, partly in prose, and partly in metre. A partial interlinear translation of a Latin version of Proverbs, made in the tenth century. Is preserved among the Cotton MSS. in the British Museum. To the same century belong the cele brated translations of ^Ifric, archbishop of Canterbury : they consist of the Heptateuch, or first seven books of the Bible, and the book of Job. An edition of this version was published by Mr. Thwaits, at Oxford, in 1699, from an unique MS. belonging to the Bodleian Library: the book of Job was printed from a transcript of a MS. in the Cottonian Library. MlMc, in some portions of his version, adheres literally to the text ; but in some parts he appears to aim at producing a condensation, or abridgment, rather than a translation of the events related by the inspired historian. Like the other Anglo-Saxon fragments, his translation was made from the Latin version. A few MSS. of the Psalms, written shortly before, or about the time of, the Norman Conquest, are extant, and show the gradual decUne of the Anglo-Saxon language. The history of the language may still further be traced in three MSS. yet in existence, which were made after the arrival of the Normans. They are MSS. of the same translation, and two of them are attributed to the reign of Henry the Second; but the language in which they are written is no longer pure Anglo-Saxon; it has merged into what is designated the Anglo-Norman. Facts relative to the Dissemination of this Version. — The Anglo-Saxon version was never disseminated among the people, for the art of reading was, during the Anglo-Saxon period, exclusively confined to priests and kings. Learning was then cultivated chiefly in monasteries, and the Latin version of the Scriptures was there generally studied. Some members of the clerical body were,_however, but imperfectly acquainted with the Latin tongue, and it was for their benefit that the interUnear glosses were added to the Latin MSS., in order that they might understand themselves the portions which it was their duty to read to the people. ' Butler, Horse Biblicse, vol. i. p. 148. ENGLISH. SPECIMEN OF THE ENGLISH VEESIONS. — ST. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 12. Wiclif, 1380. 1 IN the bigynnynge was the word and the word was at god, and god was the word, 2 this was in the bigynnynge at god, 3 alle thingis weren made hi hym : and withouten hym was made no thing. that tiling that was made < in him was liif, and the liif was the li3t of men, 5 and the lijt schyneth in derlinessisi and derknessis comprehendiden not it. 6 A man was sente fro god to whom the name was Ion, ' this man cam in to witnes- synge, that he schulde here witnessynge of the li3t, that alle men schulden hileue hi hym, 8 he was not the li3t, but that he schulde bere witnessynge ofthe li3t, 9 ther was a veni li3t : whiche li3t- netheche man that cometh in to this world, 'O he was in the world, and the world was made bi hym i and the world knewe hym not, " he cam in to his owne thingis : J hise reseeyueden hym not : '2 hut hou many euer resceiueden hym : he 3af to hem power to be made the sones of god, to hem that bileueden in his name. Tyndale, 1534. ' IN the beginnynge was the worde, and the worde was with God : and the words was God. 2 xhe same was in the beginnynge with God. 3 All thinges were made by it, and with out it, was made nothings, that was made. ^ In it was lyfe, and the lyfe was the lyght of men, 5 and the lyght shyneth in the darcknes, but the darcknes comprehended it not. s There was a man sent from God, whose name was John. ' The same cam as a witnes to beare witnes of the lyght, that all men through him myght beleve. 8 Jje was not that lyght : but to beare witnes of the lyght. 9 That was a true lyght, which lyghteth all men that come into the worlde. i" He was in the worlde, and the worlde was made by him : and yet the worlde knewe him not. !• He cam amonge his (awne) and his awne re- ceaved him not. i^ gut as meny as receaved him, to them he gave power to be the sonnes of God in that they beloved on his name. Coverdale, 1535. IN the begynnynge was the worde, and the worde was with God, and God was y* worde. The same was in the begynnynge with God. All thinges were made hy the same, and without the same was made nothinge that was made. In him was the life, and the life was the light of men ; and the light shyneth in the darknesse, and the darknesse compre hended it not. There was sent from God a man, whose name was Ihon. The same came for a wit nesse, to beare wytnesse of y'' light, that thorow him they all might beleue. He was not that light, but that he might beare witnesse of y* light. That was the true light, which lighteth all men, that come in to this worlde. He was in the worlde, I the worlde was made by him, and j" worlde knewe him not. He came in to his awne, and his awne receaued him not. But as many as re ceaued him, to them gaue he power to be the children of God : euen soch as beleue in his name. Matthew, 1537. IN the beginninge was the worde, and the worde was with God : and the worde was God. The same was in the beginnynge wyth God. All thinges were made by it, and wythout it, was made no- thynge that was made. In it was lyfe, and the lyfe was the lyght of men, and the lyght shyneth in y" darck nes but the darcknes com prehended it not. There was a man sent from God, whose name was John. The same cam as a witnes to beare wytnes ofthe lyght, that all men through him myght beleue. He was not th at lyght : but to heare witnes of the lyght. That was a true lyght whych lyghteth all me that come into the worlde. He was in the worlde, and the worlde was made by hym : and yet the worlde knewe hym not. He cam amonge hys awne, and hys awne receaued hym not. But as many as re ceaued hyra, to them he gaue power to be the sonnes of God in that they beleued on hys name : ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics.— The population of the united kmgdom of Great Britam and Ireland, according to the census of 1841, is 27,019,558 souls, and that of England alone, 15,000,154. But the extension of the English language must by no means be estimated by that of England, or even of the united kingdom. It may also be said to be coextensive with the habitable worid, forof aU people, except the Jews, the EngUsh are the most widely scattered, and thus their lan guage may be heard in every country, and amongst every nation, under heaven. The United States of America are inhabited almost exclusively by an EngUsh-speaking population. English is also the predominant language in the Canadas and the West Indies. In the East its ascendancy is being gradually increased and estabUshed : amongst the mUlions of India, for instance, it is becoming more and more cultivated ; and with the progress of education it wUl probably speedily predominate oyer all the various dialects spoken in the numerous colonies and settiements estabUshed by the enterprise, and maintained by the energy, of the Anglo-Saxon race. Characteristics of the Language.— The EngUsh language is the daughter of the Saxon, and preserves to a great extent the Uneaments of its parent. So far, however, as respects its vocabulary, Enghsh is essentiaUy a compound language, and borrows freely from aU sides and from aU sources. In the first period of its history it was greatly mfiuenced by the Norman-French, introduced by WUham the Conqueror. During the first century after the Conquest, the two languages subsisted side 158 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. by side ; but a fusion gradually took place, in which the language of the people triumphed over that of their invaders, for although Norman words were freely admitted into the vocabulary, the genius and structural character of the new language, evolved by this intermixture, were Saxon. The exact period of the transmutation of Saxon into English has been disputed, but it seems most reasonable to believe that the process was gradual.' A fragment of the Saxon Chronicle, published by Lye, and concluding with the year 1079, exhibits the language in the first stage of its transition state, no great deviation having then been made from Anglo-Saxon. But in the continuation of the same chronicle from 1135 to 1140 a.d., the commencement of those changes may be distinctly traced, which sub sequently formed the distinctive peculiarities of the English language. The principal change intro duced about this period was the gradual substitution of particles and auxiliary words for the terminal inflections of the Anglo-Saxon. The English has happily retained the facility of its parent language in compounding words, the only difference in this respect being, that, in the formation of its compound terms, the Anglo-Saxon drew only from its own resources, whereas the English has had recourse to the Latin, the Greek, the French, the Italian, and even the Arabic languages. It has been remarked by a distinguished foreigner, that " everywhere the principle of utility and application dominates in England, and constitutes at once the physiognomy and the force of its civilisation."^ This principle is certainly legible in its language, which although possessed of remarkable faciUty in the adaptation of foreign terms and even idioms to its own use, is at the same time free from the trammels with which the other languages of its class are encumbered. In the gender of nouns, for instance, we meet with no perplexity or anomaly, every noun being masculine, feminine, or neuter, according to the nature of the object or idea it represents ; and as the adjectives are aU indeclinable, their concordance with the noun is at once effected without the apparently useless trouble of altering the final letters. This perfect freedom from useless encumbrance adds greatly to the ease and vigour of expression. Cranmer, 1539. 1 IN the begynnynge was the worde, and the worde was wyth God : and God was the worde. ^ The same was in the begynnyng with God. 3 All thynges were made by it, and without it, was made nothynge that was made. '' In it was lyfe, and the lyfe was the lyght of men, 5 and the lyght shyn eth in darcknes, and the darcknes comprehended it not. 6 There was sent from God a man, whose name was lohn. 7 The same cam as a wytnes to beare wytnes of the lyght, that all men through hym myght beleue. 8 ge was not that lyght : but was sent to beare wytnes of the lyght. 9 That lyght was the true lyght, whych lyghteth euery man that cometh into the worlde. l" He was in the worlde, and the worlde was made by hym : and the worlde knewe hym not. 11 He cam amonge hys awne, and hys awnae re ceaued him not. '2 But as many as receaued hym to them gaue he power to be the sonnes of God : euen them that heleued on hys name. Tavernek, 1549. IN the begynnynge was the worde, and the word was with God, and the worde was God. The same was in the begynnynge wyth God. All thynges were made by it and without it was made nothynge that was made. In it was lyfe, and the lyfe was the lyght of men, and the lyght shyneth in the darknes, but the darknes comprehended it not. Ther was a man sent from God, whose name was John. The same came as a wytnes to beare wytnes of the light, that all men through him myght beleue. He was not that lyght hut to heare witnes of the lyght. That was a true lyght, which lyghteth all men that come into the worlde. He was in the worlde, and the worlde was made by him, and yet the worlde knewe him not. 0:$' He came amonge his (owne) and his owne receiued him not. But as manye as receyued him to them he gave power to be the sonnes of God in that they beleued on his name. Geneva, 1557. ' IN the beginnyng was the word, and the worde was with God, and that worde was God. 2 ];he same was in the begynnyng with God. 3 Althinges were made by it, and without it was made nothing that was made. '^ In it was lyfe, and the lyfe was the light of men. 6 And the light shineth in darkenes, and the darknes comprehended it not. 6 There was a man sent from God, whose name was lohn. ' The same came for a wytnes, to beare wytnes of the light, that all men through hym might beleue. 8 He was not that light, but was sent to beare wytnes of the light. 9 That was that true lyght, which lyghteth all men that come into the worlde. l" He was in the worlde, and the worlde was made by hym : and the worlde knewe him not. 11 He came among his owne, and his owne receaued him not. 12 But as many as receaued hym, to them he gaue power to be the sonnes of God, euen to them that beleue in his name. Bishops, 1568. 1 IN the begynnyng was the worde, and the worde was with God : and that worde was God. 2 The same was in the begynnyng with God. 3 All thynges were made by it : and vpithout it, was made nothyng that was made. * In it was lyfe, and the lyfe was the lyght of men. 5 And the lyght shyneth in darkenesse: and the darkenesse compre hended it not. 8 There was a man sent from God whose name was John : 7 The same came for a witnesse, to beare witnesse of the lyght, that all men through hym myght beleue. 8 He was not that lyght: but was sent to heare wit nesse of the lyght. 9 That [lyght] was the true lyght, which lyghteth every man that commeth into the worlde. 1" He was in the worlde, and the worlde was made hyhym, and the worlde knewe hym not. 11 He came among his owne, and his ovme receaued hym not. 12 But as raany as receaued hym, to them gave he power to be the sonnes of God, euen them that he leued on his name. 1 Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, Preface, p. 47. 2 History of Civilisation in France, by Guizot, p. 276. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] ENGLISH, 159 Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — During the period of the gradual disappearance of the Anglo-Saxon and evolution of the EngUsh language, as above described, England was under papal domination, and the Scriptures were no longer sought after. The Anglo-Saxon versions became useless from the alteration in the language, and until the fourteenth century the efforts made to produce a new translation were few and feeble. An ecclesiastic named Orm, or Ormin, supposed from his dialect to have been a native of the North of England, composed a metrical para phrase of the Gospels and Acts, in lines of fifteen syUables, during the latter part of the twelfth century. This work is entitled the Ormulum, from the name of its author, and is preserved in the Bodleian Library. A more extensive metrical paraphrase, comprising the whole of the Old and New Testa ments, is to be found amongst other poetry of a reUgious nature in a work entitled Sowle-hele (Soul's health), belonging to the Bodleian Library : it is usually ascribed to the end of the twelfth century. Another metrical version, probably of the same date, is preserved in Corpus Christi CoUege, Cam bridge: it comprises only the first two books of the Old Testament, and is written in the dialect then spoken m the North of England. In the same college, a metrical version of the Psalms, apparently written about the year 1300, has been deposited: this version adheres to the Latin Psalter, corrected by Jerome, as closely as the nature of the composition will admit. Several other MSS. of the old Enghsh Psalter, preserved in the British Museum and the Bodleian Library, are supposed to be exemplars of the same version, with the orthography altered in conformity with the state of the language at the periods in which they were written. A translation of the Psalms from the same text, (the corrected Latin of Jerome,) was executed by Eichard EoUe, of Hampole, near Doncaster, during the early part of the fourteenth century. This version is remarkable as being the first portion of the Scriptures ever translated into English prose. EoUe, or Hampole as he is more generally caUed, also wrote a paraphrase in verse of a part of Job. Two other versions of the Psalms, belonging to the same period, are Ukewise extant. In Benet College, Cambridge, there is a version of Mark, Luke, and the PauUne Epistles, but the translator and the date are unknown; and in the British Museum there is a translation of the Gospels appointed to be read on Sundays, written in the northern dialect. Kheims, 1582. 1 IN the beginning was the Word, and the Word vvas with God, and God vvas the Word. 2 xhis was in the beginning with God. ' Al things were made by him : and without him was made nothing. That vvhich was made', ¦* in him was life, and the life was the hght of men : 5 and the light shineth in darkenesse, and the darkenesse did not com prehend it. 6 There was a, man sent from God, whose name was lohn. ' This man came for testimonie : to giue testimonie of the light, that al might beleeue through him. ' He was not the light, but to giue testimonie of the light, 9 It vvas the true light, which lighteneth euery man that commeth into this world. 1" He vvas in the world, and the world was made hy him, and the world knew him not. " He came into his owne, and his owne receiued him not, 12 But as many as re ceiued him, he gaue them power to he made the sonnes of God, to those that beleeue m his name. DouAT, 1847. 1 IN the beginning was the word, and the word was with God, and the word was God. 2 Xhe same was in the beginning with God. 3 All things were made by him : and without him was made nothing that was made : ^ In him was life, and the life was the light of men : ^ And the light shineth in darkness, and the darkness did not compre hend it. 6 There was a man sent from God, whose name was John. ' This man came for a witness ; to give testimony of the light, that all men might believe through him. 8 He was not the light, but was to give testimony of the light. 9 That was the true light, which enlighteneth every man that cometh into this world, i" He was in the world, and the world was made by him, and the world knew him not. 11 He came into his own, and his own received him not. 12 But as many as re ceived him, he gave them power to be made the sons of God, to them that believe in his name. Authorised, 1611. 1 IN the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. 2 Xhe same was in the beginning with God. 3 All things were made by him, and without him was not any thing made that was made. * In him was life, and the life was the light of men. ^ And the light shin eth in darknes, and the dark nes comprehended it not. 6 There was a man sent from God, whose name was John. ' The same came for a witnesse, to beare witnesse of the light, that all men through him might beleeue. 8 He was not that light, but u-as sent to beare witnesse of that light. 9 That was the true light, which lighteth euery man that commeth into the world, l" Hee was in the world, and the world was made by him, and the world knew hira not. n He came vnto his owTie, and his owne receiued him not. 12 But as many as receiued him, to them gaue hee power to be come the sonnes of God, euen to them that beleeue on his Name. Blatnet, 1769. 1 IN the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. 2 Xhe same was in the beginning with God. 3 All things were made by him ; and without him was not any thing made that was made. * In him was life ; and the life was the light of men. 6 And the light shineth in darkness ; and the darkness comprehended it not. 6 There was a man sent from God, whose name was John. 7 Xhe same came for a witness, to bear witness of the Light, that all men through him might believe. 8 He was not that Light, but was sent to bear witness of that Light. 9 That was the true Light, which lighteth every man that cometh into the world, i" He was in the world, and the world was made hy him, and the world knew him not. 11 He came unto his own, and his own received him not. 12 But as many as re ceived him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God, even to them that be lieve on his name. 160 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. Class III. Such were the principal translations of scriptural portions executed before the time of WickUffe. A version has been coAimonly ascribed to John de Trevisa, vicar of Berkeley in Gloucestershire, who flourished towards the close of the fourteenth century ; but he only translated a few detached passages, which he introduced in certain parts of his writings. Some texts translated by him were painted on the waUs of the chapel belonging to Berkeley Castle. To WickUffe, therefore, " the Morning Star of the Eeformation," belongs the honour of having produced the first version of the entire Scriptures in the English language. His translation was made immediately from the Latin Vulgate, and was completed about the year I380._ So great was the opposition it excited, that in 1390 a biU was brought into the House of Lords for its total suppression. The motion, however, was thrown aside through the influence of the Duke of Lancaster, who is reported to have said, "We wiU not be the dregs of aU, seeing other nations have the lawof God, which is the law of our faith, written in their own language." It was perhaps, about this period, that the followers of WickUffe revised and corrected his version : several copies of this revision are extant. In 1408 the further translation, and even the perusal, of the Scriptures was formally prohibited m a convocation held at Oxford, by Archbishop Arundel. Great persecution foUowed this edict, and many suffered unto death for having read the English Bible. Although Wickliffe's version of the EngUsh Bible was the earUest in point of execution, yet, as the art of printing was unknown during the age in which it was produced, it was among the latest of the Enghsh versions in being committed to the press. The first printed edition was pubUshed in 1731, by Mr. Lewis. This edition, which was preceded by a history of the Enghsh biblical transla tions by the editor, included only the New Testament. The same version of the New Testament was re-edked in 1810 by the Eev. H. H. Baber, vrith very valuable prolegomena. It was again pubhshed with extreme accuracy in 1841, as a portion ofthe English Hexapla, the best MSS. having been most carefully collated for this purpose by George Ofibr, Esq.; a MS. then in the possession of theDuke of Sussex was used as the basis of this edition. Another edition has been lately pubUshed by Pickering: it is printed from a contemporary MS. written about A.D. 1380, formerly in the Monastery of Sion, and now preserved in the collection of Lea Wilson, F. S. A. The Old Testament of Wickhffe's version remained in MS. till within the last few years ; but a complete edition of both Testaments has been very recently published at Oxford, under the editorship of the Eev. J. Forshall and Sir F. Madden. We now come to the history of our authorised version of the Scriptures, which may be said to date from the year 1524, when the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, the first portions of Tyndale's translation, were printed at Hamburgh. Tyndale's version, which has served as the basis of all succeeding versions of the English Scriptures, was executed directly from the sacred originals. It was produced in the midst of persecution, and furnishes a wonderful example of the result of steadfast faith and firm determination of purpose. Though opposed by the combined power of the king of England, his whole council, and the emperor, William Tyndale contrived to elude their vigilance until the great work, upon which his heart was set, was accomplished. " Having from the first consulted only with God and his own conscience, he possessed an indescribable severity of conviction that he had but one thing to do, and though perpetually exposed to seizure and death, not a day was to be lost by him, nor was lost." ^ And although he finally sealed his testimony with his blood, (for he was martyred at Vilvorde, near Brussels, in 1536,) yet he died in the midst of victory, for before he expired no less than fourteen editions of his version of the New Testament had been published, the last of which, being the first edition of the English Scriptures ever printed In his native country, was passing through the press in London, "before or at the very time that he was receiving at Vilvorde the crown of martyrdom." ^ It seemed as if aU who had been concerned in this first translation of the English Scriptures from the original tongues were to be admitted to the glory of martyrdom, for John Fryth, who had jrielded some assistance in the work, was afterwards burnt to death in Smithfield; and WilUam Eoye, who had at one time been Tyndale's amanuensis, was put to death in Portugal on a charge of heresy. Although the enemies of the truth thus succeeded in removing the translators from the earth, their efforts to suppress the translation, by destroying all the printed copies, were utterly unavailing. On one occasion Sir Thomas More, who was then chancellor, inquired of an individual who was suffering imprisonment for conscience sake, how Tyndale subsisted abroad, and who were the persons in London that abetted and supported him : the prisoner replied, that it was the Bishop of London who maintained him by sending a sum of money to buy up the impression of his New Testament. The chancellor admitted the truth of the statement, and suffered the man to escape. > Introduction of the English Bible, by Anderson, p. 4. 2 introduction of the English Bible, by Anderson, p. 3. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] ENGLISH. 161 Coverdale's Version_ of the entire Scriptures was pubhshed in 1535: it was printed on the continent, but at what place is uncertain. In producing this version, Coverdale, by his individual energy, accompUshed what the combined efforts of the king, of the two Houses of Convocation, and of Archbishop Cranmer, had been unable to effect ; for in 1533 an edition ofthe complete EngUsh Bible had been resolved upon, and actually commenced by Cranmer, but the attempt proved utterly abortive. In his preface, Coverdale states that he had used five different Latin and "Douche" (or German) versions in the formation of his own. It is also certain from internal evidences that he avaUed himself largely of the labours of Tyndale. " His style," observes Scrivener, " is vigorous ; the rendermgs_ of particular texts are very perspicuous, though they are often questionable and dififuse ; whUe an air of freshness and novelty pervades the volume, since no one of our translators has ventured on such bold interpretation as Coverdale, and but Uttle of his pecuUar diction was adopted by those who foUowed him." This translation, happily, was regarded with favour by Henry VIIL, and was the first EngUsh Bible aUowed by royal authority. This capricious monarch further directed in 1536, that a copy of the whole Bible in Latin and in EngUsh should be laid in the choir of every church throughout the realm, " for every man that would, to look and read therein." Matthew's Bible was edited by John Eogers, the ardent friend of Tyndale and the proto- martyr of Mary's reign. The whole of the New, and the first part of the Old Testament, as far as the end of the Second of Chronicles, was merely a reprint of Tyndale's version with a few orthographical altera tions. Tyndale had also translated a number of chapters from the Prophetical Books, which had been printed along with the New Testament.' These Eogers inserted, and the portions which Tyndale had left untranslated he suppUed from Coverdale's version. The printers, Grafton and Whitchurch, bore unaided the entire expense of the publication of this work ; and from prudential motives Eogers affixed to it the fictitious name of Thomas Matthew. It was printed in folio in 1537, probably at Marlborow in Hesse. It is remarkable that up to the day of its arrival in London, the very existence of this Bible was unknown to Henry and his ministers. During the previous ten years this version had been denounced and proscribed ;. the copies surreptitiously imported into England had been searched for and burnt ; even the persons by whom they had been read had been committed to the flames, and, only the year previously, the death ofthe translator himself had been compassed ; and yet, no sooner was the entire version, "the desire of Tyndale's heart," printed for the first time in one volume and sent to England, than the hearts of those who had heretofore been persecutors were over ruled to receive and to sanction it.^ The volume received the royal license, and enactments were forthwith issued commanding the clergy to place copies in aU the churches that the parishioners might obtain constant access to them. Cranmer's Great Bible (so caUed from its containing a prologue by Archbishop Cranmer, as weU as from its size) is a revision of Matthew's Bible. The edition was commenced at Paris, where the paper was better and cheaper, and the workmen more skilful than in England. But before the work could be completed at press, the Inquisition interfered, and the edition, consisting of 2500 copies, was seized and condemned to the flames. Some copies, however, were rescued and brought to England; the French printers were prevailed upon to bring their types and presses to London, and the edition was completed under the correction and revision of Coverdale in 1539. Taverner's Bible is Ukewise a revision of Matthew's Bible, edited, as the name imports, by Eichard Tavemer. It appeared in foho in 1539, and was dedicated to the king. The Geneva Version of the Bible is a revision of T3aidale's version, executed after the hnmortal work of Tyndale had been again dUigently compared with the Hebrew and Greek texts. _ It was usual to ascribe this translation to the prmcipal reformers who had taken refuge in Geneva_ during the persecutions of Mary. Anderson, however, has shown that so far from this version being the coUective work of several individuals, the New Testament can in all probabUity be correctly attributed only to one individual, the Eev. William Whittingham, afterwards dean of Durham;^ whUe in the translation of the Old Testament, the names of GUby and Sampson only are to be associated with that of Whittingham.'' The New Testament was pubUshed at Geneva in 1557, and is the first in our language which contains the distinction of verses by numerical figures. The Old Testament appeared in 1540. 1 Introduction of the English Bible, by Anderson, p. 8. ^ Annals of the English Bible, vol. ii. pp. 308, 312. 2 Introduction of the English Bible, by Anderson, p. 13. ¦• Annals of the English Bible, vol. u. pp. 320, 321. 162 THE BIBLE OF E\^KY LAND. ' [Class III. Archbishop Parker's, or the Bishops' Bible, was completed in 1568, after having been in course of preparation during three years. Several individuals were engaged in the work, for the Bible was divided into at least fourteen different portions, each of which was allotted to persons of learning and abiUty: eight of the individuals who thus took part in the revision were bishops ; hence the edition is generally known as the " Bishops' Bible." Archbishop Parker, the promoter of this revision, employed other critics to compare the version with the sacred texts, and he directed and reviewed the whole work himself His object in setting forth this edition was, not to produce a new version, but to test and correct Cranmer's Bible, the translation then commonly in use, by a critical examination of the inspired originals. This Bible was in 1571 appointed to be used in churches, and for forty years it continued to be the church version, although the Geneva Bible was more generally used in private houses. A reprint of the Bishops' Bible, pubUshed in 1572 in large foho, with corrections and prolegomena, is commonly caUed " Matthew Parker's Bible." King James's Bible, as our present authorised version is sometimes caUed, was commenced with the sanction of that monarch in the year 1604. It was undertaken on account of several objections having been made to the Bishops' Bible at the Conference held at Hampton Court during the preceding year. Fifty-four men, selected on account of their eminent classical attainments, were appointed fo execute the work ; but from death, or some other cause, only forty-seven eventuaUy engaged in it. They were divided into six companies, to each of whom a separate portion was assigned. They met periodically, for the purpose of conferring on the result of their individual labours ; and at these meetings, says Selden, " one read the translation, the rest holding in their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or French, Spanish, Italian, etc. If they found any fault, they spoke ; if not, he read on." The basis of the exceUent version thus produced still continued to be Tyndale's ; for, according to the directions given them at the outset, the translators followed the Bishops' Bible (which, as we have shewn, was based on that of Tyndale) as closely as the original would permit; but they compared it with the early editions of Tyndale's version, and with Coverdale's, Matthew's, Cranmer's, Taverner's, and the Genevan Bibles, and adopted from each the renderings which were the most faithful to the sacred text. Our present authorised version, therefore, so far from being a new translation, was a compilation from previous translations ; but its inestimable value arises fi-om the fact, that it is a compilation founded on a collation with the original Scriptures, conducted by men duly quaUfied for so momentous an undertaking.' It was commenced in the spring of the year 1607, and was completed at press in 161 1. Selden, Lowth, Horsley, Middleton, and other learned men who have critically examined this Bible, bear testimony to its great exceUence. Dr. Adam Clarke justly remarks, that " the translators have seized the very spirit and soul of the original ;" and that, of all European translations. King James's version is " the most accurate and faithfuL" Although this precious volume bears the name of King James, we are not indebted to him even for pecuniary aid in its production. Its publication was a mere business transaction ; the entire expenses of the work were undertaken by Eobert Barker, patentee of the ofiice of king's printer, and it was printed and pubhshed by him as a speculation in trade. This Bible of 16 1 1 is, with some trifling emendations and orthographical alterations, the Bible of all who use the English language at the present day. It must be observed, however, that the Eoman Catholics have a version of their own, which is in general use among them in preference to ours. Their version of the New Testament was printed at Eheims in 1582, and that of the Old Testament at Douay in 1609-10. The real character and object of this version can only be learned from the preface and notes : the text does not contain many real departures from the Vulgate, although a studied obscurity involves the entire diction. A great number of Greek words, such as azymes, pasche, etc., are left untranslated, for the purpose, no doubt, of misleading and perplexing common readers. And the notes breathe such a spirit of treason, and such a recklessness of assertion, that now they are commonly omitted in reprints. The text has been frequently revised and printed for distribution among Eoman Catholics, and from time to time it has been rendered more and more conformable to our own authorised text. The Socinians have also a version of the New Testament : it was published in London in 1808, by anonymous editors, professedly on the basis of Archbishop Newcome's translation ; but his authority is disregarded in all passages where their peculiar sentiments can be obtruded. Several translations of portions of the Scriptures have been executed in EngUsh since the year 161 1 ; but our venerable authorised version has not hitherto, in whole or in part, been superseded by > Bishop Marsh on the Criticism of the Bible, Appendix, p. 2. IxDO-EuEOPEAN Languages. ENGLISH. 163 any. _ Passing over the translations of BeUamy and Geddes, which are too extravagant to deserve mention, several translations of particular books of Scripture by Lowth, Newcome, Horsley, Lee, Henderson, and others, might be enumerated; yet these can scarcely be called version's in the popular sense of the term, being adapted rather for the learned than for the people. Printed Editions of the English Scriptures.— The editions ofthe Bible and Testament in our language have been so numerous, that even the bare enumeration of them wotdd be a matter of absolute impossibihty. During the eighty-seven years which elapsed from the appearance of the first portion of Tyndale's version (a.d. 1524) to the pubhcation of the authorised version in 1611, at least 278 editions of the Bible and Testament are known to have been printed ; of these the principal are the foUowing : — 1524. The Gospels of Matthew and Mark, translated by Tyndale, printed at Hamburgh. 1525. The New Testament of Tyndale's version in 4to., pubUshed at Cologne and Worms : only one fragment of this work is known to be in existence : it was discovered in 1834 by Mr. Eodd, a bookseUer, who happening to examine a quarto tract by OEcolampadius, which he had received from a friend, perceived that there was attached to it, by binding, a portion in the EngUsh language, black letter. This proved to be a reUc of the three thousand copies of Tyndale's first edition of the New Testament. It afterwards adorned the Ubrary of the Hon. Thomas GrenvUle, and by his munificent gift it is now in the British Museum. 1526. The New Testament of the same version in 18mo., pubUshed at Worms. UntU recently this has been generaUy beUeved to have been the first edition of Tyndale's version. A copy, wanting the titlepage, is in the Baptist Museum at Bristol, from which the London reprint, pubUshed by ]\Ir. Bagster in 1836, was executed. 1526. The New Testament of the same version, pubhshed at Antwerp. This was the first surreptitious edition, and was foUowed by two other editions, printed at the same place, during the two subsequent years. A corrected edition, compared with the Greek by Tyndale, was pubUshed in 1534 : it forms one ofthe versions in the Enghsh Hexapla. 1535. The entire Bible, translated from the Latin and Dutch, or rather German versions, by Coverdale, some time lord bishop of Exeter, published in London, in foho. This Bible was reprinted in 4to. in 1838, from a copy in the possession of the late Duke of Sussex. The second edition, Ukewise published by Mr. Bagster, appeared in 1847. 1537. Matthew's Bible in foUo, probably printed at Marlborow, in Hesse. Matthew was the cognomen adopted by Eogers, the translator. This Bible was a revised edition of Tyndale's version, with the chapters which he had left untranslated supphed from Coverdale's version, the whole being carefuUy corrected by Eogers. 1539. HoUybushe's New Testament, 8vo., London. This is a reprint of Coverdale's translation, with the Latin version. The printer, Nicolson, inserted the name of HoUybushe, a man employed by him, in the titlepage. This New Testament was reprinted in 8vo., in London, a.d. 1839. 1539. Cranmer's Great Bible, foho. This edition was commenced at Paris, and finished in London. It is a revision of Matthew's Bible, produced by a re-examination of the sacred texts ; and with the prologues and notes by Tyndale, and the other notes appended to Matthew's Bible, whoUy omitted. It contains a prologue, or preface, by Archbishop Cranmer. 1539. Taverner's Bible, foho, London. This was a correction of Matthew's Bible, with a large proportion of his marginal notes retained, and others added by Tavemer. 1550. The Gospel of Matthew, and part of the first chapter of Mark's Gospel, was translated by Sfr John Cheke, from the Greek, about the year 1550 ; but this version, with the original notes that accompanied it, remained in MS. tiU 1843, when it was committed to the press under the editorship of the Eev. James Goodwin. Sir John Cheke made much use of the older EngUsh versions, and especiaUy endeavoured to avoid the introduction of any word derived from a Latin root.' 1557. The Geneva New Testament in 8vo., printed at Geneva, by Conrad Badius. The second edition was pubUshed at the same place in 1560. An exact reprint of the edition of 1 Introduction to the Scriptures, by the Kev. T. H. Home, voL v. p. 90. 164 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IIL 1557, with the itaUc supplements and marginal annotations of _ the original, was pubhshed by Mr. Bagster in 1842 : it also appears as one of the versions of the English Hexapla. 1560. The Geneva Bible (containing the Old and New Testaments, with annotations), printed in 4to. at Geneva. The second edition was published in foUo, in London, the foUowing year : numerous other editions were subsequently printed at Geneva and London. Some editions of the Geneva Bible (as those of 1599 and of I61I) contain Beza's translation of the New Testament, Enghshed by L. Tompson.' At least 129 editions of the Geneva Bible and Testament are known to have been printed between the years 1560 and 1611. 1568. Archbishop Parker's, or the Bishops' Bible, foho, London : another edition, in quarto, was issued the following year for the use of families. This Bible has numerous marginal references, notes, and tables. The words which are printed in italics by James's trans lators are here printed in a smaUer type, and placed between brackets. The chapters are divided into verses, and the 7th verse of I John v., which was before printed in a different letter, is here inserted in the same type as the rest of the volume. 1611. The present authorised version, commonly called King James's Bible, foho, London. In 1649, in consequence of the high estimation in which the Genevan version continued to be held, this version was printed vrith the Genevan notes ; but about this period, says Anderson, it prevailed, and took the place it has occupied ever since. 1769. A revised edition of the authorised version, prepared by Dr. Blayney, under the direction of the vice-chancellor and delegates of the Clarendon press at Oxford. This is con sidered the standard edition, on account of its great accuracy ; yet one hundred and sixteen typographical errors, which evaded the scrutiny of Dr. Blayney, were rectified by Eyre and Strahan in their editions of 1806 and I8I3. There is no land which has been so highly favoured as Britain in the multiplicity of editions of the Scriptures printed since the year 1611. The number of copies of the Scriptures printed bythe British and Foreign Bible Society alone, since its establishment in 1804 to March, 1849, is as follows: — Bibles 6,048,430 Testaments 7,010,413 Psalms 359,296 Gospels and Acts . . . . 5,198 If to these be added the number published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and other kindred Societies, with the numerous editions published by Mr. Bagster, as well as those issued in Scotland, the aggregate amount seems almost incredible. " The number of Enghsh Bibles and New Testaments separately, which have passed through the press within the perfect recoUection of many now Uving, has exceeded the number of souls in Britain ! It has been more than double the population in I80I !"^ And yet there is in many places an awful destitution. A large proportion has been sent to the colonies ; and if Mr. Dudley's calculation be correct of wear and tear (in schools particularly) of 15 per cent, per annum, we shaU cease to wonder at the continued demands. ' Introduction to the Scriptures, by the Rev. T, H. Home, vol. v. p. 91. ' Anderson's Annals ofthe English Bible, vol. i. Preface, p. nil- FLEMISH. SPECIMEN OF THE FLEMISH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. [Brussels, 1838.] In het beginne was het Woordt, en het Woordt was by Godt, en het Woordt was Godt. ^ Dit was in het begin by Godt. ^ Alle dingen zyn door het zelve gemaekt, en zonder dat en is 'er niet gemaekt van al dat 'er gemaekt is. * In 't zelve was het leven , en 't leven was het lioht der menschen. ^ En het licht schynt in de duysternisse , en de duysternis en heeft 'et niet begrepen. ^ Daer was eenen mensch van Godt afgezonden , met name Joannes. ' Dezen quam als getuyge , om getuygenisse van het hcht te geven , op dat sy alle door hem gelooven zouden. ' Hy en was het licht niet , maer om getuygenisse te geven van het licht. ^ Dit was het waeragtig licht , het welk alle menschen verlicht , komende in deze wereldt. '" Hy was in de wereldt , en de wereldt is door hem gemaekt , en de wereldt en heeft hem niet gekent , " Hy quam in syn eyge , en de syne en namen hem niet aen. '^ Maer aen alle , die hem aengenomen hebben , heeft hy de magt vergunt van kinderen Godts te worden , aen hen , die in synen naem gelooven. " Welke niet uyt den bloede , noch uyt den wille des vleesch , noch uyt den wille des mans , maer uyt Godt geboren zyn. '* En het Woordt is vleesch geworden , en heeft onder ons gewoont : en wy hebben syne glorie gezien, een glorie als van den eenig-geboren des Vaders, vol van gratie en waerheyt. ON THE FLEMISH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Flemish, though merely a dialectic variety of the Dutch, is entitled to prior consideration on account of its being the older dialect of the two. It is spoken m East and West Flanders, in Antwerp, and in part of Limburg, the coUective population of which, according to the last census, is about 2,000,000.' It is also spolien in the arrondissements of Brussels and Louvain, in Brabant, and even in parts of the neighbouring departments of France. In the other provinces of the kingdom of Belgium, (namely, Liege, Namur, Hainauit, part of Luxem burg, and the arrondissement of Nivelles in Brabant,) WaUoon, which is derived from the French of the thirteenth century, is spoken. German is extensively spoken in portions of Luxemburg and Limburg ; but Modern French is the language of the court, of the legislature, and of general litera ture throughout Belgium. It is extensively cultivated by the educated classes, and even in the proper Flemish provinces, all government notices are drawn up in French as weU as in Flemish. The dominant religion in Belgium is Eoman Catholicism: during the frightful persecutions of the Duke of Alva, under PhUip IL of Spain, the Protestants of Belgium, having no alternative between recanta tion and martyrdom, fled the country; and it was not untU the period of the French revolution that Protestantism was even tolerated. Characteristics op the Language. — One language, sometimes called the Belgic, a branch of the Platt-Deutsch, or Low German, was originally common to the people of HoUand and Belgium. It was introduced into this country by various Germanic tribes, among whom may be mentioned as the most remarkable the Batavi, celebrated as the brave allies of the Eomans, and the Saxons and 1 M'CuUoch's Dictionary of Geography, vol. i. p. 33?. 166 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Salian Franks, who, on the faU of the Eoman empire, dispossessed the Batavi, and established them selves in their territories. The Belgse, from whom the whole country received its ancient denomina tion, are by some regarded as a Celtic, and by others as a Germanic, race; while others contend that they were a mixed race of borderers. It is, however, generally admitted that the present language of the Netherlands results from the coalescence of the petty dialects of numerous tribes of Germanic extraction, among whom the country was subdivided. In the thirteenth century, the language then predominant in Holland as well as in Flanders, received the appellation of Flemish on account of the flourishing state of the Flemings, and the superior diction and grammatical accuracy of their writers; and by this name it continued to be frequently designated until the language we now caU the Dutch, from being a mere provincial dialect of the Flemish, acquired the dignity of a written and pohshed tongue. " Even at the present day," says a recent writer, " Flemish appears nothing more than the Dutch of the preceding century." Flemish differs from Dutch chiefly in orthography and pro nunciation ; and owing, perhaps, to the great ascendancy of the French language in Belgium, it has adopted many French words. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — The earhest specimen of the lan guage of the Netherlands, is by some thought to be a translation of the Psalms, made about A.D. 800, and published by Von der Hagen at Breslaw, in 1816, under the title of '¦'' Nieder deutsche Psaltnen."^ Brandt, in his History of the Eeformation, speaks of certain Protestants in the Netherlands turning the Scriptures into Low Dutch rhymes, in the early part of the thirteenth century, " according to the custom of these ages, and in imitation of the Old Germans, who used to record their most memorable transactions in verse." ^ A prose version of the Scriptures is also said to have been executed about the year 1300, and Le Long gives the following short list of ancient MSS.: — 1. Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, four Books of Kings, Tobit, Daniel, Judith, Esdras, Esther, and Maccabees, in Belgic; folio. In the Colbert Library. 2. Four Gospels, written 1472. In the Bodleian Library. 3. Epistles of Paul, the Acts, and the Apocalypse; also in the Bodleian Library. 4. Apocalypse in the Brabant (or Flemish) language. In the Basle Library. The first printed edition of the Belgic, or Flemish, Bible appears to have been that pubhshed m two volumes, folio, at Cologne in 1475 : it was reprinted in folio, in two volumes, at Delft in 1477, and again at Gouda, in folio, in 1479. It is unknown when the translation was executed; Le Long says, that the text is the same as that of 1300. It is evidently translated from the Latin Vulgate, and the Gouda edition of 1479 contains several fabulous narratives intermixed with the text. Other editions were printed at Antwerp in 1518 and 1525. In 1526 another translation of the Scriptures into Belgic was made by several learned men, whose names, unfortunately, have not been transmitted to us, and was published at Antwerp. It seems to have been collated with such parts of Luther's version as had then been published; and in later editions was rendered stiU more conformable to that celebrated version. The printer, Jacob a Lies- veldt, published several successive editions of this Belgic translation at Antwerp, but he was at last condemned and beheaded, because, in the annotations of one of his Bibles, he had said that " the salvation of mankind proceeds from Christ alone." ^ The next edition was that of the Old Testament by William Vosterman, who represented it as having been printed from a very carefully corrected translation of the Latin text ; but Le Long says, that " it sometimes departs from Luther's version, and in other cases follows it." The Old Testament was published at Antwerp, in foUo, in 1528, and the New Testament in 1531, and again in 1533. This edition was followed by others, almost too numerous to be here specified. Many of these editions were afterwards prohibited by the Inquisition, and their continued publication was suspended by the edict of Charles V. in 1546, which ordered " that none should presume to print any books unless they first obtained from the emperor a license for exercising the trade of a printer, &c., on pam of death." It was, however, found impossible to withhold the Scriptures from the people, and certain divines of the University of Louvain took upon themselves the task of revising and correcting the Belgic version according to the last revision of the Latin Vulgate. Nicholas von Wingh, a regular canon of Louvain, was the principal conductor of this work: an edition of the whole Bible was 1 Bosworth's Dictionary ofthe Anglo-Saxon, Preface, p. xcvi. 2 Townley's IUustrations, vol. i. p. 452. 3 Townley's mustrations, vol. ii. pp. 348, 353. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] FLEMISH. 167 pubhshed by him and his assistants in folio at Louvain and Cologne In 1548. This version was examined and approved by learned doctors of the faculty of theology of Louvain, deputed by Charles v.; and it was published under the sanction of that emperor. After numerous editions of this version had been issued at Antwerp, it was revised and corrected by the doctors of Louvain, according to the text of the Vulgate, as revised by order of Pope Clement VIII. This revised translation was printed at the celebrated Plantin press, at Antwerp, in 1599; again at Cologne in 1604, and at Antwerp, 1626: and it may, perhaps, be regarded as the standard Flemish version. Several other revised editions of this version followed. In 1717 another version of the Belgic Scriptures was pubUshed with short notes on difficult passages, by (Egidius Wit, a Gherit divine. This version chiefly follows the Vulgate, but in certain parts the original texts have been consulted: the idiom in which it is written is that of the provinces of Flanders and Brabant. About the same time another translation of the Belgic Bible was commenced by Andrew Scurrius of Gorcum, licentiate of the University of Louvain. Two volumes were printed at Utrecht in 1715, 1717: but the death of the translator in 1719 put an end to the work, when he had carried it only as far as the Second Book of Kings. It is said to be in the purest dialect of the Flemish. Several other translations of the whole, or parts, of the Scriptures into Flemish might be enumerated, but Uttle is known concerning them beyond the mere name of the translator, and date of execution. In 1689-90 a Flemish version was published at Emmerick, which had been made by Andrew Vander Schuren, from the French edition of Mons, the first edition of De Sacy's French version. This version went through several editions at Emmerick and at Antwerp. Another Flemish translation according to the Vulgate was printed at Antwerp in 17 17, and again at Utrecht in 1718. This is the last Flemish version mentioned by Le Long. In 1820, in accordance with the wishes of the people, permission was given by the Archbishop of MaUnes to an individual to print an edition of the Flemish New Testament, translated by Maurentorf, without note or comment, for the use of the Eoman Catholics ; and it was at the same time stated that no such edition had been printed since the year 1717. The edition, sanctioned by the archbishop, appeared at Brussels about the year I82I ; and an edition of the whole Bible was printed at the same time firom the Louvain edition of 1599. This latter edition found a wide circulation, the Bible having, from the scarcity of copies, becorae almost an unknown book in the Flemish provinces. It does not appear that the British and Foreign Bible Society granted any assistance in the publication of this edition; but owing to its favourable reception, an edition consisting of 2656 copies was printed by order, it is generaUy supposed, of that Society at Brussels in 1825. It was printed from the Antwerp edition of the Flemish Testament published in I7I7, and in the same I2mo. form. Owing however to the overthrow of the Orange family, and the consequent increased influence of the priests, this edition remained very much as a dead stock upon the hands of the Society, until the arrival of Mr. W. P. Tiddy in the country about the year 1833. Affected with the state of Belgium, and its awful destitution of the Scriptures, he made several applications for small supplies in French and Flemish, which were cheerfuUy granted. At length, in 1835, he was invited to settle at Brussels as the agent of the Society, when he very soon disposed of the remaining copies of the Flemish Testament. A second edition of the Flemish Testament, of 8000 copies, was printed under his superintendence at Brussels in 1837, followed by a third edition of the Testament, and an edition of the entire Bible. The total number of copies issued by the Society have been 5000 Bibles, and 70,350 Testaments. DUTCH. SPECIMEN OF THE DUTCH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. In den beginne was het Woord, en het Woord was bij God, en het Woord was God. ^ Dit was in den beginne bij God. * Alle dingen zijn door hetzelve gemaakt, en zonder hetzelve is geen ding gemaakt, dat gemaakt is. ^ In hetzelve was het leven, en het leven was het licht der menschen. * En het licht schijnt in de duisternis, en de duisternis heeft hetzelve niet begrepen. ® Er was een mensch van God gezonden, wiens naam was Johannes. ' Deze kwam tot eene getuigenis, om van het licht te getuigen, opdat zij aUen door hem gelooven zouden. ^ Hij was het licht niet, maar was gezonden, opdat hij van het licht getuigen zou. ^ Dit was het waarachtige licht, hetwelk verlicht een' iegelijk mensch, komende in de wereid. '° Hij was in de wereid, en de wereid is door hem gemaakt ; en de wereid heeft hem niet gekend. " Hij is gekomen tot het zijne, en de zijnen hebben hem niet aangenomen. '^ Maar zoo velen hem aangenomen hebben, dien heeft hij magt gegeven kinderen Gods te worden, namelijk die in zijnen naam gelooven ; '^ Welke niet uit den bloede, noch uit den wil des vleesches, noch uit den wil des mans, maar uit God geboren zijn. '* En het Woord is vleesch geworden, en heeft onder ons gewoond (en wij hebben zijne heerlijkheid aanschouwd, eene heerlijkheid als des eeniggeborenen van den Vader), vol van genade en waarheid. ON THE DUTCH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical. Extent and Statistics. — Dutch is a language spoken by aU classes of society in Holland. This kingdom comprises the territories which formerly belonged to the Seven United Provinces ; and its total area, including Dutch Limburg and Dutch Luxemburg, is 13,598 square miles. The population, according to the last census, is 2,915,396. The number of Eoman Cathohcs in PloUand has been estimated at from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000: the majority ofthe Protestants belong to the Calvinistic or Dutch Eeformed Church, which is similar in many respects to the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. There are, likewise, considerable numbers of Lutherans, Eemonstrants, and Mennonites in Holland ; all sects are freely tolerated ; and the Church and State having been separated since 1816, the teachers of every denomination can receive pay from the State. The Dutch language is also spoken to a great extent in Southern Africa, which was formerly under the dominion of Holland : it is Ukewise spoken, more or less, in Java, the Moluccas, and the other Dutch colonies, and among the Dutch colonists of the United States. Characteristics op the Language. — Except in orthography and pronunciation, Dutch, in almost every respect, resembles the Flemish language. Like Flemish, it is very rich in compound words, which it forms freely from its own indigenous roots : it possesses more terms of Latin origin than the German,' though fewer than the EngUsh ; and being derived, like the English, from the low German stem, many of its words present a remarkable analogy to the corresponding English terms. In pronunciation it is more guttural than the Flemish, and even than the German ; but although neither soft or musical, it is sonorous and emphatic: " it has not," says Dr. Bowring, " the beauties of the voweUed idioms of the South, but it has beauties they can never possess ; and especially in the ' Meidinger's Diet, des Langues Teuto-Gothiques, p. xxxiii. Indo-Eueopean Languages. 1 DUTCH ,„^ ¦^ ' 169 variety and grace of its diminutives (a quaUty in which our language is singularly deficient) it mav be compared vnth the richest among them." ° j j' j _ Versions op the Scriptures in this Language.— It has been remarked, that the ex perience ot the Dutch churches m the production of a standard version has been rather similar to our own, for, Uke us_, they had long to wait before the great work could be completed. The first Dutch version, concermng which any thing is accurately known, was a bad translation of Luther's German version, made about the middle of the sixteenth century, by aurclder of the Eeformed Church, at Embden. The necessity of procurmg an improved version was pubUcly discussed as early as 1571 and seems tohave occupied the attention of aU the synods of the Dutch churches from that period till 1618. Pohtical troubles, however, drew the pubhc funds into another channel ; and it was not tUl the famous Synod of Dort, in 1618-19, that actual preparations were made for the immediate commencement of a new translation. Six translators and eight revisers for the Old, and as many for the New Testament, were chosen by the votes of the Dutch members of the synod ; and the States General were requested to undertake the expense of the work. In the directions delivered to the translators, the _ foremost were, — "That they should adhere religiously to the origmal text, and sohcitously retaui the yery phrases of the original tongues, so far as perspicuity and the idiom of the Dutch language permitted ; and that in supplying ellipses, when the sense actuaUy required it, they should use as few words as possible; and express those in the text by a different character, and included in brackets, that they might be distinguished from the text itself.'" The translators of the Old Testament entered upon _ their work at Leyden, in 1626, and held daily meetmgs, which they invariably commenced with prayer. The translation of the New Testament was conducted in the same sphit of prayer; it was commenced in 1628, and finished in 1634: the translation of the Old Testament was cornpleted in 1632. Each book was printed as soon as finished, and a copy was sent to each of the revisers. The revision of the Old Testament was begun in 1633, and completed in 1634. Six hours daily were devoted to the work, and the revisers commenced each meeting with prayer, and ended with thanksgiving ; those who were not punctual in attendance were fined a smaU sum, which was given to the poor. The revisers of the New Testament commenced their undertaking in 1634, and during the latter part of the year which they devoted to it, the plague was raging at Leyden; yet, although their meetings were held in a room overlooking a churchyard, in which mterments were continually taking place, not one of their number was attacked by the disease. It is also remarkable, that none of the translators long survived the completion of the work. It may have been that the arduous nature of the undertaking tended to abridge their lives, for, although they were aU men of great Uterary attainments, many of them declared that they had never before laboured as they did at the translation of the Bible. The first edition was printed at Leyden, in 1637. The Eemonstrants, who were foUowers of Arminius, and vehemently opposed to the translators in their reUgious opinions, deputed four of thefr most learned men to examine the translation. After strict investigation, they were so struck with the faithfulness and accuracy of the version, that they adopted it as their own, and the Old Testament has been in use among the Eemonstrants ever since. After the lapse of more than forty years, a version of the New Testament was executed expressly for thefr use by Christian Hartsoeker, an Arminian minister, at Eotterdam. It was printed at Amsterdam in 1680 ; but although professedly a new translation from the Greek, it chiefly foUows the version of the synod. The orthography of the established version was altered in one edition, according to the system introduced in 1806 by Professor Siegenbeek, and which received the sanction of the govemment. The Eev. Henry Cats, minister of the Dutch Eeformed Church at Leyden, was employed to effect the necessary alterations ; but he died before he had finished the work, and it was completed by Professor Van Hengel ; and the revised edition appeared in 4to. in 1834. Siegenbeek's system has since fallen into disrepute, and has not been adopted in subsequent editions. This beautiful and emphatic version stiU retains its place, as the authorised text of the Dutch Church ; but a new translation has, since been made, in the modern style and orthography, by the learned Professor Van der Palm, of Leyden : it was pubUshed in 1825, and though not adopted in churches, it is greatly esteemed and extensively used.^ Another translation, which, however, included only the Gospel of Matthew and the Epistle to the Eomans, was made from the Greek, by Adam Boreel, of Zealand: it was pubhshed at Amsterdam in 1693, with the Greek text. ' Christian Review, vol. 1. ^ Bosworth's Diet, ofthe Anglo-Saxon, p. cix. 24 170 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Within the last two or three years the Netherlands Bible Society appointed a commission to modernise the orthography of the Bible, and the alterations which were introduced both in spelhng and in some points of grammar were considerable. All the editions of that Society are now printed with these alterations. Several editions of the authorised Dutch version have been issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Their first edition, consisting of 5000 copies ofthe New Testament, appeared in 1809; and was designed primarily for the Dutch prisoners of war in this country, and eventually for the Dutch settlements and colonies. Considerable numbers of these copies were forwarded to the Cape of Good Hope, and were most thankfully received ; for it was ascertained, that not a single Dutch Bible could be had for money throughout that extensive colony. On receipt of this inteUigence, the Society immediately commenced a large edition of the entire Dutch Bible. The total number of copies issued by the Society up to the present year (1849) amounts to 91,395 Bibles, 450,104 Testaments, and 5000 Psalters.' The Netherlands Bible Society has distributed since its formation altogether 378,667 copies. Eesults op the Dissemination op this Version. — During the last five years no less than 236,000 copies of the Scriptures have been sold in Holland by colporteurs, and many instances have been reported of the blessing of God accompanying their perusal. A colporteur, labouring in Drenthe and Groningen, met with an instance in which one New Testament had been blessed to several persons. A Eoman Catholic family, in whose house there were continual quarrels before the introduction of the Scriptures, now live in peace and harmony. The parents, through the power of the word, have become converted characters. "We have evidence," it is further stated in the last Eeport, "that the work in Holland has been blessed by the Lord. Many who, when first offered the Scriptures, mocked or insulted the colporteurs, have more lately purchased them with avidity. Others, who were remarkable for their awful oaths, have become humble worshippers of the Uving God. At Eotterdam, and in the environs, there has been a great revival, through the distribution of the Bible." ^ Eecent issues ofthe Dutch Scriptures by the British and Foreign Bible Society to the Cape have been very large, and have been attended with a great blessing to the colony, particularly in schools. 1 Fortj-.tifth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 51. 2 Forty.flfth Report of the Biitish and Foreign Bible Society, p. xliv. ALEMANNIC, OE OLD HIGH GERMAN. SPECIMEN OF OLD TEUTONIC. FROM OTFRID'S " HARMONY," IN SCHILTER'S " THES. ANT. TEUTONICARUM. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I, &c. Er alien uuorolt kreftin, joh engilo gisceftin. So rumo oiih so mahton, man ni mag gidrahton Er so ioh himil uuurti, joh erda ouh so herti. Ouh uuiht in thiu gifuarit thaz siu ellu thriu ruarit So uuas io uuort uuonanti, er alien zitin uuorolti. Thaz uuir nu sehen ofFan, thaz uuas thanne ungiscafan. Er alleru anagifti theru Druhtines giscefti. So uuas iz mit gilusti in theru Druhtines brusti. Iz uuas mit Druhtine sar, ni brast imo es io thar. Ante omnes mundi vires, et Angelos creates Tum spatium tum potentias, nemo potest concipere, Antequam coelum factum ac terra atque mare horridum, Et quicquid in his productum, quod hsec omnia tria movet, Erat verbum habitans ante omnia secula mundi. Gluse nunc conspicimus palam erant tunc nondum creata. Ante principium omnium Domini creaturarum, Erat id cum jucunditate in Domini pectore. Erat cum Domino ilhco nec defecit ipsi unquam. ON THE ALEMANNIC LANGUAGE AND HAEMONY OF THE GOSPELS. This ancient language was spoken by a people of the Teutonic, or High German race, who at one period of their history were called the Suevi, or Suabians, probably from their having settled near the Baltic, then known as the Mare Suevicum, or Suabian Sea. In the beginning of the thfrd century they migrated to the borders of the Eoman empire, between the Danube, the Ehine, and the Main, and they there associated themselves with other Germanic tribes, forming a confederacy to which the designation of Alemannic was subsequently applied.' The modern Germans, who are partly descended from these confederated tribes, are still caUed Alemanni (or Allemands) by the French and Spanish. This language appears to have been in use from the sixth to the eleventh or twelfth century, nor can it even yet be said to be extinct, for it is still spoken with shght modifications in the north of Switzerland, Alsace, the grand duchy of Baden, Wurtemburg, Bavaria, the Tyrol, and Styria. In this ancient dialect we can distinctly trace the rudiments of the modem German ; its chief pecuUarities consist in the prevalence of the first vowel a, which is generaUy used in cases where the modern Germans use e ; and in the general substitution of the diphthong au for the German o. 1 Bosworth's Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon, Preface, p. cxx. 172 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. The earliest and most important monument of this language which has been transmitted to our times, is a Harmony of the Gospels, composed by Otfrid, a Benedictine monk of Weissenburg in Alsace, about the year 870. We are told of this Otfrid that " he was profoundly versed in the know ledge of the Holy Scriptures, and extensively acquainted with literature in general ; a philosopher, a rhetorician, and a famous poet ; eloquent in speech, and excellent in disposition." His Harmony is written in verse, and is the first German poem in which rhyme is introduced, for, in all previous poetical compositions, alliteration is adopted instead of rhyme. His motive in composing it was, as he himself tells us, to provide a substitute for the vain and worldly songs which his countrymen were in the habit of singing. This Harmony can scarcely be caUed a translation, for although it relates the facts of the Saviour's Ufe as recorded by the four evangehsts, yet the events are not ranged in chronological order, but seem to be related as they occurred to the memory of the writer. There are three MSS. of this work extant, preserved at Munich, Heidelberg, and Vienna. It was first printed at Basle in 1571, and in Schiller's Thes. vol. i. with Scherz's annotations. It was afterwards pubhshed at Bonn in 1821 ; and again at Konigsberg in I83I, under the title o£ Krist.^ The gradual transition of Alemannic into pure High German may be traced by means of the Alemannic version of the Psalms, executed by Notker, abbot of St. GaUen, in Switzerland. He is said to have undertaken the work for the benefit of the monks under his care, that they might under stand what they read. This Notker is distinguished from others of the same name by the surname of Labeo, given to him on account ofhis thick lips. He died in 1022. Besides the Psalms he translated the book of Job, but this version is lost. His translation of the Psalms is in prose, and is much valued on account of its grammatical accuracy, its eloquence, and its faithfulness. It was pubhshed by Schilter, in his Thesaurus, at Ulm, 1726. The Paraphrase of the Canticles, by WiUeram, may be here mentioned. WiUeram was abbot of Ebersberg in Bavaria, and died 1085. Between the years 1070 and 1084 he composed a prose para phrase of the Canticles in the Francic, (a dialect akin to the Alemannic,) accompanied by a rhythmical Latin version. This work was published at Leyden in 1598, edited by P. Morula, and at Worms in 1631, under the editorship of F. Vogelin. It also appeared in Schilter's Thesaurus; and was again published by Hofiiaan, at Breslaw, in 1827. • Bosworth's Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon, Preface, p. cxxx. GEEMAN. SPECIMEN OF THE GEEMAN VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap, i, v. I to 14. LuTHEE, Leipsic, 1825. 3m5lnfang rear baS aSort, unb bag SBort wor itt) ©ott, unb ®ott wax bag SBort. 2 Sajfettige war im Qtnfang ficij ©ott. 3 9lHe ©inge finb bur^^ baffeliige gemad^t, unb o|ine bajfelbige iji nic^tg gemaekt, wog gemaekt i|i. 4 3n i:§m war bog itlm, unb bog Se6en war bog Stc^t ber aJJcnfii^en. 5 Unb bog Sic^t f^einet in ber jjinjiemif, unb bie ginjiemi^ l^ofcen eg nii^t iegrifen. 6 eg wot ein STOenf^ Don ©ott gefonbt, ber :^ief 3o^anneg. 7 3)er[et6tge fom jum 3eugnif , bof er Don bem Si^t jeugete, auf baf fie otte burc^ i^n gtoufiten. 8 (Sr war nic^t bag Sic^t, fonbem bof er jeugete Son bem 2ic§t. 9 Sag mor bog wa:^r:^oftige Sic^t, wel(^eg oHe 3Renfi^en etleuc^tet, bie in biefe aBett tommen. 10 m mx in ber aSelt, unb bie SBelt ifi hmd) bof= feffiigc gentad^tj unb bie SBelt fonnte eg nic^t. 11 ®r !om in fein @tgent|)um, unb bie ©einen nol^men i^n nid^t auf. 12 3Bte tiiele i^n aSer oufno^men, benen go6 er 3Kac^t, ©ottcg .Rinber p werben, bie on feinen Stamen gtouien. 13 SBel^e nic^t son bem ©etliit, no^ Son bem SBitten ks iJIeif^eg, no(i^ Oon bem SBillen eineg SKonneg, fonbem Son ®ott geioren finb. 14 Unb bog SBort worb Sleifc^, unb wo^nete unter ung, unb wir fo^en feine -gerrlic^feit, eine «§errlic^feit dm fern of ©ube etn fiotnet. i* Dg otbeb Oot t)otlb, og fii^gbe meb ofg, og Oer fdum l^ong bS)tb, b^tb foo fent elngetlng fonat of f;Sbutnum, futtann ndbot og fonnlelfo. ON THE NOESE, OE ICELANDIC, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Iceland lies on the confines ofthe polar circle, and comprises an area which has been roughly estimated at 30,000 square miles. Its population in 1834 was 56,000. The island was first peopled about the year 874, by refugees from Norway, who fled thither to escape the tyranny of Harald Harfager, or the Fair-haired, king of Norway. In the course of the next half century, all the inhabitable parts of Iceland became occupied by Scandinavian settlers ; and, about 928, the inhabitants established a republic, which form of government subsisted till 1275, when Iceland became subject to Norway. On the annexation of that kingdom to Denmark, Iceland was transferred with it ; and the island is now governed by a stiftamtman, or govemor, appointed by the king of Denmark. The established church in Iceland is the Lutheran, under one bishop and 300 clergy. A dialect of Norse was formerly spoken in the isles of Orkney and Shetland, but aU vestiges of it have now disappeared. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The ancient language of the Scandinavians was planted in Iceland by the Norwegian refugees, in the ninth century. The insular and remote position of Iceland, and its consequent isolation from foreign intercourse, have caused the language to be pre served in the utmost purity ; and so few are the changes wMch the lapse of ages have effected in its structure, that the humblest Icelandic peasant can read and understand the most ancient written docu ments extant in the island. By means of the Icelandic, the connexion of the Scandinavian with the Teutonic languages is distinctly to be traced. The Old Danish, or Scandinavian, now the Uving language of Iceland, was intimately connected with the Gothic, Alemannic, Francic, and other cognate dialects, so that the members of these nations were intelUgible to each other without the aid of inter preters ;' and in the " Young Edda," a compilation of the eleventh century, it is said of the Anglo- Saxons and the Icelanders, wer erum einnar tungu, " we are of one tongue." The aspiration of the consonants I and w is an infallible characteristic of the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and Icelandic knguages : these peculiar sounds cannot be enunciated by Germans or Danes ; and, except in the province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden, they are now no longer to be heard in the Scandinavian peninsula. 1 Meidinger's Diet, des Langues Teuto-Gothiques, p. xxviii. 25 178 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Veesions op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — No version of the Scriptures was made in Icelandic before the Eeformation, although an ancient compendium of scriptural history, entitled the Stiorn, has sometimes been mistaken for a biblical translation. Oddur Gotshalkson, son of a bishop of Holum, in Iceland, was the instrument chosen by God to impart to his countrymen the first version of the Bible in their own language. Oddur was educated in Norway ; and, happily for himself and for Iceland, he remained abroad till the doctrines of the Eeformation began to excite a general sensation throughout the North of Europe. His own attention was forcibly arrested by the truths which were then unfolded ; and we are told that, for three successive nights, he prostrated him self half-naked before the Father of lights, beseeching him to open the eyes of his understanding, and to show him whether the principles of Eome or those of Luther were from heaven. The result of his prayers and meditations was a deep-rooted conviction that the cause of the reformer was the cause of God ; and with the view of obtaining further information he repaired to Germany, and attended the lectures of Luther and Melanchthon. On his return to Iceland he entered upon a translation of the Scriptures ; and, to avoid persecution, he commenced his important labours in a small cell in a cow house. He completed a version of the New Testament in 1539 ; but finding it impossible, from the state of pubUc opimon, to print it in Iceland, he sailed for Denmark, and published it at Copenhagen, under the patronage of Christian III. The translation was made from the Vulgate, except in a few passages where Oddur mistrusted that version, and where he consequently followed Luther. Besides the New Testament, Oddur is beUeved to have translated part of the Old Testament ; but the only portion of this latter translation which he committed to the press was the 53rd chapter of Isaiah, printed with some short expository notes, at Copenhagen, in 1558. AU his translations were pubhshed at his own private expense. In 1562, Olaf Hialteson, the first Lutheran bishop of Holum, published the Gospels and Epistles in the order appointed to be read in churches : this was chiefly a reprint from Oddur's version. In 1580, the Proverbs of Solomon and the Book of Sirach were published at Holum, translated, it is supposed, by Gissur Eincerson, the first Lutheran bishop of Skalholt. This version of the Proverbs was made from Luther's translation, except in a few passages where it foUows the Vulgate. At length, in 1584, the entire Bible was printed in Icelandic at Holum. The work was con ducted by Gudbrand Thorlakson, bishop of Holum. It is not known what share this prelate had in the translation ; the Old Testament was evidently executed by several hands, but the whole was revised and corrected by Gudbrand ; and the New Testament, and such portions of the Old as had been translated by Oddur Gotshalkson, were adopted. The edition consisted of 1000 copies, smaU foho ; the expense of which was defrayed partly by a munificent donation from Frederic II. of Denmark, and partly by the collection of a rix-doUar from every church in the island. This version has been called " a faithful mirror of Luther's German version," and, on account of the purity of its diction, it is stiU held in high estimation. Another edition of the New Testament was published at Holum, by Bishop Gudbrand, in 1609, " revised and corrected according to the best translations that could be obtained." A revised edition of this version was published at Holum, in 1644, by Thorlak Skuleson, the grandson of Gudbrand, and his successor in the episcopate. 'The expense was partly defrayed by Christian IV. of Denmark, and he directed the bishop to remodel the version according to the Danish translation of Eesenius. But as the peculiar renderings of Eesenius are only adopted in a few isolated passages of this revision. Dr. Henderson has conjectured that the old version was rendered conformable chiefly to the Danish Bible, published at Copenhagen in 1633, which follows Luther's version. The text of this Icelandic edition may be considered as exhibiting the version now in standard use. Another Icelandic Bible was pubhshed in 1728, under the inspection of Stein Jonson, bishop of Holum. He obtained from Frederic IV., of Denmark, a renewal of the grants made to his predeces sors, of raising a rix-doUar from every church in aid of its pubhcation : but instead of printing the text of the former edition, he was enjoined to make a new translation from the Danish Bible, printed at the Orphan-house, Copenhagen. In complying with this injunction, the bishop followed the Danish version with so much servihty, that his work, when complete, was found to be full of Danicisms, and scarcely inteUigibie to the Icelanders. It never obtained much cfrculation, and is stiU considered the worst edition of the Icelandic Bible. In 1747, the fourth edition of the Icelandic Bible was published at Copenhagen, and the edition of 1644 was adopted as the text. This was foUowed, in 1^50, by an edition of 2000 New Testaments in Svo. This supply of Bibles was not, however, sufficient to meet the wants of the population of Iceland ; Indo-Eubopean Langitages.] ICELANDIC. I79 and, in 1806, information was transmitted to the British and Foreign Bible Society, to the eff'ect, that although the island scarcely contamed one person in a hundred, above the age of twelve or fourteen, who could not read, yet that the Scriptures were no longer to be obtained for money; and that, as the only press of which the Icelanders were possessed had not been used for many years, they had to resort to the tardy expedient of transcribing books ;' and, moreover, that not above forty or flfty copies of the Bible were to be found throughout Iceland. An edition of the Bible, consisting of 5000 copies, printed from the approved text of 1644, was accordingly undertaken, chiefly at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society: it was carried through the press under the dfrection of Justiciary ThorkeUn, privy-keeper of the royal archives of Copenhagen, and himself a native of Ice land. The impression was_ completed at Copenhagen in 1807, and 1500 copies were immediately sent to Iceland. The remaining copies narrowly escaped destruction at the bombardment of Copen hagen, where they were preserved in the midst of a conflagration which laid almost every thing on the spot in ashes.^ In 1812, in the midst of the war between Great Britain and Denmark, permission was given to the Eev. Dr. Henderson to reside at Copenhagen, with every requisite privilege, for the purpose of Jubhshing another edition of the Icelandic Bible : this concession was obtained from the king of )enmark, through the medium of a Danish member of the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society. In the course of the year 1813, an edition of 5000 Bibles, and 5000 additional New Testaments, was printed at Copenhagen, under the direct superintendence of Dr. Henderson, from the text of 1644, or rather from the reprint of 1747. The Edinburgh Bible Society, the Fuhnen Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society, and some friends in Holstein, combined to defray the expenses ofthe edition. Before Dr. Henderson quitted Copenhagen in 1814, he had the satisfaction of seeing the formation of a society for the purpose of furnishing Iceland with adequate supplies of the Scrip tures. The first efforts of the Society were directed to a thorough revision of the existing Icelandic text, but some time appears to have elapsed before they issued a fresh edition. In the Eeport for 1841, it is stated that a version of the Bible was then being printed in the island, and that the type was of large size, adapted to the use of the Icelanders, who, owing to the high latitude of their island, are for the most part obhged to read by lamplight.* ' Owen's Hist, of British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. ii. p. 221 . 2 Owen's Hist, of British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. ii. p. 221 . 3 Thirty-seventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. li. BANISH. SPECIMEN OF THE DANISH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. [Cheistiania, 1848.] 3 Seg^nbetfen oot Otbet, og Dtbet oat ^og @ub, og Dtbet oot ®ub. ^ ©et Oot i aSeg!?nbetfen :^og ®ub. ^ Me Sing ete Oeb bet fiteone tit; og uben bet et life enb een enefie (Sing) fiteOen tit (of bet), fom et fiteoen tit. * 3 bet oat SiO, og :eiOet oot sKenneftetg Ssjg. ^ Dg )iS)fet fflnnet I 3K(3tfet, og M0xUt fattebe bet life. ^ <^„ fiteO et a»ennefte ubfenbt of ®ub ; Ijan t)ebte Sol^onneg. ^ Senne lorn tit et SSlbnegfiijtb, at l^on flutbe Olbne om S^fet, :|5aa bet at ttte ffutbe troe Oeb :^om. ^ -gon Oot Iffe S^fet, men (fom fot) ot '^on ffutbe Olbne om itijfet. » Set Oot bet fonbe Ssjg, fom o:pI^fet ^oett SKenneffe, bet lommet tit SSetben. i" -§on Oot t 3Setben, og aSetben et fiteoen tit Oeb 'i)am, og SBetben fjenbte ^om Iffe. " <§fln fom tit fit %t, og (^ong) @gne onnommebe ^om Iffe. ^^ SKen foo 3Konge fom 'i)am annani» mebc, bem ^oOet :^an gloet SKogt ot fitloe ®ubg SSjJtn, bent, fom ttoe ijiaa f)anB 0laOn; ^^ -gbitfe iffe ete f0bte of aStob, ei lietlet of .Sj^bg aSiltle, el pellet of sKonbg aSltlle, men of ®ub. " Dg Dtbet fiteo -ffjpb, og fioebe tfitonbt og,— og til fooe ^ong -gettlg^eb, en -gettlg'^eb, fom ben Senfiootneg of Sabeten,— futb of 0loabe og ©onbl^eb. ON THE DANISH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The superficial area of the Danish territories, exclusive of Iceland and the Faroe Isles, has been estimated at 21,856 square mUes. The entire population at the last census, February 1840, was 2,406,800, divided as foUows : — Denmark Proper ... . 1,355,000 Duchy of Slesvig .... 348,526 Duchy of Holstein 455,093 Lauenborg 43,342 Danish is the language of Denmark Proper; in Slesvig the Danish, German, and Frislc are aU found; and in Holstein, German prevails. Danish is, likewise, the vernacular tongue of the Norwegians, who, in 1835, numbered 1,194,827 individuals. Lutheranism is the estabhshed religion of the Danish states, but all others are tolerated. It has been computed that there are 8000 Jews in Denmark, 2330 Eoman CathoUcs, 1600 Calvinists, 678 Hemhutters or Moravians, and 30 members of the AngUcan Church.' Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — "We have already shown that the Norse, or Old Danish tongue, embalmed among the snow and ice of Iceland, has been preserved ahnost in its pristine purity from the ninth to the present century; but this ancient language has in its parent country undergone so many alterations, that an Icelander and a Dane, speaking in their respective dialects, are utterly unintelligible to each other. So great, indeed, is the divergence of the modem idioms of Denmark and Sweden from the parent stem, that the language of the Edda has not been understood for at least four hundred years, by Swedes or Danes, without previous study. These modern dialects are, however, stiU distinguished from the other branches of the Teutonic family by the possession of a passive voice, and of two articles, one of which is prefixed, and the other affixed, to nouns. In point of pronunciation the Danish is considered the softest language in Europe, the consonants being pro nounced so softly as to be almost imperceptible. • Seventeenth Report of the British Association, p. (jO. Indo-Etjbopean Languages.] DANISH. 18i Veesions op the Sceiptuees in this Language.— The earhest translation of any portion of the Scriptures into Danish is contained in a MS. preserved in the Eoyal Library of Copenhagen, supposed to have been written in the thirteenth, or beginning of the fourteenth, century. It is a servUe imitation ofthe Vulgate, and defective in several parts; it proceeds no further than the Second Book of Kings. In 1515, Pedersen, who is said to have been the first Lutheran clergyman in Zealand, pubUshed at Paris a Danish version of the Gospels and Epistles appointed to be read in churches: this work was reprinted at Leipsic in 1518. The first Danish version of the whole New Testament was made by Hans Mikkelsen, sometimes caUed John MichaeUs. It was published at Leipsic in 1524, and reprinted at Antwerp in 1529. This version was executed by the command, and under the immediate patronage of Christian II. ; "a monarch," says Dr. Henderson, "whose character earlier writers have depicted in the blackest colours, but whom posterity, though not bhnd to his faults, seems on the whole inclined to favour." Like our Henry VlIL, he seems to have been actuated less by zeal for the progress of truth than by the desire of freeing his kingdom from the domination and tyranny of Eome. During a rebeUion in Denmark, he fled for safety to Holland, and it was during his state of expatriation that he promoted the translation and publication of the New Testament. Hans Mikkelsen, the translator, was origin ally mayor of Malmoe in Scania, and afterwards secretary to Christian II. ; he voluntarily forsook his country, his connections and interests, and accompanied his sovereign into exile. When com peUed at length, by the resentment of the Catholics of the Netherlands, to quit his royal patron, he rethed to Harderwick in Guelderland, where he died about eight years after his New Testament had left the press. This version is professedly "properly translated according to the Latin;" but Dr. Henderson has shown that this designation in all probability applied only to the first part of the work which con tained the Four Gospels, and in which the Latin version of Erasmus was followed. In the Acts, and remainder of the New Testament, Mikkelsen has followed the German version of Luther so closely, that his translation is Uttle else than a verbal transmutation of Luther's.' Some writers have attempted to account for this circumstance by suggesting that Mikkelsen had probably commenced his translation before Luther's version had appeared; but that when he came to the Epistles, the first edition of Luther's version having then been pubhshed, he preferred the version of the faithful and Intrepid reformer to that of the timid and indecisive Erasmus. The language in which Mikkelsen wrote is partly Danish and partly Swedish, resembUng the dialect still spoken in his native place Scania, in the south of Sweden.^ He has arranged the books of his New Testament in the same order as in that of Luther, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, and those of James and Jude, are placed after the rest, on account of the doubt then entertained by the reformers as to their authenticity.^ In 1528, two versions of the Danish Psalms were published : the one at Eostock (by Francis Wormord, originally a Carmelite friar, but who afterwards espoused the principles of the Eeformation, and became bishop of Lund), and the other at Antwerp, by Pedersen, who has been already mentioned as the translator of the Gospels and Epistles of the church service. In his version of the Psalms, Pedersen appears to have translated both from the Hebrew text and from Jerome's translation: his diction is considered too paraphrastic, and too much accommodated to Christian sentiments ; yet the style is remarkably pure for the age in which it was written, and an admirable preface on the beauty of the Psalms enhances the value ofthe work. It was reprinted in 1531, and again in 1584 and 1586 at Copenhagen. In 1529, Pedersen translated and pubUshed the New Testament at Antwerp. This version was executed on the basis of Mikkelsen's, but it is written in a superior style, foreign words and idioms aie excluded, and a better system of orthography is adopted. The Epistle to the Hebrews here finds its proper place, but the Epistle of James is found last in order, as in Luther's version. Pedersen, however, had obtained clearer views as to the real value and importance of the Epistle of James than his predecessors, for he expresses his disapprobation of the irreverent manner in which Luther and Mikkelsen had spoken of it. This version obtained so wide a circulation that Pedersen repubhshed it at Antwerp with the Psalms in 1531. In 1535, some progress was made towards the production of a Danish version of the Old Testa ment, by the pubhcation of the Pentateuch at Magdeburg, translated by Hans Tausen, afterwards bishop of Eipen. This version was made from the Hebrew text, with constant reference to the ¦ Henderson's Dissertation on Hans Mikkelsen's Translation, p. 19. 2 Henderson's Dissertation on Hans Mikkelsen's Translation, p. 22. 3 Townley's IUustrations, vol. ii. p. 308. 182 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Vulgate and to Luther's version: it was so well received that a second edition was printed at the same place the following year. The book of Judges, translated by Peter Tideman, a clergyman of Zealand, was pubUshed at Copenhagen in 1539: it sometimes follows the Vulgate, and sometimes Luther's version. It was not till 1550 that the whole Bible was pubUshed in Danish. Denmark was indebted for this treasure to her monarch Christian III. The translation was undertaken at the suggestion of Bugenhagius, the celebrated reformer, who had been invited to the court of Copenhagen to assist in the correction of ecclesiastical abuses. The execution of the work was committed to the theological faculty at Copenhagen, then consisting of Peter Palladius, Olave Chrysostom, John Synning, and John Macchaboeus, or Macalplne. Tideman, the translator of the book of Judges, was also engaged in it; and Pedersen, the translator of the Psalms and of the New Testament above mentioned, was employed in writing out a fair copy from the several translations which were made by those appointed to the work. The version was made from that of Luther, and foUows it closely, except in a few instances, in which the translators have mistaken the meaning of the German. The first edition con sisted of 3000 copies of the entire Bible, and, to meet the expense, a tax of two rix dollars was levied on every church in Denmark. A separate edition of the New Testament of this version in 4to. was pubhAed at Wittenburg, with some slight orthographical corrections. Le Long speaks of another translation of the New Testament having been made by Jonas Turreson at Copenhagen in 1584, but Dr. Henderson expressly states that no such translation is known in Denmark. A revision ofthe entire version was undertaken in 1586 by the command of Frederick II. That monarch wrote to the rector, professors, and others of the University of Copenhagen, ordering them, " with the assistance of three of the Copenhagen preachers, to read through the version of the Bible, which had been made in the reign of his royal father ; to coUate it with the Hebrew text ; and where any defect was found, or any passage in which the true sense had not been expressed, to amend and correct it." The heads of the university appointed the most learned divines of the day to execute this important undertaking. The New Testament was revised by Nicholas Hemmingius, D.D., whose name is famous in the ecclesiastical history of Denmark for his attachment to the doctrines of Calvin. The revision of the entire Scriptures was not brought to a close tiU 1589, when an edition was issued in folio at Copenhagen, with Luther's notes. Two editions ofthe Psalms, from the version of PaUadius, were pubUshed at Copenhagen in 1591 and 1598; and, in 1599, an edition of the Psalms, in German and Danish, was pubUshed in 8vo. at Lubeck. Early in the following century some more extensive measures were taken for the spread of the divine word. An edition ofthe New Testament was issued at Copenhagen in 1604, printed from the former text, as a- temporary supply; and a royal letter was, at the same time, addressed to the rector of the university on the subject of obtaining a more correct impression. The king. Christian IV., eventually appointed Dr. Eesen, bishop of Zealand, to superintend a fresh revision of the Scrip tures. The old version was again collated with the original texts, and several European translations were consulted ; but Dr. Eesen, considering the version of Luther too free and paraphrastic, fell into the opposite error, and followed the originals too literally, without sufficiently considering the genius and properties of his own language. The New Testament was pubUshed in two volumes, I8mo., in 1605 : an edition of the Pentateuch, also in 18mo., was published the same year ; and, in 1607, the entire Bible was completed at press in 8vo. These editions were printed at Copenhagen, at the expense of the king. Several editions of the Psalms succeeded the publication of Eesen's Bible; among which was one at Copenhagen, in 8vo., 1614, and another in 1632, at the expense ofthe benevolent Lady Marsvin. An edition of the entire Bible, printed from the revised text of 1589, was pubUshed in 1633 at Copenhagen; and Le Long speaks of it as "the mater of other smaUer editions in 8vo., which the printers from that time exposed for sale." The expense of its pubhcation was borne by means of a sum levied from every church in Zealand and Norway. In 1639, the royal permission was obtained for reprinting Eesen's Bible, the former impression being completely exhausted. This edition is designated " Swaning's Bible," because it was corrected principally by Hans Swaning, archbishop of Zealand. The New Testament appeared in 1644, and the entire Bible in 1647, at Copenhagen. Another edition of this Bible was also pubUshed during the same year at Copenhagen, in six volumes, Svo. ; foUowed by several editions of the Psahns, and, in 1670, by another edition ofthe Bible in small 8vo. for common use. The College of Missions was established at Copenhagen in 1714, and Denmark was indebted to this institution for several successive editions of the Scriptures. The New Testament, from the edition Indo-Eueopean Languages.] DANISH. jgo revised by Swaning, was issued from the mission press in 1716; foUowed in 1717 and in 1720 by editions of the entire Bible, also from Swaning's text. In the preface to a Bible printed by the coUege in 1722 it is stated that, in the space of six years, 22,580 copies of the New Testament and 13,784 Bibleshad been published at the mission press. In the fire which occurred at Copenhagen in 1728 the mission press was destroyed, and the Orphan-house then obtained the exclusive privUege of prmtmg the Danish Bible; and several editions of the New Testament and of the entire Bible were pubhshed by that institution between the years 1732 and 1745. In the meantime efibrts were made to obtain a more correct and faithful edition of the Scriptures than any that had yet appeared, and a specimen of a revised edition was pubUshed in 1742, by the Committee of Eevision appointed by royal authority. In 1748, the Committee pubUshed a revised New Testament, but it is not believed that they corrected any portion of the Old Testament. About this period a specimen of a new and singular translation of the Scriptures was printed by Schwartz,_ counseUor of justice to his majesty, but he does not appear at any subsequent period to have pubhshed further portions of his translation. A translation of Habakkuk was given in 1752 by Monrad, a clergyman in Aagerup; and in 1780 a new version of the Testament was printed at Copenhagen, translated by Dr. Basthohn from the Greek, but disfigured by too servile an adlierence to the idiom of the original. Numerous other editions of the estabhshed text were printed at Copen hagen before the formation of the Danish Bible Society. The first edition of the Danish Scriptures, undertaken by the British and Foreign Bible Society, was desired for the benefit of the Danish prisoners of war, of whom there were, in 1808, no less than 2782 in this country ; and also for distribution in the Danish colonies in the East and West Indies. This edition which consisted of 5000 copies ofthe New Testament, was printed in I2mo. in 1810, from the Copen hagen edition of 1799; and the press was superintended by the Eev. W. F. Eosing, minister ofthe Danish church in London. A second edition of 5000 copies of the New Testament, in the same form was pubhshed by the Society in 1814. In the course of the following year, another revision of the Bible was commenced at Copenhagen by royal authority. Bishop Munter and five learned professors were formed into a commission of revisal by his Danish majesty, and an edition of 10,000 New Testa ments, corrected and revised by them, left the press in 1819. A second and stereotype edition, also of 10,000 copies, was printed under the authority of the king at the Orphan-house, about 1820. The same royal commissioners continued their labours in a similar revision of the Old Testament; and in the year 1824 appeared, under the same royal sanction, from the Orphan-house press, a 4to. edition of the whole Bible. The revised New Testament on its first appearance was received with general approbation, and was reported by Dr. Pinkerton and others to be " a faithful and exceUent version." With its accustomed liberality, therefore, the British and Foreign Bible Society granted several sums in aid of the publication ; but this assistance was afterwards withheld, on its being discovered that several exceptionable renderings and marginal notes had been admitted by the revisors. Editions op the Danish Sceiptuees poe Noewat. — Upon the incorporation of Norway with Sweden, a Norwegian Bible Society was formed at Christiania m 1816, under the patronage of the Eng of Sweden; and, aided by a grant of £500 from the British and Foreign Bible Society,' an edition of 6000 New Testaments was printed in 1819, not from the revised and exceptionable edition, but from the former authorised version of the Danish Scriptures, which had been executed on the basis of Luther's. In 1820 further assistance from London was granted to the Norwegian Society; and another edition of 10,000 copies of the New Testament, from the same text as the preceding, left the press at Christiania in 1823. Eepresentations having been laid before the British and Foreign Bible Society concerning the scarcity of Bibles in Norway, an edition of 5000 copies was printed in London in 1823, from the Christiania edition, under the editorship of the Eev. Mr. Treschow, a native of Norway. Another edition of Mr. Treschow's revised Christiania New Testament, consisting also of 5000 copies, was pruited in 1827, Mr. Troilius correcting the press, and the Eev. C. Eahm reading the proof sheets. An edition of the entire Bible was pubUshed by the Society in London in 1829: the edition con sisted of 5000 Bibles, and about 10,000 additional New Testaments, and was superintended by Mr. Eahm. The text selected was the authorised version of 1644, or rather the reprint of 1744, generaUy considered the most correct edition that had appeared. The British and Foreign Bible Society established an agency of its own at Christiania about the 1 Thirteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 153. 184 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. year 1827, for the purpose of printing and circulating the Danish Bible alone, without the addition of the Apocryphal Books, which the continental Societies were in the habit of binding up with the inspired volume. Several stereotype editions have been issued under the superintendence of this agency on behalf of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The total number of copies pubUshed at the expense of that Society is 15,848 Bibles, and 85,810 New Testaments. . Eesults op the Dissemination op this Veesion. — To the light diffiised in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden by the early publication of Danish versions of the New Testament, may be attributed the rapid progress which was made by the Eeformation, on its first promulgation in those countries. Concerning the result of modem efibrts in the dissemination of the Danish Scriptures, much encouragement may be obtained from the reports of the several Societies engaged in that important work. In their annual statement (for 1847) the agency of Christiania write, that " almost everywhere in Norway the desire for the word of God is to a certainty increasing, though, perhaps, only by slow degrees." And in the same report there is the following account respecting Denmark : — "If I can not," says the writer, " point out many striking instances here of the triumphs of the divine word over the world, sin, and infideUty, as the result of its abundant circulation among us, still the moral and spiritual benefits which accompany it are great and undeniable ; and the more the saving truths of the sacred volume are made known, the more they are appreciated, and its possession sought after." Between March 4, 1848, and March 4, 1849, 736 Bibles and 2428 Testaments were issued from the depot of the agency in Christiania, and conceming the results of these issues, the last report contains the foUowing remarks : — " During the past eventful year, when the fearful judgments of the Lord have been poured out on many of the countries and states of Europe, and when in our own remote northern fatherland we have been reminded by sickness, famine, and unexampled distress, that all below is vanity, and nothing but vanity, the Agency of the British and Foreign Bible Society have nevertheless been privUeged to continue their even course, and to dispense the bounty of their generous benefactors among their suffering countrymen, whom outward evils have in many cases driven to seek for spfritual comfort and hope in that never faUing treasury, the word of God. Indeed the communi cations of several clergymen bear ample testimony that their distributions of the sacred volume were everywhere received with unfeigned gratitude ; and our humble trust and persuasion is, that the Lord will cause the divine truths of his gospel to sink deep into the hearts of many, and in due time to bring forth abundant fruit." SWEDISH. SPECIMEN OF THE SWEDISH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. [Stockholm, 1848.] 3 fiegijnnelfen mot Dtbet, o^ Dtbet mat not ®ubl, oc^ ®ub toot Dtbet. 2 ©et fommo wax i fieg^nnetfen nto ®ubi. 3 ©enom bet oto ott ting gfotb, od} t^tj fotuton at intet gjotbt, bet gjotbt dt. * 3 tf)S) toot tlfroet; 0^ tlfroet wax mennlffotnog IJug : s r,^ jjufet ts)fet i motftet, oc^ motftet l^ofwet bet lie fiegtHjlt. « ©n mon war fonb of ®ubi, fom :^et 3o:^anneg : ^ jgan fom tit wittnegfiotb, ))o bet ^on ff utte volttno om Sjufet, ot otte ffulte tto genom l^onom. « Jje mat ^on Sfufet ; men (f)on mot fonb) tit ot mlttno om Sjufet. » 5)et mot bet fanno Sjufet, :§mllfet u^lQfet otto mennlffot, fom fommo i mettben. '» 3 metlbene mot bet, 0^ Igenom bet ot aiertben gfotb ; oc^ mettben fonbe bet Icfe. " -§on fom til fttt eget, o^ t)ang egne onommobe !^onom lie. '^ 3Ken ottom bem, fom :^onom onammobe, gof t)on mogt ot fitlfma @ubg fiotn, bem fom tto :|3o ^ani Stomn; i^ .gnjltfe ide of fitob, itfe ^ettet of fijttgtlg mllja, Ide pellet of nogotg mong mltjo, uton of ®ubl fobbe oto. 1* D^ Dtbet warbt fott, 0^ fiobbe ifitonb of; oc^ mi fdgom fjong :^dtlig^et, fdfom enbo ©onfeng :^dtti9l)et of gobtenom, full meb nob oc^ fonning. ON THE SWEDISH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Sweden forms the eastern, southern, and most important part of the Scandinavian peninsula, and includes an area of about 170,700 square mUes, with a population (in 1839) of 3,109,772. The religion ofthe state, and of almost aU the inhabitants, is Lutheran. The hierarchy consists of 1 archbishop, 11 bishops, 70 archdeacons, and 102 provosts or deans. Although toleration is extended to all sects, there are not many dissenters from the national form of reUgion in Sweden. The Swedenborgians, the only distinct religious community that the country has produced, are comparatively few in number ; and there are not more than about 2000 Eoman CathoUcs and 1000 Jews. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The Swedes are a branch ofthe same famUy as the Danes and Norwegians, and originally spoke the same language; at least, the most ancient documents extant of Old Swedish are so similar in idiom to the coeval productions in Old Danish, that Uttle difference can be discerned between them. Long-continued political separation has, however, occasioned the modem dialects of the Old Norse to difier considerably from each other, and now books require to be translated from one language into the other. Yet it is said that the peasants of Norway and Sweden are able to converse together, and that thefr respective dialects do not differ much more than broad Scotch from vulgar Enghsh. The roots of words, and the rules of grammatical construc tion, are stiU the same in Swedish as in Danish ; and both languages have been subjected to several alterations by the infiuence of the German language and literature. French words and forms have also been adopted in Swedish, and the only region in which the old language is spoken with com parative purity is in Dalecarlia, in the south of Sweden, where the Dalcarls, or Dalesman, stiU preserve traces of the manners and customs of thefr Gothic forefathers. Veesions op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — A version of the Scriptures into Swedish is said to have been made in the fourteenth century by order of _ St. Bfrgit, or Bridget, who about the year 1344 foimded the religious order caUed from her the Brigittins ; but it is problem- 186 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. atical whether such a version was reaUy executed, for no vestiges whatever of it remain, and it is not even mentioned by early writers. A translation of the New Testament, according to Luther's German version, (the first Swedish version of which we have any definite^ account,) was undertaken by com mand of Gustavus Vasa in 1523, by Laurentius Andreas, then a priest of the church of Stengnas, but afterwards archdeacon of Upsal, and at length chancellor. This New Testament was printed in 1526, in foho, at Stockholm, and was afterwards repubhshed in various forms. At the same time that Gustavus Vasa gave directions for the translation of this New Testament from Luther's version, he enjoined John Gothus, archbishop of Upsal, to prepare another version accommodated to the tenets of the Church of Eome, in order that, by a careful comparison of both translations with the original, an easier access might be opened to the truth. The archbishop, not daring to resist the royal mandate, employed some of his clergy to prepare this translation ; but, to. evade its pubhcation, he secretly left the kingdom, and died in 1544 at Eome; so that although the New Testament is said to have been actually translated on this occasion, chiefly by a CathoUc doctor named Benedict, yet no portion of the work was printed. The first Swedish version of the entire Bible was published at Upsal in 1541, along with the Apocrypha. The Old Testament was translated by Laurentius and Olaus Petri from Luther's German version of 1534, and the New Testament was that of Laurentius Andreas, printed, as we have seen, in 1526. Another version of the New Testament, prepared by Amund Laurent, was published at Stock holm in 1550, and again in 1605 and 1621; and in the course of subsequent years several editions of the Psalms were printed. But unless the Bible of 1541 was reprinted at Upsal in 1576, which seems very doubtful, Sweden remained for about seventy years without a second edition of the entire Scriptures. At length however, in the commencement of the seventeenth century, Charles IX. ordered Jonas Petri, bishop of Strengnes, and other learned men to collate Luther's editions of 1534 and 1545, noting such discrepancies as appeared to them of any importance, with the view of pro ducing an improved edition of the Swedish translation. These notes, when completed, were caUed the " observations of Strengnes;" and it was decreed in the Synod of Stockholm in 1602, that they should be incorporated with the old version in a new edition of the Bible. The edition however, from various causes, did not make its appearance till 1617, when it was printed in foho at Stockholm. This edition was carried through the press by John Eeidbeck and John Lenoeus, who were ordered to retain the text of the former edition, (which followed Luther's of 1535,) but to correct its numerous typographical errors, and to add summaries to the chapters, parallel references, brief annotations, and necessary indexes. In 1622 not a copy of this edition remained on sale, and a reprint was, therefore, issued in quarto at Lubeck, followed by several successive editions in 8vo. (but without the smnmaries and notes) at Leyden; and by two editions in 1636 and 1646 at Stockholm. In 1650, the Strengnes Bible was printed in 4to. under the care of Bishop Matthia ; but, through the carelessness of the printers, whole verses were omitted in this edition. Several editions of the entfre Bible in folio, quarto, and octavo were published in 1655 and subsequent years at Stockholm, professedly from the edition of 1618, but with many deviations from that text. In 1671 the Four Gospels in the Sueo-Gothic, or vulgar Swedish dialect, translated by George Stiernhielm, appeared in a polyglot containing the Gospels of Ulffias, the Norse or Icelandic Gospels, and the Vulgate. A revised edition of the entire Bible was undertaken under the reign of Charles XIL, and the execution of the work was committed to Eric Benzel, bishop of Strengnes, and afterwards archbishop of Upsal, assisted by Nicholas Berg and other learned men. Former editions were collated, and the marginal notes were revised for this edition; but variations from the text of 1618 were very sparingly admitted, except when they appeared more conformable to the originals and to Luther's German version. It was printed in 1703, in folio, at Stockholm, and is considered superior to any edition that has yet been published. Another revised edition of the Bible appeared in 1709, in 4to., at Stockholm. The preparation for this edition was commenced by John Gezel, bishop of Abo, who collated it with the Greek and Hebrew texts ; but he died in 1690, and the work was completed and pubhshed by his son. It is accompanied with the prefaces and notes of Luther, a portrait of Charles XIL, and a chronological index. So many editions of the Swedish Scriptures appeared in the course of the eighteenth century, that the country was generally considered to be well supplied with Bibles; and it was not tiU the year 1808, when Dr. Paterson visited Sweden, that the real facts of the case were ascertained; and it was then found that the poorer inhabitants were almost destitute of the word of God, and that the high prices of Bibles placed them beyond the reach of the humbler classes. This discovery led to the IHDO-EUBOPEAN LANGUAGES.] SWEDISH. 187 formation of the EvangeUcal Society, by whom several editions for the poor were issued, aided by grants from the British and Foreign Bible Society. The text used was that of the authorised version. The_ Swedish Bible Society was formed in I8I5, and, with its numerous auxUiary Societies, stUl continues the important work of printing and disseminating the Scriptures. It received much assistance from the British and Foreign Bible Society until the year 1826, when the decision of the Apocryphal question in London severed the connexion between the two Societies. In order to niaintain the circulation of Bibles in Sweden without the Apocrypha, several editions of the Old and New Testaments have been^ssued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Their first edition, which was stereotyped, was pubhshed in 1828, under the superintendence of the Rev. J. P. WahUn, chaplain to the Swedish Embassy in London. The text adopted was that of the last edition of the Swedish Bible Society. Several editions from the same text have since been printed by,^the same Society in London, and likewise at Stockholm, through the medium of their Agency. The total number of copies printed by them has been 117,730 Bibles, 250,484 Testaments, 17,140 Testaments and Psalms, and 29,000 separate copies ofthe Psalms, besides 480 copies of Luke's Gospel, in embossed characters for the blind. Eesults op the Dissemination op this Veesion. — Several signal instances of the blessing of God accompanying the perusal of this version, have been manifested in individual cases. A colporteur, writing in 1846, speaks of a famUy whom he visited during one of his journeys, and found in great affliction: he passed a night at thefr house, and exhorted them to read the Scriptures; he continues his statement as foUows: — " I did not see these people again before the month of March this year, wjien I happened to travel that way, and called upon them. How gloriously had aU been changed with them ! From their formerly gloomy coimtenances, the peace of the Lord was now shining forth, which reigned within thefr hearts by faith in the Saviour, whom they had found revealed in the Scriptures; and they were unable sufficiently to express their gratitude to the Lord, who had sent the stranger to them, in order to show them the precious treasure which they possessed in the Bible without knowing it. They could not comprehend thefr former bhndness, which had not aUowed them to under stand that which was for them now as clear as the sun. The sick woman had received health for her soul, and this evinced such an infiuence upon her body, that she was able to be out of bed the greater part of the day, and could work at her distaff. But the good which proceeded from the great change went stUl further. Their manservant, who had formerly been a thoughtless youth, came to an eamest consideration of the welfare of his soul. Their nearest neighbour, a pedlar, had been a rude mocker at aU that is holy; but he was persuaded to read the Scriptures, and he soon became convinced of his lost condition, and discontinued his unsteady life. Now the neighbours caUed upon each other by turns, in order to read the Bible with humble prayer to the Lord, and ' to edify one another by psalms and hymns and spiritual songs ; ' for now even our pedlar had fotmd the pearl of great price, which he valued more than aU his other riches. This man now commenced to read from the Bible for his family every moming and evening; and his wife and both his servants, with repenting hearts, became convinced of the saving grace that is in Jesus. This pedlar exercised Ukewise a blessed influence upon the soids of others, and became much esteemed by aU on account of his mUd and christianlike deportment: he died recently; and his last words were, 'Glory to the Lord! I have gained, the victory for the sake of the blood of the Lamb. ' " ' 1 Forty-third Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p ixxii. FAROESE. SPECIMEN OF THE FAETOESE VEESION. St. MATTHEW, Chap. It. v. 1 to 13. [Kandees, 1823.] SKen tao=ul :§on fooe Sotfje, gfcef l^on u^ oo oU S6i0tg 3 0 too=ui :^on Oot febftut, giitgu Sifcl^tor i^atifata tit :^ang. 2 o ^ixn leob u^) STCunn fuln, lotbi toit, 0 feje : » Sooti etu tei footofu ui 5lonblni, t^ui ^immetlgilS Ohtlgje et tolto. ^ @aotl etu tet, fum ftrgjo, t:^ul tel ffuttu t)ugfoeotofl. « ©oatl etu tei ©ogtmoulu, tp tel ffuttu otOo S^rino. ^ (gaati etu tei, ui |ungta 0 tiflo ettut Sdattell^olb, tt)ul tei ffuttu moettofi. ^ ©ootl eru tel Sorm'^jottlu, t:§ul tei ffuttu njoubo Sotml^jottil^olb. ^ (gaolt etu tei telnu eoo -§jottanun, tp tel ffutlu fubjo ®ub. 9 (Sooll etu tei gtiotlu, t:^ul tel ffuttu fobtofi @ubg SS^bn. i" ©aotl etu tei, fum lujo gorptgiitfe ftti Ototteti^oibg ©fjllb, tl^ul tolto et >§lmmetlgilg flftulgje. ^^ (sootljlr etu S:tb, um tel ffjotto 0 forfilgio S^lfun, 0 tedto ul 0btun Subun Ibto um Sfun ftrl mulno ©fjltb, o Ilgoo teo. ^^ ©tcejl 0 ftljt Sifun, tt)ul S00n S^lfaro ffeftl Ooero mlgjil ui -glmtunun; t:^ul fo t;eaOo tel fotfttgt 5Pt6:p^etatnot, fum Ooutu fiti Slfun. ^ Stb cru 30tlna ®att; men qOlgul ©otti miffut ©ijlno, Ol qootjun ffeSI tea foltop? Seo blui til onfje 5tnna, enn 0 Weogoft ttb, 0 troffofi unbut Sotfo goubun. ON THE FAEOESE DIALECT AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The Faroe or Feroe Islands belong to Denmark, and lie in the Northern Ocean, between the Shetland Isles and Iceland. They are twenty-two in number, but only seventeen are inhabited. Their total area amounts to 495 square mUes, and the population is about 7000. The islanders are of Scandinavian origin, and speak a dialect of the Old Norse, or Icelandic language. All mercantile, judicial, and ecclesiastical affairs are carried on in Danish, but the natives employ their own dialect as the common medium of colloquial intercourse. Veesion op the Gospel op St. Matthew in this Dialect. — About the year 1817, the Eev. Mr. Schroeter, rector of one of the churches in the Faroe Isles, offered to produce a translation of the New Testament into the Faroese dialect, provided that the directors of the Danish Bible Society would undertake to print an edition. He urged, among other reasons for engaging in this work, that the islanders are so situated that they cannot attend their churches more than from four to six times a year; and that most of them, especially the younger part of the community, are so little acquainted with Danish, that they are unable to read the Danish Bible. The Gospel of St. Matthew was accordingly pre pared by Mr. Schroeter, but as there was some difficulty In writing in a dialect in which neither grammars nor even printed books existed, the publication was delayed, in order that greater accuracy might be ensured. The Danish Committee at length found a learned pastor in Jutland, the Eev. Mr. Lyngbye, who during his botanical rambles in the Faroe Isles had acquired a familiar acquaintance with the dialect. He was employed to correct the press, and under his superintendence 1500 copies of St. Matthew's Gospel were printed in Faroese at Eanders in Jutland, with no assistance from the British and Foreign Bible Society apart from the grants made for the general purposes of the Danish Society. It does not appear that any other books of the New Testament have been printed, or even translated into Faroese. CLASS III.-INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. E. CRECO-LATIN FAMILY. ANCIENT GREEK. SPECIMEN OF THE ANCIENT GEEEK VEESION, ACCORDmG TO THE "TEXTUS EECEPTUS." St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. 'EN apxfl rjv 6 X0709, Kal 6 \6r/o<; rjv irpo'; tov Oeov, Kal ©eo? ^v 6 Xoyo'i. ^ 0iT0<; rjv iv apxfl -rrpo^ rov Geov. ^ ndvTa Bi avrov iyeveTo' Kal xr^ph avrov iyevero ovBe ev o yiyovev. * "Ev aiiTm ^wr/ rjv, Kal 97 ^(ori rjv TO ^(W9 t5)V avOpeo'Trmv. ^ Kal to ^w? iv rf} o-kotIo. t6<;. ^ '^Hv ro (f)a)^ to dX-qOtvov, o ^corl^ei rravra dvOpairov ip^ofievov ek rov KocTfiov. ^^ 'Ev TO) K6(Tp,K> Tjv, Kal 6 Koafio'i Sl' avTov iyevero- Kal 6 K6a/j.o<; avrov ovk 'eyvm. " Ek rd thia^Xde, Kal ol thiot avrov ov wapeXa^ov. ^^ "Oaoi Se 'eXafSov avrov, eScoKev avrok i^ovaiav reKva 6eov yevkadat, rok marevovaiv ek rb ovofia avrov' ^^ Oi ovk ef alfidrwv, ovSe iK deXij/j,aro<; crapao?, oySe e'/c deX^q^aro'; afS/jo?, dXX' eK-Oeov iyevvqOrjaav. ^^ Kal 6 Xoyo? adp^ iyevero- Kal iaKqvcoaev iv ¦qp.lv, {Kai edeaadfieda rrjv So^av avrov, Bo^av &>? fiovoyevov<; rrapd rrarpb';,) rrXtjp'q'; x^pi'TO'; Kal dX^qdeia'i. ON THE ANCIENT GEEEK LANGUAGE AND NEW TESTAMENT. Geogeaphical Extent. — ^At the time of the first preaching of Christianity, the more civilised nations of the Eoman empire (however dissimilar their respective vernacular tongues) were united by the bond of a common language, which to them was ahnost the only known medium of poetry, learning, and philosophy. That language was the Greek. In certain cotmtries, as in Greece itself, in Egypt, and, as some say, in Syria, it was used in the common affairs of Ufe ; but everywhere it was the language of hterature, and as such held the same position that was occupied by Latin during the middle ages. The conquests of Alexander the Great had been the primary cause, under Providence, of the wide diSusion of this language ; and although the Grecian empfre was afterwards supplanted by the Eoman, yet the civilisation, the arts, and the language of Greece long remained predominant. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The ancient Greek language was divided into four principal dialects — -the Attic, the Ionic, the Doric, and the Mohc — distinguished froni each other by varieties of orthography and pronunciation. When under PhUlp of Macedon the Grecian repubUcs lost their freedom, and became more or less united under one government, the various dialects were graduaUy amalgamated into one. The language which thus sprang up from this intermixture of 3ialects differed materiaUy from that of books, as preserved in the writings of the early poets and philosophers. It however became current wherever the Greek language was spoken ; it was even used hy the later writers ; and, on account of its wide diSusion, received the name of koivt) BidXeKro';, the common dialect. The Septuagint version was written in this dialect, and it was also selected by Divine Providence as the appropriate medium of communicating to man the new covenant in Christ Jesus. It is characterised by the promiscuous employment of forms originally pecuUar to one dialect ; Attic, Ionic, and Doric words are indiscriminately used, and often placed in juxtaposition with words of foreign origin. Planck has observed, that in the New Testament there are, in the flexion of nouns, no traces of any of the ancient dialects except the Attic, but that in the flexion of verbs there is more variety, the Attic furnishing most examples, and the Doric affording others, while many of the forms 190 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. are exclusively to be met with in the later idiom. The influence of Hebrew characteristics is likewise to be traced in the New Testament, in several passages the phraseology being Hebrew, while the words are Greek. This is more especially observable in the frequent use of a double substantive (arising from the paucity of adjectives in Hebrew), and in the use of the words of God as indicative ofthe superlative degree. The Greek alphabet is a modification of the Phoenician, and it is to the adoption of this alphabet, which is but ill-adapted to express any sounds except those of Shemitic origin, that many of the anomalies of the Greek language are to be attributed.^ Codices op the New Testament. — There seems every reason to believe that the whole ofthe New Testament was originally communicated by the Holy Spirit to the inspired penmen in the Greek language. Some indeed have asserted, that the Gospel according to St. Matthew and the Epistle to the Hebrews were originally written in Hebrew, and at a subsequent period transferred into Greek; but the data on which this opinion is founded are by no means conclusive. It is generally thought that the autographs of the evangelists and apostles were not preserved beyond the commencement of the third century, even if they remained in existence so long ; but, prior to that period, many copies of the sacred writings had been made and dispersed among the infant churches. The most ancient copies appear generally to have been made on Egyptian papyrus, a very perishable material, and of these none have been transmitted to us. As early as the fourth century we find vellum in common use for writing ; and, in the eleventh century, paper made of cotton, wool, or Unen, was adopted. The oldest MSS. have no divisions of words, and no accents, and are all written in capital, or, as they were formerly called, uncial letters. The earliest MS. written in letters of the present cursive form bears the date 890, but even after this period the old uncial characters were sometimes used on account of their beautiful regularity.^ Although the Scriptures were given in the first instance by the immediate inspiration of God, yet no supernatural power was communicated to those who transcribed them. The multiplication of copies was conducted on the same principle as that of other books which have been transmitted from ancient times. The MSS. of the New Testament are not, therefore, free from the errors of copyists; but as it is not likely, or even possible, that copies executed by different persons, and from different exemplars, should all contain precisely the same errors, it seems reasonable to believe that, by the careful comparison of copies, one copy can be used to correct another, and the purity of the original text be thus in a great measure restored. An error in an ancient exemplar would be perpetuated in all copies and versions made from it ; and it is probably owing to this cause that a sort of family resemblance is to be traced in copies, certain MSS. indicating, by pectdiar or faulty readings, the age and country of the exemplar to which they owe their origin. This circumstance has led to the classification of MSS. Griesbach has divided all MSS. of the New Testament into the following classes, generally termed famiUes, editions, or recensions : — I. The Alexandrian recension, so called because it emanated from Alexandria : it is quoted by Clement of Alexandria, by Origen, Eusebius, and other Greek fathers. The Coptic version agrees wholly with it, and the Ethiopic and Armenian versions coincide with it in part. II. The Western recension, used in countries where the Latin language was spoken, and with which the Latin versions coincide. The Sahidic and Jerusalem Syriac versions also agree with it: Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, Augustine, and other Latin fathers quote it. III. The Constantinopolitan recension, to which the mass of modern JMSS. and the Moscow codices of Paul's epistles are referrible. Quotations from this recension appear in the works of the fathers who lived from the end of the fourth till the sixth century in Greece, Asia Minor, and the neighbouring provinces.' The Gothic and Sclavonic versions coincide with it. The classification of MSS. is, however, a very intricate suhject, the classes being so blended that it is difficult to separate them ; and, besides, the discrepancies are so trifling, being chiefly of an orthographical nature, that in many cases it is not easy to determine to which class a given MS. may belong. Hence various systems of classification have been proposed by different writers : some affirm that there are four distinct classes, and others that there are only two. According to the aystem of Scholz, MSS. are divisible into the Alexandrian or African (including the first two classes of Griesbach), and the Constantinopolitan or Asiatic. 1 Haughton's Short Enquiry into the Nature of Language, pp . 22, 23. 2 Davidson's Lectures on Biblical Criticism, p. l6. 3 Davidson's Lectures on Biblical Criticism, p. 230. Indo-Eueopean Languages. j ANCIENTGREEK. 191 Individual MSS. are conventionally distinguished from each other by one of the letters of the alphabet being aflSxed to each. These marks do not point out the relative antiquity or value of the MSS., but seena to have been applied in the first instance in a very arbitrary manner, and to have been afiierwards retained for the sake of convenience. The most ancient and valuable MSS. which have been handed down to us are the following : — Codex A, sometimes caUed the Alexandrhie MS., having in aU probability been written at Alexandria, whence it was certainly brought. It is commonly referred to the fifth century. It contains the Old Testament in three volumes, and the New Testament in one volume : appended to the latter is the First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, and a fragment of the second.' This MS. was presented by CyriUus Lucaris, patriarch of Alexandria and afterwards of Constantinople, to Charles I. of England, in 1628, and it is_ now in the British Museum. A facsimile edition of the New Testament was pubUshed at the expense of the University of Oxford in 1726, under the editorship of Dr. Woide : the Old Testament was afterwards edited by the Eev. H. H. Baber. Codex B, generally termed the Vatican MS., because it belongs to that library, marked 1209. It is one of the most ancient MSS. extant, being ascribed to the middle of the fourth century. It contains both the Old and New Testaments, but the book of Eevelation has been added to it by a modern hand. It wants the end of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and those to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. The Old Testament was printed from this MS. in 1587 by order of Sixtus V., and a translation of the New Testament has been given by Granville Penn. Another MS., also marked B, and therefore sometimes confounded with the preceding, is in the Vatican Library. It is supposed to belong to the seventh century, and contains the Apocalypse, with the HomiUes of Basil and Gregory of Nyssa : a facsimile of it is given in Blanchini's Evangeliarium Quadruplex. The text has been published by Tischendorf. Codex C, also called Codex Ephraemi, and sometimes Codex Regius, because preserved in the Eoyal Library of Paris. This valuable MS., which originally contained the whole of the New Testament, and the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, was written about the sixth century in Egypt, but was erased in the thirteenth century to make room for the works of Ephraem the Syrian, which were written over it. By means of chemical apphcations, however, the original text has been in a great measure restored. Wetstein succeeded in deciphering and collating it ; and, in 1843, a splendid facsimile edition with prolegomena was published by Tischendorf. Codex D, also known as Codex Cantabrigiensis or BezcB, because presented in 1581 to the University of Cambridge by Beza. It had for years previously lain neglected in the monastery of St. Irenaaus at Lyons, whence Beza had procured it. It contains the Gospels and Acts with a Latin version. It belongs probably to the seventh century, but to what country is uncertain. A beautiful facsimile edition was pubUshed by Dr. Kiphng at Cambridge, m 1793. Codex D, or Codex Claromontanus, probably marked D, because erroneously beUeved by Dr. MUl and other critics to form the second part of the preceding. It is a Greek and Latin copy of St. Paul's epistles, and is called Codex Claromontanus because procured from Clermont in France by Beza. It belongs either to the seventh or eighth century. It is preserved in the Eoyal Library at Paris. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, certain sheets were cut out of it by a thief, and sold in England, but they were restored to the library by Lord Oxford in 1729. Facsimiles of several other MSS. have been published, but the bare enumeration of aU the MSS. of the New Testament within our Umits would be impossike. The number of MSS. known to have been coUated in whole or in part amounts, according to Scholz, to 674. By far the greater number of these MSS. contain only the Four Gospels, this portion of Scripture having been most constantly in demand, because most frequently used in the public service of the church. Ancient copies of the entfre New Testament are extremely rare. MSS. Lectionaria, which contain the detached portions of the Testament appointed to be read in churches, are by no means uncommon. Copies of the book of Revelation are remarkably scarce: there are in fact but three ancient MSS. in which this book is to be 1 Butler's Horse BiblicEC, p. 89. 192 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. found, namely Codex A, one of the Codices marked B, a,nd Codex C. Of these. Codex C is the most valuable, but it is unfortunately very defective, about nine chapters being missing ; so that Codex B, the text of which has been lately pubUshed by Tischendorf, and Codex A (the Alexandrine MS.) are the only ancient exemplars to which we are indebted for our acquaintance with the whole of this incalculably important book. Feinted Editions op the Geeek Testament. — Six chapters ofthe Gospel of John were printed at Venice as early as 1504, by Aldus Manutius, and the whole of that gospel was printed at Tubingen in Suabia, in 1512. But these editions are interesting only as literary curiosities, for though they constituted the first portion of the Greek Testament ever committed to the press, yet they exercised no infiuence whatever on succeeding editions. The earliest printed edition of the entire New Testament is contained in the Complutensian Polyglot, a work we have already described in our account of the Hebrew Scriptures. The MSS. used for this impression were most probably, as it is stated in the prologue, furnished for the purpose by Pope Leo X. from the Vatican Library. There is abundant internal evidence to prove that these MSS. were of no great antiqtuty, for the text agrees with MSS. written in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries in all passages wherein they differ from ancient exemplars. The earliest published edition of the Greek Testament was that of Erasmus, which appeared at Basle in 1516; whereas the Complutensian text, although printed in 1514, was not pubUshed tiU 1520. Erasmus prepared the text from four MSS., the most ancient of which belonged to the tenth century, and contained all the New Testament except the Apocalypse. His other three MSS. consisted of a copy of the Gospels, written, according to Wetstein, in the fifteenth century; a copy ofthe Acts and Epistles of rather earlier date, and a document containing the book of Eevelation, which he asserted was almost apostolic in age: but as the text in this MS. was accompanied with the Commentary of Arethas, who hved at least 900 years after the time of the apostles, its antiquity seems very doubtful.' It belonged originally to Eeuchlin, but after its publication by Erasmus it seems to have disappeared, and no one knows what has become of it. The other three MSS. used by Erasmus are stiU preserved at Basle. In addition to these MSS., he seems to have possessed no other critical apparatus except the Latin Vulgate, and a commentary of Theophylact containing part of the Greek text : but this Theophylact was the last of the Greek fathers; he lived at the end of the eleventh century, and his testimony is therefore of little weight as compared with that of the early fathers. Erasmus professed, indeed, to have consulted Origen, Chrysostom, and Cyril ; but he could only have seen the Latin versions of their writings, as no edition of their original texts had then been issued from the press.^ He employed but nine months and a half in the preparation and printing of his first edition, although it comprised copious annotations and a Latin version printed in parallel columns with the Greek. Indications of this undue haste are clearly perceptible in many places, and it is nearly certain that in several passages where his MSS. were illegible, he supplied the defects by words ofhis own translation from the Vulgate. This is especially the case with the concluding six verses of the book of Eevelation, which are weU known to have been wanting in Eeuchlin's MS. The second edition of the Greek Testament was pubUshed by Erasmus three years after the first, and, according to Mill, it contains no less than 400 corrections. His third edition appeared in 1522, and he then inserted the text I John v. 7, which he had rejected in his two first editions because it was wanting in the MSS. he had originally employed. This alteration was made on the authority of a MS. now m Dublin. The first English version from the Greek was made by Tyndale from this third edition. A copy ofthe Complutensian text was not seen by Erasmus till after the year 1522, but his fourth and fifth editions, which appeared in 1527 and 1535, contain many alterations made in conformity to it. Dr. Mill states that in these editions there are ninety corrections from the Complutensian text m the book of Eevelation, and twenty-six only in all the other books. These editions are of especial importance, as they form the basis of aU subsequent editions, and contain, substantially, the Greek text in general use at the present day. During the nineteen years which elapsed between the publication of the first and last editions of Erasmus, nine or ten other New Testaments were printed ; but they were all taken from one or other of the editions of Erasmus, except that by Colinaius, which was printed at Paris in 1534.' ColinsBUS drew his text partly from those of Erasmus, partly from the Complutensian, and partly from MSS. which he collated for the purpose. Three of these MSS. are preserved at Paris. This edition is 1 Marsh's Lectures on BibUcal Criticism, p. 101. 2 Marsh's Lectures on Biblical Criticism, p. 105. 3 Marsh's Lectures on Biblical Criticism, p. uo. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] ANCIENTGREEK. I93 particularly correct and valuable, but it met with undeserved neglect, and being shortly after its appearance eclipsed by the more popular editions of Stephens, it had no share whatever in the formation of the received text. The four editions of Eobert Stephens (the step-son of CoUn^us) appeared in 1546, 1549, 1550, and 1551;. his son pubUshed a fifth edition in 1569. These editions are more celebrated for thefr typographical neatness than for their critical exceUence : the text is drawn partiy from Erasmus, and partly from the Complutensian; and even the third, or foho, edition, which was aUeged by Stephens to have been formed on the authority of ancient MSS., was found, on subsequent examina tion, to be little more than a naere reprint of Erasmus's fifth edition, with marginal readings from about sixteen MSS. The verses into which the New Testament is divided were invented by Stephens, and first appeared in his edition of 1551. The third edition of Stephens was reprinted by Beza, in 1565, with about fifty emendations. It is rather surprising that Beza did not introduce further improvements in the text, as he had the advantage of possessing two valuable MSS., the Codex Bezse and the Codex Claromontanus above described, besides the Syriac version, then lately published with a very close Latin translation by Tremelhus : but Beza enaployed these critical materials almost exclusively in drawing up the polemical disquisitions which he inserted in the notes of his editions. Like Stephens, he was a native of France, and a Protestant; and being persecuted on account of his reUgion, he fled to Geneva, where, between the years 1565 and 1598, he pubUshed five editions of his Testament. All these editions are accompanied by the Latin Vulgate, and a Latin version executed by himself. The best reprint of Beza's Greek text is generally considered to be the edition which appeared at Cambridge in 1642, with the notes of Joachim Camerarius. In 1624, the first of the celebrated Elzevir editions was published by the Elzevirs, printers at Leyden. The editor is unknown; but it is evident he had little recourse to MSS. authorities, the text, hke that of Beza, being founded on the third edition of Stephens. This text, however, obtained so much celebrity, that it became commonly known as the textus receptus; and for upwards of a century it was (with few exceptions) reprinted in every successive edition of the New Testament. Among the most noted of the editions formed from this text, may be mentioned those pubhshed by Curcellseus, at Amsterdam, in 1658, 1675, 1685, and 1699: these editions contain a collection of parallel passages, and the greatest number of various readings to be found in any edition of the New Testament prior to that in the sixth volume of Walton's Polyglot. Some of these readings are said to be unfairly quoted, without authorities, in order to favour the Socinian heresy. The Greek text in Walton's Polyglot is printed from the foho edition of Stephens. Dr. Fell published another edition, chiefiy from the same text, at Oxford, in 1675; he copied the numerous readings of the Polyglot, to which he added collations from other sources. A new era in biblical criticism commences with the year 1707, when tlie Eev. Dr. John MUl pubhshed, at Oxford, his important edition of the New Testament, with 30,000 various readings and useful prolegomena. He selected for his text the third edition of Stephens, as reprinted in Walton's Polyglot, and added aU the collections of readings that had then been published: he also formed new collations himself of original editions, and of the quotations from the New Testament which occur in the writings of the fathers; and he obtained extracts of MSS. that had not previously been coUated. During thirty years he devoted himself, with increasing assiduity, to the production of this work, and he survived its pubhcation but fourteen days. A re-impression of his edition was executed by Ktister, at Eotterdam, in 1710, with the readings of twelve additional MSS. The editions of the Greek Testament published at the present day are almost invariably, at least in this country, printed from MiU's text. An attempt towards a critical amendment of the text was made by Dr. Wells, in his edition ofthe New Testament, pubUshed at Oxford, in detached portions, between the years 1709 and 1719. But fer more considerable corrections of the received text were introduced in the edition published by Bengel, at Tubingen, in 1734: it is however remarkable, that except in the book of Eevelation, Bengel does not adopt one reading which is not to be met with in some of the printed editions. His edition is distinguished by its accuracy; he does not alter the text itself, except in the book of Revelation, but the relative value of the various readings is signified by the characters of the Greek alphabet affixed to each citation. The materials for the revision of the text were greatly increased in 1751-2 by the pubhcation of "Wetstein's edition, with its valuable prolegomena and its vast collection of readings. Wetstein coUated several MSS. himself; (in thfrty-eight years he collated about eighteen MSS. of the Gospels ;) 194 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. others he examined, and the collations of others were diligently collected by him. This edition is considered by Michaelis to be more important, in a critical point of view, than any other. The notes are particularly useful; for they contain copious extracts from rabbinical writers, which greatly serve to explain the idiom and turn of expression of the New Testament.' The text is simply a reprint of the editio recepta of the Elzevirs. The emendations proposed by Wetstein, and indicated by him in the margin, were adopted by Bowyer, a learned printer in London, who inserted them in the text of his edition, published 1763: a second edition appeared in 1772. Between the years 1775 and 1777, Dr. Griesbach published his revised text of the Greek Testa ment; but the second edition of this work, which was completed in 1806, is by far the most important because it contains the results of collations made subsequently to the publication of the first edition. The first volume of this second edition was reprinted in 1796, at the expense of the then Duke of Grafton. All the critical materials which had been amassed by Mill, Bengel, Wetstein, Matthsei Birch, and Alter, together with the results of his own extensive researches, were collected by Dr. Griesbach, and applied by him to the general revision of the text. Besides the readings which he admitted into the text, he formed a large collection of marginal readings, to which he affixed marks to denote the various degrees of probability as to the genuineness of such readings. In 1805, he published a manual edition, exhibiting, in a compendious form, the results to which he had been led by his minute critical investigations. The various readings of this edition were printed, together with Mill's text, in a foolscap Svo. volume, by Mr. Bagster. Griesbach. 1805. "trov TJ ^atriXeCa. ^om.-yevrjQiJTto... f a^ioiJ.EV ro. ffom. Scholz. 1830. AOYKA, xr. 1-13. KAI i-y^vero iv T(3 eivat avrov iv totto) tlvI ¦7rpoa-evy(6p.ivov, u)S iiravcraTO, etTre Tts rZv jxaOqruyv aiyrov irpoi avrov Kvpte, St'Sa^ov -fjixa^ Trpoa-e-uxea-Oai, Kadiiii Kal 'Imavrijs eStSafe rovg fjLaOrjTa^ a-vrov. ^ ETire Sk avro'i's- "Orav 7rpoa-€V)(rjo-0€, Xi-yere- IXixTep "¦rjiJ.&v" 'o iv toZi oipavots," dytacr^^TW to bvojxa aov iXOerui '^ -fj /Sao-iXeta o-ov" '' yevrjO'^ro) to 6iX-qp,a aov, ' s iv ovpavio, Kal iirl rijs y^s. ' ^ Toi' aprov -^/juav tov iinovaiov oioov -fj/MV TO Ka6' -fj/xepav. * Kal a<^es -fifiLV Tas apapna^ rjjjiuiv /cat yap avTOt ^ ac^ie/jLiv" -iravrl ot^uXovTi r/fuv Kai /xij eto'eveyKi^s -r/pS.'s ets TTupaa-fuiv, ^ akXa pvaai 17/xas (XTro tov irovqpov. ^ Kat etTre Trpos avro-u'S- Ti's ef vpGiv efet (fiikov, Kal Tropevaerai irpos avrov pea-owKTiov, Kal * etTnj avrS- $tAe, ^^crov fxoi Tpeis apTov?, ^ 'ETretS-^ <^tXos 'pov" Trapeyei'eTO i^ oSov Trpo's fie, Kal OVK e)(w o irapaO-^a-oy avT&- ^ KaKetvos eaoiOev ctTTOKpt^ets eLTT-rj- M-^ jixot KOTTOUS Trapeze- ^Srj -fj O-upa KeKXeLO-raL, kol to. TratSt'a pov p€T e/xoB ets rrjV koIttjv elariv ov Svvapai avaa-ra^ Sowat O'ct. ^ Aeyco v/jlv, £t Kat ov Stocret avTw dvacTTas, oto, ro £tyai avrov iXov, Sta ye tt/v dvatSetav avrov i-yepOeii Soicru avT x^rv^v pov, dveXcu Tg jua^aipa pov, icvpievcret -fj ^^ctp jxov. ^'^ Airia-ruXa'S rd Trvevpd aov * " iKaXvij/ev avrovs udXaa-a-a- iBva^av oicret fLoXipoi iv vSari (TS>'S tGv avOpuiTTiov. ^ Kat to <^a)s ets rrjV crKorctav ipiyyu, Kai ^ o-Koreta Sev to KardXa^e. ® Eytvev evas av^poiTros aTeoToX/tei'os arro rov ®eov, ro ovopa. rov tuiciwrjs. ' Etovtos ^X^ev ets paprvpiav, va papruplcrrj Sta ro cf>S>s iritrreucrow oXot Sta picrom aiirov. ^ Aev -rirov iKuvoi to ^Ss, aXXa va paprvpCcrrj Sta ro u)'s. ® Htov to <^5s to dXij^tvov, TO OTTolov ^coTt^ei Ka^e avOpoiirov 6 ttov tp)((Tca ets TOV Koirpov. ^'^ Ets tov Koa-pov rjTov- kol 6 Kotr^os Sta pi(Tov avrov eytvev, a^^ o Kocrpos Sev tov eyvupicrev. ^^ Ets to, eStKarov ^X^ev, Kat ot cStKotrou oci' TOV eSej^ftjKav. ^^ Kat oo-ot tov i8i)(6rjKav, Toiis eodiKev i^ovcTiav, va ycvoOv iratSta 0eov, [¦ijyouv] eKetVovs 0 irov TTtorevoiiv ets ro ovopa, tov. ^^ Ot oTrotot oi Se o?ro at/tara, ov Se a-rro to OOvqpa rov (rapKo<; ovSe ciTro TO oeXrjpa rov dvSpos, oXXo. aTTO rov ®eov cyew^^ijo-av. ^* Kai 0 Xdyos eytve crapf, Kat eKaroLKrjcrev eis e^aas, Kat too/iev T^v Sdfav rov Sdfav oia-av (vtov) /xovoyevovs airo tov Trarlpa, yepdro's X<*P"' k^-I aX-^Oeiav. Hilakion's Version. An dpx^s 7;rov 6 Xdyos, Kat 6 Xdyos ^rov op,ov ;u,e tov ©eov, Kat 6 Xdyos -^rov ®eds. ^ Avros rjrov air dp^rji opov pe TOV ®edv. ^ OXa (ra KTt(r|Oiara) eSrjpiovpyi^- 3^-rjcrav St' avrov (rov Xdyov), Kat Kavev ctTro oVa eSiy/utt- ovpyrj^(Tav, Sev iBrqpiovpyri^r] ¦)(uip\m "qrov, to oirotov (fxori^ei KdS^eva avS^poiwov, 6 ottoios ep^erat ets rov Koapov. 1" Ets TOV k6(tii.ov -qrov, Kal 6 Koapo'S iZrjixiovpyqOyj St' avrov- TtXqv 6 Koapoi Sev rov eyvt6pto"ev. ^^ HXjev ets TO, tSta TOV, Kat ot tStot tov Sev rov iSi^dr/crav. ^^ "Ocroi opal's rov i8e)(B-r](Tav, ets avrovs eSwKe 8tKat(op.a rov va yevojvrai vtot ®eov, SyjXaSr] ets eKetVovs. ot OTrotot eirtcr- Tevo-av ets rd ovopd rov • ^^ Avrot Sev iyeirv-rjSTjcrav airb aXpa, p-f)Te diro Oekqcriv o-apKos, jaijre aTrd BeX-qcriv dvSpds, dXX eyewrjOqcrav diro tov ©eov. ¦'* Kat o Xdyos eyevero crdp^- koX KartaKijO-ev ets rjpds, yeparos dird ydpiv Kal dX-rjOeiav, Kal ¦fjpei'S etSo/;tev t^v Sd^av avrov (tov Xdyov), 0)5 Sdfav (vtov) o ottoios etvat povoyevr]'; dird TOV IXarepa. ON THE MODEEN GEEEK LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Modern Greek, or Eomaic, is the vernacular language of about 1,180,000 descendants of the ancient Greeks, dispersed throughout the Turkish 202 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. empire.' The modern kingdom of Greece, the original seat of the language, is bounded, as of old, on three sides by the Mediterranean; but on the north it extends no further than Albania and Thessaly: its area has been estimated at 15,000 square miles, and its population at about 900,000. The established reUgion of Greece is that of the Greek Church; but the authority of the Patriarch of Constantinople is not recognised, the King of Greece being regarded by his subjects as the head of the Church. Toleration is extended to all sects : Protestants are few in number, but there are 10,000 Eoman CathoUcs and 4000 Jews in Greece. Characteristics of the Language. — Although the yoke of foreign dominion has been imposed upon Greece from the time of the Eoman conquests till within the last lialf century, yet the classical language of the ancient Greeks has never given place to that of the conquerors, but has maintained its vitality in the midst of political ruin. It has been said that Modern Greek differs from Ancient Greek but little more than the Doric from the Attic dialect : this statement must be received with some reservation; yet it is certain that Italian, French, and Spanish have diverged far more widely from Latin than Modern Greek from its parent source. The changes incident to time are not so visible in the vocabulary as in the grammatical structure of Modern Greek. The dual number, the dative case, the middle voice, and the optative mood have all disappeared; but, unlike the languages of Latin origin, this modern tongue retains the three genders and the declension of nouns. The place of the lost dative is commonly supplied by means of the accusative, either with or without the preposition et? : in all other respects, Greek nouns are still declined according to the analogy of the ancient language. On the other hand, in the conjugation of verbs, the Modern Greek departs further from the Ancient than Italian from Latin. The very system of conjugation is changed in Modern Greek; three auxiliary verbs are brought into requisition, and almost all the simple tenses have ceased to exist. Even the future is no longer expressed by a simple tense, but is construed in three ways : thus, deXco 7pai|r6t (I will write), deXei, ypd^^co, and ^e vd ypd^yjrco (by crasis) 0d ypd-y^to, are aU equivalent to the ancient ypd^y^ay. The composition of most of the other tenses is susceptible of similar variety.^ In syntax, the Modern Greek preserves many ancient turns of expression, yet at the same time admits of great innovations. In imitation of French and Italian, its verbs are accompanied by personal pronouns, more frequently than was customary in the ancient tongue ; and it often changes the case formerly required by the particle or verb. Many peculiarities, characteristic of the New Testament and ecclesiastical writers, are to be met with in Modern Greek. The language no longer retains any possessive pronouns, but thefr place is supplied by the genitive case of the personal pronouns, and in the third person plural by the accusative of the relative pronoun, with or without a refiected pronoun. The ellipsis, or loss of the infinitive, is accounted the greatest imperfection of Modern Greek: this mood is now construed by means of the particle vd (an abbreviation of the ancient Iva) and the subjunctive; for instance, the Hellenic proposition, i7n,9vfiS> IBelv avrov (I 'wish to see him), is now rendered imdvp^S) vd rbv IBo).^ The term Eomaic, or Eomeika, is often apphed to Modern Greek; it arises from the name Romaioi ox Romans, obtained or assumed bythe Greeks during the period of their subjection to the Eoman empire of Constantinople. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — Three versions of the New Testa ment exist in Modern Greek. Of these, the earhest was printed at Geneva, in 1638, in paraUel columns with the inspired text : it was executed by Maximus Calliergi (or CallipoU, as he is sometimes called), at the solicitation of Haga, the ambassador of the then United Provinces at Constantinople. The translation is remarkable for its close and literal adherence to the Greek original text. The expense of this work was borne by the United Provinces. It is preceded by two prefaces, the one by the translator, and the other by Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, who, having spent his youth at Geneva, had imbibed the principles of Calvinism: both prefaces treat on the necessity of presenting the Scriptures in a language intelUgible to the people. This version was reprinted, with corrections, in 1703, in London, by the Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts; and another edition was issued by the same Society in 1705. A reprint of this version, in 12mo., was published at Halle, in 1710,' at the expense of Sophia Louisa, queen of Prussia. From^ this edition, the British and Foreign Bible Society published an impression, under the superintendence of the Eev. J. F. Usko, in 1808, with the Ancient and Modern Greek in parallel columns. This edition was so favourably received, that, in 1812, it was found necessary to undertake ¦ Urquhart's Turkey and its Resources, p. 272. 2 David's Grammatical ParaUel of Ancient and Modem Greek, p. 43. ^ David's Grammatical ParaUel of Ancient and Modem Greek, p. 125. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] MODERNGREEK. 203 another edition, for the supply of the urgent demands in the Levant, the isles of the Archipelago, and certain other Greek stations. A strict and thorough revision of the text being deemed requisite, the Kev. C. WilUamson, and, afterwards. Dr. Pilkington, were directed by the British and Foreign Bible Committee to inquire among the learned Greeks at Constantinople for an individual properly qualified for so important an undertaking. The Archimandrite HUarion (subsequently archbishop of Ternovo), with two assistants, both ecclesiastics, was accordingly appointed, in 1819, to execute a revision, or rather a new version, of the Testament ; and as a great desire had been expressed for a version of the entfre Scriptures in Modern Greek, arrangements were at the same time made for the translation of the Old Testament. Father Simon, in his " Critical History," speaks of a version ofthe Bible in this language having been printed at Constantinople in the sixteenth century ; but this statement lias been doubted, and it fr generally beUeved that the translation of the Old Testament undertaken by Hilarion, for the British and Foreign Bible Society, is the first that has ever been executed in Modem Greek. In 1827, Hilarion's version of the New Testament was completed; and, after having been submitted to the inspection of Constantius, archbishop of Mount Sinai, it was printed at the national printing-office in the patriarchate, under the eye of the Greek Church.' This version was made from the inspired text; but though faithful and accurate as a translation, the diction is considered rather stiff, and the forms of the ancient language are too frequently imitated. About the same time, HUarion executed a translation ofthe Old Testament from the Septuagint; and, in 1829, the whole of his MS. was submitted to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society, in London. After mature and anxious deliberation, however, the Committee came to the conclusion that it would be more desirable to circulate a version prepared from the Hebrew text itself, than a mere translation of the Septuagint. The Eev. H. D. Leeves was therefore appointed to reside in Corfu, where, with the assistance of natives, he commenced a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Modern Greek. In conjunction with the Eev. I. Lowndes (an agent of the London Missionary Society), he engaged the services of Professors Bambas and Tipaldo, to which, for a short period, were added those of Professor Joannides; and the plan pursued was the following: "A certain portion of the books of the Old Testament was allotted to each of the Greek translators, who, with the Enghsh authorised version, the French of Martin, and the Itahan of Diodati before them, con sulting also the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and other versions and aids where necessary, made as good a translation as they were able into the Modern Greek. It was then the ofiice of Mr. Leeves and Mr. Lowndes to compare this translation with the Hebrew, calling in the aid of other versions and critical commentaries, and to make their observations and proposed corrections in the margin of the manuscript. The manuscript, thus prepared, was brought before the united body of translators, at their regular sittings, where the whole was read over; and every word and phrase being regularly weighed and discussed, the final corrections were made vrith general consent. A fair copy was then taken, the comparison of which with its original gave occasion to a last consideration of doubtful points; and afterwards it was sent to England for the press. This process was twice repeated in some parts ofthe work."^ In 1836, the translation of the Old Testament was completed; but in consequence of the great demand, portions had previously been committed to the press. As early as 1831, 5000 copies ofthe Psalms had been printed in London, under the care of Mr. Greenfield, after havmg been revised by the original, and corrected by Mr. T. P. Piatt; and this edition was so greatly approved, that another edition, also of 5000 copies, had followed in 1832, of which the Eev. W. Jowett was the editor.^ Mr. Leeves died in 1840, and the revision of the Old Testament, translated tmder his superintendence, then devolved upon Mr. Lowndes. He availed himself of the continued serrices of Professors Bambas and Nicolaides in this revision; and each sheet, when completed, was examined by the Eev. J. W. MeUor, vicar of Woodbridge. An edition of 3000 copies has been lately printed at Oxford, under the superintendence of the Eev. J. Jowett, assisted by Mr. MeUor.* WhUe engaged in the translation of the Old Testament, Professor Bambas devoted part of his time to the production of another version, or rather revision, of the New Testament in Modern Greek. This work was revised by Mr. Leeves and Mr. Lowndes ; and 2000 copies of the Gospels and Acts were printed at Athens before the year ISSg.'* An edition of 10,000 copies of the entire New Testament was prmted at Athens, in 1848, by the British and Foreign Bible Society; and this revision is con sidered so correct and idiomatic, that it has now completely superseded that of Archbishop HUarion. ' Twenty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 153. ' Twenty-eighth Report of Bntish and For^^ p. 1. = Thirty.fifth Report of British and Foreiga Bible Society, p. 49. * Forty-fourth Report of Bnbsh and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixxm. s Thirty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 60. 204 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Eesults of the Dissemination of this Version. — It is a well-known fact, and attested by native vmters, that, prior to the efforts made by the British and Foreign Bible Society in Greece, nearly the whole Greek nation, though making an outward profession of Christianity, " knew only by hearsay of the existence of the Holy Scriptures." * Hence it may weU be considered as a manifestation of the merciful intentions of Divine Providence towards the Greeks, that, at the very commencement of their political career as a free people, this Society was incited to place before them the long-forgotten word of God in their own vemaciUar language. No less than 45,294 copies of the New Testament, in Ancient and Modern Greek, have been issued by the Society, besides 197,418 copies of smaUer portions of the Scriptures in Modern Greek. The Greeks, as a nation, have received and valued the heavenly gift. The govemment encourages the reading of the Scriptures in the schools, and has charged the teachers of primary schools to communicate scriptural instruction to their pupils every Sunday after church.^ The good thus done is not confined to the children alone, for many of the parents have declared that " they have learnt much of the truths of the Gospel by hearing their chUdren repeating their lessons." Conceming the spiritual results of this extensive cfrculation and perusal of the Scriptures, we are not vrithout satisfactory evidence. One missionary writes: " It hath pleased Him who hath said, ' My word shaU not return unto me void,' to grant us, in addition, many interesting proofs that ' God is not slack concerning his promises.' We know many who are even now walking in the light of God's word. They are as suns in the centre of their respective cfrcles, and their infiuence attracts others to come and seek at its source the light which they are distributing."^ ' Fortieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 76. ' Fortieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 85. ^ Fortieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 83. LATIN. SPECIMEN OF THE LATIN VEESIONS. EXODUS, Chap. xv. v. I to 13. Ante-Hieeontmian Version. 1 ToNC cantavit Moyses & filii Israel canticum hoc Domino, & dixerunt di cere : Cantemus Domino : gloriose enim magnificatus est, equum & ascensorem dejecit in mare. 2 Adjutor, & protector factus est mihi in salutem : iste Deus meus, & glorificabo eum : Deus patris mei, & exaltabo eum. 3 Dominus con- terens hella, Dominus nomen est ei. * Currus Faraonis & exercitum ejus projecit in mare : electos ascensores ternos stantes demersit in rubro mari. 5 Pelago oooperuit eos, devenerunt in profundum tanquam lapis. 6 Dextera tua, Domine, glorificata est in virtute : dextera manus tua, Domine, confregit inimicos. ' Et per multitudinem glo- rise tua contribulasti adversaries : mi- sisti iram tuam, & comedit illos tan quam stipulam. 8 Et per spiritum irse tuse divisa est aqua : gelaverunt tan quam murus aquae, gelaverunt fluctus in medio mari. 9 Dixit inimicus : Per- sequens comprehendam, partibor spolia, replebo animam meam : interhciam gladio meo, dominabitur manus mea. '» Misisti spiritum tuum, & cooperuit eos mare : descenderunt tanquam plum bum in aquam validissimam. 'i Quis sunilis tibi in diis Domine ? quis similis tibi, gloriosus in Sanctis, mlrabilis in majestatibus, faciens prodigia ? 12 Ex- tendisti dexteram tuam, & devoravit eos terra. 13 Gubernasti in justitia tua populum tuum hunc quem redemisti : eihortatus es in virtute tua, in requie sancta tna. Vulgate Version. ' Tunc cecinit Moyses et filii Israel carmen hoc Domino, et dixerunt : Can temus Domino : gloriose enim magnifi catus est ; equum et ascensorem dejecit in mare. 2 ITortitudo mea, et laus mea Dominus, et factus est mihi in salutem : iste Deus meus, et glorificabo eum • Deus patris mei, et exaltabo eum. 3 Dominus quasi vir pugnator ; Omni- potens nomen ejus. ^ Currus Phara- onis et exercitum ejus projecit in mare : eleoti principes ejus submersi sunt in Mari rubro. ^ Abyssi opemerunt eos, descenderunt in profundum quasi lapis. 6 Dextera tua, Domine, magnificata est in fortitudine : dextera tua, Domine, percussit inimicum. ' Et in multitu dine glorise tuse deposuisti adversarios tuos ; misisti iram tuam, quae devoravit eos sicut stipulam. 8 Et in spiritu fu- roris tui congregatae sunt aquae : stetit unda fluens, congregatae sunt abyssi in medio mari. 9 Dixit inimicus : Perse- quar et comprehendam, dividam spolia, implebitur anima mea : evaginabo glad- ium meum, interfioiet eos manus mea. '0 Plavit spiritus tuus, et operuit eos mare : submersi sunt quasi plumbum in aquis vehementibus. it Quis similis tui in fortibus Domine? quis similis tui, magnifious in sanotitate, terribilis atque laudabilis, faciens mirabiUa ? 12 Extendisti manum tuam, et devo ravit eos terra. '3 Dux fuisti in mise ricordia tua populo quem redemisti : et portasti eum in fortitudine tua, ad ha bitaculum sanctum tuum. Pagninus's Version. ' Tunc cecinit Moioseh et filii Iids- ra«el canticum istud lehouae, et dixe runt in hunc modum, Cantabo lehouae, quia magniflcando magnificatus est, eq uum et sessorem eius proiecit in Mare. 2 Fortitudo mea, et laus est lah : fuit enim mihi in salutem : iste Deus meus, propterea tabernaculum faciam ei : iste Deus patris mei, propterea exaltabo eum. 3 lehouah vir belli, lehouah nomen eius. ¦* Currus Parsoh et exercitum eius proiecit in Mare, et electi principes eius submersi sunt in Mari Dsuph. 5 Vora- gines opemerunt eos, descenderunt in profunda tanquam lapis. 6 Dextera tua lehouah, magnificata est fortitudine : dextera tua, 6 lehouah, confregit ini micum. 7 Et in multitudine magnifi- centiae tuaa destruxisti inimicos tuos : immisisti iram tuam, deuorauit eos sicut stipulam. 8 Et spiritu naris tuae coaceruatae sunt aquae, steterunt sicuti aceruns fluenta, coagulatae simt vora- gines in corde Maris. 9 Dixit inimicus, Persequar, comprehendam, diuidam spo lia, explebitur eis anima mea, euaginabo gladium meum, perdet eos manus mea. 10 Plauisti vento tuo, et operuit eos Mare, absorpti sunt tanquam plumbum in aquis vehementibus. n Quis sicut tu in diis, 6 lehouah ? quis sicut tu, magnifious in sanotitate, terribilis laudibus, faciens mirabLia ? '^ Extendisti dexteram tuam, deglutiuit eos terra. 13 Duces per misericordiam tuam populum hunc qtiem redemisti, duces in fortitudine tua ad habitaculum sanctitatis tuae. ON THE LATIN LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Latin, the language of the ancient Eomans, derived its name from the small state of Latium, of which it was the vernacular language. With the Roman conquests it was carried beyond its originally narrow Umits to the utmost boundaries of the then known world, and ultimately it became co-extensive with the Eoman empfre, in many cases nimgling with and remoulding the dialects of the conquered nations. When, with the decline of the 206 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III, Eoman power, it ceased to be the medium of colloquial intercourse, it continued to maintain its supremacy throughout Europe during the whole of the middle ages,_ as_ the general language of literature, of phUosophy, of legislation, of religion, and of inter-communication between the learned of all countries. From the estabUshment of the papacy to the present day it has constituted the hturgical language of the Eoman Catholic Church ; and it is stiU extensively cultivated by every civiUsed nation of the earth, on account of the treasures contained in the vast repository of its literature. Munster's Version. t TvNC cantauit Moses & filij Israel canticum istud domino, & dicentes dix erunt : cantabo domino, quoniam tri- umphando magnifice egit : equum & ascensorem eius deiecit in mare. 2 For titudo mea & laus dominus, factusque est mihi in salutem : iste deus meus, & decorabo eum : deus patri mei, & ex altabo eum. 3 Dominus uir bellicosus, dominus nomen eius. ^ Quadrigas Pha- raonis & exercitum eius proiecit in mare : & electi duces eius, demersi sunt in mari rubro. 6 Abyssi operuerunt eos, descenderunt in profunditates quasi lapis. 6 Dextra tua domine magnificata est in uirtute : dextera tua domine fre- git inimicum. 7 Et in multitudine mag nificentise tuae, subuertisti insurgentes contra te : misisti furorem tuum, qui absumpsit eos quasi stipulam. * Per flatum narium tuarum, coaceruatae sunt aquae : steterunt quasi cumulus fluidae aquae : coagulatae sunt abyssi in corde maris. 9 Dixit hostis : persequar, ap- prehendam, diuidam spolia : implebitur ab eis anima mea : euaginabo gladium meum, perdet eos manus mea. '" Flau- isti per uentum tuum, operuit eos mare : demersi sunt quasi plumbum, in aquis uehementibus. " Quis ut tu in dijs domine ? quis sicut tu magnifious in sanotitate, terribilis laudibus, faciens mirabilia? '^ Extendisti dexteram tuam, deuorauit eos terra. '3 Duxisti in tua misericordia populum istum, quem re demisti : duxisti in tua fortitudine ad habitaculum sanctitatis tuae. Leo Juda's Version. 1 Tunc cecinit Moses et filij Israel can ticum istud Domino, et cecinerunt in hunc modum, Cantabo Domino, quia magnifice magnifitentiam suam exeruit, equum et currus eius sublatos in altum deiecit in mare. 2 Dominus est robur et carmen meum, qui fuit seruator meus : iste [inquam dominus] est deus meus hunc decorabo : deus patris mei, hunc extollam. 3 Dominus uir bella- tor, Dominus nomen eius. ¦* Quadrigas Pharaonis et copias eius deiecit in mare, et electi triarij eius demersi sunt in mari carectoso. ^ Abyssi eos operuerunt, des cenderunt in profunditates ueluti lapis. 6 Dextera tua 6 Domine, excellenti uirtute eminuit, dextera tua 6 Domine hostem confregit. ^ Et in multitudine magnificentiae tuae subuertisti insur gentes contra te, misisti furorem tuum, qui deuorauit eos tanquam stipulam. 8 In fiatu narium tuarum coaceruatae sunt aquae, flumina constiterimt ut cumulus, abyssi coagulatae sunt in medio mari. 9 Hostis dixit, Persequar, apprehendam, dividam spolia, imple bitur eis anima mea : exeram gladium meum, perdet eos manus mea. i" Uento tuo flauisti, mare eos operuit, demersi sunt ueluti plumbum in aquis uehemen tibus. 11 Quis tui similis in dijs 6 Do mine ? Quis sicut tu magnifious sano titate ? formidabilis laudibus, faciens admiranda? 12 Extendente te dexteram tuam deglutiuit eos terra. '3 Duxisti tua bonitate populum istum, quem asse- ruisti, duxisti tua fortitudine ad habi taculum sanctuarij tui. Castalio's Version. 1 Tum Moses un4 cum Israelitis car men hoc louae cecinit. louam canto, qui pro sua prsestantia et equos, et equites in mare deiecerit. Vires meae, carmenque Ioua est, qui mihi saluti fuit. 2 Hic meus est Deus, quem cele- bro : Deus patrius, quem extoUo. 3 Ioua vir bellicosus, Ioua inquam qui nomi- natur. * Pharaonis et currus et copias in mare deturbauit, ita ut illius duces lectissimi in mare rubrum demersi, 5 et undis obruti, in fundum tanquam saxa subsederint. 6 Tu ista dextera, 6 Ioua, decus tibi fortissimo peperisti : ista dex tera Ioua hostem oppressisti, ' et tua singulari praestantia infestos tuos euer- tisti, laxataque ira tua quasi sti pulam confecisti. 8 Ergo ad tuorum narium flatum coaceruatae sunt aquse : stetere fluctus in cumulum, inque mari medio undae concreuerunt. 9 Dixerat hostis : Persequar, assequar, diuidam praedam, animum meum ex illis ex- plebo, gladium stringam, illos mea manu peruertam. l" At te spiritu isto flante obruti sunt mari, et plumbi ritu in aquas nobiles demersi. " Quis tibi deorum par est, 6 Ioua? quis cum sacro isto decore conferendus ? 6 ter ribilis, laudabilis, mirifioe, '^ qui ex- tensa dextera tua, illis humo absorp- tis, 13 popukim hunc 4 te redemp- tum pro tua dementia abducis, et tna ui in tuum sacrum perducis domi- cOium. Characteristics op the Language. — The Latin language originated from that of the Pelasgians, an ancient race by whom Greece and Italy were overspread at a very early period of history. This identity of origin accounts for the many instances of similarity which exist between the Greek and Latin languages. In Italy the Pelasgian type was considerably altered by the influence of the numerous petty dialects, chiefiy of Celtic origin, anciently spoken in that peninsula ; and hence Latm possesses a class of words, and certain peculiarities of grammatical structure, which are not to be found in Greek. On the other hand, Greek has deviated in many respects from the parent stock, where Latm has remained faithful to the original: there are, for instance, a number of Sanscrit words, which in Greek have been altered by the addition of the prefix o, while in Latin they remain to a great degree unchanged ; such as oSoj)?, in Sanscrit danta, and in Latin dens; ovop,a, in Sanscrit nama, and in Latin nomen ; and many others. Latin is inferior to Greek in the power of compounding words, so that iji translating Greek poetry into Latin, difiiculty has been often felt in finding terms to express the picturesque epithets of the Greeks. No language, however, can surpass the Latin in the power of expressmg^ m one word accessory notions combined with the principal idea : • this power, the result of numerous infiections, adds greatly to the characteristic energy and conciseness of Latin phraseology. ' Reflexions sur I'Etude des Langues Asiatiques, Schlegel, p. 8. Indo-Etjeopean Languagds.J Jnsnis AND Teemellius's Version. 1 Tunc canens Mosche et filii Jisraelis canticum istud Jehovae, loquuti sunt dicendo ; Cantabo Jehovae, eo quod ad modum excelluit, equum et sessorem ejus dejecit in mare. 2 Robur meum et carmen Jah, qui fuit mihi saluti : hic tstDeus fortis meus, cui habitaculum decorum ponam, Deus patris mei quem exaltabo. 3 Jehova est bellicosissimus, nomen ejus est Jehova. ¦* Currus Par- tonis et copias ejus praecipitavit in mare; delectusque prEefectorum ejus demersi sunt in mare algosum. ^Abyssi operuerunt eos, descenderunt in pro funda velut lapis. ^ Dextera tua, 6 Je hova, magnificat se mihi virtute ilia: dextera tua, Jehova, confringis hostem : ' Et magnitudine exoellentiae tuae sub- vertis insurgentes contra te : furorem tuum immittis, consumit eos tamquam ignis stipulam. 8 Quum flatu narium tuarum coacervatae sunt aquae, consti- terunt velut cumulus fluida : concre- verunt abyssi in intima parte maris : 9 Dixerat hostis, persequar, assequar, diWdam praedam : explebitur eis anima mea, exseram gladium meum, asseret eos in haereditatem manus mea. i" Fla- visti vento tuo, operuit eos mare : pro funda petierunt tamquam plumbum, in aquis validis, " Quis est sicut tu inter fortissimos, Jehova ? quis est sicut tu, magnificus sanotitate ? reverendus lau dibus? mirificus? 12 Extendisti dex teram tuam, deglutivit eos terra. '3 De- ducis benignitate tua populum quem redemisti: commodfe ducis robore tuo ad decorum habitaculum sanctitatis tuae. LATIN. Schmidt's Version. 1 Tunc cecinit Moses, & filii Jisrael, canticum hoc jEH0V.a), & dixerunt di cendo; Cantabo Jehov.«), quia exalt- ando exaltavit Se : equum & equitem ejus projecit in mare. 2 Fortitudo mea & canticum Jah, & factus est mihi in salutem ; Hic Deus meus, ideo cele- brabo Eum ; Deus patris mei, ideo exaltabo Eum. 3 Jehovah (est) vir belli : Jehovah (est merito) nomen Ejus. 4 Currus Pharaonis & exercitum ejus projecit in mare ; & electi ternari- orum ejus submersi sunt in mari Suph. 5 Abyssi contexernnt eos : descende runt in profunditates, sicut lapis. 6 Dex tra Tua, Jehovah, magnifica est ro bore : dextra Tua, Jehovah, confringit hostem. 7 Et magnitudine excellentiae Tuae destruis consurgentes contra Te : emittis excandescentiam Tuam, (qua) comedit eos, sicut stipulam. 8 Et fiatu narium Tuarum coacervatae sunt aquae ; steterunt sicut cumulus fluenta ; con- gelatae sunt abyssi in corde maris. 9 Dixit inimicus ; persequar, assequar, dividam spolium : implebitur eis anima mea : denudabo gladium Meum : ex- pellet eos manus Mea. 10 (Sed) spirasti vento Tuo, (tum) contexit eos mare : submersi sunt, sicut plumbum in aquis validis. n Quis sicut Tu, in Diis, Je hovah ? quis, sicut Tu, magnificus sanotitate : venerandus laudibus, faciens miraculum ? 12 Extendisti dextram Tuam; absorpsit eos terra. '3 Duxisti in misericordia Tua populum eum, (quem) redemisti : deduxisti in fortitudine Tua ad habitaculum sanctitatis Tuae. 207 Dathe's Version. I Tunc Moses et Israelitae hoc carmen in honorem Jovae dixere : Jovam cano, nam magna praestitit. Equum et equi tem in mare dejecit. 2 Deum canam ob defensionem mihi praestitam. Saluti mihi fuit. Pie Deus meus, hunc cele- brabo. Deus patrius, hunc laudibus extollam. 3 Jova fuit bellator, is qui Jova nominatur. * Currus Pharaonis et exercitum ejus in mare projecit, du ces ejus lectissimi mari Arabiae sunt immersi. 5 Fluctibus obruti in fundum tanquam lapis subsiderunt. 6 Dextra tua, o Jova, insignem virtutem ostendit, dextra tua, o Jova, hostem prostravit. 7 Immensa tua potentia evertisti adver sarios tuos, ab ardente ira tua consumti sunt ut stipula. 8 Halitu tuo coacerva tae sunt aquae, steterunt in cumulum erecti fluctus, in medio mari imdae con- creverunt. 9 Dixit hostis : persequar, assequar, praedam dividam, jam vota mea ex- plebuntur : stringam gladium, manu mea perdentur. i" Vento tuo flabas, tum mare eos texit, fundum petie runt ut plumbum in aquis profundis. 11 Quis tui similis est, 0 Jova, inter Deos ? quis ut tu tanta sanctitate est conspicuus ? Laudibus illustris, qui mira praestat! 12 Manum tuam exten- debas, tum terra eos absorpsit. 13 Ducis pro benignitate populum, quem tibi vindicasti, ducis eum pro potentia tua ad sedem tuam sanctam. Versions or the Scriptures in this Language. — We possess no direct evidence as to the tune when the Scripture was first translated into Latin. There is no reason to suppose that a Latin translation would be pecuUarly wanted by the large body of Christians residing at Eome in the earhest ages, for Greek was weU understood by both the educated and uneducated classes. This language spread amongst even the lower classes, from the great iafiux of strangers into the capital of the civihsed earth, amongst whom Greek was the general language of communication, as weU as from the vast number of slaves in Eome brought from countries where Greek had obtained some footing : besides this, the near proximity of Eome to the cities of Magna Grsecia, to which the franchises of the jus Latinum had been extended, must have had no small influence. And indeed the fact of St. Paul having written in Greek to the church at Eome, may be taken as at least an indication that Latin was not absolutely requfred by the Christians in that city. A Latin version had, however, been made some time before the end of the second century. Such a version was used by Tertulhan, who criticised it, and condemned some of its renderings. Many haye supposed that there existed originaUy numerous independent Latin translations ; and in proof of _ this they have tumed to passages in Jerome and Augustine, which speak of the multiplicity of translations, and they have also pointed out how differently the same texts are read by different Latin Fathers. The statements, however, of Jerome and Augustine may be better understood as relating to what versions had become through repeated alterations ; and the variety in citations appears to have arisen partly from the use of such altered versions, and partly from writers having translated passages for themselves. Lachmann 1 especially has given good reasons for supposing that at first there existed but. one version in Latin, and that it was made in the north of Africa, in that Eoman province of which Carthage was the metropolis. Like most of the other ancient versions, we know not from whose hand 1 N. Test. Prol. xi. &c. 208 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IIL it sprung ; and it does not seem as if much authority was attached to it, otherwise private individuals woiild hardly have felt themselves at Uberty to alter it almost at pleasure. As this version was made from the Greek, it was in the Old Testament based on the LXX., and not on the original Hebrew. Hence it has resulted, that when a version of the Old Testament into Latin had been made from the Hebrew, the older version fell after a time into such obUvion, that only fragments of it have come down to us. In the latter part of the fourth century, the process of continually altering and correcting the Latin copies occasioned great confusion : this was remarked by Jerome, Augustine, and others. The latter of these Fathers speaks of the multiplicity of the versions then current, and, amongst them aU, commends one which he calls the Ltala. This term has occasioned much discussion, and much mis apprehension. Some have thought the word Itala to be an error ; while others have strangely apphed the name of Itala or Italic to all the Latin versions extant prior to the time of Jerome. It is evident, however, that Augustine meant some one version, and that it was one which had been revised, and that the name indicates its connection with the province of Upper Italy (Italic in contrast to Eoman), of which MUan (Mediolanum) was the capital. It is well known how closely Augustine was connected with Milan ; it might, we beUeve, be shown, that in his day pains were taken to revise the Latin copies in that very district. One thing at least is certain, that however common it may be to caU the ancient Latin versions indiscriminately " the Old Italic," the name ought to be rejected, as haring originated in misconception, and as perpetuating a confusing error. Before we speak of the labours of Jerome for the revision and retranslation of the Latin text, we have to mention what editions have been published of the older translations. In 1588, Flaminio Nobili pubUshed at Eome a work which professed to be the ancient Latm version of the Old Testament, made from the Greek : it was, however, always considered doubtful from what sources NobUi had taken the passages, so as to give the Old Testament complete; and now it is certain that he really in general did nothing but translate into Latin the Sixtine text of the LXX. Sabatier, one ofthe distinguished French Benedictines, published at Eheims, in 1743-49, a very large collection of fragments of the ancient versions : he drew them from MSS. and citations : the modern Vulgate is placed by the side of the more ancient text, and the various citations of Latin Fathers are given very elaborately in the notes. Besides the collection of Old Testament fragments given by Sabatier, some passages of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and Hosea were found by Dr. Feder in a Wurzburg Codex Eescriptus ; and they were published by Dr. Miinter in 1821. Cardinal Mai has also given, in his Spicilegium Romanum, vol. ix. 1843, some fragments ofsuch a version. The term Ante-hieronymian is often used as a general expression for denoting aU the versions or revisions made before the labours of Jerome. Of these we possess not a few of the Gospels, and some of other parts of the New Testament. Martianay published, in 1695, an old text of St. Matthew's Gospel and of the Epistle of James. In 1749 (as has been mentioned), Sabatier published all he could collect of the New Testament. In the same year, Bianchini published at Eome his Evangeliarum Quadruplex, containing the Latin texts of the Gospels, as found in the Codices Vercellensis, Veronensis, Brixianus, and Corbeiensis. Subjoined there were some Latin texts of parts of Jerome's version. The principal of these was the Codex Forojuliensis. In 1828, Cardinal Mai gave, in his " CoUectio Vaticana," vol. iii., an Ante-hieronymian version of St. Matthew's Gospel, from a MS. which in the other Gospels followed Jerome's version. We have, in the last place, to mention the " Evangehum Palatinum," a purple MS. at Vienna, of which Tischendorf published a magnificent edition in 1847. Besides these Latin texts, there are also others of which we cannot speak with entire certainty, as they accompany a Greek text in the same MS. : they may probably, therefore, be versions which never had a separate circulation. Hearne published in 1715, at Oxford, the Graaco-Latin Codex Laudianus of the book of Acts ; in 1793, KipUng edited the Codex Bezse of the Gospels and Acts ; and, in 1791, Matthsei published the Codex Boernerianus of St. Paul's Epistles, which has an interhneary Latin version : a similar copy of the Four Gospels, Codex Sangallensis, was pubUshed in 1836, by Eettlg. We have now to speak of the version of Jerome. The labours of this most learned of the Fathers will be described most clearly by mentioning, in chronological order, the respective versions and revisions which he undertook. His first labour was the correction of the Latin text of the New Testament, beginning with the Four Gospels, which he undertook at the request of Pope Damatus : this was executed about the year 382, after Jerome's return to Eome from the East. He used the old Latin version, then in common use, as a basis ; but as it was incorrect in many ways, and passages in one gospel had been inserted in another, etc., he amended it in accordance with ancient Greek MSS. He feared innovatmg too much, Indo-Eueopean Languages.] LATIN. 209 »n^ thus he did not correct every thing which he thought inaccurate. In his other works, he often mentions renderings and readings which he preferred to those which he aUowed to remam fri his version. Soon after this revision of the Latin New Testament, he corrected the Psalter then in common use at Eome, by amending some of the places m which it was wide of the LXX. text, from which it had been originaUy translated. This more hasty revision, however, obtained the sanction of the church at Rome ; and it was widely used at_ one time in the Latin Church : in this country it was used at Canterbury alone until the Eeformation. The Council of Trent, however, rejected this version in favour of the Galilean Psalter, of which we have next to speak ; its use was henceforth confined simply to the city of Eome. After the return of Jerome to the East in 384, he employed himself, in his retreat at Bethlehem, In carefiiUy making a recension of the Old Testament, in accordance with the Hexaplar text of the LXX The Psalter, vrith which he seems to have begun, obtained a wide use in the Latin Church, under the name of the Gallican Psalter: the Council of Trent adopted it as of authority, as it had then a place in the Latin Bibles. Jerome proceeded in his revision of the Old Testament, in accordance with the Hexaplar text of the LXX. : the whole of this version, however (except the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, and Chronicles), was, as he says in a letter to Augustine, lost by fraud. Job is the only book of this version which we possess, besides the Psalms, as afready stated. But even while Jerome was occupied with the recension according to the LXX., he had com menced and made considerable progress in a far more important work. With great pains he had acquired a very fair knowledge of Hebrew, and several of his friends were anxious to profit by his superior attainments : at their solicitations he translated book after book of the Old Testament, between the years 385 and 405. This important work was looked on by many as an innovation ; loud were the outcries against any departure from the LXX., which was then commonly beUeved to be possessed of dirine authority. It proves that Jerome's strength of purpose must indeed have been great ; or else a person so sensitive as to his own reputation for orthodoxy would never have stemmed the opposition that was raised. His energy in acquiring the Hebrew language was very remarkable ; he obtained all the information he could from Jewish teachers, and he made diligent use of all the Greek versions then extant. His Latinity, though not classical, is vigorous ; indeed, his version is refined and elegant, when compared with the translation into that language which was current in the days of Tertulhan. Jerome's labours were gradually appreciated ; after a lapse of about two centuries, his version from the Hebrew of aU the Old Testament, except the Psalms, and his revision of the New, were adopted pretty generally : the Psalms were taken from his version from the LXX. The adoption, however, of Jerome's version occasioned its corruption, by the admixture of the older renderings, and by other mistakes of copyists. The first reviser of whom we read was the celebrated Englishman, Alcuin, who about the year 802, at the command of Charlemagne, endeavoured to correct the Vulgate, as Jerome's version, as transmitted, was caUed. It was formerly thought by some, that he revised with the Hebrew and Greek texts ; but it has been shown that this was not his object : he only endeavoured to restore the text as it stood in ancient Latin copies. A noble MS. of Alcuin's recension is now in the British Museum. Other revisions were undertaken by Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury (ob. 1089), and others, for the text was continually injured by copyists. After the invention of printing, the first book to which this almost divine art was a,ppUed was the Latin Vulgate. The first edition has no indication of place or date : the earUest which is dated is that of Mayence, 1462. The first printers just foUowed the copy which they could most conveniently procure. Cardinal Ximenes took some pains to give the text more carefully in the Complutensian Polyglot, 1514-17 ; and yet farther care was taken in the editions of Eobert Stephens, 1528-46 ; of Hentenius, 1547 ; and of the Louvam divines in 1573. Meanwhile, va. 1546, the CouncU of Trent had decreed the Latin Vulgate to be " authentic ;" and it was considered to be the prerogative ofthe Popes to issue an authoritative edition. In 1590 this was done by Sistus the Fifth, a littie before his death. Although he threatened with excommunication any one who should vary from his text, his third successor, Clement the Eighth, in 1592, pubUshed a very different _ text : he professed in this merely to correct the errata of the Sixtine text ; but this does not explain the variations. In 1593, another edition was pubUshed with some alterations, which, with a few corrections made soon after, IS the standard Vulgate of the whole Eomish Church. It is not regarded, even by Eomanists, as altogether the genuine version of Jerome ; and some lendermgs are palpably corrupt, so as to suit false dogmas. The Benedictine editors of Jerome in 1693, 210 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IIL Martianay and Poujet, used MS. authority for printing his bibhcal versions, as also did the Verona editors, VaUarsi and Mattel, in 1734-42. There are also other MSS. of Jerome's translation extant, of great antiquity and excellence ; particularly the Codex Amiatinus at Florence, of which an imperfect coUation has been pubHshed. It has since been twice coUated in the New Testament part ; and from this and simUar sources the version of Jerome might be restored to nearly the condition in which it left his hand. As Jerome's own translation of the Psalms from the Hebrew is not contained in the Vulgate, it has been given, as weU as that of the Vulgate, in the Biblia Polyglotta Ecclesits and the Hexaplar Psalter, under the name which it usuaUy bears, Psalterium Hebraicum. Although no version but the Vulgate has ever been received as " authentic" by the Eomish Church, yet, on account of the many errors and corruptions by which that text is disfigured, several attempts have been made, by Catholics as weU as by Protestants, to produce more correct Latm versions. The foUowing is a brief description of these modern translations : — I. The version of Pagninus, containing the Old and New Testament, was published at Lyons in 1528. This is a very close and servUe representation of the original texts, and the diction is often obscure and barbarous. Pagninus was a Dominican monk of great learning, and he executed this version under the patronage ofthe popes, Leo X., Adrian VL, and Clement VII. His version ofthe Old Testament was reprinted by Stephens in 1557. II. The revision of the version of Pagninus by Arias Montanus was pubUshed in the Antwerp, Paris, and London Polyglots. In this revision the most Uteral signification of the Hebrew words is given without any reference to the context, and even the number of Latin words is accommodated to that of the Hebrew. The chief use of this rerision is therefore that of a grammatical commentary for Hebrew students. In the New Testament, Montanus chiefiy made use of the Vulgate, contenting himself with correct ing it in a few places according to the Greek. III. The version oi Malvenda, a Spanish Dominican, printed at Lyons in 1650, was never regarded with any estimation on account of its obscure and ungrammatical diction, and it has now completely fallen into oblivion. IV. The version of Cardinal Cajetan comprises only the Old Testament, and was pubhshed at Lyons in 1639. Cajetan had no knowledge of Hebrew, but Ue employed two translators weU acquainted with that language, the one a Jew and the other a Christian, to execute the version under his superintendence. This, Uke the preceding translations, adheres rigidly to the very letter of the text. V. The version of Houbigant, celebrated for the elegance and freedom of its style, was pubUshed at Paris in 1753, in a critical edition of the Hebrew Bible. This version, which com prises only the Old Testament, is executed from Father Houbigant's emended Hebrew text. These five modern versions were aU produced by Eoman CathoUcs. The foUowing are the principal Latin versions executed by Protestants : — I. The version of Munster was pubUshed at Basle in 1534, and again in 1546 : it is confined to the Old Testament, and is held in some reputation on account of the clearness of the style, and its strict fideUty to the Hebrew text. This version is preferred by Father Simon and other critics to that of Pagninus and Montanus. II. The version of the Old and New Testaments commenced by Leo Juda and completed by BibUander, professor of divinity at Zurich, was printed in 1543, and again by Stephens at Paris in 1545. In general accuracy and fidelity this version equals that of Munster; and the style, though less literal, is more elegant. III. The version of Castalio or Chatillon was printed at Basle in 1551, with a dedication to Edward VL, king of England. It was reprinted at Basle in 1573, and at Leipsic in 1738. The design of Castaho was to produce a Latin translation of both Testaments in the pure classical language of the ancient Latin writers. IV. The version of Junius and TremelUus was published at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1575-1579. It was afterwards corrected by Junius, and, on account of its close adherence to the Hebrew, the Old Testament of this version has been frequently reprinted. The New Testament, translated from the Syriac version by TremelUus, with Beza's translation from the Greek, appeared in a second edition at Geneva in 1590. 211 Iiroo-EuEOPEAN Languages.] LATIN. V. Schmidt's version of the Old and New Testament was executed with great exactness from the original texts, and printed at Strasburg in 1696. Several more recent editions have been issued. VI. The version of ZJaifAe, professor of Oriental literature at Leipsic, appeared in 1773-1789, and is considered a faithftU and elegant translation of the Hebrew text. VIL The version of the Pentateuch by Schott and Winzer was translated from the Hebrew and pubUshed at Leipsic in 1816. ' THE LATIN VERSIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. In principio erat verbum, et verbum erat apud Deum, et Deus erat verbum. ^ Hoc erat in principio apud Deum. ^ Omnia per ipsum facta sunt : et sine ipso factum est nihil, quod factum est. * In ipso vita erat, et vita erat lux hominum : ^ Et lux in tenebris lucet, et tenebrae eam non comprehenderunt. ^ Fuit homo missus a Deo, cui nomen erat Joannes. ' Hic venit in testimonium, ut testimonium perhiberet de lumine, ut omnes crederent per ilium. ' Non erat ille lux, sed ut testimonium perhiberet de lumine. ' Erat lux vera, quse illuminat omnem hominem venlentem in hunc mundum. '" In mundo erat, et mundus per ipsum factus est, et mundus eum non cognovit. " In propria venit, et sui eum non receperunt. ^^ Quotquot autem receperunt eum, dedit eis potestatem filios Dei fieri, his, qui credunt in nomine ejus : ^' Qui non ex sanguinibus, neque ex voluntate carnis, neque ex voluntate viri, sed ex Deo nati sunt. " Et verbum caro factum est, et habitavit in nobis : et vidimus gloriam ejus, gloriam quasi unigeniti a patre, plenum gratiae et veritatis. Ahte-Hieeontmian Veesion. ' In principio erat verbum, & verbum erat apud Deum, & Deus erat verbum. 2 Hoc erat in principio apud Deum. ' Omnia per ipsum facta sunt : & sine ipso factuia est niMl, quod factum est, * in ipso vita est, & vita erat lux ho- niiiium :' & lux in tenebris lucet, & tenebrae eam non comprehenderunt. * Fuit homo missus a Deo, cui nomen erat Johannes. 7 JJic venit in te.stimo- aium, ut testimonium perhiberet de immne, ut omnes crederent per Ulum : ' non erat ille lux, sed ut testimonium perhiberet de lumine. 9 Erat lux vera, ijnse illuminat omnem hominem veni- entem in hunc mundum. '" In mundo erat, & mundus per ipsum factus est, & mundus eum non cognovit. •! In pro pria venit, & sui eum non receperunt. '^Qnotquot autem receperunt eum, dedit eis potestatem filios Dei fieri, his, qm credunt in nomine ejus : '3 qxii non « sanguinibus, neque ex voluntate carnis, neque ex voluntate viri, sed ex Deo nati sunt. i< Et verbum caro %*im est, & habitavit in nobis : & Ti&ius gloriam ejus, gloriam quasi m%eniti a patre, plenum gratia, & ve- ntate. Ebasmus's Veesion. 1 In principio erat sermo, et sermo erat apud deum, et deus erat Ule sermo. 2 Hic erat in principio apud deum. 3 Omnia per ipsum facta sunt : et sine eo factum est nihil, quod factum est. In ipso uita erat, ¦* et uita erat lux hominiim, 6 et lux in tenebris lucet, et tenebrae eam non apprehenderunt. 6 Erat homo missus a deo, cui nomen loannes. ^ Hic uenit ad testificandum, ut testaretur de luce, ut omnes cre derent per ipsmn. * Non erat ille lux ilia sed missus erat, ut testaretur de luce. 9 Erat lux Ula, lux uera : qute il luminat omnem hominem uenientem in mundum. l" In niundo erat, et mundus per ipsum factus est, et mundus eum non cognouit. ' i In sua uenit, et sui eum non receperunt. '^ Quotquot au tem receperunt emn, dedit eis ut liceret filios dei fieri, uidelicet his qui credidis- sent in nomen ipsius. 13 Qui non ex sanguinibus, neque ex uoluntate carnis, neque ex uoluntate uiri, sed ex deo nati sunt, i^ Et sermo Hie caro factus est, et habitauit in nobis : et conspexi- mus gloriam eius, gloriam uelut uni geniti J, patre : plenus gratia et ueri- tate. Beza's Veesion . 1 In principio erat Sermo Ule, et Sermo ille erat apud Deum, eratque ille Sermo Deus. 2 Hic Sermo erat in principio apud Deum. 3 Omnia per hunc Ser- monem facta sunt, et absque eo factum est nihil quod factum sit. < In ipso vita erat, et vita erat Lux ilia hominum. 5 Et Lux ista in tenebris lucet, sed tenebrae eam non comprehenderunt. 6 Exstitit homo missus a Deo, cui no men Joannes. ? Is venit ad dandum testimonium, id est, ut testaretur de Ula Luce, ut omnes per eum crederent. 8 Non erat ille Lux ilia, sed missus fuit ut testaretur de ilia Luce. 9 Hic erat Lux ilia vera quse illuminat onmem hominem venientem in mundum. l" In mundo erat, et mundus per eum factus est; sed mundus eum non agnovit. I'Ad sua venit, et sui eum non excepe- runt. 12 Quotquot autem eum excepe- runt, dedit eis hoc jus, ut filii Dei sint facti, nempe iis qui credunt in nomen ejus : '3 Qui non ex sanguine, neque ex libidine carnis, neque ex libidine viri, sed ex Deo geniti sunt. •¦* Et Sermo ille factus est caro, et commoratus est inter nos, (et spectavimus gloriam ejus, gloriam, inquam, ut unigeniti, egressi a Patre,) plenus gratise ac veritatis. Several important Latin versions, comprising only the New Testament, have been executed from the Greek text. The first of these, in point of tune, is that of Erasmus, which was pubUshed at 212 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [ClABS III. Basle, in 1516, with the Greek text. It contained a dedicatory epistle to Pope Leo X., and was highly commended by that pontiff; yet it was regarded with great hostUity by the members of the Eoman Catholic Church, and, on its first appearance, excited much opposition. Erasmus drew his version not only from printed copies of the Greek Testament, but also from four Greek MSS., and In the rendering of several passages, he consulted the ecclesiastical writers. He does not, however, make any notable departures from the Vulgate, and wherever he felt compeUed to deviate in any degree from that version, he assigned his reasons for so doing in the notes which accompany his work. The version of Beza is bolder and more faithful than that of Erasmus, and does not betray the same timid adherence to the Vulgate. It has been greatly condemned in consequence by Eoman CathoUcs, but it is generaUy preferred by Protestants to aU other Latin versions. Its style is clear and simple, but its chief exceUence consists in its accurate and exact interpretation of the sacred original. Castamo's Veesion. ' In principio erat sermo, et sermo erat apud Deum, et Deus erat is sermo : 2 is erat in principio apud Deum. 3 Omnia per eum facta sunt, et absque eo factum est nihil, quod factum sit. * In eo vita erat, et vita erat lux ho minum, 5 et lux in tenebris lucet, nec eam comprehenderunt tenebrse. 6 Fuit homo missus a Deo, nomine Johannes. ' Is venit ob testimonium, ut de luce testaretur, ut omnes per eum cre derent. 8 Non erat ille ipsa lux, sed qui de luce testaretur. 9 Erat ipsa vera lux, quse collustrat omnem hominem veniens in mundum. "> In mundo erat, et mundus per eum factus fuit, et mundus eum non cognovit, 11 In sua venit, et sui eum non acceperunt. 12 Quicunque autem eum acceperunt, iis eam potestatem dedit, ut Dei filii fierent, fidem haben tibus ejus nomini : is qui non ex san guine, nec ex voluntate carnis, nec ex voluntate viri, sed ex Deo geniti sunt. 14 Et sermo caro factus est, et apud nos gratiae veritatisque plenus habi tavit : ej usque splendorem, ut unigenae a patre splendorem aspeximus. Schmidt's Veesion. 1 In principio erat Verbum : et Verbum illud erat apud Deum ; et Deus erat illud Verbum. 2 Hoc erat in principio apud Deum. 3 Omnia per illud facta- sunt : et sine illo factum-est ne unum quidem, qnod factum-est. * In ipso vita erat : et vita erat lux ilia hominum. 5 Et Lux Ula in tenebris lucet : sed tenebrse eam non comprehenderunt. 6 Fuit homo missus a Deo : nomen ei erat Johannes. ' Hic venit ad testifi- cationem, ¦nempe ut testaretur de ilia Luce, ut omnes crederent per eum. 8 Non erat ille Lux ea ; sed missus erat, ut testaretur de ea Luce. ^ Hoc Verbum erat Lux ilia vera, quae illuminat om nem hominem venientem in mundum. 10 In mundo erat : et mundus per ipsum factus-est : et mundus ilium non cog novit. 11 In sua venit: sed sui eum non receperunt. 12 Quotquot autem suscepe- runt eum, dedit eis hoc-jus, ut-fierent Filii Dei, nempe illis, qui-credunt in nomen ejus. 13 Qui non ex sanguinibus, neque ex voluntate carnis, neque ex voluntate viri, sed ex Deo geniti-sunt. 14 Et Verbum illud caro factum-est : et tanquam-in-tabernaculo-habitavit inter nos, (et vidimus gloriam ejus, gloriam quasi unigeniti a Patre,) plenum gratiae et veritatis. Sebastian's Veesion. 1 In principio erat Verbum, et Verbum erat apud Deum, et Verbum erat Deus. 2 Hoc erat in principio apud Deum, 3 Omnia per ipsum facta sunt ; et sine ipso nihil quicquam factum est ejus, quod factum est. ¦• In ipso erat vita, et vita erat lux hominum ; 6 Et lux lucet in tenebris, et tenebrae eam non comprehenderunt. 6 Fuit homo missus a Deo, cui nomen erat Johannes. ' Hic venit in testimo nium, ut testaretur de luce, et ut omnes crederent per eum. 8 Uon erat ille lux, sed missusfuerat, ut testimonium-perhi- beret de luce. 9 Erat vera lux, quse illu minat omnem hominem venientem in mundum. l" Ipse erat in mundo, et mun dus per ipsum factus est ; sed mundus eum non cognovit, n In domum-suam venit, et familiares non receperunt eum; 12 Sed quicunque eum receperunt, de dit eis potestatem efficiendi se filios Dei, eis videlicet, qui credunt in per sonam ejus : 13 Qui non ex humanis- parentibus, neque ex carnali libidine, neque ex voluntate hominis; sed ex Deo nati sunt. !•* Et verbum factum est homo, habi- tavitque inter nos plenum gratiae et veritatis; et vidimus gloriam ejus, ut gloriam filii-unigeniti a patre. Thalemann published another Latin version of the Gospels and Acts in I78I, and Jaspis completed the work by translating and publishing the epistles in I793-I797 at Leipsic. In 1790, a version of the entire New Testament was published at Leipsic by Eeichard. A translation, professedly executed from the Alexandrine text, was published by Sebastiani, London, 1817 ; but it is well known that this editor merely foUowed the common Greek text. The versions of Schott, Naebe, and Goeschen were printed as accompaniments to critical editions of the New Testament: they all appeared at Leipsic ; that of Schott in 1805, that of Naebe in 1831, and that of Goeschen in 1832. Eesults of the Perusal of the Latin Vulgate. — Although this version is confessedly at fault in some of its renderings, yet it has been used by the Holy Spirit as the means of leading many to the knowledge of salvation. It was from this version that Luther, in the first instance, drew his supphes of strength and consolation, and the same may be said of most of the servants of God during the middle ages, when comparatively few versions in other languages were in existence. Our earUer translations, so eminently blessed in bringing in the Eeformation, were derived immediately from the Vulgate._ It was the prohibition of the Scriptures to the laity, and not merely the exclusive use of tins version, which was the crying evil of the Eoman Cathohc Church. Bishop BedeU, m one of his letters, teUs us that he once heard a monk preaching from the text, " What is truth?" After a ISDO-EUKOPEAN LANGUAGES.] LATIN. 213 good deal of elaborate discussion, the preacher drew somewhat cautiously from his pocket a copy of the New Testament, and said, " This only shaU Isay : I have found truth at last within the leaves of this book; but," added he, replacing it cooUy, " it is prohibited."' Schott's Veesion. 1 Initio (omniimi) fuit Logos ; Logos apud Deum fuit ; Deusque fuit Logos. ^ Hjc initio fuit apud Deum. 3 Omnia per eum facta sunt, et absque eo factum est ne ullum quidem, quod factum est. * In eo vita fiiit (et vitse fons), quse vita lux ftiit (fons lucis) hominum. 5 Lucetque lux inter tenebras, nec eam tenebrse comprehenderunt. 6 Exstitit homo a Deo missus, nomine Joannes. ' Is venit testimonium daturus, ut testaretur de luce, ut omnes per eum fidem haberent (lucis auctori). 8 Non erat ille ipsa lux; sed (missus), ut testaretur de luce. 9 Erat (ilia) lux verissima (perfectissima), ooUustrans quem vis hominem, qui in mundum venit (nascitur). lo In mundo fuit (Logos), mundusque per eum factus est, nec vero mundus eum agnovit. n Ad sua (veluti domum suam) venit, nec sui eum exceperunt. l2At, quotquot eum exoeperunt, iis hanc dedit potestatem, ut liberi fierent Dei, fidem eius nomini habentibus, '3 qui, non ex sanguine neque ex voluntate (libidine) carnis neque ex voluntate viri, sed ex Deo sunt geniti. i^ Atque Logos factus estcarneprseditus, et tentorium fixit (commoratus est) apud nos [spectavimusqne eius gloriam, qualis est gloria filii unigeniti a patre oriundi] plenus gratiae et veritatis. Goeschen's Veesion. 1 In principio erat logos, et logos erat apud deum, et deus erat logos. 2 Hic erat in principio apud deum. 3 Omnia per eum facta sunt; ac sine eo nihil unum factum est, quod factum est. ^in eo vita erat, ac vita erat lux hominum ; 5 et lux in tenebris lucet, ac tene brae eam non comprehenderunt. 6 Fuit homo missus a deo, cui loannis nomen; 7 bie venit ad testimoruum, ut de luce testaretur, ut omnes eius causa (auctoritate) crederent. 8 Jf on erat ille lux, sed ut de luce testaretur. 8 Erat lux ilia vera, qua illustratur omnis homo, in mundum veniens. i" In mundo erat, et mundus per eum factus est, et mundus eum non novit. n In sua venit, et sui non exceperunt eum. '2 Quotcunque autem exceperunt eum, eis, credentibus in eius nomen, facul- tatem dedit ut filii dei fierent ; 13 qui non ex sanguinibus, neque ex voluntate carnis, neque ex viri voluntate, sed ex deo nati sunt, i* Et logos caro factus est, et com moratus est inter nos (et vidimus maiestatem eius, maiestatem ut unigeniti a patre), plenus gratia ac veritate. 1 Speech of Rev. Hugh Stowell, forty-fourth anniversary of British and Foreign Bible Society. 30 FEENCH. SPECIMEN OF THE FEENCH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Au commencement dtait la Parole, et la Parole etait avec Dieu, et la Parole etait Dieu. Elle etait au commencement avec Dieu. ' Toutes choses ont ete faites par elle, et sans elle rien de ce qui a ete fait, n'a ete fait. * En elle etait la vie, et la vie etait la lumiere des hommes. * Et la lumilre luit dans les ten^bres, mais les ten^bres ne I'ont point comprise. " Il y eut un homme appele Jean, qui fut envoye de Dieu ' II vint pour rendre temoignage, pour rendre, dis-je, temoignage k la Lumifere, afin que tous crussent par lui. ' II n'etait pas la Lumiere, mais il etait envoye pour rendre temoignage k la Lumiere. ' Cette Lumiere etait la veritable, qui eclaire tout homme venant au monde. '" Elle etait au monde, et le monde a ete fait par elle ; mais le monde ne I'a point connue. " II est venu chez soi ; et les siens ne I'ont point refu. '^ Mais k tous ceux qui I'ont re9u, il leur a donne le droit d'etre faits enfans de Dieu, savoir k ceux qui croient en son nom ; '' Lesquels ne sont point nes de sang, ni de la volonte de la chair, ni de la volonte de I'homme ; mais iis sont nes de Dieu. '* Et la Parole a ete faite chair ; elle a habits parmi nous, et nous avons contemple sa gloire, qui a ete une gloire, comme la gloire du Fils unique du P^re, pleine de grace et de vdrite. ON THE FEENCH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The French language is predominant throughout France, except (as is elsewhere stated) in part of Brittany and in the Basque districts : German dialects prevail, more or less, in Upper and Lower Ehine, and in some of the other departments along the eastern frontier. The total population of France, in 1844, amounted to 34,213,929. The great majority of the French people belong to the Eoman Catholic Church ; but certain sects among them, while they adhere to Eoman Catholic doctrines, repudiate the authority of the Pope. Toleration is so freely extended to all parties, that pastors and teachers of every denomination, Jewish as well as Christian, are considered entitled to support from the state.' In 1838, the Catholic clergy amounted altogether in number to 37,079 individuals, the Lutheran to 388, the Calvinist to 345, and the Jewish to 94. The French language is spoken in parts of Switzerland and in the Channel Islands ; and is in frequent use, as a medium of communication, between people of different nations, in almost every country of Europe. In the colonies, however, it is incomparably less diffused than the Enghsh. It is extensively spoken in Louisiana and the French Antilles, and particularly in Lower Canada. The official returns of 1844 show, that out of 693,649 individuals (the total population of Lower Canada), 518,565 are of French origin. The primitive habits of the original settlers are still retained among this French population ; and it is said that the French language itself is there preserved precisely in the same state as it existed in the days of Louis XIV. _ Characteristics and History of the Language. — Three principal languages, the Aqui- tainian, the Celtic, and the Belgic, were spoken in Gaul at the time of the Eoman invasion of that country. These languages, particularly the Celtic, which was the most widely diffused, commingled with the larnguage of the Eoman legions, and formed a new language, which, from the predominance of Eoman words and elements, was called the Eomance. The stock of words entering into the Eomance language was augmented by the addition of numerous Greek words, chiefly sea-terms, ' M'CuUoch's Geographical Uictionary, vol. i. p. 852. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] FRENCH. 215 borrowed from Marseilles, then a Greek colony. In the fifth century, Gaul passed into the hands of Teutonic nations : the Visigoths occupied the south, while the Franks and Burgundians established tliemselves in the north and east. Ultimately the Franks extended their dominion throughout the whole country; but, being few in number, their language exercised little perceptible influence. The Romance, therefore, still continued to be the language of Gaul; and, about the tenth century, it seems to have diverged into two principal dialects, the langue d'oc, spoken in the south, and the langue d'oil or d'oui, spoken in the north. During the thirteenth century, the langue d'oil became the language of the court and capital of France, and gradually superseded the langue d'oc. Originally, the differences between the two dialects were few and inconsiderable; but by degrees the langue d'oil dropped many of its ancient terminations, acquired new and distinctive peculiarities, and finally merged into the language which, from the Franks, the Teutonic conquerors of Gaul, is now denominated the French. Thus the history of this language proves that it may be regarded as a direct emanation from the Latin; and yet, of all the Neo-Latin languages, it differs the most widely from the parent stock. It has a singular habit of contracting the Latin words which enter into its composition : this it often effects by omitting one ofthe internal consonants: thus, ligare, in French, is converted into lier, laudare into louer, sudare into suer. On the other hand, it generally lengthens the a of the Latin into ai; as in ala, aile — amo, aime — panis, pain — pax, paix, &c. The w of Teutonic nations becomes gu in French; as in z«asp, ^wepe — ??Tlliam, (??.is pro- prios nao o receberao ; 1^ Quantos porem o receberao, a eUes Ihes deo poder de se fazerem filhos de Deos, visto que eUes criao no seu Nome : 1^ Os quaes nao nascerao de sangue, nem de vontade de carne, nem de vontade de homem, mas shn de Deos. i*E o Verbo se fez carne e habitou entre nos (e vimos a sua gloria, gloria como do Unige nito do Pai) cheio de graga e de verdade. ON THE POETUGUESE LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The population of Portugal, according to the last ofiScial returns, amounts to 3,549,420, but the Portuguese language Is diffused far beyond the limits of this small kingdom. In the empire of Brazil, which occupies a great part of South America, and which, in point of extent, ranks next to the vast empires of Eussia and China, Portuguese Is the language of government, and is more or less employed by aU classes. According to the com putation of Balbi, the number of Portuguese, or Filhos de Reino, as they are caUed in Brazil, is upwards of 900,000, while the total amount of population in that empire, in 1845, was estimated at from 6,500,000 to 7,000,000. Eoman Catholicism, in its most bigoted form, is the religion of the Portuguese, both in Europe and in America. A pecuHar dialect of the language, called Indo-Portu guese, prevails, as we shall hereafter have occasion to mention, in certain parts of India and of the East Indian islands. 224 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Characteristics op the Language. — Of aU the languages derived fiom the Latm, the GaHcian, or old Portuguese, is the oldest which exhibits a formed character. It originated imder the same circumstances as the Spanish, and in fact both languages were at first but provincial varieties of the same tongue. Modern Portuguese is the immediate offspring of the GaHcian, and though it still preserves unequivocal indications of its original connection with the Spanish, it exhibits some distinctive characteristics of Its own. It is less guttural, but harsher and more unpleasing in sound than the Spanish ; and it possesses a class of words which cannot be traced in the Spanish vocabulary, but which are supposed to have been drawn from the dialects spoken on the coast of Barbary. The Latin words, which have been incorporated in this language, have undergone the following transformations : — The letter x, when final, is generally changed into z, as paz, voz, luz, perdiz, from pax, vox, etc. ; pi, when initial, is changed Into ch, as plaga, chaga; the letter r is often substituted for I in the middle of words, as craro for claro, obrigar for obligar ; and sometimes the central consonant of Latin words is altogether omitted, as Jiar for filar, aa fox ala ; cor, dor, for color, dolor.' The Portuguese is further characterised by possessing a distinct set of words to denote a thrust or cut with a sword or other weapon ; an idea which, in most languages, cannot be expressed without circumlocution : thus, cutildda, a cut with a sword ; estocdda, a stab with a sword or dagger ; pancdda, a blow with a stick or club ; pedrdda, a blow with a stone. Versions of the Scriptures in this Language. — It was not tUl after the close of the seventeenth century, that any attempt was made to produce a Portuguese version of the Scriptures. About that period a translation was made, under the auspices of the Dutch government, for the benefit of the Portuguese and their descendants in Java, Ceylon, and other Eastem colonies. The translator was John Ferreira d'Ahneida, a native of Lisbon, who Is supposed to have gone out to the East in the first instance as a Eoman Catholic Missionary, and to have been afterwards converted to Protestantism. He is thought to have commenced his version at Ceylon, but the place and time of his death are quite uncertain. He translated the whole of the New Testament, and carried the translation of the Old Testament as far as the end of the Prophecies of Ezekiel. The New Testament, after having been revised by Heynen and De Veoght, was printed at Amsterdam, in 1681, by order of the Dutch East India Company. A second, or revised, edition was printed at Batavia, in 1693, by order of the same body, and at their press. The Gospel of St. Matthew was again printed at Amsterdam, in I7I1, and the entire New Testament in the course of the following year. The portion of the Old Testament translated by Almeida was revised after his death by Ziegenbald, Grundler, Schultze, and other missionaries at Tranquebar. The following Hst (given by Adler) shows the order in which the work was completed. 1719. The Pentateuch, as translated by Almeida, printed at Tranquebar. 1732. The Twelve Minor Prophets, translated by the Tranquebar missionaries, printed at Tranquebar. 1738. The books of Joshua, Judges, Euth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Esdras, Nehemiah, and Esther, printed at Tranquebar, as translated by Almeida, but revised and compared with the original text by the Tranquebar missionaries. 1744. The books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, pubHshed from Almeida's text, revised and compared with the sacred original, by the missionaries at Tranquebar. 1751. The Four Major Prophets pubHshed ; the first three of which were translated by Ahneida, and the fourth (Daniel) by C. T. "Walther, missionary at Tranquebar : the whole revised by the missionaries. These editions were aU in quarto. A second edition of the entire Old Testament, in 2 vols. I6mo., seems to have been brought out at Batavia, In 1748. In this edition a version was given ofthe books left untranslated by Almeida, by Jacob op den Akker, one of the Dutch ministers at Batavia. Between the years 1721 and 1757, two revised editions ofthe Pentateuch and ofthe Psahns, two revised editions of the New Testament and one of the Four Gospels, were printed at Tranquebar and Batavia. Another edition of the Old Testament was printed at Batavia, 1783 -1804 ; and no further editions appear to have been given of this version until it was pubHshed by the British and Foreign Bible Society. A Cathohc Portuguese version of the entire Scriptures, from the Vulgate, was pubHshed in 23 vols. > Eaynouard, Lexique Eoman, vol, ii. p. Ixxxii. IXDO-EUEOPEAN LANGUAGES.] PORTUGUESE. 225 12mo., with annotations, at Lisbon, 1781-1783, by Don Antonio Pereha de Figueiredo, a Portuguese ecclesiastic. This translator possessed great learning, and his writings were so numerous as to fiU a catalogue of seventy-six pages. He was brought up among the Jesuits, but afterwards became one of their strongest opponents. He engaged with much ardour in state affairs, and for a time laid aside his rehgious habit ; but he resumed it a few hours before his death. Though adhering to the Church of Eome, he was a bold opposer of the claims of papal authority ; and his translation, so far from being a servile imitation of the Vulgate, differs from it in several passages, and follows the Greek. An edition, containing his latest corrections, was commenced at Lisbon in 1794, but was not completed at press till 1819. In this edition the corrections are so numerous, that it may almost be regarded as a new version. A thhd translation of the Scriptures into Portuguese has been accomphshed by the Eev. Thomas Boys, D.D. This version has been brought out at the expense of the Trinitarian Bible Society. Dr. Boys commenced his important labours by making a critical revision of Almeida's version. On account of the diificulty of meeting with adequate literary aid in England, he spent some time at Lisbon, where he obtained the assistance of two learned Portuguese scholars ; and he appears to have completed the revision of the New Testament, and to have pubHshed smaU editions of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and of the Psalms.' In 1837, however, the Society came to the determination of pubhshmg a new Portuguese translation from the Greek and Hebrew texts, and Dr. Boys was appointed to carry this purpose into execution. He was directed to use Almeida's version as a basis, but subject to a careful comparison with the Hebrew text ; and to make such alterations in style, orthography, and language as to render the work intelHgible to Portuguese of the present day.^ The New Testament, faithfully translated in accordance with these directions, was completed at press In 1843, and the Old Testament in 1847 ; the printing was carried on in London, as the same neatness and accuracy could not be insured at Lisbon. "When the British and Foreign Bible Society undertook the pubhcation of the Portuguese Scrip tures, for the benefit of the prisoners of war then in England, and for the Portuguese islands and colonies, the version selected, after long and anxious deHberatIon„was that of Almeida. The reason assigned for this preference was, that it was then the only Protestant version. The Society's editions did not, however, meet with the grateful reception that had been anticipated. Almeida's version has never been much esteemed in Portugal, partly, perhaps, because made by a converted Protestant, and completed by other Protestants at a distance from the parent state ; but chiefly because it Is an antiquated version, many of the words being obsolete, and the style unldiomatic. The complaints agamst this version, which were in consequence laid before the Society, led to the pubhcation, in 1818, of an edition of 5000 New Testaments, printed from Pereira's version. An edition of 5000 entire Bibles, and 5000 additional New Testaments, followed In 1821, Mr. CavaUio correcting the press. Another edition of the New Testament, and some separate books, from Pereira's version, was printed in 1823. But when It was determined that the Apocryphal Books should no longer be printed, the version of Pereira was again subjected to examination. It was divested of aU apocryphal matter ; and many exceptionable renderings, and such notes as had escaped detection in the former editions, were corrected ; and another revised edition of the whole Bible was given, in 1828, under the care of Messrs. da Costa and Green. The following is the total number of copies of the Scriptures, in whole and in part, printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society up to March, 1849 : — Bibles 15,032 Testaments ...... 55,040 Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Isaiah . 5,000 St. Luke and Acts 1,000 In their zealous efforts for the dissemination of the sacred volume in Portugal, the Committee have recently met with a very serious disappointment. Great expectations had been raised,^ year after year, for the completion of an edition of the Portuguese Bible, appointed by the Committee to be printed at Lisbon. In the last Eeport it Is stated, the printed sheets, as far as the work is advanced, nave been examined, and that the errata have been found so manifold, that the work must necessarily be withheld from circulation altogether. Results of the Dissemination of this Version. — The last tidings from Portugal are by ' Eleventh Report of Trinitarian Bible Society, p. 29- - Twelfth Report of Trinitarian Bible Society, p. 13. 226 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. Class III. no means encouraging. Bigotry has been for centuries the chief characteristic of the people, and now " apathy," we are told, " seems the prevaihng temper: other hindrances are removed; but, in the almost total absence of visible results, it is needful that man should learn lessons of dej)endence, and wait on Him who opens, and no man shuts." Turning froni this mournful picture, it is pleasing to look back on the remarkable manifestation of the divine blessing, which lately accompanied thc perusal of this version in Madeira. In 1847, no less than two hundred of the Portuguese inhabitants of that island were awakened to the knowledge of the Lord. Persecution quickly foUowed ; the Bibles and Testaments belonging to the British and Foreign Bible Society, deposited for distribution in the house of Dr. Kalley, were seized by the mob, and pubHcly destroyed in an auto-da-fd. The converts were compelled to flee in haste from their homes, to seek refuge in Trinidad. Their conduct during their voyage thither is thus graphically described by an eyewitness: — " Many of them came on board with nothing but the clothes they had on, and these In tatters, from their wanderings in the Serras. Yet, during the days we sojourned among them in that ark of refuge, not a word of repining reached our ears, except from one or two unconverted members of large families, who had not yet learned to love the cause for which the rest rejoiced to suffer. The language of all the others was that of joy and thank fulness to Him who had called them ' out of darkness Into His marveUous Hght ;' and who had now in His mercy delivered them from their enemies on every side, and gathered them together in one family, and into one refuge. The more that was seen of this persecuted flock, in circumstances the most trying, the higher did their Christian principle rise in the estimation of all. Those only who know the general character of the Portuguese can form a just estimate of the total change that must have passed on these converts. They had become ' new creatures,' indeed. In the distribution of clothes to the necessitous, it was most gratifying to witness the good feehng shown by all on the occasion, — to see not merely their willingness to share with one another the bounty of their Christian friends, but their eagerness to tell of the wants of others more destitute than themselves. And in no cme instance was there an attempt to deceive, by any concealment of what they possessed. The mate and steward both repeatedly remarked, ' that they had never seen folk love one another as these folk did.'' Among the two hundred and eleven passengers of the William, there was one Eomanist famUy, who had long persecuted the converts, and was now seeking a passage to Trinidad as emigrants. Their extreme poverty excited the lively compassion of those around them. After the converts had each received from the hand of charity their smaU supply of clothing, some of them came aft to their benefactors on the poop, and begged to know if they might now consider it as their own property, and act accordingly. They were asked the reason of the question, when they said, it was their wish to obey their Lord's command — 'Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you.' They were cheerfully assured that they might, and it was pleasing to see them share their scanty store with their former enemies ; thus affording a most beautiful specimen of the spirit by which they were animated. " Their conduct throughout was such that the Eomanists openly expressed their wonder and astonishment. They saw those who had Httle properties (and there were both land and householders in the WiUIam's band of Christians) parting with their houses and land, and aU they possessed, for the smallest trifle, counting ' all things but loss, for the excellency of the knowledge of^ Christ Jesus our Lord.' One Portuguese gentleman, talking on the subject, wound up by saying, that ' if he were called upon to choose a rehgion suddenly, and without ftirther thought, he believed he should fix upon that of these people, because he saw them suffer without complaining.' " As was their conduct under persecution on shore, so was their conduct afloat. They had chosen Christ, and the only subject of thefr glorying was the Lord Jesus. They looked not back upon the world, with all its pleasures. From it, and from self, they had been weaned by the Spirit of that God, who had been their friend through evil report, and through good report ; who had been more than a brother to them, in sorrow and in joy, by day and by night, at all seasons, and in all circumstances. They knew that He, who had thus watched over them, would not desert them in the land to which they were now being driven, before the persecuting hand of man."' > From a Pamphlet entitled " Madeira," by J. R. Tate, Esq., E.N., I8I7. ITALIAN, SPECIMEN OF THE ITALIAN VEESIONS. Maleemi's Veesion. 1 Empee era el verbo : et el verbo era appresso dio : et dio era el verbo. ^ Questo era nel principio appresso dio ^ tutte cose per esso fatte son : et senza esso fatta e niuna eosa laquale fatta e. * In lui era la vita : et la vita era luce de Ihomini : 5 et la luce ne le tenebre luce : et le tenebrequellanoncompresero. ^ Fu vno homo mandate da dio : el cui nome era ioanne. ^ Questo venne per testimonio perche egli rendesse testimonianza del lume : acio che tutti per lui credessero : ^ egli non era la luce : ma acio rendesse tes timonianza del lume. ^ Era vera luce ; laqual illumina ogni homo veniente in questo mondo. i" Egli era nel mondo, et per lui fatto e el mondo : et el mondo noi cognobe. 11 venne egli ne la propria citta de iudea: et gli suoi cittadini noi re- ceuettero. i^ Ma tutti quanti coUor chel recenettero allor dette potesta de essere facti figlioli da dio a color che credeno nel nome suo : '^ liquel non per mixtione de sangui : ne per diletto de femina ne per piacere de Ihuomo : ma da dio nasciuti sono. 1* Et a tal modo el verbo pieno di gratia : et de vita fatto e carne : et habito i noi. Et habiamo veduto la gloria sua : condecente gloria del vnigenito col patre. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Diodati's Veesion. 1 Nel principio la Parola era, e la Parola era appo Iddio, e la Parola era Dio. ^ Essa era nel principio appo Iddio. 3 Ogni cosa e stata fatta per essa : e senza essa niuna cosa fatta e stata fatta. * In lei era la vita, e la vita era la luce degli nomini. ^ E la luce riluce nelle te nebre, e le tenebre non 1' hanno compresa. ^ y^ f^ ^jj' uomo man date da Dio, il cui nome era Gio vanni. 7 Costui venne per testimo nianza, affin di testimoniar della Luce, accioche tutti credessero per lui. 8 Egli non era la Luce, anzi era mandate per testimoniar della Luce. 9 Colui, che k la Luce vera, la quale illumina ogni uomo che viene nel mondo, era. i" Era nel mondo, e '1 mondo h state fatto per esso : ma il mondo non 1' ha conos- ciuto. 11 Egli e venuto in casa sua, ed i suoi non 1' hanno ricevuto. 12 Ma, a tutti colore che 1' hanno ricevuto, i quali credono nel suo Nome, egli ha data questa ragione, d' esser fatti figliuoli di Dio : i^ 1 quali, non di sangue, ne di volonta di carne, ne di volonta d' uomo, ma son nati da Dio. '* E la Parola e stata fatta carne, ed e abitata fra noi, (e noi ab- biam contemplata la sua gloria : glo ria, come deir unigenito proceduto dalPadre)piena di grazia, e di verita. Maetini's Veesion. 1 Nel principio era il Verbo, e il Verbo era appresso Dio, e il Verbo era Dio. ^ Questo era nel principio appresso Dio. ^ pgr mezzo di lui furon fatte le cose tutte : e senza di lui nulla fu fatto di ci6, che e state fatto. * In lui era la vita, e la vita era la luce degli uomini : ^ e la luce splende tra le tenebre, e le te nebre non la hanno ammessa. ^ Vi fu un uomo mandate da Dio, che nomavasi Giovanni. ^ Questi venne qual testimone, affin di render tes timonianza alia luce, onde per mezzo di lui tutti credessero : ^ Ei non era la luce ; ma era per rendere tes timonianza alia luce. ^ Quegli era la luce vera, che illumina ogni uomo, che viene in questo mondo. i" Egli era nel mondo, e il mondo per lui fu fatto, e il mondo noi conobbe. 11 Venne neUa sua propria casa, e i suoi noi ricevettero. i^ Ma a tutti que', che lo ricevettero, die potere di diventar figliuoli di Dio, a quelli, che credono nel suo nome. i^ I quali non per via di sangue, ne per volonta della carne, ne per volonta d' uomo, ma da Dio sono nati. i^ E il Verbo si e fatto carne, e abito tra noi : e abbiamo veduto la sua glo ria, gloria come dell' Unigenito del Padre, pieno di grazia, e di verita. ON THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The Italian language is spoken in Italy, the central peninsula of Southem Europe, by a population which, according to the latest census, amounts to about 22,400,000.' This fine country has for ages been a prey to the tyranny and superstition of the Popish hierarchy, and the effect of recent political changes in alleviating the pressure of spiritual and intellectual bondage remains yet to be seen. In Malta, Sicily, and the isles of the Mediterranean, in Barbary, In Egypt, and in different parts of Turkey, the inhabitants are better acquainted with Itahan than with any other European language. Itahan is also spoken on the south side of the Alps by the Italian Swiss Protestants of the Canton TIcino, who number about 120,000 individuals. Characteristics op the Language. — On the decHne and fall of the Eoman empire, the Latin language, though altered and corrupted, was not destroyed; it perpetuated Its existence under new forms, produced by the amalgamation of its ancient elements with the words and idioms of northern nations; "the active movement of the Germanic mind," it has been obsei-ved, "operating upon the subject Eoman population, dissolved, and as it were burst the compact structure of the Latm tongue." Of the various languages eliminated by this process (which in different countries was modified by different influences), the ItaUan is the softest and the most harmonious. In the reception of Latin I Serristori, Statistica d'ltalia. 228 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. , [Class III. words it is guided by the truest principles of euphony. Two different consecutive consonants occurring in a Latin word are not, on account of the harshness of their combined sound, allowed to stand in ItaUan, but, with a very few exceptions, the repetition of the one consonant is substituted for the other; as, for instance, in the Latin words obviare, acto, facto, which ia Italian become ovviare, atto fatto.^ AU consonants, which interfere with the estabUshed principles of euphony, are totally rejected- hence we find in Italian fiore for flore, Jiocco for flocco, and many other similar omissions, which tend greatly to conceal from cursory observation the afSnity between Latin and Italian words. There are several distinct Italian dialects spoken in Lombardy, Naples, and other parts of Italy : the dialect which, by way of preeminence, we call the Italian, is in point of fact the Tuscan: it is not confined to any particular district, but represents pretty well the speech of middle Italy. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — The earhest Italian version now known to be in existence is that of Malermi or Malherbi, printed at Venice, 147 1. A translation is said to have been made at a still earlier period by Voraglne, archbishop of Genoa; but although no MS. of this work is now extant, there is every reason to beUeve that it was merely a version of Comestor's Historia Scholastica, an abridgment or synopsis of sacred history. Malermi was a Bene dictine monk, and afterwards abbot of a monastery of the order of St. Benoit. Twenty-two editions of his version are mentioned by Le Long, nine before A.D. 1500, and the last in 1567. It is a tolerably accurate translation of the Vulgate. Another version, professedly executed from the original texts by Antonio Bruccioll, was pubHshed at Venice, 1532 : it Is well known, however, that this version is httle else than a mere translation of the Latin version of Pagninus, which it foUows with much servUity. In 1579, this version had passed through eleven editions. A revised edition, in which it was rendered conformable to the Vulgate, appeared at Venice in 1538. Another revised and corrected edition was published at Geneva in 1561, 1562, for the use of Protestants, but "Walchius and others regard this as an entirely new version. We now come to the Italian version executed by Diodati, one of the most important translations of modern times. Diodati was descended from a noble family of Lucca, and in his early youth enjoyed the advantages of the most careful instruction : his progress in learning was such, that, when only nineteen years of age, he was appointed Professor of Hebrew at Geneva. At the Synod of Dort, In 1619, he gained so much reputation, that he was chosen, with flve other divines, to prepare the Belgic " Confession of Faith." He published his Italian version of the Scriptures at his own expense, and it is said to have occasioned him great pecuniary embarrassment. It is written in the plain Lucchese dialect, and Is very intelligible and clear, so that it Is pecuharly suitable for circulation among the poorer classes of Italy. The translation was made from the original texts, to which it adheres with great fldelity. An important revised edition appeared In 1 64 1. An Itahan version for the use of Eoman Catholics was prepared from the Vulgate by Antonio Martini, archbishop of Florence, towards the close of the eighteenth century. The New Testament was printed at Turin in 1769, and the Old Testament in 1779; the latter appeared during the pontificate of Pius VI. , and received his sanction. Both Testaments in the original edition were encumbered with explanatory notes, chiefly taken from the fathers. The version has been repeatedly reprinted with and without the notes, and although it supports the dogmas of the Eoman Church, and servilely follows the Latin text, yet it has been much admired on account of the elegance of the diction. It is written in the pure Tuscan dialect. The necessity of furnishing supplies of the Italian Scriptures was flrst pressed on the attention of the British and Foreign Bible Society by the Eev. Mr. Terrot, chaplain at Malta, in 1808; and Diodati's version was selected by the Society for publication. The first edition appeared in 1809, and the success which attended it was considered as justifying the adoption of stereotype;^ accordingly plates were cast in 1810, from which several large impressions were executed. With a view to a more unrestricted circulation, the Society afterwards consented to publish Martini's Eoman CathoUc version, and an edition of 5000 copies appeared In 1817 at Naples. The total number of copies. In whole or in part, ofthe Italian Scriptures printed by this Society amounts to 50,109 Bibles, 105,790 Testaments, 5000 copies of detached portions, and 2000 Itahan and Latin Psalters. In consequence of recent pohtical events, opportunities for more extensive circulation of the Scriptures in Italy are now anxiously anticipated. It is an interesting feature of the times, that an edition of Diodati, consisting of 4000 copies, has recently been printed by the Society in Eome itself; and this is found to be the version most prized, and chiefly circulated. 1 Lexique Eoman, vol. ii. p. Ixxxui. 2 Owen's ffistory of British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. ii. p. S5. DACO-EOMANA, OE WALLACHIAN. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VI.) Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The principalities of Moldavia and WaUachia, In which this language is spoken, formed part of Ancient Dacia ; and though now nominally included in European Turkey, _ are, in point of fact, under the protection of Eussia. The inhabitants are descendants ofthe Dacians, and ofthe Eoman colonists who settled in the country after its subjugation by Trajan. In consequence of their Eoman origin, the Wallachlans style themselves Rumanje: they are to be found dispersed in several ofthe adjoining provinces, more especially in that of Transylvania and Bessarabia. They are aU of the Greek Church, and in number may amount to 3,000,000.' Characteristics op the Language.— Although Dacia was one of the last of the provinces annexed to the Eoman empire, and although It has since been repeatedly overrun by foreign invaders, yet the language still retains a large number of pure Latin words ; and it is even said that a stranger speaking In Latin can render himself tolerably Intelligible to the inhabitants. About half of the Wallachian words have, however, been borrowed from the Greek, the Turkish, and the Sclavonian. The pronunciation is soft, and nearly resembles that of the Italian. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — The first translation of the Scriptures into Wallachian was made by the MetropoUtan Theodotlus, by order of Scherban Wolvoda, a prince of WaUachia, and the New Testament was printed at Belgrade, In 1648.^ Prior to that period, the Greek and Sclavonic Scriptures had been in use among the Wallachians. A copy of this New Testament Is preserved in the Bodleian Library. The Wallachian Bible was first printed in 1668 at Bucharest, the capital of WaUachia ; another edition was pubHshed at the same place in 1714, and a third edition appeared at Blaje in Transylvania, In 1795. In 1816, the Eussian Bible Society undertook an edition consisting of 5000 copies of the WaUachlan New Testament. This supply was greatly needed, for when Dr. Pinkerton visited Moldavia in 1817, he was assured by the exarch that not fifty Bibles were to be found in all the 800 churches belonging to his district.^ On account of this deplorable scarcity, an edition of 5000 Bibles In this language was commenced at the printing ofiice of the exarch in 1817, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. These editions were joyfully received, and so rapidly circulated, that fresh supphes were soon found to be requisite. In 1834, Poyenar, director of the schools In WaUachia, published at Bucharest 3000 copies of the Gospels for the use of schools, and 3000 additional copies for the priests.'* In 1838, an edition of 5000 copies of the WaUachian New Testament, printed from a revised and corrected text, furnished by the heads of the Wallachian Church, was pubHshed at Bucharest, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. This edition was brought out by the permission and at the desire of the bishops of WaUachia, and under the sanction of the prince and_ governor of the Wallachian principality.^ Several other editions ofthe New Testament have, from time to 'time, been given by this Society to WaUachia : the total number of copies of the revised edition thus supplied amounts to 10,000. Eesults op the Dissemination op this Version. — In 1841, accounts were transmitted to the British and Foreign Bible Society of the great and essential good which had been effected by the distribution of their editions ofthe New Testament: " Those individuals belongingto the clergy," it is stated in this report, " as well as other persons who were opposed to its dissemination, a,nd who were desirous to put it down, are now anxious to see the country inundated, as it were, with these New Testaments iu the vernacular tongue." ' Thirty-first Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 110. ' Thirteenth Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 80. ' Dr. Henderson's Biblical Eesearches, p. 249, 250. * Thirty-first Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 114. s Thirty-fourth Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lv. PROVENCAL, OH ROMAUNT. SPECIMEN OF THE PEOVENCAL, OE EOMAUNT, VEESIONS. Lyons MS. 1 In principio erat verbum, et ver bum erat apud Deum, e Deus era la paraula. ^ Also era el comanza- ment amb Deu. ^ Tolas cosas so faitas per lui, e senes lui es fait nient. * Zo ques fait en lui era vida, e la vida era lutz dels homes. ^ E la lutz lutz en tenebras, e las tenebras non la prinsero. * Us hom fo trames de Deu, alqual era noms Johan. ^ Aquest vene en testimoni que testimoni dones de lum, que tuit crezesso per lui. ^ j^Tq ^j.^ gj lutz, mais testimoni donet de lum. * Era lutz vera, que enlumena tot home venent en aquest mon. i" El mon era, el mons es fait per lui, el mons noi conos. " En sas propias cosas vee, e h sei noi recevenbero. 12 Mais cantz que cantz lo recevbero dec ad els pozestats a esser fait filh de Deu ; ad aquals que crezo el nom de lui : i^ lical no so de sane, ni de volontat de carn, ni de delet de baro, mais de Deu so nat. i^ E la paraula es faita cams, e estec en nos. E vim la gloria de lui, en ai coma gloria du engenrat del paire, pies de gracia e de veritat. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Paeis MS. (No. 8086). 1 Lo filh era al comensament ; el filh era am Dieu, el filh era Dieus. 2 Aquest era al comensament am Dieu. 3 Totas cauzas foron fachas per el : e nenguna causa non fon fach senz el, * so que fon fach era en lui vida, e la vida era lus dels homes. ^ Fila lus lus en tenebras, e tenebras non comprenseron lui. 6 Oms fon trames de Dieu local avia nom Johan. ^ Aquest vene en tes timoni que dones testimoni de lum, que tug crezessan per el. ^ E non era lus, mas que dones testimoni de lus. 9 Vera lus era, laoal enlumena tot home venent en aquest mont. 1" El mont era, el mont fon fach per el, el mont non lo conoc. n En las proprias cauzas vene, e li sieu non lo receupron. i^ Mas quant receu- pron lui, donet ad els poder esser fach filh de Dieu, ad aquestz, que crezon el nom de lui. i^ Lical non son de sane, ni de voluntat de cam, ni de voluntat de baro, mas de Dieu son nat. '* El filh es faitz cams, et abitet en nos : e nos vim la gloria de lui, coma dun engenrat del paire, pie de gracia e de veritat. Paeis MS. (No. 6833). 1 En lo comensament era paraula,^ la paraula era ab Deu ; e Deu era la paraula. ^ Acso era en lo co mensament ab Deu. ^ Totes coses son fetes per ell ; e sens ell nenguna cosa no es feta. * Co qui es fet en aquell era vida, e aquella vida era lum de homens ; ^ e lum en tene bres no agueron poder sobra aquell. ^ Deus trames un home, qui havia nom Johan. ^ E vench en testimoni e pertal que fes testimoni della lum. ^ Aquell no era lum, mas feya testi moni della lum. ^ Aquella era vera lum, laquall illumina tot hom vivent en aquest mon. i" En lo mon era, e all mon per aquell es fet, e al mon no conecb aqueU. n En les sues propres coses vench, e los sues non raberan aquell. i^ Mas a tots aquells qu ill raeberan, dona poder que fosen fets fills de Deu, aqueUs, qui cre- gueran Io nom del ; i^ qui no son nats de sanch, ne per delits de car son nats, ne per volentat d ome. 1* E paraula es feta carn, e abita en nos, vahem la gloria daquaU, quals gloria qui es un sol amgenrat del para, qui es pie de gracia, e de veritat. ON THE PEOVENCAL, OE EOMAUNT, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Towards the close of the twelfth century, a version of the Scriptures In the language then spoken in Southern France is well known to have been made by Waldo and his disciples. This version was probably intelligible far beyond the limits of France ; for, up to the twelfth century, the most intimate connection, amounting nearly to identity of structure, appears to have pervaded the dialects which in the various disjointed portions of the Eoman empire had been formed, almost simultaneously, from the corrupt and decaying elements of the old Latin tongue. A copy of Waldo's version was presented to the pope at the Lateran Council of 1179; but the work was condemned and prohibited by the Council of Toulouse in 1229, on account of its being written In the vernacular language. Many copies were in consequence destroyed, but one copy was safely conveyed to this countty: it was presented to Morland, Cromwell's ambassador to the Duke of Savoy, and it was deposited by Cromwell in the library of the University of Cambridge. It now appears to be lost; traces, however, of Waldo's text have been discovered by Dr. Gilly, who by an elaborate chain of reasoning demonstrates the probability of this ancient text being exhibited in the six Eomaunt versions which have reached our day. One circumstance which among others may be cited in proof of the antiquity of the text Indo-Eueopean Languages.] PROVENCAL, OR ROMAUNT. 231 contained in these MSS. is, that scriptural quotations occurring in such works as the ''Noble Lesson" and the " Book of Virtues" (known to have been circulated among the Waldenses prior to a.d. 1200) are in Hteral accordance with the corresponding passages of the Eomaunt version. A careful collation of these Eomaunt MSS. has estabhshed the fact that, although some of the copies appear to have been more accurately revised than the others, they are aU transcripts of one version, which seems to have been In use among _aU the nations to whom the Eomance dialects were vernacular. This version was evidently a translation from the Latin, but It is not a servile imitation of the Vulgate, the readings of the old ItaHc versions haying been consulted and occasionally adopted. This version possesses pecuHar mterest from the fact of its being thefirst translation of the Scriptures into the vernacular language produced m Europe after the disuse of Latm as the language of common Hfe. The six MSS. in which this ancient and important version Is supposed to be exliibited are the foUowing '.— I. The Dublin MS. A. 4., No. 13, contains the New Testament, with the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus. This MS. formerly belonged to Usher, and was presented by Charles II. to the University of Dublin. It is written in a dialect which is less purely Proven9al than that of the Paris and Lyons copies, and which partakes more of the Itahan than of the Galhc Eomaunt.' As it Is known to have been used among the Waldenses, it is generally called a Waldenslan version- Le Long and others have erroneously described it as an Italian version. IL The Grenoble ]\IS., preserved in the Hbrary at Grenoble, contains precisely the same books as the preceding, and is written in the same dialect. It is supposed to belong to the thirteenth century, and has erroneously been called a Spanish version. III. The Zurich MS., C ^^g, contains the New Testament, and is in the same dialect as the Dublin and Grenoble MSS.: it Is believed to have been written between the years 1350 and 1400. Dublin MS. 1 Lo filh era al comenczament, e lo filh era enapres Dio, e Dio era Io filh. 2 Aiczo era al comenczament enapres Dio. ^ Totas cosas son fai tas par luy ; e alcuna cosa non es faita sencza luy. * Co que fo fait en luy era vita, e la vita era Inez de li home. ^ E la lucz lucit en las tenebras, e las tenebras non cum- preseron ley. ^ Home fo trames de Dio,alqualeranom Johan. ^Aquest vene en testimoni, qu'el dones tes timoni de lume, que tuit cresesan par luy. 8 j;i jjou gra lucz, mas qu'el dones testimoni de lume. ' Lucz era vraya, laqual enlumena tot home venent en aquest mont. 1* El era al mont, e lo mont fo fait par luy, e lo mont non conoc luy. 11 EI vene en las proprias, e Ii seo non receopron luy. i^ Mas qual- que qual receopron luy, done a lor poesta esser fait filh de Dio, aquilh liqual creseron al nom de luy : i^ Li- qual non son de sang, ni de volunta de cam, ni de deleit de babron, mas son na de Dio. i* E la parolla fo fayta carn e abite en nos, e nos ve- guen la gloria de luy, gloria enayma d'un engenra del paire, plen de gra cia e de verita. Geenoble MS. 1 Lo filh era al comenczament. E lo' filh era enapres dio e dio era lo filh. 2 Aiczo era al comenczament enapres dio. ^ totas cosas son faitas par luy e alcuna cosa non es fayta sencza luy. * Czo que fo fayt en luy era vita, e la vita era lucz de li home. 5 e la Inez luczic en las te nebras : e las tenebras non cum- preseron ley. ^ Home fo trames de dio alqual era nom Johan. ^ Aquest vene en testimoni, quel dones testi moni de lume que tuit cresessan par luy. 8 El non era lucz, mas quel dones testimoni de lume. ^ Lucz era veraya laqual enlumena tot home venent en aquest mont. i" EI era al mont, e lo mont fo fayt par luy, e Io mont non conoc luy. n El vene en las proprias : e li seo non receo pron luy. 12 Mas calsque quals re ceopron luy, done a Ior poesta esser fayt filh de dio, aquilh liqual creo (sic) al nom de luy. i^ Liqual non son de sane, ni de volonta de carn, ni de deleit dome (sic) mas son na de dio. 1* E la parolla fo fayta cam e abite en nos, e nos veguen la glo ria de luy, gloria enayma dun en genra del payre, plen de gracia e de verita. ZUEICH MS. 1 Lo filh era al comenczament. E lo filh era enapres Dio. E Dio era lo filh. 2 Aiczo era al comencza ment enapres Dio. ^ Totas cosas son faitas par luy. E alcuna cosa non es faita sencza luy. ^ 'Czo che fo fait en luy era vita, e la vita era lucz de li home. ^ E la lucz luczit en las tenebras, e las tenebras non cumpreseron ley. ^ Home fo trames de Dio, alqual era nom Johan. ^ Aquest vene en testimoni, chel dones testimoni de lume, que tuit cresesan par luy. ^ El non era lucz, mas quel dones testimoni de lume. 8 Lucz era vraya laqual enlumena tot home venent enaquest mont. 1" El era al mont, e lo mont fo fait par luy, e lo mont non conoc luy. 11 El vene en las proprias, e Ii seo non receopron luy. i^ Mas quanti quanti receopron luy done a lor po testa esser fait filh de Dio : aquilh liqual creon al nom de luy. i^ Li qual non son de sane, ni de volunta de cam, ni de deleit de baron, mas son na de Dio. i* E la parolla fo faita cam, e habite en nos, e nos veguen la gloria de luy, gloria enay ma d un engenra del paire plen de gracia e de verita. 1 Dr. GiUy's Eomaunt Version of the Gospel of St. John, p. ci. 232 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. IV. The Lyons MS., No. 60, is preserved in the public Ubrary at Lyons. It contains the New Testament, a spurious Epistie to the Laodiceans, and about ten pages of scriptural reflections and quotations. The dialect is the same as that of the preceding MSS., but apparently the production of a later period, and the style is replete with Latinisms. V. The Paris MS., No. 8086, contains the New Testament written in a dialect very similar to that which we find in the older poems of the Troubadours. It is preserved in the Eoyal Library at Paris. VI. The Paris MS., No. 6833, contains the New Testament, and is described by Le Long as " Biblia Catalana, seu veteri Lingua Provinciali." ' This MS. is also in the Eoyal Library at Paris. Dr. Gilly, who has lately pubHshed the Gospel of St. John from these MSS., gives It as his opinion that the Paris MS. No. 8086, is perhaps a transcript of the earHest copy produced by Waldo, and possibly contains passages of earher partial versions which were afloat before the time of Waldo. The Dublm, Zurich, and Grenoble MSS. display marks of a revised edition of the preceding, being more Hteral, and adhering more closely to the Latin text than the other codices. YAUDOIS. SPECIMEN OF THE VAUDOIS VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Ak coumen^ament ^ra la Parola ; et la Parola ^ra ensem k Diou ; et sta Parola ^ra Diou : ^ 1 11 ^ra ar coumen^ament ensem k Diou. ' Tute le cose soun istk fait^ da iii, et sansa iii ren de 90 que istk fait e ist^ fait. * En iii hxa, la vita, et la vita ^ra lou kiar di hom. ° E lou kiar luss ent la neuit-scura, m^ la neuit-scura I'ha pa arcevu. " L'a-y-e ISTA un hom qu'avia nom Jean, que istk mandk da Diou, ^ A 1 ^ vengii per rend^ testimouniali, per rende, veui di, testimouniali ar Kiar, per que tui creyessen perqu^ d'el. ' A 1 era pa lou Kiar, mk a 1 era manda per rende testimouniali ar Kiar. ^ Quel Kiar Ira lou veritable, que fai kiar a tut hom que ven ar mount. "" A 1 ^ra ar mount, et lou mount e istk fait da el ; mk lou mount I'ha pa counouissii. "Ale vengu k so ck; et Ii seui Than pS, arcevii ; ^^ Mk k tui quili que Than arcevii, a i U'ha dounk lou drit d'Isse fait m^ina de Diou ; assave, k quili que cren en so nom ; '* Quili eiqui soun p^ neissii de sang, ni de la voulentk de la carn, ni de la voulentk de I'hom ; mk i soun neissu de Diou. '* E la Parola e istk faita cam, i 11 ha habitk entra nou, et nous han ben buck soua gloria, qu'e ista una gloria com la gloria dar Fill unic dar Pare, plena de grassia et de veritk. ON THE VAUDOIS DIALECT AND VEESION. _ The Vaudois dialect, a modification of the old Proven9al language, is spoken on the east or Itahan side of the Cottian Alps, in the three high valleys of Lucerna, Perosa, and San Martmo. These valleys average about twenty-two miles as the greatest length, and eighteen as the greatest breadth, • Dr. GiUy's Eomaunt Version of the Gospel of St. John, p. Ixxii. IifDO-EuEOPEAN Languages. 1 VAUDOIS, 233 and include a population of about 20,000:' since the year I8I4, they have been re-annexed to the dominions of the King of Sardinia. The Vaudois, or Waldenses, as they are sometunes caUed, maintain to this day the pure form of primitive Christianity, to which they stedfastly adhered during the long ages of papal superstition. As a rehgious body, bearing vdtness against the corruptions of the Church of Eome, the Waldenses seem to have originated at a very early period in Southern France : in a.d. 1184 they were excommunicated by the pope at the Council of Verona, and soon afterwards they spread themselves in the South of France, the North of Italy, and Germany. The identity of the Vaudois with the Waldenses has, however, been contested by recent writers, and a more rigid in vestigation of historical particulars has led to the supposition, that, " whatever these professors of a purer faith might have had in common, there were certain points on which they differed, and certain local references and relations by which they were distinguished from each other." ^ Yet it is certain that the ancient version of the Scriptures, described In the last memoir, was in use among them. Waldo, or Waldensis, who was probably the main agent in producing this translation, was a rich merchant of Lyons. His attention, it Is said, was first turned to religious subjects by hearing a Troubadour recite, in the streets of Lyons, a poem in favour of voluntary poverty, caUed, " The Life of Alexis." => Waldo invited the Troubadour to his house, and was so affected by his conversation (for many of the Troubadours were men of deep piety), that he went the next day to the school of Theology, to seek Instruction in the way of salvation. The celebrated master to whom he addressed himself, referred him to these words of our Lord — " If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell all that thou hast, and give to the poor."^ Waldo acted In accordance with the spirit of this exhortation, and a portion of his funds was appropriated to the payment of two priests for translating the Scriptures into the vernacular tongue. This translation was greatly blessed by God to the edification of these early Christians, and supported them in the endurance of many cruel persecutions; in one of which, that of 1686, 11,000 of their number perished, and the survivors, who amounted only to about 3000, were driven from their homes.' It was said of these Waldenses by one of their enemies, " They instruct even Httle girls In the Gospels and Epistles, that they may be brought to embrace their doctrines even from childhood." . . . . " AU, without exception, men and women, small and great, cease not day and night to receive and to give instruction. The labourer who toils during the day, either learns or teaches at night." The descendants of these faithful people, as the Vaudois are generally considered, have not been forgotten in the efforts recently made for the general distribution of the Scriptures. In 1830, a specimen page of a translation of two Gospels into the dialect now spoken by the Vaudois of Piedmont, was forwarded by Lieutenant-Colonel Beckwith to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The translator was the Eev. Mr. Berte, pastor of La Tour. The Society undertook to publish 1000 copies, in parallel columns, with Martin's French version, and the edition was carried through the press by Colonel Beckwith and the Eev. T. Sims. In 1832, 600 copies had been distributed among the Vaudois, and another edition was called for. The Society therefore published 2000 copies, the press being corrected by Eev. T. Sims. The last notice we have received of this version occurs in a letter from Colonel Beckwith, dated 1840, in which he states that the Gospels sent into North Italy are freely circulating among the Protestants. With the progress of education, however, the use of the modern French language is rapidly gaining ground among these valleys. French is the medium of instruction in all the schools, and all the books In general circulation (with the exception of the early literary works) are in that language. French seems to have been first employed as a vehicle of public instruction by those pastors whom the Vaudois obtained from France and Switzerland, when their ovra ministers were almost all cut off by the plague of 1630 :^ Martin's French version is now more generaUy read by them than the Vaudois Gospels. ' Sketches ofthe Waldenses ; Religious Tract Society, p. 40. * Dr. GiUy's Romaunt Version of St. John, xciv. 2 The Vaudois, hy E. Henderson, D.D., p. 3. « Riddle's Ecclesiastical Chronology, p. 417. 3 Lexique Roman, Eaynouard, vol. i. p. 576. ^ The Vaudois, hy E. Henderson, D.D., p. 98. PIEDMONTESE. SPECIMEN OF THE PIEDMONTESE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Stj '1 prinsipi a 1 era la Parola, e la Parola a 1 era coun Iddiou ; e sta Parola a 1 era Diou. ^ A 1 era sil 1 prinsipi coun Diou. ' Ogni cosa a 1 k staita faita da chila, e sensa chila niente de Ion ch'a 1 6 stait fait alk. stait fait. * Ent chila a 1 era la vita, e la vita a 1 era la luce d'i omini. ^E la luce a lus ent le tenebre, ma le tenebre a Than nen arcounoussii-la. "^ A i ^ stk-ie un om ch'a se ciamava Giouan, ch'a 1 h stait mandk da Iddiou. 'Alfe venu per rendi testimouniansa, per rendi, i tournou di, testimouniansa a la Luce, per che tutti a credeissou sil soua parola. ** A 1 era nen chiel la Luce, ma a / era ¦ma-nda per rendi testimouniansa a la Luce. ^ Sta Luce a 1 era la vera, coula ch'a iUumina ogni om ch'a ven al mound. '" Chila a 1 era al mound, e '1 mound a 1 h stait fait da chila; ma '1 mound a I'ha nen counoussh-la. "Alfe venii a soua ca ; e i sb a Than nen ricevii- lou. '^ Ma a tutti coui ch'a Than ricevii-lou, a 1 ha dk-ie '1 drit d' essi fait fieui d' Iddiou; doe, a coui ch'a credou a so nom ; " I quai a soun nen nassH de sang, nfe de la voulountk de la carn, nfe de la voulountk de Tom ; ma a soun nassu da Iddiou. ^* E la Parola a 1 fe staita faita carn, a 1 ha fait soua abitassioun en mes de noui, e i avouma ben amirk soua gloria, laqual ale staita una gloria coum la gloria del Fieul unic del Pare, plena de grassia e de veritk. ON THE PIEDMONTESE DIALECT AND VEESION. Piedmont, which constitutes the most valuable part of the Sardinian dominions, is an extensive plain, stretching, as Its name imports (Pie di monte), from the foot of the Alps to that of the Apennines. The total number of inhabitants was estimated, in 1838, at about 2,650,000. A Eomance dialect, called Piedmontese, is still spoken in Piedmont: it is closely allied to the old Proven9al language of Southern France, but has of late admitted many Italian words. Le Long speaks of an MS. of the New Testament written about the year 1500, and preserved (as above raentioned) at Zurich ; but it Is probable that this was only a copy made for the use of the Piedmontese from the celebrated Provcnijal version of the Waldenses already described. This Piedmontese New Testament was among the list of books prohibited at Eome In 1740, by a decree of the Congregation of the Index of Prohibited Books. In 1838, a translation of the New Testament, faithfully rendered from Martin's French version into modern Piedmontese, was forwarded to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society, by Lieutenant-Colonel Beckwith. The translation had been made by the Eev. Mr. Berte, pastor of La Tour, and Mr. Geymet of Lausanne. An edition of 1000 copies, printed in the same form and type as the Vaudois Gospels, was completed by the Society in 1834, and the press was corrected by Lieutenant- Colonel Beckwith. In 1837, 3000 copies ofthe Gospels of Luke and John were Issued by the Society, in parallel columns with the French text. This edition was followed, in 1841, by the publication of a Piedmontese version of the Psalms, executed from Diodati's Itahan version. The edition of the Psahns consisted of 1000 copies, printed In parallel columns with the Italian text. Owing to the intolerance of the Sardinian Government, these editions have not obtained so rapid a circulation as might have been anticipated ; and the Society's version of the New Testament was advertised in the Turin Gazette of December 1840, as having been put on the Index of forbidden books at Eome. Yet at the present moment the sale of Bibles is great at Turin ; there are shops opened for the purpose simply as a matter of profit : the higher classes especially have become readers of the Bible. EOMANESE, OE UPPEE AND LOWEE ENGHADINE. SPECIMEN OF THE EOMANA, OE UPPEE AND LOWEE ENGHADINE VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. ' In il principi eira il Pled, fe '1 Pled eira pro Deis, fe '1 Pled eira Dieu. ^ Quel eira in il principi pro Deis. ^ Ogni chiaussa ais fatta tras quel; fe sainza quel ingiina chiaussa fatta nun ais stat fatta. ^ In el eira la vita, fe la vita eira la liim dalla glieud. ° E la liim liischa in las sciirezas, fe las sciirezas nun I'haun compraisa. 'E suo iin hom tramiss da Dieu, il nom dal qual eira Joannes. ' Uuaist venn per testimonianza, k fin da dar perdiitta dalla Liim, acio chia tuots crajessen tras el. ' El nun eira la Liim, anzi eira tramiss per dar perdiitta dalla Liim. ^ Quel chi ais la vaira Lum, la quala illiimna ogni crastian chi vain in il muond, '" Eira in il muond, fe '1 muond ais fat tras quel ; mo'l muond nun I'ha cognoschii. " El ais gnii in sia chasa, fe 'Is seis nun I'haun ardsfii. ^' Mo k tuots quels chi I'haun ardsfii, iis quals crajen in seis Nom, lis ha el dat quaista radschun, d'esser fats iffaunts da Dieu. ^^ lis quals brichia da saung, ne da voluntk da charn, ne da voluntk d'hom, mo sun nads da Dieu. " E '1 Pled ais stat fat charn, ed ha habitk taunter nus, [fe nus havain contempla sia gloria, SCO dal unigenit jarocedii dal Bap] plaina d'gratia, fe d'vardk. ' Enten I'Antschetta fov' iig Plaid, ad iig Plaid fova tier Deus ; ad iig Plaid era Deus. ^ Quel fova enten I'Antschetta tiers Deus. ' Tuttas caussas ean fachias tras el ; a fenz' el eis ei faig nagutta, da quel ch'ei faig. " Enten el fova la Vitta, a la Vitta era la Lgisch d'ils Carstiauns. ° A quella Lgisch dat Clarezia enten la Sciira- dengia, mo las Sciiradengias iig han bucca cumpilgiau. ^ Ei fov' iin Hum tarmess da Deas ca veva Num Johannes. ' Quel van- git par esser Pardichia, par dar Pardichia da la Lgisch, par ca tuts cartessen tras el. * El era bucca la Lgisch, mo tarmess par dar Pardichia da la Lgisch. ^ Quel ca ei la vera Lgisch, ca dat Clarezia k minchia Carstiaun ca ven ent iig Mund ; '" Fova ent iig Mund, ad iig Mund ei faigs tras el; ad iig Mund iig ha buc ancunaschieu. " El ei vangeus ent iig sieu, ad iis ses iig han bucca prieu si. " Mo touts sc'ilg han prieu si, sch'ils ha'l dau pussonza da daventar uf- fonts da Deus ; numnadameng k quels ca crein enten sieu num. '^ lis quals ean naschi, bucca da saung ne da la velgia da la carn, ne da la velgia d'ilg Hum ; mo da Deus. '^ A quel plaid ei daventaus carn, ad ha avdau tenter nus, a nus vein vieu sia GHergia. iinna Gliergia sco d'ilg parful- nascheu d'ilg Bab, pleins d'grazia, a vardad. ON THE EOMANESE, OE UPPEE AND LOWEE ENGHADINE, DIALECTS AND VEESIONS. The Grisons, anciently part of Ehoetia, constitute the south-eastern angle of Switzerland, and occupy an area of from 2500 to 3000 square mUes. The inhabitants amount m number to 88,506 : of tHs population, about two-fifths are of Germanic and about one-tenth of Italian ongm: the 236 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. Protestants are supposed to number about 62,000 individuals, the remainder being chiefly Eoman Catholics. The mountainous parts of this canton are inhabited by the little Eomanese nation. The Enghadine, or valley of the Inn, on the borders of the Tyrol, is inhabited by a section of this people, to whom a Eomanese dialect called Churwelsche is vernacular. The other Eomanese dialect Is called Ladlniche, and is spoken in the valley of the Ehine, on the confines of Italy. Both these dialects are derived from the Latin tongue, and preserve to this day the most striking characteristics of the Eomance languages. The New Testament was printed In the former of these dialects in 1560, and the whole Bible in 1679. In the latter, the Bible was published in 1719. These editions were all printed in the Grisons, but they were soon exhausted, and as no further impressions were issued, a copy was scarcely attainable at the beginning of the present century. A company of Christians at Basle, therefore, projected an edition for the use of these mountaineers, and under the auspices of the Basle Bible Society, and with the aid of the parent institution, the New Testament iu Churwelsche left the press In 1810. But when the poor Ladlns heard what a treasure their neighbours on the Tyrolese frontier had got, they expressed a very strong. desire to have the same in their dialect.' The London and Basle Bible Societies promptly consented to grant them this boon, and in 1813 an edition of 2000 copies of the New Testament in Ladinlche had left the press. ^ Several subsequent editions of the New and Old Testaments have been issued by the Basle Bible Society In both dialects. The last edition of which we have any particular account was that of 1834, published at the expense of the British and Foreign, the Coire, and the Geneva Bible Societies: It consisted of 2000 copies of the New Testament, and was chiefly designed for a considerable number of shepherds who pass away the summer in the mountains, without the aid of any religious instruction. The Eev. Colany Nee, of Leme, remarked on this occasion : " The Spirit of God has scarcely begun to be heard in a whisper in these mountains ; but I have found, generally speaking, that the word of God is esteemed, and frequently read, and that it is in the possession of most of the Protestant famihes in the canton." 1 Sixth Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 114. i Ninth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xiix. CATALAN, OR CATALONIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE CATALAN, OE CATALONIAN, VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. En lo principi era lo Verb, y lo Verb era ab Deu, y lo Verb era Deu. ' Ell era en Io principi ab Deu. ^ Per ell foren fetas totas las cosas, y sens ell ninguna cosa fou feta de lo que ha estat fet. ' En ell era la vida, y la vida era la Hum dels homes. ' Y la Hum resplandeix en las tenebras, y las tenebras no la comprengueren. ^ Hi hague un home enviat de Deu ques anomenava Joan. ' Est vingue a servir de testimoni pera testificar de la Hum, a fi de que tots creguessen per medi d'ell. * No era ell la llum, sino enviat pera donar testimoni de la llum. ^ Aquell era la verdadera llum, que iUumina a tot home que ve a est mon. '" Ell era en lo mon, yl mon ha estat fet per ell, yl mon noi conegue. " Vingue a sa propia casa, yls seus noi reberen. '^ Mes a tots los quel reberen, que son los que creuhen en son nom, los dona poder de ferse fills de Deu. '' Los quals no han nat de la sanch, ni de la voluntat de la carn, ni de la voluntat del home, sind de Deu. " Yl Verb fou fet carn, y habita entre nosaltres, y nosaltres vegerem sa gloria, gloria com del unigenit del Pare, pie de gracia y de veritat. ON THE CATALAN, OE CATALONIAN, DIALECT AND VEESION. The Catalan is a cognate dialect of the Spanish language, spoken in the province of Catalonia, by a population that has been estimated at 1,041,422. A softer and more harmonious modification of the same dialect prevails in Valencia, among a population of about 1,430,608. In the islands of Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, a corrupt dialect of Catalan is vernacular. The early history of the Catalan dialect Is precisely similar to that of the Castihan or modern Spanish; both dialects originated from the mixture of the Latin and Gothic languages, but the Catalan has received fewer Arabic words than the Castihan. The Catalan soon became a fixed language, and as early probably as the twelfth century, a celebrated code of international maritune laws was drawn up in Catalan by the citizens of Barcelona : an abstract of this code is stiU famiharly known as " the laws of Oleron." Of aU Hving languages, the Catalan is said to bear the nearest resemblance to the idiom of the Troubadours of Southern France. As in the langue (Toe, the consonant d is often suppressed in Catalan, when occurring in the middle of words : thus the Latin mandamen is converted into manamen, the Latin recomandar into recomanar ; and other pecuHarities coexist in the two dialects, proving that the closest connection must, at one period, have subsisted between them. Ancient Catalan was, in fact, but a provincial variety of the langue d'oc, which was difiused through the three powerful states of Toulouse, Guienne, and Barcelona. Two or three Catalan versions of the Bible (one of which bears the date 1407) are preserved at Paris. One of these MSS. is deposited in the Eoyal Library, and contains a translation from the Latin of the entfre Scriptures, with the prefaces of Jerome ; it is beautifully written on fine parchment, and bound in three volumes. In 1478, a version ofthe Scriptures iu the Valencian dialect was printed at Valencia, but no portion of this edition is extant except the last four pages of one of the copies. From the subscription appended to these pages, we leam that the translation was made from the Latin by Boniface Ferrer, assisted by other learned men in the monastery of Porta Coeli ; and that, after having been revised by Borrell, a Dominican and inquisitor, it was printed at the expense of Vizlant, a merchant. The date of the translation is unknown, but it was probably executed at the very com mencement of the fifteenth century, as Ferrer died in 1419. The four pages which have reached our times are preserved in the monastery of Porta Coeli ; they were transcribed and printed by Father Civera, in his work entitled " Varones illustres del Monasterio de Porta Cceli." No further attempts seem to have been made to fumish the Catalans with a version of the Scriptures in their own dialect tiU the institution ofthe British and Foreign Bible Society. About the 238 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. year 1809, two Catalan translations of St. Matthew's Gosjjel were laid before the Committee of that Society, and some inquiries were made as to their respective merits. Ultimately, however, a version of the entire New Testament was prepared at the expense of the Society by Mr. Prat, a native of Catalonia, under the superintendence of the Eev. Mr. Cheap of Knaresborough. An edition of 1000 copies was printed in London in 1832, under the care of the late Mr. Greenfield, editorial superin tendent of the Society. A second edition of 2000 copies of the New Testament was pubhshed in London in 1835, and a third edition of 3000 copies was brought out at Barcelona in 1837, under the care of Lieut. Graydon, E.N., the Society's agent in that city. These editions were gladly received by the Catalans, and obtained a speedy circulation. The translation, which was made from the Vulgate conferred with the original text, is accounted accurate and faithful; and the style in which it is written is idiomatic, clear, and elegant. The Psalms and the Pentateuch have since been translated by Mr. Prat, but have not yet been committed to the press. TOULOUSE. SPECIMEN OF THE TOULOUSE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. La paraoulo ero al coumens^oment , la paraoulo ero ambe Dious , e aquello paraoulo ero Dious. ^ Ero al coumens5oment ambe Dious. ^ Toutos caousos an estados faitos per eUo, e res de 90 qu'a estat fait n'a estat fait sans ello. * Accos es en ello qu'ero la bido, e la bido ero la lumifero des hom^s, ^ E la lumifero a luzit dins las tenebros , e las tenebros nou I'an pas recepiudo. ® Y ajec un home , appelat Jan , que fousquet ^nbouyat de Dious. ' Benguet per estre temouen , e per randre temoignatge de la lumifero , afi qu^ toutis crejesQon per el. * N'ero pas el miino la lumifero , mes ero enbouyat per randre temoignatge k la lumifero. ^ Ero la beritablo lumifero qu'esclairo toutis les homes quand benen al mounde. '" Ero dins le mound e , e le mounde a estat fait per eUo ; mes le mounde nou I'a pas counescudo. " Es bengut enta el , e les sious nou I'an pas recepiut. '^ Mds k toutis les que I'an recepiut , lour a dounat le dret d' estre faits les efants de Dious , sabe k toutis aquelis que crezen en soun noum ; '^ Qud nou soun pas nascuts del sang , ni de la boulountat de la car , ni de la boulountat de I'home , mes que sown nascuts de Dious. " E la paraoulo a estado incarnado , e a habitat parmi nous aoutres , pieno de grascio i dd beritat ; e aben bist sa glorio , uno glorio talo qu'es la del Fil unique bengut del Paire. ON THE DIALECT OF TOULOUSE. The Provencal or langue d!oc, the Eomance dialect of Southern France, has afready been noticed. During the middle ages it occupied as conspicuous a place among the languages of Europe, as is held by its rival the langue d!oil at the present day, and the few vestiges which yet remain of it are therefore invested with some degree of interest. These vestiges are to be traced in the mountainous parts of Languedoc, where, under the name of the dialect of Toulouse, a corrupt form of the langue d!oc is still spoken by the peasantry. As late as the seventeenth century, and perhaps stUl more recently, some poems have been occasionaUy published by native writers in this dialect. Through the influence of education and the press, it is now rapidly yielding its place to the language of modern France; yet it has attracted the attention of the learned, and an attempt has been made to preserve a specimen of this curious reUc of past ages before it passes into oblivion. About the year 1820, a translation was made of the Gospel of St. John into this dialect, under the care of a party of French literati; and the version was published at Toulouse, under the title of " Le Sent Ebangely de Nostri Seignour Jesus Christ seloun Sent Jan; traduit ^n L4ngo Toulouzenzo," CLASS III.-INDO-EUEOPEAN LANGUAGES. F. THRACO-ILLYRIAN FAMILY. ALBANIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE ALBANIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Ks TTspirapa I'cf ^yidXXia, I 0yid\\ia Ta fil IlEpvrive -kdirks, e ^yiaXXia iff Ilepvri. ^ Ksyio "lir ke TrspTrdpa Trdaks fie ITeppTivE. ^ Te HiOa Tzpsiy daciiy ov TTEve, £ Tra drs vovk ov ¦kl vrovil y/ca ad yidvE -ksppE, ^ Mira rl 'iItte yira, £ yera "a dpir e ¦i'dpEZ.er. ° E Spira Xdfup vrl epeaipi, e Epeacpa afiovvr rd fnrdye. dri. ^ Kl Vll ¦uiEpl ^EpiovapE yad IlepvTia, efiEp' Irly Iiodvv. '' Koviy spdi irlp (laprvpl, TS fiaprvpiays Trip dpirs, kl te ¦n'saoyEve UOs fil dvs rl riy. * A't vovke kI dpira, TTO ¦Trip ts ^sz^e fiaprvpl Trip dpirs. ' Ictte Spira s ^EprirE, kl vrplr tZ^o vispi ks jSytei' vts ketI ysrs. ^° JVts ¦kots kI, e -koTa i^psly a\ rI kipps, e tcotu vo'VK E 'vi6')(^ov are. ' Nte tI riyTS spdi, s tI riyre are vcvk e Si^ve. '^ JE ad kl £ de^vs ari, cv da arovps k^oval te Triviavs rrtyr' e HspvriaE, fiTT drd kl ¦ksaovavE fnr Efiep ts riy, '^ Ara ag Tzpsiy haicovr, dg TTpsly OsXifisT as KO'vpfiir, ag Trpi'iy OsXifier as ¦rrovppiT, tto Trpiiy HspvTtas Xsvs. '* E (j)yidXia o-u Tre vispl, £ VTEVl flTTE vi^ST VTE KOVpfl TE 'VlEpioVT, {e Traf.1 Xs^dlflV STiy, TTOai Xs^Slfl TE kippiT as ^sTSfis yicd kairai) ttXiot fis .SovpsTi, e fiE te ^EprsTS. ON THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — This language is vernacular in Albania, a country which, in point of situation and extent, nearly coincides with the ancient Epirus. It Ues partly opposite to the Ionian Islands, and extends for more than 250 mUes along the Mediterranean and Gulf of Venice. The Arnauts or Sklpetars (as the Albanians are usuaUy caUed) difier in language and in physical conformation from aU the other tribes of Europe, and are supposed to be the descendants of the ancient lUyrians. The total population of Albania amounts to 1,200,000, but many Turks and Greeks are intermixed with the Arnauts. As much of the country as is comprised between the 37th and 39th degrees of north latitude forms part of the dominions of the King of Greece, and the remainder, although ruled by nearly independent chieftains, ranks as a province of the Turkish empire.' The Arnauts are dispersed throughout Greece, especially the northern provinces ; they constitute the entire population of Hydra, Spezzia, Paros, and other Greek islands, and they are to be met with In Servia, and on the coast of Calabria in Sicily. They belong, for the most part, to the Greek Church, but many of them are Mahommedans ; they are wUd and predatory in their habits, and are equaUy dreaded by their Greek and Turkish neighbours. 1 Wilson's Narrative of the Greek Mission, p. 583. 240 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. Class III. Characteeistics of the Language. — The Albanian contains the remains of a language which has long been extinct, and which probably formed an important Unk between several families of languages. The basis of the present common dialect of Albania is said to be in a great measure Sclavonian; but Turkish, Modern Greek, Italian, French, and even words that sound hke English, enter into its composition.' It was an unwritten language till about the beginning of the last century, when a Eoman CathoHc Missionary, by name Da Lecce, a member of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, made an attempt to reduce it to rule, and eventuaUy embodied it in a grammar, which he called " a new sign in the grammatical heavens." The Greek characters, with various signs to denote the peculiar sounds of the language, are universaUy used in printing Albanian books. Version of the Scriptures in this Language. — The Albanians possessed no version of , the Scriptures, and, indeed, no written composition ofany kind till the year 1819, when Dr. Pinkerton, agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, employed a native Albanian (by name Evangelos Mexicos) to prepare a translation of the New Testament into Albanian. This native had been recommended to Dr. Pinkerton by some of the first dignitaries of the Greek communion, as a person eminently quaUfied for the work.^ The revision of Dr. Mexico's labours was entrusted to Gregory, archbishop of Negropont. The translation and entire revision of the New Testament was accomphshed in 1825, and in the same year an edition of the Gospel of St. Matthew, printed in paraUel columns with the Greek version by Hilarion, was struck ofi" for immediate distribution. The Testament was completed at press in 1827, at Corfu, under the superintendence of the Eev. I. Lowndes. The whole expense of the work was borne by the Ionian Bible Society. Opportunities for its circulation have been few, and it has never reached a second edition. CLASS III.-INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. C. SCLAVONIC FAMILY. SCLAVONIC. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VII.) Geographical Location. — The Sclavonic nations, generally supposed to be descended from the ancient Sarnaatae or Sauromatse, are frequently mentioned by the Byzantine historians under the various appellations of Slavi, Antae, Vandales, Veneti, and Vendes. They now occupy more than one third of Europe, and number upwards of 60,000,000 individuals.' Various dialects prevaU among this great family of tribes, but the liturgie or old church dialect, in which the ancient Sclavonic version of the Scriptures and the Liturgy of the Eussian Church are written, is now extmct : it Is elevated to the rank of a sacred language, and in Eussia is employed exclusively for ecclesiastical pur poses, and in public worship. _ It is impossible, at this distance of time, to ascertain with any degree of precision by what tribe or tribes this ancient dialect was spoken, or in what region it was vernacdar; but as Cyril and Methodius, the great apostles of the Sclavonians, laboured among the Servians, Mora vians, and Carniolans, there can be Uttle doubt but that the version prepared by them for the edifica tion of these tribes, was written in the idiom which was then most generaUy understood among them. Characteristics of the Language.— The old Sclavonic dialect, as exhibited in the Sclavonic version, was at one time imagined to be the original idiom of the Sclavonic family, and the parent of aU modem Sclavonic dialects. More accurate investigation, however, has proved that it was only one of the dialects spoken by the Sclavonic tribes during the ninth century: notwithstanding its 1 Hobhouse, Journey through Albania, toI. i. p. 144. 2 sixteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 23. 3 Pinkerton's Russia, p. 195. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] SCLAVONIC. 241 high antiquity and rare perfection of form, it is, therefore, only entitled to rank as an elder dialect of the Sclavonic language. Almost aU the elements of aU Sclavonic languages, however, enter mto its composition, but divested of the foreign admixture which time and pohtical changes have induced in them; hence it is, through the medium of this ancient dialect, that the original Intunate connection of the Sclavonic with the Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin languages can be most clearly traced. But even in this old Sclavonic we see the influence of a heterogeneous Idiom, Finnish, Turkish, or Tartar, which acted on it during the long centuries of darkness, when the nomadic tribes, to whom it was vernacular, were in the steppesof Scythia, among the defiles of Caucasus, or on the shores of the Black Sea.' StiU, the old Sanscrit type is more faithfiilly preserved in Sclavonic than in Latin, or even in Greek. "Of three sisters," says Dankovsky, " one kept faithful to her mother tongue— the Sclavonic; the second gave to that common heritage the highest cultivation— the Greek; and the third mixed the mother tongue with a foreign idiom — the Latin." Like Sanscrit, the old Sclavonic dialect possesses three numbers, three genders, and seven cases, a perfect system of prefixes and afiixes, and an unhmited power of forming compound words. Its afiinity with Greek is so great, that one ofthe greatest scholars of our time contends that a knowledge of Sclavonic is of the utmost use in the study of the Greek language, by clearing up difiicult passages, and showing the signification of doubtful words.^ The distinguishing peculiarity of the Sclavonic Hes in its method of conjugation. Its verbs are rather deficient in variety of termination, but by means of certain additions in the body of the radical, they can express In thefr most delicate gradations, not only the moods and tenses, but the difierent con ditions of an action, such as its extent, its actuahty, its frequency of occurrence, its accompUshment.' Alphabetical System. — It is commonly thought that the Sclavonic tribes possessed no alphabet of their own till the ninth century, when an alphabet, called from the name of the Inventor, the CyriUian, was introduced for the purpose of writing a translation of the Scriptures. This alphabet, however, is merely an adaptation of Greek characters, with additional forms borrowed from the Arme nian and other oriental alphabets, to express such Sclavonic articulations as have no existence in Greek. It possesses no less than seven sibUants, aU of which are perfectly distinct from each other, and can scarcely be expressed by Eoman characters. The consonants I and r are considered as vowels. A farther modification of the CyrilHan alphabet was introduced during the thirteenth century by a monk of Dalmatia; it is caUed the GlagoHtIc, and sometimes the Hieronymian, because falsely attributed to Jerome. Several copies of the Sclavonic Scriptures have been written In this character, of which the oldest monument is a Psalter of the thirteenth century. Version of the Scriptures in this Language. — The Sclavonic version is a faithful and hteral representation of the original Greek text. It was chiefly executed during the ninth century by Cyril and Methodius, the ffrst missionaries of the Sclavonians. The name of the former was properly Constantine, but he assumed the name of Cyril (by which he is more generally known) about forty days before his death. He and his brother Methodius were the sons of Leo, a Greek nobleman of Thessalonica. Cyril, though the younger of the two, was the most noted for his profound knowledge of Scripture and of the writings of the Greek fathers: in his youth he enjoyed the best education as companion to the young Prince Michael, but undazzled by the prospect of worldly distinction he with drew from court, and in a monastery near the shores of the Black Sea he prepared himself for the active duties ofhis laborious career. Methodius originaUy held an appointment In the army, and after wards, for the space of ten years, was govemor on the Sclavonian frontiers, where he had ample opportunity for the study of the Sclavonian dialects. He also retfred from pubhc life, and secluded himself for a time in a monastery on Mount Olympus. He then joined his brother in a misaon to the Khazars, a Hunnic-Tartaric tribe; and at a subsequent period he accompanied him to Moravia, where they spent four years and a half in translating the Scriptures and instructing the inhabitants in the truths of Christianity. Their next journey was to Eome, where CyrU died. Methodius retumed to Moravia, to prosecute the great work which they had jointly commenced; he died m 880. The Sclavonic version is commonly said to have been the joint production of these missionaries, but it is uncertain whether aU the books of Scripture were translated by them. Nestor, m his Annals, states that " they translated the Apostles {i. e. the Epistles) and the Gospels; and then they also trans lated the Psalter, the Octateuch, and the other books." It seems most probable that they completed a > Eichhoff, Hist, de la Langne des Slaves, p. 65. == DankoTsky, Die Grieclien als Sprachverwandte der Slaven. 3 Eichhoff, Hist, de la Langue des Slaves, p. 67. 242 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. version of the New Testament and of the Psalms, and that the remaining portions of the sacred volume were added by other hands. It would be difficult, byany other hypothesis, to account for the extreme scarcity and the recent date of MS. copies of the entire Sclavonic Bible ; only three such copies are now known to be in existence, and of these, the most ancient bears the date 1499 : whereas codices of the New Testament, belonging to the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, are frequently to be met with in Eussia and other countries. The book of Proverbs is beUeved to have been translated before, or in the twelfth century, as the quotations made from it by Nestor agree, on the whole, with the common text. The Prophetical Books and Job were translated, probably In Servia, in the thirteenth or fourteenth century; and the Pentateuch and other books seem to have been trans lated in the fifteenth century, either in Eussia or in Poland. At this latter period the several parts of the Sclavonic Scriptures were for the first time collected into one volume, and arranged in order Uke those of the Bohemian version which appeared in 1488. The first portion of the Sclavonic version committed to the press was the Psalter, an edition of which appeared in 1491 at Cracow in Poland: a reprint of this book was pubHshed at Montenegro, 1495. The first edition of any part of the New Testament consisted of the Four Gospels, printed at Ugrovallachia, 1512. Another edition of the Gospels appeared at Belgrade, 1552, and a third edition at Montenegro, 1562. In 1553, the Czar Ivan Vasillevitch caused a revision of the Sclavonic text to be undertaken, with a view of rectifying the errors which had crept into it through the ignorance or carelessness of transcribers. A printing office was established at Moscow by the czar for the purpose; the direction of the work was confided to Hans Bogbinder, a native of Denmark; and the printing was committed to Ivan Fedorofi", deacon of the Hostun Cathedral, and Peter Timofeefi"; but owing to a variety of obstacles the printing did not actually commence till ten years afterwards, and in 1564 appeared the firstfruits of the typographical art in Eussia, consisting of the Acts, the Catholic and the Pauline Epistles, taken, no doubt, from the best MSS. that could be then obtained in Moscow.' Although executed under the immediate patronage of the czar, much hostihty was excited by the appearance of this work ; the printers were accused of heresy and magic, and were compeUed to flee the country. Fedorofi" took refuge in Leopolstadt, where he republished the Acts and Epistles in 1573, and Timofeefi" settled in Wihia, where he printed an edition of the Sclavonic Gospels in 1575. In 1577, an edition of the Psalms issued from the Moscow press ; and about the same period Constantine, duke of Ostrog, formed the noble design of publishing an edition of the entire Scriptures at his own expense, as the most effectual means of sUencing the controversies then in agitation between the Greek and Eoman Churches.^ In order to secure the accuracy of the text, the duke made an extensive coUection of Sclavonic MSS. He also caused the Sclavonic text to be collated with that of versions in other languages ; but so many discrepancies were brought to Ught by this coUation, that those who were hostUe to the undertaking endeavoured to persuade the benevolent projector to abandon his design. So far, however, from yielding to despondency, he was only stimulated by these difficulties to greater perseverance, " In the certain hope that, by the divine blessing on his efforts, he should be enabled eventually to surmount them all." He therefore wrote to Italy, Greece, Servia, Bulgaria, and Constantinople, requesting that individuals skiUed In the Greek and Sclavonic tongues might be sent to him, bringing with them the best accredited copies of the sacred text. In comphanee with this request, many learned men resorted to Ostrog ; and after the necessary coUations and corrections had been effected, the first edition of the Sclavonic New Testament was printed in 1580, accompanied with the Psalms. It was printed by Fedoroff, the deacon originaUy employed bythe czar at Moscow. In I58I, the first edition of the Sclavonic Bible left the Ostrog press. The editors did not merely adopt the text of the Moscow edition, but consulted the Greek MSS. which had been brought for the purpose from Greece. It is uncertain what particular MSS. were consulted ; and it is probable that the text of this edition was also conferred with other versions. The peculiar characteristics of the Sclavonic version may be concisely enumerated as follows, In the words of Dobrovsky : — 1. The Sclavonic version is very Hterally translated from the Greek, the Greek constraction being frequently retained where it is contrary to the genius of the Sclavonian ; and it resembles in general the most ancient MSS. 2. In the Gospels it agrees with the Codex Stephani ji (L. at Paris), more frequently than with any other Greek MS. 3. In the Cathohc Episties it agrees in general with the Codex Alexandrinus, and firequently in the Eevelation. 4. In the Acts, and in the Epistles of St. Paul, it agrees in general with the most ancient MSS. ; but sometimes with 1 Henderson's Biblical Researches, p. 80. 2 Henderson's Biblical Researches, p. 81. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] SCLAVONIC. 243 one, sometimes with another, yet niost frequently with Wetstem's Codex E (Codex Laudianus at Oxford). 5. Of the readings adopted by Griesbach in the text of his Greek Testament, the Sclavonian version has at least three-fourths. 6. Where the united evidence of ancient MSS. is against the common prmted reading, the Sclavonic version agrees with the ancient MSS. 7. It has not been altered from the Vulgate, as some haye supposed, though the fact is in itself almost incredible. 8. It varies from the text of Theophylact in as many instances as they agree ; and their coincidence is to be ascribed, not to an alteration from Theophylact, but to the circumstance that both Theophylact and the author of the Sclavonic version used the Greek edition. 9. The Sclavonic version has few or no readings pecuUar to itself, or what the critics caU " lectiones singulares." ' The controverted passage, 1 John v. 7, is not found in any MS. of the Sclavonic version, and was therefore omitted in the Ostrog edition! In the second edition of the Bible, pubHshed 1663, it obtained a place in the margin, where it was probably Inserted on the authority of the Textus Eeceptus. In aU modem editions, however, it is admitted into the text. Between the years 1581 and 1633 (the dates of the first and second editions of the Sclavonic Bible), seven editionsof the entfre New Testament, besides several reprints of the Gospels and Episties, were pubUshed at Evie, near Wilna, at Wilna itseh", at Kief, and other places. AU these editions are of extreme rarity. The edition of the Bible of 1633 appeared at Moscow; it was projected by the Patriarch Nicon : but that learned man took no part In its emendation. It was professedly carefuUy corrected, but only a few of the typographical faults of the former edition were removed ; and such alterations as were introduced were trifiing, and of Uttle moment. In consequence of the numerous errors by which these two editions of the Sclavonic Bible were disfigured, a new translation was undertaken at the command of the czar, by Epiphanius Slavinetzky, a learned monk : he was appointed to prepare the work, in concert with other mOnks, under the eye of the metropolitan, and a sohtary but agreeable retreat near Moscow was assigned to the company of translators. A rough copy of a version of the New Testament was just completed, when the death of the metropoHtan arrested the progress of the work, and the design was completely relinquished.^ No further steps were taken in the revision or printing of the Sclavonic Bible till the reign of Peter the Great. In the year 1712, that monarch issued an ukase, ordering the printed Sclavonic text to be carefully compared with the Greek of the Septuagint, and rendered in every respect conformable to It. Certain learned monks were appointed to execute this work, and were directed, on all doubtful points, to abide by the decision of Jaborsky, a dignitary of great eloquence and erudition, who after wards rose to be president of the Holy Synod. While this work was In progress, Peter the Great caused an edition of the Sclavonic New Testament to be printed in parallel columns with the Dutch version, with the view, no doubt, of famiUarising his subjects with the language of Holland, and of thus creating a closer connection between the two countries. This edition Is now very scarce ; a great discrepancy is observable in the space taken up by the two columns, the Dutch language not admitting of that conciseness with which the Sclavonic has imitated the original.^ A corresponding edition of the Old Testament, in paraUel columns with the Dutch, was also projected by Peter ; but it was never printed, on account of the numerous discrepancies between the two versions, the one having been executed from the Hebrew, and the other from the Greek. An additional objection to this edition arose from the dUference in the order of the books, and from the rejection of the Apocrypha by the Dutch. The revision of the Sclavonic version occupied nearly twelve years, and was not completed till the year 1723. In the beginning of the following year, Peter the Great ordered the revised copy to be put to the press ; but his death during the course of that year greatly retarded the process of pubhcation. Other obstacles, and the opposition of some of the members of the synod, occasioned StiU further delay, and it was not tiU 1751 that this revised edition was pubHshed. It was printed at St. Petersburg in a ponderous foHo form, containing, besides the text, long and daborate prefaces, with tables of contents, and other useful additions. This edition has served as the basis of aU subsequent ones. Between the year ofits publication (1751) and the year 1816, when the first stereotype edition printed by the Eussian Bible Society left the press, not fewer than twenty-one Impressions of the whole Sclavonic Bible, besides numerous editions of the New Testament, were put into circulation.* The total number of Sclavonic Bibles and New Testaments issued by the Eussian Bible Society, during the ten years ofits active existence, amounts to 205,546. 1 Marsh's Michaelis, vol. u. part ii. p. 636. ' Hendersonjs Biblical Researches, p. gs. » Henderson's Biblical Researches, p. 95. ' Henderson's Bibhcal Researches, p. 101. EUSSIAN. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VH.) Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The Eussian empire, in point of extent, exceeds the most famous empires of antiquity, and numerous languages and dialects are spoken withhi its confines. The Eussian language is vernacular in European Eussia, which, according to the almanack pubUshed for the year 1848 by the Academy of St. Petersburg, contains an area of 90,117 square miles, and a population of 54,092,000. The superficial extent ofthe entire empire has been estimated by Hassel at 372,935, and by Koeppen at 364,388 geographical square mUes. The Sclavonic portion ofthe population has been computed at nearly 46,000,000, or about three-fourths ofthe whole.' The national religion of Eussia is the Eusso- Greek Church : since the time of Peter the Great, the reigning emperor has been the acknowledged head of this Church, and all ecclesiastical affairs are under the direction of a synod appointed by him. The ritual is contained in twenty foho volumes, composed in the Old Sclavonic language. Characteristics of the Language. — The Eussian is the principal of the numerous languages and dialects which derive their origin from the Old Sclavonic. It was originally the dialect of the Antes, a Sclavonic people who, about the seventh or eighth century of our era, settled in the comitry now called Eussia, and drove out the SchudI, or Finns, the previous occupiers of that vast territory. In 864, the Eussian monarchy was founded by Euric, a Scandinavian prince : he assumed the reins of government at the soUcitation of the Antes, but his Scandinavian foUowers were too few in number to exert any perceptible infiuence on the language of his new subjects. Other idioms have, however, commingled more freely with it; and words Finnish, Greek, Mongolian, Tartar, PoHsh, Dutch, German, and French enter plentifully into its composition. These heterogeneous elements, while they add to the richness of the vocabulary, in no wise detract from the native symmetry of the Eussian tongue. It is one of the most flexible of languages, and possesses to a remarkable degree the property of assimilating foreign words, employing them as roots ; whence, by its own resources, it upraises stems and branches. Even now, in proportion to the increasing civilisation of the people, the stores of the language are being increased by fresh and fresh accessions from foreign sources. The most prominent grammatical features of the Old Sclavonic language are reproduced in the Eussian, a circumstance which no doubt arises partly from the original connection between the two languages, and partly from the infiuence of the older idiom on the Eussian ; for simultaneously with the introduction of Christianity in the tenth century, the Old Sclavonic was adopted in Eussia as its Hturgical and ecclesiastical language. The resemblance of Eussian to Latin is also very striking, and the hypothesis has even been started that Latin was originaUy a dialect of the Sclavonic. Eussian nouns possess three genders, two numbers, and seven cases, aU of which (except the nominative and the vocative) are distinguished by diBferent terminations : by means of these cases the transposition of words is often carried to a great extent in the construction of sentences, without occasioning ambiguity. The Eussian language exceeds even the Italian in its immense stock of diminutives and augmentatives ; every noun has at least two augmentatives and three diminutives, and some have even more. On the other hand the number of conjunctions is extremely limited, but this deficiency rather tends to impart clearness of expression, by preventing the formation of long, involved sentences. Considering the vast extent of territory through which the Eussian language is difiused, its provincial or dialectical variations are remarkably few in number. In fact, it has been observed, that an inhabitant of Archangel and one of Astracan, meeting at Moscow, would understand each other ; and this conformity of language between provinces so remote is attributed to the use of the Old Sclavonic throughout Eussia in the services of the Church. The Eussian language admits but of two principal divisions, namely, Great Eussian, the literary and official language of the nation, spoken in Moscow and the northern parts of the empire, and Little or Malo-Eussian, which contains many obsolete forms of expression, and is predominant in the south of European Eussia, especiaUy towards the east. To these may be added the idiom of the Eussniaks, spoken in the east of Galicia and the north-east pf Hungary, which, though differing slightly in pronunciation, is essentially the same as the Malo-Eussian; and the White Eussian, or Polish Eussian, spoken by the common people in parts of Lithuania and in White Eussia. The characters used in writing Eussian are a modification of the ' M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 620. Indo-Eueopean Languages.] RUSSIAN. 245 Old Sclavonian or CyrilUc. They were slightly altered In form by Peter the Great, and their number was reduced by him to thirty-four ; since his time they have been subjected to few changes. _ Versions op the Scriptures in this Language.— The earHest Eussian version of the Scriptures was written in White Eussian, a semi- PoHsh dialect, which arose in the beginning of the sixteenth century, in consequence of the connection then subsisting between Poland and Eussia. Part ofthe Old Testament belonging to this version was printed at Prague in 1517-19; the Acts and Epistles appeared at Vilna, 1525.' We have no information as to the circumstances under which this translation was executed. AU that we now know about the translator is, that his name was Skorina, that he was a doctor of medicine, and that he was born at Polotsk, and completed his version at Vilna. Certain portions only of his translation have as yet been discovered, but it is evident, from his prefaces to some of the books, that he translated, or intended to translate, the entire Scriptures. He drew his version froni the Vulgate, but in particular passages he foUowed the readings of the Sclavonic, or of the Septuagint, whence it is derived. ^ At the close of the seventeenth century, another attempt was made to produce a version of the Scriptures in the language then commonly spoken in Eussia. The promoter of this version was Ernest Gliick, a native of Saxony, dean of the Lutheran Church in Livonia. The success which attended his translation of the Scriptures into the Lettish language, induced him to attempt a Eussian version from the Old Sclavonic text, and he employed an aged Eussian priest to assist in the preparation of the work. Unhappily the translation was destroyed, with the whole of Gliick's MSS. and library, at the siege of Marienburg, in 1702, and he appears to have made no efforts to recommence the work. The version now commonly used in Eussia was prepared under the immediate auspices of the Russian Bible Society. On the first formation of the Society in 1813, great doubts were entertained as to the possibUity of obtaining a version in the language of the people, on account of the prejudices of the clergy, and the veneration with which the Old Sclavonic version was regarded by all ranks of the community. In the begfrming of the year 1816, copies of the versions, printed by the Society in the languages spoken in distant parts of the empire, were laid before the emperor, and he was much struck at perceiving that, while so many barbarous tribes had been thus put in possession of the oracles of God, " his own Russians still remained destitute of the boon mercifully designed to be freely com municated to all." At his instigation, an order was immediately forwarded through the president of the Society to the Holy Synod, enjoining the translation of the New Testament into Modem Euss. The synod acquiesced in the imperial mandate, and some of the most competent individuals connected with the spiritual academy of St. Petersburg were appointed to prepare a version : their work, when completed, was submitted for revision to the clerical members of the Bible Society, and, after three years had been devoted to the undertaking, an edition of the Four Gospels was struck off. In parallel columns with the Sclavonic text. Such was the demand for this work, that two editions, consisting of 15,000 copies, were issued during the course of the same year, and during the following year 50,000 copies of the Gospels and Acts were printed and circulated. The first edition of the entire New Testament did not appear tUl 1823 ; it was printed without the accompaniment of the_ Sclavonic text. Eight months afterwards it was carefully stereotyped, and 20,000 copies struck off for immediate distribution, and other editions followed In quick succession from the SocIety's_ printing office at St. Petersburg. This version, although not exempt from verbal errors and omissions, ranks among the best of modem translations ; it was executed from Greek MSS., and contains many mdications of the critical spirit of research which characterises the nineteenth century. With respect to the Eussian version ofthe Old Testament, the first portion translated by command ofthe emperor was the Psalms, the chief preparation of which devolved on the Eev. Dr. Pavsky, ofthe cathedral of St. Petersburg, the first Hebrew scholar in the empire.^ The first edition appeared in 1822, and consisted of 15,000 copies ; yet so great was the demand, that within the space of two years no less than 100,000 copies left the press. This version was pecuharly acceptablein Eussia,_ on account of its being drawn immediately from the Hebrew text, whereas the Old Sclavonic, which it m a great measure superseded, was derived, as above stated, from the Septuagint. The translation of the other books of the Old Testament from the Hebrew proceeded under the direction of the spiritual academies of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kief; and in 1822 an edition was undertaken of 10,000 copies of the Pentateuch, and the books of Joshua, Judges, and Euth. In 1826, the Eussian Bible Society was suspended by the ukase of Nicholas, and littie intelligence has been obtained since that period concerning • Biblical Repository, vol. iv. p. 36. - Henderson's Biblical Researches, p. 126. 246 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class III. the circulation of the Bible in Eussia. So far as regards the distribution of this version, the laborious: efibrts of Henderson, Pinkerton, and Paterson in promoting the organisation of the Society and preparation of the version are now utterly fruitless, for the Society is virtually dissolved, and aU its printing operations arrested. The educated classes in Eussia are generally acquainted with French and German, and sometimes even EngHsh, and In these languages they can obtain copies of the Bible. But all the Eussian Testaments printed by the Society have been distributed, and as another edition cannot for the present be obtained, the Eussian peasantry are debarred from the privilege of studying the Word of God. The only substitute they possess consists of two small volumes of scriptural extracts, set forth by the government in the modern language. These extracts consist of selections from Scripture, printed without note or comment ; and as they point out the way of salvation through faith in the work of the Eedeemer, they may be used as the means of awakening some to the knowledge of the truth.' POLISH. SPECIMEN OF THE POLISH VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap, l v. I to 14. 1 Na pocz^tku bylo Slowo, a ono Siowo bylo u Boga, a Bogiem byio ono Sfowo. ^ To byfo na poczatku u Boga. 3 Wszystkie rzeczy przez nie sie^ staly, a bez niego nic sie^ nie stalo, co sie^ staio. ^ W niem by! zywot, a zywot byi ona^ swiatloscia ludsk% ° A ta swiatfosc w ciemnosciach swieci, a ciemnosci iey nie ogarnety. ^ By}- czfowiek posiany od Boga, ktoremu imiq byfo Ian. ' Ten przyszedi na swiadectwo, aby swiadczyl o tey swiatiosci, aby przezeii wszysoy nwierzyU. ^ Nie bytci on ta swiatioscie^, ale przyszedi, aby swiadczyt o tey swiatiosci. ^ Tenci byi t^ prawd- ziwc\. swiatioscia,,, ktora oswieoa kazdego czlowieka, przychodza^cego na swiat. '" Na swiecie byi, a swiat przezeii uczyniony iest; ale go swiat nie poznai. 11 Do swey wlasnosci przyszedi, ale go wiasni iego nieprzyiqli. '^ Lecz ktorzy go kolwiek przyieli, dal im tq moe, aby sie^ stall synami Bozymi, to iest, tym, ktorzy wierza w imi^ iego ; '^ Ktorzy nie z krwi, ani z woli ciaia, ani z woli m^a, ale z Boga narodzeni s\. •'' A to Stowo ciaiem siq stalo, i mieszkalo mi^dzy nami, (i widzielismy ctwatq iego, chwatq iako iednorodzonego od oyca,) peine iaski i prawdy. 1 Na poczatku byk) Siowo, a Sfowo byio u Boga, a Bogiem byio Slowo. ^ To byio na poczatku u Boga. 3 Wszystko si^ przez nie stalo : a bez niego nic si^ nie staio, co si^ stalo. * W nim byi zywot, a zywot byi swiatiosci^, ludzi : ^ A swiatlosc w ciemnosciach swieci, a ciemnosci iey nie ogarnety. ^ Byi c^owiek posiany od Boga, ktoremu imiq byio Jan. ' Ten przyszedi na swiadectwo : aby swiadczyi o swiatiosci, aby przezeii wszyscy wierzyli. * Nie byfci on swiatio sci^ : ale izby swiadczyi o swiatiosci. ^ Byiac swiat- iosc prawdziwa, ktora oswieca wszeUdego czlowieka na ten swiat przychodza^cego. i" Na swiecie byi, i swiat iest uczynion przezeii, a swiat go nie poznai. ' 1 Przyszedi do swey wiasnosci, a swoi go nie przyi^. 12 Lecz ktorzykolwiek przyiqli go, tym dai moe aby sie, stall synami Bozemi, tym ktorzy wierz^ w imie. iego. 13 Ktorzy nie ze krwie, ani z woli ciaia, ani z woli m^za, ale z Boga siq narodzili. •¦* A Slowo ciaiem siq staio, i mieszkaio mietdzy nami i widzie lismy cbwaie^ iego, cbwaie, iako iednorodzonego od Oyca, pelnego iaski i prawdy. ON THE POLISH LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Since the partition of Poland, the Polish language has been diffused, by means of the Polish refugees, through several countries of Europe. About two- thirds of this once powerful kingdom belong to Eussia, the remainder is divided between Austria and Prussia. The total amount of the PoHsh population is generally computed at about ten mllhonSj of whom by far the greater majoiity are Eoman Catholics. Characteristics op the Language. — The Lekhes, by whom the PoUsh language was originally spoken, were a Sclavonic race akin to the Tchekhes of Bohemia, consequently great affinity prevaUs between the PoHsh and Bohemian languages. Many Germanisms occur in PoUsh, but the 1 Forty-flfth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixxxvi. Indo-European Languages.] POLISH. 247 construction of the language resembles that of the classical tongues, and Polish prose is formed on the model of the Latin. To a foreigner, PoHsh appears more repulsive and difficult than any other Sclavonic language. This arises partly from the artificial nature of its grammatical system, but principally from the variety of shades In the pronunciation of the vowels, and from the numerous and pecuHar com binations of the consonants. Gothic characters are sometimes used In writing PoHsh, but the Latin are more frequently employed ; and it Is to the disuse of the proper Sclavonic characters, and the adoption of an alphabet inadequate to express the sounds of the language, that many of the pecuHarities of Polish orthography are to be attributed. Versions of the Scriptures in this Language. — A translation of the Scriptures into PoUsh is said, by competent authorities, to have been made prior to a.d. 1390, by order of Queen Hedwig, the first wife of JageUo. A translation of the Psalms, spoken of by Czacki, is thought to have formed part of this version ; and the entire Bible, which belonged to Sophia, fourth queen of JageUo, may possibly have been a copy of it.' The few biblical fragments now extant are of little use in determining this question, and are not considered of much value. Since the middle of the sixteenth century no fewer than six different Polish versions have been executed. The first ia order of time was a translation of the New Testament, made by Seklucyan, a Lutheran, and competent Greek scholar : it was printed at Konigsberg in 1551, and was thrice reprinted before 1555. Several translations were afterwards made of the Psalms, but the first version of the entire Old Testament appeared at Cracow In 1561. It was translated from the Vulgate by Leonard, and was reprinted in 1575, and again in 1577. Although designed for Eoman Catholics, It never received the sanction of the pope, because many passages had been taken from the Bohemian Bible. It Is famUIarly known as the " Old Cracow Bible," and copies are now very rare. The New Testament of this version first appeared at Cracow in 1556. The Eadzivll Bible appeared at Brzesc in 1563. It was executed from the original texts by an anonymous translator for the Calvinists : It only passed through one edition, for Prince Eadzlvil, at whose expense it had been made and printed, died soon after its pubhcation, and his son, who was a Catholic, carefully bought up the copies, and burnt them.^ The Socinian Bible, translated by Budny, an Unitarian clergyman, from the original texts, was pubhshed at NIeswiez, in Lithuania, in 1570, and was reprinted at the same place In 1572. Only three copies of this version are extant. The Authorised Polish Bible was first printed at Cracow in 1599. It was designed for the Eoman Catholics, and was sanctioned by Clement VIII. It is accounted one of the best European translations from the Vulgate, the language being pure and classical, though in some places slightly antiquated. The translator was Jacob Wuyck. Two other editions foUowed in 1740 and 1771, but the three editions did not comprise above 3000 copies.^ The Dantzic Bible, translated by Paliurus, Wengiersclus, and Micolaievius, from the original texts, was set forth by the Eeformed Church at Dantzic In 1632. This Bible had passed through six editions before the British and Foreign Bible Society commenced its operations ; but these six editions did not probably comprise above 7000 copies, of which at least 3000 copies were bought up and destroyed by the Jesuits. ^ . . , , In 1808, an edition of the PoHsh Scriptures was projected by the BerUn Bible pociety, with the encouragement and aid of the Parent Society. The text selected was that of the Dantzic edition, which, after careful examination, was pronounced the best Polish translation that could be procured. The edition was completed in 1810, and consisted of 8000 Bibles and 4000 additional New Testaments. An edition of 5000 New Testaments, from the text of Jacob Wuyck, was commenced by the St. Petersburg Bible Society in 1813, and the principal inspection of the press was undertaken by the metropoHtan of the Eoman CathoHc Church in Eussia. Other editions from both of the above texts have been issued by the Continental Bible Societies, with the aid of the Parent Society. Dr. Pinkerton, m his " Eussia," states that the number of copies printed for the St. Petersburg Bible Society was 7000 Pohsh Bibles and 16,000 Testaments. The total number of copies printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society is 14,000 Bibles and 64,000 Testaments. The great hindrance to the diffusion of the Scriptures at the present time in Poland is the pohcy of Eussia ; for as two-thirds of Poland belong to that extensive empire, it is almost wholly subjected to the political infiuences by which the free circulation ofthe sacred volume is impeded in aU the other portions ofthe Eussian territories. > Dobrovsky, Slovanka, vol. ii. p. 237. ^^ ,^ 1^^^°'^ ^T».°^^'tf.'\r'^ ^°'''^ ^'"' ®°™'^' ^' ''' ' 3 Thirteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, 86. BOHEMIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE BOHEMIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. !Ra ^JDcatfu i^I'o (Sfowo, a to ©I'onjo t^fo » SBol^a, a to ©t'omo fi!?!' Su§. ^ 3:0 Bsjl'o na ^jocdtfu tt ffiol^o. 3 aSffecE^ wee)) fftje ne ttcinm!^ fau, a Bej w§o nic nenj ttcinmo, C05 ttcineno geji. * SS mm jinjot Bi^I', 0 jtwot 6^1' fmetro libj. ^ a to [reetFo vo temnoliec^ Hit, ale tm^ ge neoifd:^!'!^. » ^^V cVm}t ipoft'an^ ob ^sUja, gemuj gmeno Wo 3an. ^ Sen ^priffeP na fwebectnjj, otij ftcefcctro torn fwetle, all) wjfitfni ttwTmK ffrje ne§o. » Sfleti?!' on to fwett'o, ale 0)offdn JijI',) aii) faebectwj mijbdreal' 0 tom fwetle. » (Sentot) 6s)l' to :|3ra»3e freetl'o, fterej ofwecuge fajbe^o cfowefa ))ric^djegic^:^o na fwt. 10 0la fwete ht^V, a fwet ffrje ne^o ttcinen gefi, ale faet ^0 ne^JOjnal'. " So fwe^o njl'o^i^o ^sriffel', ate wl'afinj ge^o ne^jrigali ^0. i^ ^tn^ :paf Mi #gati geg, bal' gim moe fsjn^ aSojirai t^ti, (totij) tem, fte^ njerj we gmeno ge:^o ; i' merjs ne je trree, ani j wuIe tel'o, ani 5 wule muje, ate j So:^a j^jfojeni fau. " 51 Sfowo to tefo ttcineno geji, 0 pn^wao mq^ ndmi, (a wib'eti fme ff d»u ge^io, ffom gafosto gebttorojene'^o ob Dtce,) phi mif ofii a ^Jtawb?. ON THE BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Bohemia, situated nearly in the heart of Europe, forms an important section of the Austrian empire. The number of inhabitants amounts to about 4,000,000, of whom nearly 3,000,000 are Tchekhes, and speak the Bohemian language : the remaining part of the population is composed principaUy of Germans. An attempt was made during the last century to abohsh the Bohemian language, and German teachers were introduced into aU the schools of Bohemia ; but a language which, during the long ages of papal superstition, had been used as ahnost the only organ of truth, was not permitted to be thus suppressed. A reaction took place in its favour, and of late years Bohemian Hterature has been sedulously cultivated, although in aU society German is the language of intercourse, even among those who profess to uphold the Bohemian language. A dialect of this language is spoken in Moravia ; and about two milHons of Slovaks in the north-west of Hungary employ Bohemian as their Hterary medium, although they speak a distinct dialect. Bohemia has justly been caUed the cradle of the Eeformation, yet it is now one of the strongholds of Eoman CathoHcism ; and the descendants of those who shed their blood in defence of thefr rehgious liberty are generally distinguished by the superstitious zeal with which they adhere to the form of religion forced on them by the swords of the Austrians. Characteristics of the Language. — Bohemian is chiefly distinguished from other Slavic languages by the peculiarity of its pronunciation, which is remarkably harsh and disagreeable. In common with them it possesses a number of sibilants, and in many instances it has imparted a hissing sound to the German, Greek, and Latin words which have entered in great abundance into its vocabulary. About three-fourths of the words composing the Polish and Bohemian language are derived from the same roots, but in point of grammatical construction Bohemian approximates most closely to the Eussian.^ Version op the Scriptures in this Language. — The greater part of a Bohemian version of the Scriptures appears to have been extant at the close of the fourteenth century : several translations of the Psalms, and a version of the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel, and of the Sunday Lessons from the Gospels, ascribed to that century, are stiU preserved in MS. in the Ubraries of Vienna, Prague, and Oels in Silesia. Ann, queen of Eichard II. of England, is weU-known to have possessed Bibles, Latin, German, and Bohemian. The various books of Scripture were read and circulated in Bohemia, in separate portions, untU the tune of Huss and Jerome of Prague, the martyrs of the fifteenth century. 1 Bowring's Cheskian Anthology, p. 82. Indo-Eubopean Languages.] BOHEMIAN. 249 About the time that Huss began to preach against the evils of the Eoman Church, the several portions of Scripture that had been translated into Bohemian were for the first time coUected together. It Is uncertain whether Huss assisted in forming this coUection, or whether he caused any portion of the sacred volume to be translated anew. After his martyrdom in 1415, copies of this Bible were greatly multiphed by his foUowers. Many copies were written by women, and the scriptural knowledge of the Taborite women is noticed by iEneas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius II. : he remarked that " it was a shame to the Italian priests that many of them had never read the whole of the New Testament, whUst scarcely a woman could be found among the Bohemians (or Taborites) who could not answer any questions respecting either the Old or New Testaments." From a.d. 1410 to 1488 (when this Bible was first printed), no less than four different recensions of the entire Scriptures can be distinctly traced, and many more of the New Testament. About thirty-three copies of the whole Bible, and twenty-two of the New Testament, written during this period, are stUl extant ; and of these some are copied from each other, and some appear to have been translated anew, but aU have evidently been executed from the Vulgate. ^ The edition of this Bohemian Bible, pubHshed bythe United Brethren in 1488, furnishes the first instance on record of the appHcation of the newly -invented art of printing to the multiplication of the Scriptures in a living tongue. From the date of this pubhcation to the year 1804, fourteen editions of this version left the press. Between the years 1579 and 1593, a version of the Scriptures, executed by the United or Moravian Brethren from the original texts, was pubHshed in six quarto volumes at Kralitz, in Moravia. Fourteen translators are said to have been engaged in this splendid work, and the whole was pubUshed at the expense of the Baron John Zerotimus. Schaffarik has remarked conceming this translation, and the notes that accompanied it, " that they contain a great deal of that which, two hundred years later, the learned coryphsei of exegesis exhibited to the world as their own profound discoveries." ^ In addition to the two versions above mentioned, a translation of the entire Scriptures, from the Vulgate into Bohemian, was published in 1804, by Prochazka and Durlch: the New Testament of this version had appeared in 1786. A translation of the Old Testament, executed by Wartowsky from the Hebrew, stUl exists in MS., but has never been printed. The design of issuing an edition of the Bohemian Bible was entertained by the Berlin Bible Society as early as 1805. The current of pohtical events, however, impeded the progress of the edition, which was not completed tUl 1807. It consisted of 3000 copies, all of which were put into cfrculation in httle more than twelve months. In 1808, an edition of the Bible, carefuUy printed from the text of 1593, was edited by Professor Palkovitch, of Hungary, with a Hst of words that had become obsolete smce the translation was made. Owing to the poverty of the country, about IOO copies only got into cfrculation tUl 1812, when the stock in hand was purchased for distribution by the Bible Society.^ About 57,000 copies of the Bible and Testament have been pubHshed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in this language, exclusive of the many large editions pubHshed at BerUn by its aid ; but the results of this extensive distribution have not yet been fuUy manifested. Bishop Fabricius alone was stated to have brought into cfrculation 7200 Bibles and 40,000 Testaments (Eeport for 1826, p. 74), ,and they appear to have been anxiously sought for, and weU received. ¦Dobrovsky, Geschichte der Bohm.Sprache, p. 21 1. . 2 BibUcal Repository, vol. iv. p. 451 . 3 Eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 4. S E E Y I A N . (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VII.) Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Servia Proper Is a principality nominally dependent upon the Turkish empire, situated on the Danube, south of the Hungarian provinces of Sclavoma and the Banat. In proportion to the region through which the Servian language, in its various dialects. Is diffused, Servia itself is but a small territory : it comprises an area of about 20,000 square miles, and a population of about 1,000,000,' whereas the total number of individuals by whom (as we shall hereafter have occasion to rhentlon) the Servian language Is spoken, amounts at least to 5,000,000. It Is vernacular, with some diversity of idiom and pronunciation, in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Dalmatia, Sclavonia, and part of Croatia. Characteristics of the Language. — The Servian is more akin to the Eussian and Wendish than to the Bohemian and Polish languages. It approximates, however, more closely to the Old Sclavonic than to any modern idiom, and thus appears to corroborate the generaUy received opinion, that the elder dialect was the vernacular language of the original Sclavonic settlers in Servia, and that Modern Servian is merely a corruption of it. The Servian chiefiy differs from the Old Sclavonic language in the disuse of certain terminations, and in the adoption of many Turkish words. In point of construction, the language has of late years been altered and modified, so as to resemble the Eussian. It is rich in vowels, and free from the accumulations of consonants, which render the other Sclavonic tongues so harsh to the ear of a foreigner. Its most characteristic feature is the softness of its sound. In comparing the various Sclavonic languages, Schaffarik has said, fancifully but truly, " Servian song resembles the tone of the violin ; Old Sclavonic, that of the organ ; Polish, that of the guitar. The Old Sclavonic, in its Psalms, sounds Hke the loud rush of the mountain stream ; the Pohsh, hke the bubbling and sparkling of a fountain ; and the Servian, like the quiet murmuring of a streamlet in the valley." 2 Versions of the Scriptures in this Language. — The language of Cyril and Methodius being more intelligible to the Servians than to any other members of the Sclavonic family, the ancient Sclavonic version was, till a comparatively recent period, the only translation of the Scriptures read and circulated among them. A translation of the Octateuch into Servian is said to have been printed in 1493, at Zenta, In Herzegovina, but it is probable that the language of this version approached nearer to the Old Sclavonic than to the modern idiom. The attention of the British and Foreign Bible Society was first drawn to the necessity of furnishing Servia with a version IntelUgible to the mass of the people by a communication from Mr. Kopltar, of Vienna, addressed in 1815 to the Committee, through the Baron de Sacy, of Paris.^ A Servian, by name Vic Stephanovitch, the author of the first Servian grammar and dictionary, having agreed with Mr. Kopitar to prepare the translation, the proposal was referred to Dr. Pinkerton, then at St. Petersburg ; and as it was ascertained, after due inquiry, that Stephanovitch was fully qualified for the work, the Committee resolved to undertake an edition of the New Testament in Servian. The translation was executed from the Old Sclavonic version, conferred with the original Greek, and, when completed, was sent to St. Petersburg, whence it was forwarded for revision to the Bessarabian Committee. Many alterations were effected in it during the process of revision, and It was not till 1824 that the edition was completed at press. As this translation was written in the common dialect of the people, many objections were raised against It by those who preferred a more elevated style, bearing a stricter conformity to the Old Sclavonic idioms. Soon after the appearance of this version. Professor Stolkovltch, the author of several Eussian and 1 M'CiiUoch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 672. 2 Servian Popular Poetry, Bovpiing, p. xx. 3 Twelfth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 79. Indo-European Languages.] CROATIAN. 251 Servian works, was appointed by a Committee at St. Petersburg to prepare a new translation, designed, in point of diction, to hold a middle course between the forms of speech in common famUiar use and the more ancient and classical phraseology of the language. This professor took the former version as the basis ofhis work, which, when completed, was printed at St. Petersburg. When a s^ond edition of the New Testament became necessary for Servia, the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society took some paius to ascertain which translation was the most acceptable to the people. On reference to native authorities, it was found that Professor Stoikovitch's version was generaUy preferred to the other. It was therefore adopted as the text of an edition of 2000 copies, pubhshed for the British and Foreign Bible Society at Leipsic, In 1830. The Old Testament has not yet been translated into Servian. CROATIAN, OE DALMATIAN-SEEYIAN. The Servian language, as we have afready mentioned, Is spoken, with a few provincial deviations, in Dalmatia, and in MiUtary or Austrian Croatia, comprising the districts of Carlstadt and Varasdin, which collectively may contain a population of about 1,300,000. The only real line of demarcation between the language of Servia Proper and Dalmatian-Servian, lies in their respective alphabetical systems. The Servians belong, almost without exception, to the Greek Church, and therefore use the Eussian modification of the venerable characters in which the Old Sclavonic version is written. The Dalmatians and Croatlans, on the other hand, having received instruction in the Christian religion originaUy from Latin priests, belong, in general, to the Eoman Catholic Church, and use the Latin alphabet. The GlagoHtic letters (probably so caUed from the Sclavonic Glagol, a word or verb,) were formerly employed in Dalmatia in writing Old Sclavonic, as weU as the modern Idiom : they are a clumsy imitation of the Cyrillic alphabet, and, except occasionally for ecclesiastical purposes, have now faUen into disuse. A translation of the Gospels Into Dalmatian-Servian, by Bandulovitch, appeared at Venice in I6I3, but never obtained much circulation. In 1640, a Jesuit, by name Bartholomew Cassio, had translated the entire Scriptures ; but this version was never committed to the press, owing to the opposition of the bishops. After the lapse of another century, strenuous efforts were made by Stephen Eosa, a Eoman Catholic priest, to furnish the Dalmatians with the Bible in thefr vernacular language. He executed a new translation of the entire Scriptures, and immediately on its completion forwarded it to the pope, with a request that it might be used In aU the churches of Dalmatia, instead of the Old Sclavonic version: he urged his suit by arguing, that as the CyrilUc language was an ingredient of the Greek Church, the use of it in sacred things was a species of Greek heresy. The pope referred the subject to the consideration of a committee, appointed by him for the pm-pose, and in 1754 the translation was formaUy rejected. At length, in 1832, by the renewed efforts of the Eomish Church, and the zealous aid of the deceased primate of Hungary, Cardinal Eudnay, another version of the Scriptures was completed, and was permitted to pass through the press. It was printed In Eoman letters, and was at once adopted by the Eoman CathoUcs of Dalmatia and Croatia. This version is a translation from the Vulgate, executed by the Franciscan monk and professor, Katancsich, and rendered conformable In aU pomts to the dogmas of the Eoman Catholic Church. C AUNIOLAN. SPECIMEN OF THE CAENIOLAN VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. V'TiM sazhetki je bila Besseda, inu Besseda je bila per Bugu, inu Bug je bil ta Besseda. Taista je bila v'sazbetki per Bugu. Vsse rezhi so skusi toisto sturjene : inu pres teiste ni nizb sturgenu. V'nji je bin to shivlenie, inu to sbivlenie je blu ena luzh tab ludy. Inu luzli v'temmi sveiti, inu temme je nisso sapopadle. En zhlovik je bil od Buga poslan, katermu je blu jme Joannes. Taisti je persbal k'prizbuvaniu, de bi prizbuval od te luzbi, de bi vssi skusi niega veruvali. On ny bil ta luzh, temuzh, de bi on od luzbi prizbuval. Je bila ta prava luzh, katera usakiga zhloveka resveti, kir pride na leta sveit. Je bil na sveiti, inu ta sveit je skusi niega sturjen, inu ta sveit ga ny sposnal. On je persbal v'svoje lastnine, inu ti niegovi ga nisso gori vseli, kulikur yh pak je niega gori vselu, tem je on dal oblast, de bi Bosbji otrozi postali, tem, kateri v'niegovu ime verujejo. Kateri nisso od te kervy, ne od vole tega messa, ne odvole mosha, temuzh so od Buga rojeni. INV TA BESSEDA JE MESSV POSTAL A. fTuM se doli pohlekne.J Inu je prebivala med nami : Inu my smo nie zhast vidili, eno zhast koker tiga edinurojeniga od Ozbeta, polniga gnade, inu resnize. VsAZHETKi je bila besseda, inu Besseda je bUa p^r Bugi, inu ta Besseda je bila Bug. Taista je bila vsazhetki p^r Bugi. Vse rizhy so skusi toisto stur jene, inu pres teiste nej nishter sturjenu, kar je sturjenu. V'njej je bil ta leben, inu ta leben je bil Luzh teh Ludy, inu taista Luzh vtemmi svejti, inu temme je neso priele. En Zhlovik je bil od Buga poslan, timu je bilu ime loannes, taisti je prisbal b'prizhovanju, de bi od te Luzbi prizhoval, de bi vsi skusi njega verovali. On nej bil taista Luzb, temuzh de bi on od te Luzbi prizhoval. Taista je bUa ta prava Luzb, katera vse Zhloveke resvejti, kir prideo na leta Svejt. Ona je bUa na Svejti, inu ta Svejt je skusi njo sturjen, inu Svejt je nej snal. On je prishal vsvojo lastino, inu ty njegovi ga neso gori vseli : Ampek kidikur je nyh njega gori vselu, tem je on dal oblast, de mogo biti Bosbji otroci, kateri na njegovu Ime verujo, kateri nfeso od krij, ni od vole tiga messa, ni od vole eniga Mosha, temuzh od Buga rojeni. Inu taista Besseda je Messu postala, inu je prebivala mej nami, inu my smonje zhast vidili, eno zbast, kak6r tiga edinurojeniga Synu od Ozbeta, polniga Gnade inu Risnice. ON THE CAENIOLAN DIALECT AND VEESION. This dialect is spoken in the Austrian provinces of Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria. In 1840 the population of Carinthia was estimated at 759,541 ; that of Carniola at 581,189 ; and that of Styria at 975,309.' Part of this population, however, is composed of Germans, and Eoman CathoHcism Is the predominant religion. The Camiolan dialect, which bears a strong resemblance to Servian and to Old Sclavonic, has been vernacular in these regions since the fifth century ; but it was not embodied in a written form till towards the epoch of the Eeformation.^ Truber, a canon and curate of several places in Carniola and Carinthia, and justly styled the apostle of that nation, was the first to write in thefr dialect. In the prosecution ofhis zealous and faithful labours among them, he met with much discouragement and strong opposition, so that at length he was compelled to take refuge with Christopher, duke of Wurtemburg, who had opened an asylum in his dominions for the persecuted. Here Truber completed the translation of the New Testament into Carniolan, which he had commenced some time previously. He translated from the Latin, German, and Italian versions, for he was unacquainted with the original Greek. The first portion of his version, consisting of the Gospel of St. Matthew, appeared at Tubingen in 1555, printed in Eoman letters ; and the entire New Testament was completed at press In 1557. In the preparation of this version, Truber was assisted by Dalmatin, Sonnegg, and other preachers of the Gospel. A system of orthography, totally different to that adopted by Truber, was introduced by Dalmatin in I56L The Old Testament was also translated by Dalmatin, and an edition of the entire Scriptures In Carniolan was printed under his direction, with the aid of Melancthon, in 1584, m paraUel columns with the German text. This edition was designed for the Protestants of Carinthia and Carniola, who were then very numerous ; but they have been exterminated by the Jesuits, and almost aU the copies of this edition appear to have been destroyed. A perfect copy of this version Is scarcely known to be in existence, but fragments are still extant, from which the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society have lately ordered an edition to be printed. A Camiolan version of the Scriptures, for the use of Eoman Cathohcs, was executed from the Vulgate, by George Japel, and printed at Laybach in 1784. The New Testament of this version has been since reprinted. Another Eomanist version Is said to have been prepared by Eavnikar, Eoman CathoHc Professor of Theology at Laybach, about the year 1817.^ 1 M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. i. p. 234. 2 EichhoiT, fflst. de la Langue des Slaves, p. 217- 3 Thirteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 91. SLOYAKI AN. (A Specimen could not be obtained at the time of publication.) The Slovaks, or Slovenes, dweU in the north-west of Hungary, more especiaUy in the countries Trencsm, Ihurocz, Arva, Liptau, and SohL Includmg thefr numerous settlements, dispersed aU over Hungary, their number may be estimated in round numbers at about 1,800,000. Of these 1,300 000 are Eoman Cathohcs; the rest are Protestants. They are descendants of the original Sclavonic settlers m Lurope, but their language is the only remnant they have preserved of their national existence In 894 they were conquered by the Magyars; since then they have dwelt in the same land, and under the same gqvernment, as their conquerors, and they stiU form a component and very hnportant part of the Hungarian nation. Their dialect approximates closely to the Servian, but has been greatly influenced by the Bohemian, which they have adopted as thefr Hterary language. It is to the Eomanists that the Slovaks are indebted for a version of the Scriptures in thefr own dialect. A translation ofthe Bible was made by the Canon G. Palkowlc, which was printed In 1831. The Bohemian version had been up to that period the only translation of the Scriptures In general use among these people. BOSNIAN. Bosnia, the most westerly pachalic, or eyalet, of Turkey in Europe, comprises an area which has been variously estimated at from 16,000 to 22,000 square mUes, and a population numbering from 800,000 to 1,000,000. This population is composed of Turks, Servians, Croats, Gypseys, Jews, and Armenians ; the Bosniaks themselves number but 350,000 individuals. The dialect has been described as a mixture of Sclavonic and Wallachian. In a letter, dated Corfu, 1827, Mr. Lowndes stated that the Austrian Consul then at Corfu had given him information of the existence of the Bible in the Bosnian dialect. From the account given by the consul. It would appear that he had seen copies of this version during his residence among the Bosniaks. No copy of this work, however, seems at any period to have reached England. 35 BULGARIAN. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VII.) Bulgaria, anciently called Lower Moesia, formed one of the earUest settlements ofthe Sclavonians, and derived its present name from the Bulgarians, a warlike Asiatic horde who, in 679, conquered the country, but gradually merged their language and manners in those of the Sclavonian itdiabltants. Bulgaria was annexed to the Greek empire by BasUius the Second, in 1018. It recovered its independence In 1186, but was finally conquered by the Turks in 1389, under whose dominion it has ever since continued.' Its present population amounts to about 1,800,000 individuals, but the Bulgarians are also to be found dispersed through most of the neighbouring provinces. The Bulgarian dialect Is the most corrupt of aU the languages of the Sclavonic stem. Of the seven cases which properly belong to these languages, it has retained but two, the nominative and the vocative ; and it has moreover adopted the Albanian custom of placing articles after nouns. Yet, although in conse quence of these changes the Old Sclavonic version became less intelligible to the Bulgarians than to any other Sclavonic nation, it was not till after the commencement of the operations of Bible Societies that any successful effort was made to produce a Bulgarian version of the Scriptures. A translation was commenced in 1820, at the suggestion of Dr. Pinkerton. An archimandrite, named Theodoseos, who had been recommended by the Greek patriarch of Constantinople, as the person best quaUfied for such an undertaking, was appointed to prepare this version, and he completed the translation of the New Testament in 1822. The work was forwarded to St. Petersburg for pubhcation, and the Gospel of St. Matthew left the press in that city during the following year ; it was printed in a thin Svo. volume, in paraUel columns with the Sclavonic text. But in the meantime it was discovered that, owing probably to the incompetency of the archimandrite, the translation had been very Inaccurately executed. The Petersburg Committee therefore resolved to limit the edition to 2000 copies ; but the suspension of the Eussian Bible Society occurred shortly afterwards, and even this small edition never seems to have been printed. In 1827, another translation of the New Testament was completed by Sapounoff, with the design of pubUshing an edition on his own account at the press of the metropolitan of Bucharest. He was able to effect part of his design, In printing the Four Gospels ; but by the time they left the press his means were completely exhausted, and, from his inabihty to print the remainder of his version, the Gospels were circulated separately. They were received with much favour by the people, and the translation (which had been executed from the Greek, compared with the Sclavonic and Wallachian versions), was very generaUy attested to be faithful and intelligible. Arrangements were therefore made by the British and Foreign Bible Society, through their agent, Mr. Barker, to print an edition of the entire version ; but, owing to some difficulty that occurred In the purchase of the work, the project was abandoned, and an entirely new translation was set on foot in 1836, by Mr. Barker. The New Testament was translated and forwarded to Smyrna in 1838, and was completed at press in that city in 1840. The edition consisted of 5000 copies. Another similar edition of 5000 copies is now, according to the last Eeport, in progress at Smyrna. 1 Lectures on the Religious History ofthe Slavonic Nations, by Krasinski, p. 35. WENDISH, UPPEE AND LOWEE. SPECIMEN OF THE WENDISH, OE SOEABIC, VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. 1 aSe fpocjatJu % to ffowo, a to ffowo Bje i)oIa SBo^a, a ^oij fcje to fforeo. 2'3;ofame ijefc^e » [pocjatfu ^ola a3o:^a. 3 ©dottle wjej!9 f u )3f(^eg togame cjinene, a BeS tebofia^ me^o neie nitfc^o fcjinene, [c^toj cjinene je. 4 SBe nim % jimenje, o to jiaenje % cjlowefcm frojetfo. 5 51 to f ajeifo f ajecjef^e »e cjientnofji, o cyemnofj ttcjc JO fo^jfc^ijaia. 6 Sjlorcef 6je njot Sol^a f offan*?, fmcnom 3an. ,7 3j3n ^fc^inbje na fnjjet[cnie,[o 6^ freietftf wt tt^o f»ietla, fo isjc^u \ie»o ©unug) it tog 3obig Bumo ^irte Siemo, ir ©iemog Bumo tog 3obig. 2 x^Q ^atg ^robjoj' Bumo ^rte Stemo. 3 gBifft inqjtni ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^.^^^^ ^.^^^ j^ 5^ jp j^j^jp ^.^^.^j ^^^^^^^ j^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ Bumo gijmopig, ir g^moilig Bumo f mief*)Be ^monit. s 3^ tojt f mief^Be tomfi)Beje ^miecgia, Bet tamfsjBe tat ne ^jermone. « Sumo ^mogug ©iemo fuftog, Son'g marbu, ^ 3;ag 'pm otejo tubbimut, a))ie t(^ f mief^Be tubbtt', fab jie miffi ))er ji tlHetu. 8 3ig ne Bumo f mief^Be^, Bet iob tubbttu ajsie tti f mtef^Bs.. « ©giji Bumo tifro f mtefgBe, a:pf mlecgonti miffug ^moneS, ateinanc^ug4 ft fmieto^. ^ ®gi Bumo fmiete, ir fmtet'g ¦»tx ta^bor^tog ^ro ; ir fmiet'g jog ne :paj-inno. " Sig t , famaj^ otejo, ir fomieji jo ne ^jrieme. 12 SSe-t fief jt :prteme, tiemg bame moc-t ©iemo moifoig ijoftoti hirrte til' 4 jo morba^. 13 &mkm if foaujo, neS? if luno noro, neS) if mijro noro, Bet if ©iemo gimme,. " 3r tog goblg ^saftojo funii ir gijm^no tor)) mufu, ir me'g motem jo gatBi,[goKBf;,fai^ miengimmuflo Sunaug if %mo, ^itna^ matoneg ir tiefog.] ON THE LITHUANIAN DIALECT AND VEESION. Lithuania, formerly part of the ancient kingdom of Poland, Is now chiefly subject to Eussia. Its population, according to the census of 1838, amounts to 2,358,500. The Lithuanian dialect is now spoken only by the peasantry, Polish being the language of the middle and upper classes. Thus excluded from the Influences of refinement and civilization, Lithuanian has preserved its peculiar structure more faithfuUy than most of the other languages of Its class. It has retained seven cases, three numbers, and three genders ; and of all the idioms spoken in Europe, it is acknowledged to approximate the nearest to the Sanscrit. The first translation of the Bible into this dialect was made at the close of the sixteenth century, by John Bretkius, of Bammeln, near Friedland, and pastor of Labiau. He afterwards became pastor of the Lithuanian Church at Konigsberg. He commenced the version in 1579, and completed It in 1590. He did not Uve to see the work committed to the press, but deposited the MS. in the Eoyal Library of Konigsberg: the New Testament, with the Psalms, occupying three volumes In 4to., and the rest of the Old Testament five volumes in folio. The Psalms were corrected and revised by Ehesa, the successor of Bretkius, in concert with other divines ; and an edition was published, with Luther's German version, in 1625. The New Testament was printed at Strasburg in 1700, by order of Frederic I., king of Prussia. Another translation of the Bible In this dialect, supposed to have been taken from a PoHsh version, was executed by Chyllnski, a native of Lithuania, and a Lutheran. It was prmted in London in 1660, where the translator died in 1668. AU the copies of this edition appear to have been destroyed, with the exception of a fragment without title, proceeding no further than the Psalms. Another edition of Bretkius's version of the New Testament, with the addition of the Psahns, was printed at Konigsberg in 1727, and the Psalms separately, at the same place, in 1728. As it was found, however, that this version was written in the dialect of Upper Lithuania, rather than in that spoken in Prussia, the Prussian king, Frederic WiUiam, ordered the Eev. John Jacob Quandt, his first chaplain at Konigsberg, to undertake a new translation of the whole Bible. Mr. Quandt, with the assistance of twelve other clergymen, completed a version of the New Testament and Psahns in 1727, and the entire Bible was completed and printed at Konigsberg in 1735. The translation was made chiefly from Luther's German version, and aid was drawn from Bretkius's version. A second edition of the Bible, with the German text, was pubHshed at Konigsberg hi 1755. The Psahns had been separately printed in 1728, and the New Testament in 1749. In 1806, mformation was transmitted to the British and Foreign Bible Society, that although the province of Lithuania possessed 74 churches and 460 schools, the people were ahnost destitute of the Scriptures. An edition of 3000 copies of the Bible was accordingly undertaken by the Society at Konigsberg ; but, owing to various delays, it did not leave the press till 1816. In 1824, a new edition of the same appeared, encouraged by the Society ; and In 1836, an edition of the New Testament and Psalms, consisting of nearly 5000 copies, was pubHshed by the Society at TUsit. SAMOGITIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE SAMOGITIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Isz pradzios buv/o zodis, o zodis buwo pas Diewa, o Diewu buwo zodis. ^ Tay buwo isz pradzios pas Diewa. ^ Wisi dayktay par ji stojos, o be ano niekas ne stojos, kastikt stojos. ^ Jam6 buwo giwenimas, o giwenimas buwo szwiesibe zmoniu : * 0 szwiesibe tamsibese szwieczia o tamsibes jos ne apeme. ^ Buwo zmogus siunstas nuog Diewo, kurio wardas buwo Jonas. ' Tasay atejo ant ludiimo, idant duotu ludiima: ape szwiesibe idant wisi tiketu par ana. * Is nebuwo szwiesibe, bet idant duotu ludiima apie szwiesibe. ^ Buwo szwiesibe tikra, kuri apszwieczia kiekwiena zmogu ate)rnanti ant to swieto, '" Buwo ant swieto, ir swietas par ji stojos, o swietas jo nepazino. " Sawump atejo, o sawieji jo ne prijeme. '^ O kurie tikt prieme ji, dawe jems galibe, idant stotus sunumis Diewo, tiems, kurie tiki wardan jo. " Kurie ne isz kraujo, ney isz noro kuno, ney isz noro wiro, bet isz Diewo uzgime. ''' O zodis stojosi kunu, ir giweno tarp musu (ir regejome garbe jo, garbe kaypo wienatijo nuog Tiewo) pilna malones ir tiesos. ON THE SAMOGITIAN DIALECT AND VEESION. The Samogitian, which is a dialect of the Lithuanian, is spoken in three districts of Lithuania, namely, Telcha, Schaul, and Eosina.' The Samogitians number about 112,000 individuals, and are, with few exceptions, of the Eoman CathoHc persuasion.^ In 1814, the New Testament had beenfor the first time translated into this dialect, by Prince Gedroitz, bishop of Samogitia, who designed to print 1000 copies at Wilna at his own expense. The Eussian Bible Society agreed to provide 4000 additional copies, and the London Committee paid for the binding. The edition, when completed, was so thankfiilly received, that, two years afterwards, the Parent Society made a grant of £250 m aid of a second edition. It left the press in 1816, and consisted of 5000 copies.^ A third edition, also consisting^ of 5000 copies, was printed about the year I83I, by the monks in the monastery of St. Cazemir, at Wihia. The Old Testament has not yet been translated into this dialect. ' Thirteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 112. 2 Pinkerton's Russia p. 106. 3 Twelfth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 76. ' ? \i iiiiilliiilllliiliiiili CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. A. EUSKARIAN FAMILY. FRENCH BASQUE. SPECIMEN OF THE FEENCH BASQUE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Hastean Hit^a cen, eta Hitga Jaincoarequin cen, eta Hitz hau Jaincoa cen. ^ Hastean Jaincoarequin cen. ^ Gau^a guciac eguinic i^an dire hartaz, eta hura gabe deus ezta eguin i^an, eguin direnetaric. ¦* Hartan cen bicia, eta bicia gui^onen arguia cen. * Eta arguiac arguitcen du ilhumbetan, bainan ilhumbec ez dute errecebitu. ^ Bacen guicon bat icena 5uena Joannes ; eein baitcen egorria Jaincoaz. ' Ethorri cen lekbucotassunean, bihurceco lekhucotassuna arguiari, amoreagatic guciec sinhex ce9aten hartaz. * Hura ezcen arguia, bainan egorria cen lekhucotassunaren bihurceco arguiari. ' Argui hau eguiazcoa cen, arguitcen duena mundurat ethorcen diren guigon guciac. '" Munduan cen, eta mundua eguin i^an da hartaz ; bainan munduac ez du e^agutu. " Bererat ethorri een, eta bereenec ez dute errecebitu. '^ Bainan errecebitu duten guciei, eman dei 9ucena Jaincoaren haur eguinei i^aiteco, erran nahi da haren Icenean sinhexten duenei. '* Ceinac ez baitire sorthuac odolez, ez haraguiaren borondateaz, ez gui^onaren borondateaz ; bainan sorthu dire Jaincoaz. '^ Eta Hit5a eguin i^an da haragui ; egotu da gurequin graciaz eta eguiaz bethea; eta behondaztu dugu haren loria, Aitaren Seme bakharrari darocan loria be^ala. ON THE FEENCH BASQUE DIALECT AND VEESIONS. The French dialect of the Basque language is spoken in the south-western extremity of France, on the frontiers of Spain, by a population of about 120,000 individuals. TMs district is about sixty miles in length by forty in breadth ; it formerly included the three subdivisions of Labour, Lower Navarre, and Soule, and it is now comprehended in the department of the Lower Pyrenees. In parts of the neighbouring departments of Gers and Upper Pyrenees, Basque is stiU the language of the peasantry, while French is spoken in the towns. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The Basque is one of the most singular idioms of Europe. In some of its characteristics it exhibits remarkable traits of analogy with Mandchou, with Fmnish, and with several distinct famihes of languages spoken in the north of Europe, and of Asia. Like them, it has no difference of terminations in nouns and pronouns to mark the variation of gender; and, hke them also, it subjoins prepositions and other particles, and even personal and relative pronouns, to nouns and verbs. On the other hand, it differs from them in the abundance of its inflections, and in its use of auxihary verbs. In its elaborate system of verbal conjugation, Basque approximates closely to the American or Polysynthetic class of languages ; and it is rather a singular cfrcumstance, that the sound of i?'is wanting in most American languages and in Basque, and that in both a strong antipathy 262 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. is manifested to the immediate junction of mute and liquid consonants.' Many Sanscrit words exist in Basque ; but in the collocation of these words, says Mr. Borrow, the Tartar form is most decidedly observable. These Sanscrit derivatives are usually divested of their initial consonant, and made to commence with a vowel ; for Basque is emphatically a vowel language, employing comparatively but few consonants, and out of every ten words perhaps eight may be said to begin and to end with a vowel.^ The natural result of this preponderance of vowels is a high degree of softness and melody, in which the Basque is said to exceed even the Italian. In point of antiquity, Basque far surpasses most of the languages now spoken in Europe ; it was originaUy the vernacular tongue of the Iberi, a people generally regarded as the earHest settlers in Spain ; and from them, as Humboldt has clearly proved, the present Euskaldunes, or natives of the Basque provinces, are descended. Basque does not appear to have ever possessed an alphabet proper to itself, and in all books which have been printed in this language Eoman letters are used. Veesions of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The entire New Testament, in Basque, was printed at EocheUe in 1571. It was translated by John de LIcarrague, and was dedicated to Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, and brought out at her expense.' The dialect in which it Is written is that of Lower Navarre. The translator is said to have been a minister of the Eeformed Church, and a native of Beam. More than two centuries elapsed before any other edition of the Testament was printed for the Basque people, and soon after the commencement of the present century it was found impossible, notwithstanding the most diligent search, to meet with a single copy among them.* A copy of the New Testament of 1571 had, however, been providentiaUy deposited, probably by a French refugee, in the hbrary of the University of Oxford. From this copy the British and Foreign Bible Society printed, in 1825, at Bayonne, 1000 copies of the Gospel of St. Matthew, under the superintendence of Mr. Pyt, a minister of the Eeformed Church in Beam. The Eoman CathoHc Bishop interposed to prevent the circulation of this edition, and he possessed himself of no less than 800 copies, which he destroyed. Far from being discouraged at this opposition, the British and Foreign Bible Society proceeded with their important work, and, after some delay, a new and well-qualified editor was met with, named Montleza. Under the care of this editor, and the superintendence of friends at Bourdeaux and Bayonne, the text of 1571 was altered in accordance with the modem forms of the language, and so many changes were introduced as vfrtually to constitute a new version. An edition, consisting of 1000 copies of the Four Gospels and Acts, with 1000 separate copies of St. Matthew, and 1000 copies of the entfre New Testament, was completed at press in 1829. The distribution of this edition was carried on with much activity,^ and the opposition it encountered had only the effect of drawing the attention of many to the contents of the sacred book. As to the results produced in these provinces by the circulation of the Basque and French Scriptures, the testimony ofthe late Mr. Pyt (above mentioned) is remarkable. " In 1821," he said, " I found the people of Beam utter strangers to the doctrine of the Gospel, and consequently to the Hfe of God. I have left it in 1830 in a very different condition. It is to the Bible that the change must be attributed. The preaching of the Gospel had little success before the estabhshment of Bible Societies in Beam ; but when they had spread the word of the Lord, — when this word had found its way to each church, and in each church to a goodly number of famihes, — then they began seriously to think about that which the servants of God were preaching. There was much inquiry about the truth, and from that time the blessed work proceeded ; and it continues to do so stiU, with the same happy results." 1 Prichard's Researches, vol. iii. pp. 23, 24. s Lecluse, Grammaire Basque, p. 21. ' Borrow's Bible in Spam, p. 218. • Twenty-sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Mix. s Twenty-sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xxix. SPANISH BASQUE. SPECIMEN OF THE SPANISH BASQUE VEESION. St. LUKE, Chap. xv. w. II to 24. "Gueyago esan zuan: Guison batec izan cituan semebi. '^Eta ayetaco chiquienac esan cion bere aitari ; Aita, ecarzu tocatcen zaidan haciendaren partea. Eta berac partitu cien hacienda. " Eta ez egun asco gueroz juntatu zuan seme chiquienac berea san gustia, eta juan zan, pais urruti batera, eta an ondatu zuan bere arceco gustia, vicio etan viciaz. "Eta gustia gastatu zuan ean, etorri zan goce aundi bat paraje artan, eta bera asi zan premia e duquitcen. '* Eta juan zan, eta alderatu zan paraje artaco batengana ; cenec bialdu zuan bere baserrira, cerriac gordetcera. '' Eta deseatcen zuan, bere zabela, cerriac jaten zutenaren asalaquin betetcea : eta etzion iiiorc ematen. " Baho, bereganatu zanean esan zuan : ; Cembait jornalaric daucate nere aitaren echean oguia sobratua, eta ni emen goceac ilcen nago! '* Alchatuco naiz, eta juango naiz nere aitagana, eta esango diot: Aita, pecatu eguin nuen ceruaren contra, eta zure aurrean : '^ Ezdet mereci zure semea deitua, izatea : eguinazazu zure jomalariac becela. ^° Eta alchatu eta juan zan bere aitagana. Eta nola oraindic cegoan urruti, icusi zuan bere aitac, eta muvituzan misecordiara, eta beragana corrica juanaz, botacion besoac lepora, eta lastana emancion. ^' Eta semeac esan cion : Aita pecatu eguindet ceruaren contra eta zure aurrean : ez det mereci zure semea deitua izatea. ^^ Bano aitac esan cien bere morroyai : Ecarri itzazute onera aguro arroparic ederrena, eta janciozute, eta jarriozute eraztuna beatcean, eta onetacoac onetan : ^' Eta ecarriezazute idisco guicen bat, ilzazute, eta jan zagun, eta celebradaigun banquete bat : ^ Cergatic nere seme au illazan, eta berriz vicitu da : galduzan, eta arquitua izanduda. Eta asiciran banquetea celebratcen. ON THE SPANISH BASQUE DIALECT AND VEESION. The three Basque provinces of Spain (Biscay, Guipiiscoa, and Alava) are bounded north by the Bay of Biscay, west and south by Old Castile, and east by France and Navarre. They contain a population of 316,000 ; Basque is the language of the peasantry, but Spanish Is spoken in the towns, and is understood throughout these provinces. The religion, as in the rest of Spam and in the French Basque districts, is Eoman Catholicism. Spanish Basque also appears to be spoken in the north and west of Navarre. It does not differ very materially from French Basque, either In its structure or vocabulary. The Biscayan dialect in particular is distinguished by the natives by the name of Escuara, which simply means vernacular. Many Spanish words have been engrafted on Spanish Basque, and in consequence of these additions, and of other alterations induced by the process of time, the version of 1571 (mentioned in our account of French Basque) is now scarcely intelligible. And although the British and Foreign Bible Society have given to the Basque districts of France an edition of the entire New Testament, yet no portion whatever of the Scriptures appears to have been printed in Spanish Basque until 1838, when Mr. George Borrow, with the aid of the Society, edited and pubHshed an edition of the Gospel according to St. Luke. The translation had been executed by a Basque physician, named Oteiza, and Mr. Borrow had retained the MS. two years in his possession before committing it to the press ; during which interval he had sought the advice and opinion of Basque scholars. The translation did not meet with unqualified approbation, yet it seemed impossible at that time to obtain a better. In 1848 this version of St. Luke was revised and amended by the translator, and printed in a second edition, at the expense of the Society, through their agent, the Eev. Dr. Thomson. The Acts of the Apostles were also translated under the same cfrcumstances, but are not yet printed. CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. B. FINNISH FAM I LY. FINNISH. SPECIMEN OF THE FINNISH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. 5llufa oii Sana, ja fe ©ano oii Sumatan t!?! ona, ia 3umaIo oU fe Many Russian and Swedish words enter into Finnish, the consequence of the pohtical relations between these nations. Versions of the Scriptures in this Language.— Soon after the introduction of the Eeformation into Finland the New Testament was translated mto Finnish by Michael Agricola, rector and afterwards bishop, of Abo. He was a native of Finland, and after having studied divhiitv at Wittemberg, was recommended by Luther to Gustavus I., king of Sweden. His version was prmted at btockhohn, m quarto, m 1548. It contams a preface by Agricola, in which he states that the translation was niade from the Greek, with the aid of the Latin, German, and Swedish versions. A translation of_ the Psahns was undertaken about the same period by Paul Justen, rector of the High Reboot m Abo, m which work he engaged his scholars by way of exercise.^ The translation was revised by -A-gncola, and printed at Stockholm in 1551, with a curious poetical address to the reader, descriptive of the idolatry of the Fmns. During the same year, several detached portions of the Old Testament were translated and pubHshed by Agricola. In his preface to these translations, he expressed his sorrow at the impossibiUty of proceedhig with the work, unless adequate funds could be procured, and pledged himself to the completion of the translation of the Old Testament, provided that he met with encouragement in the sale of his previous editions. Certain political obstacles, however, impeded from time to time the pubhcation of the entfre Scriptures in Finnish ; and at length, in 1636, the clergy of Finland appealed to Christina, queen of Sweden, to fumish them with a version in thefr vernacular tongue. In consequence of this petition, orders were given for the preparation of an accurate translation at Abo, the capital ofthe duchy of Finland, on account ofthe University estabUshed there, and the greater purity of the language spoken in that city.^* The execution of the work was intrusted to iEschillus Petraeus, doctor and professor of Divinity, and afterwards bishop of Abo ; to Martin Stodius, professor of Oriental Languages in the University of Abo ; to Gregory Matthai, pastor of Puken ; and to Henry Hoffman, professor of Divinity, and pastor of Maschoen. The translation was made from the original texts, and Luther's marginal glosses were subjoined to the chapters. It was printed at Stockholm, in foho, with a dedication to Queen Christina. Another edition, In the same form, was pubHshed in 1644. Another version, likewise executed from the inspfred originals, by Henry Florin, pastor of Paemaren, was pubHshedat Abo in 1685 ; but this version Is comparatively littie known, the Bible sanctioned by Queen Christina having, from its ffrst appearance, been received into genefal cfrculation as the authorised version of Finland. Editions of the New Testament, from the text of Queen Christina's version, appeared in 1732, 1740, 1774, and 1776. But, except two quarto editions in 1758 and 1776 (the latter of which was published by subscription), no further attempt was made to pubHsh the entire Bible in Finnish, until the introduction, in 1811, ofthe operations of the British and Foreign Bible Society in Finland. In consequence of the pecuniary aid afforded by that Society, and the zealous efforts of their agent. Dr. Paterson, a Bible Society was formed at Abo ; a report was sent to the Emperor Alexander, and he contributed a large donation from his private purse, besides granting to the Society, for five years, that part of the com tithes which was originally appropriated to printing the Scriptures, but which in latter times had been devoted to state purposes. Standing types were immediately prepared at St. Petersburg, and 8000 copies of the New Testament, In 8vo., were completed at Abo in 1815. In the foUowing year, 5000 copies ofthe entire Bible, also in 8vo., left the press at Abo. A quarto edition of the whole Bible, aided by a further grant from the British and Foreign Bible Society, was commenced m 1821, and completed in 1827. A specimen copy may be seen in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, but, with few other exceptions, this edition (consisting of 7500 copies) was destroyed in the extensive fire with which Abo was visited in 1827. Another edition of 5000 copies of the New Testament was, in consequence, immediately undertaken by the Society : this edition was completed at Stockholm in 1829. In 1832, the Bible Society of Abo was again in active operation, and had printed a new edition of the quarto Bible, and commenced an 8vo. edition of 10,000 copies of the New Testament. > Henderson's Biblical Researclies in Russia, p. 4. 2 Henderson's Biblical Researches in Russia, p. 3. 3 Townley's Illustrations, vol. iii. p. 443. 266 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. Apart from the Finnish edition printed at Abo, the St. Petersburg Society undertook some editions for the purpose of supplying the Finns in their own neighbourhood ; but eventuaUy large supplies were forwarded to Abo. The New Testament was printed by this Society in I8I4, and again in 1822. The entire Bible was completed in I8I7. The total of these editions amounts to 5025 copies of the Bible, and 7112 copies ofthe Testament. An edition of 5000 Finnish Bibles was printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society,,at Stockholm, in 1837 ; and the total number of Testaments printed, from first to last, atthe expense of that Society, is 88,500, besides 110,568 copies supplied by the Society at Abo. A distribution of the Scriptures, unprecedented in extent, and justly regarded as one of the ablest and best executed projects in the records of Bible Societies, has of late years been carried on in Finland. This work commenced in 1 841, under the auspices of the late metropoHtan of Finland, Archbishop Melartin, and through the instrumentality of the British and Foreign Bible Society. From statistical documents collected at that period for the guidance of the Society's operations, it was ascertained that there were, — Ist, 47,254 Finnish families who possessed at least a New Testament. 2nd, 39,675 Finnish families who were unprovided, but were able to purchase the Scriptures at cost price. 3rd, 31,334 Finnish famUies who were unprovided, and so poor as to be able to give only a httle for a New Testament. 4th, 50,442 Finnish families totally destitute of the word of God, and so extremely poor as to require an entirely gratuitous distribution. On these statements being forwarded to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society, the work of supplying, first of all, the 50,442 families, for whom an entirely gratuitous distribution had to be made, was immediately commenced. This provision has now been effected, and, in addition, 13,558 copies have been distributed among the third class, that is, those families who can afibrd to pay only a small sum in return. A fresh edition of 25,000 copies of the New Testament is now in process of preparation, if not already completed ; and this supply will fully meet the demand of every famUy in Finland still unprovided with the word of God. This is altogether the very noblest efibrt yet attempted for Scriptural distributions ; and may, under the blessing of God, be found the means of preserving the Lutherans of Finland from the insidious advances of the Eussian Greek Church, which is now working so tyrannically and disastrously among the Lettonians. LAPPONESE. SPECIMEN OF THE LAPPONESE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Algost Isei sadne, ja sadne Isei Ibmel lut, ja sadne tei Ibmel. ' Dat algost laei Ibmel lut. ' Buokrakkan dam boft lae dakkujuwum ; ja alma dam taga i mikkege tek dakku- juwum dast, mi ja lae dakkujuwum. * Dam sist tei sUem ; ja ^Uem tei olbmu ^uovgas. Ja cuovgas saevdnjadassi baitta, ja ssevdnjad i dam arvedam. " Ibmelest vuolgatuvui olmus, gaen namma Johannes tei. ' Dat duodaStussan baUi, cuovgas birra duoda^tet, vai buokak su boft oskuSi. « I san tem Cuovgas, mutto (vuolgatuwum tei) cuovgas birra duo*astet.^ ^^Dat tei dat duot Cuovgas, mi juokke olbmu duvggij^gje te, gutte mailbmai boatta. ^ San mailmest tei, ja mailbme su boft dakkujuwum te, ja mailbme i davddam su. San badi su jedas lusa, ja (su) je3ak aei vuosstaivalddam su. '^ Mutto nuft «dna- gak, gudek vuosstaivaldde su, sigjidi famo san addi Ibmel manan §addat, sigjidi, gudek su nama ala osskuk ; '^'gud^ek varai mield asi tek riej^adam, sige oa^e dato mield, seige albma dato mield, mutto Ibmelest. " Ja sadne oazz'en Sadai, ja asai min gaskast,— ja mi ainimek su haerwasvuoda, nuftgo a(5e aidno bame haer was vuoda,— diewa armost ja duotvuodast. ON THE LAPPONESE LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Lapland, the most northerly country of Europe, comprehends under its three general divisions of Eussian, Swedish, and Norwegian Lapland, an area of about 150,000 square miles, two-thirds of which belong to Eussia, and the rest to Sweden. The population has been loosely estimated at 60,000, of whom 9000 only are Laplanders, the rest being Swedes, Norwegians, and Eussians.' The Laplanders under the sway of Eussia belong to the Greek Church, and those subject to Sweden are professedly Lutherans ; but they did not, as a nation, assume the Christian name before the seventeenth century, and in many parts of the Cbuntry they are said still to retain many of their heathen customs. Characteristics op the Language. — The Laplanders and Finns are said to have originally constituted one nation, and the Lapponese, from its great similarity In structure to the Finnish language, affords proof of this fact. Lapponese has been considerably changed by the number of foreign words that have been engrafted on it; for the ignorant Laplanders had no terms of their own expressive of any objects not strictly connected with their uncivihsed mode of life. In the Lapponese version of 1 Tim. ui. 16, not fewer than six of the words are of foreign origin, and of these six not fewer than five are Swedish.^ Several different dialects of Lapponese prevail in Lapland ; and it has been found necessary, as will be hereafter mentioned, to prepare a separate version of the Scriptures for the inhabitants of Norwegian Lapland. Versions of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Laplanders were wholly ignorant of letters, and did not possess a single book written in thefr language. Before the year 16 19, Gustavus Adolphus began to estabUsh schools for thefr instruction, and a primer was pubHshed containing, among other things, the Ten Commandments aud the Lord's Prayer in Lapponese. A manual, containing the Psalms, the Proverbs, the book of > M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 139. ' Henderson's Biblical Researches in Russia, p. 5. 269 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. Ecclesiasticus, the dominical Gospels and Epistles, with several religious tracts, was pubhshed at Stockholm in 1648.' The translator and editor was John Jonae Tornaeus, a native of Sweden, and pastor in Tornea. This work was not generally understood, on account of the pecuHarity of the dialect in which it was written, and accordingly another manual was compiled by Olaus Stephen Graan, a schoolmaster and pastor in the Umea-Lappmark. This second noanual, written in a more generally intelHgible dialect, contained extracts from the dominical and festival Gospels and Episties, and was printed at Stockholm in 1669. It is unknown at what time, or under what circumstances, the New Testament was translated into Lapponese. The first printed edition of which we have any account was pubHshed at Stockholm In 1755. A copy of this edition is in the Ubrary of the British and Foreign Bible Society. No further edition appears to have been Issued tiU 1810, when the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society availed themselves of the assistance of the Evangelical Society at Stockholm to print an edition of 5000 copies of the New Testament from the edition of 1755, which was then completely exhausted. The Bishop of Tornea undertook to superintend the publication, and it was printed at Hernosand, in 8vo., in 1811, at a cost to the Society of £300. A version ofthe Bible in Lapponese was pubhshed in quarto at the same place, and during the same year ; and a copy of this work (which does not appear to have been committed a second time to the press) may be seen in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society. With the exception of a quarto edition of the Testament, Hkewise published in 1811, and some copies of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, printed at Christiana in 1838, no further editions have appeared. QUANIAN, OE NOEWEGIAN LAPLANDISH. FiNMARK, or, as it is sometimes called, Norwegian Lapland, forms the most northerly portion of Lapland, having for its northern boundary the Arctic, or Frozen Ocean. The poor wandering Quanes who inhabit this dreary region, and who In number may amount to about 6000,^ were left till within the last half century without any version of the Scriptures in their vernacular dialect. Copies of the Finnish Testament were sent to them by the Bible Society of Finland, but the Quanes were found totally incapable of understanding that version ; and although they speak a dialect of the Lapponese, even the Lapponese Testament is unintelligible to them. In 1822 the British and Foreign Bible Society voted £200 to promote a version in Quanian, and the Norwegian Bible Society, in consequence, applied to some learned friends in Copenhagen to transmit to them any MSS. that might be found in the late Laplandish seminary. No MSS., however, appear to have existed In this uncultivated dialect; und in 1828 the Norwegian Society made arrangements for the immediate translation of the New Testament. The Committee ofthe British and Foreign Bible Society agreed to bear the entire expense of the work ; and, at the suggestion of Dr. Pinkerton, it was resolved to print the new version in parallel columns with the Danish. The execution of the translation was committed to Mr. Stockfleth, a missionary of eminent devotedness, whose efforts to preach the Gospel to this people had been greatly blessed. He had formerly been an officer in the army, but in 1828 was labouring as a pastor among the uncivilised tribes of Laplanders under the 7 Ist degree of north latitude, where, during two months of the year, the sun never rises.' In 1840 the translation of the New Testament was completed, and an edition was published at Christiana, under the superintendence of the Norwegian Bible Society.'' • Scheffer's History of Lapland, p. 69. s Twenty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 60. • M'Calloch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 140. * Thirty.sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xiii. HUNGAHI AN. SPECIMEN OF THE HUNGAEIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Kezdetben vala amaz Ige es az az Ige vala az Istenndl, es az az Ige Isten vala. ^Ez az Ige kezdetben az Istennel vala. ' Mindenek ez altal teremtettek, ^s o nala ndkiil semmi nem teremtetett, valami teremtetett. ¦* 6 benne vala az elet, es az elet vala az embereknek ama' Vilagossagok. ^ Es ez a' Vilagossag a' setetsegben fenylik, de a' setetseg azt meg nem esmerte. ® Vala egy ember Istentol botskttatott, kinek neve Janos vala. ' Ez jott tantibizonysagot tenni, azaz, bogy ama' Vilagossagrol bizonysagot tenne, bogy o altala mindenek hinnenek. * Nem vala ez ama' Vilagossag ; hanem Mldetett volt, bogy bizonysagot tenne arrdl a' Vilagossagrol. ' Ez vala amaz igaz Vilagossag, melly megvila- gosit minden e' vilagra szuletett embert. '" E' vilagon vala, es e' vilag o altala teremtetett; de e' vilag otet meg nem esmere. " Az ovei kozzd jove, es az ovei otet be nem vev^. ^"^ Valakik pedig otet bevevek, ada azoknak illy mdtosagot, bogy Istennek fijaiva lenn6iek, tudniillik azoknak, kik az o neveben bisznek. '^ Kik nem a' vertol, sem a' testnek aka- ratjatol, sem a' ferjfiunak indulatjatol, banem Istentol sziilettettek. '^Es amaz Ige test^ lett, es lakozott mi kbzottiink, (es lattuk az o ditsoseget, ugymint az Atyanak egyetlenegy sziilott^nek ditsoseget,) ki teljes vala kegyelemmel es igazsaggal. ON THE HUNGAEIAN, OE MAGYAE, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — This language is spoken by the dominant race in Hungary, a people of Finnish extraction, mentioned in the Eussian annals under the name of Ugri, and now distinguished by the name of Magyar, which in former ages was the designation of their most powerful tribe. Although of the same stock as the feeble and degraded Ostiaks of the Obi, their condition has been so highly improved since their conquest of Hungary, that in aU physical, moral, and inteUectual qualities they rank among the foremost nations of Europe.' In number they amount only to 4,260,500, whereas the entfre population of Hungary has been estimated at 10,000,000 : the remainder of the population consists of Slovaks, Croatlans, Germans, WaUachians, Eusniaks, and Jews. The government is monarchical, Hmited by the power of the aristocracy, and the reUgion of the state is Eomanism : more than two miUions of the Magyars, however, are Protestants. Characteristics op the Language. — The Magyar language stUl preserves clear indications of its original connection with the cognate dialects spoken by the Ostiaks and Vogouls, on the banks of the Obi. It has become enriched and perfected by the long-continued mfluence of European civiUsation, yet the characteristic traits of the Finnish family are as readily to be detected in it nowas when the Magyars first entered Europe. The laws of vocahc harmony which pervade aU Finnish languages are scrupulously observed in Magyar. This language resolves the vowels into two classes, a, 0, u mascuUne, and e, i, o, and m feminine : a masculine and a feminine vowel are not aUowed to meet in one word, not even in a compound term; for if the last syUable of a word have a masculine vowel, the affix must be made to agree with it accordmgly.'* Hence the Magyar language is sur passingly beautiful in uniformity of character and melody of sound. 1 Prichard's Researches, vol. iii. p. 330. ' Bowring's Poetry ot the Magyars, p. v. 270 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — The earUest Magyar version of any portion of the Scriptures was made in 1 54 1, by John Sylvester, a native Magyar ; it consisted only of the Four Gospels and Acts, and was dedicated to Ferdinand and his son Maximilian; no prmted copy is now known to be in existence, yet in " Bright's Hungary" it is stated that an edition was printed at Szlgetrar In 1541, at the expense of Thomas Nadaschdy. Le Long also mentions an edition of St. Paul's Epistles, printed at Cracow in 1553, and another version of the Four Gospels, executed by G. P. Pestinus, and printed at Vienna in 1536 ; he also speaks ofan edition ofthe entire New Testament, published at Vienna in 1574. Another version of the New Testament was printed at Vienna in 1574, without the translator's name. The first edition of the whole Bible in Magyar appeared at Visoly, near Gonz, in 1589. This is the present authorised version of Hungary. The translation was made from the Hebrew and Greek, conferred with the Vulgate and several other Latin versions, by Gaspard CaroH, or Karoli, a Magyar by birth, pastor of the church of Gonz, and dean of the Brethren of the Valley of Caschau. He had Imbibed the principles of the Eeformation, at Wittemberg, where he had studied in his youth ; and the desfre of disseminating among his countrymen the knowledge of the truths which he had found precious to his own soul was, in all probability, the cause of his embarking in this arduous undertaking. In the printing of his work he was assisted by Count Stephen Bathory, who obtained a printer from Germany, and established a printing-office for the purpose at Visoly. The sheets, as they passed through the press, were corrected by Albert Molnar, afterwards regent of the cpUege of Oppenheim : he afterwards subjected the whole version to a careful revision, and pubHshed an improved edition at Hanau in 1608, accompanied with a Magyar translation of the Heidelberg Catechism, the Liturgy of the Hungarian Churches, and a metrical version of the Psalms. Mohiar subsequently pubHshed two other editions of the Bible, namely, in 1612 at Oppenheim, and In 1645 at Amsterdam: he also published two separate editions ofthe New Testament and of the Psalms, in 12mo., at Amsterdam In 1646. When these editions were exhausted, another revision of the Hungarian Bible was imdertaken by Count Stephen Bethlen D'Iktar, brother to Prince Gabriel Bethlen : he assembled a number of learned men to prepare the work, and estabhshed a printing-press at Waradin. In 1657 the revision was completed, and the printing commenced ; but in 1660, when the edition, intended to consist of 10,000 copies, was but half completed, the city of Waradin was taken by the Turks, and 4000 copies were lost or destroyed. The remaining copies were saved and taken to Claudlopolls, or Coloswar, in Transylvania, where the edition was completed in 1661. Another edition (the sixth) of the Bible was pubhshed. In 8vo., at Amsterdam in 1684-5, by N. K. M. Totfalusi, by whom a separate edition of the New Testament and Psalms was printed, in 12mo., during the same year. The seventh edition ofthe Bible was published at Cassel in 1704, edited by John Ingebrand. Editions also appeared at Utrecht hi 1730, 1737, and 1794, in 8vo. ; at Basle in 1751, In 8vo.; and at Leipsic in 1776, in Svo. Aa edition of the New Testament was printed at Wittemberg in 1736, in 8vo., and a metrical version of the Psalms at Debrecin in 1723, In 12mo. Another revision of the Hungarian Bible, which perhaps ought rather to be regarded as a new translation, was executed by Dr. Comarin, pastor of Debrecin, but he died before it could be committed to the press, and the MS. was sent for pubhcation to the celebrated Vitringa. It was possibly from this MS. that the edition of 1716-17 was printed in Holland, the circulation of which was prevented by the Jesuits, who seized and destroyed 3000 copies. Two Eomanist versions of the Scriptures, the first of which was never printed, have been executed in the Hungarian language. The earUer of these versions was made about the close of the sixteenth century, by Stephen Arator, a Jesuit, whose real name was Szantus. The other version, which was a translation from the Vulgate, was printed at Vienna in 1626, in folio. It was translated by George Kaldi, a Jesuit, who rendered it in aU respects conformable to the dogmas of his party. He afterwards published at Vienna an edition of the dominical Gospels and Epistles, as read in the mass.' A Bible Society was formed at Presburg in 1812, encouraged by a donation of £500 from the Parent Society ; but, vrith the exception of an edition of the Bible mentioned by Van Ess in 1823, no editions of the Hungarian Scriptures appear to have been pubHshed by that Society. In 1814, Dr. Pinkerton found at Utrecht upwards of 2000 copies of the authorised Hungarian Bible, belonging to the above-mentioned edition of 1794 : these copies had remained uncirculated, owing to a reverse of circumstances sustained by the individual with whom the edition had originated. The copies were purchased by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and transmitted to Presburg for distribution. ' Townley's Researches, vol. iii. p. 425. Detached Famimes. J KARELIAN. 271 tl 1830-31, Mr. Wmiam Greenfield, of the British and Foreign Bible Society, reported upon and prepared a copy of the authorised Hungarian New Testament ; but It does not appear whether an edition was ultimately carried through the press. It was not, mdeed, tlU 1837 that Hungary really became accessible to the operations of the Society; but during that year the pubhcation of the Scriptures was conamenced m Hungary itseU' ; 8000 copies ofthe Bible, 13,000 New Testaments, and 2500 copies of the JNew testament and Psahns were successively issued from the press at Gonz, and in 1841 the whole of the Scriptures was stereotyped. The total number of Hungarian Bibles and Testaments, prmted by the British and h oreign Bible Society since 1837, has been as foUows :— Bibles .... 34,000 Testaments . . . 41,000 Testaments and Psalms . 5,500 Eesults of the Dissemination op the Scriptures in this Language.— The most mterestmg accounts have, from year to year, been transmitted concemiog the joy with which the Bible Society's recent editions have been received m Hungary. The poor Magyars, it Is said, notwithstanding theu deep poverty, which m some districts verges on destitution, have been found wlUing to devote their last kreutzer to the purchase of a copy of the Bible ; and even the wealthier classes, to whom. Scriptures was carried on with increased blessing," and that " the Bible was spread over the whole land." " Not merely the common people," it was said, " but the so-caUed higher and more enlightened classes are beglnnmgto read the Scriptures ; and the Bible and Its sacred contents are frequently spoken of with deep interest in mixed companies." ^ By the calamitous events of the past year in Hungary, aU these fair prospects have been blighted : the arrangements for printing a variety of editions have been stopped, and it is feared that at present httie or nothing can be effected in the work of distribution.' KARELIAN. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VIII.) The KareUans, to the number of at least 100,000, dwell in the govemment of Tver. They speak a distinct dialect of the Finnish language, varying in many respects from that spoken in the government of Olonetz, the proper Kyrialand, or KareHa, of the Scandinavian historians. It seems impossible to ascertain how, or at what time, they left their original country to settle In Tver; but it is generaUy supposed that they were located in thefr present district by order of Peter the Great. The numerous Swedish words which occur in their vocabulary appear to corroborate this hypothesis, for these could not have been introduced had not the Karehans held intercourse with the Finns after the pohtical connection had been estabhshed between Finland and Sweden.* The Karehan dialect has been greatly modified by the influence of the Sclavonic and Eussian languages : all the males of this tribe, in fact, habitually speak Eussian, being accustomed to use this language in their frequent visits to the towns for purposes of traffic. The females, however, can in general converse only in Karelian. An edition of 2000 copies ofthe Gospel according to St. Matthew was published for the benefit of this tribe, by the Eussian Bible Society at Kazan, in 1820. It was printed in the modem Eussian characters, with the addition of some few accents to denote certain diphthongal sounds pecuHar to the KareUan.^ The members of this tribe belong to the Eussian Church, and are therefore in the habit of using the Sclavonic version in the public services of religion, which cfrcumstance may account for the occasional use of Sclavonic terms in their version of St. Matthew. They are said to possess a translation of parts of the Sclavonic liturgy in MS. ; but this Gospel was the first book ever printed for their use. In consequence, probably, of the suspension of the Eussian Bible Society, no other portion of the Scriptures has as yet been translated into Karehan. 1 TUrty-eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xxx. 3 Forty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. bi. ' Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, pp. 1. U. « Henderson's Biblical Eesearches in Russia, p. 39. 5 Henderson's Biblical Researches in Russia, p. 40. DOHPAT ESTHONIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE DOEPAT ESTHONIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. 5IIgmt§fcn ofii fc fijnna, ninl fe fonna ofit Summala man nint Summal olli fe fonna. = ©efamma ofit algmisfen Summala man. ^ mt om Io6t)i temma tettu : 3^inf mibbafe ei oKe temmata tcttu, me§ tettu om. * 3:emma ftSfen ofii efio, nini fe ello olli innimiSte watgug : « yimi njatgug ijaifi ^jimmeban, nini )3immebug ei ofie tcbba reoSta wotnu. 6 Ut§ inniminne Id:^t)ateti Summatafi, fel ollt nlmmi Saan. ' ©efomma tufii tunnigtugfe ^Jenafi, ct temma raalgugfeji tunniStag, ct fif temma IdBii uSfuSfe. ^ Semmo eg ofie mitte walgug, engc et temma tunnigtas tcatgugfejl. » 5:6i|lne walgug, fumt fif inntmigrt tt)algugta»), tufii ilma flgfe. '» ©e ofii itman, nin! tim om temmo IdBii fanu : S'linf iim eg tunne tcbba mitte. " S:emma tufii omma figfe, ninf ommatfe eg njijtta tebba toagta. '^ gjit mitto tcbba wagta rcottiwa, nelle anb temma aoimuft Summalo latftg faba, fea temma nimme ftgfe ufftro : '^ ^ea et ofie fiinbinu acneft ei fa liMa ta:^tmigfeft, enge Summataft. " Sdinl fe fonna fatie Ii:^^ag, ninf efii mcije fcan, (nin! meijc ndime temma outougtujl, tui aino fiinbinu ()) o j a) auaugtuji egfafi,) tdiig armo ninf tottet. ON THE DOEPAT ESTHONIAN DIALECT AND VEESION. Esthonia is a maritime govemment in the north-west of European Eussia, and forms one of the Baltic provinces. It was sold by the Danes to the Teutonic Knights in 1347, was conquered by Sweden in 1561, and was annexed to Eussia by Peter the Great in 1710. Its area Is about 6870 square miles, and its population has been estimated by Schnitzler at 230,000. The lower classes only of this population are, strictly speaking, Esthonlans, the wealthier inhabitants being mostly of Danish or German descent. The language, which exhibits the same characteristics as other Finnish tongues, is spoken in two dialects, the Dorpat and the Eeval Esthonian. The former is spoken in South Esthonia, and the latter prevaUs in the North. Almost aU the Esthonlans are of the Lutheran persuasion. They were first put into possession of the oracles of God in the year 1686, when John Fischer, a German professor of Divinity and general superintendent of Livonia, published an Esthoman version of the entire New Testament. This translation had been executed by Fischer, at the command of Charles XI. A version of the Old Testament, made by the same translator, aided by Gosekenius, appeared In 4to. In 1689. This was foUowed in the year 1700 by an edition of the Gospels and Epistles for the festival days of the Church. It is uncertain in which dialect these early versions were vrritten, but it is probable that they were understood throughout Esthonia. A version of the New Testament in Dorpat Esthonian was printed at Eiga in 1727, in 8yo. Ims edition was speedily exhausted ; and the Dorpat Esthonlans being left without further supplies, made use ofthe Eeval Esthonian version of 1739. In 1810, the prosecution of certain inquiries, instituted by the British and Foreign Bible Society, concerning the state of the Scriptures in Eussia, led to the discovery that the Esthonlans were almost destitute of the Scriptures. Grants In aid of a new edition were voted by the Society; and in 1815, through the exertions of Dr. Paterson, 5000 copies of the Dorpat Esthonian New Testament were completed at press. In 1824 the Eussian Bible Society reported that they had printed 8000 copies of the same version. Another edition of the New Testament was undertaken by the Dorpat Bible Society in 1836 ;' and durmg the same year a version of the Psalms, translated from the Hebrew by the Eev. Ferdinand Meyer, of Carolen, was printed by the aid of the Parent Society : this latter edition consisted of 4500 copies. In a letter received from an Esthonian pastor, dated January, 1850, it is stated that " an edition of the Bible has just been issued at Eeval and Dorpat." 1 Thirty-second Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xxxiv. REVAL ESTHONIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE EEVAL ESTHONIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. 3llgmigfcg otti fe ©anna, ja fe ©anna otli Summala juteg, ja fe ©anna ofii Summal. 2 ©efamma ofii olgmigfe. Summala jureg. ^ Mt ogjab on temma labU tc|)tub, ja ilma temmota ep ofie u:^tcgi tcl^tub, mig te:^tub on. * Zmma fecg ofii efio, ja fc efio ofii innimegte molgug, s ga ^^ njatgug paigtig ^)immcbugfcg, ja ^jlmmcbus ei reotnub febba wagtog 6 tu innimcnne, Soanncg nimmi, fai Summalaft tdffitub : ^ ©eflnnanc tufii tunnigtugfefg, et temma feft walguSfcff, ^jibbi tunnigtama, ct fcif temma UWi :pibbib uffma. s Jetnma e^s otnub mitte fc walgug, reaib, et temma pm tunnig= tama fcji n3atgugfe|i. » ©e ofii fe togflne loalgug, feg walgugtofi fci! innimegfeb, !«i ta maAlma flgfe tufii. i0 5:emma oKl mo=lImag, ja ma=ilm on temmo Id66i te'^tub, ja ma4Im el tunnub tcbba mlttc. •' Semma tufii ommo ftgfe, ja neeb oramaffeb ei tootnub tebba mitte wagto ; 12 sjtggg ni mltto, ful tebba rcagtowotflb, nellc onblg temma mclenjalba Summata lai)jl!g faba, !cg temma nlmmc ftgfe ufEmab, '^ ,Seg ep ofie njcncft, el li^a ta:^tmlgfeft, egga me^:^e ta|)tmlgfcft, walb Summalaft fitnbinub. '* Sa fe ©anna foi lii/ijaU, ja njottig fill ul^^cg malag mele fcag cfiaba ja mclc ndgglrac temma aii ful Sgfaft alnofiinblnub 5Pola au tdlg armo ja tot. ON THE EEVAL ESTHONIAN DIALECT AND VEESION. The Eeval dialect of the Esthonian language is spoken in the north of Livonia, including the three adjacent islands of Oesel, Dagden, and Mohn. In 1811 the Moravian Missionaries, who were labouring among this people, calculated that 2500 individuals in Eeval Esthonia, and 5000 in the above islands, had been awakened to a sense of the importance of reUgion. The first edition of the Scriptures in Eeval Esthonian was printed at Eeval In 1739, in 4to. ; it was partly published at the expense of the celebrated Count Zinzendorf A second edition is said to have foUowed in 1773, and a third in 1790.' These two latter editions (If actually published, which seems doubtful) could have comprised no large amount of copies; for in 1810 It was reported that to many of the peasantry in Esthonia the Bible was unknown. In 1815, through the zeal of Dr. Paterson, and the aid afforded by the British and Foreign Bible Society, an edition of 10,000 copies of the New Testament was printed in Eeval Esthonian. The Eussian Bible Society appears to have pubhshed 5100 copies of the Old Testament in this version, prior to the year 1824. Probably some recent editions have been issued by the Dorpat Bible Society. The Esthonian Scriptures In both dialects have been particularly blessed to the soldiers of this nation. These sons of the peasantry are frequently drafted into Eussian regiments, and stationed at a great distance from their native land. Here they are obHged to serve twenty-five years, without ever hearing a Protestant clergyman address them in their native language ; and being thus precluded from hearmg the Gospel preached, thefr need of the written Word of God is the more especially urgent. It is said that the joy of these soldiers is unbounded when copies of the Scriptures are distributed among them. They have been known to crowd around the distributor, and to faU at his knees in token of unfeigned gratitude ; and they have even kissed the sacred volume, and invoked blessings on their benefactors.^ ' Townley's Researches, vol. iii. p. 513. ^ Twenty-ninth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xlvii. TSCHEREMISSIAN. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate X.) The people by whom this dialect is spoken dweU along the banks of the Wolga and Kama, in the Eussian governments of Kasan and Simbirsk. Tooke says that members of this tribe are also to be found on both sides of the Wolga, particularly on the left side, in the government of Nijnii-Novgorod. The total number of Tscheremisslans has been estimated at 50,000 ; most of them belong to the Eussian Church.' In 1819 a translation of part ofthe Scriptures into Tscheremissian was undertaken bythe Eussian Bible Society, and twelve translators were employed in the preparation of the work. The Gospel of St. Matthew, the first portion completed, left the press in 1820. To ascertain whether the dialect in which it is written could be readily understood by the Tscheremisslans, the Archbishop of Kasan coUected a number of them together, and caused part of this Gospel to be read aloud to them. When these poor people heard the words of Jesus in their own tongue, " they wept for joy, and were ready to feU down and worship."^ -An edition of the Four Gospels in the same dialect was therefore printed in the foUowing year ; and at length 3000 copies of the entfre New Testament were carried through the press, under the care of the Kasan Bible Society. Shortly after the completion of this version, a statement was drawn up by various parish ministers respecting the number of heathen who had been led to embrace Christianity from among the Tschere misslans. One minister mentioned eleven, another thirty-eight, a third mentioned one hundred, and a fourth fifty-two instances of conversion, as having taken place in their respective parishes. And this, it was stated, was accomphshed in some instances exclusively, and in others principaUy, by means of the perusal of the Tscheremissian Gospels.^ MOEDYINIAN, OE MORDUIN. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate X.) This dialect of the Finnish is spoken on the banks of the Oka and of the Wolga, in the govern ments of Nijnii-Novgorod and Kasan. According to Tooke, members of this tribe are also to be met with in Orenburg. The number of Individuals composing this horde is very uncertain : they profess Christianity, but retain many heathenish practices. They were brought before the notice of the Eussian Bible Society in 1817, and a translation of the New Testament was undertaken for theh benefit. The Four Gospels left the press in 1821, and ultimately an edition of 3000 copies ofthe New Testament was pruited under the superintendence of the Kasan Bible Society. ZIRIAN, OE SIRENIAN, (For Specimen of tliis Version, see Plate VEII.) There is some difference of opinion conceming the precise geographical Umits of the Zirian dialect. It has been said to prevaU in the governments of Perm, Tobolsk, and Archangel ; but it is undoubtedly the predominant dialect of the district of Oustiougvollkl, in Vologda. The Zirinlans were converted to Christianity in the fourteenth century, by the preaching of St. Etienne ; and there are some reasons for supposing that the Scriptures and the church books were translated into the Zirian dialect about that period ; but not a single vestige of this translation at present remains. The only portion of the Scriptures now possessed by the Zirians, in their own dialect, consists of the Gospel of St. Matthew; 1400 copies of which were printed for them by the Eussian Bible Society in 1823. The translator's name was Scherzen. 1 Pmkerton'B Russia, p. 408. 2 Eighteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 28. 3 Twenty-first Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xxxvi. OLONETZIAN. A SMALL portion of the Scriptures has been translated into the Olonetzian, which is, as above stated, a sutj-diaiect of Karehan. A specimen of this translation was sent in 1820 to Tver to be compared with the dialect spoken m that govemment ; but the suspension ofthe Eussian Bible Society arrested the progress of this undertakhig, and we have of late years heard nothing fiirther concermng the Olonetzian version. ° WOGULIAN The Woguhans dweU m the govemments of Perm and Tobolsk, in a district between the Tobol, the Beresov, the Obi, and the Urahan Mountains. The Protohiery (Primate) Teletzyn, in concert with the clergy of his diocese, undertook a translation of the Scriptures into WoguHan ; and in 1820 the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Mark were translated and ready for the press. The MS. was submitted to the Tobolsk Bible Committee, by whom it was forwarded to the Eussian Bible Society,' but It never appears to have been printed ; so that the Woguhans are stiU unsuppHed with any portion of the Scriptures in their own dialect. OSTIACAN, OE OSTJAKIAN. _ This dialect prevails on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and on the banks of the Obi, frtish, and JeniscI, from the city of Tomskig (lat. 58° north, long. 83° 20' east) to Obdorsk. It greatly resembles the Mordvinian, and is at the same time so similar to the Wogulian, that it is thought the members of the two tribes must be capable of holding intercourse together.' The Ostiaks are accounted one ofthe most numerous tribes in Siberia. A translation of the Scriptures into their dialect was going forward in 1820, under the care and inspection of Werguno, the active and zealous protohiery or primate at Beresoff',^ and the Gospel of St. Matthew, translated by a learned priest, was forwarded for pubhcation to the Committee of the Eussian Bible Society ; but It does not appear to have been printed, and we do not hear of the translation of any other portion of the Testament. ' sixteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 148. 2 Prichard's Researches, vol. iii. p. 334. 3 sixteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 148. WOTAGIAN, OE WOTJAKIAN. The Wotaglans, or, as they are more commonly caUed, the Votiaks, or Wotjaks, are a numerous people in the govemments of Viatka and Orenburg, and perhaps in that of Vologda ; but they chiefly reside in districts on the banks of the Viatka, and between that river and the Upper Kama.' Dr. Pinkerton estimates their number at 100,000 individuals : they all profess adherence to the Russian Church, but many among them are still heathens. Lewandowski, a learned Votiak, well acquainted with his native dialect, was the first to undertake a translation of the Scriptures for his countrymen.^ In 1820 he sent a translation of the first ten chapters of St. Matthew to the Eussian Bible Society as a specimen, with an offer to prosecute the translation. If deemed desirable: the Committee encouraged him to proceed, and directed him to submit his work to such clergymen as were acquainted with the dialect. The translation appears to have been continued under the care and inspection of the Committee of the Viatka Branch Bible Society; and the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were completed during the year 1823. .After this translation had been examined by various competent individuals, and subjected to minute and careful revision, the Bishop of Viatka and other clergy affixed thefr signatures to it. In testimony of its being perfectly intelHgible to the tribe for whom it was designed. The other two Gospels were translated shortly afterwards, and an edition, intended to consist of 2000 copies, was ordered by the Eussian Bible Society. The first pages of the Gospel of Matthew were printed during Advent ; and as the first two chapters are pubHcly read in the Eussian Church on Christmas-day, the Committee forwarded the printed sheets to the clergy of twenty-seven Viatka parishes, with a request that they would read the translation to the people, and thus test its inteUigibiUty. From the accounts subsequently given by the clergy, it appeared that their respective hearers were equally astonished and overjoyed on hearing the Gospel in their own dialect. In one parish many of the Votiaks declared that the version was perfectly inteUigibie to them, and that they only wished to hear more of it. The people of another parish requested, at the conclusion ofthe service, that the Gospel in their own language might be read over again to them, which was actuaUy done more than once. On separating, they were observed to be engaged in close conversation together on the subject of what they had heard, and many exclaimed " Inmar badsim ! Inmar aliam !" The Lord is a great God.^ This is one of the versions which was left in an unfinished state at the time of the suspension of the Eussian Bible Society. The printing, though commenced, does not appear to have been continued even to the completion of a single book. Thus, although a faithful and accredited version of the Four Gospels exists in their language, these people have remained to the present moment destitute of a single printed copy of any portion of the Scriptures in a dialect intelHgible to them. 1 Prichard's Researches, vol. iii. p. 315. 2 Seventeenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 42. 3 Twenty-first Report of British and Foreign Bible Societj-, p. 94. CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. C. TUNGUSIAN FAMILY. MANTCHOU. (For Specimen of tliis Version, see Plate IX.) Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The Mantchou, Mantchew, or Mandjur language properly belongs to Mantchooria, an extensive region lying north of Corea and of China Proper, and enclosing an area of 700,000 square miles, with an unknown amount of population. Since the year 1624, China has been governed by a dynasty of Mantchou princes, and in consequence the language is now extended to China, while Mantchooria itself has become an integral part of the Chinese empire. The total number of Mantchews in China barely amounts to a milHon and a half ; yet, notwithstanding their numerical inferiority, and their unpopularity with the Chinese, the entire empire is subject to their sway; and it is said to be solely owing to their suspicious and unsocial habits that China has been for the last two centuries a sealed country to Europeans. Characteristics of the Language. — The elemental principles ofthe Mantchou, MongoHan, Tartar, and Finnish lang-uages, may almost be said to be identical. In the simplicity of their structure, and in the total absence of all inflection, properly so caUed, they approach nearer to the monosyUabic type than any other class of languages. The relations of words in a sentence, in other languages denoted by inflection or by prefixes, are in these languages indicated by the juxtaposition of particles invariably placed after the noun or word to which they refer. A peculiar and very inharmonious stifihess of construction is the natural result of this arrangement. In Mantchou, especiaUy, the collo cation of words in sentences is restricted within very narrow and rigid rules ; and as these rules are extremely arbitrary, a long Mantchou sentence is frequently utterly unintelligible until the last word Is reached; so that in point of clearness of construction, even Chinese itself is superior to Mantchou.' In consequence of these defects, the Mantchews possess no poetry : their most eloquent and lofty compositions can never rise beyond a series of dry propositions, in which each word and particle has its own proper and unvarying place assigned by rule. At present, however, they have no national literature, all their books being translations from the Chinese. With respect to its vocabulary, the Mantchou language has been said to comprehend three classes of words. The first consists of those words which are common to the Mantchews and the Tungusians, and which are chiefly expressive of simple Ideas and objects primarily necessary to existence :_ these constitute the basis of the language. The second class includes the words which may be traced in the MongoHan, and these are very numerous. The third class comprises terms which have been borrowed from the Chinese, but deprived of their monosyUabic form, and disguised by one or more unmeaning syUables arbitrarily appended to them.^ Besides the above, Mantchou possesses many words relative to the Budhistic system, borrowed from the Tibetans and Hindoos. The alphabet is syllabic, and, like the Chinese, is written in vertical columns from the top to the bottom of the page. Unlike the Chinese, however, these columns proceed from left to right. Version of the Scriptures in this Language. — An imperfect and very unfaithful translation of part of the Scriptures into Mantchou, is said to have been executed by some Jesuit missionaries ; and in 1818 an abortive attempt towards the production of a version was made under the sanction of the Govemor of Irkutsk. The prosecution of this important work ultimately devolved > Klaproth, Memoires Relatifs a I'Asie, vol. iii., p. 8. ' Abel Remusat, Reeherches sur les Langues Tartares, p. 1 19. 278 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. upon LipoffzofF, a learned member of the Eussian Bible Society, who had resided fourteen years at Pekin, by appointment of the Eussian government, with the particular view of studying the Chinese and Mantchou languages.' The translation was carried on underthe superintendence of Dr. Pinkerton- and in 1822 an edition of 550 copies of the Gospel according to St. Matthew was printed at St. Peters burg, from types furnished at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. A few copies of this Gospel were despatched to various places, whence it was hoped they could be put into circulation- and Mr. Gutzlaff met with one of these copies during his first or second visit to China. The greater part of the remainder were destroyed in the awful flood which occurred in St. Petersburg In 1824.^ The translation of the entire New Testament was soon afterwards completed, and was pronounced, to be clear, idiomatic, and faithful ; but no further editions were issued till 1834, when pubhc attention was suddenly drawn to the subject by a discovery of a MS. version of almost the whole of the Old Testament. Mr. Swan, ofthe London Missionary Society, found this MS. at St. Petersburg, whither it had been conveyed but a short time previously from Pekin. Mr. Swan was engaged to copy the whole MS., and his transcript, after undergoing a thorough revision, was forwarded to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The version is considered very satisfactory, and it still awaits pubhcation, for it was deemed desirable in the first place to complete the printing of the New Testament. At this period (1834), when the committee were deliberating as to the best methods of continuing the revision and publication of the New Testament, Mr. George Borrow of Norwich, who possessed some knowledge of Mantchou, offered to undertake the supervision of the work. As he was found to be pecuharly quahfied for the task, he was sent to St. Petersburg, where great facilities exist for the acquisition of the Mantchou language. In concert with the translator, he devoted himself to the revision of the entfre version. Permission was obtained to print the work at St. Petersburg; and m lY(p5 an edition of 1000 copies of the New Testament left the press. The whole impression was forwarded to London, to remain under the custody of the British and Foreign Bible Society until an opening be made by Providence for the distribution and circulation of the copies. A few of these copies were distributed in 1843, by Mr. Lay, among the Tartars. TUNGUSIAN PEOPEE. The Tungusians, or Tongooses, are a nomadic people, supposed to have originally inhabited the country called Daouria, to the northward of Corea and China. But whUe their brethren, the Mantchews, extended their conquests southward into China Proper, the Tongooses, with their flocks and herds, wandered towards the north ; and they are now to be found amidst the vast mountainous regions which extend from Lake Baikal to the Sea of Ochotsk, and Hkewise further to the northward, in the various countries situated on the Lena, Kolyma, and Timgooska rivers. In number they are supposed, according to the latest Eussian authorities, to amount to about 52,500. They are filthy and degraded In their habits, and greatly inferior in physical conformation, and in every other respect, to the Mantchews. Some few among them have been baptized, but they are in general grossly Ignorant: their rehgion is a branch of Shamanism, and consists chiefly in the worship of fire, and In a superstitious reverence for amulets. The language differs both in words and in pronunciation from the Mantchou ; it is extremely rude and barbarous, and contains a considerable admixture of MongoHan words. Several efibrts have been made, from time to time, for the spiritual enlightenment of this widely- dispersed people ; but, owing to the numerous petty dialects into which their language is divided, the task of translating the Scriptures into a dialect generally intelligible to the whole nation Is attended with pecuHar difficulty. A version of the sacred volume has been commenced In the dialect of the Tschapogires, a Tungusian tribe dwelling along the course of the Toungo-unski, a branch of the Yenlssel. In the Eeport of the Eussian Committee, laid before the annual meeting of the Bible Society at St. Petersburg, 1819, this version was mentioned as one of the " new translations" then in progress. No further InteUigence on this subject has been since received ; and it appears but too probable that, from some cause or other, the Tschapogirian translation has been altogether rehnquished. 1 Eighteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lvi. 2 Thirtieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixxxiii. CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. D. MONGOLIAN FAMILY. MONGOLIAN PEOPLE. Mongolia, the vast country which separates Eussia from China, has been from time immemorial the domain of the MongoHan race. It was to this race that Attila and Genghis Khan, and the myriads of those mighty warriors belonged, — men whose rapid conquests are compared by Gibbon to the primitive convulsions of nature, which have agitated and altered the surface of the globe. Although Mongolia is now included in the territories of the Chinese empire, the Mongols themselves remain in the same condition as their ancestors in the days of Genghis and Kublal. " The people," says a recent traveUer, " hve in tents, without any permanent residence. They move from place to place with the changes of the seasons, or when thefr Immense herds of oxen, camels, and horses have exhausted the grass around their encampment. To-day presents an animated scene of hundreds of tents, filled with an active population ; to-morrow this picturesque scene wiU be changed to a dreary and forbidding desert."' These people have extended their wanderings into Eussia, and some of the many tribes Into which they are divided are to be found in the very heart of Siberia. One language is common to all these tribes, but, as might be expected from its wide geographical diffusion, it is subdivided into a multi- phcity of petty dialects. The most prominent characteristics of the Mantchou and Turkish are equaUy remarkable In this language. It possesses the same inverted and artificial style of phraseology, and the same grammatical pecuHarities. The substantives, however, although like the Mantchou destitute of terminations indicative of gender, possess a peculiar sign to denote the plural ; it consists in the con sonant t added to the final vowel, or substituted for n, but is not often employed.^ The Mongolian dialect, properly so caUed, is spoken by some tribes of Lamaists, north of the desert of Gobi : the alphabet is derived from the Ouigour, and forms the basis of the Mantchou ; it is written in vertical columns from the top to the bottom of the page. Many Tibetan and Sanscrit words exist in Mon goHan, which have been introduced with Lamaism from Thibet. A translation of the New Testament and Psalter into the language spoken by the Mongol con querors of China, is said to have been made in the thirteenth century, by Monte Corvino, a Minorite friar, who was sent on a mission to the Tartar potentates, by Pope Nicholas IV., in 1289, soon after the accession of Timur IQian (or Ching-tsung) to the throne of his grandfather, Kublal Khan. Of this work no vestiges remain. The only MongoHan versions of Scripture known to be in existence are those in the Cahnuc and Buriat dialects, which we must now proceed to notice. CALMUC. (For Specimen of tMs Version, see Plate Viii.) Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The great steppe extending from_ Sarepta (near Astrachan) to the Caucasus, is occupied by the Cahnucs, a MongoHan tribe, who migrated thither about the begfrmuag of the seventeenth century, from the westem borders of Soungaria. In 1701, upwards of 15,000 famihes of this tribe returned to Soungaria with a certain prmce who fled from his father, the khan; and m 1770 no less than 60,000 families abandoned thefr Eussian settlements and retumed to thefr native MongoHa. The famihes who remained in Eussia, and who retain their nomadic habits and pagan superstitions, now number about 60,000 individuals. Some baptized members of this nation are settied in a district bordering on the Volga, of which Stauropol is the capital; they amount in number to about 10,000, and have for the last century professed adherence to the Russian Church. The dialect of the Calmucs is the Eleuth, or Westem MongoHan, generally supposed to be predomhiant throughout the whole of Western MongoHa as the dialect ot the Eleuth tribes, from • Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845. ' Remusat, Reeherches sm les Langues Tartares, vol. i. p. 170. 280 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Ciass IV. whora the Calmucs derive their origin. This dialect is softer and more effeminate than Mongolian Proper. The importance of the Calmuc version wiU be greatly enhanced should it be found applicable to all the Eleuth tribes of MongoHa, as well as to the Eussian emigrants ; but this point has not yet been ascertained. Version op the Scriptures in this Language. — The first translation of the Scriptures into this dialect appears to have been attempted about the middle of the last century, when various detached portions of the sacred text were translated at the Moravian settlement of Sarepta. The principal translator was Conrad Neitz, one of the Moravian missionaries, who, by a long residence among the Calmucs of the Don, had acquired an intimate acquaintance with the language, the modes of thinking, and the habits of the people. In 1808, a correspondence was opened between the brethren at Sarepta and the British and Foreign Bible Society, respecting the preparation of a Calmuc version. The portions previously translated were ascertained to be faithful and accurate, but it was deemed requisite to subject them to careful revision, as well as to extend the translation to the whole ofthe New Testament. The execution of this translation was undertaken by Mr. James Schmidt (affrewards Dr. Schmidt), a member of the Sarepta Society. He had resided many years among the Calmucs, and was thoroughly acquainted with their dialect. The work was aided by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the translation ofthe Gospel of St. Matthew was completed in 1812; it was not however committed to the press till 1815, when 1000 copies were printed at St. Petersburg. These were speedily circulated ; and such were the pleasing accounts received concerning their distribution, that a second edition of 2000 copies was given in 1817. The idiomatic accuracy of this version of St. Matthew was attested by native authorities, and Hkewise by Abel Eemusat. " In reading, or rather in analysing It (observed that eminent Orientalist), with a view to deduce the grammatical principles which were the objects of my search, I found but very few instances in which its correspondence with the Greek text did not appear to me to be rigidly exact." That this Gospel was perfectly inteUigibie to the people for whom it was designed, is proved by the fact that the Lamaic priests found it necessary to interdict It, apprehending that thefr craft would be in danger, in case the doctrines gained ground among their foUowers.' Notwithstanding this prohibition, copies were eagerly sought by the Calmucs ; and it was found necessary to issue a third edition in a smaller form, that the volumes might be more easily concealed among the stuff of their tents. Some pecuniary aid was received by Dr. Schmidt, the translator, from the emperor; and In 1820 the Gospel of St. John was completed and laid before the Eussian Committee.^ The eagerness of the people to know what this Gospel contained was so great, that before it could be carried through the press, it was sent in MS. for their perusal. An edition of 500 copies was printed of this Gospel alone, besides 2000 copies containing the Gospels both of St. Matthew and of St. John. In 1822, an edition of the entire New Testament was put to press at St. Petersburg. In a letter bearing the same date, it was stated by Dr. Pinkerton that twenty-two individuals had forsaken their idols, and had joined the Sarepta congregation on the Volga; and at that period there appeared every reason to hope that a still richer harvest would speedily ensue from the seed ofthe Divine Word diffused among the Calmucs.^ Concerning the effects which may have been more recently produced by their perasal ofthe New Testament in their own dialect, we have no means of obtaining inteUigence, for the labours of missionaries among this people are now whoUy suppressed. BUEI AT. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate VEU.) Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The Buriat Mongolians now dweU near Lake Baikal, in Siberia, where they probably settled at the period of the revolution under Genghis Khan. They form the principal part of the population in the govemment of Irkutsk, north of the BaUsal, and of the provinces of Selinginsk, Oudjnsk, and Nerchinsk, eastward of that lake : they are thought to number about 150,000 individuals. The dialect of the Buriats is the same as that of the Kalka tribes of Eastern MongoHa. It differs from the Calmuc chiefly in the interchange of consonants, and ' Fourteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 70. J Sixteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 54. 3 Eighteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, pp. 44, 45. Detached Families.] BURIAT. 281 is distuiguished by its abundance of guttural and nasal sounds. The Buriats also differ from other MongoHans m employing the alphabet of their Manchou neighbours. Instead of the true MongoHan letters. Version op the Scriptures in this Dialect.— When a translation ofthe New Testament mto Cahnuc was projected, it was anticipated that It would be found as InteUigibie to the Buriats of Siberia and to the other MongoHan tribes, as to the Calmucs themselves; and, under this impression, the Buriats contributed towards defraying the expenses of the version. When, however, the Gospel of Matthew in Calmuc was completed, it was found that the Buriats were unable to read it; and though they afterwards endeavoured to obtain the key to the Cahnuc writing by acquaintuig themselves with the MongoHan letters,^ yet It soon became obvious that the differences between the two dialects rendered the preparation of a distinct version for each people absolutely essential. To remove every difficulty. Prince Galatrin, president of the Eussian Bible Society, wrote to the Govemor of Irkutsk, requestiog him to send two learned Buriats to St. Petersburg, for the purpose of accommodating the Calmuc Gospel to their native dialect, and, in conjunction with Dr. Schmidt, to translate the other parts ofthe New Testament.' Two saisangs, or Buriat nobles, accordingly repaired to St. Petersburg, and with the consent of thefr prince and lama, they engaged in the work of translation : the Divine Word was blessed to thefr conversion ; and, in a letter which they addressed to their chief, they avowed thefr faith in Jesus. In 1818, an edition of 2000 copies of the Gospel of St. Matthew, in Buriat, was printed under their care, foUowed, in 1819, by 2000 copies ofthe two Gospels of St. Matthew and St. John. An edition of 2000 copies ofthe other two Gospels, with 2539 copies of the Acts, was pubHshed in 1822. During the same year, however, a severe loss was sustained in the death of Badma, one of the Buriat translators, who was called to rest from his labours just as he had translated as far as the middle of the Epistle to the Eomans. The remaining portion of the New Testament appears to have been completed under the superintendence of Dr. Schmidt, and was published about the year 1824, at St. Petersburg. The surviving Buriat noble was afterwards associated with Messrs. Swan, Stallybrass, and YuUle, missionaries at SeUnginsk, in the translation of the Old and the revision of the New Testament. The Old Testament was translated immediately from the Hebrew, with constant reference to such critical apparatus as could be obtained, and every portion was successively submitted to the inspection of learned natives, chiefly lamas or priests, in order that the idiomatic pecuHarites of the language might be observed. The style of writing adopted in this version holds a middle place between the vulgar colloquial language of the people, which varies In different districts, and the abstruse modes of expression employed in some of their books. It is above the common business dialect, but not so much higher as to place the subject beyond the reach of any one of common understanding.^ In 1834, the expenses incurred in this translation were defrayed by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and an edition of 1000 copies was undertaken by the same Society. This edition was subsequently extended to 2000 copies, in consequence of a grant from the American Bible Society. The printing was carried on at Khodon In Siberia, and portions were put into circulation almost as soon as they left the press.' This edition of the Old Testament was completed in 1840; and during the same year Messrs. Swan and StaUybrass accomplished a fresh translation of the New Testament from the original Greek, based on tiie version previously made. An edition of 3000 copies of this New Testament was completed at press in 1846, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society.* Eesults of the Distribution op this Version. — It has already been mentioned that the " beautiful sayings of Jesus," as they caUed them, produced an almost immediate effect on the two idolaters employed in translating the New Testament. The portions they translated were blessed in a similar manner to some of thefr countrymen. One of the natives, after reading with devout attention the Gospel of St. John, emphatically exclaimed, " This Is the soap which must cleanse us from the defilement of the old system of religion : " and this version has been made useful even in China, for many of the Chinese are acquainted with the language, and the missionaries were repeatedly inforraed of copies having been eagerly sought by natives of that benighted empfre.'* Among the Buriats themselves there appeared, tlU recently, every reason to look for the happiest results from the distribu tion of their vernacular Scriptures ; a spirit of inquiry was awakened, and, in a seminary established at Khodon, several of the young people had given evidence of being traly converted to (jod._ Since the year I84I, the mission has been rehnquished, and opportunities no longer exist for the circulation of this version. ' Fonrteeuth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 73. ' Thirty-sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xxilx. 2 Thirtieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 77. * Forty-third Report of Bntish and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxi. 5 Thirty-sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p, xl. CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. E. TURKISH FAMILY. * * JuuJ>- TUEKISH. SPECIMEN OF THE TUEKISH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap, l v. I to 14. *J» ^^\ aIs^J cXil iJlks- '' *^iW!_j IjLi-J^! (JA=^^ ¦^J Li'^'^inl ""^^ LS'^y* ^ *L5'V.^ Ljjj;^ ^_jUj1 iU^ol <_>jJj1 JjjJ Jl i^ ij^J.j 'U-j'Si.r lilj^l ^jJ>Js ajUJJjl ;^iijl ci^i Ul '^ I»IK_. *jt>^U4;jL ^^J^l <)^ ^^;UJj^ c)j\ ij J ^jjo-yjjT (J.UJU iJ J ^^oulj aj j^l it^ " tJj 1^ jl J^y^ cXibb |_5^U.p- '^^ y. i |_5'^^ u^ «t^ljT ^^.1 i.::.JUa=- J *— ^^ /^ (_5'^j' ON THE TUEKISH LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geographical Extent and Statistics. — The Turkish language in its numerous dialectic varieties is more or less diffused through the vast regions which extend from the Mediterranean to the frontiers of China, and from the shores of the Frozen Ocean to Hindoostan. The nations to whom this language is vernacular have enacted an important part In history ; and though their power has now declined, and the crescent has fallen like a star from heaven, yet a member of this race still occupies the throne of Constantine. The peculiar dialect of this language, generally termed, by way of pre-eminence, the Turkish, is spoken in Turkey in Europe by the Ottomon or Osmantl Turks, the number of whom is estimated, by all statistical writers, at 700,000 Individuals. There is great dis crepancy in the calculations which have been formed as to the total amount of population In the Turkish empire ; and the population of Turkey in Europe has been loosely estimated at from 12,000,000 to 15,000,000. WaUachian, Albanian, Sclavonic dialects, and other tongues prevail among the dif ferent sections of this population, yet Turkish Is the only language which can be employed as a general medium of communication with all the various kindreds of people inhabiting European and Asiatic Turkey.' But the use of this language extends beyond the present confines of the Turkish empire, and in point of practical utihty it ranks among the foremost of languages ; in fact, if we are to receive 1 Southgate's Narrative of a Tour through Armenia, etc., p. 66. Detached Families.] TURKISH. 283 the statement of Sir William Jones, " there is scarce a country in Asia or in Africa from the source of the Nile to the waU of China, in which a man who understands Arabic, Persian', and Turkish, may not travel with satisfaction, and transact the most important affairs with advantage and security." ' Characteristics op the Language.-— The Turkish language, hke the race by whom it is spoken, affords a curious instance of the intermixture of the Asiatic and European type. The con dition of this language in the primitive stages of its history Is stIU exhibited by the Turkish dialects of the East, which have remained to the present day comparatively uncorrupted or unembeUished by words of foreign origin ; and it is In these dialects that the links connecting this tongue vrith those of the Mantchoos and the Mongols are to be sought. The analogy which pervades this class of languages has been elsewhere remarked : it is most observable In the pronunciation of the guttural and nasal con sonants. In the orthographical regulations coUectively designated the " quadruple harmony of vowels," and in the euphonic law requiring certain consonants to be only associated with certain vowels.^ The Turkish of Constantinople deviates in many important points from its cognate dialects. It Is, perhaps, the only language of its class possessing a multiplicity of compound tenses, and a substantive verb which subserves the purpose ofan auxUiary. Its structure has in some degree been altered by joint Influences from the East and West. Its nouns, Hke the Latin, have six cases; it possesses complex derivative conjugations ; and with respect to its vocabulary, it has amassed Persian, Arabic, and even Chinese words from the East, and Albanian, Greek, and Itahan elements from the West. Yet, although so many heterogeneous principles enter into its composition, the Turkish language is replete with grace and beauty. " Eich, dignified, and melodious, in dehcacy and nicety of expression it is not, perhaps, surpassed by any language; and in grandeur, beauty, and elegance, it is almost un equalled."^ The perfection of its mechanism, with respect to verbs, has been often noticed ; the addi tion of a single letter or syllable renders a verb passive, negative, impossible, causal, or reciprocal, according to the wiU of the speaker, thus frequently conveying the sense of an entire phrase in a single word. Yet, notwithstanding its multipUcity of grammatical forms, this language has not yet shaken off the yoke originally impressed on it in common with most of the tongues of High Asia ; it Is still remarkable for its stiffness of construction, and for its artificial disposition of words in composition. The extensive employment of gerunds and participles, to the almost total exclusion of conjunctions, and the grammatical law requiring words governed to precede the governing, combine with other causes in producing long involved periods, in which the sense is not ascertained tiU towards the close, and in which the words are ranged in an order directly contrary to what appears to us the natural sequence of Ideas. The most ancient Turkish alphabet is the Ouigour, from which the Mongolian is derived ; but the modern Turks use the Arabic and Persian characters. Their present alphabet consists of thhty-three letters, twenty-eight of which are Arabic, four are Persian, and one is pecuHar to the Turkish. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — Two versions of the Scriptures in kindred dialects of the Turkish language appear to have been completed about the same period. One of these versions, executed by Seaman, and printed In England, 1666, wiU hereafter be noticed. The other, comprising both the Old and New Testaments, was the work of AH Bey, whose history is rather remarkable. His original name was Albertus Bobowsky, or Bobovius ; he was born in Poland, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and while a youth was stolen by the Tartars,- and sold as a slave m Constantinople. After twenty years spent in the seragUo, he pubHcly embraced the Mahommedan rehgion, at the same time assuming the name of AH Bey ; and he then became ffrst dragoman or translator to Mahomet IV. He was noted for great erudition, and was said to_ be thoroughly con versant with seventeen languages ; and to his instructions the lexicographer Meninsky owed much of his celebrity. At the suggestion and under the direction of the famous Levin Warner, who was then at Constantinople as Dutch ambassador, AH Bey was induced to translate the Catechisni of the Church of England into Turkish; and this undertakfrig probably paved the way to the execution of his great work, the translation of the entire Scriptures into Turkish. It is not known with certainty whether he drew his text immediately from the inspired originals, yet the translation is considered on the whole to be faithful and accurate. The study of the sacred volume was not without effect on the translator; for it is recorded that AH Bey entertained thoughts of retuming to the Christian Church, and was only prevented by death from accompHshing his design. When his version was corrected and ready ¦ Preface to Persian Grammar, p. XTiii. ^ Prichard's Researches, vol. iv. pp. 381, 382. 3 Davids' Turkish Grammar, p. xlvi. 284 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV for the press, it was sent by Wamer to Leyden to be printed. It was deposited in the archives of the university of that city, among a valuable collection of Oriental MSS., and there it was suffered to remain for a century and a half; no effort whatever was made during all that period to print it, with the sole exception of a small edition of the first four chapters of Genesis, pubHshed by Schroeder of Marburg at Leipsic in 1739, with a Latin translation and notes.' Baron Von Diez, formerly Eussian ambassador at Constantinople, who was intimately conversant with the Turkish language, was among the first to draw the attention of Europe to this long-neglected translation. He offered his services in editing the MS. to the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society ; and meeting with great encourage ment to prosecute his design, the venerable senator immediately addressed himself to the revision of the Old Testament. He died, however, when he had completed but four books of the Pentateuch, and the work of revision was transferred by the Society to Kieffer, professor of the Turkish language at the University of Paris, and interpreting secretary to the King of France. The new editor dis approved of the plan pursued by his predecessor, particularly of his insertion of vowel points, and he therefore commenced the work anew. He applied himself, however, in the first instance to the New- Testament ; but, unfortunately, misunderstanding the directions of the Committee, he foUowed the text of the MS. implicitly, without collating it with the original Greek. Several errors in the text were thus inserted in the printed copies ; but it was not long before they were detected, and the dis covery gave rise to a printed controversy. It was a happy circumstance that scarcely a hundred copies had been issued when notice of these inaccuracies was received. The circulation was immediately suspended ; the errors, forty-nine in number, were examined and corrected by a sub-committee appointed expressly for the purpose, and Professor Kieffer commenced a laborious and elaborate revision of the text.^ He collated every portion, not only with the original, but with the Enghsh, German, and French versions, with the Tartar version of Seaman, and of the Scotch missionaries of Karass, with the versions of Erpenius and of Martyn, and with those in the London Polyglot. This revision was carried on from 1820 (at which period the errors were first detected) to 1828, when the entire Turkish Bible, with the embodied corrections, was completed at press, and obtained the attesta tions of the most eminent Orientalists in Europe as to its rigid accuracy and fidelity. The edition consisted of 5000 copies m 4to.; and the proofs, as they issued from the press, were read by Dr. Henderson, who was the first to detect the former errors. The work was printed at Paris, and the origmal MS. was afterwards returned to Leyden. In addition to the 5000 copies of the entire Bible above raentioned, 7000 Testaments and 2020 copies of the book of Genesis and the Psalms have been printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Eesults op the Dissemination op this Version. — Fanaticism, bigotry, and intolerance have been in aU ages the characteristics of the followers of the false prophet, and the dissemination of the Scriptures among them has ever been attended with peculiar difficulty. It has been justly remarked, that " one of the chief obstacles to the reception of Christianity, by the Turks, has always been the unhappy representation of true religion set before them by the Greek and Eoman Catholic Churches. Seeing the idolatry and evil lives of those who are called Christians, the Turks do not care to inquire Into the rehgion which, as they suppose, produces such fruits." Notwithstanding much discouragement, efforts are still being made, though in the most quiet and unobtrusive manner, to circulate the unadulterated Word of God in Turkey ; and it is a matter of general remark that the principle of religious toleration is now gaining ground, from day to day, in that benighted country. Few instances of the direct result of the perusal of the Scriptures on individuals of this nation can be adduced ; yet a passage from the Eev. Mr. Dalesslo's journal, dated April, 1847, possesses some interest, as showing that the holy seed may be prospering In cases in which those who have scattered It may consider their labour frultiess. "Some Armenians," says Mr. Dalessio, " were speaking about their affairs, and mentioned that day by day the number of those who read the Scriptures is increasing. A Turk, who heard them, said, ' Not only the Armenians read those books, but also some of the Turks in secret.' " ' ¦ Townley's illustrations, vol. iii. p. 495. s Pacts respecting certain Versions of Holy Scripture, by T. PeU ' Church Missionary Record, vol. xix. p. 04. Piatt, Esq., F.A.S., p. 23. TUECO-GEEEK AND TUEKISH-AEMENIAN. SPECIMEN OF THE TUECO-GEEEK VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. iTTTidadl KsXdfi fidp ISI, ^l KsXdfi 'AXXaxlv Kurivdd Idl' ^l KsXdfi 'AXXdx lii ' *C>\ iTTTiSaSl 'AXXaxlv Karivdd lS[. ' Xlp ijiyi dvivXs yiapa8iXd[- ^l x'ctK nlp^fiaxXovK dvaXl x^Xk hXoi^vfiak. ' ' Ofio^p dvXv IrKivSl idl, xlf^ 'ofio'^p dSsfi- Xeph vovpl IdL ^Noip Saxl icapavXiKSl Kiyid lyiXlp, mpavXlK: lal dvl Idpd^ 'iTfiESi. ' 'AXXaxSlv IpadX oXovvfiovg kip ddlfi ^dp Idi ki, dvlv ddl 'l(odvprjg l^L 'Eov aaxadsT f^Epfisyl yKeXdl, rd ici vovpddv 'brovpov aaxaSlr (ispi, ki ;^£'77to-t dvlv aekEkl IXI Ifidv yKSTipEXsp. ' "0 KEvdoval vovp dsylX Idl, tfxfia rd ki vovpSlv 'oTOvpov aaxaSsT (ispL "'0 vovp xAkk Idi ki, kov dovvyiayid yKsXlv xlp dSsfil vovpXavdipip. '° Aovvyiadi Idl, jSe dovvyid dv'ivXs yiaTziXfiiadip, |3e dovvyid dvl kiXfisdi. " "O KEvdovvivKiXspl yKEXdl, j3e KevdovvivKiXEpl dvl KakovX 'iTfiEdiXEp. Efifia AXXaxiv oXovXXapl oXovvfiayd KOvdpsTivl dvXsplv f'^o'VfiXEaivE ^spdl ki, dvl icako-vX Ido-VTT lafiivl Ifidv yKETovpEXip' '^ Kl dvXsp fil vl Kavdlv jSe vl vi^g dplovaivdlv, (31 VE kplv irsx^ETivdEv, XXXa 'AXXaxddv doyfiovaXdpd'tp. " .Se iceXafi rZ^iasd oXdov, x^fJ- Xovrtj) jSe ;^aK7?Kar^ex/ doXo'v Ikev dpafiiZ,dd fiSKidv Tovrdov, [ps kiZ, aviv fZ,EXakivl yKiopdovK kakaddv doyfiovg kipifZ^iK oyovXovv T^sXaXl yKtfft.) ON THE TUECO-GEEEK AND TUEKISH-AEMENIAN VEESIONS. These are, properly speaking, Turkish versions, but printed in Greek and Armenian letters, and accommodated to the dialectic pecuHarities which prevail among the Christians of Asia Minor. In 1782, the Psalms, translated into Turkish by Seraphim, metropoHtan of Karamania, were printed In Greek letters;' and in 1810 a Turkish version of the Acts and Epistles was printed in the same character at Venice. In consequence of inquiries Instituted in 1 8 18, by Dr. Pinkerton, respecting the state of the Christian inhabitants of Lydia, Caria, Lycia, Phrygia, Pisldia, Cillcla, and Lycaonla, it was ascertained that these poor. Ignorant, and oppressed people are all Greeks or Armenians, acquainted with no language but that of their Turkish masters. As they are unable to read or write except in their native characters, the Turkish Bible, from being printed In Turkish letters, Is unintelligible to them ; and thus the very country In which the glad tidings of great joy were first proclaimed by the Apostles, was -rirtually destitute of the Scriptures, until editions adapted to the requirements of the inhabitants were issued by the Biitish and Foreign Bible Society. The Society's first edition of the Turkish Testament, in Greek letters, consisting of 3000 copies, was printed in 1826 ; and further supplies, consisting of 1000 copies of the Acts and Epistles, 3000 copies of the Psalter, and 1000 copies of the 1 Townley's Illustrations, vol. iii. p. 495. 39 286 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. books of Job, Psalms, and Ecclesiastes, were shortly afterwards granted. Mr. Leeves, agent of the Society, subsequently undertook the preparation of a new and revised version, with the view of rendering the style stIU more conformable to the provincial mode of speaking Turkish which prevails among the Greek Christians of Asia Minor. In this work he was assisted by a native, a young man from Philadelphia, by name Christo Nicolaides, who joined Mr. Leeves, at Corfu, in 1832, and from that period to 1839 was uninterruptedly employed in the undertaking. The printing was commenced at Syra, and afterwards transferred to Athens. Editions consisting of 2500 copies of the entire Scriptures, 500 copies of the Testament, and 500 copies of the Pentateuch, left the press at the expense of the Society m 1839.' SPECIMEN OF THE TUEKISH-AEMENIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. iljr uJhuf^ti^ OfJlumi^ <^{.^ uilip ^j, ^l, 2^j ofUinL. . * ^ U^C?/^ ^"A <^uiku,p^ . ilir Of_ ^luhuiP^ l,u,l, i„up kVltuu X * ^ ll,^ oi_ iiiL-p tini^iJuiP^uilr ti/iku, ilk^pfip , ^f •^nt-iJiuP- u/Lliu, ifuiq./^ o/J^uutpj, * " \*puu,i_ o^iiJLinnL. \^iJuMk^p- ^m^- o^ "Lnup bi_bJu * .gb u/Uf^Lik "iCbi-Jlkub bJiul butklkp » * * «^4-tmA "•kjbi_ b'-b oi_ "Lnup . kJUh. ^b 2^^u,u,kP- b-^k oi_ "hni-p bi_b'-'i' « * ^ U,«"/» A"A o^ in..p b ^'"t ' sb Jbt.'Lk'ljlku b-"kp .gbi-iJ-b b'i'uuAb .gb i^ii^^t.^ u,bp jutik^Jt » * '" Qiui^Jl^k^ bu'ht # J"'lk'P iu^i^i^ Ofu,nL. , qk J'^lk'P u.l,b P^u.'hpJluu.pj, * " \Mu.uikvb'i'k (^w^ .girhu,b.pb ikpb'i'k) k^i_ u,b . ^^ luuMujkpb "'H t""^"'-L. kP^Jt^bikp * * " t'^^S' u/bb t""H"'-L. b'nkrh/Jrpk^ - un.^iJP^u.'h i_p^ ij^pu.b b'^'i'n'.lUu-^ OfJlu^ t u,%ijrp gb bJiul b"'kikp uAfli, buJfuk - * '' '^b w'i'ikp "uk t-u.'Lutk'i' , ilk 'i'k bp'""'I^P h XbubJ!nk1' ^Ur L4- JtibykP^ b krp 'n^l'* u,%iru,q. \X£jj"'>'«fr'i' P^k'U-b'" o^n^-lkp** JfiCu,bH- Jb"ib iTt-iCu. b bu^l b qu.<;bu, ki_ ll/^«»«4-L, jpt.J'p^kj, ^bjJ"tR "•- The Armenians are even more numerous in Asia Minor than the Greeks. A Turkish version hi thefr pecuHar dialect, and written in their characters, was commenced in 1815 by an Armenian Archimandrite, named Seraphim, in concert -mth another Armenian.^ An edition of 5000 copies of fhe Testament was printed at St. Petersburg in 1819; and Mr. Leeves devoted much time and trouble to the preparation of a re-vised edition. The work was afterwards taken up by the missionaries of the American Board of Missions. In 1 84 1, Mr. GoodeU stated that his strength and time had been for several years employed in preparing a translation directly from the original texts.^ In 1843, the entire Scriptures were completed at press at the expense of the American Society. 1 Thirty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 50. 2 Thirteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 121. ' Missionary Herald of the American Board, vol. 38. p. 135. KAEASS, OE TUEKISH-TAETAE. SPECIMEN OF THE KAEASS, OE TUEKISH-TAETAE, VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Seaman's Veesion, 1666, a.d. w ". ' L^' jUIcI ^ J LS'V.l Jj^ !>-^j^ J i^s'^jl '>«^ lifS^ J '^ Brunton's Version, 1813, a.d. ^3^.1 Jf^l ci-vJ^j ^^Jo.l jlj ^..vJ^ ijJLjU ' ^^.1 JfjJuU Jjl ^U> ' * ^jol <)dJl u^.*!^ J jlj cijU^ „A3l ' *^jjjl a^ ^jjjl *^ J^ J * * L^'^'.^ i^y uJ,1.j1 cljU*. j |_jJo1 (»j^.l) Jl jKy _j ^^ji ^^ ^^\j ^j1 ^ ^^4,AJ/ ^^^^- ^j1 ^ ' * ^J^^ yb ^^ ^^.1 J.£=j ^y y, ' *J^ »j_y *jj>vijjy '»-"^' cA^ 'V.^'^y' -i^ 0'^) Jji ^UJi JjaS ^^l^di ON THE KAEASS, OE TUEKISH-TAETAE, LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. The version of the Scriptures generaUy denominated the Karass, Is so caUed because a to-wn of that name, on the borders of the Caspian, was the place of its publication. It has also been Im properly termed the Nogay version, on account of its having been found inteUigibie to the Nogais, a tnbe of Tartars dweUing on the banks of the Kuban and Kuma, near Mount Caucasus. A more cor rect designation for this version is that of Turkish- Tartar, because it consists principally of words that 288 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. belong in common to the Turks and Tartars.' It exhibits the Turkish language in a comparatively pure state, divested of the circumlocutory forms and foreign words adopted by the Turks of Constan tinople, and restored to its pristine simplicity. So far from being written in the colloquial dialect of any particular district, this version corresponds In style and language with such books as are circulated among the Tartars In the south of Eussia, and Is therefore intelligible to all the different Tartar hordes scattered through that extensive region. The first version of the Scriptures written in this plain, unadorned Turkish style, was that pub lished at Oxford in 1666,^ at the joint expense of the philosopher Boyle and ofthe Levant Company. The translator was Mr. WilHam Seaman, a moderate noncomformist, who had formerly been chaplain to an English ambassador at the Porte. This version was not free from faults, and it partook too much of the Constantinopolitan idiom to be readily understood by the Tartars. It served, however, as the basis of a translation which Mr. Brunton, Scottish missionary at Karass, undertook expressly for the benefit of the Tartar tribes. To avoid the errors into which Seaman had fallen, Mr. Brunton care fuUy examined the original text, and consulted, from time to time, the EngHsh, German, and other versions. In 1807 he published an edition of 500 copies of the Gospel of Matthew, In foho, and on blue paper. Never was an edition of any part of the Scripture carried through the press under more untoward circumstances. The missionaries had difficulty in obtaining the materials requisite for prmt- ing ; and owing to the bad construction of their printing-office, their operations were often impeded by the inclemency of the weather ; added to this, they were frequently driven, by the predatory Incur sions of the Tcherkesslans, to inter their types In order to secure them. On the completion of this Gospel, the British and Foreign Bible Society sent supplies to Karass to print 5000 copies of the entire Testament. Mr. Brunton only lived to complete the translation, and died while it was being carried through the press. He was so intimately acquauited with the language in which he wrote, and his style was so pure and Idiomatic, that the Tartars looked upon him as a renegade Turk. After his death, the sheets were corrected by Mr. Frazer, and the edition was completed in 1813. This edition obtained so extensive a circulation in the south of Eussia, that another edition of 5000 copies was issued two years afterwards at Astrachan. This was merely a reprint of the Karass edition, with a few emendations introduced by "Mr. Dickson, one of the Scottish missionaries. A translation of the Old Testament was undertaken about the same time by Mr. Dickson. The Psalms were completed and published at Astrachan in 1815, and a second edition of 3000 copies appeared at the same place in 1818. Mr. Dickson afterwards proceeded to render Mr. Brunton's version of the New Testament into a more polished style, and availed himself for this purpose of AH Bey's Turkish version, which he compared with the original text, and with the principal modern translations. It does not appear, however, that any portion of this work has been pubHshed. Eesult op the Dissemination of this Version.- — Many years have now elapsed since direct intelligence concerning the spiritual state of the Tartar hordes has been obtaiaed in this country. It is gratifying however to know, that when Dr. Henderson and Dr. Paterson visited Karass in 1820, they found that the Turkish- Tartar New Testament was weU understood by the natives, and that in consequence of their reading it, their prejudices had in a great measure been softened do-vsm, and a general knowledge of the principles of Christianity had been diffused among them.^ A similar testimony to the value of this version was borne In 1835 by Mr. Galloway, a Scottish missionary employed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in disseminating the Scriptures among the Tartars. J Henderson's BibUcal Researches in Russia, p. 425. 2 Le Long, edit. Masch. pt, ii. vol. i. sec. 8. p. 16?. 3 Eighteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 25. OEENBUEG-TAETAE. SPECIMEN OF THE OEENBUEG-TAETAE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. .ae..J^ ^U, ^ *^^\ \^ ,^^^ ^^, ,,j^ ^^^^^ ^^_,^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^M T , ^4^ ^^.L=i^ .^, " *^,UL JT ^^^ ^^,."^W i^^l ,'ly'V^ ON THE OEENBUEG-TAETAE DIALECT AND VEESION. This version is -written in the dialect of the Kirghlsian- Tartars, and was especiaUy designed for the use of members of that nation residing in the Eussian government of Orenburg. The dialect is spoken not only in Orenburg, but also in the vast tracts of country extending from the Caspian and Lake of Aral to the frontiers of China.' It Is the vernacular tongue of two distinct people, namely, of the true or Kara-Kirghis who inhabit the banks of certain rivers in South Siberia, and of the Kazak-Kirghls, the present occupants of the Eirghis Steppe. The latter are divided Into three hordes, caUed the great horde, Httle horde, and middle horde. The great horde is reckoned among the tributaries of China, but the dependence is merely nominal. The other hordes, though in some degree subject to Eussia, also preserve a sort of independence of their o-wn.^ According to Eussian authorities, the probable number of individuals composing the three hordes is from 2,000,000 to 2,400,000.^ This version is not an original translation, but merely an accommodation of Mr. Brunton's Karass version to the pecuHar Idioms and orthography or the Kirghlsian Tartars.'' Mr. Charles Frazer, one of the Scottish missionaries at Astrachan, was employed In the preparation of the work. An edition of 2000 copies of the Gospel of Matthew was printed In 1818, and two years afterwards 5000 copies of the entire Testament were completed at the Mission press of Astrachan, at the expense of the Russian Bible Society. The Kirghisians are aU Mahommedans, and though once a cl-rillsed and hterary people, are now in a state of semi-barbarism. Since the suspension of the Eussian Bible Society there have been few opportunities of ascertaining what results have been -wrought among this nation by means of the perusal of their vernacular Scriptures. ' Davids' Turkish Grammar, p. xiii. ' Levchin, Description des Kirghiz-Kazais, p. 300. - Abel Remusat, Reeherches sur les Langues Tartares, pp. 309, 310. < Henderson's BibUcal Researches in Russia, p. 426. KAEAITE-TAETAE. SPECIMEN OF THE KAEAITE-TAETAE VEESION. GENESIS, Chap. i. v. I to 8. ^Jijy lJ:^^ j ^^\ J^y J yJ^=^ J, J ' *L5'^V. Jj- i JJ^ ^^ LsJ^ "^J^ ' * lS*^-^ JJ^^'^'W'* L^V '— A^^ LSJ^^' ''•^'^J^ LsJ^Ji^- •— A^l»¦^J^ J LS'^'^ J^- i^'.^^]/ ^'^^j' J^^. "^ U^J.^ ^i->^' ^-^^ u/^' J ' *^5^^ ^^^' -5 ^^'^•^ ^^^' ^^-^^' ^5-^^^' -J ' •^At^jV" LS"^.^ ^^r=^ -5 ' * LS-^J^ U>*^ L^> ^^^J^ '^JS i >^.^ J ^5'V^ ^"^ '-^t^l'-j i^*^" Ls^t^J Jj^ ^r=^ J ' *uryJ u^V ^jJr'j wr^j^ t^l'>?^ i(jl.=ljj,l ON THE KAEAITE-TAETAE DIALECT AND VEESION. The Karaites or " Sons of the Text" are a Je-wish sect, so called from the Hebrew word K*)p, Scripture, on account of their reverence for the written law. They are the Protestants of Judaism, and are distinguished from other Jews by their rejection of the oral law, and of aU traditionary inter pretation, and by their exclusive attachment to the Scriptures of the Old Testament as the only infalhble source and test of truth. This sect, according to Dr. Henderson and other authorities, was, in all probabiUty, originally the same with that of the Sadducees, one of the sects into which the Jewish nation was di-vided about two hundred years before the coming of Christ. The erroneous doctrines which were entertained by the Sadducees during the time of our Lord, appear to have formed no part of their original creed, and it has been thought that the adoption of these unscriptural tenets, by the disciples of Sadok, gave birth to the Karaim.' No statistical accounts have been given recently of the Karaite Jews, but it Is certain that they are very few In number as compared with the Jews of the Eabbinlcal sect. About the middle of the seventeenth century there were 2000 Karaites in Poland, 70 in Constantinople, 1200 in Theodosia, 300 in Cairo, 200 in Damascus, 30 in Jerusalem, IOO in Babylonia, and 600 in Persia.^ At the present day the Karaites are dispersed through various parts of Eussia, in Austria, Turkey, Egypt, Abyssinia, Hindoostan, and Palestine. They are highly esteemed by the nations among whom they dweU on account of their amiable and moral deportment ; but by their Eabbinlcal brethren they are held in utter abhorrence. The Karaites have long been in possession of a Tartar version of the Old Testament. The date and author of this ancient document are alike unknown ; but we find a quotation from it (consisting 1 Henderson's BibUcal Researches in Russia, p, 316. 2 Henderson's BibUcal Researches in Russia, p. 319; see Thesaur. Philol.p.583. Detached Families.] TSCHUWASCHIAN. 291 of the first three verses of Genesis) in an epistle, dated 1691, written by Gustavus Peringer, and Inserted in Tenzel's Monthly Accounts. Further descriptions of this version were subsequently given by Wolfius and others : yet little was known concerning it in Europe until Dr. Pinkerton, when traveUmg in the Crimea, -visited one ofthe settlements ofthe Karaites, and purchased a complete copy. The two books of Chronicles do not appear to have been inserted in tius version, but it comprises aU the other books of the Old Testament. It is -written in the Eabbinlcal character, -with the addition of certain points and signs indicative of the pronunciation of Tartar sounds. The headings of the chapters are in Hebrew, and the first and last verses of every book, -with the exception of the Minor Prophets, are also given in Hebrew. The dialect in which the translation is made was at one time supposed to be the Jagatai, spoken by the Tartars of Bokhara. This hypothesis, however, was unsup ported by history or experience ; and it has sfrice been proved that the Karaite-Tartar (as this dialect is termed) could never have been vernacular or even intelHgible to any Tartar nation. The words, indeed, are mostly of Tartar origin, but they are ranged in the exact order of the Hebrew, and the style, construction, grammatical observances, and idioms are aU conformable to the Shemitic type. This version is, in fact, so truly Hebrew in its character, that to the Turks and Tartars it is a sealed book ; and even Tartar Jews, if unacquainted -with their ancient language, are unable to read it. Nor is it hkely to be of more general ser-rice even in bibhcal criticism ; for not-withstanding the known attachment of the Karaites to the letter of the sacred text, many of the interpretations in this version are obviously drawn from the Chaldee Targums, and from the renderings in Eabbinlcal commentaries. On account of this deficiency in point of practical utIHty, the British and Foreign Bible Society have printed but a small specimen portion of this version. An edition of 2000 copies of the book of Genesis was pubHshed at their expense in 1819, at the Mission press of Astrachan : these copies were sent to various parts of Eussia and Tartary; but not being found avaUable for missionary purposes among any of the Tartar tribes, no further portions of the version have been issued by the Society. An edition of the entfre version has been recently pubUshed by the Jews of South Eussia, who defrayed the expense by means of subscriptions collected for the purpose : the work, which is in two volumes, is said to be very inaccurately printed. TSCHUWASCHIAN (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate IX.) The Tschuwaschians inhabit both sides of the Volga in the governments of Nische Novogorod, Kasan, and Orenburg. They are also found in Simborsk and Vietka. Many of them are stiU idolaters, and offer sacrifices on a kind of altar caUed Keremet.' The stmcture of thefr dialect is essentiaUy Turkish, and three parts ofthe words are unquestionably derived from that language. The rest of the words are chiefly Samoyede and Finnish ; there are also many words which present an astonishing resemblance to the corresponding terms in Coptic.^ A Bible Society was formed in Simborsk in I8I7, partly for the purpose of furnishing the Tschuwaschians with the New Testament in their own dialect. In 18 18, the Four Gospels were translated from the Sclavonic under the superintendence of the Society ; and two years afterwards the entire Testament, after having been coUated with the Greek original, was completed at press at Kasan, under the care of the Archbishop of Kasan, to whose diocese the people belong. The edition, which was prhited in Eussian characters, consisted of 5000 copies, and was issued at the expense of the Russian Bible Society. 1 Davids' Turkish Grammar, p. xUv. = Klaproth, Memoires relatifs a I'Asie, p. 205. "3 ''i TEANS-CAUCASIAN TAETAE. SPECIMEN OF THE TEANS-CAUCASIAN TAETAE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. ^ I *J5^ Jl/^' ^J^, \ j^j^ ^^ f^ U * )j/f ^} oj/;-^> *^^ M; r/i^ V) ' "" Jy>VV.^ ^^' "(/ 0.;^^ ^ f^ «;«y^ y^ ^i!j ^y e^ ^ ^^^ ^>f^^ w{^ e;A^ ON THE TEANS-CAUCASIAN TAETAE DIALECT AND VEESION. A PECULIAR and rather corrupt dialect of the Turkish is spoken by the greater part of the Moslem population In Georgia, Shushi, Scherwan, Draband, Bahu, Karabagh, and North-west Persia.' As it is vernacular to numerous tribes in all the Eussian provinces beyond the Caucasus, this dialect has been termed, by way of distinction, the Trans-Caucasian. It difiers In many respects from Its cognate dialects spoken in Kasan and the Crimea. It has none of the sweetness and dignity of the Turkish ; and till reduced to grammatical principles by the German missionaries, did not even hold the rank of a written tongue.^ The first work written in this dialect was a translation of the New Testament by Messrs. Zaremba and Pfander, agents of the Basle Missionary Society. They at first experienced great difficulty in preparing this translation; for the Armenians of Shushi, though acquainted with the dialect as a colloquial medium, were unable to write It, and the Turks were unwilling to lend any aid to the undertaking. Afterwards, however, an efficient assistant was found in Mirza Ferookh, an Armenian of Shushi, who in early youth had been carried captive Into Karadagh, adopted Into the family of the khan, and Instructed in all the learning of Persia. After spending seventeen years at the court of his royal patron, he bethought himself of his parents and his native viUage, and made his escape thither. He originaUy joined the missionaries with a view of learning the Eussian language; but they employed him in translating this version of the New and part of the Old Testament into his native dialect, and the work was blessed to the conversion of his soul. An edition of 1000 copies of the Gospel of Matthew was printed about the year 1836 by the British and Foreign Bible Society.' Since that period all direct missionary efforts in the circulation of this version have been suspended by an imperial ukase. 1 Twenty-eighth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ix. 2 Smith and Dwight, Researches in Armenia. ^ Thirty-second Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xlvii. . CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. F. CAUCASIAN FAMILY. GEO EG I AN. (For Specimen of this Version, see Plate IX.) Geographical Extent and Statistics. — Georgia, the country of the ancient Iberi, Ues at the feet ofthe Caucasus Mountains, between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and comprises an area of 18,000 square miles, and a population of from 300,000 to 400,000.' The adjacent tracts of country, sometimes Included under the general name of Georgia, are occupied by the Mlngrehans, the Immire- tians, the Suani, and the Lazians, who all form part of the Georgian race, and speak dialects of that language; the coUective amount of population, including Georgia Proper, has been estimated at 2,375,487.^ Since the beginning of the present century, Georgia has formed a province of the Eussian empire, and the national rehgion is the same as that of Eussia. Characteristics of the Language. — Although In the structure of the Georgian language there are several remarkable points of analogy connecting it on the one hand -with the languages of the Indo-European class, and on the other with those of Eastern and Central Asia, yet it differs in words and roots from all known languages, and is therefore entitled to be regarded as a peculiar and distinct idiom.' Its frequent use of post positions, and the ease with which certain words can be made to sub serve alternately the offices of substantives, adjectives, and adverbs, are points in which it claims afSnity with the Tm-klsh or Tartarian stock ; "* while its multiplicity of inflections, formed for the most part by variations of termination, seems to connect it -frith the Indo-European class. It possesses eight distinct cases, formed according to rules that are both simple and uniform; and in abundance of verbal inflections it is surpassed by few languages ; for though it has but two moods, the indicative and the imperative, yet the perfect tense in certain verbs can present itself under seven or eight different forms, to which the future tense has as many corresponding ones.^ In fact, its forms of verbs are almost innumerable, for nearly every verb has some pecuHarities in conjugation which can be learnt only by practice.^ The alphabetical characters used by the Georgians are of two distinct kinds, the one appropriated to civil and the other to ecclesiastical purposes ; they are both, however, derived from the Armenian ; and owing to the political relations between the two nations, many Armenian words have been engrafted on the Georgian language. This admixture, with the addition of Turkish,_ Greek, and other foreign words, serves principaUy to distinguish the modern language of Georgia from the venerable Idiom in which the version of the Scripture Is written. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — According to a tradition of the Geor gian church, the Scriptures were translated into this language, in the eighth century, by Euphemlus, the founder and patron of the Iberian monastery on Mount Athos.'^ It Is stated, however, by other authorities, that In the sixth century the Georgians sent young men of talent Into Greece to_ study the Greek language, and that on their return they furnished thefr countrymen with a translation of the Scriptures and of the Hturgical books of the Greek church.* But whoever may have been the trans- ' M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary, vol. i. p. 838. ^ Journal Asiatique, vo x p. 360. 2 Klaproth, Tableau du Caucase, p. 93. « Brosset, Elements de la Langue Georgiemie, pp. 64, 6/ . ' Klaproth, Voyage au Mont Caucase, vol. ii. p. 518. ' Townley's Illustrations, vol. m. p. 513. < Journal Asiatique, vol. x. p. 356. « Henderson's Bibhcal Researches m Russia, p. 518. 294 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class IV. lator, it is certain that the Georgian version of the Old Testament was translated from the Septuagint, and the New Testament from Greek MSS. of the Constantinopohtan family; and that the entire version was executed at some time between the sixth and the eighth centuries. _ This version would have been of great value in a critical point of view, had it not been cormpted during the many centuries through which it has passed. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, it was in particular grossly interpo lated, for it was then collated with the Sclavonic version, and portions of the Old Testament, which had been lost during the political troubles of Georgia, were translated anew from the Sclavonic. This re-rislon was carried on at Moscow under the superintendence of Georgian princes who had sought refuge in Eussia. Prince Arcil was the first to engage in the work, but he died before it was com pleted, and a new and more careful revision was commenced by Prince Vakuset, who rendered the entire version as conformable as possible to the Sclavonic, and introduced the use of verses in imitation of that text. A printed edition was brought out under his direction, at Moscow, in 1743, at the expense of his brother. Prince Bacchar; the types were cast in that city, and the correction of the press was committed to four native Georgians.' This was the first occasion on which the entire Georgian version had been committed to the press ; but a small edition of the New Testament, with the Psalms and Prophets, had been printed a few years previously under the care of Prince Vaktangh, at Tiflls, In Georgia. The Moscow edition formed the text of the New Testament printed by the Moscow Bible Society in 1815, under the superintendence ofthe Georgian Metropolitan, Ion, and of .Archbishop Pafnut, both resident in the Kremlin at Moscow. The edition consisted of 5000 copies, and the types from which it was printed were cast from the very matrices which had been used for the former edition, and which had been providentially preserved during the conflagration of the city at the time of Napoleon's invasion. The Society was induced to issue this edition by information received through Dr. Pin kerton, in 1814, concerning the state of the Greco- Georgian church. At that period there were at least 2000 churches in Georgia, Imeretta, and Mingrelia; and 200 copies of the Bible could not be found amongst them all. In consequence of this scarcity of the Scriptures, the clergy were very ignorant ; but the women of Georgia were noted for the zeal with which they devoted themselves to the acquisition of religious knowledge. The tradition that the Georgian nation was first converted to Christianity by the preaching of a Greek -virgin, named Ninna, in the fourth century, had much influence on pubhc opinion ; and a proper acquaintance -with the doctrines of Scripture has always been considered in Georgia an indispensable part of female education.^ In 1818, the Society printed another edition of 2000 copies of the New Testament : in this edition the civil or common characters were adopted, which were found more generally intelUgible to the laity, the former editions haring been printed In the sacred or ecclesiastical character, which is almost exclusively used by the clergy. More recent editions of various portions of the Scriptures have been printed at Tiflls and in Eussia, but concerning these editions we have no particular account. ^ Henderson's Bibhcal Researches in Russia, p. 522. 2 Owen's History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. iii. p. 43. CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. C. SAMOIEDE FAMILY. SAMOIEDE. The Samoiedes (or, as the word literally signifies, salmon eaters) were In aU probabUity the earhest inhabitants of Northern Asia. They are a degraded, ignorant race, depending for a precarious subsistence upon fishing and the chase, and slaves to the most abject superstition. They are scattered in divided groups over a large proportion of Siberia, their settlements extending almost from the Dwina and the neighbourhood of Archangel to the Lena in East Siberia.' Vocabularies of Samoiede words were coUected by Pallas and Klaproth ; and the result of comparing them with those of other languages has been to prove that the Samoiede approximates more closely to the Finnish than to any other Idiom. As early as 1819, a proposal emanating from Johannes Wernagoff, of Beresof, was laid before the Branch Bible Society at Tobolsk, to translate the Scriptures into Samoide. Nothing more, however, was heard ofthe undertaking till the year 1824, when, at a meeting of the Eussian Bible Society, a specimen ofthe first chapter of St. Matthew, in Samoiede, was sent for inspection by Neophitos, bishop of Archangel. This chapter had been read to several Samoiedes, who had understood it very well, and several clergymen of the parish of Ischemsk were in consequence employed to continue the trans lation, under the inspection of Bishop Neophitos. The Committee resolved to encourage the work, in the hope of bringing a people sitting in gross darkness to the saving light of the Gospel ; but unhappily the suspension of the Society by an imperial ukase, in 1826, prevented the prosecution of the trans lation. Prichard, Natural History of Man, p. 224. CLASS IV.-DETACHED FAMILIES. H. DIALECTS OF THE ISLANDS OF EASTERN ASIA, AND OF COREA. JAPANESE. (For a Specimen of this Version, see Plate X.) The Japanese empire consists of five large and many small islands, lying between lat. 30° and 50" N., and long. 128° and 151° E. The Japanese have been the predominant race In this extensive empire from time Immemorial, and it is now impossible to ascertain from what region they originally emigrated, for in physical conformation, religion, and language, they differ from all the neighbouring nations. In the absence of correct statistical accounts, it has been conjectured that the population of this empire, exclusive of its dependencies, amounts at least to 50,000,000. The primitive religion of the Japanese is called Sin-siu, literaUy, "doctrine of spirits :" it consists in the adoration of numerous spirits or di-rinities supposed to preside over all things visible and invisible, and among the foremost in the ranks of these false gods are included the progenitors of the present line of emperors. This ancient form of belief has, however, in a great measure been superseded by Buddhism, which is now the prevailing religion in Japan. There are also many followers of Confucius, who, as in China, devote their sole attention to the affairs of this Hfe, -without reference to a future state of existence. Characteristics op the Language.' — Japanese Is a polysyUabic language, and altogether different In structure and Idiom from the Chinese. The very organs of articulation are dissimilar In the two nations; and such Chinese words as have passed into the Japanese vocabulary are greatly altered in pronunciation. Words of Chinese origin are however very common in Japanese, having been introduced by Chinese colonies, but more particularly by the influence of Chinese Hterature, upon which all the learning of Japan Is based. Yet there are points in which the Japanese coincides with the monosyllabic and Tartarian classes of languages : it has, for instance, no terminatlonal dis tinctions of gender, and the cases of substantives are denoted by suffixes; the verbs have regular inflections to denote the difference of tense, but they are invariable -with respect to number and person.' In many of its most simple and radical words, Japanese also claims affinity -with the Idioms of Eastern Asia ; and several such elemental terms have been pointed out by Klaproth as common to the Japanese, Mongolian, and Finnish languages. The Chinese characters were formerly used In writing Japanese, but not being found adapted to express the sounds of this language, three different syllabaries were invented by the Japanese, and are now In general use ; they consist chiefly of modified and contracted Chinese characters.^ Version op the Scriptures in this Language. — The rigid exclurion of foreigners from -Japan, and the suspicious and vigilant spirit of the government, have rendered the translation of the Scriptures Into Japanese a matter of almost insuperable difficulty. Dr. Medhurst, agent of the London ]\IissIonary Society in China, appUed to the study of the Japanese language, and made copies of the dictionaries and other works that were accessible to him, in the hope of qualifying Irimself for this 1 Prichard's Eesearches, vol. iv. p. 494. 2 Calcutta Cliristian Observer for 1838, No. I. Detached Famihes. J ALEUTIAN. 297 arduous undertaking ; but the honour of translating the first portion of Scripture into the language of this extensive empire was reserved for Dr. Gutzlaff. About the year 1835, three shipwrecked Japanese marinersarrived at Macao on their voyage homewards, and during the few months that they remained in that city, Dr. Gutzlaff availed himself of their aid in translating the Gospel of St. John into their language._ _ This translation was printed at Singapore about the year 1839, but it does not appear that opportunities have as yet been afforded for its circulation. LOOCHOOAN. (For a Specimen of this Version, see Plate X.) The Loochoo, or Lewchew Islands, are thirty-six in number, and He about 400 or 500 nules eastward of China, nearly midway between Japan and Formosa. The principal island, called Great Loochoo, from which the entire group derives its name, is fifty miles long, and from twelve to fifteen broad, but most of the other islands are of very inferior dimensions. The inhabitants are of the same race as the Japanese, and speak a dialect of that language. They are now subject to China: their rehgion is that of Fo or Buddha, and their govemment is a despotic monarchy. A mission, called the " Loochoo Naval Mission," having for its object the conversion of the Loochooans to Christianity, was commenced about the year 1843. Dr. Bettelheim, a medical mis sionary, was sent, in 1846, by this Society to Loochoo, where he and his family stUl remain. He has translated portions ofthe Scriptures into Loochooan; and from the similarity of this dialect to Japanese, it Is hoped that his translations may be found useful in Japan itself In addition to contributions from other sources, a grant of fifty pounds has been voted by the British and Foreign Bible Society towards defraying the expenses of printing Dr. Bettelhelm's version of the Gospel of Luke and of the Acts. As the Japanese characters are used in writing Loochooan, and as the casting of type for these characters in England is far more expensive than cutting the blocks in China, it has been resolved to have the work printed at Hong Kong by a converted Japanese, under the immediate superintendence of friends of the Society. On the completion of the edition, it will be forwarded for distribution to the translator at Loochoo.' ALEUTIAN, OE ALIOUT-LISEYEFF. The Aleutian Islands form a long cfrcular chain, above 600 miles In length, traversing the North Pacific from Cape Alaska, in America, to the peninsula of Kamtschatka, in Asia,_so as ahnost to unite the two continents. These islands are extremely numerous, and were partially discovered by Behring m 1741; the largest, which stiU bears his name, is 104 mUes in length, but many of the other islands are mere rocks. They are much frequented by the Eussian Fur Company, and are included in the govemment of Irkutsk. Most of the inhabitants are idolaters, though some of them have been baptized and Instructed in the rites of the Greek church. They subsist chiefly on the produce of fishing and the chase; and, to judge from thefr habits and physical conformation, appear an interme diate race between the MongoHans and the North American Indians. Their language is very similar 1 Report of the Loochoo Naval Mission for 1849-60. (.Paleaiine Place, Sethml Green.) 293 THE BIBLE OF EVEKY LAND. [Class IV. to that ofthe Esquimaux, especially ofthe NamoUos, an Esquimaux tribe reridlng on the shore ofthe north-eastern promontory of Asia.' In point of number, the Aleutians have been variously estimated at from a few hundreds to six thousand. ~p, .it i-d. t The Gospel of St. Matthew has been translated for the benefit ot these islanders by Fnest Joan Veniuminoff, otherwise written John Benjaminoff, by whom the language was first reduced to writing. He had resided for fifteen years as misrionary among this people : the dialect in which the translation is made Is that spoken in the island of Oonalaskka ; but there is no great difference between the idioms of the various islands of this group, any local pecuHarity being readUy explained by means of marginal notes. The first chapter of Luke, and the first two chapters of the Acts, have been translated by the same Eusrian priest into the dialect spoken in the island of Atkho. The only Aleutian translation wMch has hitherto been committed to the press is that of the Gospel of St. Matthew, which was printed at Moscow, in 1840, in parallel columns with the Eussian version. COEE AN. Corea is a peninsula of North-East Asia, separated from Mantchou Tartary by a lofty chain of mountains. Its area, inclusive of the islands near its shores, has been estimated at 80,000 square miles: its amount of population is uncertain, but does not probably exceed 2,000,000. The govem ment Is a despotic monarchy, and the country is tributary to China, and perhaps to Japan : the rehgious systems of Buddha and of Confucius have each their respective adherents. The language, being destitute of inflections indicative of gender and number, and forming its cases by means of suffixes, is analogous in its main features to the Tartarian class.^ It is also strikingly simUar to Japanese. Many Chinese words enter into its composition, for Corea has received Its civiUsation and its Uterature from China, and the Chinese language is sedulously cultivated by all ranks as the principal learned and Hterary medium, and the only avenue to political distinction. Composite words are of very frequent occurrence in Corean, the first syllable consisting of the native word, and the second of the Chinese synonym pronounced In the Corean manner. This arrangement renders the language extremely verbose, but its sound is by no means disagreeable to the ear of a foreigner, the pronunciation being clear, full, and sonorous. In writing, the Coreans use characters similar in theory to the Japanese syUabIc system, but suited to the pecuHar articulations of their o-wn language.^ These characters are placed in vertical columns, as in Chinese and Japanese. In 1832, the shores of Corea were visited by Dr. Gutzlaff, who distributed portions of the Chinese Scriptures among the inhabitants, and caused a copy of the entire Chinese version to be conveyed to the monarch. A translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew into Corean has been effected by a Baptist missionary, and the Psalms have been translated by Dr. Schmidt; but these translations are still in MS., and thefr critical merits have not been ascertained. There is at present no possibility of introducing the light of Divine truth Into Corea : foreigners are zealously excluded from the country, and Europeans are seldom permitted even to land on its shores. 1 Prichard's Researches, vol. iv. pp. 46o, 462. 2 Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. iii. p. 586. 3 Chinese Repository, vol. i. p. 277. MISSIONARY STATIONS IN AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. NEW SOUTH WALES. 1 Sydney 2 Camden 3 Goulburn 4 Moreton Bay 5 Alexandria 6 Appin . 7 Bungonia . 8 Campbellto-wn 9 Carcoar 10 Castle mu . 11 Clarence and Macleay 12 Gosford 13 Hexham . 14 Hunter's Hill 15 Maneroo . 16 Marsfield 17 Mnswell Brook 18 Newtovm 19 Penrith . 20 Queanbeyan 21 West Maitland 22 Tass 23 Paramatta 24 Windsor 28 Bathurst . 26 Wollongong . 27 Hunter's River 28 Port Macquarie VICTOEIA, OE POET PHILIP. 29 Melbourne Williamstown Gipps' Land Heidelberg Geelong . Buntingdale Ib. D. J B. D. E i-D. 30 3334 }D. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 35 Adelaide . 36 Port Adelaide 37 Gaivler 38 Mount Barker 39 Burra Burra 40 Willunga 41 McGiU 42 Encounter Bay . WESTEEN AUSTRALIA. 43 Freemantle 44 Perth (Swan Eiver) TASMANIA, OR VAN DIEMEN'S LANB. 45 Hobart Town 46 PontviUe 47 Tasman's Peninsula 48 Longford 49 Swansea 50 Avoca . 51 Evendale . 52 New Norfolk 53 Eoss and Campbelltown . B. D. B. ¦f E. B.D. B. D. 54 Launceston NEW ZEALAND. -J ¦ .u. NOETHEEN DiSTEICT. 55 'Waiinate 56 Wainffaroa 57 Kaitaia 58 Kaikohi 59 Kerikeri . 60 Tepuna 61 PaiMa A. Church Missionary Society. •}a. d. Lat. Long. 1 33° S3'S. 34 29 34 46 27 28 151° 150149 '53 15'E. 4545 3 34 12 34 52 34 2=> I Jo 149150 505852 33 41 32 37 151151 6 45 - 33 46 iSi 5 32 44 34 46 33 48 33 37 33 2S 34 22 32 ii 31 28 148 151 150149150151152 33 50 2 SI2856 45 so 37 48 37 48 144144 5753 38 8 144 22 34 56 34 50 34 40 Si ° 138138138138 363430 58 3S 3° 138 SO 32 4 31 56 "5"5 41 50 42 S4 147 28 43 1° 148 0 42 II 41 So 148147 8 50 42 49 42 0 41 30 147147147 14 35 15 39 33 37 36 3S 2 174175173 10 0 15 35 12 35 10 35 17 174 1 74 174 5 Middle Di3tkict. 62 Auckland 63 Hauraki . , 64 Kaitotehe .... 65 Otawao 66 Waikato .... 67 Tauranga 68 Roturoa .... "Westeen Disteict. 69 "Wanganui 70 Waikanai Easteen Disteict. 71 Hicks' Eay 72 East Cape 73 Opotikl 74 Uawa 75 Turanga 76 Wairoa .... 77 Waitangi . 78 Nelson 79 "Wellington (Port Nicliolson) 80 Pehiakura .... 81 Mangungu and Whangaroa 82 Waima and Newark . 83 "Wairoa (Kaipara) . 84 Kawhia, and Mokau, &c. 85 New Plyraoutli 86 "Waikowati .... 87 Euapuki . 88 Motukaramu SOCIETY ISLANDS. 89 Tahiti 90 Eimeo 91 Maiaoiti . 92 Huaheine 93 Kaiatea 94 Tahaa . 95 Eorabora 96 Maupiti COOK'S, OE HERYEY ISLANDS. 97 Karotonga 98 Aitutaki 99 Atiu . 100 Mitiaro . 101 Mauti 102 A. B. D, A. ¦}a. B. E. B. D. D. }E. ¦c. 1-C. NAVIGATOES' ISLANDS. 103 Savaii 104 Opolu 105 Manono 106 Tutuila 107 Manua FEIENDLT ISLANDS. 108 Tongataboo . 109 Habai no Vavaoo . Ill Keppel's Island 112 Niua Eo-ou . 113 WaUis's Island rEEJEE ISLANDS. 114 Lakemba 11.5 Eewa 1 16 Viwa and Bau 117 Somosomo SANDWICH ISLANDS. 118 Hawaii (O'whyhee) . 119 Maui 120 Molokai 121 Oahu 122 Kauai .i-C. I ¦J r T Lat. 36° 50'S. 37 51 37 20 37 40 38 7 39 58 40 8 37 38 37 41 37 52 38 22 38 46 41 IS 41 16 38 5 39 0 17 35 17 i° 16 40 16 42 16 25 21 15 18 40 20 0 19 52 20 10 21 50 13 4° 13 50 13 S° 14 20 14 8 21 10 19 5-G. D. E. •D. 3° 55'S. 6 25 20 20 4 4° 15 50 8 3oN, 13 26 13 27 6 17 7 o 5 S 5 II 5 25 4 21 o 10 3 35 4 0 4 o 4 35 B.C. D 33 55 B. C 33 32 47 16 C. D 3333 32 19 55 21 3233 49 53 34 3 33 34 33 14 33 54 33 31 Long. 1 39° 28'E. 39 30 57 40 SS 30 5 50W. 13 12 16 18 16 36 14 46 10 44 10 8 9 56 ** 55 9 0 3 20E. 3 32 I loW. I 5 0 lE. 7 40W. 9 30E. 8 40 9 26 0 35 8 20 18 20 25 iS 24 49 26 25 25 31 25 33 25 39 25 24 19 27 21 58 18 Si 22 20 26 33 19 8 18 40 26 40 26 34 Cape Colony— contin-ued. 69 Salem and ranaerland . 70 Wynberg 71 Enon 72 Elim . . 73 Hemel-en-Arde 74 Gnadenthal 76 Groenekloof . 76 Wagenmaier Valley . 77 Sarepta . 78 -W-Qrcester 79 Tulbagh . 80 Steinthal 81 Wupperthal 82 Ebenezer 83 Zoar. 84 BethanjaPriet .... 85 Capfearia. 86 Keiskamma Eiver 87 Beecham Wood 88 Beka . 89 Butterworth . 90 Buntingville 91 Clarkebury 92 D'Urban 93 Paku's Mission 94 Gwanga 95 Imvani . 96 Morley. 97 Mount Coke . 98 Ne-wton Dale 99 Pietermauritzberg . 100 Port Natal 101 Shawbury 102 Tamakia . 103 Wesleyville . 104 ShUoh . 105 Clarkson 106 Eobben Island &c. Bechttana Countey, 107 Kuruman 108 Mabotsa 109 Chonuane 110 Tonus . Ill Baharutse 112 Griqua Town 113 Lekatlong 114 Philippolis . 115 Thaba-Unchu, &c. . 116 Plaatberg . 117 Lishuani 118 Imparani, &c. 119 Colesberg 120 Kamastone 121 Baraputsa Country 122 Motito 123 Priedau .... 124 Bethulia 125 Morija .... 126 Beersheba and Kousberg 127 Bethesda . . ? 128 Berea . 129 Thaba Bossiou 130 Mekuatling NAlaAQUAS AND DamARAS. 131 Komaggas 132 Khamiesberg 133 NisbetBath 134 Concordiaville . 135 Elephant's Fountain 136 Kokfontein and Steinkopff 137 Ugrabiss 138 Nama Bethania . 139 Eehoboth 140 New Barmen 141 WalfischBay 142 Karee Mountains Zoolah Countet. 143 Umlazi . 144 Umvote 145 Inanda . }D. K. I. C. }¦¦ C. C. E. }- .E. KEY TO THE REFERENCE LETTERS. 33° 29'S. 34 25 34 3 33 41 33 13 29 51 29 36 29 54 28 Jo 22 50 Long. 2S0 36'E. 19 13 19 30 19 as 19 7 26 49 30 S" 30 3S 30 52 23 55 18 24 D. Wesleyan Miflsionary Society. E. German Missionary Society. F. Americtm Board 01 Missions. G. Baptist Missionary Society. H. American Baptist Missionary Society. I. Frencii Protestant Mission. J. Jamaica Presbyterian Mission. K. United Bretlircn, or Moravian. L, American Episcopal Miasionary Society. CLASS V.-POLYNESIAN, OR MALAYAN. MALAYAN. SPECIMEN OF THE MALAYAN VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. [Calcdtta Edition, 1817.] ^.^^ jUj *j^ jl^ ^_ ^jj ci)l_^ ^_^V ^i^ v^jl cr^.^'^ '^'i- W ' * '^^ r^ ^-1- uX, ' * ^U Jl. ^_^- ^lol e^,l ^jA«^ ^b. ^j^ \ J^J y j^J nyi ^\j y\j) jU- sj^ i,j^\ e:,^ t_C " * iJy>- ,dJl Jjjj t_>U ^U jJaf%J jj <^-a-i iJ-J^ cj1j-i (_--JUU.^ ^JlL^^ jJw ^^ LjCt i^jtfl^jUjb *jj jfjwj j«j/x.j t^b c:^v**J ON THE MALAYAN LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. It is diflScult, if not impossible, to calculate the exact number of indi-wduals composing the restless and enterprising race to whom this language is vernacular. The central region of Sumatra, where this language, with some little dialectic variation, is stiU spoken, appears to have been the original country ofthe Malays; but, impelled by the love of adventure and of trade, they possessed themselves at a very early period of the Malayan peninsula from the fifth degree of North latitude, and then established successive colonies in the districts most favourably situated for commerce throughout the islands of the Malayan archipelago. On all the sea-coasts of those islands, and on the banks of the na-dgable rivers, there is but one language of traffic in which merchants and traders of all nations transact their business, and that language is the Malayan. This predominance is due not only to the commercial energetic habits of the Malays, but likewise to the peculiar qualities of the language itself. It is soft and narmonious in pronunciation, simple and easy in its grammatical system, plain and natural in the 300 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Ciass V. construction of sentences. The cases of nouns are denoted by prepositions ; distinct words are used to express the singular and the plural number; and gender is ascribed to no inanimate object. There are few if any Malayan sounds which cannot be readily articulated by Europeans; and even in the numerous words which are borrowed from other languages, the Malays smoothe and polish down the harsher sounds to the standard of their own organs. Malayan is a branch of the ancient and widely-extended language of which the fragments are to be found in nearly all the islands of the Pacific. It is therefore in many respects almost identical with the dialects of the South Sea islanders, and especially with those of the Malayan archipelago; but it likewise possesses some distinctive characteristics of its own, and a considerable portion of its vocabu lary is undoubtedly borrowed from the Sanscrit. Arabic has had even more influence than the Sanscrit in the modification of this language ; and nearly all the abstract terms, as well as the rehgious and political theories of the Malays, are derived from the Koran. The Arabic characters are principally employed in writing Malayan ; and six sounds which do not exist in Arabic are denoted by means of diacritical points. Eoman letters are also extensively used by the Malays, especiaUy in some of the Dutch colonies. Versions op the Scriptures in this Language. — ^No fewer than seven distinct versions of the Scriptures, in whole or in part, exist in this language. The honour of originating and com mencing this series of translations belongs to the Dutch, who applied themselves to this important work very shortly after the formation of their East India Company in 1602. The first translation was made by John Van Hasel, a director of that Company, about the beginning of the seventeenth century. When he had completed a version of the Gospel according to St. Matthew, he handed over the MS. to Peter de Carpentier, the general of the Company; and soon after, in 1612, another version of St. Matthew was delivered to the same individual by Albert Cornelisson Euyl, in order that the two translations might be compared. It was objected to the former that it was too literal, and therefore unidiomatic ; and to Euyl's, that it was too courtly : ultimately, however, the preference was assigned to the latter ; and, encouraged by this decision, Euyl devoted himself to the completion of the New Testament ; but he only lived to translate as far as the close of the Gospel according to St. Mark. His MSS. were sent to Holland, and were printed with the Dutch version, at Enkhausen, in 1629; and again at Amsterdam, in 1638. [Oxford Edition, 1677.] Pada mouleynja itou adda jang Pattahu, daan Pattahu itou adda pada ALLAH- TALLA, daan Pattahu itou ja ALLAH-TALLA juga. ^ Ini derri pada mouleynja adda pada ALLAH-TALLA. ^ Barrang appa sammoa souda jaddi derri itou juga, daan jangan itou tjadda jaddi appa appa derri itou, jang souda jaddi juga. * Pada jang ini juga adda hidopan, daan hidopan itou trangnja orang manusscia. ^ Daan trang itou ja adda bertja ja dallam glap itou, daan glap itou tjadda menmoungut trang itou juga. ^ De sitou jaddi menjuro derri ALLAH-TALLA orang manusscia sa orang, jang nammanja adda Joannes. ' Jang ini datan capada sahitan agar dia bersahit derri trang itou, sebab dia sammoa jaddi pitsja ja derri pada djala. ' Dia bouckan trang itou, tetapi dia souda souro acan, agar dia jaddi bersahit derri trang itou. ^ Jang trang benar itou dia, jang dia bri trang acan sagnap orang manusscia, wachtou datan de dunja. '" Dia adda de dunja, daan dunja itou ja souda boat derri pada dia : daan dunja ja tjadda kenelnja juga. " Dia souda datan pada jang ca dia, daan ca dia itou ja tjadda sambotnja. '^ Tetapi itou sammoa jang dia sambotnja, itou dia souda bri coassa, menjaddi annac ALLAH-TALLA, [catauwi] itou, jang dia souda pitsja ja dallam nammanja. " Jang ca manna ja bouckan jaddi derri dara, lagi derri condati dagging, lagi derri condati lelacki pon tjadda, tetapi jang souda menjaddi derri ALLAH-TALLA juga. '* Daan Pattahu itou ja souda jaddi dagging, daan souda doudoc de tenga kita, (daan kita souda caleatan mouljanja, suatu mahamoul ja saperti sabatang cara derri Bappa la) pouno dengan fermang daan benarnja. Polynesian, or Malayan. J MALAYAN. 301 Van Hasel, far from being discouraged at the preference with which Euyl's version was regarded, persevered with his own translation, and completed a version of the Four Gospels, of which, however, Luke and John only have been published. They were printed at Amsterdam in 1646, with the Dutch version. Van Hasel also translated the Psalms, in concert with Justus Heum, who for fifteen years presided over the Dutch Church in India. The first portion of this version was printed at Amsterdam in 1648, and the entire Psalter appeared at the same place in 1689. Heurn likewise translated the Acts of the Apostles into Malayan, and he revised the Gospels of Van Hasel and Euyl according to the Greek, or rather, perhaps, conformed them to the Low or Belgic Dutch version of 1637 ; whereas, they had been originally accommodated to the Dutch version executed from Luther's German Bible. This revision was carried on under the sanction of the Dutch Company ; and an edition consisting of the Gospels and Acts, with the Dutch version in the margin, was printed at their expense at Amster dam in 1651. This edition appears to have been used as the text of another edition of the Gospels and Acts, printed at Oxford in 1677, atthe expense ofthe Hon. Eobert Boyle, and under the superintendence of Hyde, keeper of the Bodleian Library; a second impression of the same work, in every respect similar to the first, was printed at Oxford in 1704; and the copies were sent to the East, to be dis tributed among the natives to whom the language is vernacular. These, and all the editions above mentioned, were printed in Eoman characters. At length, in 1668, the entire New Testament was printed in Eoman letters at Amsterdam, translated by Daniel Brower, " with all care and fidelity, out of the Greek, Latin, and Belgic languages, into the Malay." The translator was a Dutch minister, who lived and died in the East: he also prepared a version of the book of Genesis, which was printed in 1662, and again in 1687, at Amsterdam. [Brower' s Translation, 1668.] Pada moulanja adda jang Cattahan itou, daen jang Cattahan itou adda decat Alia Thalia, daen jang Cattahan itou adda Alia Thalia. ^ Itoula pada moulanja adda decat Alia Thalia. * Barang appa samoa souda menjaddi derri itou djouga, daen sin itou tida menjaddi app' appa [derri samoanja] nang souda menjaddi. * Dallam jang ini adda idoppan, daen idoppan itou adda orang manusia pounja trang. ^ Daen trang itou bertsjaya dallam galap, daen galap tida polo trang itou. ^ De sanna adda manusia satou jang jaddi souro derri Alia Thalia, nammanja Joannes. '' Ini-la souda datang pada bri sahittan, agar dia bersaxi derri trang itou, agar orang samoa petsjaya derri pada dia. * Dia ti' adda jang trang itou, hanja dia jaddi menjouro, agar dia bersaxi derri trang itou. ^ Ini-la trang jang benar, jang bertrangacan segalla manusia jang datang de dallam dunja. '" Dia adda de dallam dunja, daen dunja souda menjaddi derri pada Dia : daen dunja tida kenal pada Dia. " Dia souda datang pada dia pounja orang, daen dia pounja orang tida tarima pada Dia. '^ Hanja brappa orang soada tarima pada Dia, pada orang itou Dia souda bri coassa pada menjaddi Alia Thalia pounja annac, catauwi pada orang itou jang petsjaya capada Dia pounja namma. " Jang tida menjaddi derri dara, nen derri daging pounja candati, nen derri lacki lacki pounja candati, hanja derri Alia Thalia djouga. " Daen jang Cattahan itou souda jaddi daging, daen itou souda doudoc de antara cami, (daen cami souda menantang dia pounja berbesaran, jang adda berbesaran seperti Bappa pounja Annac sa orang sadja) pdunou dengan fermang daen benarran. We now come to the standard Malay version of the Old and New Testament Scriptures, a trans lation prepared by the progressive labours of many learned men, and universally acknowledged to be a correct and faithful representation of the original text. This important work was commenced by Dr. Leidekker, a Dutch minister of Batavia, in 1685; and was earned on from first to last under the patronage and at the expense of the Dutch East India Company. Dr. Leidekker, who appears, by his Malay and Dutch dictionaries, and by his notes on the Hebrew and Latm dictionaries of Cocceius, to have been eminently qualified for the undertaking, advanced very slowly with the translation, 302 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class V. scrupulously refraining from committing any word to writing that had not been subjected to the most minute and careful examination. He translated most of the books of the Old Testament twice; and in the New Testament had advanced as far as the 6th verse of the 6th chapter of the Epistle to the Ephesians, when he was called by the Lord of life and death to enjoy the reward of a faithful servant.^ After the decease of this diligent translator, Petrus Van der Vorm, as the principal linguist among the Dutch ministers in the East, was appointed, in 1701, by the consistory, with the consent of government, to complete the work ; which task he accomplished before the close of the year. He had previously given full proof of his ability and proficiency in the Malayan language by composing a Malayan grammar and other philological works, and particularly by translating the whole of the New Testament and part of the Old from the Arabic into Malayan. The Dutch government, however, justly considered that a work of such vital importance to the Malay race should not be left to the trust of one man, and accordingly, in 1722, four ministers were appointed to examine and correct it. Van der Vorm was one of the individuals chosen for this purpose ; the other three were Amaldus Brandts, Cornelius Ninaber, and George Hendrick Werndly. In the progress of this revision, these ministers uniformly consulted in the first place the Greek and Hebrew texts, with the Latin translations of Arias Montanus and others, and then the Dutch version : when any difficulty occurred, they referred to the Chaldee, Syriac, and particularly the Arabic versions, and sometimes to the Septuagint and the Persian : they also compared the German versions of Luther and Piscator, the French, the EngHsh, and occasionally the Spanish versions, with the Malayan translation before them. Their meetings com menced always with prayer for the enlightening of the Holy Spirit to a right understanding of the Word of God, and concluded with thanksgiving.^ Whenever they did not all agree concerning the rendering of a word or passage, they delayed their decision until they had fixst individually considered the subject in private, and consulted the natives and competent Malayan scholars on the subject; so that sometimes months elapsed before they formed a final decision. The work, thus carefully and deliberately conducted, occupied about five years, having been commenced in 1723, and completed in 1728. Two copies appear to have been made, the one in Eoman and the other in Arabic characters. The former was printed at Amsterdam, 1731 — 1733, under the care ofthe Eev. G. H. Werndly, above mentioned, and Dr. Serruns, aided by two Malay chaplains. The latter was published at Batavia in 1758, In 5 vols. 8vo., under the direction ofthe Dutch governor, Jacob Mossel. It does not appear what further measures were taken to supply the Malays with copies of the Scriptures until the year 1813, when George Livett, Esq., the resident at Amboyna, addressed the Calcutta Bible Society in behalf of the Amboynese Christians, whom he represented as numbering 20,000 individuals, but as being ahnost destitute of Bibles. His accounts of the churches and schools in Amboyna were corroborated by other correspondents of the Society, and it was resolved to print 3000 copies ofthe Malayan New Testament, in 8vo., at Serampore, for the special use of the Amboy nese converts. The design was liberally aided by the Bengal government; and in 1814 the edition left the press : it was printed in Eoman letters from the text of 1731. Almost aU the copies, with 1000 copies of the book of Genesis, were sent to Amboyna, and were there distributed by the resident, Mr. Martin, assisted by the Eev. Messrs. Kam and Carey. In his letter of acknowledgment to the Society, Mr. Martin stated, that " the church was crowded by a multitude of people of both sexes and of all ages, Imploring, with an earnestness of supplication that could not be resisted, the unreserved communication to them all of an advantage which all appreciated, and which all had been prepared and were qualified to enjoy." It was necessary, however, not only to provide for Ambojma and its dependencies, where the Malays employ Eoman letters, but for other Malayan districts, where the Arabic characters are still used. The Society therefore determined upon printing two distinct editions of the Scriptures, the one in Eoman, the other in Arabic letters. The former edition was completed in 1817, when 1000 copies of the entire Bible from the text of 1731 — 1733 left the press. The Arabic edition was not completed till 1822, when 3000 copies of the New and 2000 copies of the Old Testament were published at Serampore, and forwarded to Penang, Malacca, Java, and Bencoolen, for distribution. The text of this latter edition was the version of 1758, carefully revised and corrected by the Eev. Mr. Hutchings and Major M' Innes. The editors found little to alter in that admirable version beyond a few obsolete words and typographical errors. While these editions were passing through the press at Calcutta, further supplies of the Malayan 1 Eleventh Eeport of Brittsh and Foreign Bible Society, p. 51. 2 Eleventh Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 53. Polynesian, or Malayan.] MALAYAN. 303 Scriptures were being prepared in London, at the earnest request of the Auxihary Bible Society at Amboyna. In 1819, 10,000 copies of the New Testament in the Eoman character, from the text of 1733, were printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society, under the care of Professor Lee; and in 1822, 5000 copies of the entire Bible from the same text were issued. [Serampore Edition, 1814.] Pada mul^ja 'adMah Kalimat, dan Kalimat 'adalah selma 'Allah, dan 'Allah 'adilah Kalimat. ' 'Ija 'ini 'adalah pada mulanja sama 'Allah. ^ Samowa sudah dedjadikan Wlehnja: maka hkravg sawatu pawn jarg djadi sudah tijada dedjadikan, melajinkan 'awlehnja. ' D^lamnja 'itu 'adilah kahid6pan, dan kahid6pan 'itu 'adalah tarkrg segala mslnusija: ^ Maka tarkrg 'itu bertjhaja didalam kal^m, maka kalkm. 'itu sudah tijada tarima dija 'itu. ® 'Ad&lah sa'*awrarg manusija jarg tersuroh 'awleh 'Allah, namanja Jatfaj^. '' 'Ija 'ini dataiglah membawa kasjaksi'*an, hendakh bersjaksi 'akan tarkrg 'itu, sopaja sakalijen 'awrarg pertjaja 'awlehnja. * 'Ija 'ini bukan 'adalah tarkrg 'itu, mela jinkan sopaja 'ija bersjaksi 'dkan tarkrg 'itu. ^ 'Adalah 'ija tarkig jarg benkr 'itu, jaig menarai^kan sasa"*awrarg manusija, sedcirg datargnja kadalam dunja. '° 'Adalah 'ija didalam dunj^, dan dunjei sudah dedjadikan 'awlehnja : maka dunja sudah tijada merg"enkl dija. " Tja sudah datarg kapada tampatnja jarg chats, maka 'awrargnja jarg chats sudah tijMa menjambot dija. '^ Tetapi barapa p 'awrai^ sudah menjambot dija, maka pada marika 'itu 'ija sudah memberij kawasa mendjadi 'anakh p 'Allah, 'ija 'itu pada segala 'awrai^, jarg pertjaja 'akan namanja. '^ Jaig sudah taper^^nakh bukan deri pada baraig d^ah, dan bukan deri pada kahendakh dagirg, dan bukan deri kahendakh Mki p, hinja deri pada 'Allah djuga. '* Maka Kalimat 'itu sudah djadi dagirg, dan sudah merg'- adiJEimij di'^ant^ra kamij, (maka k&mij sudah memandarg kamulija'*annja, sawitu kamu- lij^^an seperti jaig punja 'Anakh jarg torggal deri pada B4pa) punbh dergan nixmet dan thakhikhet. The Netherlands Bible Society likewise contributed towards supplying the Malays with the oracles of God; and in 1820, 15,000 copies of the New Testament were printed at Haarlem, followed in 1824 by an edition of 7000 copies of the whole Bible. These editions were printed in Arabic characters, from the edition of 1758, and were carried through the press under the able superintendence of Professor Wilmet. In 1822, the same Society determined upon an edition of 5000 Bibles and 5000 New Testaments in the Eoman character, from the text of 1733. The British and Foreign Bible Society subscribed for a large proportion of all these editions. Whether the Netherlands Bible Society have printed any later editions does not appear; but it is satisfactory to find that the Calcutta Society have recently resumed their labours m this depart ment. In 1830, they printed at Singapore an edition of 2500 copies of St. Matthew's Gospel, m Arabic characters, as the first step towards giving a fresh edition of the entire New Testament. This measure was adopted in consequence of the desire manifested among the Western Malays themselves to read the Scriptures,— a circumstance never known before, for the holy volume had previously been forced upon them rather than freely accepted, and their Mahommedan prejudices had been deemed impregnable. In consequence of their increased demand for the " Enghshman's Koran," the Calcutta Society published, in 1833, a revised edition of 1000 copies of the Gospels and Acts, and 1500 copies 304 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class V. of the entire New Testament, from the edition corrected by Mr. Hutchings. The printing was carried on at Singapore, under the care of the Eev. Messrs. Thomson and Burn of the London Mssionary Society, by whom such alterations were introduced in the text as a longer and more intimate acquaintance with the language had rendered desirable. Another version of the New Testament, less literal and more idiomatic than former translations, has been lately executed by the agents of the London Missionary Society and of the American Bible Society, at Singapore. The expenses have been partly defrayed by the British and Foreign Bible Society ; and the work, which is to be printed both in Eoman and Arabic characters, is now passmg through the press under the care ofthe Eev. B. P. Keasbury,' [Singapore Edition, 1831.] i^yj]j.^ ^j\j cU ^ jJjJ ^jJi t^b ^j\ i^.'SV'^ ^ ^'Ir-- J^ ^ * '^^ i:f-^'^ ^y e)V "^ i}y*y ^ * i^s'i 1^1 ^/ 'iW ^ ^-^ y. '^^ "-a^ (^^'^ ^^^'^-J'' '¦^•^ i/ ^-^''^^ ^ * "^^ l::^_1 cy ^y i^M CX» * * ^j\ ^J^J ciH^ J^ ^J^ ^-^.^ iJ i:r^' [J^J. ^^jU-j ^ bjj ^^b Loj Jb S\ c:^J it^uJ^ cX. Jj^ '" * ^\^ J^ u%^ l5^ ^"^ ^^Jjj ^jjl ^Uu- ^^ AK^ ^'b ^- J cX. " * L5^ u^ (-^ '^^" ^'^ L5^-^ =^^' i:n!j' ^jb jJ,J ^y (y\JiJ '. J MALAYAN. 3Qg completed by Dr. Medhurst. An edition of the New Testament left the press in 1833, and some considerable distnbutions were made by Dr. Medhurst, during a visit to Sourabaya, on the south-east coast 01 J ava, and bamarang. '' A translation of the Psalms Into Low Malay has more recently been made by some Christians at Everabaya ; and an edition of 1000 oopies has been printed at Amsterdam, under the care of Professor Vetti, by the Netheriands Bible Society. The edition left the press in 1847, and the copies were forwarded to Sourabaya. ^ [Robinson's Version, 1823.] .^— - ^ ^ - s. ^ .-^ O'S-- ^ ^ .1" ..- .^ ^ j3jJ) (j^ 1^0 u:-;;t l*^ 4j1 ^.'^'^ CuL^u.: JUL, L_C ^ * -0 LuO ^jO Uio JloO ol i^A-j tJi-ol cy Jj^ * 9 jjl jj;-jJ>^ ^ s. ^ s. - ^ ,_^_ "",1 ' .^ obj c:.^_l y»i-«j ^j_jl ^^0 ^AJJi-«l ^1 y u-^L«j j^ai ^^1 y ^^0 ^jlo ^jV '^^'i J';;'. J^^t^' *'^ c;'* i"^^! ^^ LJ^ JILj C:^ *Ju>J ^JuyJ ^J ^1J tiU- ^Ju- Ui^j^ i^ Jj-*;J ^ * '— ^^ ''^l ^J^ ^^ Aly ojI jilij j^, tJW jji tij'^lji*^' ciya-i t:>jl ^*IA^ <-^ e/*^:^ \^J^^ ^^a-. l.;^ # ^}^ ijJ {P^l ^J t^.l t-ZW jij 1 en cl)+. '* 0T02 nicAsi Aqep oTCApt. 0T02 Aqjytoni ith^pm M|)HTen 0T02 AnnAT eneqcuor ^KJ^pnt iJincooT woriaHpi uuATAxq nroTq uneqiujT equee n^uoT neu ueeuHi. ON THE COPTIC LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Coptic was once the vernacular tongue of Eg]^t, but it has for centuries been superseded by the Arabic, and it is now only cultivated by biblical students, and by a very few of the Coptic priests. The liturgy of the Coptic Church is stiU read pubUcly in this venerable language, but it is utterly uninteUigible to the majority of the Copts, who are generaUy unacquainted with any knguage but the Arabic. These people are descended from the ancient Egyptians, but their race has been commingled with the Persian, Greek, Eoman, Arab, and Turkish nations, to whom Egypt has been successively subject ; for according to the Divine prediction (Ezek. xxix. 15, and xxx. 13), Egypt has been the " basest of kingdoms," and the prey of foreign powers; and no prince of pure Egyptian Uneage has, since the year B.C. 350, swayed the sceptre ofthe Pharaohs. Under this foreign domination, the population, the resources, and the civiUsation of Egypt have (t ? within a very recent period) gradually decreased. According to Diodorus Siculus, this country, ia the time of the ancient kings, contained a population of 7,000,000. At the beginning ofthe nineteenth century the amount of population had dwindled down to 2,500,000, and at the present moment, owing to the ravages of the plague, and the long-continued infiuence of a Turkish system of govemment, Egj^t numbers but 1,800,000 inhabitants.' This decrease in point of population becomes stiU more ' Wilkinson's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 557. Pnarn & £nji.i IL.». African.] COPTIC. 32^ striking when we consider that the present inhabitants of Egypt are chiefly of Arabic or foreign ongm, and that the Copts themselves form scarcely one-fourteenth part ofthe motley population now congregated on the sml of their ancestors. Thefr ranks have been thinned by persecutlonf by frequent intermarriages with Mahommedan famiUes, and by the secession of many mdividuals to Islamism- and according to a recent estimate, they do not now number above 150,000 souls.' A few among' them have jomed the Eomish and Greek Churches, but nationally they belong to the Jacobite, Eutfchlan, or Monophysite sect. Iheir distinguishing doctrinal pecuUarity is the confoundUig of the Godhead and manhood ot the Lord Jesus Christ,— a heresy which was condemned by the fourth general councU (that of Chalcedon) A. D. 45 1 . The Coptic hlerachy is in several respects not dissUnikr to the Eomish • it consists of apatriarch, or supreme head of the church, and a metropoUtan ofthe Abyssmlans, with bishops, archpriests, priests, deacons, and monks. Chaeacteeistics OF the Language.— The only language known to have derived its orio-in from the ancient Egyptian is the Coptic. This cfrcumstance has invested the Coptic with peculiar mterest m the eyes of the learned, particularly since the possibiUty of the ultimate recovery of the lost Egyptian language has been suggested by the ardent philologers who have devoted themselves to the declphermg ofthe hieroglyphic, hieratic, and enchorial inscriptions.' In consequence of this connection with the anclent_ language of Egypt, it has been conjectured that Coptic may not only be of service in recovering the Uterary treasures of that country, but also in solving the problem which has recently attracted so much attention concerning the position held by the Egyptian in the scale of languages, and the nature of its affinities with the now Isolated Indo-European and Shemitic groups. Coptic would have been extremely valuable as an adjunct in these intricate Investigations, had it been subjected to no fiirther mutations from the tme Egyptian type than those which the lapse of centuries naturally occasions. But when the successors of Alexander established themselves in Alexandria, the language ofthe court was diffiised through the country; and, though the Egyptian language did not cease to be spoken, a Greek element was infused into it, many Greek words were adopted, and the Greek alphabet was employed even in writing the native language. Hence part of the Coptic language is essentially Greek, or rather an admixture of old Egyptian and Greek, so intimately blended, and so disguised by orthographical changes, that it is now difficult if not impossible to resolve the component parts into their original elements. There are, however, words and grammatical principles in Coptic which unquestionably entered into the ancient Egyptian knguage ; and It is remarkable that affinities may be traced between these now obsolete forms of speech and corresponding forms existing in languages spoken at the present day in regions far remote from Egypt. Lepslus has shown that the Coptic possesses certain affinities with the Indo-European class of knguages, and especiaUy as respects its numerals, with the Sanscrit. Benfey and various other scholars have pointed out the relationship between its grammatical structure and that of the Shemitic class. Klaproth has detected a striking resembknce between many Coptic words and the corresponding terms in the Zirian, Mordvinian, Ostjaklan, and particularly the Tscheremissian and Tschuwaschian languages : he has also found resemblances between Coptic and Samoiede words, and some instances of affinity between Coptic and the knguages spoken in the region of the Caucasus.^ It is remarkable, however, that in addition to these extra- African relations of the Coptic, it has several points of contact with the African languages, even with those spoken by the negro nations ; so that whatever analogy may subsist between it and other groups of languages, it cannot properly be isolated from the .African class.^ Veesion of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — Although the Coptic possesses great Interest in an ethnological point of view, its importance becomes unspeakably enhanced when we regard it as the favoured medium in which one ofthe earUest and most faithful versions ofthe Scriptures^ has been transmitted to us. The Old Testament was translated from the Septuagmt, _m aU probabUity during the course of the second or third century. The New Testament was drawn immediately from the original Greek, but there is much difference of opinion concerning the period of its execution: by some authors it is attributed to the thfrd, by some to the fourth, and by others to the fifth century. _ It is recorded of Antoninus, who began to lead an ascetic Ufe A.D. 271, that he read the Egyptian Scriptures ; but whether it was the Coptic or the Sahidic version which he possessed, stiU remains doubtfiU.' The Coptic New Testament, in its general character, is conformed to the Alexandrine recension. ' Lane's Manners and Customs of the Modem Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 173. = Report of the SeventeenUi Meeting ofthe British Association, p. 222. ' Klaproth, Leth-e a M. ChampolUon, p. 2. •¦ Michaehs, vol. n. part 1. p. , 7- 328 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI. According to MichaeUs, some of its readings bear a striking affinity to those of the Latin version, and occasionally to those of the Codex Cantabrigiensis. The quotations of Origen, Eusebius, and CyrU agree pretty nearly with the corresponding passages in this version. Several Arabic translations have been executed from the Coptic, and valuable Coptic MSS. are preserved in the Vatican, Paris, Berlin, Bodleian, and other libraries. In some of the MSS. of the Gospel according to St. John, the history of the woman taken in adultery is inserted, while in others it is omitted. The disputed passage in 1 John V. 7 is not to be found in any Coptic MS.' The project of publishing a printed edition of this version was first entertained by Thomas Marshall: he prepared the Four Gospels for the press, but died before their completion. The work was then undertaken by David Wilkins, or Wilkie, a Prussian, who, at the expense of the University of Oxford, brought out, in 1716, a complete edition of the New Testament, to which he appended a Latin translation. The text of this edition was formed from Bodleian MSS., conferred with MSS. from the Paris and Vatican Ubraries. In 1829, an edition of 2000 copies of the Coptic Gospels, printed in paraUel columns with the Arabic version, was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The text had been prepared by the Coptic patriarch at the instance of Mr. Jowett.^ It was carried through the press under the care of Mr. Tattam of Bedford, in conjunction with Professor Lee.^ An edition of the New Testament, Avith emendations drawn from BerUn codices, was printed by Schwartze, at Leipsic, in 1838. Ten years subsequently, another edition of the New Testament was undertaken by the same editor ; but this recent edition is enriched with copious critical and grammatical notes, and the text is chiefly drawn from BerUn MSS.^ No complete edition of the Coptic Old Testament has yet been pubUshed, for several of the books are missing ; it is, however, probable that they are not actually lost, and that they may yet be found in some of the cloisters of Egypt. The Pentateuch was published in 1731, in London, by Wilkins, the editor of the New Testament. The twelve Prophetical Books were printed at Oxford, in 1836, under the editorship of Professor Lee and Mr. Tattam. Fragments of the Lamentations of Jeremiah, (consisting of chap. lv. ver. 22, and chap, v.), and the sixth chapter of the apocryphal book of Baruch, were inserted by Quatremere in his great work on the Language and Literature of Egypt, pubUshed at Paris in 1804. These portions constitute the whole ofthe Coptic Old Testament hitherto printed, with the exception of the Psalms, of which no less than five editions have appeared. The first two of these editions were pubUshed at Eome by the Congregation de Propaganda Fide, the one in 1744, the other in 1749 : they were designed for the benefit of the Coptic Christians in Egypt, and the Arabic version was therefore printed in paraUel columns with the Coptic text. A critical edition of the Psalter was edited in 1837 by Woide and Ideler, and printed at Berlin. Another critical edition appeared at Leipsic in 1844, under the care of Schwartze. An edition consisting of 2014 copies of the Coptic Psalter, printed in paraUel columns with the Arabic version, has likewise been issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Eesults of the Dissemination op this Version. — This ancient version has been the means of keeping aUve the form if not the spirit of Christianity, during a long series of centuries, among a persecuted people surrounded by Mahommedan oppressors. The results of recent distributions of the Scriptures have been truly encouraging. The bigotry of the Copts, and their stern adherence to the superstitions of their forefathers, appear to be decreasing ; yet the power of the priesthood here, as elsewhere, impedes the progress of the Gospel : aU free Inqufry concerning spiritual things is fettered, and the people are kept in perpetual bondage by their dread of the clergy. Still there are instances of Individuals being awakened, by means of the perusal of the Scriptures, to a sense of the fallen condition of their church. Mr. Krus^, the present missionary at Cairo, speaks, for instance, in a letter dated 1847, of a native Copt who compared the condition of the Coptic Church to the state of things described in 1 Tim. iv., and 2 Tim. ill. He added, " Our head (the patriarch) is sick, and the whole body is spiritually dead." After some lengthened conversation on the abuses of the Coptic Church, the man emphaticaUy said, " We want a man to rise up from among our own people Uke your Luther, bold enough to stand fast in the faith, and to reform our church." * 1 Simon, Hist. Crit. du Nouv. Test. p. 192. 3 Twenty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixix- 2 Sixteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 160. ' Kitt's Journal of Sacred Literature for January, 1843. 5 Church Missionary Records for 1848, p. 97. SAHIDIC. SPECIMEN OF THE SAHIDIC VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. v. v. 1 to 14. uiJMG A MAI ne n^aA nennioTAAi. aIg bujk eepAi e eieAHu. ^ ner noTKOATUBHapA AB en eiAHU eisij TenpOBATIKH. 6 iyATUOTTe epOG UUMTZeBpAIGG. Xe BHAGAIAA. epe +e MGTOA MixcuG. ^ uernKOTK ZA MAI ncri nuHH^e nneTiyione. nBAAe. un ncrAAe. uiJ MexyoTiooT. * 5 uer norpcuue Ae uuat. e Aqp uaab iyuHU Mpoune eu neqytone. ^ nrepe Tc Ae nAre nAi eqnKOTK. Aqeiue xe AqiocK. nexAq MAq. xe eKOTcoia otxai. ^ Aqorcu^B MAq ntri neT^yione. xe nxoeiG unt pcuue uuat X6KAC p^An nuGOT TU)2 eqeuGXT eneuT e tkgatubhbpa. eoGon Ae amok +nHT. ^yApe KeoTA pjaopn epoi. e bujk eneGHT. ® ne xe Tc UAq. xe TcuoTn. urqei uneKa^Aoo"". Mruooi^e. ® ATUD MTeTMOT AqGTXAi MO^i upujue. ATUJ Aqqi uneqcT-AOCP AquGoye. ne ncABBATOM ne negGor eTuuAT. ''' nerxco ere uuog mo"^i kIiotaai uumt AqAo. xe noABBATon ne. atco mcgto mak au. e qi uneKor-.KGO'. " Aqorcu^B Ae fieri npcoue eqxco uuoc. xe nnr AqTAAO-oi neTuuAT nnx Aqxooc mai. se qi neKCTAGO'. nruoo^e. ^ ATXMorq xe miu ne npcuue. mt Aqxooc uak. xe qixq nruoo^e. '* niJT AqAG Ae Moqcoorn. xe niu ne. Tc PAp AqcAerq. epe gtuhh^c 2u uua gtuuat. '* unncA uai IC ee epoqeu npne nexAq. xe eic ennTe akgtxai. unpKOTK e pnoBe. xe nne neooor e RAI ^cone uugk. ON THE SAHIDIC DIALECT AND VEESION. The Sahidic is a dialect of the Coptic language, and was formerly spoken _ in Upper Egypt, between Cahira and Assevan. This country was caUed Said by the Arabs, which is the origm of the term Sahidic. A version of the Scriptures was executed in this dialect, according to some writers in the second, but certainly not later than the third, century. The Old Testament was translated from the Septuagint, and the New Testament from Greek MSS. The Sahidic New Testament, Uke the Coptic, conforms in general to the Alexandrine recension, but it possesses several readings pecuUar to itself, and in some instances it agrees with the Latin version. Its striking sunUarity to the Codex Cantabrigiensis is a fact often adduced in proof of its high antiquity.' Fragments of this version stiU exist at Eome, Paris, Oxford, BerUn, and Venice, and also m the British Museum. Portions of the Gospels of Matthew and John appear to have been prmted by MlngarelU in 1785. In 1789, part ofthe Gospel of John was printed at Eome, and also fragments of the Episties to Timothy, taken from a Greek Coptic MS. in the possession of CardUial Borgia. But the most complete edition of the Sahidic fragments is that pubUshed at the Clarendon press m 1799. This edition, which comprises nearly one-tHrd of the New Testament, was commenced under the superintendence of Woide, but he died before the whole was prepared for the press, and the delegates 1 Marsh's Michaelis, vol. ii. part i. p. 81. 330 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VL of the Clarendon library employed Dr. Ford, Arabic reader of the Universit;^, to complete the work. A Latin version was appended to the Sahidic fragments in this splendid edition, with readings from Greek MSS., learned preUminary dissertations, and other critical apparatus. _ The Sahidic version is of extreme value to bibUcal students, but otherwise is of little practical utiUty, the dialect being no longer cultivated except for critical investigations. BASHMUEIC. SPECIMEN OF THE BASHMUEIC VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. iv. v. 28 to 34. oq . . Kio MTecerApiA eeAHi AC^H eeorn ernoAic. nexec nniAcuui : xe auoiiji TAAe Teren ner eneiAcoui nxAqxe ecuB mibi mhi exAieiTor : uh+ nei ne ne jcpc. ^° ATI Ae eBAAen THOAIC ATUJ ATI i^AAAq. " nATXCOUUAC Meq OTTUJOT neuHq Mse MequABHTHC eTxcuuuAC : xe epABBi OTcou. ^^ MTAq Ae nexeq neT xe otamthi akiak noTepn eoTAuc rei nxAren en TexencAOTM uuag en. nATXco otm uuac mx6 MequASHTHc UM neTAAHOT : xe iuh+ a aaug ini nnq eTpeqoTtou : nexAT nnq Mxe nequAenTHC : xe epABBi otoju. ^ nexeq nnoT Mxe Thc: xe TAepn amak xe eiuA nxAi . . . ON THE BASHMUEIC DIALECT AND VEESION. The Bashmuric, a sub-dialect of Sahidic, was spoken in Bashmur, a province of the Delta. It appears to have been an intermediate dialect between Coptic and Sahidic. Fragments of a Bashmuric version of the Scriptures, executed either in the third or fourth century, are stUl in existence. These agree so closely with the Sahidic version, that it has been doubted whether an original transktion was ever made from the Greek into Bashmuric, some eminent phUologers being of opinion that the version now denominated the Bashmuric is merely an accommodation of the Sahidic version to the dialect of Bashmur. Fragments of the Bashmuric version of St. John's Gospel were discovered by Georgi among the Borgian collection of MSS., and were published at Eome in 1789, with a Latin version and iUustrative notes. Other fragments, consisting of parts of the first and fifth chapters of Isaiah, of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, and the Epistles to the Ephesians, to Philemon, and to the Hebrews, and of the First Epistle to the Thessalonians, were published by Engelbreth in 1816. The Sahidic MSS., from which the text was drawn, belonged to the Borgian collection. The value of this work is greatly enhanced by the insertion of the corresponding passages in the Coptic and Sahidic dialects, so that a comparison between the three dialects can be readily instituted. A literal Latin version is added, with the corresponding Greek text, and notes illustrative of various readings with critical remarks. BERBER. SPECIMEN OF THE BEEBEE VEESION. St. LUKE, Chap. vi. v. 27 to 38. ^w --/- * ;>^i uV.1^1 ^.x^i ,;^^\ ^uji ._.j^ ^1 ^u N;;^ ' C -i* O y'.? "H O C-"- t^jl u^ o tl ^ c^ C-'O »¦--¦ "S ^^i j^i Sy u^ 1 Miyi y 1" 5j ^ji Joi ^ui jj£;ii "jji, jji: ^^ ^ j;:ii^-i ^^[ ^^^^ uy^jl U^ C_«jAi>^l J^Wijl ^-fllWi^l " * ^^b ^^1 "^i ^.jj Jll '•= ^ .^\ "l^ ON THE BEEBEE LANGUAGE AND VEESION. ' ' Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The whole of the interior of Northern Africa, .'^. ^^ ^^^ to the Atlantic, including the vast area of the Sahara, is inhabited by the Berbers, a pnmitive race of people belonging to the same stock as the GetuU, Mauri, and Numldae of antiquity. It IS rather remarkable that, notwithstanding the political convulsions and changes to which Northern Africa has been subjected, these representatives of the ancient Libyan race stUl occupy the soU, and preserve the language of their ancestors. Even their towns and villages retain the same names as those by which they are distinguished in the writings of SaUust and other classical writers ; and the very signification of these names is the same in modern Berber as in the Libyan idiom spoken in the days of those writers.' The Berbers are divided into several distinct nations, of which the principal are the Amazigh or Berbers of Northern Atlas, the SheUahs, who inhabit the southem part ofthe same mountain chain, the Kabyles of the Algerine and Tunisian Mountains, and the Tuarick tribes of Siwah, Sokna, and the Westem Desert. The Tibboos of the Eastern Desert, though darker in complexion than the Berbers, are supposed by some to belong to the same race. These nations are all brave and warUke, but 1 Journal of American Oiiental Society for 1849, p. 18. 332 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI. unciviUsed, and are followers of the false prophet. In point of poUtical government, they are subdivided into a number of petty tribes, each of which, as among the Arabs, is under the command of a sheikh. We possess no precise statistical accounts of this people, but it is certain that they form at least one-half of the entire population of the empire of Morocco. Graberg estimates the Berbers, properly so caUed, at above 2,000,000, and the SheUahs at 1,500,000. Chaeactekistics of the Language. — Modem researches have gone far to prove that the Berber language forms part of Shemitic philology; yet, notwithstanding the Shemitic character ofits structure, part of its vocabulary and many of its peculiarities are so decidedly African as to entitle it to a place among this class of languages. It resembles the Coptic in the preponderance which It gives to the letter t as an infiexlonal element, both initial and final.' Its participial system, however, approximates it to the Amharic, and one of its verbal forms has a perfect counterpart in that language, and, according to Gesenius, in Himyaritic.^ The nouns, observes Professor Newman, freely admit of that substitute for a genitive case which Is in Hebrew and Arabic entitled the putting of two nouns into regimen or construction. Some of the oldest nouns even appear to have a real construct form, consisting in the addition of th to the noun Itself. The article and demonstrative pronouns are similar to the Hebrew and Arabic ; the general principles of euphony, infiexion, and radical letters present- the same Shemitic features, and even the sounds of the Berber knguage are Hebrew. But, on the other hand, Berber possesses a large stock of prepositions of undoubted African origin, and akin to those of the Haussa language ; and it further deviates from the true Shemitic type in the vast majority of its elemental words, in its peculiar usage of the participle, in its power of prefixing the fragmentary pronoun to the verb, and in the possession of a double set of affixes to distinguish the genitive and accusative cases.^ The Guanche knguage of the Canaries, as appears from ancient inscriptions, was a dialect of the Berber : the nation to whom it was vernacular became extinct, according to Baron Alexander Humboldt, in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Some of the Berber tribes, especially those of the desert, StiU employ the ancient Libyan letters of their forefathers, but the Arabic alphabet is now generally used in writing and printing the various dialects of Berber. Version op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — A translation of the first twelve chapters of the Gospel according to St. Luke into the Algerine Berber or Showiah dialect of the Berber language, spoken by the Kabyle tribes, was pubUshed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1833. The MS., which included the whole of the Four Gospels and the book of Genesis, was purchased by the Society of Mr. Hodgson, American consul at Algiers, for the sum of £150. The translation, which had occupied about two years, had been executed under the superintendence of that gentleman by a Kabyle Berber of the mountains near Algiers. Mr. Greenfield, the editorial super intendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, was engaged in the examination of the work at the time of his lamented decease. The editorship of the smaU portion of St. Luke's Gospel, eventuaUy committed to the press, was then transferred to Mr. Hattersley of Leeds. Only 250 copies were printed as specimens, which were sent to individuals competent to form a judgment concerning the critical value of the translation. 1 Report ofthe Seventeenth Meeting ofthe British Association, p. 213. 3 prichard. Researches into the Physical ffistory of Man, vol. iv. pp. 2 Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Man, vol. iv. p. 621. 621—628. GHADAMSI. « SPECIMEN OF THE GHADAMSI VEESION St. MATTHEW, Chap. hi. v. 7 to 17. !;u^ 1,^1 ^)1 « .-. ^^Jii,^. ,^ / ^, jJj ^;^; J^^ J,. ^1 ^^r j ^^j.^^ P U^ ^j ^1^1 j^ JO : ^^1 j^y j^^- ji; ^ ... ^"uif ^, g^ J ^— ^^J. £J]_ : t^l j]/l ^ ^1 j^j-: ^. '' .-. Uji J Jj^^^i ^JW^ Ijl; Zl ,-. ^( ci^i ol yoji J y^ ^^i ^j^_ ^^_ ¦^\ '^ .-. ^; jj Uj'> ^ ui; ^i Jl C\] j\jj ^i •'• "^y^' t^ J-^1 t,jJv. t*^^ b^'^' = 'j'V.l ^'1 : u-V.^1 ^r^. ^i^j^ " .'. jo.aIUj ^^oi ^_/--l ^^j.^1 C;->5s.Jl ^_5J^1 (c^ljj : jlil U^llj jo^L JtjM jll LjOji " .'. jjljj_^j( ^J Jj^ ON THE GHADAMSI DIALECT AND VEESION. Ghadamsi is a sub-dialect of Tuarick, the language of one of the great nations into which the Berber race is divided. Tuarick is the predominant language of the western part of Sahara, and uhadamsi is spoken in Ghadames, an oasis situated at about ten days' journey south-west from Tripoli, m kt. 30° 40' N., and long. 10° 25' E. The number of Inhabitants in Ghadames has been computed at from six to seven thousand. The importance of this oasis, in a geographical and commercial point of view, arises from the four grand roads which diverge from it into the interior of Africa. One of these roads leads direct throu^ the Great Desert to Timbuctoo, where some of the people of Ghadames are settled. A translation of the thfrd chapter of the Gospel according to St. Matthew has recently been made at Ghadames, under the dfrection of James Eichardson, Esq., by a native named Taleb Ben Mousa Ben El-Kasem. A short vocabulary of the knguage was added by the Taleb, but, unhappily, he got 334 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI, tired of his work before its completion. In fact, Mr. Eichardson remarks, "the extraordinary impatience with which these people do anything of this kind for Christians almost exceeds beUef." The MS. was sent from the desert to the British and Foreign Bible Society ; it was transcribed by Professor Newman, of University CoUege, who also appended a Latin translation ; and a smaU edition, intended chiefly as a specimen of the language, has been published by order of the Foreign Office, MANDINGO. SPECIMEN OF THE MANDINGO VEESION. St. MATTHEW, Chap. v. v. 1 to 12. A KAFFO balu dye, atata konko santo ; asita tumamenna, ala talibolu nata akang. ^ A y ada yelle, a -wolu nindi, ako ; ^ Menolu-nio be dobaring, ybarakata ; katuko itolu ta mu Aryena-mansaroti. * Frigimolu barakata, katuko ysi fonio sotto. ^ Sabbatemolu barakata, katuko ysi dunya keo. " Menolu konkota ning mindota ybe lafiring kekuyala, ybarakata, katuko ysi wolu fandi. '' Menolu-juso be seniaring ybarakata; katuko ysi Alia dye. ^ Hiaamolu barakata, katuko ysi hino sotto. ® Barriadingolu barakata; katuko itolu to mu Alla-dingoluti. ¦'" Ybarakata molu ye menu batandi kekuya kamma, katuko itolu ta mu Aryena-mansaroti, " AJtolu barakata, ning molu y altolu jelle ning batandi, ni ye kumo jau bey fo altolu kang faniarinto ntela kamma. ^^ Wotumo alsi jusula, alsi jusulaba, katuko altolula joro warata Aryenato; katuko ye kilalu batandi wonyama menolu folota altoluti. ON THE MANDINGO LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Mandingo, the most important language of modem Negroknd, is predominant in many powerfiil states on both sides of the Gambia. On the east it is conterminous with the Haussa and Yaribba languages, and on the north it prevails as far as the border of the Great Desert. It is also supposed to extend far into the interior of the continent, and is spoken in Bambouk, and in the late empire of Bambarra. It is not possible to estimate the number of individuals to whom this language is vernacular, for much of the Mandingo territory is scarcely known to Europeans ; and owing to the enterprising and commercial character of the race, Mandlngoes are to be found in great numbers, located as traders, in regions far distant from their native states. They are to be met with at Sierra Leone, at Cape Mesurado, at most of the places of commerce along the coast, and in the interior as far as the head quarters of the Niger. Some connection is supposed to subsist between the Mandingo and Foulah tribes, but too Uttle is known of the language of the latter to admit of a close comparison being instituted between it and the Mandingo. Both Mandlngoes and Foulahs are as superior m civilisation and intelligence to the other tribes of intertropical Asia, as were the Aztecas and Peruvians to the various tribes of the new world ; and in point of physical conformation, they form an intermediate ckss between the negro and the Asiatic type.' • Report of the Seventeenth Meeting of the British Association, p. 260. Afeican.J JALLOOF. 335 The Mandlngoes are aU Mahommedans, and generaUy pretend to some acquaintance with Arabic the sacred language of their reUgion. Many Arabic words have been engrafted on the Mandingo language, while numerous terms, especially those relating to commerce, have been borrowed from vanous European languages. Copiousness, easy enuncktion, and comparative freedom from nasal and guttural sounds, are said to be the characteristics of Mandingo : its nouns for the most part end fri the vowel o; this termiination often conveys an emphatic signification, and is sometimes equivalent in meaning to the definite article.' The Eev. Mr_. Macbriar, a Wesleyan missionary, was the first to undertake the translation of the Scriptures mto this widely-extended language. His version of the Gospel accordbg to St. Matthew was printed m London under his own superintendence in 1838, by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The edition, which consisted of 500 copies, was placed at the disposal of the Wesleyan Missionary Society i^ no definite accounts have been transmitted concerning the results of the distribution among the natives. JALLOOF. The JaUoof, or, as it is variously written, the Wolofi", GuUofF, or Ouolofi' language is spoken from the Atlantic to Podor, along the south bank of the Senegambia from west to east, and from the mouth of the Senegal to Cape Verde. In the immediate neighbourhood of Cape Verde It surrounds, and probably isoktes, a small tract of country in which the Sereres language is vernacular. The JaUoof also prevails southward of Cape Verde, as far as the regions on the Gambia, in which Mandingo is predominant.^ The Jalloofs are bkck, but thefr features are cast more in the Asiatic than in the African mould. They are active and enterprising, Uke the Mandlngoes, and in point of civiUsation are superior to most of the tribes of Guinea. Some among them are Moslems, the rest are Pagans. Their language is considered a branch of the Mandingo famUy. It is copious, and very expressive, but is now so much mixed with French and Arabic words, that half of the knguage, according to Mr. Macbriar, is lost in these foreign additions. The Jalloof language, as Mungo Park remarked, has long been studied by Europeans engaged in the Senegal trade. The honour of reducing it to writing was reserved for a Quaker lady.* Hannah KUham, who belonged to a Quaker family of Leeds, devoted her time and energies to the instruction and moral elevation of the JaUoof and other negro tribes, and at length sacrificed her Ufe in the cause. She compiled a book of reading lessons in Jalloof, among which were introduced some passages from the Scriptures, transkted by herselfi The work, which was printed towards the close of the kst century, was found to be perfectly inteUigibie to the Jalloofs. Dongo Karry, a young Mahommedan native, on hearing a few sentences read, exclaimed, " Ah ! that is Jalloof;" and immediately gave the signification of what he had heard in English, with which he was tolerably conversant. _ Afterwards, when some passages of Scripture were read to him from the same book, he cried out with emphasis, " Great and good! Great and good!" It is to be hoped that the commencement made by Hannah Kilham, in preparing a transktion of the Scriptures for this people, wiU be followed by the preparation ofa coinplete version : at present the JaUoofs possess no entire portion of the sacred volume in their own language. • Journal ofthe American Oriental Society for 1849, pp. 344, 360. 3 Report ofthe Seventeenth Meeting ofthe British Association, p. 159. 2 Thirty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xd. < Christian Traveller in Westem Africa, p. 123. susoo. SPECIMEN OF THE SUSOO VEESION. St. MATTHEW, Chap. v. v. 1 to 12. AwA a to moechee qwbeqwbe toh, a teb gea ma : a nacha to nu fa dochace, achah batulae fa a chong : ^ A nacha a de rabi, a nacha ^ tinkga, a nacha falla, ^ Marafangji na moechee be nachang niniche ^ boniae ma: katukung arriana-mankgania na i be. ^ Marafangji na 6 be nachang monnama : katukung 6 fama malenglengde. ® Marafangji na moechee loachame be : katukung 4 dunia niachungji kulungma. * Marafangji na 6 be, kame ning yeh choli nachang zuchuma fangnia kira ra : katukung 6 fama rafehde. ^ Marafangji na moechee be, niamaniuchung na nachang be : katukung 6 tina niamania- chungji zotoma. ^ Marafangji na boniae-fiche-moechee be: katukung 6 Allah tohma. ^ Marafangji na ^ be nachang chari-zahma: katukung 6 chUlima Allah cha die ra. ^^ Marafangji na ^ be, moechee nachang torama fangnia qwbe fe ra : katukung arriana mankgania na € be. " Marafangji na wo be, cha moechee wo mayelema, ning cha e wo ramochoma, ning cha e fee niache ki biring fallama wo chungma dundidundi, ng qwbe fe ra. ¦'^ Niachaniacha, ning wo boniae docha qwbeqwbe ra : katukung wo bunia qwbe razuchuma arriana € : katukung e duree ramocho na ki ne, nachang nu na wo niara. ON THE SUSOO LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Susoo language is spoken on the coast of Senegambia, between the Eio Nunez and the Klssi ; and it may be said to follow the course of the river Scarries to Timbo, and thence to Kakundy. It is so closely alUed to the Mandingo as to be regarded by some as a dialect of that language. It agrees with Mandingo in euphonic principles, and especially in the collocation of words. Thus, the adjective, in Susoo as in Mandingo, must follow the noun, the adverb must stand after the verb, and the postposition after the noun ; the direct object must be placed before, and all indfrect objects after the verb, and the same place in a sentence must be assigned to the relative as that which is usuaUy occupied by the demonstrative pronouns. There is no article in Susoo, and no declension of nouns ; gender is expressed by the addition of words equivalent to man and woman, and the plural is denoted by the letter i; e. g., shi signifies a goat, and shii, goats; so, rhame, a man, rhamei, men.' Almost every word in Susoo ends with a vowel or nasal ng. In 1797 an attempt was made by the Edinburgh Missionary Society to introduce the Scriptures among the Susoos ; but their missionary, the Eev. H. Brunton, after enduring great sickness and privation, was compelled to leave the country without efiecting a translation of any portion of the sacred volume into this language. After his return to Scotland, he compiled a Susoo grammar, and several elementary works, which have proved useful to other missionaries. The first seven chapters of the Gospel according to St. Matthew, translated into Susoo by Mr. WUhelm, have been printed by the Church Missionary Society;^ and the entire Gospel of St. Matthew and, perhaps, other parts of the Scriptures have been prepared by the agents of that Society, but are not printed. It was_ reported in 1845, that the Eev. J. U. Graf was engaged in the continuance of this version ; and it is to be hoped that other portions of the sacred volume will speedily be given to the Susoos. 1 Journal of the American Oriental Society for 1849, pp. 366, 373. 2 Missionary Register for 1817, p. 433. BULLOM. SPECIMEN OF THE BULLOM VEESION. ST. MATTHEW, Chap. v. v. 1 to 12. Yeh u ka keh runiah bomu tre, u kon ko kick atook nu chall ka, ahdisciple ah tre ngha hundy ko ko woa : ^ Jesus yeery nyengh woa nu menghe ngha, nghaleh, ^ Rubah ke nghana cheh moneh ke ugboUeh yeo : upock u foy tre ngho ngha be. ^ Rubah ke nghana tranghellin : peh hun ngha beel peah. * Rubah ke aniah mboss : upock u tre ngho ngha be. ^ Rubah ke aniah tre nghana nrick ma ngha re, nu ugboU ngha seckle eh re haUe dyah keleng tre ; peh hun ngha kah yempy dyo, ngha pum. '^ Rubah ke aniah tre nghana cheh bongha nkeleng : peh ngha hun marr. * Rubah ke aniah tre nghana be UgboU u tinkle yeo : ngha hun lehly Foy. " Rubah ke ahpom ah tre, peh veal ngha ahpomah Foy. '" Rubah ke aniah tre, lo ngha nghah dyah keleng yeo, nu peh ka nghah dyah bang ko ko ngha : nghana be upock u foy tre. " Rubah ke moa, lo aniah tre ngha moa nghah punk, lo ngha toh moa, lo ngha moa kah ilille bang nsele halle halle me. '^ Nhvoy, nchang ah hvoy : moa be packah bomu ke foy : ke manleh peh ka toh ahprophet ah tre nghana cheh leh moa eboll. ON THE BULLOM LANGUAGE AND VEESION. BtTLLOM, a dialect ofthe Mandingo language, is spoken around and at the back of Sierra Leone: it prevaUs in a tract lying between the rivers Scarries and Tlmbo, the Kong Mountains, and the Cape Mount Elver. The BuUoms, like the Susoos, form a part "of the Mandingo race afready described. A transktion of the Gospel according to St. Matthew was made into their language by the Kev. G. E. Nyknder, of the Church Missionary Society, and an edition was printed by that Society in 1815.' No further attempts appear to have been made to fiirnish the BuUoms with the Scriptures in their own tongue. SHEHBEO-BULLOM. The territory ofthe Sherbro-BuUoms comprises about 5000 square miles, with a Une of sea-coa^st about 120 miles in length, situated between the south bank of the Camaranca Elver, in lat. 7° 54' N., and the border of GaUinas district, in lat. 7° N.^ This fertile region was voluntarily ceded to the British in 1825. The Sherbro-BuUom dialect is ako spoken in the Bananas, a group of very smaU islands, now a dependency of Sierra Leone, sfruated between four and five miles distant from the town of Kent. The Bullom and the Sherbro, in aU probabiUty, origmaUy formed one language ; but so many > Owen's History of British and Foreign Bihle Society, vol. iii. p. 126. '- Postscript to the Missionary Register for 1825. 338 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI, foreign words and idioms have been introduced in each, that there are now essential differences between them ; and it is said that few BuUoms can understand Sherbro. In the early part of the present century, the book of Genesis, Newton's Hymns, and the Liturgy of the Church of England, were translated into Sherbro by Mr. George Caulker, a native, and formeriy headman of the Bananas. Mr. Schon, of the Church Missionary Society, has more recently re translated part of Genesis, and has likewise prepared a translation of part of the Gospel according to St. Matthew. He had the satisfaction of finding that his translations were perfectly IntelUgible to the people ; and therefore, during his visit to England in 1839, he caused part of his work to be printed, which he took back to Africa with a view to further correction.' Although so smaU a portion of the Scriptures has been printed in Sherbro, it would seem that the version, incomplete as it is, has been owned and blessed of God ; for the missionaries state, that " no village or town in the whole colony is so free from superstitious practices as are the Banana Islands." ^ YARRIBA, OE YOBUBA. SPECIMEN OF THE YAEEIBA, OE YOEUBA, VEESION. EOMANS, Chap. hi. v. 19 to 31. ¦'^ Nisisiyi awa mo pe ohunkohun ti ofin wi, o wi fu awon ti 9w^ li abbe ofin ; ki gbogbo ennu ki ole ipamo, ati ki gbogbo araiye ki ole idi elese niwaju Olorun ^ Nitori na nipa ise ti ofin, kb si enniti aoda li are niwaju rh : nitori nipa ofin ni imo ese gbe w^. ^^ Sugb9n nisisiyi ododo Otorun h^n lehin ofin, ti anje li eri nipa ofin ati nipa aw9n woli : "^ Ododo Olorun na nipa igbagbo ti Jesusi Kristi si gbogbo enia ati lara gbogbo scwon ti 9 gbagbo : nitori ti kb si iyatt9 : ^^ Gbogbo wa li asa ti se, awa si di abukun si ego Okrun. ^ Enniti anda li are nipa ore ofe r^ nipa idande ti 9wa lara Kristi Jesusi : ^° Enniti Okrun ti yan telle se etutu nipa igbagb9 ni ti ejje r^, lati fi ododo r^ han nipa ti idariji ese ti o ti koja nin9 ipam9ra Okrun ; ^^ Lati fi ododo rh han nigba isisiyi : ki ole ise alare, ati oludare enniti 9 gba Jesusi gbo. ^' Nibo ni iyin ha gbe wa ? ati mu u kuro. Nipa ofin wo ? ni ti ise ? Onko : sugb9n nipa ofin igbagb9. ^ Nitori na awa pari r^ si pe nipa igbagbo li anda enia li are lehin ise ofin. ^^ Otorun aw9n Jevi nikansoso ha ni? ki ise ti aw9n Keferi pellu ? beheni, ise ti awon Keferi pellu : ^ Nje ari i pe Obrun kan ni ti yi odare fu awon akola nipa igbagbo, ati fu aw9n alaikola nitori igbagbo '^ Awa nha nso ofin di assan nipa igbagbo bi ? Ki ama ri i : sugb9n, awa nfi idi ofin kalle. ON THE YAEEIBA, OE YOEUBA, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Yarriba country lies on the left or west bank of the Niger, from Iddah to Yaouri. The district in which the language is predominant is bounded north by the Nufi and the Haussa country, 1 Missionary Register for 1640, p, 103. 2 Church Missionary Record for 1348, pp. 39, 260. Afbican. J HAUSSA. 339 east by Warree and Benin, and west by Dahomey. The dialects spoken on the coast are caUed Yebu, whUe those m the interior are variously styled Eyo, Inongo, and Yarriba, but they are aU local varieties of one knguage.' The Yarriba tribes possess the characteristics, physical and InteUectual, of the negro race. Some among them are Pagans, and others Mahommedans ; but they are aU, Uke other negro nations, distinguished by their veneration for charms and amulets, which they fancy can avert sickness and affliction. Their government is carried on by means of a superstition called Oro, tbe secrets of which are confined to the male sex. Any person who reveals these secrets is punished with death, and the same punishment is inflicted on any woman who may become acquainted with them.^ Polygamy, as in other negro states, prevails to a great extent, and some of the chieftains have been known to possess two thousand wives. The king of the country informed Clapperton that he did not know how many wives and children he had, but he was sure that his wives alone, hand to hand, would reach from Kalunga, the capital, to Jannah, a distance of considerably more than one hundred miles.^ The Yarriba knguage, in grammar and general structure, resembles the Mandingo and Haussa knguages. The inflectional elements, however, possess no trace of similarity to those of either knguage, although founded on the same principles. The Yarriba accents and intonation are not readUy acqufred by foreigners. A transktion of part of the New Testament into Yarriba has been efiected by the Eev. Samuel .Crowther, a native of the country. The portions already completed are the Gospel of Luke, the Acts, and the Epistle to the Eomans. The latter has been lately printed, in an edition of 500 copies, by the British and Foreign Bible Society, at the request of the Church Missionary Society. The other two portions, having been written in a style of orthography now generaUy abandoned, have been retumed to Mr. Crowther, for the purpose of being transferred into the new system of orthography. It is uncertain whether Mr. Crowther drew these translations originally from the Greek text, but after their completion he revised and corrected them by Bloomfield's Notes on the New Testament.* He is still labouring among his countrymen in Africa, under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society, and it is anticipated that he wUl shortly complete his version of the Scriptures. The faithfulness of the portion already committed to the press has been attested by the three missionaries stationed by the Church Missionary Society at Badagry and Abbeokuta. HAUSSA. The Haussa is one of the most widely-extended languages of Western Africa. It comniences at Fundah, and, foUowing the course of the river Chadda, is used at Jacoba, Buzum, Aja, Kerbi, Shera, and other places. On the east, it is conterminous with the Bomu ; and on the west, with the Yamba languages : its extension north and west is undetermined.*' Although spoken by a people of pure negro race, it has grammatical affinities with the Shemitic languages. Its pronouns and a few of its words are of undoubted Shemitic origin ; but it is difficult to trace the etymology of Haussa words, on account of the alterations to which they are subjected in accordance with the euphomc laws of the language. The prepositions are similar to the Berber ; and Haussa adjectives, Uke the Berber, are very few in number, the deficiency being supplied in both languages by means of a periphrasis, con sisting of the relative and verb.^ . ¦, ai i. The Gospel according to St. Matthew was translated into this language prior to the year 1841, by ' Beecham's Ashantee and Gold Coa^tf p. 123. ' Prichard's Researches, yol. iv. p. 631. 340 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Ciass VI. the Eev. Mr. Schon, of the Church Missionary Society. He was aided by the Eev. Samuel Crowther, whose native language is Yarriba, and whose knowledge of that idiom tended to iUustrate obscurities in Haussa.' Mr. Schon is stiU prosecuting the translation of the New Testament, under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. TIMMANEE. TiMMANi is a small country on the coast of Western Africa, watered by the Scarries and the Lower Askelle, and adjoining Sierra Leone. The language is a Mandingo dialect.^ A version ofthe Gospel according to St. Luke in this dialect has been prepared by the Eev. Messrs. Schlenker and Schmid, agents of the Church Missionary Society, but it has not yet been committed to the press.^ A smaU book, containing extracts from the Scriptures, with Prayers and Hymns for the use of the school at Port Lokkoh, has been printed by the Church Missionary Society ;* and this, with the translation of St. Matthew's Gospel, executed in 1848 by Mr. Schlenker, but not yet printed, comprises all that has hitherto been efiected towards bestowing the Scriptures on this negro nation. One cause of the opposition encountered by missionaries in this country is the prevalence of Mahommedanism, in the ax profession of which many of the Tlmmanees live. BASSA. Bassa is spoken in a tract of the sea-coast, about forty mUes in length, in lat. 5° N, and long. 10" W. : this district is now included in the fiourishing colony of Liberia. How far the Bassa language extends into the interior of the continent is unknown. The people to whom it is vernacular reside chiefly along the coast, and are now estimated at about 125,000 individuals ; their numbers have been greatly diminished by the slave trade.' The language is closely allied to the Mandingo, and belongs to the Grebo family. The Gospels of St. Matthew and St. John, with the Acts of the Apostles, have been printed at Bassa, at the expense of the Ehenish Missionary Society ; and other portions of the sacred volume, translated by the Ehenish missionaries, are said to be now in a state of preparation for the press. 2 ni^l'^^^J'T""/" i^""' P- ^^^' ' Missionary Register for 1845, p. 13. ' Keport ofthe Seventeenth Meeting ofthe Bntish Association, p. i64. 4 Missionary Register for 1848, p. 10. 5 Missionary Register for 1834, p. 11 , GBEBO. SPECIMEN OF THE GEEBO VEESION. ST. LUKE, Chap. vi. v. 27 to 38. 2^ Nema lele ahmonh ne, ahmu no wenh te nenonh, bah nowane ah nyenhoh, bah nu nyono nyenh ahmonh, hanhka. '' Bah blese nyono oh gididi ahmonh, nenh bah bade Nyesoa ka nyono nyinene ahmonh na ah ta. ^^ Nenh ny^ ba podeo moh de gabwa na, tede na ^be ye : nenh ny^ ba ha moh nah swenh daro kwa, nah ka n^ ya, ko na kade ah ta ye. ^ Bah hyni nyebo biye no ideda moh; nenh nya ba ha moh nah teble kwa, nah idae na eh te n^ de. '^ Nenh tine ah ide nyebo boh nu ahmonh m4, kre bah nu no ye. ^^ Kare boh nowane nyono, oh nowane ahmonh, bisida bee ah kae? kare kbiine dyineoh nowane nyono oh nowane no ne, ye. ^^ Nenh bah nu nyono ni ahmonh hanh ka donh, hanh ka, bisida bee ah kae? kere kbiine nyineoh ni ne ne ye. ^* Nenh nyono ah wore pona, oh di ahmonh peema, oh donh ka ahmonh he, bah yi teble hie, bisida bee, ah kie? kare kbiine nymeoh hie kbiine nyineoh ah teble ne, boh mu eh tee yi ah ta. ^' Nema bah nowene ah nyenhoh, bah nu no hanh ka, nenh bah hie teble, ah wore nah ida eh te na de : nenh ah peeda muwa boa, nenh pie bah muwa Hiya eh iru nu ; kare a na woro ko nyono neh ze na, oh ka kbune nyineoh he ma. ^^ Hede bah po nyebo wore ma na, tine, ah Buo ni wa wore ma na popoe. ^'' Ah nah hia ah bino ah te krenh, oh neh te ah nene hia ye ; ah neh be gne, ah neh te gne hee : hie wore na, ko ah bino ma, pie oh mu wa wore ma na hie, ko ahmonh ma. ^^ Bah pru de, nenh he pruewa ahmonh ma ne de : eh mude yidi hanh ka eh mu ke na bebe, nenh eh mu zuku, eh mu honanh na wore, ne nyebo di ahmonh ne ma wude na tedema. Kare sinanede ne, ah sinane eh mi sinenema de ko ahmonh ma. ON THE GEEBO LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Grebo language is predominant in the immediate vicinity of Cape Palmas, and Is supposed to extend considerably into the interior : it prevaUs from Sinoe to Berebe, but its precise area Is undetermined. Tribes of this faraily are to be met with from Grand Cape Mountain on the north to St. Andrew's on the Ivory Coast. The Grebo people have. In general, less intelligence than their neighbours : they are pagans, but possess no fixed system of idolatry, each individual adopting such notions and practices as accord with his own fancy.' Their mode of political government Is equaUy anomalous : they have no system of legislation whatever, but live in disorderly masses, without rulers ; those who bear the name of chiefs having a mere nominal authority. The Grebo is a cognate language with the Vey spoken at Grand Cape Mountain, the Dey spoken by the former inhabitants of Cape Mesurado, the dialects of Drewln and St. Andrew's, the Bassa, and the Kru, aU of which are usually Included in the Grebo family. The Grebo is characterised by many difficult nasal and guttural sounds, by a disproportion of monosyllabic words, and by great deficiency ia inflections. It possesses, however, a variety of tenses, whereby the time of an action can be expressed with singukr precision. In a negative verbal proposition, the particle of negation takes the tense inflection instead of the verb. Many of the words of this language have no fixed office, but are employed iudiscriminately as nouns, adjectives, particles, and verbs.^ > Journal of American Oriental Society for 1849, p. 318. ^ Journal of American Oriental Society for 1849, pp. 344,376. 342 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI. The first translation of the Gospel into Grebo was effected by the aid of the American Board of Missions : the Gospel according to St. Matthew was printed, and the Acts translated, prior to the year 1840.' This edition of St. Matthew consisted of 1000 copies. In 1848, the Gospel according to St. Luke was translated from the original by Mr. Payne, an agent of the Protestant Episcopal Missionary Society of America, and an edition was printed at the expense of the American Bible Society .^ No accounts have been transmitted concerning the results of the distribution of these smaU editions, but it appears from the last reports that Mr. Payne is stiU engaged in the completion of the version of the New Testament. ACCRA. SPECIMEN OF THE ACCEA VEESION. » St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Tshutshu klengkleng lu Wiema lu ia, ni Wiema lu ke Niingmk ia, ni Wiema lu dzhi Niingmk. ^ Lu tshutshu klengkleng lu e ke Niingm^ ia. ' Lu fe nj pia, ni k' shj lu a fe-e nako 'ni k' fe. * E mii hiekamk ia, ni hekamk lu dzhi gbamej a \k. * Ni Ik lu tshba ie dung mii, ni dung lu enana. ^ E' babamh ake k' tshii nil kb kedzh^ Niingm^ nga, k tshe lu Dzhon. '' E' ba bdase iere, koni e ih Ik lu bdase, koni [mej] pia 'a heai^ i^ h h.e'wk. ^-Dzhe lu dzhi 1^ lu, shi [h bk] Ik lu bdase iere. * No dzhi Ik ankkua lu 'ni tshoa ha-a ['mej] pia 'ni bk-a dzh^ng lu. "* E' i^ dzhe lu mii, ni lu fe dzh^ lu, ni dzh^ lu le lu. " E bk ludieiitsh|-e-na nga, ni ludientshfe-e-na her^-e lu. '^ Shi 'mej-a-bk 'ni here lu [lu], h ha [amme] hegbe ake amme 'a fe Niingmk bj, 'mej 'ni heaila i^ e gbei nk [lu] . '* Dzhe la, '15 hfewulo sUmama, 'lo nii siimama, shi Niingmk ni k' fa amme. '* Ni k' fe Wiema lu h^wiilo, ni e hi wk teng, ni wk nk e he-nk-woma lu, ake Tshh lu bi 'k5me- ni-k-fa lu he-nk-woma lu, ke iaka-nake, ke ankkua obo. ON THE ACCEA LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Accra, or, as it is more properly designated, Ghah, is spoken in a small district lying on the equator, in long. 19' E. The people to whom it is vernacular are in all probability the descendants of the ancient Ghahnah ; they are thought to number about 30,000 individuals.' The Eev. A. Hanson, a native of Accra, translated the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. John into this knguage ; and in 1843 an edition was printed in London by the British and Foreign Bible Society, in Eoman letters, with numerous diacritical marks. On his return to Africa the following year, Mr. Hanson took the copies with him for distribution among his countrymen ; and he had the satisfaction of finding, not only that the version was thoroughly intelligible to them, but also that they 1 Strickland's History of American Bible Society, p. 260. - Thirty-second Report of American Bible Society, p. 25. 3 Thirty-ninth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxvii. African.] ASHANTEE, OR ODJII. 343 were able (after receiving a Uttie mformation concerning the system of vowel points he had adopted) to read the printed copies for themselves with ease and pleasure. This edition was received with so much joy and thankfulness,' that Mr. Hanson felt encouraged to proceed with his translation, and he has now completed the greater part of the New Testament. F AN T E E. The Fantees are the rnost powerful people on the Gold Coast, a section of which they occupy. They reside chiefly in the immediate vicinity of Cape Coast, Including Dick's Cove and Anamabu. In number they amount to between 800,000 and 1,000,000; but they have never been united iuto one compact poUtical body, their government being in the hands of inferior chiefs, who possess an almost independent and despotic jurisdiction over Umited districts.^ The Fantees were originaUy one people with the Ashantees, but many centuries have elapsed since their separation. They are pagans, and very superstitious, and are stiU In a state of semi-civUlsatlon. Fantee is a soft and harmonious language, and is closely connected in structure and idiom with all the other languages of Ashantee, except the Accra. It has no article, and no terminatlonal variations to express the distinctions of case. The possessive case is marked either by the mere collocation of words, or else by affixing an abbreviation of the relative pronoun. The plural Is formed by prefixing the syllable im or in to the singular noun. Conjugation is carried on, as in Mandingo, by means ofthe pronouns, which undergo certain changes to denote the variations of tense, while the verb itself remains unaltered. -An introductory work to the Accra and Fantee languages, containing, among other things, a translation of the Ten Commandments, was pubUshed at Copenhagen In 1764, by order of the Eng of Denmark."'' Five or six chapters of the Gospel of St. John have very recently been translated Into Fantee by the Eev. Mr. Hanson, but they are not yet ready for the press, and the Fantees are still destitute of printed copies of the Scriptures in their own language. ASHANTEE, OE ODJII. The Ashantee kingdom comprises the maritime district generally known as the Guinea Coast: including its dependencies, this kingdom extends over 70,000 square mUes, and is the area of at least six or seven different languages. The population of Ashantee Proper, according to Bowdlch, amounts to 1,000,000, but the entire empfre may be said to contam a population of at least 3,000,000. Mahommedanism has made some progress in this kmgdom, but the prevailing form of superstition is Feticlsm, with which many sanguinary and revolting rites are connected. The immolation of human vlctuns is practked on many pubUc occasions ; and when the king dies, Ashantee becomes one vast aceldama.* But the inhuman atrocities to which this nation is addicted have of late years been repressed by the efibrts of the missionaries stationed in this benighted land. The language distUigulshed as " Ashantee Proper, or OdjU," is ahnost the same as the Fantee, differing from fr merely in a few consonantal changes. Dr. Beecham, who at one tune had an mtelhgent Fantee and two Ashantees residing under his roof, observed that they could aU converse together with nearly as much ease as if they had been natives of the same district; and it is said that natives ot Ashantee who occasionaUy visit the coast, and the people in the neighbourhood of Cape Coast Castle, \ ^ett^^sis^^^s^i^'ss^f iiir^ '¦ ^''"- ^ ^z^:s^^^^ ^st, p. .3B. 344 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI. have little difficulty in understanding each other. In 1846, the missionaries of the Basle Missionary Society were engaged in preparing a version of the New Testament into Ashantee, and had completed the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Luke. What further progress has since been made in this trans lation we are unable to ascertain : the Eev. Mr. Eiis, one of the translators, formerly stationed at Acrompong (not very distant from Accra), has recently returned to Germany, and is now preparing a grammar and lexicon of the Odjii language, embracing eight dialects. DUALLA, SPECIMEN OF THE DUALLA VEESION. ST. MATTHEW, Chap. y. i; 1 to 12. Ibe Jisos a enino dimuti, a taabua o moi o molongo, ndi ibe a gaino wasi, ba becoele bau, ba poino jia mo. ^ Ndi, a tauta molumbu mau, a talea babo, a ona. ^ Batuidi, ba si bwa sise o molema, ba namidi, ebanja ecumbu ya loba ei yabu. * Babo ba lebe o molema, ba namidi, ebanja ba o embabe o milema. ^ Batu ba pi, ba namidi, ebanja ba o bene mo muindi. " Babo ba bei njai na nyongi, o itesse la molema, ba namidi, ebanja ba o ulisabe. ^ Batu ba ndedi, ba namidi, ebanja ba o nongo ndedi. ® Babo ba sanga o milema, ba namidi. ebanja ba o ene Loba. ^ Batu ba ilattise, ba namidi, ebanja ba o belabe bana ba Loba. ¦"* Babo ba tacisabe, o iiyxdo o itesse la molema, ba namidi; ebanja ecumbu ya loba ei yabu. ^^ Binyo o bei moname, ibe batu ba o silese binyo, ba o tacisabe binyo, ba o bacele binyo o mambu ma bubi messi, o nyulo am. ¦'^ Bwa mon- yenge; bwa mony enge mondene; ebanja boweni banyo, bondeni o loba; nanu ndi, ba tacisino baprofiti, ba seleno o boso banyo. ON THE DUALLA LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The country in which the Dualla or Dewalla language is vernacular lies on the western coast of Africa, north, east, and south of the Cameroons Eiver, and its area is considered to be under 1000 square miles. The language, however, is known in districts which probably cover 5000 square miles. No correct statistical accounts of the DuaUa tribes have been yet obtained ; but the missionaries state that the number of this people in the immediate vicinity of the mission-station on the Cameroons Eiver amounts to about 30,000. The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke have been translated into Dualla by the Eev. Alfred Saker, of the Baptist Missionary Society, and an edition of the Gospel of Matthew has been printed in Africa. The Scriptural knowledge imparted to the Duallas, by means of these portions of the Divine word, has been blessed to the spiritual enlightenment of several individuals. In 1849, a member of the DuaUa nation, the first fruits of the mission, was baptized in the river Cameroons, amidst a large assemblage of his countrymen. And, apart from individual instances of conversion, a great change has been wrought in the general character and disposition ofthe nation. " Their ferocious, demoniacal features (says Mr. Saker) are assuming the softness of children ; and those who a Uttle time since sought my life, are now saying to me, ' What shall I do to be saved ?"" 1 Fifty-eighth Report of Baptist Missionary Society, p. 28. ISUBU. SPECIMEN OF THE ISUBU VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Nggombi ya boso-boso ee Ekwali, e mabe ; ee Ekwali, e mabe na Obasi, ee Ekwali, € iBBibe Obasi. ^ Oo 'ndi, a mabe, 'nggombi ya boso-boso na Obasi. ^ Mambu mese, ma mabolabe na mo ; si mo, ke lambu, ke loko, di si bolabe. * Longge, di mabe na mo, dini longge 'ndi, di mabe moenene mo batu. ^ Mo moenene, mo matana o moititi, 'ndi moititi, mo si mo inggele. ® 0 mabe motu, dina lai Jon, a malomabe na Obasi. ^ Oo motu, a maya na mosunggweri i oba meanggo na mo moenene, batu bese, ba bekane o nyulo ya meanggo miai. ^ Momene, a si be mo moenene ; a maya i oba meanggo na mo moenene. " Moenene mo 'mbaki, mo mabe mo, a maya o mono monyanggalu, a boh moenene na batu bese. ^^ A mabe o mono monyanggalu ; mono monyanggalu, mo mabolabe na mo, 'ndi batu ba mono monyanggalu, ba si mo bia. " A maya o yai ekombo, 'ndi lai itumba, di si mo inggele; ^^ 'Ndi bese, ba ma mo inggele, ba kamanele dina lai, a ma ba bola mosima, ba be bana ba Obasi. •'^ Bano bana, ba si yabe na malda, na iemea la nyulo, na iemea la motu ; ba mayabe 'ndi na Obasi. " 'Ndi ee Ekwali, e matimba nyulo, e maj a na iso, (di m'ene bondene boi, bondene, na bo mwana moko mene, a yabe na Sanggo yasu,) a malonda na mosima na beyala bi 'mbaki. ON THE ISUBU LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Isubu is spoken in a smaU maritime district, called Bimbia, lying at the foot of the Cameroon Mountains. Its population is under 10,000. Around the Cameroon Mountains there are extensive districts, with a scattered population, in which dialects of Isubu and DuaUa are spoken. _ Parts pf the Scriptures have been translated into Isubu by the Eev. Joseph Merrick, of the Baptist Missionary Society, lately deceased. This devoted missionary was of African descent, and was educated in the schools of the Baptist Society in Jamaica. He spoke the Isubu language with great precision, and spent the last years of his Ufe among the Isubu tribes. He died m 1849, just as the fruit of his labours was ripening, and when five natives had evinced a desire to be baptized.' The portions of his version which have been printed are the Gospels according to St. Matthew and St. John, the book of Genesis, and selections from the Old Testament. These editions were aU issued from the Baptist Mission press, in Afiica : the missionaries are now printing the Acts of the Apostles, and a second edition of the Gospel of St. Matthew is said to be greatly needed. I Fifty-eighth Report of Baptist Missionary Society, p. 27. FERNANDIAN, OE ADIYAH. SPECIMEN OF THE FEENANDIAN, OE ADIYAH, VEESION. ST. MATTHEW, Chap. v. v. 1 to 12. Atshi eem bwala e aeso bohoh o basa ; ebilu la itshino, a bataki bai bea bwe ko peria. ^ Atshi e abodo o bweeh bwai, e aba tubairia lalo. * Luebwe lue betshu bo tobolo e iteba ; ka a bebe takeidu o riata o lobako pwa. * Luebwe luebo beba loididi, ka ba lue hobahah. ^ Luebwe luebo beba bokeu o botu, ka ba na lue eia lele u boba pwe. * Luebwe luebo beba tshala, a tshila nu bedi a laba lele ama, ka ana bei bahah. ^ Luebwe luebo bobo sa lele, ka nabe e lahah lele. ® Luebwe luebo bokibe eteba 6 luliyai, ka a nabe elahah a Yehovah. " Luebwe luebo bala hoaba, ka a nabe ilelo a bola a Yehovah. ^" Luebwe luebo a bobah ba leilihela o bola bo sa lele : ka abe ba pru riata o lobako. ^^ Luebwe lueue e bila la boie, la loika, atshi o boli hela ue, atshi na ohhi a la ba lama a bebe lo o keida bisoi a la ne. ^^ 'Mmabihoh, atshi lobo lobo mabihoh, ka ote ote a lokoo o lubako, ka ale iH hela aH ebi, o aio boso a welo. ON THE FEENANDIAN, OE ADIYAH, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The island of Fernando Po is situated in the Bight of Benin, about twenty mUes distant from the continent, between lat. 3° 11' and 3° 47' N., and long. 8° 24' and 8° 56' E. It is about 120 miles in circumference, its greatest length from north to south being rather more than thirty-six miles, and its greatest breadth about thirty-One mUes.' The Inhabitants of this beautiful Island number 20,000. The tribe to which they belong is called Adiyah, and this name is often given to their language. They are a timid, inoffensive people, less covetous than the generaUty of Africans, and remarkable for simplicity and childish good nature.^ They reside principaUy on the sides of the mountains of which their Island is composed, and generaUy at a height of from 1000 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea. There are upwards of two hundred villages thus scattered among the mountains, besides fishing viUages ; and about fifty trading ports, where they carry on a traffic in yams and palm oil. The government is in the hands of headmen, one of whom presides over each village, assisted by a certain number of counsellors selected from the aged and experienced. The religion of the Adiyah is the same as that of thefr brethren on the opposite shore, consisting in a rude kind of worship rendered to frightful images, and in veneration for charms and amulets. Fernando Po is a dependency of Spain ; and in 1846 the missionaries labouring in the isknd were exposed to some persecution from the emissaries of that government. The Spanish consul even forbad the use of the Scriptures in the native Schools ; and, on being interrogated upon the subject, confessed that his motive in prohibiting the reading of the sacred volume was because the missionaries drew from it the elements of their religion : but the prompt reply of Dr. Prince, " Where then, signor, are found the principles of your faith?" convinced him of his error, and led him to withdraw the prohibition.^ At Clarence, the chief town of the Island, the portions of the Scriptures now translated into Femandian are publicly taught in a day-school, attended by a hundred scholars, and likewise in the infant and Sunday schools. The Gospel of St. Matthew, printed at the expense of the Baptist Missionary Society, is, however, the only part of the Femandian version that has yet been committed to the press. The Gospel of St. Mark has long been translated, but is not printed, and other portions are nearly ready for the press.'' This transktion was commenced by Mr. Clarke, and is now being carried on by Mr. Saker, of the Baptist Missionary Society. Among the results of the dissemination of this smaU portion of holy writ it may be stated, that in the church established at Clarence four of the members are native Fernandlans, and that a fifth died recently in the faith and hope ofthe Gospel. 1 Clarke's Introduction to the Femandian Tongue, p. iii. 3 Forty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxliii. 2 East, on Westem Aftica, p. 299. 4 Fifly-eighth Report of Baptist Missionary Society, p. 27. MPONGWE. Geographical Extent and Statistics.— Mpongwe is the language of a people (heretofore generaUy known as the Pongos) who for more than two centuries have acted in the character of factors m carrying on a traffic between European traders and the tribes of the interior. Mpongwe towns are bmlt on both banks of the Gaboon, but the prmcipal location of the people k a smaU tract of country at the mouth of that river, just below the Bight of Biafra, and about twenty miles north of the equator. In number the Mpongwes do not exceed 6000 or 7000, but their language Is spoken at Cape Lopez and St. Catherine, and likewise to some distance in the interior. Altogether the number of Individuals who employ the Mpongwe language is supposed to amount to at least 200,000.' The Mpongwes area peaceable and friendly people, and, though stlU in a state of semi-barbarism, are shrewder and more inteUigent than most of the neighbouring nations. Their govemment has the form of a monarchy, but the power is vested in popular assembUes. Slavery and polygamy prevaU among them, as among other African states. They have no system of reUgion whatever, no priesthood, no reUgious meetings, no worship or sacrifice to idols ; the only sentiment approximating to reUgious superstition which is dominant among them is a strange feeling of veneration which they cherish towards old earthen jars.^ Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — This language is closely aUled to the KlshuaheU, spoken on the opposite side of the continent, and near the same paraUel of latitude. Striking verbal and grammatical affinities connect both these languages with the grand family of languages pervading aU Afiica south of the equator. On the other hand, no resemblances prevail between Mpongwe and the other knguages of the westem coast spoken north of the Mountains of the Moon. In the iiossession of a part of speech caUed the definite pronoun, the Mpongwe resembles the Polynesian anguage : this pronoun, frequently employed in the place of other pronouns, is also used in the formation of the infinitive, and in the frffiection of nouns and adjectives ; and it Ukewise occasionaUy subserves the office of prepositions, and of other parts of speech.^ In respect of verbal inflections, the Mpongwe language is particularly rich and copious. There are, we are told, five simple conjugations, formed by final changes, which give the verb a frequentative, causative, rektive, and indefinite sense. Each of these forms is inflected through aU the moods, tenses, and voices : negative and passive forms are also in frequent use ; and beyond these are numerous shades of meaning, communicated by auxihary particles and negative intonations.'' Yet the American missionaries stationed in the Mpongwe country were less stmck by the remarkable copiousness of this language than by its ahnost unlimited flexlbiUty, its pMlosophical arrangement, and its complete subjection to euphonical principles. "Its expansions, contractions, and inflections, they remarked, though exceedingly numerous, and having apparently special reference to euphony, are aU governed by grammatical rules, which seem to be weU estabUshed in the minds of the people, and which enable them to express thefr ideas with the utmost precision. How a language so soft, so plaintive, so pleasant to the ear, and at the same time so copious and methodical in its inflections, should have originated, or how the people are enabled to retain its multifarious principles so distinctly in their minds, as to express their ideas with ahnost unvarying precision and uniformity, are points which we do not pretend to settle." ° • ... Various detached portions of the Scriptures have been translated mto Mpongwe by the missionaries ofthe American Board of Missions, and several printed editions of these portions have been issued at the expense of that Society. No kss than 8000 books fri the Mpongwe language (among which, however, were elementary works on Christian instraction as weU as Scriptural portions) were prmted at the mission-press during the year 1846 : « the pages of these copies were afrogether 155,000 _m number. We possess no recent InteUigence conceming the progress which the American missionaries may now have made in the translation of the New Testament into Mpongwe. > Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1848, p. 353. * -Trf^^^V^onsoi Am^^^olo^^ Society for 184S, p. 293. 2 Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 184S, p. 286. = Missionary Register for 18«, p. 16. ' Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1848, p. 294. « Missionary Register for im, p. 19. SECHUANA. SPECIMEN OF THE SECHUANA VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Lehuku le le le mo tsimologon, mi Lehuku le le na le Morimo, mi Lehuku e le le Morimo. ^ Ye, le le na le Morimo mo tsimologon. ^ Lilo cotle li tsa rihoa ka yeona, mi ga goa rihoa sepe sa tse li rihiloen, ha e si ka yeona. * Botselo bo le bo le mo go yeona; mi botselo e le le leseri ya bathu. ^ Mi leseri ya phatsima mo hihifi; mi lehihi le si ka ya le cula. ^ Gabo gole monona eo o birioan Yohane, a romiloe ki Morimo. ^ Monona eo, o la tla go na moshupi, go shupa ga Leseri, gore bStle ba rumble ka eintla ea gague. ® Ena o la si Leseri ye, mi o la ronoa go shupa ga Leseri. * Leseri ya amarure, e le le ye, ye le tiaii mo lehatsin, le bonisa mothu moiiue le monue. ^^ 0 la le mo lehatsin, mi lehatsi le le rihiloe ki ^na, mi lehatsi ga lea ka ya mo itse. " 0 la tla go ba gague, mi ba gague, ba si ka ba mo cula. ^^ Mi botle ba ba le ba mo cula, a ba naea thata go na bana ba Morimo, ebon go ba ba rum^laii mo ineii ya gague ; " Ba ba le ba sa tsaloa ka eintla ea mari, le esiii ka thato ea nama, le esiii ka thato ea mothu, mi e le le ka thato ea Morimo. " Mi Lehuku ya rihoa nama, mi ya aga mo go rona, (mi re le ra bona khalaMlo ea gague; khalal61o e e cuanaii yaka ea eo o tsecoeii esi oa Kara,) a tletse tsegahaco le boamarure. ON THE SECHUANA LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — This knguage is spoken by the Bechuana tribes of Southern and Central Africa : their country extends from the Orange Eiver to a little beyond the tropic of Capricorn, and Ues between twenty -three and twenty-nine degrees of east longitude.' On a rough calculation, it has been supposed that these tribes, including the Griquas on the Orange Elver, may number from 25,000 to 30,000 individuals.^ They are stUl in a state of barbarism, and possess no regular system of reUglon or superstition. Their govemment partakes both of a monarchical and patriarchal character, each tribe being governed by chiefs, who are subordinate to the principal ruler, while at the same time they possess power to limit his authority.' Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The Sechuana occupies a prominent place in the great Cafire family of languages. Its elaborate system of prefixes is substantiaUy the same as the Caffi:e ; and numerous affinities connect it with the Mpongwe, the Suahell, and all the other languages of the South African countries. Various dialects of Sechuana are employed by the numerous tribes of this great nation, but they are all separable into two grand divisions, the eastern and the western stems. The former comprises the dialects of the Basutos, the Batlokua or Mantatees, the Batan, and of some other tribes not yet vkited : the latter includes the dialects spoken by the Baralong, the Batkpi, the Baharuti, and by several other tribes. Veesion op the Sceiptuees. — A version of the New Testament into the Sitlapi, a western idiom of the Sechuana language, has been executed by the Eev. Eobert Mofiat, of the London I Journal of American Oriental Society for 1819, p. 426. 2 Fortieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Societ)-, p. cxxii. » Labours and Scenes in South Africa, by Rev. R. Moffat, p. 248. Apbican.J SECHUANA. 349 Missionary Society. In the preparation of this work he had the EngUsh version ever before him : he also consulted the Dutch and some other versions, and occasionally referred to the German. This translation in general faithfully foUows the EngUsh text ; but some little deviations from that text occur in a few instances, occasioned by a preference entertained by Mr. Mofiat for the corresponding Dutch rendering.' The first portion of the Sechuana version committed to the press was the Gospel of St. Luke, printed at Cape Town in 1831. In 1840, Mr. Mofiat visited England for the purpose of superintending the pubUcation of the New Testament and Psalms. -An edition of 5050 copies was printed at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Societyin 1841 ; and an edition was Ukewise at the same time issued of the Scriptural Extracts used in the Borough-road School. The copies were consigned to the missionaries for distribution. Mr. Mofiat is now engaged in the translation of the Old Testament : he has completed the Proverbs, the Minor Prophets, Ecclesiastes, and part of the Pentateuch, and is now preparing a revised edition of the Proverbs. A small edition of 500 copies of each of the books of the Old Testament will shortly be published ; and when these have been used, examined, and approved, a larger edition can be attempted with greater satisfaction.^ Eesults of the Dissemination op this Veesion. — Wlien the Gospel of St. Luke was the only portion of the Scriptures existing in this language, there was abundant evidence to prove that this single Gospel had been blessed to the conversion of souls. The translator, Mr. Mofiat, on his return to England, avowed that this first efibrt at transktion was imperfect ; " and yet (said he) I know that Gospel of St. Luke has been the means of leading many a wanderer to the fold of God : there are many now ready to bear testimony that it was through hearing this Gospel read or repeated that they were led to the knowledge of the Saviour, and the enjoyment of His salvation." Some copies ofthe Sechuana New Testament have recently been distributed among the Bakuenas, near the tropic of Capricorn, where many of the people have learned to read. The chief, a very inteUigent man, who has been received into the Church at that place, said one day, in reply to questions put to him by some of his chief men, " I have been taught to read ; I have read this book over and over (pointing to the New Testament); I have read it with close attention ; I understand it — though not all that is written, for I am yet a child ; — and no man can convince me that it is not the Word of God." ' The dissemination ofthe New Testament in other parts of the Sechuana country has been attended with equaUy gratifying results. There are supposed to be at present at least 400 natives who have embraced Christianity, and been received into the Church. The Wesleyan missionaries inform us that, in the Thaba-'Nchu circuit, " the members of the Church, with but one exception, stand fast in the faith, having no disposition to retum to the beggarly elements of the world. There is much unity of spirit among them, much sympathy with each other in the persecutions to which their common religion exposes them, andmuch provoking of one another to love and good works." ^ And in a stiU more recent report^ It is said that " many of these native Christians might be pointed out as patterns worthy of imitation." ^ 1 ThirtT-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 54. . 3 Forty-sixth Report of Brittsh and foreign Mble Society, p. cxvi. 2 Forty-third Report of British and Forei|n Bible Society, p. cxxviii. * Wesleym Missionary Notices for 1850, p. 70. 5 Wesleyan Missionary Notices for 1850, p. 91. SISUTA, OE SESUTO. SPECIMEN OF THE SISUTA, OE SESUTO VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Leinchue le ne le le tsimologong, 'me Leinchue le ne le le go Yehofa, 'me Leinchue e ne e le Yehofa. ^ Lona le ne le le go Yehofa tsimologong. ' 'Nto tsotle li entsoe ki lona, 'me gar'a lUo tse entsoeng, go si 'nto e sa etsoang ki lona. * Bopelo bo ne bo le teng go lona, 'me bopelo bo ne bo le leseri la batu. ^ 'Me leseri la bontsa lefifing, 'me lefifi ga lea ka la le mamela. ® Motu o ba le teng, a rumiloe ki Yehofa, lebitso la gae e ne e le Yoanne. ' 0 na tla go bolela, goba a bolele leseri, ba tie ba lumele botle ka ena. ^ E ne e si ena leseri, 'me a na a rungoa, goba a tlo go bolela leseri. ® Ki lona leseri la 'niti, le bontsang motu oa emong le emong ea tlang lefatsing. ^'' 0 na le lefatsing, 'me lefatsi le entsoe ki ena, 'me lefatsi ga lea ka la mo tseba. " 0 na tla go ba abo, 'me ba abo ba si ke ba mo enka. ^^ 'Me botle ba mo enkileng, o ba neile matla go ba bana ba Yehofa, ki bona ba lumelang lebitsong la gae. ^^ Ba sa tsualoang ka mari, leha e le ka go-rata ga nama, leha e le ka go-rata ga monna. ba tsuetsoe ki Yehofa. ^* 'Me Leinchue le entsoe nama, 'me le agile go rona, re talimUe letlotlo la lona e le letlotlo la Mora o notsi oa Ntate, le tletse mosa le 'niti. ON THE SISUTA, OE SESUTO, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Basutos, by whom the Sisuta language is spoken, form part of the Bechuana nation, and dweU between the Winterberg Mountains and the higher branches of the Yellow Elver.' There are also numerous tribes occupying extensive regions to the north-east of this district, as far as Sofala, by whom dialects are spoken differing but little from Sisuta ; it is therefore anticipated that the Sisuta Scriptures wlU be found intelligible to these widely-scattered tribes. The Sisuta is the eastern branch of the Sechuana language, and is distinguished from the westem dialects by certain consonantal changes : thus, the h, sh, and th of the latter become f in Sisuta ; ts becomes p, r is changed into I, and sometimes into s, and the strong guttural of the west is converted into a soft aspirate. These changes have the effect of rendering Sisuta a soft and harmonious language, and comparatively easy of enunciation. In these respects Sisuta resembles the Caffre language.^ The Gospel of St. Matthew was translated and printed in Sisuta in the year 1837, by M. M. PeUssier, Arbousset, and Casalis, three missionaries ofthe French Protestant Evangelical Missionary Society.^ Small detached portions of the New Testament were afterwards given to this people at irregular intervals ; but in 1849 they were in possession only of the Four Gospels in their own language. The perusal of the Gospels excited in them an ardent desire to read the whole Word of God, and induced them to seek earnestly instruction in the English language. " Having] already (says their missionary) tasted the fruit of the tree of life, as offered them in the portions of Scripture translated mto Sisuta, they naturally wish for more ; and many of them take the shortest way of obtaining their desire, by studying the language which contains the whole Bible, thus plucking the fruit without the assistance of others." * It is satisfactory to know that aid has been afforded to this interesting people by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and that the entfre New Testament, in Sisuta, is npw being printed in Africa, at the press of the French Society. The Psalms are also likely to be shortly pubUshed at the same press. The missionaries assure us, that " the seed of the Divine word has not been scattered in vain among the Basuto tribes ;" and that " great is afready the number of those who delight in reading the oracles of God." ^ 1 Moffat, Missionary Labonrs and Scenes in South Africa, p. 15. 3 Home's Introduction, vol. v. p. 147. 2 Journal of American Oriental Society for 184B, p. 428. ¦ < Forty-flfth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxxxix. ' Forty-flfth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxl. CAFFEE, OR KAFFIE. SPECIMEN OF THE CAFFEE, OE KAFFIE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Ekuqaleni libeliko Ilizwi, Ilizwi libelikwano-Tixo, ne-Lizwi lalingu-Tixo. ^ Eio Hbeliko ekuqaleni kwano-Tixo. ^ Zonke izinto zadalwa lUo ; akudalwanganto eyadalwa lingeko lona. * Kulo bekuko Ubomi; nobomi bebulukanyiso Iwabantu. ^ Ukanyiso luyakanyisa ebumyameni ; koko ubumnyama abuluqondanga. ^ Kwabekuko indoda eyatunywa ivela ku-Tixo, egama libelin-gu-Yohannes. ^ Yona yeza ukuze ibehnqina galo Ukanyiso, ukuba bonke abantu bakolwe lulo. ® Yona ibingelulo olokanyiso ; koko yatunywa ukuze inqine golokanyiso. ^ Olo belulukanyiso Iwenyaniso, olukanyisa bonke abantu abangena emhlabeni. ^" Lona (Ilizwi) labelisemhlabeni ; nomhlaba wadalwa lUo, koko umhlaba awulazanga. ^^ Leza kwezalo (izinto,) nabakowalo abalamkelanga. ^^ Koko bonke abalamkeleyo, kubo lanika amanthla ukuba lusapo luka-Tixo, kubo abakolwa egameni lalo. •'^ Abazelweyo, benga-(zalwanga) gegazi, nangentando yeny- ama, nangentando yomtu, koko gaye u-Tixo. ¦''' Kekaloku Ilizwi lenziwa inyama, lahlala pakati kwetu, (tina sabona ukukazimla kwalo, okukwanjengokukazimla kwozali- weyo emnye ka-Yise) lizele lufefe nenyaniso. ON THE CAFFEE, OE KAFFIE, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The Cafire, with its cognate languages, is spoken under the tropic of Capricorn, and prevaUs over nearly an equal extent of territory on both sides of that Une. This great family comprises aU the knguages of Africa spoken south of the ]\Iountalns of the Moon, includmg the Sechuana dialects, and those spoken by the negroes of Mozambique ; Ukewise the KisuaheU and its aUied knguages, predominant on the eastem coast, and the languages of Congo, Angola, and Loango, countries long ago described by Portuguese writers.' The Cafire branch of this widely-difihsed family prevaUs m Caffraria, or Caffie-land, a country occupying an area of about 25,000 square mUes in the south-east of Africa. It is bounded on the north by a range of mountains caUed the Storm-bergen, beyond which, stretching towards the interior, is the territory occupied by the Bechuana tribes. Its western lUnfr is the Eelskamma, by which it is separated from the Cape colony. On the east fr k bounded by the colony of Natal, and on the south its shores are washed by the Indian Ocean. Sfrice the war of 1846 a considerable portion of this temtory has been ceded to England, and k now designated British Caffiaria : the tribes by whom it is occupied are recognised as British subjects, and, as far as practicable, are governed by British laws, ihe great majority of tHs bold and warUke race have, however, maintained their mdependence, and are stiii governed, as from time immemorial, by thefr native chiefs : the power of these chiefs is pontroUed by a body of counseUors, composed of old men and favourite courtiers, and their palaver is held m the open ir, Uke the ancient Eoman fomm.^ They are a pastoral peopk, but they cultivate the soU, and subsist partly on the frufrs of thefr labour, and partly on the produce of the chase. They frequently plunder each other, and thefr wars are fierce and sanguUiary. EeUgion they have none,-no priest, no altar, no temple; and a knowledge of a Great Ffrst Cause is almost obUterated from their minds. They do not even possess a word m thefr language to denote the Supreme Being : those mdividua k among them who have Unbibed the idea of the existence of God from the neighbourmg nations, caU 1 Report ofthe Seventeenth Meeting ofthe British Association, p. 249. = Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria, p. 155. 352 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI. Him 'Thiko, a corruption of a Hottentot word, signifying " one that induces pain."' Amulets and charms are, however, revered by the Caffres ; and the sorcerers and rain-makers possess the power over their deluded followers that is elsewhere exercised by a corrupt priesthood. The Caffre nation is supposed to number about 1,000,000 individuals, including the Zulus, who inhabit a tract of country south-eastward of Natal, and who speak a dialect of the Cafire language. The Caffres themselves are divided into four distinct clans or tribes, namely, the Amakosa or Caffies, properly so caUed, the Amatemboo or Tambookles, the Amanbambo or Mambookies, and the Anapondo.'' To these must be added the Flngoes (literally Dogs), a people consisting of the remnants of clans formerly settled in the interior, but driven from their country by the Zulus, and compelled to seek refuge in Caffraria and the colony. Of these the greater portion reside in the ceded territory, between the Kelstkamma and the Great Fish Eiver ; and many Uve in different parts of the colony, where they find employment as servants or day-labourers. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — There are certain peculiarities which distinguish Caffie and Its cognate languages from all other known languages : these peculiarities consist in the system of prefixes and the alUterative concord, — ingenious contrivances, by means of which the whole machinery of declension and conjugation is almost exclusively conducted. The prefixes are inseparably connected with the nouns ; verbs, adverbs, and other parts of speech becoming nouns on receiving these adjuncts.' Nouns seldom appear without prefixes ; in fact, if divested of them, they are as Incomplete as a Greek crude root, such as tv-jt-, X07-, with the non-radical part omitted. Hence the prefix is joined even to foreign words received into the language, and such forms as umpriest, umpharisee, are frequently to be met with.'' The alliterative concord is an assimilation which takes place between the initial letters of words grammatically connected in a sentence, the word governed generally changing its initial into that of the word by which it is governed. The following are specimens of this curious arrangement: — .Zonke iriuto e^ilungileyo zivela ku-Tixo : All good things proceed from God. .Baza Japenduk Sonke aSantu Sati : Then answered all the people, and said.^ This uniform system of alliteration is sustained in every syntactical combination that can take place in the language, rendering it necessary, in order to ensure correctness in writing or speaking, that the following points should be ascertained : — 1st, the principal or governing word in a sentence ; 2nd, the principal letter in that word, to the sound of which the initial letters or syllables of the other words must be assimilated ; 3rd, the changes which must be made in the initial letters or syllables of the word which is governed by this euphonic concord ; 4th, the words which remain unlnfiuenced by this euphonic concord.^ The Cafire language, says Mr. Appleyard, is also distinguished by a remarkable precision of expression, the minuteness with which ideas are expanded and developed being often almost extreme. This is accomplished mainly by the agency of the verb and its various tenses and forms of tenses, which are possessed of almost unlimited power in the modification and ramification of an idea. ' ; Some affinity has been found to exist between Cafire and Coptic, and several words of Arabic origin have been detected in Caffre ; but these latter have been engrafted on the language, and do not enter into its elemental structure. A resemblance has, however, been traced between the Caffre and the Shemitic ckss of languages, more particularly as it regards the difiFerent forms of the verb in general, and the peculiar usages of some verbs in particular, together with many of the constructions of the relative and other pronouns.* This similarity in idiom, combined with other circumstances, has led to the Inference that the Kaffir nation is of Ishmaelltlsh descent. Caffre is alUed to the Hottentot language In the possession of three clicks — peculiar sounds Imperfectly represented by the letters c, g, and X : these sounds have, in all probability, been borrowed from the Hottentots ; for in proportion to the remoteness of the Caffre from the Hottentot districts, the clicks decrease in frequency. With the exception of these cUcks, which are apt to produce an unpleasant hiatus, especially in singing, Caffre is a soft and harmonious language, its abundance of vocalic and liquid sounds rendering it very pleasant to the ear. Veesions op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — This language was reduced to writing by the Eev. W. B. Boyce, a Wesleyan missionary, author of the first Cafire grammar ; but the first books 1 Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa, p. 257. 6 South African Christian Watchman, 1847. 2 Missionary Register for 1830, p. 447. « Boyce, in Missionary Register for 1832, p. 474. 3 Boyce's Kaffir Grammar. 7 The Kaffir Language, by Rev. J. W, Appleyard, p. 63. * Seventeenth Report of British Association, p. 195. e The Kaffir Language, by Rev. J. W. Appleyard. p. 7. AtEicAN.J CAFFRE, OR KAFFIR. 353 of elementary and Scriptural Instruction in Caffre were printed by the agents of the Glasgow Missionary Society. _ A translation of the Scriptures was commenced in the year 1830 by three Wesleyan missionaries, namely, the Eev.Wm. Shaw, the Eev.W. J. Shrewsbury, and the Eev. W. B. Boyce; and in the course of four years a version ofthe Old and New Testaments was completed, by the united' labour of these individuals.' This translation, however, formed but the basis of that eventuaUy pubUshed, for it was subjected to repeated revisions : aU the Wesleyan missionaries In South Africa co-operated m emending and improving it, and not a page was suffered to be printed tiU its correctness had been tested by competent native authorities. The revision, thus laboriously conducted, delayed the publication of the work : a few detached portions were issued at Intervals from the press, but it was not tUl 1841 that the complete version of the New Testament was pubUshed. The edition consisted of 500 copies, and was printed at the Wesleyan Mission press. The zeal of the Wesleyan missionaries, in removing every Inaccuracy from their version, did not cease with its pubUcation. The translation nad been drawn partly from the English version, partly from Blomfield's Greek New Testament : it was again rigorously conferred with the original ; the occasional labours of twelve missionaries were bestowed on the work of revision ; and during several years one missionary was annuaUy set apart by the Wesleyan Society to devote his time and energies to the improvement of the Caffre text. By these continuous efforts, a new and highly-improved transktion was graduaUy climated from the old ; and at length, in 1846, the Caffre New Testament, having received aU the emendations which advanced acquaintance with the language could suggest, was issued. In an edition of 3000 copies, from the Wesleyan Mission press. The British and Foreign Bible Society contributed the munificent sum of £1000, besides several grants of paper, towards the translation of the " whole Bible" into this language : aU the other expenses were borne by the Wesleyan Missionary Society. The entire version of the New Testament is the work of Wesleyan missionaries, with the exception of the First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians, and the Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, and Hebrews, which were contributed by the Eev. Mr. Dohene, of the Berlin Missionary Society.^ This version is used by the agents of the London, Glasgow, and German Missionary Societies, and by all missionaries labouring among the Cafire tribes ; it is, in fact, the only version of the Cafire New Testament in existence, no other translation having been made, except some portions executed by the Scotch missionaries : the Gospel of St. Mark was printed at Cape Town, in 1841, by the Glasgow Society, and the Epistles to the Thessalonians, and perhaps to the Colossians, form the only other portions that have been pubUshed by the Scotch missionaries. The Caffre Old Testament is now being carried through the same rigid process of revision to which the version of the New Testament was subjected. The transktion was prepared from the Hebrew text of Judah D'AUemand, edited by Van der Plooght ; and a rule which had been enforced in the translation of the New Testament was observed by the translators of the Old Testament, namely, to admit no rendering into the Caffi-e translation which does not occur either in the EngUsh, the Dutch, or the German versions. The proceedings of the revision committee were greatly retarded_ by the late Caffre war; but 2000 copies of extracts from the books of Genesis and Exodus, besides editions of the Psalms, the Proverbs, and of Isaiah and Joel, have already been pubUshed ; and It is probable that m the course of two or three years the entire Scriptures in the Caffre language wiU be given to that people. Eesults op the Disteibution op this Veesion. — In 1845, it was computed that, atthe various mission-stations estabUshed at Caffiaria, there were at least 5000 or 6000 natives capabk of readhig the Word of God.^ Education has of late years made Uicreasmg progress among them md both children and adults manifest great attachment to the Word of God. When , during the recent Caffre war, the Butterworth station was threatened with destruction, and the inhabitants compelled to seek safety in flight, the Fingoe chUdren rushed to the chapel, seized their Testaments and ran off with them, determined not to leave behind what they deemed so precious. The conipkte edition of the Caffre New Testament is sought after with great avidity by young and old who wiUmgly pay the price at which fr is sold out of their comparatively scanty means. The spiritual hght derived from the perusal of this divine book is rapidly occasioning the disappearance of heathen superstitions. One ot the brothers of the chief Faku, in his last iUness, sent for the missionary and native preachers to converse with him about "that Saviour who died for shiners;" and a though for three days the principal men of hk tribe importuned him to send for the " witch doctor,' that the persons supposed „.,., c ¦ ^ „i;i ^ Year Book of Missions, p. 351. > Fortv.flrst Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxlii. 3 Missionary Register for 184d, p. 49. 354 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI. to have bewitched him might be detected and slain, he strenuously opposed their entreaties ; and a Uttle before he died, he charged his sons to take care that no man should be killed on his account : for he said, " I am a man of the Word of God."' It appears, from recent reports, that many Kaffirs and Flngoes " are beginning to inquire after God, and are seeking admission into the Christian Church:" and the Wesleyan and other missionaries, who labour among this people, state that, " in the great objects of their mission they are prospering, and have prospects of stiU further prosperity."^ NAMACQUA. SPECIMEN OF THE NAMACQUA VEESION. St. LUKE, Chap. vi. «. 27 to 38. ^' Koko diti kuni nivayo, Tandani intshaba zenu, yenzani ukulunga kubo abanitiyayo, ^ Tamsanqelani abo banitukayo^ nitandazele abo abenza kuni gokubi. ^® Nakuye oku- beta esihhleleni, umnikele e sinye kanjako ; Naye ohluta ingubo yako, ungamaleli ukuta- bata i-batyi yako kanjako. ^^ Nika kubo bonke abantu abakucelayo ; nakuye okuhluta impahla zako, ungazibusi kanjako. ^^ Kwangokufuna kwenu ukuba abantu benze kuni, yenzani kwanjalo kubo. ^^ Ukuba nitanda bona abatanda nina, ninokubulelwa okuyinina? gokuba aboni betanda abo abatanda bona. ^^ Ukuba nenza ukulunga kubo abenze uku lunga kuni, ninokubulelwa okujdnina? gokuba aboni besenza kwanjalo. ^* Ukuba niya- boleka bona nifune inzuzo kubo, ninokubulelwa okuyinina ? gokuba aboni beboleka kuboni, ukwamkela kwangako kanjako. ^' Koko tandani intshaba zenu, nenze ukulunga niboleke, ningatembi gento kanjako ; umvuzo wenu wobamkulu, nobangonyana bake yena Opaka- mileyo : gokuba elungile kubo abangabuleliyo nakubo abakohlakeleyo. ^^ Gako yibani nobubele, jengo-Yise wenu enobubale. ^''Ningabi, anisakwabiwa : ningabekityala, ukuze ityala lingabekwa pezu kwenu : xolelani, noxolelwa ; ^^ Nikani, nopiwa ; abantu bonika esifubeni senu isilinganiso esilungileyo, esinxaliweyo, esihlunguzelweyo, esipalakayo: Gokuba gesihnganiso nilinganisa ngaso kuyakulinganiswa kuni kanjako. ON THE NAMACQUA LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Namacquas are a branch of the great Hottentot nation, and possess all the physical character istics of that singular race. Their country, through which they are only thinly scattered, occupies a considerable section of the south-western coast of Africa, extending from Cape colony on the south to the HIU Damaras on the north ; the eastern boundary is formed by an extensive sandy desert, caUed by Mr. CampbeU the Southem Sahara.^ The number of Individuals composing the Namacqua tribes has never been ascertained. They are a pastoral people, and subsist chieffy on their cattle : they often endure great sufferings from the want of water, their country being emphatically a "land of droughts." Enervated by the heat of their climate, they are weaker and less courageous than the bold and warlike Caffres ; but although sunk into the most deplorable state of Ignorance and super stition, they are mild and peaceable in their demeanour, and are seldom guilty of cruel or sanguinary deeds. The Namacqua language is also used by the HiU Damaras, who are said to belong to the negro race. That the same language should be vernacular to two people of distinct famiUes is probably in this case to be accounted for by their near neighbourhood, and frequent Intercourse during several 1 Wesleyan Missionary Notices for 1860, p. 90. 2 Wesleyan Missionary Notices for 1860, p. 72. 3 Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa, p, 65. African. J GALLA. 355 centuries. Dutch isnow rapidly superseding Namacqua, and there is every probabiUty that the ktter language will soon sink entfrely into disuse. Chaeacteeistics op the Language.— Namacqua is akin to the dialects of the Hottentots, Corannas, andBushmen, and is supposed to be a species of degenerated Caffre, just as the language of the Bushmen is a degraded kmd of Hottentot. Some authors, however, maintain that the Hottentot with its cognate dialects forms a distinct group, which, from its prevaiUng characteristic, they denominate the " Click family." Like the Hottentot language, now nearly extinct, Namacqua is harsh and inharmonious in sound, abounding in cUcks and rough gutturals. The clicks appear to have originated with the Hottentot race, and to have passed from them into the languages of the neigh bouring tribes. These pecuUar sounds are considered by the natives as ornamental to their knguage, but they are extremely difficult of enunciation to a foreigner ; they are produced " by the suction of air on a sudden withdrawal of the tongue from the teeth, after compressing it upon them." ' Veesion op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — A transktion of the Gospel of St. Matthew into Namacqua was commenced by the Eev. C. Albrecht in 1815, but does not appear to have been completed. Ten years subsequently, a translation of the Four Gospels was effected by the Eev. Mr. Schmelin, of the London Missionary Society, " after incredible labour (we are told) on the part of the translator and his wife, arising from the pecuUar structure of the language." ^ This version was printed at Cape Town, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. As this was the first work ever printed in the Namacqua language, it was thought advisable to confine the edition to 300 copies. The Gospel of St. Luke has since been re-translated by Mr. Knudsen, a Ehenish missionary, the former translation befrig considered deficient in certain consonants representative of the cUcks. The smaU printed edition of the Gospels is now completely exhausted, and a Namacqua version of the entfre New Testament is at the present moment in process of preparation by Mr. Knudsen.' GALLA. SPECIMEN OF THE GALLA VEESION. St. MATTHEW, Chap. i. v. 1 to 12. TsHENANi io illale orme guduma, garra tuUu bale, egi tales duba, tamariwonisa garrasa duffan. ^ Afanisas bane isanis bersise io tshedde. ^ Lubbusaniti kan diban, kan galatefataman, motuma Waka kan isani. * Kan boij an galatefataman, tshabesaman egiran. ^ Gariwon kan galatefataman, laffan edi dalanan. ^ Galatefataman kan belan kan debotanis garra zedeki, isi kiifan. '' Kan marean kan galatefataman, isan mareman. ' Lubbukesaniti kan adadan kan galatefataman, isan Waka enUlalan. « Galatefataman kan arrarsan, otshoUe Waka eni tsheddaman. ^^ Zedeki mekeniati kan areaman kan gala tefataman, motuma Waka kan isan. ^^ Isini galatefataman!, isini io arrabsan areanis, ismis irrati hamma hunda io tsheddan, soba io dubatan mekeniatakijati. '^ Isin gamada gudumas gamada, gadikesani gudumada Waka birati, akana arean nabiwon isini durati kan tshiran. ON THE GALLA LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and STATisTics.-The GaUa language k difiused though not exclusively, through regions extending over more than sixteen degrees of latitude. It is spoken to ¦Journal of American oriental society for ,S49, p. 400. ^ ,^ ^ ^^r^'^-TiSe'to'S^ty^^S "' ^°"''° ^'"' '°™''' ' '""' » Forty-third Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxxi. 356 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VI. the west, south, and east of Abyssinia, and is rapidly encroaching on the Amharic and allied languages. It prevails in the valley formed by the courses of the rivers Osi and Jub, which discharge themselves into the Indian Ocean ; and is likewise predominant along the coast from the equator to MeUnde, formerly a celebrated Portuguese settlement, situated on the fourth degree of south latitude. The people to whom this widely-extended language is vernacular are still in a state of barbarism, and in number may amount to about 5,000,000. Their political condition has been compared by Dr. Krapf to that of the ancient Germans, for they are divided into numerous tribes, all of which are jealously tenacious of their liberties and independence, and are frequently at war with each other, as weU as with neighbouring nations. They are hated and dreaded by every people of Eastern Africa, Pagans, Christians, and Mahommedans having been alternately chastised by them. Their origin is Involved in the deepest obscurity : the year 1537 is the date of their first appearance in Abyssinia,' since which period the history of that ancient empire has been but a record of their inroads and devastations. These wild and warUke tribes appear to possess no legends or traditions whereby any satisfactory hypothesis concerning their original country can be deduced. Dr. Krapf (from whom the most recent accessions to our knowledge concerning this people have been obtained) surmises that they origmaUy came from the vicinity of the sources of the White Nile. The name of Gallas, by which they are known in Abyssinia and the surrounding countries, was supposed by Father Balthezar Tellez to have been derived from the Greek, FdXa, milk, and to have been applied to them on account of the whiteness of their skin, for in complexion they are fairer even than the Abyssinians.^ No native term appears to approximate closely to the form Galla, except the word Gala, which, according to Tutscheh's GaUa Dictionary, signifies " to go home." The GaUas, however, apply to themselves no other designation than Orma, or Iim 'Orma, literally signifying the " sons ofmen." In bodily and mental endowments they exceed most of the tribes of Eastern Africa ; and on account of this superiority, members of thefr nation fetch a high price when sold to the Arabs as slaves. Around Abyssinia they lead an agricultural and pastoral life, but to the south of the equator they wander about in hordes with their flocks and herds, changing their abode according to the season of the year. Their system of reUgion has not been ascertained : they believe in a Supreme Being, and likewise in Inferior deities, and they manifest great fear of evil spirits, whom they endeavour to appease by offerings of slaughtered animals. The tribes settled in the neighbourhood of Abyssinia have adopted many notions and practices from the corrupted Abyssinian Church ; and they know the names of many Abyssinian saints, which is not the case with the Gallas living near the equator. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The GaUa language possesses many Shemitic elements, but is manifestly not of Shemitic origin. It is highly euphonic and sonorous : some of its sounds can scarcely be pronounced by Europeans. It appears to be linked by numerous affinities to the DankaU and Somdli knguages, spoken by the East Africans within sixteen degrees north from the equator, namely, from Massowa in the Eed Sea down to the northern bank of the river Jub. The GaUa language, as might be expected from its wide extension, has various dialects ; but the true Galla, of every quarter, are able to understand each other without great difficulty. Veesion op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The Gospels of St. Matthew, Luke, and John, the Epistle to the Eomans, and the book of Genesis, were translated into GaUa by Dr. Krapf during his residence in Shoa, between the years 1839 and 1842. The Gospel of St. Matthew and five chapters of the Gospel of St. John were printed in Eoman letters, the copies being designed for distribution among the Galla tribes around Shoa, where the Church Missionary Society contemplated the establishment of a mission. The opposition of the Abyssinian priesthood led, however, to the abandonment of the Shoan mission ; yet God overruled their designs to the furtherance of the Gospel, for the mission-station was transferred from Shoa to the south of the equator ; and there is every prospect that the missionaries now stationed In the Wanika country, about ninety miles distant from the southernmost part of the GaUa country, will shortly come in contact with the southern branch of the great Galla nation ; and it is probable that opportunities for a far wider dissemination of the holy volume than that originaUy contemplated by the Society will accrue from the interruption of their proceedings at Shoa. The rivers which fall into the ocean on the Suahell coast wlU, if navigable, enable Europeans to penetrate into the heart of the Galla country ; and, moreover, the missionaries of the Church Missionary Society have projected the establishment of a mission chain across the African 1 Ludolf, Hist, ^thiop. Ub. 1. cap. xv. 2 Hist, de Ethiopia a Aita, lib. i. cap. xjciii. p. 60. African.] KISUAHELI. 357 continent from .east to west Thus the Word of God wlU be carried into the present inaccessible retreats of the mid GaUa tribes : the effects of this divme communication on these fierce barbarians, and the destiny tor which they have been reserved, wiU then become manifest. KISUAHELI. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — This language is spoken on the eastern sea-coast of Afiica, ten degrees south of the equator, and extends some miles inland. It may, in fact, be said to reach from Mozambique even as far as the second degree of north latitude. The population of the SuaheU region, including that of the islands in which the language is spoken, amounts to about 400,000. The govemment is in the hands of one ruler, who is the Imam of Moscat : he resides on the island of Zanzibar. Most of the SuaheUs are Mahommedans, but they are comparatively free from the bigotry and the domineering spirit by which the followers of the false prophet are almost universally characterised. They are, however, kept in spfritual bondage by the Arabs who reside among them. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — The Kisuaheli belongs to the great family of South African languages, which some philologists have designated the Caffre, or Sechuana group, but to which Dr. Krapf has applied the more appropriate name of the NUotlc, or NUo-Hamitic famUy, because he regards the vicinity of the sources of the White Elver, the main branch of the Nile, as the original location of the progenitors of the tribes to whom these knguages are vernacular. This designation serves in particular to distinguish this famUy of languages from the Nigrotic, or Nigro-Hamitic group, spoken by those descendants of Ham, who settled on the banks of the Niger. A broad Une of demarcation exists between these two famUies of languages, the Nigro-Hamitic being harsh in sound and frregukr in structure, whUe the NUo-Hamitic are noted for the softness and harmony of their enunciation, and the philosophical uniformity of their grammatical arrangement. _ Agaiu, the Nigro- Hamitic knguages are divided into petty sub-classes, each of which has Uttle affinity with the others ; whereas, the Nilo-Hamltic group exhibit so close a resemblance to each other, that they may almost be regarded as mere dialects of one language. KisuaheU, in fact, has been said to be only a slightly- modified form of the Sechuana language.' It exhibits, however, certain points of resembknce to Amharic: in some of its characteristics it is very closely alUed to GaUa.^ It has borrowed many reUgious terms and other words from Arabic. Veesion op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The KisuaheU knguage was reduced to writing by Dr. Krapf, of the Church Missionary Society, who commenced the mission on the coast of Mombas in 1844. He was not at the time aware that the missionaries in South Africa had to deal with the same kmd of knguages ; therefore hk efibrts were prosecuted mdependently ofthe aid which he might have derived by avaiUng himself of the resufrs of thefr labours. This learned philologist has translated the book of Genesis and the whok of the New Testament, except the Second Epistie to the Corinthians, into KisuaheU ; and he is about to pubUsh a KisuaheU grammar and dictionary in Germany. ¦ Journal of American Oriental Society for 1349, p. 432. ' Missionary Register for 1845, p. 267. KIKAMBA. Kikamba is the language spoken by the various tribes of the Wakamba, who, coUectively, may be said to number at least 70,000 or 80,000 souls. They dweU in East Africa, at a distance of about 400 miles from the coast of Mombas, which they occasionally visit for purposes of tra,ffic. They are not only traders, but likewise cultivators of the soil ; and although they have fixed habitations, they often travel to a great distance from their native country, for the purpose of hunting elephants and bartering ivory. Dr. Krapf is of opinion that, through the instrumentality of this nation, the very centre of Africa, and the region where the Bahr-el-Ablad rises, wiU be reached. The Wakamba have no chiefs like the other tribes in their vicinity, their government being wholly of a patriarchal kind. Their ideas on spiritual subjects are very grovelling and limited, extending merely to belief in witchcraft, and fear of evil spirits. Their knguage is a dialect of the Nilotic stock, and resembles that of the Wanica. It has been reduced to writmg by Dr. Krapf, and a translation of the Gospel of St. Mark, prepared by the same indefatigable missionary, is shortly to be printed in Germany. KINIKA. The tribes of the Wanika, to whom the Kinika knguage is vernacular, dweU in Eastern Africa, as far south as the fourth degree of south latitude, about fifteen or twenty miles to the west of the Island of Mombas. A great number of the Wakamba live in the western part of their country, having been driven towards the sea-shore by a famine some thirty years ago. In the district occupied conjolntiy by these two people, the Wanika have left the plains to the Wakamba, retaining the heights and forests for themselves.' The Wanika number about 60,000 individuals. They are an agricultural people, and carry on a trade with the Suahells of the coast. They 'are divided into numerous tribes, each of which is governed by several chiefs. One of the chiefs is always Invested with authority over the rest, but his power is limited, and he can efiect little without the concurrence ofthe majority ofhis tribe. Like most of the other branches of the Nilotic stock, the Wanika have no idols. They have some faint idea of a Supreme Being ; but they invocate and offer animal sacrifices to the Koma, or shade of their dead. They are represented by Dr. Krapf as " a lying, talking, drinking, superstitious, and totally earthly-minded people, having the beUy for their god ; " but, on the other hand, he says that they are " men of peace, attentive to their sick, and honest." ^ The foundation of the grammatical and lexicographical structure of the Kinika language, which Is a mere cormption of the Suahell,^ has been laid by Dr. Krapf, who has Ukewise prepared a Kinika version of the Gospels of St. John and St. Luke, and of the Epistles to the Eomans and Ephesians. The Gospel of St. Luke was printed in 1848 at Bombay, in the Amerlcan|Mission-press, for the benefit of the schools in which Wanika boys are instructed in the Christian religion. Although this Gospel, with the Heidelberg catechism and a spelling-book, constitutes all that has hitherto been printed in Kinika, there is already reason to hope that this small portion of the Divine word has not been imparted to the benighted Wanika tribes in vain. "It is the missionaries' firm opinion (says Dr. Krapf) that the Lord is stretching his hands of mercy over these Nilotic tribes which have already been so richly blessed at the Cape ; and that a mission-chain can be formed from this quarter for connecting the east and west of Africa, which will be the means of fulfilling the prophecy in the 18th chapter of Isaiah." I Missionary Register for 1846, p. 196. 2 Church Missionary Record for 1848, p. 6. ' Missionary Register for 1815, p. 267. \ * .'i^ .._ if ^'' "/ f H WalpoU I BeaxisaUH I. <£- JUatca- Qwais S '^ A- Jraatr'3 Hw .li- MnJ LnJxs Silrnia. Jr S^CLar Smuz-aaitf Grand- Siya- JTis.- F'airAdA A'bauufi Lalnadar:. iVain. Okhttk ffopiidiile .AJl^Jiaiuy Oamftryx /'.7.^-™.- ¦W-^., CLASS VII. -AMERICAN LANGUAGES. ESQUIMAUX. SPECIMEN OF THE ESQUIMAUX VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. ^ Pigiarnerme okausek ipok, okauserlo Gudemepok, Gudelo okausiojok. ' Tamna pigiarnerme Gudemepok. ^ Tamaitarsuit tapsomunga pingortitauvut, tapsoma assiagullo pingortisimmangilet, pingortisimmajut. * Innosek tapsoma iUuanetok ; iimoserlo innuit kaumanerivffist. ® Kaumajorlo kaumaivok taktomut, taktomiuHo tukkisingilajt. ** In- nungmik tiHijaumajokarpok Gudemut, Johannesenuk attelingmik. '' Tamna tikkilaukpok kigligiudsijovlune, kigligiudsikovlugo kaumajomik, iUunaita tapsomunga okpertitauler- kovlugit. ^Nangminek tamna kaumajoungilak, kigligiudsikovlugole kaumajomik. ' Tamedsa miksekartok kaumajok, innungnik illunainik kaumarsaijok, nunamut tikki- tunnik. ^^ Sillaksoarmelauktok, sillaksoarlo tapsomunga pingortitauvok ; sOlaksoar- miullo illitaringil^t. " Innutitaminut tikkipok, innutitangitalo illelliungilset. '^ Tap- somingale illelliortut illunaita, tapkoa pitsartunermik tunnitsivigiveit, kittomgaulerk- ovlugit Gudemut, okpertut tapsoma attinganut. ^^ Tapkoa aungmit pingitut, uviniub pijomajanganillonet, angutib pijomajanganillonet, GudemiEe erniangomajut. ^* Okau serlo uviniolerpok, innukattigaellutalo, ananauningalo tsekkolaukpavut, ernetuanget ananauningatut, Atatamit pijub, saimarnelijartok miksekarnelijartorlo. ON THE ESQUIMAUX LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The Esquimaux are dispersed through the northern coast of North America, Inhabiting the shores of aU the seas, bays, gulfs, and islands of the Arctic Ocean, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are also found on the Atlantic, dwelUng along the coast of Labrador as far south as the fiftieth degree of latitude ; and they are likewise to be met with on the opposite coast of America, along the shores of the Pacific, from Behrlng's Straits to Mount St. EUas, in the sixtieth degree of latitude. Their territory is exclusively maritime, for they are seldom found above a hundred miles from the sea-shore : the whole extent of country which this people inhabit does not, however, measure less than 5400 mUes from one extremity to the other, reckoning along the coast. Few countries are more thinly populated than the sterile domains of the Esquimaux. In Labrador, for instance, a large peninsula, equal in extent to Spain, France, and Germany, the resident popuktion, including the Moravians and the natives, does not exceed 4000. Several dialects, of which Greenlandish is one variety, prevail among the different tribes of this widely-diffused race ; but in smaUness of stature and other physical peculiarities, and in thefr dirty, disgusting habits, the various Esquimaux nations strongly resemble each other ; and, with the exception of those who have 360 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII. been reclaimed by missionary efforts, they are universally characterised by abject ignorance and its concomitant vices. The sedentary Tchuktche, a tribe inhabiting the western shore of the straits of Behring, speak a dialect akin to Esquimaux, and are supposed to be the descendants of a colony pknted by the West American Esquimaux. Chaeacteeistics op the Language. — Although the Esquimaux have been regarded by some writers as a distinct race, yet the pecuUar structure of their language is an evidence of their relationship to the other aboriginal tribes of America. AU the languages of that vast continent, from the most polished to the least cultivated idioms, are distinguished by certain peculiarities of internal mechanism, which, independently of historical or other coUateral testimony, distinctly indicate the fact of their having originated from one common source. The distinctive characteristic of this ckss of languages is their tendency to compress the words which are syntactlcaUy or loglcaUy connected together in a sentence into one single word. This pecuUarity, which was first pointed out by Egede, in his account of Greenland, is famUlarly caUed " agglutination," and is of such frequent occurrence in most of the American knguages, that Du Ponceau has given the name of " Polysynthetic" to the whole group. The process of formmg these compound words is not, however, conducted on precisely the same principles in aU the languages of this class. In the Algonquin and Esquimaux dialects, the five or six words thus compressed into one are all so abbreviated, that only one syllable (possibly the radical) of each is preserved.' Extreme precision is another characteristic of American languages, every modification and quaUfication of an idea being expressed with such elaborate minuteness, as to appear puerile and wearisome to Europeans. Thus the Esquimaux have special and distinct terms for animals of the same species, according to thefr age, sex, and form. The nouns in general have no infiections properly so caUed ; plurality is denoted by a suffixed particle, and the obUque case ofthe personal pronoun is often inserted between the verb and the noun, producing a form of circumlocution like the following : " I saw him Peter." ^ In the conjugation of verbs, on the contrary, inflections expressive of the various modes and modifications of actions are even more numerous than in the Shemitic languages. The uniformity which pervades the grammatical principles on which all American languages are constructed, is not observable in their respective vocabularies ; for the corresponding words in different dialects frequently difier so widely from each other, as to warrant the supposition of their having been deduced from distinct roots. A comparison has been instituted, by Professors Barton and Vater, between the words of about thirty American languages and the corresponding terms of other tongues; and in some instances affinities have thus been traced with various languages of North-eastern Asia. The aflSnity is, however, by no means sufficiently strong to indicate community of origin with any known language ; and from aU that has been hitherto ascertained concerning the American Indians, their languages, traditions, poUty, manners, and customs, it is evident that this branch of the human family separated from the parent stock at a very remote epoch of history, and, from some unknown cause, subsequently retrograded from a state of civiUsation to their present degraded and unsettled condition. Veesion op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The glad tidings of the Gospel were first proclaimed in these inclement regions by the Moravian missionaries, who were induced to visit Labrador from the supposition that the natives spoke the same language as the Esquimaux of Greenland, among whom a Moravian Mission had been estabUshed. It was, however, soon discovered that the dialect of Labrador differed in so many respects from that of Greenland, that the same version of the Scriptures would not be available for both countries. The missionaries therefore addressed themselves in the first instance to the preparation of a harmony of the Gospels for the Esquimaux of Labrador : many years were spent in revising and correcting this work, and at length, in 1809, it was sent for pubUcation to London. Mr. Kohlmeister, who had been many years a missionary in Labrador, extracted from this MS. an entfre version of the Gospel of St. John ; and in 1810 an edition of 1000 copies of that Gospel was published in London, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The copies were transmitted to Labrador, and were received with great thankfulness. " Our people (said the mission aries) take this little book with them to the Isknds when they go out in search of provisions ; and, in their tents, or snow-houses, they spend their evenings in reading it with great edification and blessing." This reception of the Gospel of St. John induced the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society to comply with the entreaties of the Labrador missionaries, to pubUsh an edition of the other 1 Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1845, pp. 11, 12. "- Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1848, p. cxxxvi. Ameeican.J ESQUIMAUX. 36i three Gospek' A version had been prepared by the venerable superintendent of the Labrador Mission, the Eev. g. F. Burghardt and he had been permitted to compkte his revision of the text iust before hs sudden dissolution, i^ edition of 1000 copies, to correspond with the Gospel of St. John, was herefore issued by the Society m 1813. A version of the Acts and Eplstks, prepared by the conjoUit labour of the Moravian missionaries, was pubUshed by the Society in 1819 ; and in 1826 a complete edition of the Esqmmaux New Testament left the Society's press in London. In 1826 a version of the Psalms was also printed, and m 1839 a revised edition of the Acts, Episties, and book of Eevelation was completed. Other editions have been given by the Society at successive periods, and with the exception of some of the historical books, the Esquimaux version of the Old Testament has been com pleted. Ihe Pentateuch was published in London in 1847, foUowed in 1849 by an edition of the Proverbs and the prophetical books. The number of copies of the sacred volume, fr whole and in part, hitherto bestowed by the Society on the Esquimaux of Labrador, is as follows : — New Testament .... 4000 Pentateuch and Psalms . . 2019 Proverbs and Prophets . . 1000 Isaiah . . . . 1006 Eesults of the Dissemination op this Veesion.— The blessing of God on this version of his Word has been abundantly manifested from the earUest period of its circulation. A missionary, who had laboured thirty-four years in Labrador, gave, in 1825, the foUowing account of the effects of its perusal: — " The most efficacious means of promoting growth in grace among our Esquimaux, Is the reading of the New Testament. They peruse it daily in their houses and tents with the greatest earnestness, deUght, and edification. Their understanding of the Word of God has greatly increased, and the infiuence upon their moral conduct is manifest; for they now, more than ever, desire to regulate their walk and conversation in conformity to truly Christian principles. Surely (after stating other Interesting facts, he adds) this is an astonishing display of the goodness and mercy of God, in sending out his Ught and truth to a benighted people, who but half a century ago were Immersed in the grossest superstition, and addicted to the most cruel vices. Those things which were formerly practised among the Esquimaux by their sorcerers and angekoks are at present hardly ever heard of, the heathen them selves being ashamed of them. In the Christian settlements the very names of angekok, tomgak, etc., are almost unknown to the rising generation."^ In the schools estabUshed at the four missionary stations in Labrador for the instruction of the young, the study of the Scriptures has been attended with spfritual fruit more or less abundant ; ^ and in some of the more recent reports the missionaries state that, at the yearly examination of the schools, it is truly gratifying to observe the readiness with which " the pupils bring forth out of the treasury of the Word of God the many precious fruits they have learned from its pages." ^ 1 Owen's History of British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. ii. p. 289. ^ Fortieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxlvii. - Twenty-flrst Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. lxiv. * Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxlv. GEEENLANDISH. SPECIMEN OF THE GEEENLANDISH VEESIONS. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. [Version of 1799.] (Tamardluinarsoarmik) isusenne Okauzeng-etok, Okauzerlo Gudiursok. ^ (Ta- mardluinarsoarmik) isuasnne tauna Gudimetok. ^ Tamarmik taursomanga pingortisi- maput; tamardluinarsoarmiglo pingortisimarsut adlamik pingortitsirsokangUEet, tauna kissiet (pingortitsirsigallugo). * Innursut taursomanetok, innursudlo tamanna innuit nenneroutigset. ^ Nenneroudlo tartome kaumaleralldartok, tartublo Ulasiaringika. * Innuk Gudim audlartikk Johannesimik attilik. '' Tauna nsellungeriartortok, nennerout okautigikudlugo, tamasa operkudlugit taursomunga. ^ Taivna nangminek nenner- outaungitsok, nenneroumigle nselluiiEeriartorsinnartok. ® Tersa nenneroutaursok oper- nartok,- innungnik tamannik nunamut pirsunnik kaumarsairsok. ^^ Sillarsoarmetok, sillarsoarlo taursomanga pingortisimavok, siHarsoarmiudle Uirsaringik^t. " Innuvtar minut pigalloartok, innuvt^jsale illasiaringikEet. ^^ Taursomingale illeksirsut kittor- nangortik^j Gudimut, nungudlugit atterminun opertut. ¦'^ Tauko aungmit pingitsut, uingublo pekkorsanit pingitsut, angutib pekkorsanidloneet pingitsut, Gudimidle erniosimarsut. " Okauzerlo ivna uiningortok akkunevtinelerdlunilo, taursomalo ussornarsusia, sordlo Atatam ernetusen ussornarsiisia, tekkogalldarikput, sajmarsdrsoud- lunilo seglusuitsdrsoursok. ON THE GEEENLANDISH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — Greenland is a mountainous and almost barren island, lying in the Arctic Ocean, off the north-east coast of North America. It is situated partly within the Arctic circle, and nearly its entire surface is covered with perpetual snow and ice. AU the information at present possessed conceming its northern and north-western coasts has been derived from the numerous attem.pts to discover a north-western passage to India ; and as the precise extent of these coasts has never been ascertained, it is impossible to fonn any accurate idea of the superficial area of this vast island, but it has been conjectured to average about 500 miles in breadth. It belongs to Denmark, and some little trade is carried on with that country in whale oil, and in the skins of seals, bears, and reindeer. The population is estimated, in the Danish statistical returns of 1832, at 7000; but this can only include those who hold allegiance to Denmark ; for the unexplored regions of the country may be occupied by tribes of whose numbers no conjecture can be formed. AU the inhabitants of this isknd, with the exception of about 150 Europeans, are Esquimaux. Their language, as before mentioned, is a dialect of Esquimaux ; It abounds in harsh sounds, and the consonants r, k, and t pre dominate. It appears to be spoken with some provincial varieties by the difiPerent tribes of Greenlanders ; for Eoss relates that the natives of North Greenland were unable to converse inteUiglbly with the natives of the southern districts of the island. Veesions op the Sceiptuees in this Language.— As early as the beginning ofthe eleventh century, the Norwegians established a colony on the coast of Greenland ; and we have a Ust of thefr bishops during the three following centuries.' Nothing, however, has been heard of them since the fifteenth century ; and this circumstance, combined with the loss of all intelUgence concerning another Norwegian colony, said to have been estabUshed at a stiU earUer period on the opposite coast of 1 Crantz, History of Greenland, vol. i. p. 249. Amekican.] GREENLANDISH. ggg Greenland forcibly awakened the sympathy of Hans Egede, a clergyman of Norway, in behalf of the descendants of these early colomsts. Egede addressed a memorial on the subject to the bishop of Hs diocese, m 1710; m 1718 he relinquished his benefice, with the view of taking stlU more active measures m the cause ; and m 1721 he effected a voyage to Greenland. It appears he was unsuccessfrd m discovering traces of his countrymen ; but his attention was arrested by the abject and deplorabk condition of the natives. He applied to the study of thefr language, reduced fr to writUig, anS trans kted the Psalms and the Epistles of St. Paul. The version of the New Testament was completed by his son, Mr. Paul Egede, author of a Greenkndish dictionary. Some portion of this version was pubhshed at Copenhagen m 1744, foUowed in 1758 by an edition of the Gospels and Acts, and in 1766 by the entire New Testament.;' This translation, the first that had been made Into this rude, uncultivated language, was found to be but Uttle intelUgible to the Ignorant peopk for whom fr was designed. Another attempt to translate the Scriptures for their benefit was therefore undertaken after the death of Egede, by Fabricius, who had formerly laboured Uke an apostie among them. His version ofthe New Testament was printed at Copenhagen in 1799, but fr did not prove to be in any respect superior to Egede's version.^ A thfrd translation was therefore undertaken by the Moravian mission aries: [they comnienced a Greenlandish harmony of the Gospels shortly after thefr arrival in the country, in 1733, but their translation of the New Testament was not completed tlU the year 1821. They were emmently quaUfied for the execution of this important work, some of them having persevered in their arduous labours among the natives of this Inclement region for the long space of thirty, forty, and fifty years. ^ Thefr version ofthe New Testament is a literal translation of Luther's German version : the first edition, consisting of 1000 copies, was printed in London, in 1822, by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and some subsequent editions have been bestowed on Greenland by the Danish Bible Society. [Veesion of 1822.] Tamarluinnarsoarmik issosenne okausek-^tok, okauserlo Gudimetok, okauserlo tamanna Gudiursok. ^ Tamarluinnarsoarmik issosenne ivna Gudimetok. ^ Tamar- Imnnarsoarmlk taursomanga pingortitaput, pingortisimarsullo tamarmik adlamik piagortitsirsokangilet, tauna kissiet pingortitsirsigast. * Innursut taursoma iUuanetok, Lnnursiillo tamanna innuit kaumarsorset. ^ Kaumarsorlo tartome kaumagalloartok, tartuble illEessiaringika. '^ Innuk Gudib aulartika, lohannesemik attelik. '' Taivna okaursiartortok, kaumarsomik okalluktuksaugame, tamasa opertiniarlugit. ^ T&iYna, nangminek kaumarsdngitsok, kaumarsomigle okalluktuksainaursok. ** Terssa lUomut opemartok kaumarsok, innungnik tamannik kaumarsairsdk, nuname innungortuksennik. '" Tamanna siUarsoarm^tok, sillarsoarlo pingortisimavok taursomanga, sillarsiiblo innneesa illissaringikset. " Innuktaminut pigalloartok, innukteisale illa^ssiaringikset. '^ Taursomingale illajssirsut, atterminullo opertut kittornarsiaritikei Gudemut; ^^ Terssa aungmit pingitsut, uingub pekkorsanilloneet piagitsut, angutib pekkorsanilloneet pingitsut, GudemiUe erniusimarsut. " Okauserlo ivna uinningortok, akkornautineler- sorlo, uaguUo tekkogikput ussornarsusia, sordlo Atatab Ernetua^tta ussornarsusia, saimarsorsdvlunelo seglosuitsorsdursok. A version of the Old Testament is now in progress, under the auspices of the latter Society. The work was commenced by Fabricius, but was interrupted by his lamented decease. The Eev. Mr. Wolf, chaplain to the citadel of Copenhagen, and formerly missionary in Greenland, was appointed to continue the translation: he was esteemed, next to Fabricius, the first Greenlandish scholar.^ _ On his demise, the work was transferred by the Danish Society to Pastor Kragh, who had married a Greenknder, and had resided for ten years as a missionary in Greenland, where he was respected as a second Egede or Fabricius.* It k probable that this version, fr" not already completed, wiU soon be ready for the press ; and the British and Foreign Blbk Sockty have agreed to furnish aid towardsits publication." A version of the Psalms, prepared by the Eev. Vakntine Miiller, one of the Moravian IT. , ¦ Tl, »- 1- 1 ¦•¦ „ rscic 4 Nineteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 75. 864 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VIL missionaries, from Luther's German version, and carefully conferred with the original, was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1842 : the edition consisted of 1200 copies. Authority has been lately given by the same Society to the United Brethren to print a revised edition of the New Testament, at Herrnhut, under the personal superintendence of several retired missionaries from Greenland, who now reside in that settlement and its neighbourhood.' Eesults of the Dissemination op this Veesion. — No visible effects attended the labours of the first missionaries in Greenland. Mr. Paul Egede, after fifteen years of extreme suffering and privation, sorrowfuUy admitted that his efforts for the conversion of the natives had been to aU appear ance without avail ; and, on his departure from thefr Inhospitable shore, he preached to them, for the last time, from the afifecting words, " I said I have laboured in vain, I have spent my strength for nought, and in vain ; yet surely my judgment is with the Lord, and my work with my God."^ And the experience of the Moravian missionaries, during the first five years of their sojourn in Greenland, was similar to that of Egede : during that period they had chiefiy confined their ministrations among the natives to instruction on moral duties, and on the abstract tenets of Christianity, — thus virtuaUy withholding from them direct and immediate access to the pure, unadulterated Word of God. But a change was wrought in thefr teaching, and in its results. This happened when John Beck, one of the Moravian missionaries, was engaged in transcribing the version of the Four Gospels. The curiosity of the savages was excited to know what he was writing. He read to them the history of the Saviour's confiict on the Mount of Olives. Then the Spirit of God began to work: some of them kid thefr hands upon their mouths, as is customary among them when they are struck with wonder, and a man named Kajarnak exclaimed in a loud and anxious tone, " How was that ? Tell us that once more, for I too would fain be saved !" Such words had never been heard from a Greenknder before. From that time Kajarnak visited the brethren frequently, and gave abundant evidence, by the subsequent tenor of his life and conversation, that he was .truly converted to God. The simple exhibition ofthe Word of God was blessed in a similar manner to other natives ; and the missionaries had no longer to deplore that their labour was in vain. The most happy results have attended the recent distribution of the Scriptures ; and at the present moment almost all the Greenlanders within reach of the four Moravian stations make at least an outward profession of Christianity. 1 Forty-sixth Report of British aud Foreign Bible Society, p. cxxxviii. 2 Brown's History of the Propagation of Christianity, vol. i. p. 320. NEW ENGLAND-INDIAN. VIRGINIAN, MASSACHUSETT, AND MOHEGAN. SPECIMEN OF THE VIEGINIAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Weske kutcbissik wuttinnoowaonk ohtup, kah kuttoowonk ooweetddtamun Manit, & ne kuttooonk Manittoooomoo. ' Yeu nan weske kutchissik weechayeutamun God. ' Wame teanteaquassinish kesteausupash nashpe nagum, & matta teag kesteausineup webe nashpe nagum ne kesteausikup. ' Ut wuhhogkat pomantamoonk ohtop, kah ne pomantamoonk oowequaiyeumuneaop wosketompaog. ^ Kah wequai sohsumoomoo pohkenahtu, & pohkenai matta wutattumunnmooun. '^ Wosketomp anoondp wutch Godut, ussowesu John. ' Noh nan wutch peyau wauwaenuuneat, oowauwdnat wequai, onk woh wame wosketompaog wunnamptamwog nashpe nagum. * Matta nagum ne wequai, qnt oowauwd nat wequai. 'Ne mo wunnamuhkut wequai^ ne wohsumungqut nish noh wosketomp noh paont muttaohkit. '" Noh appiip muttaohket, kah muttaok kesteausip nashpe nagum, & muttaok matta oowaheuh. '' Peyau nehenwonche wuttaiheit, & nehenwonche wuttaiheuh matta wutattumunukoooh. '^ Qut neadtahshe attumunukquit wuttinnumauoh menuh- kesuonk oonaumoniiheat God neh wanamptamunitche oowesuonk. '^ Neg nekitcheg, matta nashpe wusqueheonk, asuh matta nashpe weyausue unnantamooonk, asuh matta nashpe wosketompae wuttenantamooonk, qut nashpe God. '* Kah kuttooonk ayimoooop wey aus, kah kooweetomukqun (kah naumumun wussohsumoonk, sohsumoonk onatuh wunnukquttegheon wutooshimau) numwabehtunk kitteamonteanitteaonk & wunnamuhku- teyeuonk. ON THE NEW ENGLAND-INDIAN DIALECTS AND VEESIONS. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, aU the regions of North America comprised between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude were known in Europe under the general name of North and South Virginia; and it was not tiU the year 1620 that the designation of " New England" was appUed to the territory now occupied by the northern states of the North American Union. Within that territory three closely-allied dialects of the Algonquin stock were formerly predominant, namely, the Massachusett, the Mohegan, and the Narragansett. As these dialects were commonly included under the collective appeUation of the Virginian or New England language, it is extreniely difScufr at this distance of time to determine the relative extent of each ; more particularly as the tribes to whom they were respectively vernacular have long since given place to the British settlers. It seems natural to suppose that the Massachusett dialect was predominant in Massachusett ; and the Mohegan dialect appears to have prevailed immediately to the east of Hudson's Eiver. The New England Indians were greatly reduced in numbers during the years 1612 and 1613, seven or eight years before the settlement at Plymouth, by a mortal epidemic which raged among them, and swept off" whole famiUes. " Thus (observes an old wrfrer) did Providence make way for the quiet settiement 366 THE BIBLE OF EVEEY LAND. [Class VII. of the pilgrim fathers." Gookin gives the foUowing statistical account of the native tribes of New England, which shows the ravages occasioned by the epidemic : — Number of Warriors Number of Warriors in former times. in a.d. 1674. Pequots, or Mohicans 4000 300 Narragansetts . 5000 1000 Pawkunnawkuts 3000 nearly extinct Massachusetts . 3000 300 Pawtuckets 3000 250' The Gospel was first proclaimed to these tribes by John Eliot, an EngUshman by birth, who in the year 1631 had settled as an independent minister at Eoxbury, in New England. He entered upon his important labours in 1646, in the forty -second year of his age, under the sanction of the general court of the Massachusetts colony, by whom an act had been passed for the encouragement of attempts to win the natives to Christ. No grammatical or other philological helps then existed for the attainment of any American language ; but Eliot, availing himself of the assistance of a few natives, mastered their language, reduced it to writing, and executed a translation of the entire Scriptures. The secret of his success is made known in a few lines which he inscribed at the close of his grammar of the New England language, pubUshed in 1666 : they are to the following efiect : — " Prayers and pains, through faith in Christ Jesus, will do anything." The first edition of his version of the New Testament was printed at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1661, and was dedicated to Eing Charles IL It is stated in the title-page, that " it was ordered to be printed by the C6mmlssioners of the United Colonies in New England, at the charge and with the consent of the Corporation in England for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Indians in New England." The edition consisted of 2000 copies, and was sooner exhausted than was expected. The New England or Virginian Old Testament was pubUshed at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1663, and is remarkable as being the first edition of the Bible in any language ever printed in America. SPECIMEN OF THE MASSACHUSETT VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Waske kutchissik kuttooonk ohtdp, kah kuttooonk oowechiyeumukqunnap Mannit, kah kuttooonk Mannittoomooup. ^ Ne nan oowechiyeumukqunnap Mannit. ' Wame teaquasinish keschteosupash nashpe nagum ; kah matta teag keschteosunnoop wepe nashpe nagum, ne kdsehteosukup. '^ Pomontamooonk apehtunkup, kah ne pomanta- mooonk oowequaiyeuminneadp wosketompaog. ^ Kah ne wequai sohsumoomoo ut poh- kunnahtu, kah pohkunnai matta wuttattununumoounnap. '^ Wosketomp anoondp wutch Godut, ussoowesup John. ^ Noh nan watche peydp wauwaeninnuinneat, wauwaontomun- nat wequai, onk woh wame wosketompaog wunnomuhtamwog nashpe nagum. " Noh matta ne wequai, qut anoonop oowauwaontamunnat ne wequai. ^ Uttuh wunnummuhkiit- teyeue wequaiyeuooup, ne wohsummonkqut nishnoh wosketomp noh payont muttaohket. '" Noh appiip muttaohket kah Muttaohk keschteosup nashpe nagum, kah muttaohk matta wahukcop. " Peydp nehemvonche wuttaiheut, kah wuttaiheoh matta attumunukoop. '^ Glut ne attashe attumunukquehp wuttununumauopah munnehkesuonk wunnamoniinneat en Godut, nux en wanomuhtogig ut oowesuonkanit. '^ Nag nateuhpaneg matta nashpe vdshquehhunk, asuh meyauussue unantamooonk, asuh wosketompae unnantamooonk, qut nashpe God. '* Kah kuttooonk meyausuhkonap, kah koowechiyeumukqunnanonup (kah nunnamumunonup wussohsumooonk, sohsumooonk onatuh wunnukquttekehheonoh wuttoo- shumau) nashpe numwohtae monanteaonk kah wunnomwaonk. 1 Memoirs of Rev, J. Eliot, by Moore, p. 21. American.] NEW ENGLAND -INDI AN. 367 A second edition of the_ entire Scriptures was pubUshed at the same place in 1685 : EUot was assisted in the correction of this edition by Mr. John Cotton, pastor of the EngUsh church at Plymouth, Kew England, son of Mr. John Cotton, the celebrated puritan preacher. It has been mentioned, as a curious cfrcumstance in connection with this version, that it was written, from beginning to end, with the same pen. The expenses of the publication were partly defrayed by the Society above mentioned, and partly by a contribution of £300 from the Hon. Eobert Boyle. The effects of the dissemination of the Word of God in this language are evident from the fact that, before Eliot closed his long and honourable career, there were 1100 souls within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts yielding obedience to the Gospel of Christ ; there were six churches of baptized Indians in New England, eighteen assembUes of Catechumens professing Christianity, and twenty-four native converts set apart to preach to their countrymen the glad tidings of salvation.' In 1709 the Gospel of St. John and the Psalms were transkted by the exemplary missionary, Mr. Experience Mayhew, into the Massachusett dialect of New England, and an edition was printed at Boston, New England. A version for the special benefit of the Pequots, or Mohican tribes of New England, was likewise undertaken by the Eev. John Sergeant, sen., a missionary at Stochbridge, towards the close of the eighteenth century. He translated the New and part of the Old Testament, but no portion of his version has ever been printed. These New England- Indian versions are no longer of any practical utiUty, and are valuable only as Uterary curiosities. The idioms in which they are written are now obsolete, and the tribes for whom they were designed are whoUy or partly extinct. 1 Memoirs of Rev. J. Eliot, by Moore, pp. 87, 119. DELAWARE. SPECIMEN OF THE DELAWAEE VEESION. 1 JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 10. Nan ninutachpitup, nan nbendawawuna eluet, nan neschgingunanink untschi newa- wuna, woak nbenauwawuna, woak n'mischenawuna untschi nachgenanink, elewensit pomauchsowoagan wedaptonaganid. ^ (Eh neichgussit elewunsit pemauchsowoaganid, woak neichquitaguna, woak ntelU penundhikeneen ; woak niluna kwundamoleneen pom- mauchsowoagan eU hattek hallemii, nan ninutschi epitup talli Wetpchwingink, schuk juque kmitachkaniechtaguneen.) ^ Wemi endchi nemenk woak pendamenk elekil, juque kwundamolenneen, wentschitsch wetauchsomijenk, woak wentschitsch wemi kiluna wulamo eii witauchsomank. Wetochwink, nachelu Quisall N' Jesus Christ. * Woak nel elekil guntschi petekhammolenewo, wentschitsch pachkantschiechtasik gulelendamoa- o-anowa, talli kakeuwawink. * Sche jun luejuu niganii wundamawachtowoagan, eii hokenk untschi pendamenk, woak eUellenk: wtelli necama woachejekumin Gettanittowit, woak hokenk talh taku hattelii enda pisgeek, techi taku nachpene tangitti. ^ Luejanque : nteUi witauchsomaneen, woak ihiabtschi lauchsiangue pegenink, nane ktelli achgeluneneen, woak taku kteUi nachpauchsiwuneen wulamoewoagan. ' Schuk ta lauchsianque woache- jekink, necama eii achpit woachejekink, nanne lissianque, natsch ne kwitauchsundineen, woak Gettanittowit Quisall N'Jesus Christ omoocum, geschiechichguneen untschi wemi kmattauchsowoagannenanink. * Luejanque : taku mattauchsowoagan hatteii nhakenanink, nanne nihillatschi gagiwalawuna khakeyina, woak taku ktelli latschessowewuneen wula moewoagan. ' Schuk schachachgatschimuijanque kmattauchsowoaganennanink untschi, natsch ne necama tepi achgettemagelo woak wulamoe, wentschitsch pachkitatamaquonk kmattauchsowoaganenna, woak wentschitsch kschiechichquonk, untschi wemi ktschanauch- sowoagannenanink. '" Luejanque : taku niluna n'mattauchsihummena, nanne gakeluneu- heneen Gettanittowit, woak wdaptonagan taku kdappitaguwuneen. ON THE DELAWAEE LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Delaware, another language of the great Algonquin stock, was spoken at the time of the discovery of America between the Hudson and the Susquehannah, by the Delaware and Minsl tribes, who then constituted one nation. The Delawares caU themselves Lennl Lenape, Indian men : it was with them that Penn concluded his celebrated treaty. They are now, with their kindred tribes, the Monsees, Shawanese, Kickapoos, Kaskaskias, Miamis, and Chippewas, dispersed along the frontier of the United States, from Canada to Georgia.' The tribes who have not yet been brought under Christian civilisation wander about the country without any settled habitation, or regular means of subsistence. Fishing and the chase, says Gallatin, are the only pursuits which the men do not regard as beneath their dignity ; and when not engaged in these, they sink into a state of mental and physical torpor, from which strong outward stimulants are requisite to arouse them ; and hence their passion for gambling and ardent spirits. The women are the slaves and the beasts of burden, the labours of the household and of the field devolving solely upon them. The government of these tribes is in the hands of hereditary chiefs, who, however, can preserve their authority only by the exercise of personal energy and courage. The religion of these people consists partly in the recognition of a Great Spirit ; but all their rites and ceremonies have reference to an EvU Spirit, the supposed author of all calamities. 1 Second Report of American Bible Society. Ameeican.J CREE. 369 The first version of the Scriptures executed under the patronage of the American Bible Society was the Delaware. In 1818 the Eev. Christian Frederick Dencke, a Moravian missionary stationed at }{ew Fafrfield, in Upper Canada, forwarded a translation of the Epistles of St. John to the Board of that Society. He afterwards furnished a version of the Gospels of John and Matthew, and an edition of these portions, printed in parallel columns with the English version, was Issued bythe Society.' The edition consisted of 1000 copies, 300 of which were sent to the translator for distribution among the aborigines around his station, and 100 were consigned to Mr. Leuchenbach, for the use of the Delawares located in Ohio. No other scriptural translation, except a harmony of the Gospels, printed in 1821, appears to exist in Delaware. The Moravian missionaries, during the earUer periods of their labours in America, are reported to have translated parts of the Scriptures into the Delaware and Mohegan language; but none of their versions are extant, for, in 1781, all the books and writings which the zealous missionaries had prepared for the objects of the mission were destroyed by the savages.^ C Iv E L . SPECIMEN OF THE CEEE VEESION. St. MATTHEW, Chap. hi. v. 13 to 17. Jesus tush Galilee-yongk ke pe-oonje-pah ke penahze kahwaudt enewh John emah Jesus also Galilee at came from and came to Jolm tiiere Jordan- w^ che sekahuntahkookt (enewh John.) " Ov ke ahquahnwataAtyawn tush at Jordan that he might be poured on by him ( John). He denied it to him also owh John, montah keenodt, neen sah ween nintezheminchenahwaiz che ke sekahuntah- John, and thus said to him, I mdeed I so am needful that thou shouldst liave poured wey ahpun montah, dush pe-nahnahzekah^ce?/M?^. ^^ Montah tush Jesus ooke enon, on me thus, and thou comest to me. Thus and Jesus he said to him, monnoo sah goo noongquoom he tah tapwataw;A, megeneen ewh ka ezhewapezeyMW^f at least indeed now thou shouldst consent to me, voila how toe should hve koopun che kezhetoovMna kahkenah ewh quiyuk ezhewapezewin. Metush kah (morally) in order that «;« accomplish aU (every) straight (right) conduct. And voila he ezhet^V^atah^waudt. '' Jesus tush, ahpe kah sekahuntahwindt, quiyuk ke oonje koope consented fo Am. Jesus and, when he was poured on, straight went mland from emah sepeenk : enah sah ke nesuhkoonahmahwah ewhety ispeming, kewuhpahmaudt there at (or in) the river : lo ! he was opened for there above, and he saw tush enewh keshamunnetoo oochechahquon penahnahzhenidt, keche-oomemeenk ke also the Great Being his Spirit which was descending, a great pigeon it ezhenahkooseh ; ke pe-pooneedt tush emah oowejMng owh Jesus. '' Tush enah was like- and it lighted also there on te body Jesus. And lo . ishpeming ke oonje kahnoonah, montah ke enint Mesah mahpah ning quesis sahyah- above has from been spoken to, and thus he has been said to, VoUa this same my son whom 1 keugh quiyuk ainnanemMt/^'. love for straight / think him. ON THE CEEE LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The most northernly of the Algonquin-Lenape nations -« the K,i,teneaux or ^i^tene-x by abbreviation caUed the Crees. Their national designation is Nehethowuck, that is, exact bemgs, . Striclda„a.s History of American Bible Society, p. H. ^ Brown's History of tie Propagation of Christianity, vol. ii. p. 631. 370 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII. people." They occupy a greater extent of territory than any other nation of their race, being spread through all, or nearly all, the region watered by the numerous rivers which discharge themselves into Hudson's Bay.' In Canada, and in the country on the Elver St. Lawrence, they are more numerous than any other race of Indians ; yet in many districts they are so intermingled with other tribes, that it is difficult to form a correct estimate of their numbers. According to Gallatin, the northern branch of the Algonquin-Lenape family, which includes, besides the Crees, the Algonquins, the Chippewas, the Ottawas, the Pottawattomles, and the Mlssissagues, cannot number less than from 35,000 to 40,000 souls. ^ The Cree language, which partakes of all the pecuUarities, as above described, of the American class, has been reduced to writing, and an excellent grammar has been compiled by Mr. Howse. Yet, although a transktion has been made of the Liturgy of the Church of England, no edition of the Scriptures has yet been Issued in this knguage. There are MS. specimens of portions of a Cree version of the Gospels of Matthew and John in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society ; and in one of the kst reports it is stated that a translation of the book of Genesis has been prepared by John Sinclair, jun., one of the Wesleyan missionaries, but that the work requires revision.^ The Word of God has long been preached to the Crees, in some instances with blessed results ; and it is to be hoped they wiU soon be permitted to read for themselves in their own knguage the wonderful works of God. The Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments have been printed with a catechism lately issued by the Wesleyans, and portions of the New Testament wdU, no doubt, shortly follow. Notwithstanding the efibrts of the missionaries, and the partial civilisation of many tribes, the introduction of the fur trade, and the frequent scarcity of provisions, have combined to foster in the Indians thefr naturaUy wandering habits : printed copies of the Scriptures would therefore be pecuUarly valuable to this nation during their lengthened sojourn in the forests. 1 Howse's Grammar ofthe Cree Language, p. 2. 2 Archaeologia Americana, voL ii. p. 30. 3 Missionary Notices for March, 1850, p. 46. SPECIMEN OF THE OJIBWAY VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Uaieshkwt sv giaia au Ikitouin, gaie dush au Ikitouin ogiuijiuigon au Kishemanito, gaie dush go au Ikitouin gikishemanitoui. ^ Misu go au uaieshkut gauijiuigut iniu Kishemaniton. ^ Uin sv go kukinu unoj gego ogigizhitonun ; aiasibun dush au, ka gego tagiozhijigadesinon, iu gaozhijigadeg. * Uin su go gibimatiziuiniui ; iu dush bimatiziuin ogiuaseshkagonaua igiu ininiuug. ^ Iu dush uaseiaziuin gisagatemugut ima pusugishkag ; ka dush iu pusugishtibik gikikenjigemugusinon. ** Giaia su au inini iniu Kishemaniton gapiizhinazhaogujin, John gaizhinikazot. ^ Jitibadodu su iu Uaseiaziuin gibionjiizha au, kukinu dush na iniu ininiuun uin au jionjitebueienduminit. ^ Kauin go uin giauisi au Uaseiaziuin, gipiizhinazhaua su uin, iu jitibadotu iu Uaseiaziuin. ^ Misu au keget Uaseia ziuin uaiaseshkauat kukinu iniu ininiuun paizhanijin oma aki. '° Aki su oma giaia ; uin go ogiozhiton iu aki ; ka dush ogikikenimigusin iu aki. " Ogibiizhanun iniu tebenduin, ka dush ogiotapinigosinun iniu tebenduin. ^^ Minik dush uin go gaotapinigut, ogiminan iu gushkieuiziuin iu dush jionijanisimigouat iniu Kishemaniton, igiu sy go taiebueienduig ima odizhinikazouini: ^^ Igiu gaonjinigisigog ima miskui, gaie ima uiauimauhii-inendumouini, gaie ima ininiui-inendumouini, ima su go etu Kishemanito. " Au dush Ikitouin giuiasiuia, gaie dush giuijtunukiminu, (giuabund?;mudush iu obishigendaguziuin, iu tibinaue ezhibishi- gendaguzinit iniu Ueguisijin au Ueosimint,) baiataiinutinik iu shauenitiuin gaie iu tebueuin. CHIPPEWAY. SPECIMEN OF THE CHIPPEWAY VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Wiazhkut miajetang ekettowin, ekettowin Kitche Manito wejewegon, ekettowindush Kitche Manito geawe. ^ Wiazhkutdush miajetang Kitche Manito wejewegon. ' Kokkinna kago, ween ge onje ozhichegata, kaweendush kago ge ozhichegatasenon, ween bwa ozhetot. ' Bematizzewin ogegishkan ; bematizzewindush aninnewug owasayamewa. ' Wasaya wakashka kushkedibbikutonk ; kushkedibbikutdush ka otakoshkunzeen. « Aninne ge onje majenizzhiegazo Kitche Manito uzzhiat, John ezhenekazo. '' Ge tuhkoshin keche onje quiukwandagwuk wasaya, kokkinna aninnewug ween onje che tabwa-andumowat. *Kaween awisse eu wasaya, ga onje majenizzhiegazot, keche onje kekandumowat eu wasaya. "Me e-e kagat quiuk wasaya, kokkinna aninne watitunk ake owasashkagon. '"Ahkeeng geia, ween ga onje gezhichegatag ake, akedush ka okekanemigooseen. " Obeotissan tebinowa wanemajin, tebinowa wanemajindush ka okekanemigooseen. " Menik kekanemigoot tiabwatagoot mushkawizzewin omenan Kitche Manito che oguisit, kokkinna tiabwatuminit otuhnozowinink : '^ Ka misque ge onje negesewug, ka giya weyas enandumowinink, ka giya aninne otenandumowinink, meatuh Kitche Manito ote- nandumowinink. '^ Ekettowin wey^s ge onje ochichegata, che wetegamigoyunk, (neenge wabundamindush ogitchetwawizzewin, kitchetwawizzewin meatuh ga onjeeg osema) mooshkena shawandagoozewin giya tabwanin. ON THE CHIPPEWAY, OE OJIBWAY, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Chippewas, or Ojibways, are dispersed through a considerable portion of British North America, and are also to be found in the United States. According to CatUn, they inhabit the eastern, north-eastern, and northern shores of Lake Huron, also the northern and southem shores of Lake Superior, the headwaters of the Mississippi, and even extend over an Immense tract of country to the north and west of the Lake of the Woods, reaching nearly to Lake Winnepeg and Hudson's Bay. They are divided into thirty bands, each of which is governed by a chief, and in number they coUectively amount to about 25,000 individuals.' The Chippeway and the other languages forming the northern branch of the Algonquin-Lenape family (namely, the Cree, Algonquin, Ottawa, Pottawattomie, and Msslssague) are very closely aUled in vocabulary and structure ; and it is said that the tribes to whom these languages are respectively vernacukr are more or less IntelUgible to each other.'-^ The Chippeway is particularly harmonious and dignified in sound : it difiers from the Cree in the nasal character of its vowels, and also in possessing two negatives, Uke the French, one of which is Interwoven with the verb through all its forms : ^ the Cree vowels, at least in the northern districts, have no nasal sound, and a regular negative form does not appear to exist in that knguage. The first attempts to obtain a version of the Scriptures in Chippeway emanated from the York Upper Canada AuxiUary Bible Society. After much inquiry, only two individuals could be found willing and competent to undertake the translation, namely, two brothers named John and Peter Jones. • Prichard's Natural Historj' of Man, p. 586. - Prichard's Natural History of Man, p. 382. 3 Howse's Grammar ofthe Cree Language, p. 14. 372 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII. They were native Indians of the Eiver Credit district, and had been employed to assist in the spiritual instruction of their countrymen by the Methodist Society. In 1831 they commenced the translation of the Gospels, Captain Anderson, of the Eice Lake, undertaking to revise the work, and the British and Foreign Bible Society agreeing to defray the expenses. In 1832 the Gospel of St. John was completed ; and Peter Jones visited England for the purpose of carrying it through the press. In the correction and revision of the proof sheets, he was aided by the lamented Mr. WilUam Greenfield, who had acquired considerable acquaintance with the language. The edition consisted of 1000 copies, and was completed during the course of the same year. It has been remarked of this edition that, in point of mechanical execution, it is " by far the best volume of Indian translation which has been sent among the sons of the forest." ' The version Itself is highly esteemed, by missionaries of all denominations, as a faithful and accurate translation, and it has been several times reprinted. In 1838 an edition was issued at the expense of the American Bible Society, with the orthography altered, in conformity with the system adopted in the publications of the American Board. In 1833, when the Gospels of John, Matthew, and Mark only had been completed, the American Bible Society undertook the superintendence of the translation of the New Testament, and the Messrs. Jones directed their attention to the translation of the Old Testament. It was reported the foUowing year that the whole New Testament had been translated by Dr. James, of the United States army, and that it was then passing through the press at Albany.^ Little is known concerning this edition, although the Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society expressed their wUUngness to purchase copies, provided it should prove a faithful version. In 1835 a commencement was made towards the transktion of the Old Testament, by the publication of part of the book of Genesis, translated by Peter Jones, the above-mentioned native missionary. His version of the Gospel of St. Matthew was reprinted in 1839 by the American Board, at Boston, with some orthographical alterations. The Gospel of St. Luke had been printed two years previously by the same Society, from a translation executed by George Copway, a converted and educated Chippeway, and the Eev. Sherman Hall, of the Lapointe Mission, Lake Superior. These two translators were agents of the Methodist Episcopal Mission of Canada : they ako effected a trans ktion ofthe Acts, which was published at Boston in 1838. The Epistles of St. John were pubUshed at the same place in 1840; and in 1844 an edition of the entire New Testament appeared at New York, under the auspices of the American Bible Society. The edition consisted of 1000 copies, but no intimation was appended respecting the names of the translators or the history of the transktion. Another version has been undertaken, at the expense of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, by the Eev. Dr. O'Meara, who, in 1846, had translated the Liturgy of the Church of England into Chippeway. He has produced a translation of the Four Gospels, and this work Is now passing through the press, if not already completed.' Eesults of the Dissemination op this Version. — The infiuence of this version is to be witnessed at several Indian settlements, where the consistent Ufe and deportment of the converted natives contrasts forcibly with thefr former wild and sanguinary practices. Near the Eiver Credit, in West Canada, for instance, there was in 1840 a village inhabited by about 220 Chippeway Indians, who but a few years ago were wandering in pagan darkness over the expanse of the country ; now some among them are probably truly converted to God, while all make a profession of Christianity, and live in the outward observance of the divine law.* The same may be said of La Pointe, and other missionary stations, where Chippewas have been reclaimed from savage life, and taught to rea4 the Word of God in their own tongue. And even among those members of this nation who have not yet been led within the pale of Christian and civilised life, there is said to be, in many districts, a prepared ness of heart to receive the Gospeh ' Thirtieth Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. ciii. 3 Ecclesiastical Gazette for September, 1850. 2 Thirtieth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. ciii. t Thirty-sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. btxv. OTTAWA. The Ottawas originally dwelt on the Elver St. Lawrence, but they afterwards removed to Michigan,' where they now possess five smaU reservations, collectively comprising about 66,560 acres. The population amounts to 760.^ The Otto was are intimately connected with the Chippewas, whom they so closely resemble in language, customs, and manners, that they were considered by the earUer missionaries to be one and the same people. The first book printed in this language contained the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments, with a few hymns, translated by Mr. and ilrs. Van Tassel, of the American Board of ilisslons : it was printed, with some epelUng-lessons, at Hudson, Ohio, in 1829.' Some years afterwards the Gospels of Matthew and John were translated by Jonathan Meeker ; and the Ottawa text was conferred with the Grreek by the Eev. Francis Barker, A. M. An edition of these Gospels was issued from the Shawnee Baptist Mission-press in 1841.* It does not appear that any further editions have since been issued. At most of the mission-stations the Ottawas, in common with other Indian nations, are instructed in the English language, and taught to read the EngUsh version, which is probably the cause of there not being a greater demand for their vernacular Scriptures. POTTAWATTOMIE. The Pottawattomles formerly resided in the isknds caUed Noquet, near the entrance of the Green Bay, where they were to be found as late as the year 1671.' They afterwards removed to the southem extremity of Lake Michigan, and some of them are stlU located in the country near that lake._ Their knguage has become known in Europe through the medium of a vocabulary furnished by Smith Barton, a Eoman CathoUc catechism and prayer-book pubUshed at Baltimore, and a few works on Christian and ekmentary instruction, printed at the Shawnee Baptist Mission-press. It appears that Pottawattomie is so closely connected with the Ottawa and the Chippeway, that tfiese three knguages may almost be regarded as cognate dialects of one language. The only portion of the bcnp- tures at present translated into Pottawattomk consists of the Gospel according to St. Matthew and the Acts ofthe Apostks, of which an edition has been published at LouisviUe. The translation was made by Jonathan LyHns, and the orthography is regulated according to the artificial and complex system devised by Mr. Meeker. M I C M A C . The Micmacs are the Souriquok of F^-^^Trite- : they Inhabited the penin^^^^^^^ Cape Breton, and the westem shores of the Gulf of St^ Lawrence. /^ IJ^^O^™"^ J^^.^'Xm was stated by Father Maynard to be 3000 souk. They were firmly ^"ached to the F ^ l^om whom they had received their first ideas of reUgion ; and, untU the conquest of Canada, they were ''"^Tht m::lTi:n^S'&i^T±e north-eastem branch of the Algonquin-Lenape stock, which ^^ah^^^ZS^^^Mgonluin dialects spoken in Labrador, the dialects of two Etchemm tnbes ..,-,= ¦ *„f„, ,=ii! n riv 3 Smith and Choules, Origin and ffistory of Missions, vol. ii. p. 395. 1 Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1848, p. av. ^ Literature of Indian Languages, p. 15. » Smith and Choules, Origin and History of Missions, vol^-^P^^f '^^ Amerfcana, p. 27. 374 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII. not yet extinct, and the Abenaquis, hereafter to be mentioned. No printed edition of any portion of the Scriptures exists in Mlcmac ; but, according to a letter from Mr. James Dawson, dated February, 1832, it appears that aversion of the Psalms was then extant, besides portions ofthe Song of Solomon, and parts of the Four Gospek. These translations were, perhaps, executed by the early Jesuit missionaries who laboured among this tribe ; but no efibrts have hitherto been made to bestow on the Micmacs a printed edition of the Word of God. ABENAQUI The Abenaquis, who originally belonged to Nova Scotia and Maine, now inhabit a wide district of country situated to the south of the Eiver St. Lawrence, between the St. John's Eiver, of New Brunswick, and the Elver Eichlleu, in Canada.' Thefr language difiers but Uttle from the Mlcmac. They were formerly associated with the Micmacs in alUance with the French, and in hostiUties agamst the British colonies. They were early converted to Eoman Catholicism ; but the only work, apparently, that was printed by the Jesuit missionaries for their benefit is a catechism in the Abenaqui knguage, published at Quebec, for the Eoman Catholic Church, in 1822. The Gospel of St. Mark has been recently translated in Abenaqui by a native preacher, named Osunkhirhine, and an edition has been printed at Montreal.^ At the station of this preacher there were, in 1847, fifty-five native Abenaquis reclaimed from their savage state, and united in chm-ch-fellowship. SHAWANOE Although the Shawanoes have been known to us since the year 1680, yet we possess no correct information concerning their previous history. The Sauks and Foxes, westem tribes of the Algonquin- Lenape family, relate that the Shawanoes were originally of the same stock as themselves, but that after wards migrating to the southward, they became separated from the rest of their kindred. This account is corroborated by the import of the word Shawanoe, which signifies south, and Ukewise by the situation of the Shawanoe settlements ; for in aU the ancient French maps the people is invariably represented as dwelUng on the south of the Ohio, and as extending in a southwardly direction to the Cumberland Elver.' They were driven from that territory, probably by the Cherokees, during the first half of the sixteenth century. They crossed the Ohio, and we afterwards hear of them as the active aUies of the French during the seven years' war, and as the fierce opponents of America during the war of independ ence. They are now much dispersed : the greater part of them have removed west of the Mississippi, and the number of these amounts to about 1500 individuals.'' The Gospel of Matthew has been translated into Shawanoe, probably by the Baptist missionaries. The translation was compared with the Greek text by J. A. Chute, M. D. ; and an edition was printed, In 1836, at the Shawanoe Baptist Mission-press, Indian territory. Sixteen pages of hymns were added hy Johnston Lykins, and printed with this edition; but no further translations of any portion of Scripture appear to have been effected. I Literature of Indian Languages, p. 17. 3 Archaeologia Americana, p. 66. 2 Hoole's Year Book of Missions, p. 271. ¦• Archaeologia Americana, p. 69. MOHAWK. SPECIMEN OF THE MOHAWK VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Tsidyodaghsawen ne Logos keaghne, etho Yehovahne yekayendaghkwe ne Logos, ok oni Logos ne naah Yehovah. ^ Ne ne sagat tsidyodaghsawen enskatne Yehovahne yeka yendaghkwe. ' Yorighwagwegon ne rodeweyenokden, ok tsi nikon ne kaghson yagh oghnahhoten teyodon ne ne yagh raonha te hay^dare. * Raonhage yew^daghkwe ne adonhfeta ok oni ne adonh^ta naah ne raodighswatheta n'ongwe. ^ Aghson tsidyokaras watyoghswathet ok yaghten yeyoyenda-on. " Rayadatogen ne Yehovah ronha-on ne ne John ronwayatskwe. ^ Ne wahhoni warawe tsi rodogense, ne ne aontahharighwatrbri tsi watyoughswathet, ne ne aontyesenhak agwegon n'ongwe raonha raoriwa aonteyakawegh- daghkonhek. ^ Yagh raonha te keaghne ne etho kaghswathetsera, ok ne ne rowanha-on n'ahaderighwatrory tsini kaghswathetseroten. ^ Ne naah ne togenske kaghswathetsera, ne ne watyakoghswatheta agwegon ne ongwe ne ne oghwhenjage yakoghwa eston. '"Oghwhenjage yeresgwe, yorighwagw^gon ne naah rodeweyenokden, ok n'ongwe yaghten howayenderhfe-on. " Eghwarawe tsi Rawenniyoh, ok ne s'hakowenniyoh yaghten hon- warighwatsteristha. ^^ Ok tsinihadi ronwarighwatsteristha, rononha s'hakogwenyon tserawi ne ne enhonkdon ne Yehovah s'hakoyea-ongonwa, ne ne rononha agwagh ne teyakaweghdaghkon ne raoghseanakon : ^^ Ok tsironwanadewedon yaghten ne kaneg- wenghsage, yaghoni tsi yaw^ron n'Owkron, yaghoni tsi-ireghre n'ongwe,' ok deaghnon ne Yehovah tsinihonigonroten. " Ok ne Logos ow^ron waondon ok oni tsi yakwenderon wahhan^dayen (ok ne wakwaskaghtho ne roagloria, ne ne gloria tsi niyought ne raonhaon ne rodewedon ne Ronihha) ran^non ne gracia ok oni ne togensketsera. ON THE MOHAWK LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Mohawk, an Iroquois language, was spoken by the most powerful people of the confederation of the Five Nations. This confederacy is sometimes called " The Six Nations," the Tuscaroras of North CaroUna having eventually joined it ; but it originally included only the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas. They resided on the Mohawk Eiver, and the lakes which stUl bear their name, and extended their conquests to the Mississippi, and beyond the St. Lawrence.' Greater indications of courage, energy, and intelligence have been manifested by these six nations than by any other race of North America. They were far inferior in numbers to the Algonquin tribes, yet always appear to have maintained an ascendancy over them, as weU as over all the neighbouring nations. They espoused the cause of the British against the French during the war between the two powers ; and by their single prowess they counterbalanced the advantages derived by the French from the aUknce of the other Indian nations. In the war of independence, they still remained faithful to Britain ; and on account of the part they had taken in that struggle, the Mohawks were compelled, Ui 1780, to abandon their lands, and take refuge in Canada, where they remain to this day. The remnant of this warUke and once formidable confederacy cannot now exceed 7000 souls ; whereas, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, the six nations numbered 40,000 individuals : this astonishing 1 Encyc. Americana, vol. vii. p. 78 376 THE BIBLE OP EVERY LAND. [Class VII. decrease in numbers is the result of the destructive wars in which they were perpetually involved. The knguages respectively vernacular to each of these six nations are all of the Iroquois stock, and so closely resemble each other, that the Mohawk version of the Scriptures is said to be intelUgible to the whole confederacy, and likewise to the Hurons or Wyandots, the southern branch of the Iroquois famUy.' Versions op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — In the year 1700, the Eev. Mr. Freeman, an exemplary Calvinist minister in New York, devoted himself to the spiritual instruction of the Mohawks, and translated the Gospel of Matthew, and several chapters of the Old and New Testaments, into their knguage. These translations he presented to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, who caused some of the chapters to be printed, with a portion of the Liturgy of the Church of England, which had been translated into Mohawk by their missionary, Mr. Andrews : the edition was printed at New York in 1714.^ The same portions of Scripture were reprinted with the Liturgy, in New York, in 1769 ; but Mr. Freeman's version of the Gospel of Matthew is said stlU to remain in MS. In 1787 another translation of this Gospel was made by Joseph Brant, a Mohawk by birth, called by his people Tarenyawagon. This singular man had been educated at one of the American colleges, and held a commission as captain in the British army : it has been said of him, that " if he became a savage in battle, and exhibited the pecuUar subtlety, cruelty, and power of Indian deception while on the war path, he had the power to sink into a philosophic calm in his study." His version of St. Matthew was printed, in 1787, in London, with a third edition of the Liturgy in Mohawk : the expenses were defrayed by the English Government. Another edition of this version was pubUshed at New York in 1829, by the New York District Bible Society, in which the Mohawk and English versions are printed on opposite columns : by means of this arrangement, it is clearly seen how much the English excels the Mohawk language in point of brevity and converseness. At the close of the volume is a collection of sentences, selected and translated by Brant, from various parts of the Scriptures, and designed for practical instruction. The judgment evinced by Brant in this selection proves that he was theoretlcaUy acquainted with the main doctrines of Christianity. » The next portion of the Scriptures transkted into Mohawk was the Gospel of John. The trans lator, who also ranked as captain in the British army, was known to Europeans under the Enghsh name of John Norton. He was a Cherokee by birth, but in his infancy had been naturalised among the Mohawks, so that the language of his adopted nation (of which he was afterwards elected a chief) was his vernacular tongue. He visited England for the purpose of obtaining a confirmation of the grants under which the Mohawks obtained the Great Elver settlement ; and about the same period, his mind being directed to the spiritual and moral improvement of his people, he commenced a trans lation of the Gospel of John into Mohawk. He drew his translation from the English version, for he had from childhood been familiarly acquainted with the English language, and had served as interpreter to the British army. In 1804 his work was completed, and an edition of 2000 copies was pubUshed, with the English version in parallel columns, by the British and Foreign Bible Society. These copies were forwarded for distribution to different stations in Upper Canada, and in the Ohio and Oneida country. Another edition was published by the American Bible Society in 1818,' the correctness of the version having been attested by the interpreters in the Indian villages. An inteUigent Mohawk chief, named A. HIU, was engaged, during the year 1826 and two following years, in a translation of the Four Gospels ; and a princess of the same nation, well qualified for the work, undertook the translation of the Acts.^ No printed edition, however, appears to have been Issued of any portion of Scripture till 1832, when 1000 copies of the three Epistles of St. John (translated by the Eev. Mr. WilUams) were ordered to be printed by the American Bible Society, as soon as evidence could be obtained as to the correctness of the translation. During the same year HUl's version of the Gospel of St. Luke was committed to the press, after having been submitted to the correction of J. A. Wilkes, jun., of Grand Elver, Canada West. The edition was printed in paraUel columns with the English version, at the expense of the Young Men's Bible Society, Methodist church. New York. The same Society published, in 1835, at New York, a version of the Acts and of the Epistle to the Eomans, translated by HIU, and corrected by Wm. Hess and J. A. Wilkes, jun. In 1835 the Epistle to the Galatians, and in 1836 the Epistles to the PhUlppians, Colossians, Thessalonians, and to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, were pubUshed by the same Society : the translation was executed 1 Fifteenth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. 237. 3 Owen's History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. iii. p. 493. 2 Humphrey's Historical Account of the Society for the Propagation of * Twenty-fourth Report ol British and Foreign Bible Society, p. xcv. the Gospel, p. 302. Ameeican.J SENECA. 377 byHess an educated Mohawk, and corrected by Wilkes. The Mohawks are thus m possession of nearly aU the books of the New Testament ; and it is to be hoped that a complete edition of the entfre Scriptures wiU soon be bestowed upon them. ^ f As to the effects produced by the penisal of the Mohawk translations, we have the foUowing testimony from the Eev. Mr. Eyerson, of Canada :-" The portion of the Scriptures (says he) that hai been given to_ the Mohawks has made them, in many respects, a people prepared for the Lord. When the missionanes preached the Gospel of Christ to them, they found several of them in the same interesting state of mmd as Peter found Cornelius; and considerable numbers gave evidence of thefr having become real Chnstians 1 And fr has been stated, as a pkaslng instance of the prompt and mdependent spmt of these children of the forest, that, when the version of St. John's Gospel was first introduced among them, the Mohawks at Caughnawaga viUage, in Lower Canada, befrg members of the Church ot Eome, convened a councU of thefr chiefs, to deliberate upon the propriety of receiving the Scriptures, and unanimously resolved, that aU their peopk should be left at liberty to accept of the Gospel.^ j f SENECA. The Iroquois languages are less soft and fiowlng than the Algonquin-Lenape, but are characterised by their mascuUne and sonorous articulations. To the Iroquois family belongs the Seneca, a language spoken by one of the six nations, whose original seat was in the province of New York. The Senecas are now dispossessed of their ancient territories, but they still own some reservations in Western New York, on Cataraugus Creek, and on Buffalo Creek ; and a few of them reside in Ohio.' According to the Ne laguhnigoagesgwathah (^Mental Elevator), a Seneca misceUany of religious and general information, conducted by the missionaries, the total population of aU the Senecas of New York, in 1845, was 2630 ; in 1846, 2720; — denoting an Increase of births over deaths in one year of ninety souls. The Gospel of St. Luke has been transkted into the Seneca tongue by T. S. Harris, of the American Board, aided by a Seneca young man educated at the mission-school ; an edition of 500 copies was printed at New York, in 1829, for the American Bible Society. An edition of 500 copies of the Sermon on the Mount, in Seneca, has also been printed by the American Tract Society. Except the Mohawk, no translation has been made into any other Iroquois language. A transktion, ostensibly in Oneida, of the EngUsh Prayer-book has been effected by the Eev. Solomon Davis, missionary to the Oneidas, at Duck Creek, Wisconsin ; but this translation, though intelUgible to the people of his charge, is not written In pure Oneida, nor indeed in any dialect ever spoken by thesis nations. It is weU known that the Iroquois languages so closely resemble each other, that the tribes to whom they are respectively vernacular are able to converse together. The Mohawk and Seneca versions being thus more or less accessible to aU the Iroquois nations, supply the place of translations in the other Iroquois knguages. > Twenty.fifHi Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. Ixxxvi. 2 Facts respecting certain Versions, by T. P. Piatt, Esq., p. 19. 3 Encyc. Americana, vol. ii. p. 313. CHEROKEE. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics. — The Cherokees, at the time they first became knowm to Europeans, occupied an extensive territory situated north and south of the south-westerly continuation of the Appalachian Mountains, and on both sides of the Cherokee or Tennessee Elver. They were less averse to the cultivation of the soil than the more northern Indian nations ; but, Uke the rest of their countrymen, they were perpetually Involved in war with the neighbouring tribes. During the war of independence they fought under the British banner, but they afterwards sided with the Americans. It is said, that since they came in contact with the Europeans, and notwithstanding successive cessions of part of their territory, their number, at least during the last forty years, has been increased.' In 1762 their warriors were estimated at 2300 ; but Adair was informed that, forty years previously, they had numbered 6000. The latest estimate of the Indian war-department represents the Cherokee nation as consisting of 15,000 souls, exclusive of about 1200 negro slaves belonging tp them. Many of the Cherokees have removed west of the Mississippi to lands given them by the United States in exchange for their possessions east of that river. CiviUsation it making rapid progress among them; and they now possess written laws in their own language, which seem Ukely to supersede their ancient customs and traditions. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — The Cherokee, the Creek or Muskogee, and the Chocktaw languages, with the dialects of some petty tribes spoken in their vicinity, are connected by so many points of affinity, as to be considered, philologically as well as geographically, a distinct branch or family of the American class of languages. With reference to their geographical position, they have been designated the Appalachian or Florldian group. Dr. Barton regarded Cherokee as an Iroquois language, and even GaUatin was Inclined to adopt the same opinion ; but, although there are points of similarity in these as in aU other American languages, the direct affinities between Cherokee and the Iroquois knguages are comparatively few and remote. There is some difiiculty in obtaining a com petent knowledge ofthe Cherokee language, on account ofthe complexity ofits forms. It is encumbered with a dual number ; and in the simple conjugation of the present of the indicative, including the pronoun in the nominative and obUque cases, there are no less than seventy distinct forms.^ There are Ukewise various other nice distinctions to be noted in reference to the verb, the forms of which denote whether the object be animate or inanimate, whether or not the person spoken of is expected to hear what is said, and other particulars.' A very Ingenious alphabet, admirably adapted to express the sounds of this knguage, has been invented by a native Cherokee, named Sequoyah, but more commonly known by the name of Guess. It consists of eighty-five characters, and each character denotes an entire syUable. As aU the articulations in the language are included in this alphabet, a mere acquaint ance with the eighty-five characters is all that is requisite to enable a learner to read Cherokee. With respect to sound, it is a strongly-articulated language, and the sibiknt decidedly predominates. Every Cherokee syUable ends in a vocal or nasal articulation, and there are no other double consonants but tl or dl and ts, and combinations of s with four or five different consonants. Veesion of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The first portion of the Scriptures printed in this language was the Gospel of St. Matthew, a second edition of which appeared in 1832, and a third in 1840 ; but the year of its first appearance is not specified, neither is the name of the translator generally known. The three editions were pubUshed at the Arkansas Mission-press, Park HiU, at the expense ofthe American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. In 1833 a version of the Acts was published for the same Society, at New Echota, transkted by the Eev. Samuel Worcester, in concert with EUas Boudinot, an educated Cherokee. A version of the Gospel of John, carefully pre pared by the same translators from the Greek original, was published at the Arkansas Mission-press in 1838 ; and this edition, published under the sanction of the American Board, was aided by a grant from the American Bible Society. This Gospel was reprinted at the same press in 1840, and again in 1841. In 1844 a volume, containing the Gospels, the Acts, the Epistles to Timothy, and various detached portions of Scripture, was printed at the Arkansas Mission-press, Park Hill, for the American Board : this and all the above-mentioned editions were printed in the Cherokee character. Further assistance towards printing the Scriptures in Cherokee was afforded, in 1845, by the American Bible 1 Archaeologia Americana, vol. ii. p. 91. 2 Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1848, p. cxxxi. 3 Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1848, p. cxxxi. Ameeican.J CHOCKTAW. o-o Society ; and the superintendence of the work was undertaken by the Eev. S. Worcester who had as ha. been stated, translated part ofthe New Testament into Cherokee, and who haSed man7year ^ a missionary among the people speaking that language. Editions, consisting of 6000 copks of the Epistk to the Ephesians, of 5000 copies of the_ Episties to the PhUlppians and Colossians" with the Fnstand Second Epistles of Peter were printed m 1848 ; but, although three years have n^w elapsed smce the trans ation of the New Testament into Cherokee was accompUshed, no notice has been vet received respecting the completion of the entire version at press.' Comparatively few detaUs have been transmitted concerning the resufrs of the perusal of the Cherokee portions of Scripture now m circuktion : but that these portions are valued by the Cherokees is attested by the fact, that a Bibk Society has been organised among them, for the purpose of enabUng every memberof their nation to read what has been printed in thefr language of the Word of God. It was stated, m 1847, that the number of converted natives in connection with the Cherokee Mission was about 240 souls ;2 but fr k probable that many more have smce been added to the Church. CHOCKTAW. SPECIMEN OF THE CHOCKTAW VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. Ummona ka Annmpa h.vt ahanta mvt, Anumpa htJt Chihowa ya ai iba chwfa tok : mihmvt Anumpa hash ot Chihowa ya tok. ^ Yvmmak inh hosh wmmona ka Chihowa ya ai iba chvfa tok. ^ Yi;mmak atuk mak o nan okluha k«t toba tok ; yohmi ka nana kwt toba tok vt yummak o keyu hokvno ik tobo ki tok. * Yi;mmak oka isht ai okchaya yut arsha tok : yohmi ka isht ai okchaya yi;inmak ash ot hatak puta ka in tohwikeli ya tok. * Mihmvt tohwikeli hash ot ai okhlilika ya a tohommi ; yohmi ka okhlilika yvi yvmmak ash o ik akostinincho ki tok. '^ Hatak Chan hohchifo hosh, Chihowa nana aiahni ho aya tok. ^ Yvmma puUa tuk mak o hatak vt ra.om.vi yimma hi o, yijmmak ash osh nan atokolit csh Nan-tohwikeli ash atokowa anola chi. hosh aya tok. * Y'ymmak osh Nan-tohwikeh mih mak a tok keyu ; amba Nan-tohwikeli yj^mma atokowa anola chi mak osh aya tok. ' Yakni pakna hatak vt ai vtta hoka mominchit in tohwikelichi, y«;mmak osh Nan-tohwikeli ahli mak a tok. '" Yvmmak atuk mak o yakni vi toba tok o, yakni a ai ahanta ma, yakni vt yvmmak ash ik ithano ki tok. " Yvmmak ok?;t ayvt ilap immi vhleha ho im da ma, immi ?jhleha hash osh ik i yimmo ki tok. '^ Amba laua kaniohmi hosh ahninchit, ilapo hohchifo ha i yimmi hdkvno, Chihowa ushi ?jhleha toba chi mak o isht ai vlhpesa ka ima tok ; ^' Issish ak o keyu, mikmut haknip nan ahni keyu, micha hatak osh nan ahni keyu kg, yymmak okvt toba tok ; amba Chihowa yak a tok. ^* Micha Anumpa hash ot nipi yo toba cha, nan isht i kana, micha nana aiahlika aien«t isht alotowa hosh pi takla ahanta tok : yohmi na isht a holitopa ya, Iki a Ushi vi achvfa ilia cha ai isht a holitopa chatuk mak o, chiynhmi ho e pihisa tok. ON THE CHOCKTAW LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Geogeaphical Extent and Statistics.— A large extent of territory, stretchmg from the Gufr of Mexico to Cumberland Elver, if not to the Ohio, and bounded west by the Mississippi, and east by ¦ Report of the American and Foreign Bible Society for 1849, p. ?9. - Hoole's Year Book of Missions, p. 271. 380 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII. the country of the Cherokees and Creeks, constituted the ancient area of the Chocktaw language. The Chicasas, a people poUtically distinct from the Chocktaws, but speaking the same language, and evidently belonging to the same stock, occupied the north of this territory. All the southern portions were inhabited by the Chocktaws, sometimes called Fktheads, from a practice prevalent among them in common with other Indian trlTDCs, of artificially flattening the head in infancy. The Chocktaws have been always more addicted to agriculture than to warfare or the chase. As early as 'the year 1772 they were considered more advanced in civilisation than any of the neighbouring tribes. They did not disdain to assist their wives in the labours of the field ; and Bernard Eomans, in his Natural History of Florida, says of them, that they might be considered as a nation of farmers rather than of savages. " Their way of Ufe in general (remarked that old writer) may be called industrious; they will do what no other uneompelled savage will do, that is, work in the field to raise grain." The number of Chocktaws capable of bearing arms was estimated by B. Eomans at less than 3000 : according to the latest estimate of the war-department, the Chocktaw nation consists of 18,500 souls, of which number about 15,000 are already settled on lands west of the Mississippi, aUotted to them by the United States, on condition of their ceding certain portions of their ancient territories. Chaeacteeistics of the Language. — Although this language is constructed upon the same grammatical principles as all the other American languages, its uniform system of infiections, and its peculiar method of compounding words, render it more simple and easier of acquisition to Europeans than any other language of its ckss. It is comparatively free from the perplexing multiplicity of forms which obstruct the progress of the learner in most of the cognate languages. The termmations of words are not varied under the two general divisions of animated beings and of Inanimate objects. Gender is denoted by affixing to the noun a distinct word signifying male or female. Nouns have no plural form ; but this defect is supplied sometimes by affixing a word indicative of multitude, sometimes by adding the plural form ofthe possessive pronoun, and sometimes by means of verbs and adjectives, many of which, especially the former, are susceptible of inflections denoting pluraUty.' There are no prepositions, thefr office being in this, as in other American languages, subserved by verbal inflections; but there are several inseparable particles which are employed, as in our own language, in the formation of compound words. It is probably on account of the comparative simpUcity of its structure, that the Chocktaw has been adopted by the French, as a general medium of communication with aU the Indian tribes residing near the Chocktaw country. Version of the Sceiptuees in this Language. — Several detached portions of the Scrip tures and summaries of Scriptural history have, at various times, been printed in Chocktaw, and inserted in books of elementary instruction. The first separate edition of any portion of the Scriptures in this language consisted of a version of the Acts, which appeared at Boston in 1839, at the expense of the American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. The translation had been drawn from the original, and bore many indications of the care with which it had been executed : a detailed table of contents, and other useful notices, were printed at the end of the volume. An edition of the Epistles of St. John, and another of the Epistle of James, appeared at the Park HUl Mission-press, the one in 1841, and the other in 1843. The Gospels, translated from the Greek, and considered faithful representations of the original, were printed separately, at Boston, during the year 1845, for the American Board. In 1849 an edition, in 2000 copies, of a Chocktaw version of the entire New Testament was printed by the American Bible Society. The translation had been effected by the Eev. Alfred Wright and his fellow-missionaries : fuU and satisfactory evidence was obtained as to the value of the work, and there is every prospect of its extensive usefulness.^ • Archaeologia Americana, vol. ii. p. 252. 2 Forty-sixth Eeport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxxix. DACOTA, OE SIOUX. SPECIMEN OF THE DACOTA, OE SIOUX, VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Otokahe ekta Wicoie kin hee; Wicoie kin he Wakantanka kici un, qa Wicoie kin he Wakantanka kin ee. ^ Otokahe ehantanhan najin Wakantanka kici un kin hee. ^ He eciyatanhan taku owasin kagapi qa taku kin tokan tanhan takudan kagapi xni. * Wiconi kin iho hee. Wiconi kin he wicaxta iyojanjan kin iho hee. ^ lyoyanpa kin hee otpaze ein en omdesya un tuka otpaze ein he iyowinkiyapi xni. ^ Wicaxta wan Jan eciyapi e Wakantanka wakiconze 5a u xi. ^ Hi kin he wayuotanin hi, iyoyanpa kin oyake kta, hecen on taku owasin iye eciyatanhan wovncada kta. ^ lyoyanpa kin he iye nxi, tuka iyoyanpa kin he yaotanin kta e u xipi. " lyoyanpa rincake ein hee, wicaxta owasin toka wicatonpi ehantanhan iyoyanpa wicaye ein hee. ^^ lyoyanpa kin he oyate owasin en un qa lyoyanpa kin he oyate owasin wicakaga tuka oyate kin sdonyapi xni. ^' Tipi tawa kin ekta wicahi tuka iyowinkiyapi xni. ^^ Tona iyowinkiyapi kin hena Wakantanka cinca wicaya yakonpi kta e okihi wicaya, tona iye caje wicadapi kin hena. ^' We eciyatanhan wicatonpi xni, qa nakun wicaxta tawacin kin eciyatanhan , xni; Wakantanka tawacin kin hecedan eciyatanhan wicatonpi. '* Wicoie kin he wicacerpi kagapi, unkiyepi kin en ounye ; wowicake waxteya un. Wootanin tawa kin wanunya- kapi, wootanin kin he Cihintku ixnana icaga Atkuku eciyatanhan u kin he iyececa. ON THE DACOTA, OE SIOUX, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Sioux race, comprising upwards of 50,000 individuals, is divided into four distinct nations, namely, the Winebagos, the Dacotas or Sioux Proper, the Asslnlboins, and the Osages, with the lowas and other kindred tribes ; all of whom reside west of the Mississippi. The only languages of this family into which the Scriptures have been translated are those of the Sioux Proper and of the lowas. The former caU themselves Dacotas, and sometimes Ochente Shakoans, or Seven Fires, probably because they are divided into seven tribes. They dwell on the Upper Mississippi, and on the St. Peter's Elver, and some are found as far west as the Missouri. In number they have been estimated at 20,000. They do not cultivate the soil ; but, although erratic in thefr habits and addicted to warfare, they are less sanguinary and ferocious than the Indian nations east of the Mississippi. A marked difference in this respect is said, in fact, to exist between the tribes dwelling east and west of that river, — aU the nations of the westem prairie being less fierce and cruel in their practices than the rest of their country men. Prisoners taken in war are put to death by aU savages, but the revolting custom of subjecting them for whole days to excruciating tortures does not prevail among any people west of the Mississippi. The Dacota differs from its cognate knguages chiefiy in its pecuUar method of forming the plural, which process consists simply in affixing the termination pee; e.g. watah, a canoe, watahpee, canoes.^ A whole sentence in the singular number would be rendered plural throughout by affixing this termi nation to the kst word, whether noun, pronoun, or adjective. No edition of any portions of the Scriptures in this knguage was printed tiU 1839 ; but during that year the following editions were pubUshed at Cincinnati, Ohio, at the expense of the American 1 Transactions of American Ethnological Socie*.y for 1818, p. cxxix. 382 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII. Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions: — 1. A volume 'of Old Testament Extracts, chiefly selected from the book of Genesis and the Psalms, translated from the French version of the Bible, by Joseph EenviUe, and prepared for the press by Dr. WiUiamson. 2. The History of Joseph and his Brethren, extracted and translated from the book of Genesis, by S. W. and G. H. Pond, educated natives. 3. The Gospel of Mark, translated orally by J. EenviUe, and written at his dictation by Dr. WilUamson. Three years after the issue of these editions, a complete version of Genesis, with some of the Psalms, was printed at Cincinnati for the American Board ; this translation had been drawn immediately from the Hebrew by the missionaries of the American Board and Mr. J. EenviUe. The Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of John, and the book of Eevelation were transkted about the same period, from the Greek, by Stephen E. Eiggs, A. M. : this version was printed in one volume, at Cincinnati, in 1843, for the American Bible Society. The translation of the New Testament into Dacota does not appear to be yet completed. IOWA. The Iowa is a Sioux dialect, closely aUied to the Dacota, spoken by the lowas or Pahoja (^Grey Snow), a nation of the Sioux race, who reside north of the river Des Moines. Many of the lowas, however, have joined the Ottoes on the south side of the Platte, and are even said (although no proof has been afforded of the assertion) to have adopted the language of that people.' The number of the lowas has been computed at 1200. Five chapters only ofthe Gospel of St. Matthew have been trans lated into this knguage. These chapters were transkted by Messrs. Irvin and HamUton, missionaries among the lowas on the Missouri, in the service of the Board of Foreign Missions, connected with the Presbyterian Church of the United States. Some Iowa hymns, a primer, and part of an Iowa grammar, have been already pubUshed : and the completion of the Iowa version of the New Testament is anticipated with much interest. PAWNEE. The Pawnee language is vernacular to two nations, the Pawnees Proper and the Eicaras or Arlcaras, sometimes called Black Pawnees. The former inhabit the country on the Platte, west of the Ottoes and Omahows, and have three villages on the Loup, a northern tributary of the Pktte. The Eicari viUages are situated on the Missouri, in latitude 46° 30'.^ Both nations cultivate the soU : their coUective population may amount to 9500 souk. The language has distinctive pecuUarities of its own, and differs from any of the other idioms of its class that have hitherto been examined. The Gospel of Mark has been translated by the missionaries stationed on the Platte, under the sanction of the American Board :^ but although the Pawnees have evinced great readiness to receive reUgious instruction, it does not appear that any printed edition has yet been issued in thefr language. 1 Archaeologia Americana, vol. ii. p. 127. 2 Archaeologia Americana, vol. ii. p. 129. 3 Hoole, Year Book of Missions, p. 267. MEXICAN, OE AZTEC. SPECIMEN OF THE MEXICAN, OE AZTEC, VEESION. St. LUKE, Chap. vi. v. 27 to 38. 2' Tel namech ilhuia am^huantin in an nech caqui: xi quin tlazotlacan in amo tecocolicahuan, xi yec tlachihuacan inca in aquiqu^ amech cocoha, ^« Xic yec itocan i aqum amo an mech yec itoa, yhuan xi tlatlatiatican impainpa in aquiqug an mech ilihuiz te ilhuia. '" Yhuan in aquin mitz cama tlatziniz zic tlah H in occecapal mo ixtel maquitlatzini. Yhuan in aquin qui nequi mitz quixtHiz in mo ay^, amo xic tzacuih qui huicaz no yu qm in mo hueyac tlaquen, nozo in mo coton. ^^ Mochi tlacatl mitz itlanUiz in tien tic pia, xic maca: yhuan in aquin mitz anilia in tien mo huax ca, ano occepa xic itlamli. ^^ Tel quenami an qui nequi yec tlachihuazque in tlatlacamg an moca, nb yucon xi yectlachihuacan inca in iehuantin. ^^ Auh in tla an quin tlazotM in aquique an mech tlazotla, itlen tel an qui cuapantia? ipampa in tlatlacoanim^ no mo nehuan tlazotla. ^^ Yhuan in tla an yec tlachihua inca in aquiqu^ am mech yec tlachi- huilia, ^tlen tel an quimo tenhuizqu^? ipampa in tlatlacoani no yucon quichihua. ^ Yhuan intla an quin tlatlan^tia in aquique an quinermlia amech tlatlan^tizque, ^tlen an quimotenhuizque ? ipampa in tlacoanine no yu mo nehuan tla n^tia ica no yu qui celizqu^ tlatlan^tUoni. ^^ Xi quin tlazotlacan in amo tecocolicahuan : xi yec tlachi huacan, yhuan xi te tlanetican, yhuan amo ica on itlel tlacuep cayotl an qui temnachi azque ; yhuan in amo tlaxtlahuH yez miec, an yezque am ipilhuan in cenca huecapan Teotl, ipampa in y^huatzin cuali inca i actlazocamatini yhuan in acqualm^. ^® Tel xi yecan an te icnoittani quenami in a mo tatzin teic noittani. ^^ Amo xic nequican an tenemiliz yeyecozqu^ ihuan amo an nemiliz y^yecolozque : amo xi te tlatzontequUican yhuan amo an tlatzontequUilozque ; xi te tlapopolhuican yhuan an an tlapopolhuil- ozque. ^^ Xi tlatemacacan yhuan an macozqu^ : tlatamachihualoni qualli, telinqui yhuan tlahuihuixoli yhuan tzonequi qui macazque in amo yoUo. Ypampa zanyey^ in (vara) tlatamachihualoni ica antetlatamachihuilizque antlatamachihualozque. ON THE MEXICAN, OE AZTEC, LANGUAGE AND VEESION. At the time of the discovery of America, the Mexican, or Aztec language was spoken in the vaUey of Mexico, and in the country immediately adjacent on the east and south. It stlU prevails in the states of Mexico, Vera Cruz, and Tabasco, of which the coUective population was estimated, in 1837, at 1,725,000. Spanish, however, is the language of the white population, and the general medium of intercourse in these states, as weU as in the other provinces of the repubUc of Mexico, the Mexican and Otomi knguages being chiefly confined to the native Indians. The Mexican kngauge is also still spoken in a district of New Mexico, where a colony of native Mexicans have for more than two hundred years preserved the use of their ancient vernacular tongue. Many monuments of archi tectural skill stiU remain, to prove that at one period the Mexicans had attained to some degree of civilisation ; yet, whatever may have been their advance in the arts of life, it is certain that the Ught 384 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII. which can come only from above was not vouchsafed to this people ; for it has been clearly proved that they offered human victims, and even their own chUdren, to their imaginary deities. These revolting practices have now fallen into disuse ; but in other respects the spiritual and inteUectual condition of the native Mexicans remains the same as at the period of the Spanish conquest. The mass of the people are characterised by apathetic indolence, by blind subjection to their superiors, and by extreme superstition, having merely exchanged their ancient idolatrous rites for the shows and mummeries of the Eomish Church. The Mexicans, even at the brightest period of their history, were not possessed of the art of writing, unless a rude species of picture-writing be worthy of that name. Alphabetical characters they had none ; but, since the Spanish conquest, the Eoman letters and the Spanish system of orthography have been adopted in writing this language. Mexican, in fact, may now be called almost a Uterary language ; for Clavijero informs us that, during the period of two hundred and seventy years, no fewer than forty-four authors compiled Mexican grammars and lexicons, and composed treatises in Mexican on the tenets of Christianity, some of which were committed to the press. These works afford abundant evidence in proof that Mexican posseseses the same characteristic features as the other American languages, and that with respect to its Internal structure it is closely alUed to them. It is, however, distinguished from aU the other idioms of its class by the possession of a special form, called the " reverential," which pervades the whole knguage, and is found in no other language of America. " High-sounding titles (it has been observed), and certain special expressions of respect towards men in power, or superior cksses, are found in every language ; but this is beUeved to be the only one in which every word uttered by the inferior reminds him of his social position." ' This pecuUarity of the language is certainly an evidence of the artificial state of society that existed in ancient Mexico, and of the subordination in which the mass of the people was held by the rulers. With respect to enunciation, Mexican is distinguished by the want of all the sounds represented by the letters b, d,f, r, and the Spanish J; and the letter g, if it ever occurs, is sounded Uke h.^ : Notwithstanding the cruelty of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru, by whom, according to Eobertson, 16,000,000 natives were sacrificed under Cortez and Plzarro, some feeble efforts were made by Individuals of that nation to bestow on the surviving Mexicans a portion of the Word of God in thefr own language. Didacus de S. Maria, a Dominican friar and vicar of the province of Mexico (who died 1579), is said to have translated the Epistles and Gospek into Mexican ; and Louis ilodrlguez, a Franciscan friar, prepared a translation of the Proverbs and other fragments.* These translations, however, do not appear to have been printed, and probably are not now extant. In 1829 another transktion of the New Testament was commenced by the efforts of Mr. Thomson, agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The Bishop of Puebla not only favoured the undertaking, but consented to superintend the work ; and he appointed three persons (one of whom was professor of the Mexican language in the Ecclesiastical Seminary of Puebla, the other rector of a parish at some distance from Puebla, and the third a competent Mexican scholar), to execute the transktion. UnhappUy, the bishop died in 1830, and the only portion of Scripture that has hitherto been printed in Mexican consists of the Gospel of St. Luke. The translation was made about the year 1829, by Dr. Pazos Kanki, and a small edition of 250 copies was issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. 1 Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1845, p. 28. 2 Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1846, p. 215. s Home's Introduction, vol. v. p. 151. OTOMI. SPECIMEN OF THE OTOMI LANGUAGE. THE LOED'S PEAYEE. M'a Ta,ah^, ge gi'bqi y'a M'ahettzi: d'anhnoenm'aiisrtt 'ani thuhu: db'aeheg'ahe 'ani zunda 'Bqi : dr'aqha 'ani hnee, sind'angu gua m'a Hi3i te'angM M'ahettzi. M'a hmeg'ahe tatt 'U'B pa reqhe n'a rapaya : ha punngg'ah(^ m'a ndup'atehe, te'angwg'ahe dripunnb'ahe q m'a ndup'atehe : ha 'yogihag'ahe g'atzohe qha n'a ttzoccedi m'an'n^ pcehceg'ahe a hingihd. Dr'aqha, Hezu. ON THE OTOMI LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The Otomi knguage is spoken in the states of Queretaro, San Luis Potosl, Guanajuato, Tamau- Upas, and part of Zacatecas, aU of which form part of the federal repubUc of Mexico.' About 200,000 inhabitants of the state of Mexico are Ukewise said to speak this language, as their vernacular tongue.^ The Otomi Indians, Uke the other natives of the Mexican repubUc, make an outward profession of Eoman Catholicism, but they are said to be the least civUised nation in this portion of the American continent. Even at the time of the Spanish conquest, when they were found intermixed with the Mexicans and the Tlascalans, their social position was inferior to that of the rest of thefr countrymen, — an inferiority which has been attributed by some to the peculiar mechanism of their language, by which, it is said, the development of their intellectual faculties has been impeded.^ The Otomi language is remarkable for its monosyUabic structure, and for some curious though remote affinities apparently connecting it with the Chinese. Although we find words of two, and even three, syUables in its vocabulary, these have all been proved to be compounded words, of which each of the component BvUables has a distinct meaning, and may be used as a separate word. The nouns and verbs are totally mflexible. The plural of nouns is distinguished by the use of the prefix ya, of which the singular form is na; e. g. na ye, the hand; ya ye, the hands."^ In abstract nouns, expressing some quaUty ofthe mind, the prefix na is converted into sa. The verb, having no infiexions ofits own, is conjugated by the aid of about fourteen particles, by some authors regarded as pronouns. By means of these particles or pronouns, not only the persons and number, but even the variations of tense are indicated ; and in this respect Otomi differs from aU other American languages. It possesses, however, many grammatical features in common with them ; and aU the peculiarities which, at first sight, might seem to isolate it from the American group, may be clearly traced to the monosyllabic character of its structure. An attempt to procure a version of the Scriptures hi this language was made by Mr. Thomson, agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, during the years 1828 and 1829_. Whether a com mencement was actuaUy made in this translation remains doubtful; it is certain that no portion of fr was completed. Further efforts have been impeded by the poUtical condition of the Mexican repubUc. TERASCO, MISTECO, AND ZAPOTECA. Seveeal distinct languages are spoken m the repubUc of Mexico, of which the principal, next to the Mexican and Otomi, are the Terasco, the Misteco, and the Zapoteca. The Terasco is spoken principaUy in the state of Mechoacan, which contains an area of 22,466 square miks, and a popuktion of 460 000 The principal characteristics of thk language are, that the sounds corresponding to / and I are wanting, and that no word begins with b, d, g i, or r The nouns are divided mto three species, rational, irrational, and inanimate, and are declined accordmgly: the last two species are mdeclmabk "" ^^Zapote'SYs the most general knguage in the state of Oajaca ampng a population of 660,000. Eighteen other languages Ire spoken in that state; but, next to Spamsh, Zapoteca appears to pre- .1. .- , -c ,„!™ -RiWo ooniefv n xci. = Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1845, p. 42. > Thirtieth Report of British and Forei^ Bible -™'="|' P/ 5," t^xxviii. i Transactions of American Ethnological Society for 1846, p. to/ . » Twenty-fonrth Keport of British and l°l^^^^^^^t''^^i'i^^^rZ,olos'.c^l Society for 1845, p. 245. 386 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VII dominate. It is also spoken in Tehuantep^que, and is said to be vernacular to many persons who, being ignorant of Spanish, are not able to converse in any other language. Mr. Thomson, agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, endeavoured, with the sanction of that Society, to make arrange ments with individuals skilled in the knowledge of the Zapoteca and Terasco languages, for the pre paration of translations of the Scriptures into each of these languages. His efforts, however, ultimately proved abortive ; and the unsettled state of the country has prevented the renewal of similar attempts to obtain versions of holy writ in Terasco or Zapoteca. Two versions of the Gospels and of the Epistles are, however, said by Le Long to have been made in Misteco, a language likewise spoken in the state of Oajaca. The first version was made by Benedict Ferninand, who fiourished about A.D. 1568 ; and the second version by Arnold d Bosaccio. It is doubtful whether either of these versions are extant, and no modem transktion into this language appears to have been effected. In fact, it is probable that, owing to the wide diffiislon of the Spanish language in Mexico, and the estabUshment of schools throughout the republic, in which Spanish is taught, the Spanish version will, with the progress of education, become increasingly available to aU the natives of that vast territory, and supersede the necessity of pjibUshing a separate version of the Scriptures in each of the numerous languages and dialects spoken by the inhabitants. MAYAN. SPECIMEN OF THE MAYAN VEESION. St. LUKE, Chap. vi. v. 27 to 38. ^^ Hebac in uaHcteex ca k unyice^x : Yacunteex k kah ualeex, mente^x utz ti le maxoob ca cu cibuoltic teex lodb. ^^ Cici thanteex ti le maxoob cu lolob thanticeex iix okoltbaneneex tioklal le maxoob cu likzicoob tuz a cuche ; ^^ Yix ti le maax cu loxic tech humpel k^uc, kub xan le ii lake Yix ti mac ii lukczictech le fresada, ma k uethic ti il bizic xan le k noke ; ^° Da ti tulacaloob le maxoob bin il katoob tech : iix ti made bin ucha le baax lay ii tni ma a zut ci kat ti ; ^^ Yix le baax a Katiceex ca ii mentodb le uincoob ti teex lelo laili menteex ti laoob ; ^^ Yix k yacunticeex ti le maxoob cu ya- cunticeex baax nahalU bin yanac teex? tumenca le ah kebanoob xan cuya cunticodb ti Ie maxoob ii yacunah ti laoob. ^^ Yix uabin amenteex utz ti le maxoob ca cu mentic teex utz I baax bolil bin yanac te^x ? tumenca tulacaloob le ah kebanoob xan cumenti- coob leitio ; ^* Yix uk k payiceex ti letUcoob, timaxodb k pakcticeex a kamic, i baax bom bin yanac te&, tumenca xan le ah kebanoob cu payicoob huntuloob ti ix lakodb utial ii kamic il lake bahun : ^° Yacunteex tuun k kahuale^x : menteex utz, iix dae^x payal x mamd k paktic tioklal letio mixbaal : iix k bolileex bin layac nohoch, iix bin mehentaceex ti le hach canalil ; tumenca leti lay utz cexi utial le ah maya cunahuloob iix lobodb. ^^ Layaceex tuun ah yatzUeex hebic xan k yumeex lay hach yatzU. ^' Ma k chanuctice^x ii cuxtal ti mixmadc, iix mabin chabacte^xi : ma k ^cotce^x ii sentencia mixmaac iix ma bin yanac ii xotoltexi. zatxeex iix bin layac ii zatzebal teex. ^ Dae^x, iix bin dabac tedx: malodbjiiz, iix hepaan, iix zilolal, iix chup, culencul, bin u daodb ta hobnel. tumenck .y; lailiil ^iz y cabin ^liz nace che^x, bin zutnac ^^iz le^x. ON THE MAYAN LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Yucatan, a peninsula to the east of Mexico, projecting northward between the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, is chiefly occupied by the Maya or Yucatanese Indians. At one time it formed AMEEICAN.] MOSQUITO • 387 dafdtoS^aSf^tptdent'l^. 'Thrp:3or5?eht^^^^^ '^ ^- from 500,000 to 800,000, incudes Europeans, U^^he X^n^^'^TSo'^^flTr^J Indians, and negroes ; but the Indian race greatly predominates. The Mayan EaLTs sp^en bV aU cksses throughout the peninsula In its principal characteristics this kLuaSs cfnfbrmed tS the American type but it is entirely devoid of the sounds represented by the^tfers r^JT .¦.• t jjv-:- : ¦ i ) v't t mn ii^' D J *ni5f23 nttSj'Sii ':i^ih ti'thah i)T • ^ IT : • J" : I : *.- . i : A' r -; r d" T : )•.•-: < •>• ;AT - | «.*.• v: ^ : i- ON THE JUDEO-SPANISH LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. This language is spoken by the Jews of Turkey. Their forefathers emigrated to Spain and Portugal at a very early period of history : traditions, both Jewish and Christian, represent them as having arrived there soon after the destruction of the first Temple ; and it is very probable that they were settled in the Peninsula before the time of the Eoman Emperors.' This section of the Jewish people claims to be the house of David, and though the claim is not to be proved genealogically (for no genealogies have been kept by the Jews since their dispersion), yet it cannot be refuted by any existing data ; and that the house of David will be found distinct from the other families at the time of the restitution of Israel, appears to be the inference drawn, by many members of that nation, from Zech. xii. 10 — 14. But, be this as it may, it is certain that the Sephardim (Spaniards), as they are still called, consider themselves and are regarded by their brethren as the " aristocracy of the dispersed people of Israel." They are distinguished from other Jews, not by any difierence of faith or of religious observances, but by a peculiar language, and by diversity of historical associ ations.^ They look back with a degree of pride on their glorious sojourn of many centuries in the Peninsula. They were not, even there, exempt from persecution ; but their position, social and InteUectual, was very difierent from that of their brethren in other lands. Under the Visigoths, the early masters of the Peninsula, tiiey were permitted to rise to opulence ; and the Saracens, who afterwards established themselves in that country, overlooked the difierence of their reUgious creeds in the simlkrfry induced by their common Oriental origin, and admitted the Jews to an equaUty with themselves. Thus protected and favoured, the JeWs of Spain co-operated with the Arabs in maintaining the light of literature and science during the darkness of the middle ages ; and their names became famous In the schools of Cordova, Toledo, Barcelona, and Granada.^ At length, by a merciless mandate of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Jews were forcibly ejected from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497. There is great discrepancy in the estimates that have been transmitted, concerning 1 Da Costa, Israel andthe Gentiles, p. 214. 2 Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 203. 3 Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 2U. Mixed, OE Patois.J JUDEO-SPANISH. 397 the number of those thus violently expelled from the land of thefr adoption. Some authors represent the number of exiled Jews at 800,000, others at 300,000, whik a contemporary Spanish statistkal account states that the number was 27,000. The confusion in these various estimates was, perhaps, occasioned by the return of many of the Jews after thefr expulsion. Some among them, by feigned conversion to Christianity, were permitted to remain ; and fr has been asserted, on credlbk authority, that even yet in Spam " posts of dignity in the Church, the priesthood, and the cloister, are held by men who m heart are Jews, and who meet in secret, at stated seasons, to mourn over and abjure their outward profession of the Eoman faith, and to curse, with fearful imprecations, the memory of Ferdinand and IsabeUa." While many of the Jews thus remained in the Peninsula, the great majority, preferring their religion to the adopted land of thefr forefathers, emigrated to Turkey ; and, according to recent estimates, it appears that about 800,000 of this people are at the present time dispersed through the cities and towns of that empire.' The Spanish and Judeo-Spanish languages are fundamentally the same ; but more than three centuries having elapsed_ since aU communication has been cut off between the Spaniards and the exiled Jews, many changes, neither few nor inconsiderable, have been introduced into the languages spoken by the two nations ; so that they now difier greatly from each other in their respective vocabularies, in their systems of orthography, and in their phraseology. Judeo-Spanish is, in fact, the Spanish of the fifteenth century, moulded in accordance with the Hebrew idiom. It is in daily use among the Jews of Turkey, and. is, in fact, so exclusively employed and understood by them, that in most of their books of devotion, the Hebrew and the corresponding version in Judeo-Spanish are printed in parallel columns. Veesions op the Sceiptuees in this Language. — The exiled Jews of Spain and Portugal estabUshed a most celebrated press at Ferrara, whence several important works were issued. But the most famous production of this press is a Spanish version of the Old Testament, said to have been translated from the Hebrew expressly for the Jews, by Edward Pinel. A much earlier translation than this, however, was executed by some learned Jews ; and Eabbi David Kimchi is said, though perhaps incorrectly, to have been the principal translator. The Bible of Ferrara was published under the superintendence of Abraham Usque and Yom Tov Athias. It was Issued in 1553, in two different forms, which have been wrongly looked upon as difierent editions.^ The dedication in the earUer copies is to Dona Gracia Nasi, a Jewish lady of distinction, mother-in-law to Don Joseph Miquez : in the later ones to Hercules de Este, Duke of Ferrara. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. yfi PTfi llSP'fi ^ X vn PTfi OT'3 i'f" 'fl • 1"7 i'fi ]ip P7fi 13T'3 i'fi 'f" • 13T'3 i'fi PTf" V'P'PJ'IP i'6 J'f" : i'fi I'p u'fi 'p w'fi 'flip 'p li n P7fio 'fl • i'f" iip Pf'J'f' jit^ip P^np Pfii p^tiu ^ : vn i'fi jip vsvinv i'fi • Pi3Pii'0f' ?fi7'nipp'f' pi ]'fi ni pi 'fl * : P'^3Plfi pii n ni pi PTfi P7'3 pi -f" • P7'3 pi P3fii3p'fi pvi-fi I'fi * TO u'i3P'i3 -^ip i3'3 '13P'6 ' : ]3PV n3pu n vn bn '^3Plfl pfi vf^^ivb 'f>^b " : i"3'pnfi pi w 7fl7•^1pp'fl pi 'fi nfi7 p^f|p w'3 w 'p : ni pi i'f" PTf^ w * : »fip ip ow pnii3 ]f|'^p 'p po^p ni pi '^ ii33"pf'u'i3P'i3 nfi? i'fi i'6 '" : 17J1P 'UP'fi Pfi o"3 'p n3Pifi nil) pf" P^3Plif' 'p PT7fi-)r3 ni Pi PTf" i'f" ' : "i pi n iW'PfiiJ'UP'o PV'ilP pii >f> " fi"iip Pifip ]'fi 13'3 " : TOlP i'fi i"Pi3ip li w '6 • w'6 'flip i'f" "51? "JW i'^ '^ • pSfiUP'fi 17J1P IP |'6 l'fl>^p 'p pii pfi vn bn pii'6 pu'f> tp n T71p vn P'i : iit'S'P't li 'p Pii pf" pp '^ : ]'n"3vn li w : vn bn iSifip 'p : ]nfi3 n 7fiwii-3 n 'i : 'Jif-p n 7fiwii'3 n '3 : nafip n Pirpfu jiP w -p " : nspu n7fip bn yif^bhn v'f> n P^3lf| ipip P^Jif" ip p^ pw'3 '^ ? p™'"" "^w-f" nw 'f< 'Jif-p w'6 '6ip ut'3 i-fi 'fi " : 7fiT7>3 'fl fl"pfl^3 '7 wi Abraham Usque k said to have printed in the same year (1553), at Ferrara a separate edition of the Psalms, and, two years afterwards, an edition of the Pentateuch, MegUloth (Canticks, Euth, „ .., ,,a Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 394. 1 Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 010. =1 398 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VIII. Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, and Esther), and Haphtoroth, or sections of the Prophets, read by appoint ment in the synagogues. The Ferrara edition of the Old Testament was reprinted in Amsterdam in 1611, and again at Venice in 1617. In the course of the following year, this version was revised and corrected by Manasseh ben Israel, and printed in Eoman letters, at Amsterdam, in 1630. It was again revised by Eabbi Samuel de Cazeres, and, vrith a new preface, was printed at Amsterdam in 1661. Besides the above, other editions of the Old Testament were pubUshed at Amsterdam, among which, in 1639, was an edition, with short explanatory notes, by Jacob Lambrosus ; and the following editions of portions of this version are mentioned by Le Long: — Pentateuch and Haphtoroth, Amsterdam, 1645 ; Pentateuch, Amsterdam, 1695 ; Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Psalms (with the Hebrew), Sablonetta, 1671. Another edition of the Old Testament, for the benefit of the Spanish Jews, was printed at Vienna, between the years 1813 and 1816, in four volumes 4to. : it contained, in paraUel columns, the Hebrew text and the Judeo-Spanish version in rabbinical characters. An edition in Eoman characters was likewise published about the same time, at Amsterdam, corresponding in almost every particular with the Vienna edition, of which it is considered a mere transcription. The American Bible Society has recently issued two editions ofthe Old Testament in Judeo-Spanish, on behalf of the mission established among the Spanish Jews in Turkey. The first of these editions was printed with the Hebrew text in parallel columns, in 1843, at Vienna, under the care of the Eev. Mr. Schauffler : it consisted of 3000 copies. The second edition has but just left the press, a grant having been voted during the present year (1850) by the Society, to defray the expenses of its pubUcation : ' it was printed, like the previous edition of the Society, under the supervision of Mr. Schauffler. This version is remarkable for the extreme servility with which it follows the Hebrew idiom ; and, as it has long been regarded by the Spanish Jews as the standard of their language, the pecuUarity ofits style has Induced corresponding peculiarities in their customary mode of phraseology, and has perhaps been the main cause of the divergence of their language from that of Spain. A translation of the New Testament into Judeo-Spanish was undertaken by the British and Foreign Bible Society, at the suggestion of Dr. Pinkerton ; and, in 1823, the Eev. Mr. Leeves, their agent in Turkey, was intrusted with the preparation of the work. Mr. Leeves, with the assistance of some learned Jews to whom Judeo-Spanish was vemacukr, drew the translation from the Greek text, consulting at the same time several d.lfierent versions of the New Testament. After his translation had been subjected to three successive revisions, it was printed, in an edition of 3000 copies, at Corfu,. in 1829, under the care of Mr. Lowndes. This version does not appear to have yet passed through a second edition. 1 Forty-sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxxx. JEWISH-GEEMAN. SPECIMEN OF THE JEWISH-GEEMAN VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. o-fi nh u3'3iOT^7 2 '.mh 167 ih wh 7Jifi ,wf pnh 1^7 nh uf^hb o-f- 03toj t^ll ,135^PW D135'J 131'6 W'3ililt^7 Wpfi 7:ifi ,135^PW W'3ij;il^7 pi7 7J'I UMT uii^ ' • .uuf,j fi.-j jj^pj^ •JOT I'f. uw"o i35'i 167 7:16 « -.pDiiJP nir? i35'i 1^7 -7^11 ]i?3i;i 1^7 7Jifi ,]y3i;i 167 -5^1 oP'fi )'fi * m3I'6 •.ppV PU'P nui pvhOi 1313fi3 ]fip DiPP ]"fi -7^11 PU ^ • .ppp^:u;3 u5o pj; cfip p'J^PUpJ'p fi7 7Jlfi p'i-jWpi'i ,wb 1^7 133'J -7611 no * • .]j;i33'iij ]P'fi pi7 »ii6 p^7 "1-16 ,ui3M"i i35'i DOT jfip ID p67 ,p'«"i D13 D6p wr3innOT ' I'fi fi'7 pv^fybnv poiDv vbbb w5bm pii wup^p-^p^i 1^7 nh \fn » -.1354 0137 ifip rum-'i no pfn pvvf^; W BWJ^p 13i]311 fi'7 73lfi ; t33few W3iOT67 ^17 13I'fi Uiuil fi'7 73lfi ,13iDll nvi j'fi nh W '" • .pppfip 13iuil fi'7 pppflJPMfi nV3f^ ]P'6 piD'P fi'11 '2 ??infi I35'i 1P'6 JUPP^J IWI fi'7 73lfi ,DlP133j;3"fi 1"I I'fi Dfip nv " M33'3 Pin pii'ii D137 ]fip i35'3 p5iCTi '^ • .p3'ii3 |upfe |w"i |^ fi'7 pJOT ; iimDii 'i nini'\> P»i3i3fia ,i35^p nu 363 pm 7Jlfi ,D"ip 706l1 13-7^11 167 7Jlfi " •.73't |infi3Ii3 13!3fi3 ffip pOTJfil pViih PP3"fi pii'l 0137 |fip ']ti pV0"b3 pUU^P Ofip PWPfiJ |W5fi3i;33"fi P137 pi^ l3"p3'iT)13P W'fi ,13"p5'iT:i3P W"I |IiP^I Til 73lfi ,r3lfi ni;l33lfi liil3i;3pfill •.\:"P1P^11 73lfi 137633 nuiifip ON THE JEWISH-GEEMAN LANGUAGE AND VEESIONS. Although the language of the German Jews difiers from pure German only in the circumstance of its being written in Hebrew characters, yet, as these Jews form an important and distinctive section ofthe dispersed people of Israel, the several versions executed or printed by them, and for their special benefit, may be entitled to a separate consideration. The number of these Jews settled in the Austrian states has been computed at 700,000 : ' until within the last two centuries their condition was degraded and pitiable in the extreme, and their character became enfeebled under the manifold sufferings they were called to undergo : in the words of their historian, " they became divested of natural feeUng, absorbed in pecuniary interest and self-preservation, and even accustomed to their servUe and abject position." They are now happUy released from the persecutions by which their existence was formerly rendered so wretched, as to be justly termed, by a contemporary historian, " a mass of sufiering ;" but it is remarkable, that they are now said to be characterised by a tendency to " merge Mosaic as weU as Tahnudic Judaism in a philosophical and social Pantheism." The first portion of the Scriptures translated and pubUshed expressly for the German Jews con sisted of the Pentateuch and MeglUoth (i. e. Euth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, and Canticles), an edition of which was printed in Hebrew characters at Cremona, ia Italy, in 1542 : the author of this translation is unknown, but it is attributed to EUas Levita, a celebrated Jewish grammarian.^ Two years afterwards a version of the Pentateuch, the MegUloth, and the Haphtoroth (lessons from the Prophets appointed to be read in the synagogues), was made by Michael Adam, a converted Jew, and an edition was printed at Constance. The first four chapters of Genesis were printed at the same pkce, in 1543, from the German-Jewish translation ; and the books of Exodus, Joshua, Ezekiel, and Cantitles, appeared at Prague in 1553. Some separate books of the Old Testament were Ukewise pubUshed by E. E. Nathan, F. E. Michol, Mardochaeus, F. Jacob, and others. The first edition of the German New Testament in rabbinical characters was printed at Cracow, m 154|0 : the work was executed by Johan Hersuge, a converted Jew, on the basis of Luther's version ; 1 Da Costa, Israel and the GentUes, p. 816. ^ Townley's niustrations, vol. iii. p. 227. 400 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VIII. but the book of Eevelation is omitted. Five books of the New Testament (namely, Luke, John, Acts, Eomans, Hebrews, and part of the first and second chapters of Matthew) were transkted into German, by Elias Schadaeus, a German pastor of the Church of Strasburg, chiefly from Luther's version ; and an edition was printed at Strasburg, in 1592 : a tract on the conversion of the Jews was appended to the work.' In 1820 the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews undertook to furnish the German Jews with copies of the German Scriptures in rabbinical characters. The Society's first edition of the New Testament appeared in 1820 : the German text from which it was taken was the edition of Luther's version published by Senator Von Meyer, at Frankfort, in 1819, and the transcrip tion into rabbinical characters was made by Mr. Judah D'AUemand, of London. The American Bible Society have lately projected a Jewish- German edition of the Old Testament, which is to be three years in execution, under the supervision of Mr. Schauffler. With respect to the efiects produced by the dissemination of this version, it has been stated tiiat " those who have gone over to the Protestant Church from the synagogue, have been more numerous during the last few years in Germany than they ever were elsewhere or before." The- number of Jews baptized in Germany during the kst twenty years is estimated at 5000 ; ^ and the sincerity of some among them has been attested by the irreproach able tenor of their conduct, and by the devotedness with which they have preached the new covenant of grace in Christ Jesus. JUDEO-POLISH. SPECIMEN OF THE JUDEO-POLISH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. 1 to 14. ]fi I'fi nh 'J'3ii3t Dh 2 : ufij nh mh oh 'jifi ,i3fij 13'p nh \>nh zifn '3ifi pnh oh nh sjfip |fi ] i3Pip ofiii dwi3p p'iis'fi i35"i Dfiii ,i35'i '-jpfiii Dfi7 nh tih " : i33'i D137 ]'3i3ii 'Jlfi ,|3'3"I oii ]'Pip'3 I'6 no " : WUp'J 13'J O'fi 13fip 13il311 fi'7 ':ifi ,U5fiP'3 O'fi pi7 I'fi 13il311 fi7 'Jlfi ,13il311 T7 |'fi I'ifit fi"I l'3133'J uSfip no 13fip fi'7 li ,|'P»'3 |fi O'fi V3fiP D13 i'P 'I'll 13fi '^ : |'P13'3 ]f> 13'3 O'fi |'3fip '3'3"I fi7 |1P |i'11 0137 pp 13'J 'ilfi ,13li3 |1P 1'113'3 13'3 ]'nh tih " : |'Pfi3 ]"I |fi |3"ia Dfill fi7 li ,13fi3 |1P ")7J'p fi'7 pi311 ,Wlfill'3 I3lfi 13'P 13fip 'ilfi ,D"ip ph'i I'6 13lfill Dfi7 'ilfi '^ : UfiJ |1P 177311 ,D13313P |1P |i>11 0137 |1P 13'J 'jlfi ,D"ip ' : W'Pnfiii 'jifi 7fi:'3 i3'p iip ,Ti3fip 0137 |ip pi p'i3"fi 0137 ]ip fi'11 i3"p5'ini3P |"fi ,l3"p^•i^]3P |"t ycim'i |'3fip tp 'iifi ON THE JUDEO-POLISH LANGUAGE AND VEESION. The PoUsh Jews are regarded by their brethren as the most highly gifted of their nation in intellectual endowments, and their reputation for superior sagacity is apparently not unfounded ; for in no other section of the Jewish people, it has been observed, do we find a life of so much social activity ¦ Townley's Illustrations, vol. iii. p. 228. 2 Da Costa, Israel and the GentUes, p. 599. Mixed, oe Patois.J JUDEO-POLISH. 401 combined with so decided a bent towards religious and contemplative philosophy.' Since the begmning of the seventeenth century, they have, in a great measure, suppUed the sjmagogues of Germany with teachers and rabbins ; and, according to the testimony of ChevaUer Bunsen, " there is scarcely any branch of literature or science taught in the universities (at least of Prussia) where the professors are not either converted Jews or the sons of those who were Jews." ^ The Polish Jews have long been settled in Poland, and the whole trade of the country is in thefr hands. _ They form a large proportion of the population ; and in Cracow there is one IsraeUte to every eleven inhabitants. Eussia, says Da Costa, since the accession of its Polish provinces, numbers not less than 1,120,000 Jews among its 63,000,000. These Jews, having been exposed to much sufiering by the oppressive measures of the Eussian government, have in many cases adopted the same expedient that was resorted to, under similar persecutions, by some of their brethren in the Spanish peninsula ; and, by conceafrng their religion, have shielded themselves from persecution. The immense power acquired by the Jews of the Eussian empire is not generaUy known, because not outwardly manifested; yet we are told, by one of their own nation, that " from the smallest retaU dealer in Poland, to the general officer at Petersburg, there is said to exist a line of Jews in communication with each other, through whose hands pass the chief afiairs of the home department, as weU as the most important foreign negotiations." The language spoken by the Polish Jews is principally Old German, with a mixture of Hebraisms, or at least phrases pecuUar to the Jews : there is very little Polish in it. A translation of the New Testament into this knguage was undertaken, in 1820, by the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews : the preparation of the work was intrusted by the Society to a converted Jew, Benjamin Nehemiah Solomon, who prosecuted this translation under the roof of the Eev. Thomas Scott. An edition was published by the Society in 1821, and 300 of the copies were purchased by the British and Foreign Bible Society, 200 of which were placed at the disposal of the Prussian Bible Society, for sale or gratuitous distribution among the Jews. In 1827, the Eev. A. M'Caul proposed to undertake a translation of the Old Testament into Judeo-PoUsh ; but it does not appear that this important work has been yet completed. 1 Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 504. ^ Missionary Eegister for 1839, p. 445. CEEOLESE. SPECIMEN OF THE CEEOLESE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. In die Begin die Woord ha wees, en die "Woord ha wees bie Godt, en Godt ha wees die Woord. ^ Die solve ha wees bie Godt in die Begin. ^ Ahnael gut ka maek door die selve ; en sonder die niet een gut ka maek, van almael, wat ka maek. ^ Die Leven ha wees in hem, en die Leven ha wees die Ligt van die Mensen. * En die Ligt ha skien in die Dysternis, en die Dysternis no ha begriep die. " Die ha hab een Mens, Godt ha stier hem, en sie Naem ha wees Johannes. '' Hem ha kom tot een Getiegnis, dat hem ha sal getieg van die Ligt, dat almael ha sal gloov door hem. * Hem no ha wees die Ligt, maer dat hem ha sal getieg van die Ligt. ^ Die ha wees die waeragtig Ligt, die verligt almael Mensen, die kom na die Weereld. '" Hem ha wees in die Weereld, en die Weereld ka maek door hem, en die Weereld no ka ken hem. " Hem ha kom na sie Eigendom, en sie eigen no ha neem hem an. '^ Maer sooveel ka neem hem an, na sender hem ka giev Magt for kom Kinders van Godt, die gloov in sie Naem ; '' Die no bin gebooren van Blud, ook niet van die Wil van Vleis, ook niet van die Wil van Man, maer van Godt. '* En die Woord ka kom Vleis, en ka woon onder ons, en ons ka kik sie Heerligheid, een Heerligheid, als van die eenig gebooren Soon van die Vaeder, vol van Gnaede en Waerheid. ON THE CEEOLESE LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Ceeolese, a kind of broken Danish, is the language of the black population in the Danish West Indies. The possessions of the Danes in the West Indies consist of three islands, namely, St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John, all of which form part of the Virgin group. Of these islands, St. Croix, or, as it is frequently caUed, Santa Cruz, is the most important : it contains an area of about IOO square miles, and a popuktion of 32,000, of whom 27,000 are skves. St. Thomas comprises an area of 37 square miles, and its population is estimated at 7000, of whom 500 are whites, 1500 free blacks, and the rest skves. In St. John there are 150 whites and 250 negroes : the popuktion to whom this knguage is or rather was vernacular is, therefore, upwards of 39,000. The Creolese idiom is very pecuUar, possessing no distinction of gender or of number (so far at least as terminations are concerned), no declension of nouns, and no simple conjugation of verbs.' The New Testament was translated into this language, and an edition printed at Copenhagen by order of the Danish govemment, in 1781. A school-book, containing the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer, m Creloese, was published about the same period, by order of the same authority. Another edition of the New Testament, consisting of 1500 copies, was printed at Copenhagen, in 1818, by the Danish Bible Society. It is said, however, that Creolese has long been graduaUy falling into disuse, and that it has now ceased to be spoken. The slaves, or, as the Danes wish to have them caUed, " the unfreed," have lately been nominaUy emancipated in the Danish isknds ; and on this occasion a copy of the New Testament and Psalms in the English language, furnished by the British and Foreign Bible Society, was presented to each negro who could read, and who was not in possession ofthe Scriptures.'^ 1 Klaner-Klattowskj, Deutsche Orthoepie, p. 108. 2 Forty-sixth Keport of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxxvii. SUEINAM NEGRO-ENGLISH. SPECIMEN OF THE SUEINAM NEGEO-ENGLISH VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Na begin da Woord ben de, da Woord ben de nanga Gado, en da Woord ben de Gado srefi. ^ Da ben de nanga Gado na begin. ' Nanga hem allasanni ben kom, en sondro hem no wansanni ben kom, dissi de. * Da Liebi ben de na inni va hem, en da Liebi ben de da kandera va somma. ^ En da kandera de krieni na dongroe, ma dongroe no ben teki da kandera. ^ Gado ben senni wan somma, hem neem Johannes ; ' Da srefiwan ben kom vo wan getuigenis, va a getuige vo da kandera, va dem allamal kom briebi nanga hem. * Hem srefi no ben de da kandera, ma a ben kom va takki vo da kandera. ' Datti da reti troe kandera, dissi kieni gi alia somma dissi kom na kondre. '° A ben de na kondre, en em srefi ben meki kondre ; en kondre no ben sabi hem. " A ben kom na hem Eigendom, en dem somma va hem no ben teki hem. '^ Ma sa menni va dem dissi ben teki hem, na dem a ben gi tranga, va kom pikien va Gado : dein, dissi briebi na hem neem. '^ Dissi no komoppo na broedoe, effi na wanni vo skien [nanga broedoe], effi na wanni vo wan man, ma dissi ben kom gebore na Gado. '* En da Woord ben kom somma, a ben liebi na wi mindri, en wi ben si hem Glori, wan Grangglori, dissi fitti da wan Pikien va Tatta Gado, foeloe va Gnade en Troefasi. ON THE SUEINAM NEGEO-ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Negeo-English, or, as fr might be designated with equal propriety, Negro-Dutch, is the knguage of the Dutch colony of Surinam, in Guiana, and is current among a population of at least 100,000, of whom 80,000 are skves, 10,000 free negroes, and 10,000 are Dutch and other Europeans.' A mission ofthe Unfred Brethren has existed in Surinam since 1738 : there are now more than 13,000 negroes Ui connection with the Moravian Church, and 10,000 unconverted negroes are under_ Christian instruction ; for the prejudices of the colonists against the education of the negroes are wearmg away, and the missionaries are permitted access to more than 150 plantations.^ The language of these negroes is a compound of EngUsh and Dutch, with a spnnklmg ot bpanish, Portuguese, French, and African or Lidian words. It is doubtful whether the English or the Dutch ekment predominates: the former was Uitroduced when the EngUsh were possessors of the colony ; but the Dutch, with few interruptions, have held possession since the year 1669, and many of theix words and phrases have, in consequence, become incorporated with the language. The country was discovered by t£e Spanish, and, at some remote period, was subjugated bythe Portuguese, and subsequently by the French; akd this accounts for the presence of Spanish, Portuguese, and French words m the language. The structure of Negro-EngUsh is simple and inartificial m the extreme, and it is nearly devoid of grammatical forms. Almost every word terminates with a vowel ; and, according to Captain Stedman's account, it is "sweet, sonorous, and soft" in enunciation, and moreover, wonderf-uUv expressive and sentimental." The vocabulary k by no means copious but this deficiency is suppfred byrthe ease with which the words are compounded. This language wiU probably, m proce^ of time sL into disuse ; yet the prospect k but smaU that either the present or the ensuing generation wJl be '^^' A SStiol'of the Harmony ofthe Gospek, as used in the Moravian Church, was early made in this itguag rda ver^^^^^ Mr. Schuman prior to the year 1813. In 1828 a version of he entire New Testament ^ad been completed by tL Moravian missionaries, and had been repeatedly and carefuUy corrected. The MS. ,. V ,r ¦ T,„ w rrppnfipid n 17 » Forty-fourth Report of British and Foreig:n Bible Society, p. cxxix. . Defence of the Surinam Negro-Enghsh Versjon^by W.^Greenfi^ekl. p. 17.^ ^^J^^^^^ ^^^^^ p. ,^^, 404 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Class VIII. was sent to Germany, and was revised by Hans Wied, who for upwards of twenty years had resided in Surinam, and was intimately acquainted with the knguage : the opinion he passed on the translation was, " that it is as perfect as possible." The Brethren's Society for Propagating the Gospel, therefore, applied for aid to the British and Foreign Bible Society, and an edition of 1000 copies was accordingly printed, in London, under the supervision of Mr. Latrobe, assisted by C. A. Austen, Esq., of Queen's College, Cambridge, a native of Surinam. The copies were all forwarded to Surinam, and were received with much gratitude ; but the edition was soon exhausted, and after the last copy had been disposed of, more than 12,000 converts were added to the Church.' Another edition of the New Testament and Psalms was therefore prepared by Mr. Treu, a Moravian missionary ; and at length, in 1845, its publication was resolved on by the Missionary Society of the United Brethren in Holland. Aid was granted by the Netherlands Bible Society, but the chief expenses of printing were defrayed by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The edition, which consisted of 2000 copies, left the press in 1846. The mission in Surinam is at present in a hopeful condition : Mr. Tank, the superintendent ofthe mission in Paramaribo, states, in a recent report, that " a great change is likely to take place with the bush negroes in that settlement," and that " a real awakening appears extending itself into the district of the Saracreek, among the free negroes. In that case (says Mr. Tank) a wide field wiU be opened to the missionaries, as it is highly probable that the other bush negroes will join them ; and, if so, the opening of a glorious day, a day of the Lord, may dawn not only upon the Saramakaners, but also upon all the free bush negroes, who constitute about a thfrd of the population of the colony." ^ CU EACO A. SPECIMEN OF THE CUEACOA VEESION. St. MATTHEW, Chap. v. v. I to 12. Anto ora koe Hezoes a mira toer e heende nan, eel a soebi oen seroe ; deespuees eel a sienta i soe desipel nan a bini seka dje. ^ I eel a koemisa di papia i di sienja nan di ees manera. ^ Bieenabeentoera ta e pober nan na spiritoe, pasoba reina di Dioos ta di nan. ^ Bieenabeentoera ta ees nan, koe ta jora, pasoba lo nan bira konsolaa. ^ Bieena beentoera pasifiko nan, pasoba lo nan erf tera. ^ Bieenabeentoera ees nan, koe tien hamber i sedoe di hoestisji, pasoba lo nan no tien hamber i sedoe mas. ^ Bieenabeen toera ees nan, koe tien mizerikoordia, pasoba lo heende tien mizerikoordia koe nan. * Bieenabeentoera ees nan, koe ta liempi di koerasoon, pasoba lo nan mira Dioos. ^ Bieenabeentoera ees nan, koe ta perkoera paas, pasoba lo nan ta jama joe di Dioos. ^° Bieenabeentoera ees nan, koe ta persigido pa motiboe di hoestisji, pasoba reina di Dioos ta di nan. " Bosonan lo ta bieenabeentoerado, koe ta koos nan zoendra i persigi bosonan, i koe ta koos pa mi kausa nan ganja toer soorto di maloe ariba bosonan. ^^ Legra bosonan i salta di legria, pasoba bosonan rekompeensa ta grandi deen di Cieloe ; pasoba nan a persigi di ees manera e profeet nan, koe tabata promee koe bosonan. ON THE CUEACOA DIALECT AND VEESION. Curacoa is an isknd of the Caribbean Sea, belonging to the Dutch. It Ues ofi" the north coast of Venezuek, between lat. 12° and 12° 13', and long. 68° 44' and 69° 13'. Its area k about 60a 1 Forty-fifth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxlv. 8 Forty-fovirth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p. cxxix. Mixed, OK Patois.J IND 0 -P 0 ETU GUE S E. 405 -a w^brn^Li sir;^^^^^^^^^ New Testament into this language has been effeS? byte feTconVrtf a^lndlti n o? the Gospel of St. Matthew was printed. In 1846, at the expense ofthe NetS;nds BMrSodSy INDO-POETUGUESE. SPECIMEN OF THE INDO-POETUGUESE VEESION. St. JOHN, Chap. i. v. I to 14. Ne o come?o tinha a Palavra, e a Palavra tinha junto de Deos, e a Palavra tinha Deos. ' Omesmo tinha ne 0 comedo junto de Deos. ^ Todas cousas tinha feitas de eUe; e sem elle nao tinha feita ne hua cousa que tinha feita. * Em elle tinha vida; e a vida tinha 0 Lume de homens. ^ E o Lume te luze em escuridade ; e a escuridade nunca ja conhece aquel. ^ » Tinha hum homem mandado de Deos, quem seu nome tinha Joao. ' 0 mesmo ja vi por hum testimunha, pera da testimunho de o Lume, que todos de elle pode ere. ^ EUe nao tinha o Lume, mas tinha mandado pera da testimunho de o Lume. ' Aquel tinha o Lume verdadeiro, que te aluinia per cada hum homem quem te vi ne o mundo. "* EUe tinha ne o mundo, e de elle o mundo tinha formado, e o mundo per eUe nunca ja conhece. " EUe ja vi per seu mesmo povo, e seus mesmos nunca ja recebe per eUe. '^ Mas per todos quantos quem ja recebe per elle, per eUotros eUe ja da poder pera fica OS filhos de Deos, ate, per eUotros quem ja cr6 em seu nome : '^ Quem tinha nacido, nem de sangue, nem de a vontade de a carne, nem de a vontade de homem, mas de Deos. E a Palavra tinha feita carne, e ja mora entre nos, (e nos ja olha sua gloria, a gloria como de 0 unigenito de o Pai,) enchido de gra^a e verdade. ON THE INDO-POETUGUESE LANGUAGE AND VEESION. Indo-Poetuguese is more or less understood by all classes In the island of Ceylon, and along the whole coast of India, its extreme simpUcity of construction and facility of acquirement having caused it to be extensively used as a medium of traffic. But the people to whom it Is vernacular, and who, in Ceylon alone, number more than 50,000, are the descendants of the Dutch and Portuguese, the former rulers of India. The principal characteristic of this knguage is the omission of the articles, the cases of nouns, inflections of verbs, and most of the expletives which abound in European-Portu guese. The various relations of words in a sentence are expressed by the aid of auxiliary particles ; and these particles are so numerous, that they subserve all the offices of infiections. The words of the knguage are drawn from Dutch, Portuguese, and Indian sources, and much of the phraseology is moulded in accordance with Sanscrit idioms. On the decUne of the Dutch and Portuguese governments in India, the members of these nations were left without any means of religious instruction, except such as was afforded by the Eoman Catholic 406 THE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. [Ciass VIII. missionaries ; and, in consequence, Eoman Catholicism became their prevailing form of reUgion. In 1817, Mr. Newstead, a Wesleyan missionary stationed at Negombo, in Ceylon, commenced a translation of the New Testament for the spiritual benefit of this people. Portions of this transk tion were read by Mr. Newstead from the pulpit, and were likewise freely lent among sick persons, one of whom is said to have died with the Gospel of John beneath his pillow. The people evinced so much interest in the work, that a printed edition was early resolved on; and. In 1819, the version of the Gospel of Matthew was published in Ceylon, at the expense of the Colombo AuxiUary Bible Society ; and the Psalms followed, in 1821, at the expense ofthe same Society. Soon afterwards Mr. Newstead completed his translation of the New Testament, and the work was subjected to a searching revision by a committee appointed for the purpose, consisting of three of the missionaries and six of the most inteUigent of the Indo-Portuguese. The revision was brought to a close in 1824 ; and Mr. Newstead undertook a journey to England, to solicit the aid of the British and Foreign Bible Society in the pubUcation of the work. The translation was strongly recommended to the adoption of the committee, by the Hon. and Eev. T. J. Twistleton, archdeacon of Ceylon ; and, as its value was attested by other competent judges, two editions were printed in London, at the expense of the Society, in 1826, under the personal superintendence of Mr. Newstead. The second edition of the New Testament, consisting of 5000 copies, appeared at Colombo in 1831 ; and, in the foUowing year, a version of the books of Genesis, Exodus, and part of LeTtitlcus, was pubUshed at the same place, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The Pentateuch and Psalter were printed at Colombo, in 1833, in an edition of 5000 copies ; and it is to be hoped that the translation of the entfre Old Testament is now completed. Another edition of the New Testament has been lately contempkted, and wm originally designed to be printed in London, under the supervision of Mr. Newstead, the translator, and at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. But Mr. Newstead, after so many years' absence from Ceylon, does not feel sufficient confidence in his knowledge of the language to carry the New Testament through the press ; and only the Gospel of St. Matthew wiU be reprinted for temporary purposes. The entire work is referred to missionaries in Ceylon. BIBLE OF EVEEY LAND. SUPPLEMENT. A MEMOIE AND DESCEIPTIVE MAP OF THE EAELY WIDE DIFFUSION OF THE HEBEEW LANGUAGE. ADDITIONAL EEMAEKS ILLUSTEATIVE OF THE FUETHEE PEOGEESS OF BIBLICAL TEANSLATION SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THE EAELY POETIONS OF THE WOEK. SUPPLEMENT TO CLASS II. SHEMITIC LANGUAGES. MEMOm DESCEIPTIVE OF THE MAP OF THE EAELY DIFFUSION OF THE HEBEEW LANGUAGE THEOUGH THE PHCENICIAN COLONIES, etc. An opinion has very commonly prevailed, that the Hebeew Language, in which God was pleased to make known the revelation of His wiU in the Old Testament Scriptures, was at aU times confined within very narrow Umits; so that just as God did in ancient times choose one people as the depository of His Scriptures, the knguage which they used, and in which those Scriptures were written, was confined almost entirely to them. Indeed, so fully has this opinion prevailed, that a contrast has been frequently drawn between the New Testament written in Greek, then the most difiused language of the civilised earth, as intended for the instruction of men without restriction as to nation, and the Old Testament written in Hebrew for one people. The object of the accompanying Map is to show how considerably this opinion ought to be modified : the facts which must be considered are these : — I. That the Phcenician Language was essentially Identical with the Hebrew. II. That the Phoinician Colonies had ui early times difiused the knowledge of this language over a considerable portion of the earth. III. That even in countries in which the Phcenicio-Hebeaic had not become vernacular, yet through commerce it had become more or less used as a medium of Intercourse. I. The substantial identity of the language of the Phoenicians with the Hebrew is proved by the ket, that aU the names of persons and places in the land of Canaan are pure Hebrew. The Phoeni cians were but a portion of the Canaanfres, speaking of course the same language.^ This identity is manifest m the days of Abraham, for we then find the names of Abimelech, Melchisedek, etc. which are pure Hebrew compounds: nor can fr be thought that the inspired historian has translated these names with the language used by Abraham, for, in the same narrative, the Egyptian. PAamoA is given without any such transktion. At a later period the proof of this identity of knguage becomes more extensive, although not more certain: when the IsraeUtes took possession of the and of Canaan, the names of the cities and districts were aU of them terms purely and simply Hebrew. It is not to be overlooked that the names of the Phoenician cities Tyre, Sidon, ete. aToaW Hebrew, the same as the rest- the names ako of Phoenicians who are at aU mentioned m the Old Testament are Hebrew. (2) SUPPLEMENT TO CLASS II. [Shemitic Languages. This fact is farther IUustrated by the Coins of Tyre and Sidon, coUected and pubUshed by Gesenius in his " Monumenta Phoenicia;" the inscriptions on these coins prove the language to have been essentiaUy Hebrew. II. It is well known that in early times the Phoenician colonies were widely diSused ; (the coun tries in which they were found will be stated below). Did then these colonies use the Hebrew lan guage, or did they adopt the knguages of the countries in which they had settled? Happily, for a satisfactory reply to this question, we are not left to form our own conclusions irrespective of evidence : the antecedent probabiUty may be very strong, but we possess the sure ground of testimony. With regard to many or most of the countries colonized by the Phoenicians, we possess certain monuments in the coins and inscriptions which are still extant, which have been pub lished by Gesenius in his important work, to which reference has already been made. If, however, there be colonies from Phoenicia with regard to which we do not possess this certainty of testimony, yet we may be pretty certain that the same language was retained by them, as by the colonies of which we are more accurately informed. III. How far the wide-spread commerce of the Phoenicians was a means of diffiising their kn guage, we have no precise evidence. We do, however, know that in Greece and Egypt there have been inscriptions found in the Phoenician knguage and character, and we have other proofs that some use at least was made of this language. Prior to the time of Xerxes, almost aU international com munication by sea was in the hands of the Phoenicians; and as such Intercourse did exist, it Is manifest that the language of the Phoenicians was in a great measure brought into contact with aU the people of the coasts of the Mediterranean, etc. Phoenicia. — The district occupied by the Phoenicians appears to have been a strip of land lying between the mountains of Syria and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. The southern part of the country, which they at one time actuaUy occupied, was included in the land which had been pre viously aUotted to Israel, but into which the Phoenicians spread themselves. The Phcenician territory must at times have extended as far south as Acre (Accho or Ptolemais), and as far north as Aradus at least. There are yet existing coins of the foUowing Phoenician cities, with inscriptions in their own language and character : — Ttee — ^wlth Greek and Phoenician legends on the same coin. Sidon — with Phoenician only; ako Greek and Phoenician. Acco (Ptolemais) — Greek and Phoenician. Laodicea (near Lebanon) — Greek and Phoenician. Maeathus Aeadus Beettus Caene Coins with Phcenician legends. The Greek inscriptions on so many of these coins prove that the Phoenician knguage was stiU retained and used whlle^ the people were under Greek dominion. Phcenician Colonies. — Cilicia. — The Phojnlcian origin ofthe Cilicians was a fact known to the Greeks : the ClUcian coins struck under the Persian dominion fully attest the same fact. The Phoenician coins of Cilicia have been transmitted in great numbers to modern times : they have been found In many and widely distant countries ; some have been met with even In India. Many of these coins belong to Taesus ; it Is uncertain to what cities others of them belong. Ctpeus. — The Phoenicians are well known to have planted colonies in the island of Cyprus. More than thirty inscriptions found at Citium, in that island, are in existence; they prove the reten tion of the Phoenician language by the colonists. There are proofs that from Cyprus and CiUcia the Phoenicians spread Into difierent parts of Asia Minor; they probably occupied stations on the coast for the purpose of traffic. It appears that a colony was planted in Bithynia, probably direct from Phoenicia. The fact of a Phcenician colony having been located in Boeotia is weU known: but the language Shemitic Languages.] SUPPLEMENT TO CLASS II. (3) does not appear to have been retained there or in the parts Uito which they are said to have spread themselves from Bceotia: the letters, however, were there mtroduced. ^ Aeeica.— But the most important of the colonies of Phoenicia was that which occupkd Sbmlto ' '"^ "^^""^ P^"^' °^ ^™'*^^ ^'''^ Mauritania, as far as the Straits of The foUowing are places in tHs region where Phoenician inscriptions have been found : — Caethage. TuGGA or TucOA— a remarkable bi-Unguar Inscription, Punic and Libyan. In Numidia, several; also the coins of Numldian kings. Teipoli — two, one of them bl-Unguar, Latin and Punic; also coins. The Island of Geebe. There are Phoenician coins extant of the foUowing places : — ACHULLA, VaCCA, SiGA. Sicily. — The knowledge which we possess of the Phoenicians In SlcUy Is famlUar to aU who have the slightest acquaintance with history. The coins of several SiclUan cities are proofs of the Infiuence which the knguage gained in various parts of the island, and that, too, in places such as Syracuse, which were not actual colonies of Phoenicians, nor yet subject to Punic rule. There are extant many fine coins of — Panoemus (Palermo), Hbeaclea, Syeacuse, Motya, Cossaea, bearing inscriptions in Phoenician. Melita. — In the island of Malta several Phoenician inscriptions confirm what we know from history as to its having been occupied by that people. Gaulos (Gozzo near Malta).. — Many coins are in existence bearing Phcenician inscriptions, which some ascribe to this island, and some to Malta. Saedinia received Phcenician colonies; traces of the Phoenician may be found in the Sard lan guage still in use. A gem with a Phcenician inscription was found there, as weU as an inscription. Spain. — -The Punic colonies in Spain and their occupation of the southern part of that country and the adjoining islands are weU known. Taeshish, so often mentioned in Scripture, is considered on good grounds to have been Tartessus in Spain. There are Spanish coins extant with Phoenician legends of the following places : — Gades, Sexti, Abdeea, Belus, Malaga.^ Cassitbeides. — We know that the Phoenicians were intimately connected with the Casslterldes ( Tin Islands) ; and as the only isknds in the western ocean producing tin must point out the south western coasts of Britain or adjacent Islands, this name must have indicated either the SclUy Islands, or else the coast of CornwaU, or probably both. Here the Phoenicians had formed an emporium at a very early period. Tin was used in the formation of some of the furniture of the Tabernacle. Tin is mentioned by the earUest of classic writers; and as the ancients knew of no other tin but that of CornwaU, it is manifest how early must have been the Phcenician connection with this country. Indeed, the Ancients considered for ages that the Phcenicians were the only people who knew where these Islands were situated. The countries with which the Phoenicians traded comprised most of the coasts of the then known ' The Phcenician colonies acknowledged a certain dependence upon Tyre ; this was recognised by the offerings sent from Carthage, etc. to the altar of the Tyrian Hercules. The possession of Tyre may have been considered as bestowing a kind of superiority over the colonics. How far this was connected with actual pmoer may be uncertain : nothing short of this appears to be recognised in the statements of Megasthenes with regard to the dominion of Nebuchadnezzar, whom he represents as having con quered and ruled not merely Tyre but also the whole line of Phoenician colonies even as far as Spain. This has been treated as an exaggeration : but even if it be, there appears to be at least a fact on which it is based. (4) SUPPLEMENT TO CLASS II. [Shemitic Languages. world : that the Phoenician language was at least in some measure used as a medium of communication, is proved by the inscriptions which have been discovered at Athens and in Egtpt.' The eastern trade by the Eed Sea must have been originaUy in the hands of the IsraeUtes and Egyptians ; the Phcenicians, however, were connected with them in this Une of commerce. How far the diffiislon of the language might have been accompanied by a knowledge of the written revelation of God, we have no means of ascertaining : one thing is certain, that it thus became POSSIBLE ; and this may be coupled with the facts, that seeming traces were found among many nations, of Scripture truths, and the Jews and early Christians aUke ascribed this to knowledge borrowed in some manner from the Old Testament Scriptures prior to the version of the LXX. It may be a subject of interesting inquiry. What results may be deduced from the ascertained fact of the early wide difiuslon of Hebrew: It is also worthy of examination. How far certain traces may be found of the use of the Scripture by the nations of antiquity. It must at least be borne in mind, that the wide difiuslon of the Phcenicians was contemporaneous with the period when most of the Old Testament was written. S. P. T. ' The Athenian inscriptions are accompanied also with Greek ; the monument, called (from the place in Provence where It is preserved) the Stone of Carpentras, is manifestly Egyptian. It must not be overlooked that the Ancients unhesitatingly referred alpTiabetic -writing to the Phcenicians as the first who had employed it ; this, at least, shows that they acknowledged the Phcenicians to be those from whom they had received this art. *5^* The sources from which this Memoir has been mostly compiled are the Bible, Gesenius's Monumenta Phcenicia, and Bochart's Canaan. Bochart had a great apprehension of the early diffusion of the Phoenician language, although he scarcely draws any conclusion therefrom in connection vrith the subject now considered. SUPPLEMENT. CHINESE. EepEINTS to the amount of 3000 copies have been lately made, by the missionaries, of detached books of the New Testament ; and several sums have been granted by the British and Foreign Bible Society towards the purchase and distribution of the Chinese New Testament, as revised by Dr. Gutzkfil But the most Important work yet remaining to be noticed, in connection with China, is the completion of the revision of the New Testament, which had for some years been in process of preparation by the joint efibrts of European and American missionaries. There is some reason, however, to fear that the printing of this work will be delayed, in consequence of the lengthened and still unsettled controversy respecting the proper Chinese term for the name of Deity. Possibly this circumstance may give rise to the pubUcation of difierent editions, with a change of terms to meet the conscientious convictions of the respective parties. It is at any rate satisfactory to find that such are now the facUitles for producing books in China, that both the missionaries of the London Missionary Society and Dr. Gutzlafi" propose publishing the whole of the New Testament at the price of about threepence or threepence halfpenny per copy.' INDIA. Geeat efibrts are now being made for a wider distribution of the Scriptures in India than has yet been accompUshed. It has even been contempkted to supply every famUy in India, having a member who can read, with a portion of the Word of God. With the view of carrying out this important project as far as practicable, numerous editions of detached books of the Scriptures m the various languages of India have lately been issued fropi the press. In aid of these reprints and their 1 Forty-sixth Report of British and Foreigrn Bible Society, p. cix. 56 • (6) SUPPLEMENT. circulation, the British and Foreign Bible Society has lately voted the sum of £1500 to the Madras Committee, and another sum of nearly double that amount to the Calcutta Committee. Several important revisions of accredited versions, as the Malayalim, TeUnga, Hindustani, Guje rattee, and Mahratta, are at the present moment in process of preparation. In Canarese, a thoroughly- revised translation of the New Testament (mentioned p. 122) has been completed, under the patronage of the British and Foreign Bible Society ; and the Canarese Old Testament is now passing through the same process of revision, under the care of the Eev. G. H. Weigle. A revision of the Old Testament in Hindi and Nagri characters has Ukewise been completed, and an edition of 3000 copies has been printed at Allahabad. The revision ofthe Tamul Old Testament (p. 117) is now being printed under the title ofthe " Union Version ofthe Old Testament ;" the edition is to be printed at Madras, and Is to consist of 3500 copies. The revision of the entire version of the Tamul New Testament has not yet been accompUshed ; but detached books have been printed immediately on completion, to meet the urgent demands for copies. In Sindhee, Captain G. Stack has funUshed a new translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, 500 copies of which are ordered to be printed. The foUowing editions have been recently issued by the Baptists in India : — 4500 copies of the Gospek and Acts, in Hindi. 62,500 copies ofthe New Testament, in Hindustani. 7500 copies of portions of the New Testament, in Sanscrit. Other large editions are stUl in progress, especiaUy of the Old Testament, in BengaU and in Sanscrit, by the Eev. Mr. Wenger, a Baptist missionary. ARMENIAN. A eepeeence edition of the Armenian New Testament has been lately published, at the expense ofthe British and Foreign Bible Society ; and means to print a pocket edition of the Testament have, at the eamest request of the missionaries, been granted by the same Society. The sum of £3000 has been voted by the American Bible Society for an edition of the whole Bible in Modern Armenian, an edition of 500 copies of the Old Testament having been printed previously as an experiment. An edition ofthe Ararat Armenian New Testament is also now printing, under the care of the Eev. Messrs. Holmes and Wood, the American missionaries, at Constantmople. The foUowing gratifying state ments have been received in the kst reports : — " The American missionaries continue to receive most encouraging and cheering accounts of those Armenians who have embraced Protestantism. Their numbers augment daily, and in the far distant town of Aintab, which Hes about four caravan days' journey to the north of Aleppo, the Armenian Protestant Church had, by the last accounts, a congre gation of upwards of 200 adults. This good work has sprung up mainly by the simple readmg of the Scriptures ; and simikr deUghtful results have taken place in several other places in Turkey." ' ' Forty-sixth Report of British and Foreign Bible Society, p.lxxxl. SUPPLEMENT. (7) BRETON. A new edition of the Breton New Testament is now passing through the press, more than half of the former edition having been disposed of in the short space of twenty months. ENGLISH. A eevised edition of the authorised English version has lately been pubUshed at New York, under the sanction of the "American Bible Union" institution of that city. In this edition the phraseology of the authorised version is to a great extent retained, but some corrections and emend ations, proposed by eminent bibUcal scholars, have been introduced ; and the ecclesiastical and Latinised terms, employed in certain passages by King James's translators, are rendered into plain EngUsh words, adapted to the comprehension of unlearned readers. GERMAN. Since the last revolutionary eruption in Germany, legal permission has been granted to colporteurs to distribute the Scriptures ; and the very governments who were previously most opposed to this efficient mode of introducing the Scriptures into the famiUes of the poor, now sanction with their authority the operations of the missionaries. In consequence of the very increased circulation of the Scriptures which has resulted from colportage in Germany, several large editions of the Lutheran version have lately passed through the press, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society ; and Ukewise an edition, in 32mo., of Kistemaker's New Testament, for the benefit of Eoman Catholics. A translation of the Psalms into German, by the late Dr. Van Ess, for the Eoman CathoUcs, has ako been adopted by the Society. NEW ZEALAND OR MAORI. As the bkssed efiects ofthe diffusion ofthe Scriptures in this island have scarcely been mentioned sufficiently in detaU m our memofr on the Maori version, fr may be weU here to adduce a few recent testUnonks on this truly interesting subject. " Europeans say that they thUik the New Zeaknders a very tame and inoffensive peopk. So they are ; but they should have come to live among them thirty years ago, before the influence of the Gospel manifested frsefr. I remember to have been in bodily fear for a month at a time, and was not sure of my Ufe for half an hour ; but the case k vastly different now. The Saviour k loved by many hundreds ; and God, I hope, who is a Spirit, is worshipped in spirit and In truth." ' The spiritual history of Christianity in New Zealand k briefly related by the Eev. E. 1 Rov. Mr. Puckey, of Kaitaia, in Church Missionary Record for laip, p. 212. (8) SUPPLEMENT, Davis, of the Church Missionary Society, in the following words. — After alluding to the supposed state of unusual prosperity which attended the earlier years of the Mission, he says : " Many, when they received baptism, appeared to congratulate themselves on having thus attained the summit of their wishes : they were now believers, exalted above their former standing, and seemed to expect that by the mere rite, as by a charm, they would be deUvered from the power and dominion of sin, and that God in aU things would be propitious to them. Some of them became great discipUnarlans, and many acquired much knowledge of Scripture. But where this knowledge did not unveil the corruption and depravity of the human heart, it was ineffectual in the time of temptation, and numbers fell away. What once appeared to shine brightly became dim, and then vanished into deadly superstitious dark ness. More recent experience has shown that those who were preserved from falling, and have been blessed up to this time with persevering grace, are even now but very babes in Christ. At that period there was much religious profession, mixed up with a degree of self-complacency, which rendered their profession doubtful : now they complain of their ignorance of Scripture, and of the depravity of their nature, and sincerely lament the hardness of their hearts ; while here and there one may be found rejoicing in the love of God." ' After adverting to several cases of conversion and recovery from the bondage of native superstitions, the same writer then continues : " Upon the whole, there can be no doubt that the great work is advancing, although slowly ; but we have learned to think and speak with caution, and to rejoice with trembling." 1 Rev. R. Davis, in Church Missionary Record for 1850, p. 155. TABLE OE CLASSIFICATION OE LANOUAGES. Note.— Ihe asterisks denote the Languages into which translations of the Scriptures have either been made or attempted. CLASS 1. TIBETAN BRANCH. MONOSYLLABIC. * Lepcha Uniya Newari CHINESE. Kou-ouen or Ancient Chinese CLASS II. Ouen-tschang or Modem Chi nese (loritten langwige) SHEMITIC. Kuan-Hoa ^language of the Mandarins) Khum (language of the Court HEBREW BRANCH. at Pekin) • Hebrew TTiang-Tan (langiuige of tim Phoenician people) Punic Kiang-nan (dialect of Nankin) * Samaritan Fokien (dialect of Fokien) SYRIAC BRANCH. Kong (dialect of Canton) ?Syriac PECui-iAa Languages spoken in ? Chaldee China. ? Modern Syriac Sifan Hiaos MEDLtN BRANCH. Lolos Pehlvi Mien-Ting HIMYARITIC BRANCH. Island of Hainan Dialect Himyaritic INDO-CHINESE BRANCH. Ehkili ?Burmese ARABIC BRANCH. ?Arakanese or Eukheng Arabic (ancient, now extinct) * Siamese or Thay •Arabic (ofthe Koran) Laos or Law •Carshun (Arabic in Syriac let Shyan ters) Khamti Modern or Vulgar Arabic, com Ahom prising Anamite • Mogrebin or African Arabic Cambojan Dialect of Yemen •Peguese, Talain, or Mon Dialect of Mecca •Karen Dialect of Syria, etc. • Munipoora Maltese Cacharese ABYSSINUN BRANCH. • Khassee • Gheez or Ethiopic Eude and Unweitten Languages. ?Tigre Moitai ? Amharic Khyen or Kolun Amharic Dialects, viz. Ka-kyen Semian Zabaing Arkiko Lolos Narea Quanto Dembea Tshampa Silong Kuki or Koonkie CLASS III. Khumla INDO-ETJEOPEAN. Kyo Singpho Mishimi iWcSian, or Notftrtn Shim, Jill Incbiding Medo-Persian and Teutonic Bor Abors Branches. Abors Miri MEDO-PERSUN BRANCH. DuflaAka IVTiittuck ZendParsi or Ancient Persian Deri or Dialect of the Court ATX U U b LA V^^ Garo Bodo ? Persic or Modem Persian ? Pushtoo or Affghan * Tibetan or Bhotiyah • Belochee MEDO-PERSIAN BRANCH (contimted). * Kurdish * Ossitinian * Ancient Armenian. * Slodern Armenian * Ararat Armenian TEUTONIC BRANCH. Germanic LANOUAGEa. * Gothic *Alemanic or Old High Ger man Old Middle High German Francic * GermanGermanic Dialects, viz. Swiss Rhenish Danubian Franconian Eothwelsh Judeo- German * Ancient Low Saxon * Anglo-Saxon * EnglishSaxon Dialects, viz, Saxon of Lower Saxony Prussian or East Saxon Westphalian or West Saxon Frisic * Dutch * Flemish Scandinavian Languages. Moeso-Gothic Ancient Norwegian Languages, viz. * Icelandic NorwegianDalska or West Dalecamian Jamtlandish Norse * Swedish * Danish, including Dialects of Norway Scania Jutland Creolese Negro Dialect of Surinam * Faroese Entiian, or SEagtmi St«n, Including the Samcrit, Greco-Latm, Sclavonic, and perhaps the Celtic SANSCRIT BRANCH. * Sanscrit *PaU Pali Dialects, viz. Bali Fan Kawi SANSCRIT BRANCH (fiontinued). Pracrit * Hindustani or Urdu * Hinduwee Hinduwee Dialects, viz. * Bruj or Brij-bhasa * Canoj or Canyacubja * Kousulu or Koshala * Bhojepoora * Hurriana * Bundelcundee * Bughelcundee * Oojein or Oujjuyimee Hinduwee Dialects, viz. Rajpootana Malwa * Harrotee Rajpootana Dialects, viz. * Oodeypoora or Mewar * Marwar or Joodpoora * Juyapoora * Shekawutty * Bikaneera * Buttaneer * Bengalee * Tirhitiya or Mithili * Assamese * Uriya or Orissa * Cutchee * Sindhee * Moultan, Wuch, or Ooch * Punjabee or Sikh * Punjabee Mountain Dialect or Dogura * Cashmerian CaufristanBrahooee * Nepalese or Khaspoora Nepalese Dialects, viz. * Parbutti Newar MurmiKurrautee Limboo Mimgar Gurung * Palpa * Gurwhal or Schreenagur * Kumaon * Gi^erattee * Mahratta * Kunkuna * Rommany or Gipsy * Cingalese * Maldivian Languages of the Deccan, Trohahly not of Samcrit origin. * Tamul * Telinga * Kamata * Tulu or Tuluvu Coduga * Malayalim (10) CLASSIFICATION OF LAN&UAGES. SANSCEIT BRANCH (continued). Eude and Uncultivated Lan guages OF India. Touppali Tuda ChoomeasCattywar GondCateesghur "Wadasse Chingalaya, in Cet/Um GRECO-LATIN BRANCH. Thraco-IUyrian Languages, viz. Phrygian TrojanThracian lUyrian • Albanian or Arnaut Etruscan Pelasgo - Hellenic Languages, viz. Pelasgic ? Greek ? Komaio or Modem Greek Italic Languages, viz. Sabine Samnite, etc. •Latin Eomance Languages, viz. * CatalanValencian Majorcan ? Dialect of Toulouse Languedocian ? Provencal or Eomaunt DauphinoisLyonnaisAuvergnat Limousin Gascon • Vaudois * Piedmontese ?Eomanese or Upper and Lower Enghadine Valaisan Savoisian ? Italian ? French * Spanish ?Judeo-Spanish ? Portuguese * Indo-Portuguese ? Daco-Eomana or WaUachian SCLAVONIC BRANCH. Eusso-IUyrian Languages, viz. * Ancient Sclavonic * Euss or Eussian ? Bosnian ? Bulgarian Dialects of the Winde Lan guage, viz. * Carniolan Carinthian Styrian Bohemo-Polish Languages, viz. ? Bohemian or Chekhe * Polish ? Judeo-Polish Upper Lusatian Lower Lusatian ¦Wendo-Lithuanian Languages, viz. Prucze or Ancient Prussian * Lithuanian SCLAVONIC BRANCH (continued). • Samogitian Kriwitsh Prusso-Lithuanian ?Lettish or Lette Semgallian Letto-Livonian or Lief- landish Seelian • Upper Wendish ? Lower Wendish ? Hungarian Wendish CELTIC BRANCH. Gaelic Languages, viz. ? Irish ? Scotch Hebridian ?Manks Cymric Languages, viz. Celto-Belgio ?Welsh Cornish ? Breton or Armorican CLASS IV. UGEO-TARTABIAN. CHUDIC, or FINNISH BRANCH. Finnish or Germanised Finnish Languages, viz. ? Finnish or Finlandish Tawastian ? Carelian or Kyiiala ? Olonetzian Watailaiset •Dorpat Esthonian • Eeval Esthonian * Lapponese ? Quanian or Konvegian Lapponese Wolgaic Languages, viz. • Tscheremissian • Mordvinian • Zirian or Sirenian Permian Languages, viz. Permian Proper • Wotagian or Wotjakian Hungarian Languages, viz. • Hungarian or Magyar * Wogulian • Ostiacan or Ostjakiau Finnish Languages of dnceetain OEIGIN. Hunniac Chazar EUSKARIAN BRANCH. • French Basque • Spanish Basque or Escuara TUNGUSIAN BRANCH. ? Mantchou ? Tungusian Proper MONGOLIAN BRANCH. ? Mongolian Proper ? Calmuc ?Buriat TURKISH BRANCH. • Turkish * Karass or Turkish Tartar • Orenburgh Tartar • Crimean Tartar TURKISH BRANCH (continued). ? Trans-Caucasian Tartar • Tschuwaschian Yakut, in N. Siberia CAUCASIAN BRANCH. Georgian Languages, viz. ? Ancient Georgian Modem Georgian MingrelianImmu-etian Suanic Lazian LesghianAwareKaski-Kumuk Mizgeghi Languages, viz. Mizjeghi Inguschi Tschetschenghi Circassian Abassian HYPERBOREAN BRANCH. Samoiede Languages, viz. ?Khassowa or Samoiede Proper TouroukhanskTawghiTas Narym LaakKarassi Ourlangkhai Jenissei Languages, viz. DenkaImbazk Yukaghiri Koriak Languages, viz. Koriak Proper Koriak of Kamtschatka Kamtschatka Languages, viz. Tigil Middle Kamtschatka South Kamtschatka Oukah Kurilian Languages, viz. Kurilian Proper Jesso Tarakai Asiatic East Insulak Lan guages. ? Japanese ?Loochooan? Aleutian * Corean CLASS V. POLYNESIAN, OB MALAYAN. INBO-MALAYAN BRANCH. ? Malay • FormosanSumatran Dialects, viz. •Batta Lampong Eea ang KorinchiAchinese INDO-MALAYAN BRANCH (contin-ued). Javanese Dialects, yiz. * JavaneseSunda Basi-Krama MadureseBalinese Sasak or Lambok Sembawa ?Bima Ende or Floris Mangerei Timoiian Dialects, viz. Timor Manatoto Coupang Eotti Sava Bebber Poggy or Pagai Island Dialect Nias Celebes Dialects, viz. ?Bugis? Macassar Mandhar Gunung-teU Menadu Turajas Dialect of Buton Island Dialect of Sangir Island Moluccas Dialects, viz. Sirang or Ceram Saparua TernatiTidore Philippme Dialects, viz. Mindanao Bisayan Mai tim InagtaPampangaPangasinanZambules Tgorotes Tlocos Cayagan Batanga Tagala of the Ladrones Dialect of Caroline Islands Borneo Dialects, viz. ?Dajak Biajuk Murung Kupuas Sooloo Tidong FURTHER POLYNESIAN BRANCH. • New Zealand or Maori ? Samoan : * Tahitian ? Earotonga ? Hawaiian ? Marquesan ? Tonga Dialect of Pelew Islands Dialect of Easter Island ? Feejeean Negritos Languages, viz. Samang -i interior ofMalay- Jajong ¦> an Peni-nsvla. Penang, interior of tlie Phi- lippi-ne Islands CLASSIFICATION OF LANGTJAaES. (11) FURTHER POLYNESIAN BRANCH (continii£d). Andaman and Nicobar Dialects, Uttle knoum, viz. Tembora Ende or Floris Mangerei Dialect of New Guinea Dialect of Nfew Britain Dialect of New Ireland Dialect of Louisiade Dialect of Solomon's Island Taomaco Tamman, interior of Borneo Australian Dialects, viz. » New South Wales Swan Eiver, etc. CLASS VI. AFRICAN. EGYPTUN BRANCH. ? Coptic • Sahidic •Bashmuric LYBUN BRANCH. Guanche ?Berber or Amazigh ? Ghadamsi TuarickSiwah or Ertana Tibhoo Kabyle or Showiah Sergoo BEEBERIN or NUBIAN BRANCH. Kenuz Noub Dongola KensyWady Nuba Eoutana NobyMinutoU Jebel Nuba Languages allied to the Nubian Shilluck Denka TakeU TumaUShaboon Fertit KoldagiDarfoor Fazoglo Languages. Qamamyl Fazoglo BEDJAS BRANCH. Bisharye Snaken Ababd^ MANDINGO BRANCH. •Woloff or Jalloof BambookMedinaBambarraSokko or Asokko ?Susoo •Bullom • Sherbro-BuUom Timmanee MANDINGO BRANCH (continued). KissiKossaPessaGarangi KongCallanaFobeeGarman or Buntakoo Languages of the Grain Coast, viz. Kra lirumanFishman •Grebo Languages ofthe Gold Coast, viz. Inta ? Accra AkvambuAdampi or Tambi ? Fantee ? Ajjhantee Booroom Aowin Amanahea AhantaAfTootoo Tjemba or Kassenti Dahomey Languages, viz. Adah Yudah WatyeAtye Wawu PopoFotKerrapay or Crepee Badaggry Dahwhumba Mosee Inwa KumsaUahooArdrah Warree Languages, viz. Akuongo Uhobo DISTINCT and PECULIAR LANGUAGES of WESTERN NIGRITIA. Benin or Eboe MokoIbuNyffe, Nufi, or Tapua BonnyOld Calebar KarabaHoninBimbia • Cameroons or Dewalla ¦ * Ediyah or Femandian DISTINCT and PECULL4R LANGUAGES of WESTEEN NIGRITIA (continued). PapelBalantesBagnon BissagotNaloo SapiMendiVei Biafares Basar es Naloubes MangreeGien ATfkim Akrupon Kouri Tembu AppaAkuongo Camangons • Yebu, Ako, Eyo, Hio, Inogo, or Tarriba SerrawoUi Serreres Feloop QuojasFolgias KroosQuaquas Buntakoo Kalam-Soudan BagermehFouriau • Isubu Gaboon Languages, viz. • Mpongwe or Ponga Sheekan KayleeOongoomo Oongabai Eungo Bongo Beghanni Bergoo or Mobha Bomu Languages, viz. Bomu Proper Affadeh, Maihai Howssa Languages, viz. Mandara ? Howssa or Haussa Kashna Guber MaUowa QuoUa-liiTaKallaghee Timbuctoo Languages, viz. Sungai or Suaing TimbuctooKissourSangs angdi FULAH BRANCH. Fulah of Foota-torro Fulah of Foota-jallo Fulah of Massma Fulah of Borgoo Fulah or FeUatah of Sackatoo CAFFRARIAN or NILOHA- MITIC STOCK. Languages SPOKEN IN Loango, Congo Angola, and Benguela. Angola, Bunda, or Abunda MandongoCamba Malemba EmbomaAmbriz Sonho Mogialoua or Molua Masaiya Mina Cassanga Languages of Caffearia. •KafSr or Caffre Cosoa CAFFRARIAN or NILO-HA- MITIC STOCK (contimted). * Sechuana * Sisuta Dammara Tambucki Kaffir Languages of the Mozambique and Zanzibar Coasts. • Kisuaheli • Kikamba •Kinika MakuaMoiy'ouDos Santos TzchoamboMatibaniManica Quilimani Msegua PocomoMsambara Ukuafi MobihanDialect of St. Johanna Hottentot Languages, viz. Hottentot ofthe Cape, extinct • Namacqua Koras Dammara of Walvisch Bay Corana Hottentot Hottentot of Salhanda Bay Saab or Bushmen Dialect AFRICABYSSINIAN BRANCH. Agow Languages, viz. Agow Waag Agow Falasha Khamtinga Awnga Hwarasa Galla Languages, viz. • Galla or Ormo DanakelAfar Adaiel Shiho Saho ToufteSomauU Gonga Languages, viz. Gonga Kaffa Woratta Wolaitsa DawTOoa YammaShay NaoBejaTangaro Sidama ShangaUa or Shankala Lan guages, viz. Shankala DaUa Takue, or Boje Barea Unplaced Languages op Abys sinia. Gurinza Souro Dokko Taraco Gamo . Barea (12) CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES. CLASS Vll. AMEKICAN. ESQUIMAUX BRANCH. • Esquimaux ? Greenlandish Kotzebue Sound Dialect Kadiac Tshuktchi ATHAPASCAN BRANCH, Chippeyan Tlatskani TAHKALI-UMKWA BRANCH (Allied to Athapascan). Tahkali or Carrier Indian Sikani Umkwa DISTINCT LANGUAGES spoken in the NOETH of NOETH AMEEICA. Kenia, spoken in Cook's Inlet Ugaljachmutzi, spoken from long. 144° to 139° Newitte, north of Vancouver's Island Nootka or Wakash Koluche or Kaloche Clallem Chickaihsh Sukwame Hail tsa NaasKoulischenSkittagetsNaas ALGONQUIN BEANCH. Northern. ?Cree Montagnais • Ottawa • Ojibway or Chippeway • PottawattomieMissinsig Eastern. TheshatapooshScoffle •Micmac Etchemin •Abenaqui Spoken along the Atlantic • Massachusett Narragansett • Mohegan Montak ?Delaware Nanticoke SusquehannokPowhattanPampticoes Western. Menomenies MiamiPianldshaw ALGONQUIN BRANCH (continued). Illinois Saukie Kickapoo * Shawanoe Blackfeet Indian Shyenne IROQUOIS BRANCH. Onondago • Seneca Oneida Cayuga Tuscarora Nottoway Wyandotte or Huron SIOUX or DACOTA BEANCH. YanktonWinebago Quappa ?Dacota Assiniboin Osage Kansa Minetares of Missouri OttoeOmahaw Punca •Iowa Upsaroka or Crow FLORIDIAN or APPALA- CHIAN BRANCH. Natchez, almost extinct Muskogee or Creek Lower Creek, or Seminole * Chocktaw ? Cherokee CatawbaUchee PANIS-ARRAPAHOES BRANCH. ?Pawnee ArrapahoePaduca or Cumanche North Oregon Division. Coutanie or Kitunak Tsihaili-Selish Languages, viz. Sushwap or Atnah SeUshSkitsuish Piskaw Skwale Cowelits or Kowelitz TsihaiUsh or ChikaiUsh Nsietshawus or KiUamuk Tsinuk or Chinook Languages, viz. Watlala or Upper Chinook Wahkyekum Katlamat Chinook Proper Clatsop KiUamukAtnah or Sushwap PANIS-AREAPAHOES BEANCH (continued). South Oregon Division. Sahaptin Languages, viz. WallawallaNez Percys or Sahaptin Proper WaiUatpuCayeuseMolele Jakon or South KiUamuk Saiustkla Totutune Lutuami Saste KausWatUa Shoshonee or Snake Indian Languages, viz. UtahNetelaWiMnasht or West Sho shonee Shoshonee Proper Panasht or Bonnak East Shoshonee Calefomian Languages, viz. TuzhuneSekamnePujuniTsamak or Chamak Talatui Talatui Dialects, viz. Ochekamne Servushamne, etc. Shasty Palaik La Soledad Dialect San Miguel Dialect San Eaphael Dialect San Diego Dialect San Barbara Dialect San Antonio Dialect San Luis Obispo Dialect NetelaKijiPima EolenEaslen CARIB-TAMANAQUE BRANCH. ?Karif or Carib TamanaqueGuaraunosChaymas • ArawackWaraous DISTINCT LANGUAGES in CENTRAL AMERICA. OyampusGuahiva or Guagivos OttomakManitivitanos MarepizanosManaos SaUva Macos DISTINCT LANGUAGES in CENTRAL AMEEICA (contin-ued). Cavere-Maypure Languages, viz. CavereGnaypunabis MaypureMoxos Goahiros Oocinas Cunacunas MaynasChanguenesTaucae or Xicaque ? MosquitoPayais Choi Lacandone MAYAN BEANCH. •Mayan Mam or Pocoman Kachiguel SubtugUSinca Chorti Chiapa, spoken in Chiapa MEXICAN BEANCH. ? Atzec or Mexican Tolteca, extinct PopoloqueTlapanec ? Mixteca • Zapoteca • Tarasca or Terasco Tarahumera Yaqui or Japis Moqui Totonaque Dialect of Huasteca Matlatzincan Otomi PERUVIAN BRANCH. • Quichua or Peravian ?Aimara PAYAGUA-GUAYCURU BRANCH. PayaguaGuaycuru Guanas Bororos GUARANI BRANCH. • Guarani Proper * BraziUan or Tupi Omogua West Guarani Dialects, viz. ChiriguanasCiriouosGuarayoa CHILIAN BEANCH. Moluche or Araucanian Vuta-HuillichePuelche, spoken hy the Pom- pas, south af Buenos Ayres Tehuel, Umguage afPatagania ^IpSirimfc W:l', m^ ill,"''-;..; t'i ^*^il^ 'i,'i