YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN PEREY MONUMENT, NEAR URAGA A HANDBOOK OP MODERN JAPAN BY ERNEST W. CLEMENT in WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS CHICAGO A. C. McCLURG & CO. 1903 Copyright A. C. McClurg & Co. 1903 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Published October 10, 1903 UNIVERSITY PRESS • JOHN WILSON AND SON • CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. To the Memory of my Father AND To my Mother INTRODUCTION THIS book, as its title indicates, is intended to portray Japan as it is rather than as it was. It is not by any means the purpose, however, to ignore the past, upon which the present is built, because such a course would be both foolish and futile. Moreover, while there are probably no portions of Japan, and very few of her people, en tirely unaffected by the new civilization, yet there are still some sections which are comparatively un changed by the new ideas and ideals. And, although those who have been least affected by the changes are much more numerous than those who have been most influenced, yet the latter are much more active and powerful than the former. In Japan reforms generally work from the top down ward, or rather from the government to the people. As another1 has expressed it, "the government is the moulder of public opinion " ; and, to a large extent, at least, this is true. We must, therefore, estimate Japan's condition and public opinion, not according to the great mass of her people, but according to the "ruling class," if we may transfer to Modern Japan a term of Feudal Japan. For, as suffrage in Japan is limited by the amount of taxes paid," " the 1 Miss Bacon, in " Japanese Girls and Women." vm INTRODUCTION masses " do not yet possess the franchise, and may be said to be practically unconcerned about the govern ment. They will even endure heavy taxation and some injustice before they will bother themselves about politics. These real conservatives are, there fore, a comparatively insignificant factor in the equa tion of New Japan. The people are conservative, but the government is progressive. This book endeavors to portray Japan in all its features as a modern world power. It cannot be ex pected to cover in great detail all the ground out lined, because it is not intended to be an exhaustive encyclopedia of "things Japanese." It is expected to satisfy the specialist, not by furnishing all mate rials, but by referring for particulars to works where abundant materials may be found. It is expected to satisfy the average general reader, by giving a kind of bird's-eye view of Modern Japan. It is planned to be a compendium of condensed information, with careful references to the best sources of more com plete knowledge. Therefore, a special and very important feature of the volume is its bibliography of reference books at the end of each chapter. These lists have been prepared with great care, and include practically all the best works on Japan in the English language. In general, however, no attempt has been made to cover magazine articles, which are included in only very particular instances. There are two very important works not included in any of the lists, because they belong to almost all ; they are omitted merely to avoid monotonous repe tition. These two books of general reference are INTRODUCTION ix indispensable to the thorough student of Japan and the Japanese. Chamberlain's " Things Japanese " 1 is the most convenient for general reference, and is a small encyclopaedia. "The Mikado's Empire,"2 by Dr. Griffis, is a thesaurus of information about Japan and the Japanese. After these, one may add to his Japanese library according to his special taste, although we think that Murray's " Story of Japan," also, should be in every one's hands. Then, if one can afford to get Rein's two exhaustive and thorough treatises, he is well equipped. And the " Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan " will make him quite a savant on Japanese subjects.3 We had intended, but finally abandoned the at- tempt, to follow strictly one system of transliteration. Such a course would require the correction of quota tions, and seemed scarcely necessary. Indeed, the doctors still disagree, and have not yet positively settled upon a uniform method of transliteration. After all, there is no great difference between Tokio and T6ky5 ; kaisha and kwaisha; Iyeyasu and Ieyasu ; Kyushiu, Kiushiu, Kyushu, and Kiushu. There is more divergency between Ryukyu, Riukiu, Liukiu, Luchu, and Loo Choo ; but all are in such general use that it would be unwise, in a book hke this, to try to settle a question belonging to specialists. The fittest will, in time, survive. We have, however, drawn the 1 Fourth edition. 2 Tenth edition. 8 If any are inclined to delve still more deeply into any of these topics, they will find further references in the books in the lists, espe cially in " Things Japanese." And the most complete treatment of this subject is found in Wenckstern's ''Bibliography of Japan." Poole's Index is also valuable. x INTRODUCTION line on " Yeddo," " Jeddo," and similar archaisms and barbarisms, for which there is neither jot nor tittle of reason. But it is hoped that the varieties of trans literation in this book are too few to confuse. The author is under special obligations to Professor J. H. Wigmore, formerly a teacher in Tokyo, and now Dean of the Northwestern Law School, Chicago, for kind criticisms and suggestions ; to Mr. Frederick W. Gookin, the art critic, of Chicago, for similar assist ance, and for the chapter on "^Esthetic Japan," which is entirely his composition; and also under general obligations for the varied assistance of many friends, too numerous to mention, in Japan and America. He has endeavored to be accurate, but doubts not that he has made mistakes. He only asks that the book be judged merely for what it claims to be, — a Hand book of Modern Japan. Eknest Wilson Clement. Chicago, August 1, 1903. CONTENTS Chapter Page I. Physiography 1 II. Industrial Japan 16 III. Travel, Transportation, Commerce ... 29 IV. People, Houses, Food, Dress 44 V. Manners and Customs 60 VI. Japanese Traits 76 VII. History (Old Japan) 90 VIII. History (New Japan) 102 IX. Constitutional Imperialism 118 X. Local Self-Government 133 XI. Japan as a World Power 146 XII. Legal Japan 159 XIII. The New Woman in Japan 175 XIV. Language and Literature 191 XV. Education 209 XVI. ^Esthetic Japan 222 XVII. Disestablishment of Shinto 237 XVIII. Confucianism, BushidS, Buddhism .... 250 XIX. Japanese Christendom 261 XX. Twentieth Century Japan 277 XXI. The Mission of Japan 289 APPENDIX 305 ILLUSTRATIONS Perry Monument, near Uraga Frontispiece Page Nagasaki Harbor 10 Lighthouse Inland Sea 10 Map of the Pacific 14 Cotton Mills, Osaka 22 Baron Shibusawa 38 Nobles' Bank and Bank of Japan, Tokyo .... 40 First Bank, Tokyo 42 Group of Country People 48 Garden at Oji 54 New Year's Greeting 64 The Emperor of Japan 82 The Prince Imperial 82 Osaka Castle 86 Four Gates : Nijo Castle, Kyoto ; Palace, Kyoto ; Palace, Tokyo ; Sakurada, Tokyo 92 Statesmen of New Japan : Prince Sanjo and Count Katsu 96 Statesmen of New Japan: Okubo, Kido, and Prince Iwakura 108 Departments of State : Navy ; Agriculture and Com merce ; Justice ; Foreign Affairs 124 Diet Buildings : House of Commons and House of Peers 128 Statesmen of New Japan: Viscount Katsura and Marquis Ito 138 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS Page Statesmen of New Japan : Count Okuma, Count Inouye, Count Itagaki, Count Matsukata . . . 142 Military Leaders : Field Marshal Yamagata ; Field Marshal Oyama 148 Naval Leaders : Admiral Enomoto ; Admiral Kaba- yama 152 Court Buildings, Tokyo 164 The Mint, Osaka 164 The Empress of Japan 180 The Princess Imperial 180 Educators and Scientists : Fukuzawa, Viscount Mori, Baron Ishiguro, Dr. Kitasato 200 Imperial University Buildings, Tokyo 214 Painting by Yasunobu : Heron and Lotus .... 224 Painting by Ho-Itsu : View of Fuji-San .... 228 Cherry Blossoms 246 Group of Pilgrims 252 Buddhist Priests 252 Gospel Ship (Fukuin Maru) 268 Y. M. C. A. Summer School, Doshisha, Kyoto . . 268 Military Review, Himeji 280 "Shikishima" in Naval Review, Kobe .... 284 Imperial Dockyard, Yokosuka 300 Map of the Empire 310 JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION a like a in father ai as in aisle e " e " men ei " weigh i " i " pin au) . , „ „ J- as o in bone o " o " pony o ) u " oo " book u as oo in moon i in the middle of a word and « in the middle or at the end of a word are sometimes almost inaudible. The consonants are all sounded, as in English : g, however, has only the hard sound, as in give, although the nasal ng is often heard ; ch and s are always soft, as in check and sin ; and z before u has the sound of dz. In the case of double consonants, each one must be given its full sound. There are as many syllables as vowels. There is practically no accent ; but care must be taken to distinguish between o and 6, u and u, of which the second is more prolonged than the first. Be sure to avoid the flat sound of a, which is always pro nounced ah. A HANDBOOK OP MODERN JAPAN CHAPTER I PHYSIOGRAPHY Outline ob; Topics : Situation of country ; relation to the United States ; lines of communication ; " Key of Asia." — Area of em pire. — Divisions : highways, provinces, prefectures, principal cities and ports. — Dense population ; natives and foreigners ; Japanese abroad. — Mountains, volcanoes, hot springs, earthquakes. — Lakes, rivers, bays, harbors, floods, tidal waves. — Epidemics, pests. — Cli mate: temperature, winds (typhoons), moisture, ocean currents. — Flora and fauna. — Peculiar position: Japan and the United States. — Bibliography. THE Japanese may appropriately be called "our antipodal neighbors." They do not live, it is true, at a point exactly opposite to us on this globe ; but they belong to the obverse, or Eastern, hemisphere, and are an Oriental people of another race. They are separated from us by from 4,000 to 5,000 miles of the so-called, but misnamed, Pacific Ocean ; but they are connected to us by many lines of freight and passenger vessels. In fact, in their case, as in many other instances, the " disunit ing ocean " (Oceanws dissociahilis) of the Romans has 1 1 z A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN really disappeared, and even a broad expanse of waters has become a connecting link between the countries on the opposite shores. It may be, in a certain measure, correct to say, as pupils in geography are taught to express it, that the Pacific Ocean separates the United States from Japan ; but it is, in a broader and higher sense, just as accurate to state that this ocean binds us with our Asiatic neighbors and friends in the closest ties. Japan was "opened" by the United States; has been assisted materially, politi cally, socially, educationally, and morally by Ameri can influences in her wonderful career of progress; and she appreciates the kindliness and friendship of our people. We, in turn, ought to know more about our rapidly developing proUge, and no doubt de sire to learn all we can concerning Japan and the Japanese. The development of trade and commerce has been assisted by the power of steam to bring Japan and the United States into close and intimate relations. There are steamship lines from San Francisco, Van couver, Tacoma, Seattle, Portland, and San Diego to Yokohama or Kobe; and there are also a great many sailing vessels plying between Japan and America. The routes from San Francisco and San Diego direct to Japan are several hundred miles farther than the routes from the more northerly ports mentioned above. The time occupied by the voyage across the Pacific Ocean varies according to the ves sel, the winds and currents, etc. ; but it may be put PHYSIOGRAPHY 3 down in a general way at about 14 days. The fast royal mail steamers of the Canadian Pacific line often make the trip in much less time, and thus bring Chicago, for instance, within only a little more than two weeks' communication with Yokohama. It must, therefore, be evident that Japan is no longer a re mote country, but is as near to the Pacific coast of America, in time of passage, as the Atlantic coast of America was twenty years ago to Europe. It is true that the steamers of the San Francisco and San Diego lines, especially those carrying mails and passengers, go and come via Honolulu, so that the voyage to Japan thus requires a few more days than the direct trip would take. But, as Hawaii is now part of the United States, our country has thus become only about 10 days distant from Japan. Moreover, as the Philippine Islands are also a por tion of our country, and Formosa has been for several years a part of Japan, the territories of the two na tions are brought almost within a stone's throw, and the people almost within speaking distance, of each other. This proximity of the two nations to each other should be an incentive to draw even more closely together the ties, not only historical, com mercial, and material, but also political, social, edu cational, intellectual, moral, and religious, that bind them to each other, and, so far as possible, to make "Japan and America all the same heart." But Japan is also an Asiatic country, and thus holds a peculiar relation to the countries on the 4 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN eastern coast of the mainland of Asia. The islands of Japan stretch along that shore in close proximity to Siberia, Korea, and China, and are not far distant from Siam. "With all of those countries she enters, therefore, into most intimate relationship of many kinds. With Russia the relation is one of rivalry, of more or less hostility, at present passive, but likely to be aroused into activity by some unusually exasperating event. In any case, Japan is the only Far-Eastern power that can be relied upon to check the aggressions of Russia; and this fact the wise statesmen of Great Britain have clearly recognized by entering into the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Toward Korea, China, and Siam, Japan sustains a natural position of leadership, because she is far in advance of all those nations in civilization. Ties geographi cal, racial, social, political, intellectual, and reli gious, bind them more or less closely together, so that Japan can more sympathetically and thus more easily lead them out into the path of progress. The natural and common routes of trade and travel from the United States to those countries run via Japan, which thus becomes, in more senses than one, "the key of Asia"; and for that very reason she is also the logical mediator between the East and the West. The Japanese call their country Dai Eihon, or Dai Nippon (Great Japan), and have always had a patriotic faith in the reality of its greatness. But this delightful delusion is rudely dispelled when the PHYSIOGRAPHY 5 fact is expressed statistically, in cold figures, that the area of the Empire of Japan is about 161,000 square miles, or only a little more than that of Cali fornia. It has, however, a comparatively long coast line of more than 18,000 miles. The name Nihon, or Nippon (a corruption of the Chinese Jih-pgn, from which was derived " Japan "), means "sun -source," and was given because the country lay to the east from China. It is for this reason that Japan is often called "The Sunrise Kingdom," and that the Imperial flag contains the simple design of a bright sun on a plain white background.1 Japan proper comprises only the four large islands, called Hondo, Shikoku, Kyiishiu, and Yezo (Hok kaido) ; but the Empire of Japan includes also For mosa, the Pescadores, and about 4,000 small islands, of which the Ryukyu (Loo Choo) and the Kurile groups are the most important. Japan proper lies mainly between the same parallels of latitude 2 as the States of the Mississippi valley, and presents even more various and extreme climates than may be found from Minnesota to Louisiana. The extreme northern point of the Empire of Japan is 50° 56' N., and the extreme southern point is 21° 48' N. The extreme eastern point is 156° 32' E.,3 and the extreme western point 119° 20' E. These extremes furnish even greater varieties of climate 1 Another design shows the sun's rays shooting out from the sun in the centre. 2 24° 14'-45° 30' N. 8 But this does not include Marcus Island (Torishima). 6 A HANDBOOK. OF MODERN JAPAN than those just mentioned. The Kurile Islands at the extreme north are frigid, and have practi cally no animal or vegetable life; while the beau tiful island of Formosa at the extreme south is half in the tropics, with a corresponding climate, and abounds in most valuable products. Marcus Island, farther out in the Pacific, has guano deposits worth working. Japan proper is divided geographically into nine "circuits," called Gokinai, Tokaido, Tosando, Hoku- rikudo, Sanindo, Sanyodo, Nankaido, Saikaido, Hok kaido. The word do, which appears in all the names except the first, means " road " or " highway. " Some of these appellations are not much used at present; but others are retained in various connections, espe cially in the names of railways, banks, companies, or schools. A common official division of the largest island {Hondo) is into Central, Northern, and West ern. Japan proper was also subdivided into 85 Kuni (Province), the names of which are still retained in general use to some extent. But, for purposes of administration, the empire is divided into 3 Fu (Municipality) and 43 Ken (Prefecture), besides Yezo (or Hokkaido) and Formosa, each of which is ad ministered as a " territory " or "colony." The dis tinction between Fu and Ken is practically one in name only. These large divisions are again divided: the former into Ku (Urban District) and Gun (Rural District) ; and the latter into Gun. There are also more than 50 incorporated Cities (S7w) within the Fu PHYSIOGRAPHY 7 Moreover, the Gun is subdivided into Cho (Town) and Son (Village). But, while the prefix "great" does not apply to Japan with reference to its extent, it is certainly appropriate to the contents of that country. Within the Empire of Japan are great mountains with grand scenery, great and magnificent temples, great cities, and a great many people. For, while the area of Japan is only one-twentieth of that of the United States, the population is about one-half as numerous. Even in the country districts the villages are almost continuous, so that it is an infrequent experience to ride a mile without seeing a habitation; and in the large cities the people are huddled very closely to gether. The latest official statistics, those of 1900, give the total population of Japan as 47,646,810, of whom the males exceed the females by about 600,000; and as of late years the annual increase has amounted to about 500, 000, the present population (1903) may fairly be estimated at more than 49,000,000. The number of foreigners resident in Japan in 1900 exceeded 12, 000, of whom more than half were Chinese, and more than a quarter were British and American. The number of Japanese then living abroad was 123,791, of whom 90,146 were in the United States (chiefly in Hawaii), 15,829 in Korea, and 8,215 in British territory. Japan is a mountainous country. The level ground, 1 There is a T5kyo Shi, for instance, in Tokyo Fu. See Appen dix for lists of Kurd and Ken. 8 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN including artificial terraces, is barely 12 per cent of the area of the whole empire. A long range of high mountains runs like a backbone through the main island. The highest peak is the famous Fuji, which rises 12, 365 feet above the sea-level, and is a " dor mant volcano," whose last eruption occurred in 1708. Its summit is covered with snow about ten months in the year. There are several other peaks of more than 8,000 feet elevation, such as Mitake, Akashi, Shirane, Komagatake, Aso, Asama, Bandai, some of which are active volcanoes. Eruptions happen not infrequently; and earthquakes, more or less severe, registered by the seismometer, are of daily occur rence, although most of the shocks are not ordinarily perceptible.1 There are also several excellent hot springs, of sulphuric or other mineral quality, as at Ikao, Kusatsu, Atami, Hakone, Arima, Onsen. The mountainous character of Japan has also its pleasant features, because it furnishes means of escape from the depressing heat of summer. Karuizawa, Nikko, Miyanoshita, Hakone, Arima, Chuzenji are the most popular summer resorts. There are not many, or large, lakes in Japan. Lake Biwa, 50 miles long and 20 miles wide at its widest point, is the largest and most famous. Ha kone Lake, the " Asiatic Loch Lomond, " is beautiful, and especially noted for the reflection of Mount Fuji in its water by moonlight. Lake Chuzenji, in the Nikko mountains, is regarded by many as "unri- 1 Students of seismology should consult Professor Milne's works. PHYSIOGRAPHY 9 vailed for beauty" and "hardly surpassed in any land." There are many beautiful waterfalls, such as Kegon, Urami, and others in the Nikko district, Nunobiki at Kobe, Nachi in Kii, etc. There are numerous rivers, short and swift; and it is these streams, which, after a rainy season, swelling and rushing impetuously down from the mountains, overflow their sandy banks and cause annually a terrible destruction of life and property. The most important rivers are the Tone, the Shinano, the Kiso, the Kitakami, the TenryQ, in the main island, and the Ishikari in Yezo. The last is the longest (about 400 miles) ; the next is the Shinano (almost 250 miles); but no other river comes up even to 200 miles in length. The Tenryu-gawa 1 is famous for its rapids. Some of these rivers are navigable by small steamers. Japan, with its long and irregular coast line, is particularly rich in bays and harbors, both natural and artificial, which furnish shelter for the shipping of all kinds. The "open ports," which formerly numbered only 6 (Nagasaki, Yokohama, Hakodate, Osaka, Kobe, Niigata), have reached the figure 26; and the growing foreign commerce annually demands further enlargement. Of the old ports, Niigata is of no special importance in foreign commerce ; but, of the new ports, Kuchinotsu in Kyushiu, Muroran in Yezo (Hokkaido), and especially Bakan and Moji, i Kawa, or gawa, in composition, means " river." 10 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN on opposite sides of the Straits of Shimonoseki, are rapidly growing. In this connection it is, perhaps, not inappropriate to make mention of the far-famed '"Inland Sea," known to the Japanese as Seto-no-uchi (Between the Straits), or Seto-uchi, which lies be tween the main island, Shikoku and Kyushiu. The long coast line of Japan is a source of dan ger; for tidal waves occasionally spread devastation along the shore. These, with floods, earthquakes, eruptions, typhoons, and conflagrations, make a combination of calamities which annually prove very disastrous in Japan. The country is subject to epidemics, like dysen tery, smallpox, cholera, plague, and "La Grippe," which generally prove quite fatal. In 1890, for instance, some 50,000 Japanese were attacked by cholera, and about 30,000 died; and during two seasons of the " Russian epidemic " large numbers of Japanese were carried away. In both cases the foreigners living in Japan enjoyed comparative im munity. And now, on account of the advance in medical science, more stringent quarantine, and better sanitary measures, the mortality among Jap anese has been considerably diminished. This for tunate result is largely due to the efforts of such men as Dr. Kitasato, whose fame as a bacteriologist is world-wide. The zoological pests of Japan are fleas, mosquitoes, and rats, all of which are very troublesome; but modern improvements minimize the extent of their power. NAGASAKI HARBOR, AND LIGHTHOUSE INLAND SEA PHYSIOGRAPHY 11 But, in spite of the drawbacks just enumerated, Japan is a beautiful spot for residence. " The aspect of nature in Japan . . . comprises a variety of savage hideousness, appalling destructiveness, and almost heavenly beauty." The climate, though somewhat debilitating, is fairly salubrious, and on the whole is very delightful. The extremes of heat and cold are not so great as in Chicago, for instance, but are rendered more intolerable and depressing by the humidity of the atmosphere. No month is exempt from rain, which is most plentiful from June on through September; and those two months are the schedule dates for the two "rainy seasons." Septem ber is also liable to bring a terrible typhoon. Except in the northern, or in the mountainous, districts, snow is infrequent and light, and fogs are rare. The spring is the most trying, and the autumn the most charming season of the year.1 On account of the extent of Japan from north to south, the wide differences of elevation and depres sion, and the influence of monsoons and ocean currents, there is no uniformity in the climate. For instance, the eastern coast, along which runs the Kuro Shio (Black Stream), with a moderating influence like that of the Gulf Stream, is much warmer than the western coast, which is swept by Siberian breezes and Arctic currents. The exces sive humidity is due to the insular position and heavy rainfall. Almost all portions of the country 1 See also meteorological tables in Appendix. 12 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN are subject more or less to sudden changes of weather. It is also said that there is in the air a great lack of ozone (only about one-third as much as in most Western lands) ; and for this reason Occi dentals at least are unable to carry on as vigorous physical and mental labor as in the home lands. Foreign children, however, seem to thrive well in Japan. " Roughly speaking, the Japanese summer is hot and occasionally wet; September and the first half of October much wetter; the late autumn and early winter cool, comparatively dry, and delightful; Feb ruary and March disagreeable, with occasional snow and dirty weather, which is all the more keenly felt in Japanese inns devoid of fireplaces; the late spring rainy and windy, with beautiful days inter spersed. But different years vary greatly from each other."1 In Japan "a rich soil, a genial climate, and a sufficient rainfall produce luxuriant vegetation" of the many varieties of the three zones over which the country stretches. In Formosa, Kyushiu, Shikoku, and the Ryukyu Islands, " the general aspect is tropi cal"; on the main island the general appearance is temperate ; while Yezo and the Kurile Islands begin to be quite frigid. The commonest trees are the pine, cedar, maple, oak, lacquer, camphor, camellia, 1 This quotation is from Murray's " Hand-Book for Japan " by Chamberlain and Mason. The Introduction of that book contains most valuable practical information for prospective travellers in Japan. PHYSIOGRAPHY 13 plum, peach, and cherry; but the last three are grown for their flowers rather than for their fruit or wood. The bamboo, which grows abundantly, is one of the most useful plants, and is extensively employed also in ornamentation. In the fauna of Japan we do not find such great variety. Fish and other marine life are very abun dant; fresh-water fish are also numerous; and all these furnish both livelihood and living to millions of people. Birds are also quite numerous ; and some of them, like the so-called "nightingale" (uguisu), are sweet singers. The badger, bear, boar, deer, fox, hare, and monkey are found; cats, chickens, dogs, horses, oxen, rats, and weasels are numerous ; but sheep and goats are rare. Snakes and lizards are many; but really dangerous animals are compara tively few, except the foxes and badgers, which are said to have the power to bewitch people! In conclusion, attention should be called once more to the physiographical advantages of Japan, and it may be of interest to set them forth from the point of view of a Japanese who has indulged in some prognostications of the future of his nation. From the insular position of Japan, he assumes an adapta bility to commerce and navigation ; from the situation of Japan, "on the periphery of the land hemisphere," and thus at a safe distance from "the centre of national animosities," he deems her comparatively secure from "the depredations of the world's most conquering nations"; from the direction of her chief 14 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN mountain system (her backbone), and " the variegated configurations of her surface," he thinks that "na tional unity with local independence " may easily be developed. Likewise, because more indentations are found on the eastern than on the western sides of the Japanese islands, except in the southwestern island of Kyushiu, where the opposite is true ; because the ports of California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia are open toward Japan ; because the Hoang- Ho, the Yangtze Kiang, and the Canton rivers all flow and empty toward Japan; because the latter thus "turns her back on Siberia, but extends one arm toward America and the other toward China and India " ; because " winds and currents seem to imply the same thing [by] making a call at Yokohama almost a necessity to a vessel that plies between the two continents," — he conceives of his native country as a nakodo (middleman, or arbiter) "between the democratic West and the Imperial East, between the Christian America and the Buddhist Asia. " But since these comparisons were made, the geog raphy of Eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean has been somewhat altered. Japan has acquired For mosa; the United States has assumed the responsi bility of the Philippines; and China is threatened with partition through "spheres of influence." Japan, therefore, seems now to be lying off the eastern coast of Asia, with her back turned on Russia with Siberian breezes and Arctic currents, her face turned toward America, with one hand PHYSIOGRAPHY 15 stretched out toward the Aleutian Islands and Alaska and the other toward the Philippines, for the hearty grasp of friendship. BIBLIOGRAPHY. For more detailed information concerning the topics treated in this chapter, the reader is referred to " The Story of Japan " (Murray), in the "Story of the Nations" series; "The Gist of Japan" (Peery) ; and "Advance Japan" (Morris). For pleasant descriptions of various portions of Japan, " Jin- rikisha Days in Japan" (Miss Scidmore); "Lotos-Time in Japan " (Finck) ; " Japan and her People " (Miss Hartshorne) ; and "Unbeaten Tracks in Japan" (Miss Bird, now Mrs. Bishop) are recommended. The most complete popular work on the country is the " Hand-Book for Japan" (Chamberlain and Mason), 7th edition ; and the most thorough scientific treatment is to be found in Rein's "Japan." CHAPTER II INDUSTRIAL JAPAN Outline or Topics : Agriculture ; petty farming ; small capital and income ; character of farmer ; decrease of farmers ; principal products ; rice ; tea ; tobacco ; silk ; cotton ; camphor ; bamboo ; marine products and industries. — Mining. — Engineering. — Ship building. — Miscellaneous industries. — Mechanical industries. — Shopping in Japan. — Wages and incomes. — Guilds, labor unions, strikes, etc. — Mr. Katayama. — Socialism. — Bibliography. THE chief occupation of the Japanese is agri culture, in which the great mass of the people are employed. On account of the volcanic nature and the mountainous condition of the country, there are large portions not tillable;1 and for the same reason, perhaps, the soil in general is not naturally very fertile. It must be, and can be, made so by artificial means; but as yet not half of what is fairly fertile soil is under cultivation. Large portions of arable land, particularly in Yezo and Formosa, can be made to return rich harvests, and are gradually being brought under man's dominion. But it can be readily understood that if for any reason the crops fail, severe suffering will ensue, and perhaps become widespread. The prosperity of the country depends largely upon the prosperity of its farmers. 1 See Appendix. INDUSTRIAL JAPAN 17 Farming, like almost everything in that land of miniatures, is on a limited scale, as each man has only a very small holding. "There is no farm in Japan ; there are only gardens " (Uchimura). Even a "petty farmer" of our Northwest would ridicule the extremely insignificant farms of the Japanese, who, in turn, would be astounded at the prodigious domains of a Dalrymple. A careful in vestigator, Dr. Karl Rathgen, has summed up the situation as follows : " In Japan are to be found only small holdings. A farm of five cho x (twelve acres) is considered very large. As a rule the Japanese farmer is without hired labor and without cattle. The family alone cultivates the farm, which, how ever, is so small that a large share of the available labor can be devoted to other purposes besides farm ing, such as the production of silk, indigo, tobacco. The average holding for the whole of Japan (ex cluding the Hokkaido) for each agricultural family is 8.3 tan1 (about two acres), varying from a maxi mum of 17.6 tan in the prefecture of Aomori to a minimum of 5.3 tan in the prefecture of Wakayama." "There are no large landed proprietors in Japan." A Japanese farm is so insignificant, partly because a Japanese farmer has only a very small capital, and needs only a slight income to support life. It has been estimated that a man so fortunate as to own a farm of five cho x obtains therefrom an annual in come of 100 or 120 yen.1 And yet the Japanese l See tables of measurement and coinage, in Appendix. 2 18 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN farmers are very careful and thoroughly understand their business. "In spade-husbandry," says Dr. Griffis, "they have little to learn"; but "in stock- raising, fruit-growing, and the raising of hardier grains than rice, they need much instruction."1 A Japanase farmer is hard-working, industrious, stolid, conservative, and yet, by reason of his fatal istic and stoical notions, in a way happy and con tented. "Left to the soil to till it, to live and die upon it, the Japanese farmer has remained the same, . . . with his horizon bounded by his rice-fields, his water-courses, or the timbered hills, his intellect laid away for safe-keeping in the priest's hands, . . . caring little who rules him, unless he is taxed be yond the power of flesh and blood to bear." He is, however, more than ordinarily interested in taxation, for the land-tax of three and one-third per cent of the assessed value of the land amounts to about half the national revenue, and is no inconsiderable part of the state, county, town, and village taxes. A reduc tion to two and one-half per cent is now vigorously dis cussed in the press ; a bill to that effect, however, has not yet succeeded in passing the Imperial Diet.2 1 See " The Yankees of the East " (Curtis), chap. xiii. 2 The " Shakai Zasshi " has the following on the decrease of farmers: The causes of the phenomenon, briefly stated, are as below: (1) The current methods of farming require no intelli gence in the farmer. He works very much like an animal in a purely mechanical fashion. Hence lads with minds are attracted to trade and industry. (2) The universality of education has in creased the number of intelligent men among the lower classes, and this has made farmers discontented with their lot. (3) City life offers many attractions to active-minded persons ; and hence in Japan, as INDUSTRIAL JAPAN 19 The principal products of the Japanese farms are rice, barley, wheat, millet, maize, beans, peas, pota toes (Irish and sweet), turnips, carrots, melons, egg plants, buckwheat, onions, beets, and a large white bitter radish (daikon). A very good average yield is fifty bushels to an acre. The entire annual pro duction of rice varies each year, but averages about 40,000,000 koku;1 and the annual exportation of rice runs from about 3,500,000 yen to over 10,000,000 yen. The list of fruits2 and nuts grown in Japan includes pears, peaches, oranges, figs, persimmons, grapes, plums, loquats, apricots, strawberries, bananas, apples, peanuts, chestnuts, etc. Among other important Japanese productions must be mentioned, of course, tea, tobacco, and mulberry trees. Of these the last is, perhaps, indigenous; but the other two are importations in their origin. The culture of tea is most extensively carried on in the middle and southern districts. The annual pro duction is now about 8, 000, 000 kwan ; s the annual export trade is valued at about 8,000,000 yen. The price of tea runs from five cents to six dollars per pound, of which the last is raised at Uji, near Kyoto. The Japanese are a tea-drinking people; they use that beverage at meals and between meals, at all in the Western world, there has been a steady flow of country people towards the towns. The statistics published on this matter show, that, whereas in 1889 the proportion of townspeople to the total number of inhabitants was 15 in every 100 persons, in 1898 it has risen to 18. This accounts for the scarcity of farm labor, which has constantly been complained of in recent years. — Japan Mail. 1 See tables in Appendix. 2 See Appendix. 8 See tables of weights and measures in Appendix. 20 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN times and in all places. It is true that they drink it from a very small cup, which holds about two table- spoonfuls, but they drink, as we are told to pray, " without ceasing. " Hot water is kept ever ready for making tea, which is sipped every few minutes, and is always served, with cake or confectionery, to visitors.1 Tobacco was introduced into Japan by the Portu guese, but its use was at first strictly prohibited. The practice of smoking, however, rapidly spread until it became well-nigh a universal custom, not even restricted to the male sex. The Lilliputian pipe would seem to indicate that only a limited amount of the weed is used; but smoking, like tea-drinking, is practised "early and often." The Japanese tobacco is said to be "remarkable for its mildness and dryness." The silk industry is the most important in rela tion to Japan's foreign trade, and is on the increase. Silk is sent away to American and European markets chiefly in its raw state, but is also manufactured into handkerchiefs, etc. The exports of silk for the year 1898 amounted to about $31,000,000, or about one- fifth of the entire export trade. It would, of course, be beyond the limits of this chapter to enter into the description of the details of sericulture; it may be sufficient here to state that only the stolid patience of Orientals can well endure the slow, tedious, and painstaking process of feeding the silkworms.2 1 Scidmore's "Jinrikisha Days in Japan," chap, xxxv., and Gribble's paper in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xii. pp. 1-33. 2 Scidmore's " Jinrikisha Days in Japan," chaps, xxvi., xxvii. INDUSTRIAL JAPAN 21 Cotton-spinning is a comparatively new industry in Japan, but is growing rapidly. Cotton is, of course, the principal material for the clothing of the common people, who cannot afford silk robes. But Japan, though raising a great deal of cotton, cannot supply the demand, and imports large quantities from India and America. It is only within a short time that cotton-spinning by machinery has become a Japanese industry ; formerly all the yarn was spun by hand ; but in 1900 there were 76 cotton-mills in Japan. Some are very small concerns ; but in Osaka, Nagoya, and Tokyo there are comparatively large and flourishing mills. Ordinary workmen receive from 12 to 20 sen a day; skilled laborers make from 30 to 40 sen; girls earn from 10 to 20 sen, and children only a few sen per day ; but the stockholders receive dividends of from 10 to 20 per cent per annum. Since Japan acquired Formosa from China, she has had added to her resources another very important and valuable product, in which she possesses prac tically a monopoly of the world's market and a sup ply supposed to be sufficient for the demands of the whole world for this entire century. It has been estimated, for instance, that the area of interior dis tricts in which the camphor tree is found will reach over 1,500 miles. The camphor business of Japan in Formosa is in the hands of a British firm, to whom, as highest bidder, the government let out its monopoly for a fixed term of years.1 1 See Davidson's " Island of Formosa." 22 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Perhaps the most generally useful product of Japan is the bamboo,1 which "finds a use in every size, at all ages, and for manifold purposes," or, as Huish expresses it, "is used for everything." Rein 'and Chamberlain each takes up a page or more for an incomplete list of articles made from bamboo; so that Piggott is surely right when he states that it is "an easier task to say what is not made of bamboo." Inasmuch as Japan is an insular country, with a long line of sea-coast, it is natural that fishing should be one of the principal occupations of the people, and that fish, seaweed, and other marine products should be common diet. From ancient times down to the opening of Japan, the fishing industry was a simple occupation, somewhat limited in its scope ; but since the Japanese have learned from other nations to what extent marine industries are capable of development, fishing has become the source of many and varied lines of business. The canning industry, for in stance, is of quite recent origin, but is growing rapidly. Whaling and sealing are very profitable occupations. Smelt-fishing by torchlight by means of tame cormorants was largely employed in olden times, and is kept up somewhat even to the present day. The occupation of a fisherman, though arduous and dangerous, is not entirely prosaic, and, in Japan, contributes to art. The return home of the fishing- 1 See Transactions Japan Society, London, vol. i., for an interest ing paper by Charles Holme, and Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxvii., for an elaborate and finely illustrated paper by Sir Ernest Satow, on " Bamboo." * J ^ U t HA I.Tii I iVjftiiin iH COTTON MILLS, OSAKA INDUSTRIAL JAPAN 23 smacks in the afternoon is an interesting sight; and the aspect of the sea, dotted with white sails, appeals so strongly to the aesthetic sense of the Japanese that it is included among the "eight views" of any locality. Mining is also a flourishing industry in Japan, as the country is quite rich in mineral resources. Coal is so extensively found that it constitutes an item of export. Copper, antimony, sulphur, and silver are found in large quantities; gold, tin, iron, lead, salt, etc., in smaller quantities. Oil, too, has sprung up into an important product.1 Engineering, perhaps, deserves a paragraph by itself. This department in the Imperial University is flourishing, and sends forth annually a large number of good engineers. In civil engineering the Japanese have become so skilful that they have little need now of foreign experts except in the matter of general supervision. It is worthy of special notice that the Japanese have become qui be skilful in ship-building, so that they now construct vessels of various kinds, not only for themselves but for other nations. The Mitsu Bishi Company, Nagasaki, has constructed for the Japan Mail Steamship Company three fine passenger steamers of 6,300 tons each. At the Uraga Dock yard large American men-of-war have been satisfac torily repaired; and on October 15, 1902, a small United States gunboat was launched, — " the first 1 See Appendix. 24 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN instance in which Japan has got an order of ship building from, a Western country."1 Among the minor miscellaneous industries which can only be mentioned are sugar-raising, paper- making (there are a number of mills which are paying well), dyeing, glass-blowing, lumber, horse- breeding, poultry, pisciculture, ice, brick, fan, match, button, handkerchief, pottery, lacquer, weaving, em broidery, sake and beer brewing, soy, etc. The ex tent and variety of the industries of Modern Japan are also clearly evidenced in a short article about " The Osaka Exhibition " of 1903 in the Appendix. In what we style " the mechanical arts " the Jap anese excel, and have a world-wide reputation. With their innate aesthetic instincts they make the most commonplace beautiful. It is a trite saying that a globe-trotter, picking up in a native shop a very pretty little article, and admiring it for its simplicity and exquisite taste, is likely to find it an ordinary household utensil. Japanese lacquer work is dis tinctive and remarkable for its beauty and strength ; lacquered utensils, such as bowls, trays, etc., are not damaged by boiling soups, hot water, or even cigar ashes. In porcelain and pottery, the Japanese are celebrated for the artistic skill displayed in manufacture and ornamentation. "The bronze and inlaid metal work of Japan is highly esteemed." Japanese swords, too, are remarkable weapons with "astonishing cleaving power." To summarize this 1 Japan Times. See also Appendix. INDUSTRIAL JAPAN 25 paragraph, it may be said that the Japanese have turned what we call mechanical industries into fine arts, which display a magnificent triumph of aestheti- cism even in little things.1 This chapter would be incomplete without a para graph concerning Japanese shops, or retail stores, which are among the first curiosities to attract and rivet a foreigner's attention. The building is, per haps, a small, low, frame structure, crowded among its fellows on a narrow lane. The floor is raised a foot or so above the ground, and is covered, as usual, with thick matting. Spread out on the floor or on wooden tiers or on shelves are the' goods for sale. The shopkeeper sits on his feet on the floor, and calmly smokes his pipelet, or fans himself, or in winter warms his hands over the hibachi (fire-bowl). He greets you with a profound bow and most re spectful words of welcome, but makes no attempt to effect a sale, or even to show an article unless you ask to see it. He is imperturbably indifferent whether or not you make a purchase; either way, it is all right. He will politely display anything you want to see ; and, even if, after making him much trouble, you buy nothing or only an insignificant and cheap article, he sends you away with as profound a bow and as polite expressions as if you had bought out the shop. Whether you buy little or much or even nothing, you are always dismissed with "Arigato gozaimasu" and "Mata irasshai," which are very re- 1 See also chapter on " JEsthetic Japan." 26 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN spectful phrases for " Thank you " and " Come again." Having dropped into "a veritable shoppers' para dise," you will quickly "find yourself the prey of an acute case of shopping fever before you know it ! " It is, indeed, true, to quote further from this same writer, that " to stroll down the Broadway [known as the Ginza] of Tokio of an evening is a liberal educa tion in every-day art." 2 From what has already been written, it is easily noticeable that wages and incomes, like so many things in petite Japan, are insignificant. It may be added here that ordinary mechanics earn on an aver age 50 sen a day, and the most skilful seldom get more than double that amount; that carpenters earn from 50 to 80 sen a day; that street-car drivers and conductors receive 10 or 12 yen per month, and other workmen of the common people about the same. Even an official who receives 1,000 yen per year is considered to have a snug income. It will be in ferred from this that the cost of living is proportion ately cheaper, whether for provisions or for shelter or for clothes, and that the wants, the absolute ne cessities, of the people are few and simple. Literally true it is, that a Japanese man " wants but little here below, nor wants that little long." With rice, bar ley, sweet potatoes, other vegetables, fish, eggs, tea, and even sweetmeats in abundance and very cheap, a Japanese can subsist on little and be contented and happy with enough, or even less than that. But, 1 Lowell's " Soul of the Ear East," pp. 114-117; INDUSTRIAL JAPAN 27 unfortunately, the new civilization of the West has carried into Japan the itch for gold and the desire for more numerous and more expensive luxuries, and has increased the cost of living without increasing pro portionately the amount of income or wages.1 Industrial Japan has already become more or less modified by features of Occidental industrialism, such as guilds, trade unions, strikes, co-operative stores. It is true that feudal Japan also had guilds, which are, however, now run rather on modern lines. One of the oldest, strongest, and most compact is that of the dock coolies, who without many written rules are yet so well organized that they have almost an absolute monopoly, with frequent strikes, which are always successful. Others of the guilds are those of the sawyers, the plasterers, the stone masons, the bricklayers, the carpenters, the barbers, the coolies (who can travel all over the empire with out a penny and live on their fellows), the wrestlers, the actors, the gamblers, the pickpockets, etc. The beggars' guild is now defunct. The labor unions of modern days include the iron-workers, the ship- carpenters, the railway engineers, the railway work men, the printers, and the European-style cooks. The last-mentioned is one in which foreigners resi dent in Japan necessarily take a practical interest ! The only unions which have become absolute masters of the situation are those of the dock coolies, the railway laborers, and the railway engineers. As for 1 The Yankees of the East (Curtis), chap. xii. Also see Appendix. 28 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN co-operative stores, there are a dozen or more in Tokyo, Yokohama, and Northern Japan. The perfect organization of these modern unions is due largely to the efforts of a young man named Sen Katayama, who is the champion of the rights of the laboring man in Japan. He spent ten years in America and made a special study of social prob lems. He is the head of Kingsley Hall, a social settlement of varied activity in the heart of Tokyo, and editor of the "Labor World," the organ of the working classes. That the changes rapidly taking place in the industrial life of Japan will raise up serious problems, there is no doubt; what phases they will assume cannot be foreseen. But "socialistic" ideas are carefully repressed in modern Japan. BIBLIOGRAPHY "Japan and its Trade" and "Advance Japan" (Morris); " The Yankees of the East " (Curtis) ; " Japan in Transition " (Ransome), chap. x. ; " The Awakening of the East " (Leroy- Beaulieu), chaps, iv. and v. ; and especially Rein's " Industries of Japan," in which the subject is treated in great detail with German thoroughness. But to keep pace with the rapid prog ress along industrial and commercial lines, one really needs current English newspapers and magazines, such as are men tioned in the chapter on "Language and Literature." The reports of the British and United States consular officials are also very useful in this respect. "Japan and America," a monthly magazine published in New York City, will be found convenient and valuable on this subject. CHAPTER III TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE Octline or Topics : Travelling in Old Japan ; vehicles of Old and New Japan ; jinrikisha ; railway travel ; telegraph and tele phone; street-car, bicycle, and automobile; steamships. — Postal system. — Oil, gas, and electric light. — Foreign commerce ; variety of imports. — Mixed corporations. — Stock and other exchanges.— Banking system ; coinage ; monetary standard. — Baron Shibusawa on business ability of Japanese, prospects of industrial and com mercial Japan, and financial situation. — Bibliography. ONE of the most common and most important indications of a great change in the life and civilization of Japan is to be seen in the improved modes of travel and transportation. The ancient method, though in some sections pack-horses and oxen were used, was essentially pedestrian. The common people travelled on foot, and carried or dragged over the road their own baggage or freight. Couriers, carrying the most important despatches, relied upon fleetness of foot. The higher classes and wealthy people, even though not themselves making any exertions in their own behalf, were carried about in vehicles by coolies, who, with their human burdens, tramped from place to place. On water, too, travel and transportation depended mostly upon human mus cular exertion, as all boats, small or large, had to be propelled by oars or poles, except when favored with a 30 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN breeze to swell the sails and allow the boatmen a respite from their toil. But all this hard labor developed, of course, a strength of limb and a power of endurance that even in recent years have enabled the Japanese soldiers to march and fight in either the piercing cold and deep snow of Manchuria or the blistering heat of Formosa. A life of constant outdoor exposure to wind, rain, cold, or heat has toughened and browned the skin, and made an altogether hardy race out of the common people ; while the lack of this regular exercise and calisthenic training has left its mark in the com paratively weak constitutions of those who travelled, not on their own feet, but on the shoulders of others. The common vehicles of the olden days were ordinary carts for freight and norimono and kago for passengers. The norimono is a good-sized sedan-chair or palanquin, in which the rider can sit in a fairly comfortable position. The kago is a sort of basket in which the traveller takes a half-sitting, half-reclining posture, not altogether comfortable — at least for tall foreigners. At present the norimono is seldom if ever employed except for corpses or invalids, but the kago is still used in mountainous regions, where nothing else is available. It must be understood, of course, that the nobles and their retainers often rode on horseback ; but the great mass of the people walked and the few rode in kago or norimono. Now, however, modes of travel have changed greatly, and are changing year by year. There are still many pedestrians ; the kago is yet to be seen ¦ TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 31 boats are propelled by stern-end oar or laboriously pushed along with poles ; and pack-horses and oxen — even in the streets of Tokyo — are in frequent use. But there are many other means of communication and transportation. There have come into use the horse-car, the stage, the jinrikisha, the railroad, with the telegraph and the telephone; the modern row- boat, the steamboat ; the bicycle, the automobile, and the electric railway, with the electric light to show the road by night. An excellent postal system and various other modern contrivances for facilitating the means of communication have been adopted. The most common mode of conveyance at present, in all possible localities, is the jin-riki-sha (man-power- carriage), or " Pull-man car," as it has been wittily called. This is a two-wheeled " small gig," or large baby-carriage, pulled by one or more men. A ride in a jinrikisha, after one has become accustomed to human labor in that capacity, is really comfortable and delightful. The coolies who pull these vehicles develop swiftness and endurance, but are comparatively short-lived. There is also a two-wheeled freight cart manipulated in the same fashion. It has been es timated that in Tokyo alone there are more than 700,000 hand-carts, almost 200,000 jinrikishas, about 10,000 ox-carts, more than 25,000 other freight carts, and almost 3,000 omnibuses and horse-cars. The business of transportation there furnishes occupation to thousands of people, but gives to each engaged therein only a scanty remuneration, which is often 32 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN insufficient for the support of life, after the tax has been paid. The fee for a jinrikisha ride averages about 10 or 12 sen per ri (21 miles), or varies from 10 to 20 sen per hour. If a coolie makes 50 sen in one day, he is fortunate, and is lucky to average 25 or 30 sen per day ; for some days he may be wearily waiting and watching from dawn to the dead of night without receiving scarcely a copper. Hard, indeed, is their lot; and their death rate is rather low.1 But even the jinrikisha will eventually be sup planted for long journeys wherever a railroad goes. There are now in Japan about 4,000 miles of railway, and at least 1,200 miles more are said to be absolutely necessary. There is one continuous line of railroad from Aomori in the extreme north to Shimonoseki in the extreme south of the main island, and then, after crossing the Straits of Shimonoseki, there is another unbroken line from Moji to Nagasaki and Kagoshima or Kumamoto. In the island of Yezo (Hokkaido) is a short line built by American engineers after American models ; but all other railroads in Japan were built 1 " Unlike ordinary laborers jinrikisha men have always to work in the open air, often in defiance of the elements, and irre spective of day or night. Sometimes they are covered from head to foot with dust and at other times drenched to the skin with water. Then again they experience a constant change in their bodily temperature, at one time perspiring from their arduous exertions, and at another shivering with cold. No one can doubt that such quick change in bodily temperature will sooner or later tell on the health of those unfortunate victims. At every street corner they are to be found on the eager look-out for customers, but exhaustion soon asserts its claim over them, as they invariably doze whenever and wherever they have the chance." TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 33 and are operated according to the British methods. The rate of fare is 1 sen per mile for third class, 2 sen for second class, and 3 sen for first class, and the rate of speed rarely exceeds 20 or 25 miles per hour ; but fortunately the people are not in such a hurry as Americans. Recently, however, express trains, running at the rate of 30 or more miles per hour, have been started on several of the roads, espe cially between large and important places. Dining- cars and sleeping-cars, too, may be found on some of the lines ; and the American check system is used for baggage. The government owns most of the rail ways, and has been contemplating for some time the policy of buying up all the private lines. This may be desirable from a strategic point of view ; but from the business standpoint it is not advisable, for the government lines are not well managed. The best line in the country is a private one, the Sanyo Rail way Company, operating west from Kobe.1 Railroads have been naturally accompanied, and often preceded, by telegraph lines, which now keep the various parts of the empire in close communica tion with T5kyo and with each other. During 1901 the telegrams numbered over 16,000,000, and are increasing rapidly in number every year. The Japanese syllabary has lent itself easily to a code like the Morse Code.2 Telephones, too, have been 1 See Appendix for important railway statistics. 2 Japan is also in cable communication with the rest of the world via both Hongkong and Vladivostock ; and press rates are available. 3 34 A HANDBOOK OF MQDERN JAPAN introduced and are growing in favor so rapidly that the government cannot keep up with the petitions for installation. According to the latest reports, there were 10,554 telephones in Tokyo, while 11,015 more were applied for. There are many public slot tele phones, which can be used for a few minutes for 5 sen. Horse-cars are largely used in cities, but are being gradually supplanted by electric cars. The bus in the city and the stage in the country are in com mon use, but cannot be recommended for comfort. Bicycles are very popular, and are cheaply manufac tured in Japan ; even Japanese women have begun to ride, while young men are very skilful as trick riders and rapid as "scorchers." Automobiles also are coming into a limited use. In a country where formerly no ships large enough to make long voyages were allowed to be made, steam ship companies are now flourishing. The Osaka Shosen Kwaisha (Osaka Merchant Marine Com pany) is a very large and prosperous corporation, whose business is chiefly the coasting trade, but which also runs to Formosa, the Ryukyu Islands, the Bonin Islands, Korea, and China. But the lar gest steamship company in Japan, and one of the largest in the world, is the Nippon Tusen Kwaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company). It has a fleet of 76 vessels with 242,000 tons; and maintains not only a frequent coasting service, but also several for eign lines, to Siberia, Korea, China, India, Australia, Europe, and America. This is the line which runs TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 35 fortnightly from Seattle to Hongkong with excel lent passenger accommodations. The Toyo Kisen Kwaisha (Oriental Steamship Company) is a Jap anese organization with three fine vessels running about once a month from San Francisco to Hawaii, Japan, China, and Manila. The word Maru 1 in such combinations as " America Maru " or " Kaga Maru " is a special suffix always attached to the name of a ship. In Old Japan there was no official postal system, and letters were despatched by private messengers and relays of couriers. When Japan was opened to the world, some of the foreign nations represented there maintained special post-offices of their own, but these were gradually abandoned. It was in 1872 that the modern postal system of Japan was organized on American models ; and it was only five years later when Japan was admitted to the International Postal Union. The twenty-fifth anniversary of this event was celebrated with great eclat in Tokyo in 1902. The Japanese postal system has been gradually improved during its quarter-century of existence, so that in some respects it excels its model, the United States postal system, and is really one of the most efficient in the world. It includes registration, money orders, parcel post, reply postal cards, postal savings,2 and universal free delivery. Letter postage is 3 sen within the empire and 10 sen to all countries of the International Postal Union ; postal cards are 1| and 4 sen respec- 1 It should be pronounced Mah-rbti, not Ma-roo'. 2 See Appendix. 36 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN tively. We also beg leave to remind Americans that letter postage to Japan is not 2 cents, but 5 cents per half ounce. Oil is most extensively used for lighting purposes ; but gas and electricity are also employed, and bring good dividends to companies furnishing such illumina tion. A very large amount of oil has been annually imported from the United States and Russia ; but as rich fields have been found in Northern Japan,1 the Standard Oil Company is also interested in a Japanese corporation, the International Oil Company, organized to work Japanese fields. Foreign capital has also been invested in the Osaka Gas Company, and is sought by the Tokyo Gas Company, as well as by several electric and steam railway companies. The first buildings erected for the Imperial Diet were supplied with electric lights, but caught fire in some way, and were totally destroyed. This calamity was laid at the door of a flaw in the electric lighting apparatus, and so frightened the Emperor that he decided not to use the electric lights in the palace ; but if my memory serves me rightly, after one or two nights of imperfect and unsatisfactory lighting, he resorted once more to electricity. The foreign trade of Japan has increased from $13,123,272 in 1868 to $265,017,161 in 1902,— twenty-fold in a third of a century.2 Of recent years the imports have been larger than the exports; in 1 See Appendix. 2 See table in Appendix. In 1902 the exports footed up almost $130,000,000, and the imports more than §136,000,000. TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 37 1898 they were more than $55,000,000 in excess ; in 1900, almost $41,500,000 in excess ; but in 1901 the difference was only about $1,750,000. The chief articles of export are silk (either raw, or partly or wholly manufactured), cotton yarn and goods, matches, coal, high-grade rice, copper, camphor, tea, matting, straw braid, and porcelain. The principal imports are raw cotton, shirting and printed cotton, mousse- line, wool, cotton velvet, satin, cheap rice, flour, sugar, petroleum, oil cake, peas and beans, machinery, iron and steel (including nails and rails), steamers, locomotives, and railway carriages. The exports are sent chiefly to the United States, Great Britain and colonies (especially Hongkong), China, and France ; while the imports come mostly from Great Britain and colonies (especially England, India, and Hong kong), the United States, Germany, France and col onies, and China. The variety in the geographical distribution of the imports of Japan may be faintly illustrated by the fol lowing partial list of supplies taken by an American family from Tokyo to the summer resort of Hakone : soap from England and America, cocoa from England, butter from California, cornstarch from Buffalo, N. Y., Swiss milk, Holland candles, pickles from England, Scotch oatmeal, American rolled oats and cracked wheat, flour from Spokane Falls, Washington, canned goods from San Francisco, Kansas City, Chicago, and Omaha, and evaporated cream from Illinois. The first mixed corporation, composed of Japanese 38 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN and foreigners, to be licensed under the new Commercial Codes after the new treaties went into effect in 1899, was the Nippon Electric Company, in which a large electric company of Chicago is specially interested. Japan has several stock exchanges and chambers of commerce in various localities, and these are all under the strictest supervision and close restrictions. It was in 1872 that National Bank Regulations were first issued, and a few banks were established ; but in 1876 it was found necessary to make radical amend ments in those regulations in the way of affording greater facilities for the organization of banks. The result was that by 1879 there were 153 national banks in the countiy ; and in 1886 the further organization of national banks was stopped. In the mean time the Yokohama Specie Bank had been organized (in 1880) for the support of the foreign trade; and (in 1882) the Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginko) had been organ ized to " secure proper regulations of the currency." In 1897 the Industrial Bank, and later provincial agricultural-industrial banks were organized to give special banking facilities to local agricultural and in dustrial circles. The Bank of Formosa, the Colonial Bank of Hokkaido, and a Credit Mobilier complete the List of official institutions. By 1899 all the national banks had either been changed into private banks or had gone out of existence. Private banks number over 1,800, of which the Mitsui, the Mitsubishi, the Hundredth, the Sumitomo, the Fifteenth (Nobles'), the First, and the Yasuda are the strongest. Savings- BAKON SHIBUSAWA TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 39 banks are also quite numerous (681), and are helping to develop habits of thrift and economy among the- common people.1 The first Japanese mint was established at Osaka in 1871, and has been actively at work ever since ; and there is an institution in Tokyo for the manufac ture of paper money. The coins now chiefly used are copper, nickel, silver, and gold ; but in the country districts it is still possible to find brass coins of less than mill values. The copper pieces are \ sen (5 rin), 1 sen, and 2 sen ; the 5 sen piece is the only nickel coin ; the silver pieces are 5 sen, 10 sen, 20 sen, and 50 sen ; and the gold coins are 5 yen, 10 yen, and 20 yen. There are also paper notes of 1 yen and upward : these are issued only by the Bank of Japan, and amounted in 1899 to over 250,000,000 yen. In 1897 Japan adopted the gold standard, so that exchange fluctuations with the Occident are slight, and the Japanese currency has a fixed value, at the rate of about 50 cents for the yen? Concerning the prospects of industrial and com mercial Japan, it may be well to note the views 3 of Baron Shibusawa, one of the foremost of Japanese merchants and financiers. In referring to the capacity of the Japanese for business, the Baron says : — " There are, however, four peculiarities in the Japanese character which make it hard for the people to achieve 1 See Hamaoka's pamphlet on " The Bank of Japan." 2 Eor tables of currency, weights, measures, etc., see Appendix. 8 See " Japan and America " for June and July, 1903 ; also consult Diosy's " New Ear East," chap. vi. 40 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN business success. These are: Firstly, impulsiveness, which causes them to be enthusiastic during successful business and progressive even to rashness when filled with enthusiasm ; secondly, lack of patience, which causes easy discouragement when business is not so suc cessful; thirdly, disinclination for union; and fourthly, they do not honor credit as they should, which is so im portant a factor in financial success. These four pecu liarities are to be met with iu Japanese business men in a more or less marked degree. "Although Japan, as a country, is old, yet her com mercial and industrial career being new, there are neces sarily many points of incompleteness. For example, although we have many railways, yet there is no close con nection made between the railway station and the harbor. Again, although we have railways, yet we have no appro priate cars, etc. To complete such work and to open up the resources of the country, and to allow Japan to benefit from them, we need more capital. The capital we have in the country is not enough. So what is now wanted in Japan is foreign capital. A great proportion of the Japanese people, however, are opposed to the idea of sharing any profits equally with any other na tion. Their exclusiveness in this respect is a distinct relic of the old era. They ignore altogether the fact that, with the assistance of foreign capital, the profits would be quadrupled. The very, idea of sharing with an outside power is distasteful to them. For instance, I have been endeavoring for many years by word and deed to obtain a revision of the laws relative to the ownership of land in Japan by foreigners. I may say that Marquis Ito and other public men are of my opinion in the mat ter. Because, however, of this exclusive element in Japan, it has still been found impossible to allow for eigners to own Japanese land. Until this change is NOBLE'S BANK AND BANK OF JAPAN, TOKYO TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 41 made, foreign investors will naturally feel that there is little safety for their investments. " I am also anxious to introduce the idea of a system of trusteeship in order to encourage foreign nations to invest their money in Japanese enterprises. There are very many uncompleted works in Japan, which need out side money to finish them and which would return good profits. I feel assured that it would be possible for prominent Japanese bankers and capitalists to make themselves personally responsible for the money of the foreign investor. By such a system the security of the investment would be much increased, and the foreign investor would have the assurance that his money was safe, even if the business in which it had been invested may have ceased to exist. The entire loss caused by the failure of Japanese business enterprises would thus be borne by the Japanese. " The day will come when Japan will compete with the powers already in the field on all lines of manufactured goods, but this time must necessarily be far distant. The trouble at present is that, while the Japanese can imitate everything, they cannot, at the same time, invent su perior things. But the trade of the Oriental countries will come to be regarded as Japan's natural share, and she is already well capable of supplying it. " The resources of Japan are very varied and very fair in quantity at present. Raw silk and tea are abundant, while coal is plentiful, as also copper and silver ; gold is not so much so. I hope to see our plentiful water sup ply turned into good account and harnessed to produce electric energy. This would be a great saving of ex pense and would cheapen the cost of production very much. Oil has been found in several districts and will take the place of coal to a large extent, and it is possible that if fully developed its export trade may be made to 42 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN the neighboring countries. In Hokkaido we have rich coal and silver mines and oil wells, while in Formosa we have rich gold mines. The iron we use in our iron works in Kiushiu comes partly from several mines of Japan and partly from China. " My hope for the future is that foreign capital may be brought into the country and that the economic position of the country may be made so secure as to leave no doubt possible in the mind of the world as to the stabil ity of the Japanese Empire." We also take pleasure in quoting the same high authority upon the subject of the present financial situation in Japan, as follows : 1 — " The present financial difficulty in Japan is only the natural sequence of the over-expansion of business of some years ago. In every country there are waves of prosperity followed by periods of depression. I have known, in the economic history of Japan since the Restoration, five or six such waves. They do not neces sarily injure the real financial standing of the country. The peculiarities of the Japanese business character have much to answer for in the way of increasing the appearance of financial insecurity during the times of depression. After the prosperous times of 1893 came the war with China and the subsequent indemnity. Much of the money paid by China was spent in Japan, and the Japanese people came to the conclusion that this increased circulation of money would be permanent. They acted impulsively in many enterprises, and rushed into all kinds of business because the government had over-expanded its enterprises after the war. The de pression reached its height in 1900 and 1901, and busi- 1 See " Japan and America " for June and July, 1903. to > WH O' TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 43 nesses were abandoned or reduced because it was not such easy work as formerly. I agree with Viscount Watanabe in his views on the present financial situation of the country, but I do not agree with him in his opinion that the present condition of affairs will inevi tably result in national bankruptcy. This will not be the case, because by proper management our national income can be made still greater than our expenditure." BIBLIOGRAPHY. For interesting accounts of travel when and where modern conveniences were not available, read " Unbeaten Tracks in Japan" (Bird); "The Mikado's Empire" (Griffis); " Noto, an Unexplored Corner of Japan" (Lowell); "Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan " (Hearn) ; and papers in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan. For similarly interesting accounts of travel with modern conveniences read " Jinrikisha Days in Japan " (Scidmore) ; " Japan and her People " (Harts- horne) ; " The Yankees of the East " (Curtis). On the industrial and commercial phases of these topics, consult books, papers, magazines, and pamphlets mentioned in the bibliography of the preceding chapter ; also " General View of Commerce and Industry in the Empire of Japan," occasion ally published for free distribution. CHAPTER IV PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS Outline of Topics : Ainu ; ethnology ; two types ; compara tive stature and weight; intellectual and moral qualities. — Classes in society of old and new regimes; social principle. — Family and empire. — Houses ; public buildings ; rooms ; foreign architecture. — Gardens. — Eood ; meals ; table manners ; foreign cooking. — Undress and dress ; European costume. — Bathing. — Bibliography. WHO were the aborigines of Japan is yet a disputed question. Remains have been found of a race of dwarfs who dwelt in caves and pits, but who these people were is not positively known. They may have been contempo rary with the Ainu, whom many call " the aborigines of Japan." It is certain, however, that the Ainu were once a very numerous nation, "the members of which formerly extended all over Japan, and were in Japan long before the present race of Japanese." But the latter gradually forced the former northward, until a final refuge was found in Yezo and the Kurile Islands. There the Ainu are now living, but are slowly dying out as a race ; there are at present only about 17,600 remaining. They are said to be "the hairiest race in the whole world," "of sturdy build, " filthy in their habits (bathing is unknown), addicted PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 45 to drunkenness, and yet " of a mild and amiable dis position." Their religion is nature -worship.1 It is well known that the Japanese are classed under the Mongolian (or Yellow) Race. They themselves boastfully assert that they belong to the "golden race," and are superior to Caucasians, who belong to the "silver race"! As Mongolians, they are marked, not only by a yellowish hue, of many shades from the darkest to the lightest, but also by straight black hair (rather coarse), scanty beard, father broad and prominent cheek-bones, and eyes more or less oblique. Some think that the Japanese people show strong evidences of Malay origin,2 and claim that the present Emperor, for in- 1 " Unbeaten Tracks in Japan," by Miss Bird (now Mrs. Bishop), is interesting and reliable in its treatment of the Ainu of that day. Chamberlain also has written on the "Ainos." The best single book is, of course, " The Ainu of Japan," by Bev. J. Batchelor, the leading authority, who has also written a book on "Ainu Folk-lore." 2 " Various Impressions " is the title of an address delivered at a meeting of the Imperial Education Society by Dr. Nitobe, reported very fully in the Kydiku Koho. Dr. Nitobe gave an account of his travels in the South Pacific. He visited Java, many other islands, and Australia. At Java he felt persuaded that an eminent French ethnologist who not long ago said that, as the result of much investigation, he had come to the conclusion that the Japanese race was %o Malay, %o Mongolian, and Ho mixed, was right. Among the mixed elements there was an Aryan ele ment, which came from India, and a negrito element. " Now it is supposed," says Dr. Nitobe, " that this negrito element comes from the Javanese. It no longer shows itself in the Japanese in regard to the form of the nose and that of the cheek-bones, but it is to be seen in the curly hair of certain inhabitants of Kyushiu. In Oshu, from which I come, this peculiarity is not known. During my travels in the South Pacific Islands I was repeatedly struck by 46 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN stance, is of a striking Malay type. It is not im possible, nor even improbable, that Malays were borne on the "Japan Current" northward from their tropical abodes to the Japanese islands; but there is no historical record of such a movement. Therefore the best authorities, like Rein and Baelz, do not acknowledge more than slight traces of Malay influence. A more recent theory concerning the origin of the real Japanese — or Yamato men, as they called themselves — is that they are descendants of the Hittites, whose capital was Hamath, or Yamath, or Yamato. There are two distinct types of Japanese: the oval-faced, narrow-eyed, small aristocratic class; and the pudding-faced, full-eyed, flat-nosed, stout common people. Of these, the latter is the one claimed to be Malay. The plebeians, having always been accustomed to hard labor by the sweat of the brow, are comparatively strong; the others, having been developed by centuries of an inactive life, have inherited weak constitutions. Indeed, the people, as a whole, are subject to early maturity and early decay. There is a Japanese proverb to this effect: "At ten, a god-like child ; at twenty, a clever man ; from twenty- five on, an ordinary man." And, in spite of the fact that there have been remarkable exceptions to this rule, careful investigation by Japanese supports the truth of the proverb. And yet there seems to be no the similarity of Malay customs to our own. In the structure of their houses even this was very manifest." — Japan Mail. PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 47 doubt that modern education and conditions of life show a gradual improvement in this respect. The average Japanese, compared with the average European or American, has a lower stature x with a long body and short legs. A good authority states that " the average stature of Japanese men is about the same as the average stature of European women " ; and that " the [Japanese] women are proportionately smaller." Some one has wittily called the Japanese "the diamond edition of humanity." The Japanese also weigh much less than Euro peans. The average weight of young men of twenty years of age in Europe is about 144 pounds, while the average weight of the strongest young men of the suburban districts of Tokyo was only about 121 pounds ; which gives the European an advantage of 23 pounds. The Japanese are very quick to learn. Their minds are strong in observation, perception, and memory, and weak in logic and abstraction. As born lovers of nature, they have well-trained powers of observation and perception, so that their minds turn readily to scientific pursuits. And as the an cient Japanese system of education followed Chinese models, the power of memorizing by rote has been strongly developed, so that the Japanese mind has little difficulty in becoming a storehouse of historical and other facts. But, as the powers of reasoning and abstraction have not been well trained, the 1 Dr. Baelz estimates the average stature at about 5 feet. 48 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Japanese do not take so readily to mathematical problems and metaphysical theorems. The typical Japanese is loyal, filial, respectful, obedient, faithful, kind, gentle, courteous, unselfish, generous.1 His besetting sins are deception, intem perance, debauchery, — and these are common sins of humanity. In respect to these evils, he is un moral rather than immoral; and in his case these sins should not be considered so heinous as in the case of one who has been taught and knows better.2 And it is with reference to these very evils that Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism have been a complete failure in Japan, and that Christianity is making its impress upon the nation. There never were distinct and rigid castes in Japan, as in Egypt and India, but formerly there were four classes in society. These were, in order, the official and military class; the agricultural class, or the farmers ; the laboring class, or the artisans ; and the mercantile class, or merchants. Above all these were the Emperor and the Imperial family; below all these were the tanners, grave-diggers, beggars, etc. , who were the Japanese pariah, or outcasts. The first class in cluded the court nobility, the feudal lords, and their knights; they alone were permitted to carry two swords, were exempt from taxation, and were also the special educated and literary class, because they 1 See also subsequent chapter on " Japanese Traits." 2 His is simply a case of what is called "undeveloped moral consciousness." © Soo a ha c oo c H w«lhj W o PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 49 had the most leisure for study. The other three classes together constituted the common people, who were kept in rigid subjection and bled profusely by taxes. Under the present regime there are three general classes of the entire population of Japan: the no bility, the gentry, and the common people. The nobility, created in 1884, comprises five orders: prince, marquis, count, viscount, and baron; the gentry are the descendants of the knights {samurai') of the old first class ; the common people include all the rest of the population. By the census of 1898 the nobility numbered 4,551; the gentry, 2,105,698; and the common people, 41,652,904. (These figures are exclusive of Formosa.) Even now the burden of taxation falls upon the mass of the common people, especially upon the farming class, for the land tax is the most important source of revenue in Japan. The fundamental principle of Japanese society was, and still is, reverent obedience to superiors. This polite and humble deference is exhibited in their language and in their manners and customs, and has become so thoroughly incorporated into their natures that it even yet resists the levelling tendency of the present age. The language is full of honorifics to be applied to or concerning another, and of humilifics to be applied concerning self. I and mine are thus always ignorant, stupid, dirty, homely, insignificant, etc., while you and yours are ever intelligent, wise, clean, beautiful, noble, etc. Perhaps there is noth- 4 50 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN ing that causes the student of the vernacular deeper chagrin than to find that he has made so serious an error as to transpose the humble and the honorific words or phrases ! The ordinary salutation is really an obeisance, as it consists of a profound bow, — on the street with body bent half forward, in the house with forehead touching the floor. This deep and universal feeling of reverence for superiors and elders early developed into worship, both of the family and of the national ancestors. This is the fundamental and central idea of Shinto, the native cult, of which more will be written in a subsequent chapter. The Japanese family 1 was, in its constitution, an empire, with absolute authority in the hands of one man. The husband was, theoretically and prac tically, the great authority to whom wife and chil dren were subject. He was a veritable autocrat and despot; and he received superciliously the homage of all the family, who literally bowed down before him. The family, and not the individual, was the unit of society ; but by the new codes now in opera tion the individual has acquired greater rights. There is much hope, therefore, that gradually the tyranny of the family will be eliminated. One writer on Japan has well said : " The Empire is one great family; the family is a little empire."2 In truth, the empire is founded and maintained on 1 See Transactions Japan Society, London, vol. ii., papers by Goh and Aston. 2 See Lowell's " Soul of the Far East," chap. ii. PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 51 the family idea of one line " in unbroken succession " from Jimmu Tenno. A house alone does not make a "home," but merely gives it local habitation; and as Japanese houses J are unique, they deserve some consideration. Although brick and stone are coming into use among the wealthy classes, wood is the chief material em ployed in building. A typical Japanese house is a slight and flimsy frame structure with straw-thatched, or shingled, or tiled roof. It has no foundation in the ground, but rests on stones laid on the ground, and stands wholly above the surface. This and other peculiar features of construction and ornamentation are the outcome of attempts to lessen the dangers from the frequent and severe earthquakes. The outer doors and windows of Japanese houses are called amado (rain-doors), and are solid wood. They slide in grooves above and below; in stormy weather and at night they are closed and fastened, not so tightly, however, as to prevent them from rattling; at other times they are open. The inner doors, the windows, and sometimes the partitions between the different rooms are lattice frames, cov ered with a translucent, but not transparent, white paper, and running in grooves. These, too, as well as the opaque paper screens used between the rooms, can be taken out, so that all the rooms may be turned into one, or the entire house be thrown open to the air of heaven. The floors are covered with tatami — 1 Morse's " Japanese Homes " is the one book on this subject. 52 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN thick, soft mats of straw, each usually six by three feet in size. Thus the accommodations of rooms are indicated by the terms, "six -mat room," "eight-mat room," etc. Inasmuch as on these mats the* Japanese walk, sit, eat, work, sleep, it is necessary to keep them very clean. They are carpet, chair, sofa, bed, table, all in one, and must not be soiled by dirty sandals, clogs, shoes, or boots, all of which are, therefore, to be removed before entering a house. It may readily be seen that this is quite an incon venient custom for foreigners! Schools, churches, offices, stores, and other places for large and frequent public gatherings are being constructed in Occidental style, with doors on hinges, glass windows, chairs, benches, tables, stoves, grates, and other "modern conveniences." A room in a Japanese house seems to an American to be comparatively bare and plain, as it is devoid of furniture and bric-a-brac. There is no stove, for only a small box or brazier, containing a few pieces of charcoal in a bed of ashes, is used for heating purposes. There are no chairs or sofas, for the Japanese sit on their feet on the floor. There are no huge bed sets, for they sleep on thick padded quilts spread on the floor at night, and kept in a closet when not needed. There is no large dining- table, for each person eats sitting before a small, low lacquer tray, or table, about a foot high. There is no dazzling array of pictures and other ornaments on the wall — only a kakemono (wall banner) or two; PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 53 and there are no miscellaneous ornaments set around here and there — only a vase of flowers. But more and more are the Japanese coming to build at least parts of the house in Occidental style, so that it is now quite common to find, in houses of well-to-do people, a foreign room with carpet, table, chairs, pictures, etc. Stoves and grates, too, for either wood or coal, are being largely used. Mat tresses, springs, and bedsteads are also coming into use, because sleeping on the floor, where one is subject to draughts, has been found to be un healthy. In the case of foreign rooms, moreover, it is generally unnecessary to take off the shoes; and thus another frequent cause of colds is re moved. A prevailing style of architecture at present is the hybrid I The best rooms of a Japanese house are not in the front, but in the rear, and have an outlook upon the garden, which likewise, from its plainness and sim plicity, is unique. "Its artistic purpose is to copy faithfully the attractions of a veritable landscape, and to carry the real impressions that a real land scape communicates. It is, therefore, at once a pic ture and a poem ; perhaps even more a poem than a picture." It is in Japan, moreover, that it is pos sible to have a " garden " without flowers or grass — with, perhaps, only "rocks and pebbles and sand." For the Japanese truly and literally find "sermons in stones," and give them not only "character" but also "tones and values." More than all that, "they held 54 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN it possible to express moral lessons in the design of a garden, and abstract ideas, such as charity, faith, piety, content, calm, and connubial bliss." In Japan, therefore, landscape-gardening is and always has been a fine art.1 The Japanese may be called vegetarians, for it is only within a recent period that meat has come to play any part in their diet. Fish, flesh, and fowl were once strictly forbidden as articles of food by the tenets of Buddhism, but gradually, one after another, came to be allowed as eatables. Even now meat, though becoming more and more popular as an article of diet, is not used in large quantities at one meal. Chicken, game, beef, ham, and pork may be found on sale in most large towns and cities. But beef is cut up into mouthfuls, and sold to Japanese by the ounce; chickens are carefully and minutely dissected, and sold by parts, as the wing, the leg, or an ounce or two of the breast. It was a matter of great amazement to the Japanese of Mito that the foreigners living there bought a whole chicken or two, or five or six pounds of beef, at one time, and devoured them all in two or three meals! Rice is, of course, the staple article of diet, " the staff of life" of the Japanese; and yet, in poverty- stricken country districts, this may be a luxury, with 1 Besides Mouse's "Japanese Homes," Conder's "Landscape- Gardening in Japan " (Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xiv., and in book form, illustrated), is very valuable. An instruc tive short description of this subject may be found in chap, xvi., vol. ii., of Hearn's " Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan." a H O PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 55 barley or millet as the ordinary food. Various vege tables, particularly beans, are much used, fresh or pickled; seaweed, fish, eggs, and nuts are largely eaten; and a sauce, made of beans and wheat, and sold in America as "soy," is "the universal condi ment." Thin vegetable soups are an important part of their meals, and, as no spoons are used, are drunk with a loud sucking noise, which is a fixed habit in drinking. The principal beverages, even more com mon than water, are tea and sake. The latter, an alcoholic liquor brewed from rice, is taken hot; the former, without milk or sugar, is also taken hot, and is served, not only at meals, but just about all the time. A kettle of hot water is always kept ready at hand, in house or inn, so that tea may be steeped in a moment and procured to drink at any time. It is always set before a guest as soon as he arrives, and is absolutely indispensable in every household. At meal time each person sits on the floor before a small, low table on which his food is placed. They use no knife, fork, or spoon, only chop-sticks ; and do not consider it in bad form to eat and drink with loud smacking and sucking sounds. Their food, when served, seems to foreigners more beautiful than palatable; it is "unsatisfying and mawkish." One who has probably had innumerable experiences dur ing a long residence in Japan says : " After a Japanese dinner you have simultaneously a feeling of fulness and a feeling of having eaten nothing that will do 56 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN you any good."1 Yet, in time foreigners learn to like many parts of a Japanese bill of fare ; and when travelling about the country, by carrying with them bread, butter, jam, and canned meats, can get along with rice, eggs, vegetables, and chicken or fish to complete the daily fare. In the summer resorts fre quented by foreigners there are always hotels and restaurants where only European cooking is served. With the introduction of Western civilization came wine, ale, beer, etc., which are extensively used by the Japanese. Indeed, we must not fail to take notice of the change that is taking place in the diet of the Jap anese. Bread and meat, which were long ago intro duced into the diet of the army and the navy, are pretty generally popular ; and many other articles of " foreign food " are largely used. It is quite a com mon custom in well-to-do families to have at least one "foreign meal" per day; and "foreign restau rants," especially in the large cities, are well patron ized. It is said, indeed, that first-class "foreign cooking " is cheaper than first-class " Japanese cook ing." The standard of living has been considerably raised within the past decade. It is important to touch briefly on the subject of costume, though it will not be possible or profitable to describe minutely every garment. It may not be 1 For descriptions of Japanese meals or banquets, see Miss Scidmore's "Jinrikisha Days in Japan," passim; "The Yankees of the East" (Curtis), vol. ii. chap. xiv. ; and Norman's "Real Japan," chap. i. PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 57 improper to begin with the topic of undress ; for the Japanese, perhaps because great lovers of nature, think it nothing immodest to be seen, even in public, in the garb of nature. Of course, in the open ports and large cities, foreign ideas of modesty are more strongly enforced ; but in the interior the primitive innocence of the Garden of Eden prevails to a greater or less extent. In hot weather children go stark- naked, and men wear only a loin-cloth: " Honi soit qui mal y pense" — "Evil to him who evil thinks." The ordinary Japanese costume may be said to consist of a shirt, a loose silk gown fastened at the waist with a silk sash, short socks with separate places for the big toes, and either straw sandals or wooden clogs. For ceremonial occasions, " a divided skirt," and a silk coat, adorned with the family crest, are used; these are called, respectively, hakama and haori. In winter two or three padded gowns are added; and in all seasons many persons go bare footed, bare-legged, and bare-headed. The female garb x does not differ greatly from the male costume, except that the sash is larger and richer and the gown is made of lighter fabrics. The women powder and paint, oil their hair, and adorn their heads with pretty combs and hairpins. The Japanese costume is certainly very beautiful and becoming, and is pronounced by medical authori ties to be highly sanitary. For persons, however, in active business, and for those who work in the fields, 1 See Norman's "Beal JapaD," pp. 180-195. 58 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN it is not so convenient as the European costume ; but it is altogether too charming to be entirely discarded; and, with some modification, might well be adopted in other lands. At court, the European costume is generally used; the frock coat and evening dress have become common ceremonial garbs; and silk hats, gloves, and canes also have become fashionable. The efforts of the Japanese to adopt Western cus toms and to conform to the usages of the Occident in matters of dress are sometimes quite amusing to those who witness them.1 Chamberlain affirms that "cleanliness is one of the few original items of Japanese civilization." Surely their practice of frequent bathing ought to have brought them to that stage which is considered "next to godliness." A bathroom is commonly an important part of the house; but if a room is not available for that purpose, a bathtub outdoors will do, or the public bath-houses afford every facility at a very small charge. Necessary exposure of the person in connection with bathing is not considered immodest ; but, in large cities at least, the two sexes are no longer permitted to bathe together promiscu ously. The hot baths, with water at about 110° F., are generally unendurable by foreigners. The latter, 1 For instance, " such an attire as Japanese clogs, flannel drawers, swallow-tail coat, and opera hat" has been seen; and another witness testifies to the "oddest mixtures of evening dress and bathing suits, naked legs with a blouse and a foreign hat, high boots with a kimono, legs and head Asiatic with trunk European, or vice versa, with endless combinations and variations." There is a great variety, with all kinds of fits and misfits. PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 59 however, after some experience, may become accus tomed to such heat and find it quite healthy. " Sea bathing was not formerly much practised ; but since 1885 the upper classes have taken greatly to it, in imitation of European usage, and the coast is now dotted with bathing establishments."1 The Jap anese also resort "to an almost incredible extreme" to the hot mineral springs, which are so numerous in Japan and generally possess excellent medicinal qualities. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Rein's "Japan" is valuable on these topics; "Advance Japan " has a good chapter on " Diet, Dress, and Manners " (iv.) ; "A Japanese Interior," by Miss Alice M. Bacon, gives most interesting glimpses of the inner life of the people ; Mur ray's "Story of Japan," chap, ii.; Knapp's "Feudal and Modern Japan," vol. i. chap. v. and vol. ii. chap. iv. ; and "Japan in History, Folklore, and Art" (Griffis), are useful; Fiuck in his "Lotos-Time in Japan," also gives interesting glimpses of these topics; and Miss Bacon's "Japanese Girls and Women " (revised and illustrated edition) is invaluable concerning family life. Miss Hartshorne's "Japan and her People " is worth reading on these subjects. 1 Chamberlain. CHAPTER V MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Outline op Topics : Birth and birthdays ; marriage ; death and funeral ; mourning. — Holidays (national, local, class, and religious); the "five festivals"; New Year's holidays; the other four festivals ; floral festivals ; religious festivals. — Games ; wrest ling. — Theatre ; scenery and wardrobes ; chorus and pantomime ; the No. — Music ; dancing-girls. — Occidentalization. — Folk-lore ; superstitions about lucky and unlucky days, hours, ages, years, etc. — Bibliography. THE three great events in the career of a Japanese are, of course, birth, marriage, and death, each of which is, therefore celebrated with much formality. When a child is born, he or she is the recipient of many presents, which, however, create an obligation that must eventually be cleared off. A very common but honorable present on such an occasion consists of eggs in small or large quantities, according to cir cumstances. When the first American baby was born in Mito, she was favored with a total of 456 eggs, besides dried fish, toys, Japanese robes, and other articles of clothing, etc., and her parents were favored with universal congratulations, diluted with condolences because the new baby was a girl instead of a boy! Japanese babyhood is blithesome.1 1 " The "Wee Ones of Japan," by Mae St. John Bramhall, can be recommended. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 61 The birthday of an individual, however, is not especially observed upon its recurring anniversary; for New Year's Day is a kind of national, or uni versal, birthday, from which age is reckoned. And this loss of an individual birthday is also made up to the boys and girls by the two special festivals, hereafter described, of Dolls and of Flags. The wedding ceremony a is quite simple but very formal. The principal feature thereof is the san- san-ku-do (three-three-nine-times) ; that is, both the bride and the bridegroom drink three times out of each of three cups of different sizes. This cere mony, however, does not affect at all the validity of the marriage ; it is purely a social affair, of prac tically no more importance than the wedding recep tion in America or England. In Christian circles this convivial ceremony is omitted, and a rite per formed by a Christian minister is substituted. As marriage is only a civil contract, its legality rests upon the official registration of the couple as hus band and wife; and this formality is often neg lected, so that divorce is easy and frequent. And as "matches" are generally made by parents, guardians, relatives, or friends, the mariage de convenance prevails in Japan. But the new Civil Code throws safeguards around the institution of wedlock; and the teachings of Christianity have already caused considerable improvement in the i See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xiii. pp. 114-137 ; and "A Japanese Bride," by Bev. N. Tamura, is admirable. 62 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN way of elevating marriage from its low standard to a holy rite. To the fatalistic Japanese death has no terrors, especially as they are a people who seem to take about as much care of the dead as of the living. Funeral ceremonies x are very elaborate, expensive, solemn, and yet somewhat boisterous affairs. The Shinto rites are much plainer than Buddhist cere monies. In the former, the coffin is long and low, as in the West, but in the latter it is small and square, so that the corpse "is fitted into it in a squatting posture with the head bent to the knees." There are other distinguishing features of the two funerals : the bare shaven heads of Buddhist priests in contrast with the non-shaven heads of Shinto priests ; the dark blue coats of the Buddhist pall-bearers in contrast with the plain white garb of the Shinto pall-bearers. The mourning code of Japan is rather strict, and contains two features : the wearing of mourning gar ments (which are white), and the abstinence from animal food. The regular dates for visits to the grave are the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, thirty- fifth, forty-ninth, and one-hundredth days, and the first, third, seventh, thirteenth, twenty-third, twenty- seventh, thirty-third, thirty-seventh, fiftieth, and one-hundredth years. As is shown in another chapter (" Japanese Traits "), the Japanese are a merry, vivacious, pleasure -loving 1 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 507-544. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 63 people, who are satisfied with a simple life. They give and take frequent holidays, which they enjoy to the fullest extent. The national holidays are numerous, and come as follows every year: — Four Sides' Worship, January 1. First Beginning Festival, January 3. Emperor Komei's Festival, January 30. Kigen-setsu, February 11. Spring Festival, March 22 (about). Jimmu Tenno Festival, April 3. Autumn Festival, September 24 (about). Kanname Festival, October 17. Emperor's Birthday, November 3. Niiname Festival, November 23. Some of the national holidays need a few words of explanation. Kigen-setsu, for instance, was originally a festival in honor of the ascension of Jimmu, the first Emperor, to the throne, and was thus the anni versary of the establishment of the Old Empire; but it is now observed also as the celebration of the pro mulgation of the constitution (Feb. 11, 1889), and is thus the anniversary of the establishment of the New Empire. The Jimmu Tenno Festival of April 3 is the so-called anniversary of the death of that Em peror. The Kanname Festival in October celebrates the offering of first-fruits to the ancestral deities, and the Niiname Festival in November celebrates the tasting of those first-fruits by the Emperor. The Spring and Autumn Festivals in March and Sep tember are adaptations of the Buddhist equinoctial 64 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN festivals of the dead, and are especially observed for the worship of the Imperial ancestors. The Em peror Komei was the father of the present Emperor, and reigned from 1847 to 1867. "Four Sides' Wor ship " naturally suggests worship from the four prin cipal directions. This and the "First Beginning Festival " make the special New Year's holidays. Besides these, there are a great many local, class, and religious holidays, including Sunday, so that comparatively few persons iu Japan are kept under high pressure, but almost every one has frequent opportunities to relax from the tension of his occu pation or profession. Even the poorest, who have to be content with a hand-to-mouth existence, take their occasional holidays. The five great festivals of the year fall on the first day of the first month (New Year's Day), the third day of the third month (Dolls' Festival), the fifth day of the fifth month (Feast of the Flags), the seventh day of the seventh month (Festival of the Star Vega), and the ninth day of the ninth month (Chrysanthemum Festival). These are now officially observed according to the Gregorian calendar, but may also be popularly celebrated according to the old lunar calendar, and would then fall from three to seven weeks later. And there are not a few people who are perfectly willing to observe both calendars and thus double their number of holi days ! The greatest of these is the New Year's holiday a R CO* C to to toH cs MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 65 or season, which is often prolonged to three, five, seven, or even fifteen days. The practice of mak ing calls and presents still prevails, and, though quite burdensome, illustrates the thoughtfulness, good cheer, and generosity of the people.1 The Dolls' Festival is the one especially devoted to the girls; and the Feast of Flags is set apart for the boys. The Festival of the Star Vega com memorates a tradition concerning two starry lovers on opposite sides of the Milky Way, or River of Heaven. The Chrysanthemum Festival seems to have been overshadowed by the Emperor's Birthday. There are also many "flower festivals," such as those of viewing the plum, cherry, wistaria, iris, morning-glory, lotus, maple, etc.2 One of the most important of the Buddhist festi vals is that in honor of the spirits of the dead ; it is called Bon-matsuri and comes in the middle of July. Buddha's birthday in April is also observed. There is a Japanese Memorial Day, celebrated twice a year in May and November, when immense crowds flock to the shrines called Shokonsha, and pay their homage to the spirits of those who have died for their coun try. Moreover, space would fail to tell of the numer ous local shrines and temples, Shinto and Buddhist, where the people flock annually or semi-annually, to " worship " a few minutes and enjoy a picnic for the remainder of the day. And, in Christian circles, 1 See chap. xx. of Hearn's " Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan." 2 See Appendix. 5 66 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Christmas, Easter, and Sunday-school picnics are im portant and interesting occasions. The common games are chess, go (a very compli cated game slightly resembling checkers), parchesi, and cards. Flower-cards and poetical quotations are old-style, but still popular; while Occidental cards, under the name of torompu ("trump") are coming into general use. Children find great amusement also with kites, tops, battledore and shuttlecock, snow-men, dolls, cards, etc.1 The chief sports of young men are wrestling, rowing, tennis, and base ball. In the great American game they have be come so proficient that they frequently win against the Americans and British who make up the base ball club of the Yokohama Athletic Association ! Professional wrestling-matches2 continue to draw large crowds to see the huge masses of flesh measure their strength and skill. Jujutsu is a kind of wrest ling in which skill and dexterity are more important than mere physical strength. Sleight-of-hand per formers and acrobats are quite popular. The theatre2 is a very important feature in the Japanese world of amusements, and still remains about the only place where Old Japan can be well studied. Theatrical performances in Japan are, of course, quite different from those in the Occident, and seem very tedious to Westerners, partly because they 1 See chapter on "Children's Games and Sports" in "The Mikado's Empire," and Mrs. Chaplin Ayrton's " Child-Life in Japan." 2 See chap. xx. of " The Yankees of the East " (Curtis). MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 67 are so long and partly because they are unintelligible. When the writer attended the theatre in Mito, the play began, thirty minutes late, at 3:30 p. M., and continued, without interruption, until almost mid night. Then, according to custom, a short supple mentary play of almost an hour's duration followed, so that it was about one o'clock when he finally reached home. The Japanese, however, are accus tomed to this "sweetness long drawn out," and either bring their lunches or slip out between acts to get something to eat and drink, or buy tea and cake in the theatre. The wardrobes and the scenery are elaborate and magnificent. The former are often almost priceless heirlooms handed down from one generation to an other. Changes of wardrobe are often made in the presence of the audience; an actor, by dropping off one robe (which is immediately carried away by a small boy), entirely metamorphoses his appearance. One convenient arrangement of the scenery is that of the revolving stage, so that, as an old scene grad ually disappears, the new one is coming into view. The supernumeraries, moreover, though theoretically invisible, are distinctly present, but seem to distract neither players nor audience. The female parts are usually taken by men dressed as women ; and animals are represented by either men or wooden models. The orchestra plays an exceedingly important part in a Japanese drama. It consists of the samisen (a guitar of three strings), the fue (flute), and the 68 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN taiko (drum). It plays, not between the acts to en tertain the spectators, but, like the Greek chorus, during the scene, to direct and explain the drama. Pantomime is an important element in the play and exceedingly expressive. The pantomimic actions are guided by the orchestra and the singers of the chants that furnish necessary explanations. Japanese plays are mostly historical, though some depict life and manners. It is quite interesting to note that in 1903 an adapted translation of "Othello" was put on the Japanese stage with marked success. The No "dances," as they are sometimes called, were at first " purely religious performances, intended to propitiate the chief deities of the Shinto religion, and were acted exclusively in connection with their shrines. " But they were afterwards secularized and popularized, as lyric dramas. They are compara tively brief, and occupy only about an hour in per forming. They are now given chiefly as special entertainments in high society or court circles to extraordinary guests.1 Music, especially in connection with dancing, fur nishes another common means of amusement. The chief instruments of the old style are the koto, a kind of lyre ; the samisen, already described ; the kokyu, a sort of fiddle ; lutes, flutes, fifes, drums, etc. ; while the violin, organ, and piano are coming into general 1 On the subject of the Japanese theatre and drama, see McCIatchie's "Japanese Plays" and Edwards's "Japanese Plays and Playfellows." MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 69 use. These instruments, moreover, are now being manufactured by the Japanese. Individuals, bands, and orchestras, trained under foreign supervision, fur nish music, both instrumental and vocal, for private and public entertainments ; and concerts in European style are becoming very popular. It used to be that no evening entertainment was considered complete without the dancing-girls (geisha),1 whose presence is never conducive to morality. But a strong effort is now being made, even in non-Christian circles, to banish these evil features of social entertainments. The Occidental mixed dances have not yet met with great favor, except that in the court circle, which is cosmopoli tan, quadrilles, waltzes, etc., are encouraged. The manners and customs, especially in the large cities, are undergoing considerable Occidentalizing, which results at first in an amusing mixture, or a queer hybrid. This is particularly true of social functions in official or high life. It is, of course, true that the great mass of the people, the "lower classes," are not yet to any great extent affected by the social changes in the world above their reach and ken, and still conduct their social intercourse more Japonico, that is, in the approved methods of their ancestors; but in the life of the middle and upper classes, and especially in official functions, the influence of Occidental manners and customs is quite marked. a 1 See Norman's " Real Japan," chap. ix. 2 See Appendix. 70 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Japanese literature is immensely rich in stories of adventure, most interesting historical and biographi cal incidents, folk-lore, and fairy tales. All of these are quite familiar to the Japanese child, whether boy or girl, whose mind feasts upon, and delights in, the heroic and the marvellous. The youth and the adults, also, are not at all averse to such mental pabulum, and flock, for instance, to the hall of the professional story-teller, who regales them with fact and fiction ingeniously blended. Yoshitsune, Benkei, Momotaro, Kintaro, and others are common heroes of folk-lore and fiction ; while " The Tongue- Cut Sparrow," " The Matsuyama Mirror," " The Man who Made Trees Bloom," are examples of hundreds of popular fairy tales. Japanese folk-lore is an in structive and most interesting subject, which must, however, be now dismissed with references.1 To an audience of Athenians on Mars Hill, Paul said: "Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are altogether superstitious." One might likewise stand before an audience of Japanese and say: "Ye men of Nippon, I perceive that in all things ye are altogether superstitious." For most faithfully and devoutly do the mass of the people still worship their innumerable deities, estimated with the indefinite expression " eight hundred myriads " ; 1 The best books on this subject are Mitford's "Tales of Old Japan," Miss Ballard's "Fairy Tales from Far Japan," and the series of crepe booklets of "Japanese Fairy Tales," published by the Kobunsha, Tokyo. See also author's papers in the " Folk-Lorist," vol. i. nos. 2, 3, 4. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 71 and most firmly do they continue to believe in the efficacy of charms and amulets and to hold to in herited superstitious ideas. It is only where the common school and Christianity have had full sway that these " foolish notions " disappear. And while we have not space for a methodical study of Japanese superstitions, we ought at least to present, even in a desultory manner, some illustrations, culled at random from various sources.1 The days of each month were named, not only in numerical order, but also according to the animals of the Chinese zodiac. And the latter names were perhaps more important than the numerical ones, because, according to these special names, a day was judged to be either lucky or unlucky for particular events. "Every day has its degree of luck for re moval [from one place to another], and, indeed, according to another system, for actions of any kind ; for a day is presided over in succession by one of six stars which may make it lucky throughout or only at night, or in the forenoon or the afternoon, or ex actly at noon, or absolutely unlucky. There are also special days on which marriages should take place, prayers are granted by the gods, stores should be opened, and signboards put up." Dr. Griffis in forms us in "The Mikado's Empire," that "many people of the lower classes would not wash their heads or hair on ' the day of the horse,' lest their 1 See "Japanese Calendars," Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part. i. 72 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN hair become red." On the other hand, this "horse day " is sacred to Inari Sama, the rice-god, who em ploys foxes as his messengers ; and " the day of the rat " is sacred to Daikoku, the god of wealth, who, in pictures, is always accompanied by that rodent. As for wedding days, Rev. N. Tamura says : " We think it is very unfortunate to be married on the 16th of Jan uary, 20th of February, 4th of March, 18th of April, 6th of May, 7th of June, 10th of July, 11th of August, 9th of September, 3d of October, 25th of November, or 30th of December, also on the grandfather's or grandmother's death day." These dates are probably applicable to only the old calendar. " Seeds will not germinate if planted on certain days " (Griffis). The hours were named, not only according to the numerical plan, but also according to the heavenly menagerie in the following way : — 1. Hour of the Rat . . . 11 p. m. - 1 a. m. 2. Hour of the Ox 1-3 a. m. 3. Hour of the Tiger 3-5 a. m. 4. Hour of the Hare 5-7 a. m. 5. Hour of the Dragon 7-9 a. m. 6. Hour of the Serpent .... 9-11 a. m. 7. Hour of the Horse . . 11 a. m.-1 p. m. 8. Hour of the Goat 1-3 p. m. 9. Hour of the Monkey 3-5 p. m. 10. Hour of the Cock 5-7 p. m. 11. Hour of the Dog 7-9 p. m. 12. Hour of the Boar 9-11 p. m. The "hour of the ox," by the way, being the time of sound sleep, was sacred to women crossed in love MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 73 for taking vengeance upon a straw image of the recreant lover at the shrine of Fudo. " After 5 P. m. many people will not put on new clothes or sandals" (Griffis). From "Superstitious Japan " : " If one swallows seven grains of red beans (azuki) and one go of sake before the hour of the ox on the first day of the year, he will be free from sickness and calamity throughout the year; if he drinks toso (spiced sake) at the hour of the tiger of the same day, he will be untouched by malaria through the year. On the seventh day of the first mpnth if a male swallows seven, and a female four teen, red beans, they will be free from sickness all their lives ; if one bathes at the hour of the dog on the tenth day [of the same month], his teeth will become hard." There are also superstitions about ages. Some persons, for instance, "are averse to a marriage be tween those whose ages differ by three or nine years. A man's nativity also influences the direction in which he should remove; and his age may permit his removal one year and absolutely forbid it the next." There are also critical years in a person's life, such as the seventh, twenty-fifth, forty-second, and sixty -first1 years for a man, and the seventh, eighth, thirty -third, forty-second, and sixty-first1 years for a woman. There is a similar story to the effect that a child born (or begotten ?) in the father's 1 The sixty-first year of a person's life is of special interest, because it is the first of a second cycle of sixty years. 74 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN forty-third year is supposed to be possessed of a devil. When such a child is about one month old, it is, therefore, exposed for about three hours in some sacred place. Some member or friend of the family then goes to get it, and bringing it to the parents, says : " This is a child whom I have found and whom you had better take and bring up." Thus having fooled the devil, the parents receive their own child back. From Inouye's "Sketches of Tokyo Life "we learn that aged persons provide against failing memory by passing through seven different shrine gates on the spring or autumn equinox. An incantation against noxious insects, written with the infusion of India ink in liquorice water on the eighth day of the fourth moon, Buddha's birthday, will prevent the entrance of the insects at every doorway or window where it is posted. January 16 and July 16 were and are special holidays for servants and apprentices, and considered sacred to Emma, the god of Hades. At the time of the winter solstice doctors would wor ship the Chinese Esculapius. "The foot-wear left outside on the night of the winter equinox should be thrown away; he who wears them will shorten his own life. If you cut a bamboo on a moonlight night, you will find a snake in the hollow of it between the third and fourth joints." "During an eclipse of the sun or moon, people carefully cover the wells, as they suppose that poison falls from the sky during the period of the obscuration." "If on the night of MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 75 the second day of the first moon, one dreams of the takara-bune (treasure-ship), he shall become a rich man." The first "dog day" and the third "dog day" in July are days for eating special cakes. " The third dog day is considered by the peasantry a turning-point in the life of the crops. Eels are eaten on any day of the bull [ox] that may occur during this period of greatest heat." The author was once warned by a Japanese woman that he must not take medicine or consult a doctor on New Year's Day, because such acts would portend a year of illness. BIBLIOGRAPHY. There are many good books which portray the manners and customs of the Japanese people ; and as for magazine and newspaper articles on the subject, their name is legion. The works of Griffis, Chamberlain, Rein, Hearn, Lowell, Miss Bacon, Miss Scidmore, Miss Hartshorne, Mrs. Isabella Bird Bishop, and Mitford's "Tales of Old Japan" may be recom mended. Good novels, like " Mito Yashiki " (Maclay), " Honda the Samurai " (Griffis) , " Iu the Mikado's Service " (Griffis), etc. , give an insight into Japanese life. This may suffice, as more particular references have been given in connection with many of the topics of the chapter. "A Japanese Boy" (Shigemi), " Japanese Girls and Women '' (Miss BaconJ, and " The Wee Ones of Japan" (Mrs. Bramhall) give good pictures of child-life. CHAPTER VI JAPANESE TRAITS Outline of Topics : First impressions : minuteness ; polite ness and courtesy ; etiquette ; simplicity ; vivacity ; equanimity ; union of Stoicism and Epicureanism; generosity; unpractically ; procrastination; humility and conceit; lack of originality; fickle ness ; sesthetieism ; loyalty ; filial piety ; sentimental temperament ; susceptibility to impulse ; land and people. — Bibliography. FIRST impressions are, of course, often deceit ful, as they are likely to be formed from merely superficial views ; but they are quite certain to emphasize the peculiar characteristics of a person or a people. The points of difference are very evident at first, but gradually become less ob servable or prominent, and in time may scarcely be noticed. It is, of course, undeniable that first im pressions must be more or less modified, but it is also true that some remain practically unchanged, or are verified and strengthened by long experience. In the case of the Japanese, for instance, a first and lasting impression is that of minuteness. This characteristic of "things Japanese " pertains less to quality than to quantity, is not a mental or a moral, so much as a physical or dimensional, feature. The empire, though called Dai Nippon (Great Japan) JAPANESE TRAITS 77 is small; the people are short; the lanes are narrow; the houses are low and small; farms are insignifi cant ; x teacups, other dishes, pipes, etc. , are like our toys; and innumerable other objects are Lilliputian. Pierre Loti, the French writer, in his description of Japanese life, draws extensively on the diminu tives of his native tongue. In business matters, moreover, the Japanese seem incapable of managing big enterprises, and do everything on a small scale with a small capital. The saying that they are " great in little things and little in great things " contains some truth. But it must, in fairness, be acknowledged that, of recent years, the Japanese have begun to display a remarkable facility and suc cess in the management of great enterprises. They are outgrowing this characteristic of smallness, and are even now reckoned among the "great world- powers." The Japanese are famous the world over for their politeness and courtesy; they are a nation of good manners, and, for this and other qualities, have been styled "the French of the Orient." From morning to night, from the cradle to the grave, the entire life is characterized by unvarying gentleness and politeness in word and act. Many of the ex pressions and actions are mere formalities, it is true ; but they have, by centuries of hereditary influence, 1 " The vast rice crop is raised on millions of tiny farms ; the silk crop in millions of small, poor homes ; the tea crop on count less little patches of soil." — Lafcadio Hearn. 78 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN been so far incorporated into the individual and national life as to be a second nature. This trait is one which most deeply impresses all visitors and residents, and concerning which Sir Edwin Arnold has written the following : — "Where else in the world does there exist such a con spiracy to be agreeable ; such a widespread compact to render the difficult affairs of life as smooth and graceful as circumstances admit ; such fair decrees of fine be havior fixed and accomplished for all ; such universal re straint of the coarser impulses of speech and act ; such pretty picturesqueness of daily existence ; such lovely love of nature as the embellisher of that existence ; such sincere delight in beautiful, artistic things ; such frank enjoyment of the enjoyable ; such tenderness to little children ; such reverence for parents and old persons ; such widespread refinement of taste and habits; such courtesy to strangers; and such willingness to please and to be pleased ? " As stated above, the innate courtesy of the Japan ese manifests itself in every possible way in word and deed. Thus has been developed an almost perfect code of etiquette, of polite speech and conduct for every possible occasion; and while these formali ties are sometimes apparently unnecessary, often even a cloak for insincerity, and also a waste of time in this practical age, we cannot but lament the deca dence of Japanese manners. Another prominent and prevailing element of Japanese civilization is simplicity. The people have the simplicity of nature to such an extent that the JAPANESE TRAITS 79 garb of nature is not considered immodest. They find delight in the simplest forms of natural beauties, and they plant their standard of beauty on a simple base. A rough and gnarled tree, or even a mere trunk or stump; a bare twig or branch without leaves or blossoms ; an old stone ; all kinds of flowers and grasses have in themselves a real natural beauty. A Japanese admires the beauties of nature just as they are ; he loves a flower as a flower. The Japan ese truly worship Nature in all her varied forms and hold communion with all her aspects. They enjoy the simplest amusements with the simplest toys which, cheap and frail, may last only an hour, but easily yield their money's worth and more of real pleasure. They find the greatest happiness in such simple recreations as going to see the plum blossoms or cherry flowers, and gazing at the full moon. They are, in comparison with Americans, childish in their simplicity ; but they succeed in ex tracting more solid enjoyment out of life than any other people on the globe. Americans sacrifice life to get a living: Japanese, by simply living, enjoy life. And this leads to another impression and char acterization of the Japanese people as merry, light- hearted, and vivacious. Careless, even to an extreme ; free from worry and anxiety, because easily satisfied with little, and because inclined to be excessively fatalistic, — they not only are faithful disciples of the Epicurean philosophy, that happiness or pleasure 80 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN is the summum bonum of life, but they succeed in being happy without much exertion. They believe that men " by perpetual toil, bustle, and worry render themselves unfit to enjoy the pleasures which nature places within their reach"; and that the Occidental, a.nd especially the American, life of high pressure, with too much work and too little play, is actually making Jack a dull boy. It is certainly to be hoped, but perhaps in vain, that the increasing complexity of modern life in Japan will not entirely obliterate the simplicity and vivacity of the Japanese ; for they seem to " have verily solved the great problem — how to be happy though poor." The Japanese are, however, extremely stoical in belief and behavior, and can refrain as rigidly from manifestations of joy or sorrow as could a Spartan or a Roman. l Many a Japanese Leonidas, Brutus, or Cato stands forth as a typical hero in their annals. Without the least sign of suffering they can experience the severest torture, such as dis embowelling themselves ; and without a word of com plaint they receive adversity or affliction. Shikata ga nai (" There is no help ") is the stereotyped phrase of consolation from the least to the greatest loss, injury, or affliction. For a broken dish, a bruise, a broken limb, a business failure, a death, weeping is silly, sympathy is useless; alike for all, shikata ga nai. 1 The Japanese seem to have no nerves ; or, at least, their nervous system is much less sensitive than ours. JAPANESE TRAITS 81 It is possibly this combination or union of Stoicism and Epicureanism that makes the real and complete enjoyment of life. The following paragraph pictures graphically the contrasting characteristics of Japanese and American women: "It is said that the habitual serenity of Japanese women is due to their freedom from small worries. The fashion of their dress never varies, so they are saved much anxiety of mind on that subject. Housekeeping is simplified by the ab sence of draperies and a crowd of ornaments to gather dust, and the custom of leaving footwear at the en trance keeps out much mud and dirt. With all our boasted civilization, we may well learn from the Orientals how to prevent the little foxes of petty anxieties from spoiling the vines of our domestic comfort. If American housekeepers could eliminate from their lives some of the unnecessary care of things, it would probably smooth their brows and tone down the sharpened expression of their features." The Japanese are, by instinct, a very unselfish and generous people. These two seemingly synonymous adjectives are purposely used; for the Japanese possess, not only the negative and passive virtue of unselfishness, but also its positive and active expres sion in generosity; they are not merely careless and thoughtless of self, but they are careful and thoughtful of others. In fact, their philanthropic instincts are so strong that neither excessive wealth nor extreme pauperism is prevalent. These two traits had their origin, probably, in a contempt for 82 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN mere money-making and the lack of a strong desire for wealth. The merchant, engaged in trade, — that is, in money-making pursuits, — was ranked below the soldier, the farmer, and the artisan. The typical Japanese believed that "the love of money is the root of all evil," and was not actuated by "the accursed greed for gold" (auri sacra fames). No sordid views of life on a cash basis were held by the Japanese, and not even the materialism of modern life has yet destroyed their generous and philan thropic instincts. They are as truly altruistic as Occidentals are egoistic. The modern characteristic expressed by the term "practical" does not belong to the Japanese, who are rather visionary in disposition. This trait is un doubtedly an effect of the old distaste for money- making pursuits, and renders the Japanese people, on the whole, incapable of attending strictly and carefully to the minutire of business. They do not, indeed, appear to possess the mental and moral quali ties which go to make a successful merchant or busi ness man.1 This is the testimony both of those who have studied their psychological. natures and of those who have had actual business experience with them. The former say that unpracticality and a distaste for money-making are natural elements of the Japanese character, as is evidenced by the fact that, in ancient society, the merchant was assigned to the fourth class — below the soldier, the farmer, the artisan. 1 See Baron Shibusawa's opinion, pp. 40-43. THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN AND THE PRINCE IMPERIAL JAPANESE TRAITS 83 "The temperament, the training, and the necessary materials are, for the most part, lacking " ; and these cannot, in spite of the impressionableness of the Japanese nature, be readily acquired and developed. Business men, moreover, who have had actual deal ings with the Japanese, complain of dishonesty,1 "pettiness, constant shilly-shallying," and unbusi nesslike habits ; and call them " good-natured, artistic, and all that, but muddle-pated folks when it comes to matters of business." One illustration of their natural incapacity for business life is found in the fact that they had no idea of time. They did not understand the value, according to our standards, of the minutes, and were much given to what we call a "waste of time." They were not accustomed to reckon time minute-ly, or to take into notice any period less than an hour, and considered it nine o'clock until it was ten o'clock. Moreover, the hour of the old "time-table " was 120 minutes long.2 Besides, the Japanese are, too digni- 1 But " the peasantry is, in the main, honest." 2 See "Japanese Calendars," Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part i. The Land of Approximate Time. Here 's to the Land of Approximate Time ! Where nerves are a factor unknown, Where acting as balm are manners calm, And seeds of sweet patience are sown. Where every clock runs as it happens to please, And they never agree on their strikes ; Where even the sun often joins in the fun, And rises whenever he likes. — Jingles from Japan. 84 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN fied to be in a hurry ; so that, if they miss one train, they do not fume and fret because they have to wait even several hours for the next train, but take it all calmly and patiently. And as clocks and watches are still somewhat of a luxury to the common people, we must not expect them to come up at once to our ideas of strict punctuality. But in school and office and business they are learning habits of promptness and coming to realize that "time is money " ; so that recent years have shown a marked improvement. In the character of the Japanese are blended the two inharmonious elements of humility and conceit. Their language, customs, and manners are permeated with the idea of self-abasement, "in honor prefer ring one another"; but their minds are filled with excessive vanity, individual and national. They call their own country " Great Japan, " and have always had a strong faith in the reality of its greatness. The precocity and conceit of Japanese youth are very no ticeable. A schoolboy of fourteen is always ready to express with confidence and positiveness his criticisms on Occidental and Oriental politics, phi losophy, and religion. Young Japan, whether indi vidually or collectively, is now in the Sophomore class of the World's University. Japan is self- assertive, self-confident, and independent. But the marvellous achievements in the transformation of Japan during the past half -century are some excuse for the development of vanity; and the future, JAPANESE TRAITS 85 with its responsibilities, surely demands a measure of self-confidence. The Japanese are commonly criticised as being imitative rather than initiative or inventive; and it must be acknowledged that a study of their history bears out this criticism. The old civilization was very largely borrowed from the Chinese, perhaps through the Koreans; and in modern times we have witnessed a similar adoption and imitation of Occidental civilization. But it must also be borne in mind that in few cases was there servile imitation ; for, in almost every instance, there was an adapta tion to the peculiar needs of Japan. And yet even this assimilation might show that the Japanese have "great talent, but little genius" (Munzinger), or "little creative power" (Rein). However, there have been indications of late years that the Japanese mind is developing inventive power. Originality is making itself known in many really remarkable in ventions, especially along mechanical lines. Rifles, repeating pistols, smokeless gunpowder, guncotton, and bicycle boats are a few illustrations of Japanese inventions. Moreover, many of the Japanese inven tors have secured letters patent in England, Ger many, France, Austria, and the United States. In scientific discoveries, too, the Japanese are coming forward. The Japanese have also been frequently accused of fickleness, and during the past fifty years have cer tainly furnished numerous reasons for such a charge. 86 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN They have seemed to shift about with " every wind of doctrine," and, like the Athenians in Paul's day, have been often attracted by new things. But Den- ing's defence against this accusation is worthy of notice, and seems quite reasonable. He claims that "this peculiarity is accidental, not inherent"; that there was " no lack of permanence in their laws, in stitutions, and pursuits in the days of their isola tion "; that in recent times "their attention has been attracted by such a multitude of [new] things . . . that they have found great difficulty in making a judicious selection"; and the rapid changes "have not been usually dictated by mere fickleness, but have resulted from the wish to prove all things." Chamberlain, likewise, refers to so-called "charac teristic traits" that are "characteristic merely of the stage through which the nation is now passing." And certainly a growing steadfastness of purpose and action is perceptible in many phases of Japanese life. The Japanese are pre-eminently an sesthetic people. In all sections, among all classes, art reigns supreme. It permeates everything, great or small. " Whatever these people fashion, from the toy of an hour to the triumphs of all time, is touched by a taste unknown elsewhere." 1 The national spirit is excessively strong in Japan, and has been made powerful by centuries of develop ment. Every Japanese is born, lives, and dies for 1 For particulars on this point, see chapter on " Esthetic Japan." o cr. > !" oto- SC H t-iH JAPANESE TRAITS 87 his country. Loyalty is the highest virtue; and Yamato-damashii (Japan spirit) is a synonym too often of narrow and inordinate patriotism. But the vision of the Japanese is broadening, and they are learning that cosmopolitanism is not necessarily antagonistic to patriotism. They used to harp on " The Japan of the Japanese " ; later they began to talk about " The Japan of Asia " ; but now they wax eloquent over "The Japan of the World." Filial piety is the second virtue in the Japanese ethics, and is often carried to a silly extreme. The old custom of inkyo made it possible for parents, even while they were still able-bodied, to retire from active work and become an incubus on the eldest son, perhaps just starting out in his life career. But now there is a law that no one can become inkyo before he is sixty years of age. And yet filial piety can easily nullify the law ! Professor George T. Ladd, who has made a special study of the Japanese from the psychological point of view, sums up their "character" as of the "senti mental temperament."1 The following are sugges tive passages : — " This distinctive Japanese temperament is that which Lotze has so happily called the ' sentimental tempera ment.' It is the temperament characteristic of youth, predominatingly, in all races. It is, as a temperament, characteristic of all ages, of both sexes, and of all classes of population, among the Japanese. But, of course, in 1 See " Scribner's Monthly " for January, 1895. 88 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Japan as everywhere, the different ages, sexes, and classes of society, differ in respect to the purity of this temperamental distinction. Many important individual exceptions, or examples of other temperaments, also occur. " The distinguishing mark of the sentimental tempera ment is great susceptibility to variety of influences — especially on the side of feeling, and independent of clear logical analysis or fixed and well-comprehended principles — with a tendency to a will that is impulsive and liable to collapse. Such susceptibility is likely to be accompanied by unusual difficulty in giving due weight to those practical considerations, which lead to compromises in politics, to steadiness in labor, to patience in developing the details of science and philosophy, and to the establishment of a firm connection between the higher life of thought and feeling and the details of daily conduct. On the other hand, it is the artistic temperament, the temperament which makes one ' in teresting,' the ' clever ' mind, the temperament which has a suggestion of genius at its command. . . . " Japan is the land of much natural scenery that is pre-eminently interesting and picturesque. It is the land of beautiful green mountains and of luxurious and highly variegated flora. It is the land that lends itself to art, to sentiment, to reverie and brooding over the mysteries of nature and of life. But it is also the land of volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, and typhoons; the land under whose thin fair crust, or weird and gro tesque superficial beauty, and in whose air and sur rounding waters, the mightiest destructive forces of nature slumber and mutter, and betimes break forth with amazing destructive effect. As is the land, so — in many striking respects — are the people that dwell in it. The superficial observer, especially if he himself JAPANESE TRAITS 89 be a victim of the unmixed sentimental temperament, may find everything interesting, aesthetically pleasing, promising continued kindness of feeling, and unwearied delightful politeness of address. But the more profound student will take note of the clear indications, that beneath this thin, fair crust, there are smouldering fires of national sentiment, uncontrolled by solid moral prin ciple, and unguided by sound, practical judgment. As yet, however, we are confident in the larger hope for the future of this most ' interesting ' of Oriental races." BIBLIOGRAPHY Rein's "Japan," "The Gist of Japan" (Peery), "Japan and its Regeneration " (Gary), " The Soul of the Far East " (Lowell), "Feudal and Modern Japan" (Knapp), "Lotos- Time in Japan " (Finck), and Hearn's works discuss the sub ject of Japanese characteristics with intelligence from various points of view. The most interesting and instructive Japanese writer on the subject is Nitobe in his " Bushido, the Soul of Japan." Dening's paper in vol. xix. Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan is very valuable. "The Evolution of the Japanese " (Gulick) should also be carefully studied, especially as he differs from Lowell and others, who contend that Ori entals in general, and Japanese in particular, have no " soul," or distinct personality. CHAPTER VII HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) Outline op Topics : Outline of mythology and history ; sources of material ; earlier periods ; Japanese and Graeco-Boman mythol ogy ; prehistoric period; continental influences; capitals; Imperi alism; Fujiwara Epoch; Taira and Minamoto ; Hojo tyranny; Ashikaga Period ; Nobunaga and Hideyoshi ; lyeyasu ; Tokugawa Dynasty. — Bibliography. THE mythology and history of Japan may be outlined in the following manner: — A. Sources of material. 1. Oral tradition. 2. Kojiki [711 a. d.]. 3. Nihongi [720 a. d.J. B. Chronology. I. Old Japan. 1. " Divine Ages." Creation of world ; Izanagi and Izanami; Sun-goddess and brother; Ninigi; Princes Fire-Shine and Fire-Eade; Jimmu. 2. Prehistoric Period [660 b. c-400 (?) a. d.]. Jimmu Tenno; " Sujin, the Civilizer"; Yamato-Dake ; Em press Jingu ; Invasion of Korea ; Ojin, deified as Hachiman, the Japanese Mars ; Take-no-uchi. Native elements of civilization. Chinese literature. 3. Imperialistic Period [400 (?)-888 a. d.J. Continental influences (on language and literature, learning, gov ernment, manners aud customs, and religion) ; Bud dhism ; Shotoku Taishi ; practice of abdication ; Nara HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) 91 Epoch ; capital settled at Kyoto ; Sugawara ; Fuji wara family established in regency (888 a. d.). 4. Civil Strife [888-1603 A. d.J . Fujiwara bureaucracy ; Taira supremacy (1156-1185) ; wars of red and white flags ; Yoritomo and Yoshitsune ; Minamoto suprem acy (1185-1199) ; first Shogunate ; Hojo tyranny (1199-1333) ; Tartar armada ; Kusunoki and Nitta ; Ashikaga supremacy (1333-1573); "War of the Chrysanthemums"; tribute to China; fine arts and architecture; cha-no-yu ; Portuguese; Francis Xavier; spread of Christianity; Nobunaga, perse cutor of Buddhists (1573-1582) ; Hideyoshi, "Na poleon of Japan " (1585-1598) ; persecution of Christianity ; invasion of Korea ; lyeyasu ; battle of Sekigahara (1600 A. d.). 5. Tokugawa Feudalism [1603-1868 A. d.J. lyeyasu ShSgun (1603) ; capital Yedo, girdled by friendly fiefs : perfection of feudalism ; Dutch ; Will Adams ; English; extermination of Christianity; seclusion and crystallization (1638-1853); Confucian influences. II. New Japan. 5 (continued). Perry's Expedition ; treaties with for eign nations ; internal strife ; Richardson affair ; Shimonoseki affair ; resignation of Shogun ; abolition of Shogunate ; Revolutionary War ; New Imperialism ; Imperial capital Yedo, renamed Tokyo; Meiji Era. 6. New Empire [1868- J. Opening of ports and cities ; " Charter Oath " ; telegraphs, light-houses, postal system, mint, dockyard, etc. ; outcasts ac knowledged as human beings ; abolition of feudalism ; first railway, newspaper, and church ; Imperial Univer sity; Yokohama Missionary Conference; Gregorian calendar; anti-Christian edicts removed; Saga rebel lion; Formosan Expedition ; assembly of governors; Senate ; treaty with Korea ; Satsuma rebellion ; bi- 92 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN metallism ; Loo Choo annexed ; new codes ; prefectural assemblies ; Bank of Japan ; Osaka Missionary Con ference ; new nobility ; Japan Mail Steamship Com pany ; Privy Council ; Prince Haru made Crown Prince ; anti-foreign reaction ; promulgation of Con stitution; first Diet; Gifu earthquake; war with China ; Formosa ; tariff revision ; gold standard ; freedom of press and public meetings ; opening of Japan by new treaties ; war with China : Tokyo Missionary Conference ; Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The student of Japanese history is confronted, at the outset, with a serious difficulty. In ancient times the Japanese had no literary script, so that all events had to be handed down from generation to generation by oral tradition. The art of writing was introduced into Japan, from China probably, in the latter part of the third century A. D. ; but it was not used for recording events until the beginning of the fifth century. All these early records, more over, were destroyed by fire ; so that the only " reli ance for information about . . . antiquity" has to be placed in the Kojiki,1 or "Records of Ancient Matters," and the Nihongi,2 or "Chronicles of Japan." The former, completed in 711 A. D., is written in a purer Japanese style ; the latter, finished in 720 A. D., is "much more tinctured with Chinese philosophy " ; though differing in some details, they 1 Chamberlain's English version is found in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. a., Supplement. 2 Aston's English version is found in Transactions Japan Society, London, Supplement. FOUR GATES: PALACE, TOKYO; PALACE, KYOTO; SAKURADA, TOKYO ; NIJO CASTLE, KYOTO HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) 93 are practically concordant, and supply the data upon which the Japanese have constructed their "history." It is thus evident that the accounts of the period before Christ must be largely mythological, and the records of the first four centuries of the Christian era must be a thorough mixture of fact and fiction, which it is difficult carefully to separate. According to Japanese chronology, the Empire of Japan was founded by Jimmu Tenn5 in 660 b. c. This was when Assyria, under Sardanapalus, was at the height of its power ; not long after the ten tribes of Israel had been carried into captivity, and soon after the reign of the good Hezekiah in Judah ; before Media had risen into prominence; a century later than Lycurgus, and a few decades before Draco ; and during the period of the Roman kingdom. But according to a foreign scholar who has sifted the material at hand, the first absolutely authentic date in Japanese history is 461 A. d.,1 — just the time when the Saxons were settling in England. If, therefore, the Japanese are given the benefit of more than a century, there yet remains a millennium which falls under the sacrificial knife of the historical critic. But while we cannot accept unchallenged the details of about a thousand years, and cannot withhold sur prise that even the Constitution of New Japan maintains the "exploded religious fiction" of the foundation of the empire, we must acknowledge that the Imperial family of Japan has formed the oldest 1 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xvi. pp. 39-75. 91 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN continuous dynasty in the world, and can probably boast an " unbroken line " of eighteen or twenty centuries. 1. "Divine Ages." 2. Prehistoric Period [660 B. c-400 (?) A. D.]. Dr. Murray, in " The Story of Japan, " following the illustrious example of Arnold in Roman history, treats these more or less mythological periods in a reasonable way. He says: "Yet the events of the earlier period[s] . . . are capable, with due care and inspection, of furnishing important lessons and disclosing many facts in regard to the lives and characteristics of the primitive Japanese." These facts concerning the native elements of civilization pertain to the mode of government, which was feudal; to food, clothing, houses, arms, and imple ments; to plants and domestic and wild animals; to modes of travel ; to reading and writing, as being un known; to various manners and customs; to super stitions; and to "religious notions," which found expression in Shinto, itself not strictly a "religion," but only a cult without a moral code. "Morals were invented by the Chinese because they were an immoral people; but in Japan there was no necessity for any system of morals, as every Japanese acted rightly if he only consulted his own heart"! So asserts a Shinto apologist. And from the fact that so many myths cluster around Izumo, it is a natural inference that one migration of the ancestors .of the HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) 95 Japanese from Korea landed in that province, while the legends relating to Izanagi and Izanami, the first male and female deities, since they find local habita tion in Kyushiu, seem to indicate another migration (Korean or Malay?) to that locality. These differ ent migrations are also supposed to account for the two distinct types of Japanese. The story of the creation of the world bears con siderable resemblance to that related in Ovid's Meta morphoses; and this is only one of many points of remarkable similarity between the mythology of Japan and the Grseco-Roman mythology.1 And one famous incident in the career of the Sun-Goddess is evi dently a myth of a solar eclipse. Although the Emperor Jimmu cannot be accepted as a truly historical personage, neither can he be entirely ignored, for he is still an important " char acter " in Japanese " history " and continues to claim in his honor two national holidays (February 11 and April 3). And, just as Jimmu may be considered the Cyrus, or founder, of the Japanese Empire, so Sujin, "the Civilizer," may be called its Darius, or organizer. The Prince Yamato-Dake is a popular hero, whose wonderful exploits are still sung in prose and poetry. As for the Empress Jingu, or Jingo, although she is not included in the official list2 of 1 There are, indeed, many striking resemblances between " things Japanese " of various kinds and the corresponding " things Grseco- Roman." See " Japanesque Elements in ' The Last Days of Pom peii ' " in the " Arena " for October, 1896. 2 See Appendix, where will also be found a list of the year- periods, or eras. 96 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN the rulers of the empire, she is considered a great heroine, and is especially famous for her successful invasion of Korea, assigned to about 200 A. D. And it is her son, Ojin, who, deified as Hachiman, is still "worshipped" as god of war; while Take-no-uchi is renowned for having served as Prime Minister to five Emperors and one Empress (Jingu). It was during this period that the Chinese language and literature, together with the art of writing, were in troduced into Japan through Korea. 3. Imperialistic Period [400(?)-888 A. D.]. The continental influences form an important fac tor in the equation of Japanese civilization. The Japanese "have been from the beginning of their history a receptive people," and are indebted to Korea and China for the beginnings of language, literature, education, art, mental and moral philoso phy (Confucianism), religion (Buddhism), and many social ideas. The conversion of the nation to Bud dhism took place in the sixth and seventh centuries, and was largely due to the powerful influence of the Prime Minister of the Empress Suiko. He is best known by his posthumous title of Shotoku Taishi, and is also famous for having compiled "the first written law[s] in Japan." For a long period, on account of superstitions, the capital was frequently removed, so that Japan is said to have had "no less than sixty capitals." But dur ing most of the eighth century the court was located STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN PRINCE SANJO ANP COUNT KATSU HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) 97 at Nara, which gave its name to that epoch ; and in 794 A. D. the capital was permanently established at Kyoto. At first the government of Japan was an absolute monarchy, not only in name, but also in fact; for the authority of the Emperor was recognized and maintained, comparatively unimpaired, throughout the realm. But the decay of the Imperial power began quite early in "the Middle Ages of Japan," as Dr. Murray calls the period from about 700 to 1184 A. d. The Emperors themselves, wearied with the restrained and dignified life which, as " descend ants of the gods," they were obliged by etiquette to endure, preferred to abdicate; and in retirement "often wielded a greater influence and exerted a more active part in the administration of affairs." This practice of abdication frequently brought a youth, or even an infant, to the throne, and naturally transferred the real power to the subordinate admin istrative officers. This was the way in which gra- datim the "duarchy," as it is sometimes called, was developed, and in which seriatim families and even individuals became prominent. 4. Civil Strife [888-1603 A. D.J. Although actual warfare did not begin for a long period, the date of the appointment of a Fujiwara as Regent practically ended Imperialism and was the beginning of jealousy and strife. And yet the Fuji wara Epoch was the "Elizabethan Age" of classical 7 98 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN literature. But after that family had for about 400 years "monopolized nearly all the important offices in the government," and from 888 had held the regency in hereditary tenure, it was finally deposed by the so-called "military families." The first of these was the Taira, who, after only a short period of power (1156-1185) through Kiyo- mori, were utterly overthrown in the " wars of the red and white flags," and practically annihilated in the great naval battle of Dan-no-ura. Next came the Minamoto, represented by Yoritomo,1 whose au thority was further enhanced when the Emperor bestowed on him the highest military title, Sei-i- Tai-Shogun. And from this time (1192) till 1868 the emperors were practical nonentities, and subor dinates actually governed the empire. The Japan ese Merovingians, however, were never deprived of their titular honor by their "Mayors of the Palace." But the successors of Yoritomo in the office of Shogun were young and sensual, and gladly relin quished the executive duties to their guardians of the Hojo family, who, as regents, ruled "with resistless authority" and "unexampled cruelty and rapacity," but yet deserve credit for defeating (in 1281) an invading force of Tartars sent by Kublai Khan. The great patriots, Kusunoki and Nitta, with the aid of Ashikaga, finally overthrew the Hojo domination in 1333 ; but the Ashikaga rule succeeded and continued till 1573. 1 His younger brother, Yoshitsune, was a popular hero. HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) 99 During the fourteenth century occurred the Japan ese " War of the Roses," or the "War of the Chrysan themums," which was a conflict between two rival branches of the Imperial family. It resulted in the defeat of the "Southern Court" by the "Northern Court, " and the reunion of the Imperial authority in the person of the Emperor Komatsu II. It was an Ashikaga Shogun who encouraged the quaint tea- ceremonial, called cha-no-yu ; it was the same family who fostered fine arts, especially painting and archi tecture; it was an Ashikaga who paid tribute to China; it was "in almost the worst period of the Ashikaga anarchy" that, in 1542, "the Portuguese made their first appearance in Japan"; and it was only five years later when Francis Xavier arrived there to begin his missionary labors, from which Christianity spread rapidly, until the converts were numbered by the millions.1 The next few decades of Japanese history are crowded with civil strife, and include the three great men, Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and lyeyasu, each of whom in turn seized the supreme power. The first-named persecuted Buddhism and was favor able to Christianity; the other two interdicted the latter. Hideyoshi, who "rose from obscurity solely by his own talents, " has been called " the Napoleon of Japan." He is generally known by his title of Taiko ; and he extended his name abroad by an in vasion of Korea, which was not, however, a complete 1 See " The Beligions of Japan " (Griffis), chap. xi. 100 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN success. He is regarded by many as "the greatest soldier, if not the greatest man, whom Japan has produced." If this statement can be successfully challenged, the palm will certainly be awarded to lyeyasu, who, by the victory of Sekigahara in 1600, became the virtual ruler of the empire. 5. Tokugawa Feudalism [1603-1868 A. D.]. lyeyasu founded a dynasty (Tokugawa) of Shoguns, who, for more than 260 years, ruled at Yedo, sur rounded by faithful vassals, and who at least gave the empire a long period of peace. He brought Japanese feudalism to its perfection of organization. His successors destroyed Christianity by means of a fearful persecution; prohibited commercial inter course, except with the Chinese and the Dutch,1 and allowed it with these only to a limited extent, and thus crystallized Japanese civilization and in stitutions. It may be true that " Japan reached the acme of her ancient greatness during the Tokugawa Dynasty " ; but it is also true that by this policy of insulation and seclusion she was put back two and a half centuries in the matter of progress in civilization. The long years of peace under the Tokugawas were also years of literary development. Chinese history, literature, and philosophy were ardently studied; Confucianism wielded a mighty influence; but Japanese history and literature were not neg lected. The Mito clan especially was the centre of 1 Previously Portuguese, English, and others had enjoyed the privilege. HISTORY (OLD JAPAN) 101 intellectual industry, and produced, among a large number of works, the Dai Nihon Shi (History of Great Japan), which is even to-day the standard. The study of Japanese history revealed the fact that the governmental authority had been originally cen tred in the Emperor, and not divided with any subor dinate ; and the study of Confucian political science led to the same idea of an absolute monarchy. Thus the spirit of Imperialism grew, encouraged, perhaps, by clan jealousies and fostered by anti- foreign opinions, until " the last of the Shoguns " resigned his position, and the Emperor was restored to his original sole authority. Then the leaders of the Restoration abandoned their anti-foreign slogan, which had been only a pretext, and by a complete but wise volte-face, began to turn their country into the path of modern civilization, to make up for the lost centuries. But the story of this wonderful trans formation belongs to the next chapter. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Griffis, in his "Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art," gives interesting glimpses of Japanese history ; and many other works on Japan present a brief treatment of this subject. There is an official " History of the Empire of Japan," originally prepared for the World's Columbian Exposition. Hildreth's " Japan as it Was and Is " is especially valuable for the period of seclusion. Knapp's "Feudal and Modern Japan" is in structive in its contrasts. The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan abound in valuable material. For a single volume on this subject, Murray's "Japan" in the series of " The Stories of the Nations " is the best. CHAPTER VIII HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) Outline op Topics : Birth of New Japan. — Nineteenth Cen tury Japan ; calendars ; six periods : (I) Period of Seclusion, chro nology and description ; (II) Period of Treaty-making, chronology and description ; (III) Period of Civil Commotions, chronology and description; (IV) Period of Reconstruction, chronology and de scription, especially the " Charter Oath " ; (V) Period of Internal Development, chronology and description ; (VI) Period of Consti tutional Government, chronology and description ; summary of general progress. — Bibliography. JULY 14, 1853, was the birthday of New Japan. It was the day when Commodore Perry and his suite first landed on the shore of Yedo Bay at Kurihama, near Uraga, and when Japanese author ities received, in contravention of their own laws, an official communication from Millard Fillmore, Presi dent of the United States. It may be true that, even if Perry had not come, Japan would have been eventually opened, because internal public opinion was shaping itself against the policy of seclusion ; but we care little for what " might have been." It is, of course, true that Perry did not fully carry out the purpose of his expedition until the following year, when he negotiated a treaty of friend ship ; but the reception of the President's letter was the crucial point ; it was the beginning of the end of HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 103 old Japan. The rest followed in due course of time. When Japanese authorities broke their own laws, the downfall of the old system was inevitable. Mark those words in the receipt — "in opposition to the Japanese law." That was a clear confession that the old policy of seclusion and its prohibitions could no longer be strictly maintained. A precedent was thus established, of which other nations were not at all slow to avail themselves. But although New Japan was not born until the second half of the nineteenth century, it suits the purpose of this book a little better, even at the ex pense of possible repetition, to take a survey in this chapter of that entire century, in order that the real progress of Japan may thereby be more clearly re vealed in all its marvellous strides. Of course, the employment of the Gregorian calen dar in Japan is of comparatively recent occurrence, so that it would be quite proper to divide up the century according to the old Japanese custom of periods, or eras,1 of varying length. This system was introduced from China and has prevailed since 645 A. D. A new era was always chosen " whenever it was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign event." It is interesting, by the way, to notice that, immediately after Commodore Perry's arrival (1853), the name of the period was changed for a good omen ! Hereafter these eras will correspond with the reigns of the emperors. 1 For lists of eras and emperors, see Appendix. 104 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN But it is really more intelligible to divide the his tory of the century into six periods of well-determined duration. Each one of these periods, moreover, may be accurately named in accord with the distinguishing characteristic of that period. It must, however, be clearly understood that these distinctions are not all absolute, but rather relative. It is also possible, with out an undue stretch of the imagination, to trace, in the order of the periods,, the general progress that has marked the history of New Japan. These periods are as follows : — I. Seclusion (1801-1853). II. Treaty-making (1854-1858). III. Civil Commotions (1858-1868). IV. Reconstruction (1868-1878). V. Internal Development (1879-1889). VI. Constitutional Government (1889-1900).1 It is of special interest for Americans to notice that the third and fourth periods are almost contemporane ous with the periods of Civil War and Reconstruction in the United States. We now take up each period in detail. I. Period of Seclusion (1801-1853). CHRONOLOGY. 1804. Resanoff, Russian Embassy. 1807. The "Eclipse " of Boston at Nagasaki. 1808. The British frigate " Phaethon " at Nagasaki. 1811-18i3. Golownin's captivity in Yezo. 1818. Captain Gordon (British) in Yedo Bay. 1 Or [VII. Cosmopolitanism (1899- )]. HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 105 1825-1829. Dr. Von Siebold (Dutch) in Yedo. 1S27. Beechey (British) in "Blossom" at Loo Choo Islands. 1837. The "Morrison" Expedition in Yedo Bay. 1844. Letter x from King William II. of Holland. 1845. American whaler " Mercator " in Yedo Bay. British frigate " Saramang" at Nagasaki. 1846. Dr. Bettelheim in Loo Choo Islands. Wreck of American whaler "Lawrence" on Kurile Islands. 1848. (United States) Commodore Biddle's Expedition in Yedo Bay. Wreck of American whaler "Ladoga" off Mat- sumai, Yezo. Ronald McDonald landed in Japan. 1849. United States " Preble " in Nagasaki harbor. British " Mariner " in Yedo Bay. 1853. Shogun Iyeyoshi died. Commodore Perry in Yedo Bay. It needs only a few words to summarize this period which includes the final days of the two-edged policy of exclusion and inclusion, which forbade not only foreigners to enter, but also Japanese to leave, the country. It would not even allow Japanese ship wrecked on other shores to be brought back to their native land, as several futile attempts mentioned above attest. Nagasaki was the only place where for eign trade was allowed, and there only in a slight degree with Chinese and Dutch. The events of this period are almost all vain attempts to open Japan. Two important events concern the Loo Choo Islands, 1 Recommending to open Japan to foreign intercourse. 106 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN then independent, and later visited also by Commo dore Perry on his way from China to Japan. Ronald McDonald was an Oregon boy, who, "voluntarily left adrift, got into Yezo, and thence to Nagasaki." He is reported to have puzzled the Japanese author ities by stating that in America "the people are king and the source of authority " ! This period of seclu sion came to an end on July 14, 1853, when the Japanese, contrary to their own laws, received from Commodore Perry the letter from President Fillmore to the Emperor of Japan.1 II. Period of Treaty-Making (1854-1858). CHRONOLOGY. 1854. Perry's treaty of peace and amity. British treaty of peace and amity. 1855. Russian treaty of peace and amity. Terrible earthquake. 1856. Fire in Yedo ; 100,000 lives lost. Dutch treaty of peace and amity. Townsend Harris, United States Consul, arrived. 1857. Harris in audience with the Shogun. 1858. Harris treaty of trade and commerce. Elgin treaty of trade and commerce. 1 The following is what the Japanese themselves stated about this event : " The letter of the President of the United States of North America, and copy, are hereby received and delivered to the Emperor. Many times it has been communicated that business relating to foreign countries cannot be transacted here at Uraga, but in Nagasaki. Now, it has been observed that the Admiral, in his quality of ambassador of the President, would be insulted by it; the justice of this has been acknowledged; consequently, the above-mentioned letter is hereby received, in opposition to the Japanese law." HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 107 This is the era which was opened by Commodore Perry, and was almost entirely devoted to the per severing attempts of Perry, Harris, Curtius, Lord Elgin, and others to negotiate treaties, first of friend ship and amity, and afterwards of trade and com merce, with Japan. It is rather interesting that the only events chronicled above, besides treaty-making, are terrible catastrophes, which the superstitious con servatives believed to have been visited upon their country as a punishment for treating with the bar barians ! It is again a matter of peculiar pride to Americans that the first treaty of friendship and amity was negotiated by Perry ; that the first foreign flag raised officially in Japan was the Stars and Stripes, hoisted at Shimoda by Harris on September 4, 1856 ; that Harris was the first accredited diplomatic agent from a foreign country to Japan ; that he also had the honor of the first audience of a foreign representa tive with the Shogun, then supposed to be the Emperor ; and that he negotiated the first treaty of trade and commerce. III. Period of Civil Commotions (1858-1868). CHRONOLOGY. 1859. Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate opened. First Christian missionaries. 1860. Assassination of Ii, Prime Minister of the Shogun. 1861. Frequent attacks on foreigners. 1862. First foreign embassy. Richardson affair 1863. Bombardment of Kagoshima. 1864. Bombardment of Shimonoseki. 108 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN 1865. Imperial sanction of treaties. Tariff convention. 1866. Shogun Iyemochi died ; succeeded by Keiki. 1867. Emperor Komei died ; succeeded by Mutsuhito. Keiki resigned. Reorganization of the Govern ment. 1868. Restoration, or Revolution. This era has been so named because it was marked by commotions, not merely between different factions among the Japanese, but also between Japanese and foreigners. The anti-foreign spirit that manifested itself in numerous assaults and conspiracies was so involved with internal dissensions that it is quite difficult to distinguish them. The assassination of Ii, the Shogun's Prime Minister, who had the courage and the foresight to sign the treaties, was the natural sequence of the opening of three ports to foreign com merce. The conservative spirit, moreover, was still so strong that the Shogun had to send an embassy, the first one ever sent abroad officially by Japan, to petition the treaty-powers to permit the postpone ment of the opening of other ports. The murder of Richardson, an Englishman who rudely interrupted the progress of the retinue of the Prince of Satsuma, was the pretext for the bombardment of Kagoshima ; and the firing on an American vessel that was passing through the Straits of Shimonoseki was the excuse for the bombardment of Shimonoseki. About the middle of this period the Imperial sanction of the treaties was obtained, and a tariff convention was negotiated. STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN OKUBO, SAIGO, KIDO, AND PRINCE IWAKURA HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 109 The civil dissensions, however, continued ; the great clan of Choshiu became engaged in actual war fare against the Shogun's troops in Kyoto and were proclaimed " rebels," against whom an Imperial army was despatched; the young Shogun, Iyemochi, died and was succeeded by Keiki; and the Emperor Komei also died and was succeeded by his young son, Mutsuhito, the present Emperor. Finally, the new Shogun, observing the drift of political affairs and the need of the times for a more centralized and unified administration, resigned his position ; and the system of government was re-formed with the Emperor in direct control. The new Emperor declared in a manifesto : " Henceforward we shall exercise supreme authority, both in the internal and [the] external affairs of the country. Consequently the title of Emperor should be substituted for that of Tycoon [Shogun], which has hitherto been employed in the treaties." Of this manifesto, one writer says : " Ap pended were the seal of Dai Nippon, and the signa ture, Mutsuhito, this being the first occasion in Japanese history on which the name of an Emperor had appeared during his lifetime."1 But the effect of the reorganization of the gov ernment seemed to the adherents of the former Shogun to work so much injustice to them that they rose in arms against the Sat-Cho [Satsuma-Choshiu] combination which was then influential at court. This led, in 1867, to a civil war, which, after a severe 1 Dixon's " Land of the Morning,'' p. 97. 110 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN struggle, culminated in 1868 in the complete triumph of the Imperialists. This event is what is called by some " the Restoration," and by others " the Revolu tion." This was, in fact, the climax of all the civil commotions of the period ; the anti-foreign spirit and policy were only secondary to the prime purpose of overthrowing the usurpation of the Tokugawa Shogunate and restoring the one legal Emperor to his lawful authority. And thus fell, not only the Tokugawa Dynasty, as had fallen other dynasties, of Shoguns, but also the whole system of a Shogunate ; and thus the Emperor of Japan became, not ruler in name and fame only, but sovereign in act and fact. Since 1868 Mutsuhito has been Emperor both de jure and de facto. IV. Period of Reconstruction (1868-1878). CHRONOLOGY. 1868. Opening of Hyogo (Kobe) and Osaka. 1869. Opening of Yedo and Niigata. Emperor's audience of foreign ministers. Yedo named Tokyo and made capital. The " Charter Oath " of Japan. 1870. Light-houses, telegraphs. 1871. Postal system, mint, and dock. Feudalism abolished. Eta and hinin (outcasts) admitted to citizenship. Colonization in Yezo [Hokkaido]. 1872. First railway, newspaper, church, and Missionary Conference. Imperial University in Tokyo. Iwakura Embassy to America and Europe. HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 111 1873. Adoption of Gregorian calendar. Removal of anti-Christian edicts. Empress gave audience to foreign ladies. 1874. Saga Rebellion. Formosan Expedition. 1875. Assembly of Governors. Senate. Saghalien traded off for Kurile Islands 1876. Treaty with Korea. 1877. Satsuma Rebellion. First National Exhibition in Tokyo. 1878. Bimetallism. Promise to establish Prefectural Assemblies. This period was one of laying the foundations of a New Japan, to be constructed out of the old, and was one of such kaleidoscopic changes and marvellous transformations in society, business, and administra tion that it is almost blinding to the eye to attempt to watch the work of reconstruction. There were abortive but costly attempts, like the Saga and the Satsuma rebellions, to check the progressive policy. It was the great period of " firsts," of beginnings : the first audiences of foreign ministers by the Em peror and of foreign ladies by the Empress ; the first telegraph, mint, dock, railroad, postal system, news paper, exhibition, church, etc. ; an assembly of pro vincial governors to confer together upon general policy, and a Senate. The " Charter Oath " of Japan was not obtained by coercion, but voluntarily taken: it is such an important document that at least a summary may be given : * — 1 Iyenaga's " Constitutional Development of Japan," p. 33. 112 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN " 1. A deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be decided by public opinion. " 2. The principles of social and political economics should be diligently studied by both the superior and [the] inferior classes of our people. " 3. Every one in the community shall be assisted to persevere in carrying out his will for all good purposes. "4. All the old absurd usages of former times should be disregarded, and the impartiality and justice dis played in the workings of nature be adopted as a basis of action. " 5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of the world for the purpose of firmly establish ing the foundations of the empire." Two years later feudalism was abolished by the following laconic decree : " The clans are abolished, and prefectures are established in their places." In the same year the outcast eta and hi-nin (not- human) were recognized as common people. Then followed the despatch of the Iwakura Embassy to America and Europe, where, although they failed in their prime purpose of securing a revision of the treaties on more nearly equal terms, they learned most valuable lessons. Two immediate results thereof were seen in the removal of the anti-Christian edicts and the adoption of the Gregorian, or Christian, cal endar. And finally came the promise to establish pref ectural assemblies as training schools in local self- government. HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 113 V. Period of Internal Development (1879-1889). CHRONOLOGY. 1879. Annexation of the Loo Choo Islands. Visit of General U. S. Grant. 1880. Promulgation of Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure. Establishment of prefectural assemblies. 1881. Announcement of Constitutional Government. 1882. Organization of political parties. Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginko). 1883. Missionary Conference, Osaka. 1884. New orders of nobility in European fashion. English introduced into school curricula. 1885. Japan Mail Steamship Company (Nippon Yusen Kwaisha). Cabinet reconstruction, known as " The Great Earthquake" (political). 1886. Dissatisfaction of Radicals. 1887. "Peace Preservation Act." 1888. Establishment of Privy Council. Eruption of Mount Bandai. 1889. Promulgation of the Constitution (February 11) . Establishment of local self-government. Prince Haru proclaimed Crown Prince. This period is not marked, perhaps, by so many unusual events as the preceding one ; but it was a period of rapid, though somewhat quiet, internal development. We note in financial affairs the or ganization of the Bank of Japan, which has ever since been a most important agent in maintaining an economic equilibrium; in business circles the 8 114 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN organization of the Japan Mail Steamship Company, which has been instrumental in expanding Japanese trade and commerce ; in society the reorganization of the nobility; and in legal matters the promulga tion of new codes. Several political events are noted in the chronology ; but they were mostly preparatory to the next period. The promise to establish prefec- tural assemblies was fulfilled, and these became pre paratory schools in political science ; and another promise, that of a constitution, was made. The Cabi net was reconstructed, and political parties were organized. The Radicals, however, became dissatis fied with the slowness of political progress, and made such an agitation that, in 1887, many were expelled from Tokyo by the so-called " Peace Preservation Act," and those who refused to obey were im prisoned. But finally, in 1889, as the climax of the internal development and political preparations, came the establishment of local self-government and the promulgation of the Constitution, which ushered in the next period. VI. Period of Constitutional Government (1889-1900). CHRONOLOGY. 1889. Anti-foreign reaction. 1890. First National Election. First Imperial Diet. Promulgation of Civil and Commercial Codes. 1891. Attack on the Czarowitz, now Emperor of Russia. Gifu earthquake. 1892. Dispute between the two Houses of Diet. 1893. Dispute between the Diet and the Government. HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 115 1894. War with China. 1895. War with China. Acquisition of Formosa. 1896. Alliance between the Government and Liberals. Tidal wave on northeastern coast of main island. 1897. Revised tariff. Gold standard. Freedom of press and public meeting. 1898. Revised Civil Code. First " Party Cabinet." 1899. New treaties on terms of equality — Japan wide open. Wedding of Crown Prince Haru. 1900. Extension of electoral franchise. War with China — Japan allied with Christendom. General Missionary Conference, Tokyo. This period included wars and other calamities, but also some very fortunate events. It opened, strange to say, with the " anti-foreign reaction " at its height. This reaction was the natural result of the rapid Occidentalizing that had been going on, and was strengthened by the refusal of Western nations to revise the treaties which kept Japan in thraldom. But the period closed with " treaty revision " accom plished, and Japan admitted, on terms of equality, to alliance with Western nations.1 And in quelling the "Boxer" disturbances in China and particularly in raising the Siege of Peking, Japan played a most important part. This period was chiefly occupied ' with the experimental stage in constitutional gov ernment, when the relations between the two Houses of the Diet, between the Diet and the Cabinet, be tween the Cabinet and political parties, were being 1 See Appendix for New Treaty. 116 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN defined. This was also the period during which new civil, commercial, and criminal codes were put into operation; the gold standard was adopted; the re strictions on the freedom of the press and of public meeting were almost entirely removed ; the tariff was revised in the interests of Japan; and the electoral franchise in elections for members of the House of Representatives was largely extended. It has already been suggested that the very order of these periods indicates in general the progress of Japan during those hundred years. The century dawns, nay, even the second half of the century opens, with Japan in seclusion. But Commodore Perry breaks down that isolation ; and Japan enters, first merely into amity, but afterwards into commer cial intercourse, with foreign nations. The break up of the old foreign policy accelerates the break up of the old national policy of government, and civil commotions culminate in the restoration of the Em peror to his lawful authority. Japan is then recon structed on new lines; and a tremendous internal development prepares the Japanese to be admitted by their generous Emperor into a share of his inher ited prerogatives. And the century sets with Japan among the great nations of Christendom, and with the Japanese enjoying a constitutional government, representative institutions, local self-government, free dom of the press and of public meeting, and reli gious liberty. If this is the record of Nineteenth Century Japan, what of Twentieth Century Japan? HISTORY (NEW JAPAN) 117 It certainly has a good start, in formal alliance with Great Britain to maintain peace and justice in the Far East. BIBLIOGRAPHY The same as the preceding chapter, with the addition of " The Intercourse between the United States and Japan " (Nitobe); "Matthew Calbraith Perry," " Townsend Harris," and " Verbeck of Japan " (all by Griffis) ; " Advance Japan " (Morris) ; and Perry's Expedition (official report). On the early history of New Japan there are many valuable works by Alcock, Black, Dickson, Dixon (W. G.), House, Lanman, Mounsey, Mossman, and others. See also Satow's translation of " Kinse Shiriaku." On the war with China (1894, 1895), see "Heroic Japan" (Eastlake and Yamada); and on the lessons and results of that war, see "The New Far East" (Diosy). CHAPTER IX CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM Outline of Topics : The " Charter Oath " of Japan ; popular agitation; promise of a national assembly; a red-letter year; the " Magna Charta " of Japan ; Imperial prerogatives ; personality of Emperor and Empress ; Crown Prince and Princess ; Imperial grandchildren; Privy Council; Imperial Cabinet; Departments of State ; sundry comments ; House of Peers ; House of Commons ; some "firsts"; rights and duties of subjects; criticisms of Jap anese politics ; popular rights ; personnel of two Houses ; cabinet responsibility ; political parties ; persons and principles ; constitu tional system satisfactory. — Bibliography. WHEN the Revolution, or Restoration, of 1868 ended the usurpation, and over threw the despotism of the Shogun, the young Emperor, Mutsuhito, restored to his ancestral rights as the actual sole ruler of the empire, took solemn oath that " a deliberative assembly should be formed ; all measures be decided by public opinion ; the uncivilized customs of former times should be broken through ; the impartiality and justice displayed in the workings of nature be adopted as a basis of action; and that intellect and learning should be sought for throughout the world, in order to estab lish the foundations of the empire." In that same year an assembly of representatives of the clans was called to meet in the capital, and was given the title CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 119 of Shugi-in (House of Commons). It consisted of samurai (knights) from each clan ; and as they were appointed by each daimyo (prince), the body was a purely feudal, and not at all a popular, assembly. In 1871 feudalism was abolished, and later a senate was established ; but that was an advisory body, con sisting of officials appointed by the Emperor and without legislative power. In 1875 the Emperor convoked a council of the officers of the provincial governments with a purpose stated as follows : " We also call a council of the officials of our provinces, so that the feelings of the people may be made known and the public welfare attained. By these means we shall gradually confer upon the nation a constitu tional form of government. The provincial officials are summoned as the representatives of the people in the various provinces, that they may express their opinion on behalf of the people." But a body so constituted and rather conservative could not satisfy the demands of the new age. Itagaki (now Count) insisted that the government should "guarantee the establishment of a popular assembly," and organized societies, or associations, for popular agitation of the subject. Petitions and memorials poured in upon the government, within whose circles Okuma (now Count), Minister of Finance, was most active in the same direction. In the mean time (1878) provincial assemblies, the members of which were chosen by popular election, had been established as a preparatory measure. 120 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN It was on October 12, 1881, that the Emperor issued his memorable proclamation that a National Assembly should be opened in 1890. That procla mation read as follows : — "We therefore hereby declare that we shall, in the 23rd year of Meiji, establish a Parliament, in order to carry into full effect the determination we have an nounced, and we charge our faithful subjects bearing our commissions to make, in the mean time, all necessary preparations to that end. With regard to the limita tions upon the Imperial prerogative, and the constitution of the Parliament, we shall decide hereafter, and shall make proclamation in due time." From that time on there was progress, "steadily, if slowly, in the direction of greater decentraliza tion and broader popular prerogative." The year 1889 was a red-letter year in the calendar of Japan's political progress. On February 11 was promulgated that famous document1 which took Japan forever out of the ranks of Oriental despotisms and placed her among constitutional monarchies; and on April 1 the law of local self-government for city, town, and village went into effect. The Japanese Constitution has very appropriately been called "the Magna Charta of Japanese liberty." It was not, however, like the famous English docu ment, extorted by force from an unwilling monarch and a cruel tyrant, but was voluntarily granted by a kind and loved ruler at the expense of his inherited 1 Drawn up by Count (now Marquis) It5, Messrs. Kaneko and Suyematsu (now Barons), and others. CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 121 and long -established rights. The present Emperor holds the throne according to the native tradition, perpetuated even in the language of the Constitu tion, by virtue of a " lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal." But even though rigid criticism compels us to reject as more or less mythological the so-called "history" of about 1,000 years; and although Mutsuhito, therefore, may not be really the 122d ruler of the line from the Japanese Romulus (Jimmu), nevertheless he remains the representa tive of the oldest living dynasty in the world. If, then, time is a factor in confirming the claims and rights of a ruler, no king or emperor of the present day has a better title. And yet this man, born and bred in the atmosphere of Oriental absolutism and despotism, "in consideration of the progressive ten dency of the course of human affairs, and in parallel with the advance of civilization," x voluntarily and generously admits his people to a share in the ad ministration of public affairs. That important document, which signs away such strongly acquired and inherited prerogatives, at the outset, however, seems far from generous. The Emperor, "sacred and inviolate," is "the head of the empire," combining in himself the rights of sovereignty; but he "exercises them according to the provisions of the Constitution. " It is only " in consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain pub lic safety or to avert public calamities," that the i This and following quotations are from the Constitution itself. 122 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Emperor, "when the Imperial Diet is not sitting," may issue "Imperial Ordinances in place of law." But these ordinances must be approved by the Im perial Diet at its next session, or become "invalid for the future." To the Emperor is reserved the function of issuing ordinances necessary for carry ing out the laws passed by the Diet or for the maintenance of public peace and order; but "no Ordinance shall in any way alter any of the existing laws." The Emperor also determines the organiza tion of the various branches of the government, appoints and dismisses all officials, and fixes their salaries. Moreover, he has " the supreme command of the army and navy," whose organization and peace standing he determines ; " declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties "; "confers titles of no bility, rank, orders, and other marks of honor"; and "orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punish ments and rehabilitation." Now it must be quite evident to the most casual reader that, in carrying out this Constitution, pat terned after that of Germany, much depends upon the Emperor and his personality. One, like Komei (the father of the present Emperor), bigoted and in tent upon resisting any infringement, to the slightest degree, upon his "divine rights," could create a great deal of friction in the administration of affairs. But, fortunately for Japan and the world, Mutsuhito is not at all inclined to be narrow-minded, selfish, and despotic, but is graciously pleased to be the CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 123 leader of his subjects in broader and better paths. And although the Empress has no share in the administration and wisely keeps "out of politics," her popularity enhances the interest felt in the present reign.1 It is, moreover, fortunate for Japan that the heir apparent, Prince Haru, is also a man of most liberal ideas and progressive tendencies. He has had a broad education, by both public and private instruc tion, and a careful training for the career that lies before him; and he will undoubtedly be found ready to extend popular privileges just so far as conditions warrant. If he lives to ascend the throne, he will be the first Japanese Emperor who received any education in public ; for it was in the Gakushuin — or Nobles' School, as it is called in English — that he completed the elementary course.2 After that, on account of poor health, he was compelled to pursue his studies under private tutors. And that the Imperial line will, in all human probability, remain "unbroken" for many years, is rendered likely by the fact that the Crown Prince and the Crown Princess Sada have been blessed with two healthy sons, Prince Michi and Prince Atsu, who are being brought up by professional " tutors, " Count and Countess Kawamura, away from court life, with such care as the needs of said Imperial line demand. 1 See Scidmore's "Jinrikisha Days in Japan,'' chaps, xi., xii. 2 See " The Yankees of the East," chap. iii. 124 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN But, to return from this digression to the subject of the Constitution, another body recognized by that document is the Privy Council (Sumitsu-In), ap pointed by the Emperor and consulted by him upon certain matters of State. It consists of 1 President, 1 Vice-President, 25 Councillors, and 1 Secretary, with 5 assistants ; and it is composed of " personages who have rendered signal service to the State and who are distinguished for their experience, " such as ex-Ministers of State and others, whose "valuable advice on matters of State " would naturally be sought. The matters coming within the cognizance of the Privy Council are specified as follows: Matters which come under its jurisdiction by the Law of the Houses (of Parliament); drafts and doubtful points relating to articles of the Constitu tion, and to laws and ordinances dependent to the Constitution; proclamation of the law of siege and certain Imperial ordinances; international treaties; and matters specially called for. The Ministers of State are, ex officio, members of the Privy Coun cil; but although it is "the Emperor's highest resort of counsel, it shall not interfere with the Executive." The Cabinet includes the holders of 10 portfolios : those of the Minister President, or Premier; the Minister of Foreign Affairs; the Minister of Home Affairs; the Minister of Finance; the Minister of the Army, or War; the Minister of the Navy; the Minister of Justice; the Minister of Education; DEPARTMENTS OF STATE ; NAVY ; AGKICULTUKE AND COMMERCE ; JUSTICE ; FOREIGN AFFAIRS CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 125 the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce ; and the .Minister of Communications. There is one other official who holds the title of Minister, but is not a member of the Cabinet, that is, the Minister of the Imperial Household. When the Cabinet is fully organized, it contains 10 members; but occasionally circumstances compel the Premier or some other Minister to hold an extra portfolio, at least tempo rarily. Each department of state has its own sub ordinate officials, most of whom hold office under civil-service rules and are not removable. The titles of the departments are mostly self- explanatory, and correspond in general to similar departments in Occidental countries; but in some cases there are vital differences, especially in com parison with the United States Cabinet. In a pater nal government, like that of Japan, the Minister of Home Affairs holds a much more important position than our Secretary of the Interior, for he has the general oversight of the police system and the prefec- tural governments; the Minister of Justice holds a broader position than our Attorney-General; and the Minister of Communications has the oversight, not of the postal system only, but also of telegraphs, telephones, railways, and other modes of conveyance and communication. In general, as will be ob served, the Japanese Government owns many in stitutions which, in our country, are entrusted to private enterprise. The Premier receives a salary of 9,600 yen, and 126 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN other ministers receive 6,000 yen, besides official residence and sundry allowances. In most cases the real work of each department is performed by the subordinate officials, while the frequently changing 1 Ministers of State are only nominal heads of the de partments. The two portfolios of the Army and the Navy, however, have been taken out of politics, and are not subject to change whenever a ministry goes out of office. Ministers of State, as well as govern mental delegates, specially appointed for the pur pose, "may, at any time, take seats and speak in either House " of the Imperial Diet. The Imperial Diet of Japan consists of two Houses, the House of Peers and the House of Commons. The membership of the former comprises three classes, — hereditary, elective, and appointive.2 The members of the Imperial Family and of the orders of Princes and Marquises possess the hereditary tenure. From among those persons who have the titles of Count, Baron, and Viscount a certain number are chosen by election, for a term of seven years. The Emperor has the power of appointing for life mem bership a limited number of persons, deserving on account of meritorious services to the State or of erudition. Finally, in each Fu and Ken one member is elected from and among the highest tax-payers and appointed by the Emperor, for a term of seven years. The members of the House of Commons are always 1 For table of Cabinet changes, see Appendix. 2 The number is variable ; at present, it is 328. See Appendix. CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 127 elected by ballot in accordance with the Election Law, by which they now number 376. Their term of office is four years, unless they lose their seats by dissolution of the Diet, as has often happened. "Those [persons] alone shall be eligible [as candi dates], that are male Japanese subjects, of not less than full thirty years of age, and that in the Fu or Ken in which they desire to be elected, have been paying direct national taxes to an amount of not less than 15 yen, for a period of not less than one year previous to the date of making out the electoral list, and that are still paying that amount of direct national taxes."1 Certain officials, as well as mili tary and naval officers, are ineligible. A voter must be full twenty -five years of age; must have actually resided in that Fu or Ken for one year; and must have been paying direct national taxes of not less than 10 yen. The limits of an electoral district in clude a whole Fu or Ken, except that an incorporated city (Shi) forms one or more districts by itself. And the number of the latter kind of districts has been increased lately, so that urban populations might have a more adequate representation. The plan of unsigned uni-nominal ballots is employed. The present number of eligible voters is a little over one million. The first election under the Constitution took place (whether designedly or accidentally, I know not), by a curious coincidence, on July 4, 1890; and 1 The property qualification has since been abolished. 128 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN the first session of the Imperial Diet opened on November 29, 1890. On December 2 the House of Peers received the first bill ever presented to a National Assembly in Japan; and on December 4 the first Budget (for 1891) was laid before the House of Representatives by Count Matsukata, Minister of Finance. Some notice must be taken of the rights and duties of subjects under the Japanese Constitution. All such persons are eligible to civil and military offices ; amenable to service in the army and the navy, and the duty of paying taxes, according to law; have the liberty of abode, inviolate right of property, right of trial by law, and freedom of speech, writing, publica tion, public meeting, association, and religious belief, "within the limits of law"; cannot be arrested, detained, tried, or punished, "unless according to law," and can claim inviolate secrecy of correspond ence. Moreover, "the house of no Japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his consent," except in due process of law. All subjects may also present petitions, " by observing the proper forms of respect." The freedom of religious belief is granted "within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects." These "rights " are old to Anglo-Saxons, but new to Japanese. Now we often see and hear rather uncomplimentary statements about the Imperial Diet, political parties, cabinet ministers, and Japanese political affairs in DIET BUILDINGS : HOUSE OF COMMONS AND HOUSE OF PEERS CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 129 general, and are even told that Japan is only " play ing " with parliamentary and representative institu tions, that her popular assemblies are mere "toys," her constitutional government is all a "farce," and her new civilization is nothing but a "bib." Such criticisms, however, result either from ignorance or from a wrong point of view. It is undeniably true that, viewed from the vantage-ground attained by popular institutions and constitutional government in many Occidental nations, Japan is still lagging behind. It is not fair, however, to judge her by our own standards ; the only just way is to estimate carefully the exact difference between her former and her present conditions. This the author has tried to do elsewhere in a pamphlet J on " Constitu tional Government in Japan," in which he has given a sketch of the workings of the Japanese Constitu tion during the first decade, or period, of its history. From that he quotes the following conclusions : — The progress made during the first decade of con stitutional government in Japan was considerable. In the first place, popular rights were largely ex panded by the removal of most of the restrictions on freedom of the press and public meeting; as much extension of the electoral franchise as seems warranted was accomplished ; and public opinion, as voiced in the newspapers and magazines, was wield ing an increased and constantly increasing influence. i Published in the " Annals of the American Academy of Politi cal and Social Science." 9 130 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN On this point the "Japan Times" says: "No one who goes into the country and compares the present degree of the people's political education with what it was ten years ago, can fail to be struck by the immense progress achieved during that interval." In the second place, the character of the two Houses of the Imperial Diet has greatly improved. The inexperienced have given way to the experi enced, the ignorant to the intelligent; so that, after six elections, the personnel of the House of Repre sentatives is of a much better quality, and the House of Peers has been quickened by the infusion of new blood. Experience, as usual, has been a good teacher. In the third place, the Cabinet, theoretically re sponsible to the Emperor because appointed by him on his own sole authority, is practically responsible to the Imperial Diet and must command the support of a majority of that body. Hereafter it would seem that dissolution of the Diet is not likely to occur as often as dissolution of the Cabinet. The one weak point in this situation is that, although the principle of party cabinets is thus es tablished, its practical application is difficult of reali zation, simply because there are no true political parties in Japan. There are many so-called "par ties," which are really only factions, bound together by personal, class, geographical, or mercantile ties, and without distinctive principles. One "party" is actually Count Okuma's following; another is CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM 131 Count Itagaki's; another is called "the business men's party"; another is composed of politicians of the Northeast ; and another tries to maintain the old clan alliances.1 But it is, nevertheless, true that "Japan is at length passing out of the epoch of persons and en tering the era of principles," when, of course, will speedily come the development of parties. It is not, perhaps, strange that the personality of the great statesmen who made New Japan possible has been felt for so long a time, nor that the able men of the rising generation have begun to chafe a little under the prolonged control of those older statesmen. But, as the " Japan Times " says, " the conflict between the old and the new elements of political power, the so-called clan statesmen and the party politicians, has been so far removed that the time is already in sight when the country will see them working har moniously under the same banner, and with the same platform." Such is apparently the case in the Seiyukwai, Marquis Ito's new party, organized in 1900, the closing year of the first decade of Japanese constitutionalism. And this problem of political parties is the great one to be solved in the second period of constitutional government in Japan. We may, therefore, conclude that the working of the new system of government has, on the whole, been satisfactory. We must acknowledge, with the "Japan Mail," that "it would be altogether extrava- 1 See Appendix. 132 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN gant to expect that Japan's new constitutional gar ments should fit her perfectly from the first. They are too large for her. She has to grow into them, and of course the process is destined to be more or less awkward." We must agree with Marquis Ito, the author of the Constitution, not only that there has been the experimental period, but also that " excellent results have thus far been obtained, when it is remembered how sudden has been the transition from feudalism to representative institutions." We ought, indeed, to bear in mind, that, when the Con stitution was promulgated, Japan was only eighteen years out of feudalism and twenty-one years out of military despotism ; so that, by both the Oriental and the Occidental reckoning, New Japan had only just come "of age" politically. She seems, therefore, deserving of the greatest credit for the progress of the first decade of constitutionalism. BIBLIOGRAPHY. " The Story of Japan " (Murray), " Advance Japan " (Morris), and " The Yankees of the East " (Curtis), give some informa tion here and there about the government of Japan. But especially helpful are Wigmore's articles in the " Nation " and " Scribner's Monthly," Iyenaga's " Constitutional Development of Japan," Knapp's "Feudal and Modern Japan," Count (now Marquis) Ito's " Commentaries on the Constitution of the Empire of Japan," and Lay's " History of Japanese Political Parties " (Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part iii.). CHAPTER X LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT Outline op Topics : Local government under feudalism ; periods of modern local self-government ; gradual development therein ; prefectural assemblies ; candidates and electors ; standing committee ; sessions ; business ; speaking ; petitions ; how bills become laws; powers of prefectural assemblies, theoretical and practical ; residents and citizens of cities, towns, and villages ; rights and duties of citizens; administration in city, town, and village ; city council ; town and village officials ; city assembly ; assemblymen ; powers of city assembly ; town or village assembly ; special provisions for towns and villages ; administration of terri tories; pacification of Formosa; colonial government; policy in Formosa ; political progress in Japan. — Bibliography. WE have already noted incidentally in pre ceding chapters some of the steps in the development of local self-government in Japan; and now we must treat that subject more particularly. First it is well to observe in passing that the steps from feudalism to local self-govern ment were not so difficult as might be imagined ; for under the feudal system local government by clans had prevailed.1 And yet when feudalism was abol ished, the reconstruction of local government was entered upon slowly and cautiously in order to mini mize jealousies and other obstacles. 1 See valuable papers by Simmons and Wigmore in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 37-270, and vol. xx., Supple ment, part i., pp. 41-62. 134 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Wigmore, in his articles 1 on this subject, divides the period from 1867 to 1889 into two parts (1867— 1878 and 1878-1889), and explains as follows: "The former was occupied with testing the capacity of the people for self-government; the latter with extend ing to them a larger and larger measure of power, and in advancing towards a proper degree of decen tralization." As he wrote in 1890, he was just at the beginning of the third period, what he himself calls "a new period," during which local self- government, under the new constitutional regime, was to be still further expanded in the line of popular privileges. After the Shogunate fell, but before feudalism was formally abolished, that is, from 1867 to 1871, the chiefs of the clans were allowed to continue their administration of local affairs under the title of chi-hanji (local governor). But when feudalism was formally abolished in 1871, these feudal lords were retired on annuities; their fiefs (263 in number) were incorporated, regardless of former geographical and feudal boundaries, and with regard for conven ience of administration by the central government, into 1% Ken and 3 Fu ; and outsiders were largely appointed to the position of governor in these new local governments. The first attempts on the part of the central government to consult local public opinion were by means of meetings of the local offi cials; but the people were gradually allowed, in i See "Nation," vol. Ii. (1890). LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 135 rather an informal and limited way, to have a voice in certain matters. In 1878, however, as we have seen, prefectural assemblies, the members of which should be chosen by popular election, were estab lished ; and just ten years later a law extending local self-government to cities, towns, and villages was enacted, to go into effect in 1889. And these two agencies of local self-government in Japan are worthy of a little study. The Japanese Kenkwai and Fukwai correspond, in general, with an American State legislature, but differ in many respects, because they are part of a centralized national administration. They are "to counsel about the budget of expenses to be met by local taxation, and about the manner of collecting such taxes." The members are elected in each Ken or Fu according to the population, at the rate of 1 member for each 20,000 people. Each electoral district may also elect yobi-in (reserve members), twice the number of regular members. As their name indicates, they are to take the places of regular members who may for any reason be unable to serve. It is, therefore, unlikely that there would ever be a vacancy to be filled by a special election ; for each member has two "substitutes " ready to step into his vacant place ! The term of service covers 4 years ; but half of the members retire every 2 years. Each member receives an emolument of 1 yen per diem during the session, and travelling expenses. A candidate for representative in a prefectural as- 136 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN sembly must be over 25 years of age, a permanent resident of that Ken or Fu, and be paying an annual land-tax of more than 10 yen. Voters in such an election must be over 20 years of age, permanent residents of that Ken or Fu, and be paying annual land-taxes of more than 5 yen. There are about 2,000,000 voters in all. From among the members, the assembly elects a " standing committee of from five to seven persons, " who serve for a period of two years. They remain in the capital throughout the year, to give advice when the Governor asks it about the manner and order of carrying out the enactments of the assembly and about the payment of extraordinary expense. A member of this committee receives "from 30 yen to 80 yen per month, and travelling expenses." The ordinary annual session of an assembly opens some time in November and continues for not more than 30 days. But the Governor has power to call a special session and to suspend an assembly ; while the power to prorogue an assembly rests with the Minister of State for Home Affairs. Each session of an assembly is formally " opened " by the Governor; and the business to come before the assembly is presented in bills originating with him and his subordinates. At any time, when a member of the assembly wishes explanations concern ing any matter within the purview of the assembly, the Governor or his representative must explain. In fact, such officials may speak at any time, provided LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 137 they do not interrupt the speech of a member; but they have no vote. When a member wishes to address the assembly, he rises, calls out " Gicho " (Chairman), and gives the number of his seat. When the chairman has recognized him by repeating that number, he "has the floor."1 If other matters, besides those included in the "original bill(s)" of the Governor, seem to at least two members to warrant discussion, they present these matters in the form of petitions; and if the assembly grants permission, these petitions may be discussed, like bills. No bill becomes a law until it has been signed by the Governor. If the latter does not agree with a bill, he may appeal to the Department of Home Affairs, where it will be finally decided. If we now endeavor to measure the extent and limitations of the power of a Japanese prefectural assembly, we may say that in theory a Kenkwai or a Fukwai is by no means entirely independent of the central government, nor does it possess absolute con trol of the matters of its own Ken or Fu. It will be noticed that in all cases the final ratification or de cision rests with the Governor or the Department of Home Affairs. The latter also has the power in its own hands of suspending an assembly at its discre tion. It would seem, then, that theoretically a 1 The sessions are generally very orderly ; no smoking or drink ing is allowed in the assembly-room. 138 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Fukwai or a Kenkwai is pretty much under the con trol of the central government, and has very little real power of its own. Its nature appears more like that of an elective advisory board than of a legisla tive body. But, in practice and in fact, a wise Governor, though he is an appointive officer of the central gov ernment, does not often put himself in opposition to public opinion, unless it be a case of the greatest importance ; and the Department of Home Affairs is loath to exercise authority unless it is absolutely necessary. The central government holds the power to control these assemblies if it should be necessary; but it also respects public opinion, and allows local self-government as far as possible.1 The extension of local self-government to cities, towns, and villages (shi, cho, and son) led to the in troduction into the Japanese language of several special terms, like jumin (resident) and komin (citi zen), and to a careful distinction between the respec tive rights and duties of the two. The " residents " 1 The principle of local self-government has been most signally upheld in one instance by the Imperial Japanese government. Kecently the Governor of Gumma Prefecture, in the face of the public opinion of that section, gave permission for the re-establish ment of the system of licensed immorality. Inasmuch as the people of that prefecture have always taken great pride in the fact that their section was an oasis in the desert, they raised a great storm, and accused the Governor of having lent himself to speculators. Whether or not this accusation was true, the Minister of Home Affairs so far respected local opinion as to revoke the per mission granted by the Governor and to remove the latter from office. STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN VISCOUNT KATSURA AND MARQUIS ITO LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 139 of a city [town or village] include "all those who have their residence in the city [town or village], without distinction of sex, age, color, nationality, or condition in life. A "citizen," however, must be " an independent male person, " that is, one who has completed his twenty-fifth year and has a household ; he must be " a subject of the empire and in the en joyment of his civil rights " ; and for two years he must have been a resident of the given local division, must have contributed toward its common burdens, and must have paid therein a "national land-tax of 2 or more yen in other direct national taxes. " The rights of a citizen over and above his rights as a resi dent are simply but comprehensively stated. They consist in the privilege of voting in the local elec tions, and of eligibility to the honorary offices. There is, however, a slight qualification of this seemingly universal citizen suffrage. Those whose citizenship, for reasons to be given later, is sus pended, and "those who are in actual military or naval service," are disfranchised. Companies, how ever, and "other juristic persons" are entitled to the suffrage on similar conditions with individuals.1 But when we come to consider the duties of a citi zen, we find peculiar conditions. The citizen of a Japanese city, town, or village, is under obligation 1 Baron Kentn.ro Kaneko has been elected a member of the City Council (of Tokyo) as representative of the first-class tax-payers in Kojimaohi Ku. It may be added that the Nippon Yusen Kwaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company) is the only first-class tax-payer in that ward, and the Baron secured the one vote. 140 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN to fill any honorary office to which he may be elected or appointed; and except for certain specified rea sons he cannot decline official service without being " subjected to suspension of citizenship for from three to six years, together with an additional levy, during the same period, of from one-eighth to one-quarter more than his ordinary share of contribution to the city expenditure." Here is compulsory "public spirit " ! On the whole, citizenship seems to be re garded more as a duty than as a privilege ; and the citizens best qualified to fill official positions of trust would find it much more difficult than in America to "keep out of politics." The administration of local affairs in city, town, or village is more or less centralized. In the cities the origination and the administration of the local laws devolves upon a "city council"; and in the towns and the villages, upon certain chiefs and their deputies. A city council consists of a mayor, his deputy, and a certain number of honorary councilmen. The mayor is appointed directly by the Emperor from among three candidates previously selected by the city assembly, a body to be described later. The deputy-mayor and councilmen are elected by the city assembly. The councilmen hold office for four years; but half of them retire every two years. In the case of a very large city it is permissible to divide the city into Ku (wards), each with its own chief and deputy and even council and assembly. The func- LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 141 tions of a city council include the preparation of business for the city assembly and the execution of the decisions of the assembly; the administration of the city revenue, and the carrying out of the budget voted by the assembly ; and general superin tendence of city affairs. In towns or villages these duties devolve upon the mayors and deputies, who are elected by the town or village assembly from among the local citizens. The city assembly, already mentioned, is a popular representative body. The number of members varies, in proportion to the population, from thirty to sixty; and the membership is divided into three classes, elected by three classes of voters, according to the amount of taxes paid by the electors to the city. The object of this division, copied from the Prus sian system of local government, seems to be to give the highest tax-payers a power and a representation greater than what they might secure by mere propor tion of numbers.1 The assemblymen hold office for six years, are eligible for re-election, and, like the councilmen, draw no salary, but receive "compensation for the actual expenses needed for the discharge of their duties." The assemblymen go out in rotation every two years. The principal matters to be decided by the city assembly, besides the election of certain city officials by secret ballot, are as follows: the making and 1 See note at bottom of page 139. 142 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN altering of city by-laws and regulations ; the voting of the budget and all matters involving expense; the modes of imposing and collecting all kinds of taxes; the incurring of a new liability or the relinquishment of an acquired right; the modes of management of city property and establishments; etc. The constitution of a town or village assembly is also based upon the population, according to a fixed ratio. But in the grouping of electors according to the amount of taxes paid, there are only two classes. The rules, powers, and functions of a town or vil lage assembly correspond exactly to those of the city assembly. There are, in the case of towns and villages, two provisions which are not necessary in the case of cities. One provision prescribes a method by which two or more towns or villages, by mutual agreement and with the permission of the superintending au thority, may form a union for the common adminis tration of affairs that are common to them. The other provision prescribes that, by a town or village by-law, decided upon by the Gun council, "a small town or village may substitute for the town or vil lage assembly a general meeting of all citizens having suffrage." This appears to be an imitation, in theory at least, of the Anglo-Saxon town meeting and village assembly. The privileges of local self-government are ex tended to all parts of the empire except Hokkaido and Formosa, which are administered as " territories " STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN COUNT OKUMA, COUNT INOUYE, COUNT ITAGAKI, COUNT MATSUKATA LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 143 by the central government. In Hokkaido, moreover, a small measure of local administration has been granted, and this will be enlarged as rapidly as possible. But Japanese rule in Formosa is worthy of special consideration, because it is illustrative of what Japan can do in bringing enemies under her jurisdiction into harmony with her government. Japanese colonial government in Formosa may be called a success. When Formosa x was ceded by China to Japan in 1895, it was well understood that the Japanese had no easy task in pacifying the Chinese, civilizing the savages, and thus bringing the beautiful isle, with its great resources, under cultivation and proper re straint. But, by a wise combination of military force and civil government, Japan has achieved a remark able success. At first, for a brief period, Formosan affairs were under a separate department of State, that of Coloni zation; but when administrative economy and re form were demanded, this department was abolished, and the Governor-General of Formosa, appointed by the Emperor upon recommendation of the Cabinet, was made directly responsible to the Cabinet. At first, of course, mistakes were made, and a great deal of incapacity and corruption manifested themselves in official circles. But, by a gradual weeding out of the incompetent and the dishonest, the civil ser vice has been greatly improved. Especially in deal- 1 "The Island of Formosa" (Davidson) is invaluable. 144 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN ing with opium smoking and foot-binding among the Chinese has the Japanese government shown remarkable tact. And it has also encouraged local administration among the natives to the extent of employing them in subordinate positions where they can be trained for future usefulness. The general policy of Japan in Formosa has been stated succinctly by Count Kabayama: "Subjugate it from one side by force of arms, and then confer on the subjugated portion the benefits of civil gov ernment." It is the expressed determination to make Formosa, "body, soul, and spirit," a part of their empire ; and reliable testimony shows that they are making a success of their labors.1 We have now noticed the chief features of local self-government as applied in Japan to prefectures, counties, cities, towns, and villages. Although there are many enactments against which the democratic ideas of Americans would revolt, the system is cer tainly well adapted to the present needs and capabili ties of Japan. It is an interesting fact that Japan's political institutions have been developed, since the Restoration of 1868, from the top downward. In Japan the people are conservative, and the govern ment is progressive; and the people are simply under the necessity of growing up to political privi leges that are gradually bestowed upon them. And we may feel assured that, as the people show them selves capable of exercising power, their privileges 1 See Appendix. LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 145 will be gradually extended. We should not find fault with Japan, because in only a few years she has not leaped into the enjoyment of political privi leges which the English and American people ob tained only after centuries of slow and often bloody development; but we should congratulate Japan, because by peaceful measures she has gradually re moved herself entirely out of the pale of Oriental absolutism, beyond even despotic Russia, and may be classed with her model, Germany. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Especially helpful are lyenaga's " Constitutional Develop ment of Japan," Wigmore's articles in the " Nation," and several papers in the Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan. See also the author's " Local Self-Government in Japan " in the " Political Science Quarterly " for June, 1892, and " A Japanese State Legislature" in the "Nation" for February 27, 1890. On the subject of Formosa, besides Davidson's book already mentioned, see chap. xiv. of Ransome's "Japan iu Transition " and pp. 167, 169, of Diosy's "New Far East." 10 CHAPTER XI JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER Outline of Topics: Standards of world power; conscription; draft and exemption ; army ; arms and ammunition ; officers of the army ; navy ; types of Japanese war-vessels ; coal supply ; " Blue jacket Spirit"; Japan as a sea power; growth of cosmopolitan spirit; Anglo-Japanese Alliance, — natural, guarantee of peace, confession of England's weakness, admission of Japan's strength ; Japan's responsibility ; meaning for Christianity ; the United States a silent partner. — Bibliography. IT is a sad commentary on the present standards of civilization that a consideration of Japan as a world power requires special attention to military and naval affairs. It is rather a strange coincidence that it was not until little Japan in 1894 showed that she could easily overcome immense China that the " Great Powers " were willing to revise their treaties with her on terms of equality and ad mit her to the comity of nations. And it is another strange coincidence that it was the Boxer troubles which gave Japan another opportunity to display the efficiency of her military and naval organizations, and win such laurels side by side with troops of the other " Powers," that Great Britain, the mightiest of them all, abandoned her time-honored policy of " splendid isolation " and sought Japan's assistance by means JAPAN AS A "WORLD POWER 147 of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. It is not, however, to be imagined that Great Britain overlooked or ig nored Japan's other elements of power ; but it is quite evident that the latter's military and naval efficiency made a great impression on the former. Therefore it is our duty, having considered Japan's geographical, industrial, commercial, social, historical, and political features, to take up now her polemic ability. The Japanese army and navy are created and sus tained, as to personnel, by a conscription system, quite hke that of Germany. Theoretically, " all males between the full ages of 17 and 40 years, who are Japanese subjects, shall be liable to conscrip tion." x This period is, moreover, divided up as follows : (1) Active service with the colors, for 3 years in the army and 4 years in the navy, by those who have " attained the full age of 20 years " ; so that those who are between 17 and 20 are apparently exempt except " in time of war or other emergency " ; (2) First Reserve term, of 4 years in the army and 3 years in the navy, "by such as have completed their service with the colors " ; (3) Second Reserve term of 5 years, " by those who have completed their service in the First Reserves " ; and (4) Service in the Territorial Army for the remaining years by those who have completed the preceding term. But the last three services are merely nominal, as the First and Second Reserves and the Territorial Army are ordi narily called out only for drill once a year and are 1 Quotations from Regulations. 148 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN mobilized, in order, " in time of war or of emergency." Therefore the actual service in barracks is generally only 3 years. A very thorough method of drafting carries into effect these provisions, and would make more than 200,000 young men annually liable to service. But, as this is a much larger number than the government could possibly care for, or would need in times of peace, there is a " sweeping system of exemptions " that brings the number of conscripts down within practical limits. This system takes into account physical conditions, educational courses, individual and family necessities, official duties, business re quirements, etc. Even then the number of those available who pass the examination is too large, so that it is reduced by lot. Those who are finally en rolled are divided up among the various lines of service according to physique, former occupation and attainments. " Conscripts for active naval service shall be selected from youths belonging to the sea- coast or insular districts." The term of active service is computed from December 1 of each year ; so that the days just preceding or following that day are busy ones for those who are either giving new con scripts a fine send-off or welcoming home those whose terms have expired. Japan is divided, for military purposes, into seven districts, each of which is occupied by a division. The headquarters of these districts are located, respec tively, at Tokyo, Sendai, Nagoya, Osaka, Hiroshima, MILITARY LEADERS OF NEW JAPAN FIELD-MARSHAL OYAMA AND FIELD-MARSHAL YAMAGATA JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER 149 Kumamoto, and Sapporo. There is also the Imperial Guard, with headquarters, of course, at Tokyo : they are to be distinguished from other soldiers by having a red instead of a yellow band around the cap, and are " a picked corps," who present a very fine appear ance. The war-footing of the Japanese army exceeds 500,000 men, and its peace-footing is almost 200,000 : these figures take account only of combatants. The discipline, courage, and endurance of the Japanese army have been clearly exhibited side by side with the troops of Occidental nations in China, and have suffered naught by comparison. The army has been called " the most formidable mobile land force in the Far East, indeed in the whole of Asia," and " the best army in the world, for its size." And the re markable manner in which the various parts of the service cooperate and smoothly carry out the general plans has won the admiration of capable critics.1 The guns for the artillery service used to be pur chased abroad, but are now chiefly manufactured in Osaka. There is an excellent arsenal in the Koishi- kawa District of Tokyo ; it is on part of the site of the magnificent yashiki (mansion) of the Prince of Mito, whose beautiful garden still remains a delight to all visitors. This arsenal is where the once famous Murata rifle was formerly manufactured ; but that has been superseded by the " 30th Year " (of Meiji) rifle; and both of these are Japanese inventions. 1 For statistics and other information concerning the army and the navy, see Appendix. 150 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN The arsenal is also turning out ammunition at the ordinary rate of a million rounds a day. According to the Constitution, the Emperor "has the supreme command of the army and the navy " ; and under him come the Minister of War, the actual Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Staff, the generals and other officers and officials in order. The Em peror is not expected to take command in person; but often one of the Imperial Princes will act as Commander-in-Chief in the field. There are now only two living Field- Marshals, Marquis Yamagata and Marquis Oyama. There are various schools for educating and training the officers of the army and the navy. As Japan is entirely an insular nation, the impor tance of her navy cannot be over-estimated. Even before the war with China, the Japanese navy had been rapidly growing ; and it showed its marked ef ficiency in the battles of the Yalu and Wei-hai-wei (1894, 1895). The post-bellum plans for expansion have, moreover, emphasized the value to Japan of sea-power; and the programme of naval expansion, in spite of increased burdens of taxation, has met comparatively little opposition. For purposes of ad ministration, the coast of Japan is divided into five naval districts, each with one fort which is a first- class naval station. These stations are Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru, and (to be established) Muro ran. The navy at present includes battleships, cruis ers, ships for coast defence, gunboats, torpedo boats, JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER 151 torpedo catchers, and despatch ships. Of the first four kinds there are two or three classes in each; and of battleships there are four first-class ones of more than 15,000 tons each. The organization of the navy is similar to that of the army : below the Em peror, who is nominally in supreme command, come the Minister of the Navy, the actual Commander- in-Chief, the Chief of Staff, the admirals, etc. Attention should be called to two or three points emphasized by Mr. Arthur Diosy.1 The first is that " Nelson's own plan, as valid to-day as it was in his time," has been carried out in the types of vessels built for the Japanese fleet. " The main idea prevail ing in their selection is the defence of the national interests by offensive operations against the enemy's fleets," but " at no very great distance from the base of operations at home." The warships of Japan, therefore, are not required to devote so much space to the storage of coal and other supplies for long voyages, and can utilize more space for guns and re serve ammunition, or can be built smaller and " han dier." It is in this way that "they are among the swiftest of all the fighting ships afloat." The second point, which is related to the first, is that Japan " stands in the foremost rank as a naval power," not merely on account of the number and fighting strength of her ships, the efficiency of their officers and crews, and the perfection of the naval organization, but also on account of the well-equipped 1 " The New Par East," chap. vii. 152 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN dockyards and arsenals in convenient locations, and the abundant supply of excellent coal in easy reach. The third point concerns what Diosy calls the "Blue-jacket Spirit," a " scarcely definable something" that is hard to describe in words, but that shines forth in every word and deed of the officer, the sailor, the marine, — the esprit de corps of the personnel of the Japanese navy. This spirit he finds only in the British, Japanese, and United States navies. And we cannot refrain from quoting the same writer's paragraph of summary as follows: — " Japan possesses all the elements of Sea-Power : swift, powerful ships, adapted to the work they are intended for, numerous good harbors, excellent coal in abundance, capital facilities for the repair of her vessels, and the necessary plant, constantly augmented and improved, for building new ones. Her naval or ganization is wise and efficient, her administrative ser vices are thorough and honest; her naval officers are gallant, dashing, and scientifically trained, and the arma ment they control is of the latest and best pattern. Strong in ships, strong in guns, Japan is stronger still in the factor without which ships and guns are useless — 'the Man behind the Gun.'"1 Ten years ago it was improper to speak of Japan as a world power ; it was then fitting to treat of her, as Norman did in one chapter of his " Real Japan," under the caption of " Japan as an Eastern Power." But, as already pointed out, it was her overwhelming 1 "Any foreign power that should venture to attack Japan in her own waters, would be strangely advised." — Chambehlain. NAVAL LEADERS OF JAPAN ADMIRAL KAB.VYAMA AND ADMIRAL ENOMOTO JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER 153 defeat of China that at least expedited her formal and nominal recognition in the comity of nations. The new treaties which formulated this recognition went into effect in 1899, from which date it may be eminently proper to begin a seventh period,1 that of "Cosmopolitanism," in the history of New Japan. And by Japan's successes in the second war with China arising out of the Boxer troubles, she con firmed her claim to recognition as a world power ; and this recognition was completed through the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902. Not many years ago the ideal was still such a narrow theme as " The Japan of the Japanese " ; then the vision widened out so as to include " The Japan of Asia " ; but now the horizon is unlimited and extends to " The Japan of the World." Indeed, the Japanese have outgrown "Native Japan," and even "Asiatic Japan," into "Cosmopolitan Japan." They are interested, not only in national, but also international, problems. It has already been pointed out that the complete recognition of Japan as a world power was mani fested in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. This is the greatest political event of 1902, so far as concerns directly the future of the Orient and indirectly the affairs of the Occident. This convention between Great Britain and Japan caused profound surprise and widespread rejoicing, and in Japan particularly it was the occasion for numerous feasts, even in various provincial localities, where more or less pro- 1 See p. 104. 154 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN fuse self-gratulation was the order of the day. But it is now possible to take a calmer view of the sit uation and to make a more judicial estimate of the importance of the alliance. In the first place, it is well to remember that this formal alliance is only the natural outcome of a community of interests in the Far East, and is the natural result of practical cooperation for some time past. As Count Okuma put it, they (Great Britain and Japan) have been allies in effect for some years ; they are now allies in name. Indeed, for several years past this alliance has existed in spirit, and it has now merely become a public acknowledgment of sympathy and similar aims in policy in the Far East. This alliance, then, is not artificial or com pulsory, but natural, spontaneous, and voluntary. The second point to notice is that the Anglo- Japanese Alliance includes the greatest power each of the Occident and of the Orient. This alliance is also the combination of two of the greatest naval powers, as well as two great military powers of the world. It would seem likely, therefore, as a promi nent Japanese expressed it, "that there is no power or combination of powers that could make head against this union in the Far East ; the attempt would be like spitting at a tiger." The Anglo-Japanese Alliance is, therefore, a guarantee, of the very first quality, of peace in the Orient, and of just dealings with China and Korea. Another important point in connection with this JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER 155 alliance is the fact that herein Great Britain has abandoned, has broken to pieces, her traditional pol icy of " splendid isolation." For many decades she has not been in the habit of contracting alliances with other powers in carrying out plans to advance her own interests. The fact, therefore, that in this case she has seen fit to depart from her usual policy is a positive indication that the situation in the Far East was one of imminent peril and demanded un usual precaution. It is a proof that Russian aggres sions were no mere phantoms, but were terribly real and threatening. And the fact that, when Great Britain broke her policy of grand isolation, it was to enter into alliance with an Oriental rather than an Occidental power, is also one of great significance. It proves more effectively than folios of verbal argument, and speaks out more loudly than a thousand tongues could tell, the present satisfactory status of Japan. The in significant, " half-civilized " country of a few years ago is now " on the same lotus-blossom " with Great Britain. That little island-empire of the Orient is now but fifty years out of her own practically com plete isolation from the rest of the world; she is only thirty years out of feudalism ; she has been only a little more than a decade in constitutionalism and parliamentary government, and she has been only a few years in the comity of nations by virtue of treaties on terms of equality ; nevertheless, she has become the political partner of that immense island- 156 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN empire which stretches in all directions, and encircles the globe with the drum-beat of her garrisons. The huge empire on whose possessions the sun never sets has taken as its ally the small empire of the rising sun I This recognition of the status of New Japan has been, of Course, a matter of great pride and rejoicing to that nation and therefore a source of encourage ment to continue steadfast in the paths of progress along which she has been moving so rapidly.1 It has likewise been recognized that this alliance im poses great responsibilities upon Japan, if she would maintain her new position.2 These responsibilities are along not only military, naval, political, and commercial lines, but also along social, moral, and religious lines. The new alliance means that licen tiousness, dishonesty, and other vices should not be tolerated, and that ignorance, superstition, and idol atry should not be allowed to thrive among a people in alliance with such a progressively Christian nation as Great Britain. In other words, this alliance should hasten the spread of the Gospel in Japan. But this alliance means much to Christianity, not merely in Japan, but over all the Orient. For the 1 " Japan, geographically to the mighty continent of Asia what Great Britain is to the continent of Europe ; Japan, an island people with all the strength, mental and physical, that is the heri tage of a nation cradled on the sea ; Japan, by the necessities of her environment compelled to appreciate the importance of sea- power ; Japan, in short, the Britain of the Orient. " — Diost. 2 The first alliance of a white nation and a yellow nation. JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER 157 prime objeots of the alliance are the independence of Korea and the integrity of the Chinese Empire; and the prime effect of the alliance is peace in the Orient. This means that Russian aggressions in China and Korea will be, already have been, con siderably checked, and that Anglo-Saxon and Jap anese influences will be paramount in those countries. And all this means that Christian missionary work will be practically unhindered, unless it be by local and spasmodic prejudice; and that the word will have freer course and be glorified. The alliance of the first nation of Christendom with a largely Christianized nation like Japan cannot fail to Chris tianize the Far East. Finally, one significant phase of the Anglo- Japanese Alliance is the fact that, to all intents and purposes, it includes the United States of America, which may be called a " silent partner." It is well known that the convention was shown at Washington before it was promulgated, and that it was heartily approved by our government. Practically, therefore, it is, in a very broad sense, an Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Certainly our interests in the Far East have been and are identical with those of Great Britain and Japan; and all our "moral influence," at least, should be exerted toward the purposes of that con vention. Indeed, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance should mean the union of Great Britain and the United States with Japan to maintain in the Orient the " open door," not merely of trade and commerce, 158 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN but of all social, intellectual, moral, and religious reforms; the open door, not of material civilization only, but also of the gospel of Jesus Christ.1 BIBLIOGRAPHY. "The Real Japan" (Norman), chaps, v., xiii.; "Advance Japan" (Morris), chap, xiii.; "The New Far East" (Diosy), especially chap. vii. ; " Heroic Japan " (Eastlake and Yamada) ; "The Awakening of the East" (Leroy-Beaulieu), chap, ix; and "Japan in Transition" (Kansome), chap. xv. 1 Several paragraphs are here republished, by permission, from "The Standard," Chicago. CHAPTER XII LEGAL JAPAN Outline of Topics: Justice in Old Japan; new codes; list of same ; crimes and punishments ; convicts ; police ; arrest ; trials ; courts; judiciary; prisons; legalized prostitution; crusade against social evil ; rescue homes, etc. — Registration. — Taxation. — For eigners under Japanese law ; restrictions upon them. — Leasing land. — Mines. — Railways. — Banking.'insurance, etc. ; kinds of cor porations ; foreign associations ; Japanese corporations. — Foreign ers in business. — Bibliography. THE difference between Old Japan and New Japan is quite clearly evident when one comes to the study of law and jurispru dence. It would be very misleading to affirm that the administration of justice was a farce ; and yet so- called legal decisions were too often arbitrary and tyrannical. The feudal lords were too much inclined to visit summary and cruel punishment on slight pre text ; and altogether too few were the men like Ooka, the justice and wisdom of whose decisions won for him the title of " Japanese Solomon." As a matter of fact, there was in Old Japan, as Wigmore has abundantly shown,1 " a legal system, a body of clear and consistent rules, a collection of statutes and of binding precedents." The chief characteristics of 1 See his voluminous work in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xx., Supplement. 160 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Japanese justice under the old regime, as indicated by Wigmore, were the following : (1) Making justice "per sonal, not impersonal," by balancing " the benefits and disadvantages of a given course, not for all time in a fixed rule, but anew in each instance," and thus " to sacrifice legal principle to present expediency " ; (2) the feudal spirit, especially in criminal law, as illustrated by the use of torture, humiliating forms of procedure, and awfully severe punishments; and (3) the attainment of justice, " not so much by the aid of the law as by mutual consent," by means of definite customs, applied, however, " through arbitra tion and concession," so that there was " a universal resort to arbitration and compromise as a primary means of settling disputes," and only a dernier ressort to the process of law. These characteristics should be noticed, not merely on account of their historical value, but in explanation of certain traits still prom inent even in New Japan. But Modern Japan is pretty well equipped with a system of new codes, based on European models, yet showing some modifications to suit Japan's peculiar needs. This codification along Western lines was strongly opposed by the conservatives, who insisted that national codes, "interpreting national needs," should be naturally developed in due course of time. But this opposition was overcome by the demands for treaty revision and the recognition of Japan in the comity of nations ; for Occidental powers would not remove their extra-territorial jurisdiction and LEGAL JAPAN 161 leave their nationals to the mercy of Japanese courts, unless the laws were codified according to Western models. A list of the new codes is taken, with slight modi fications, from Chamberlain's " Things Japanese," which has been especially helpful in the preparation of this chapter. The new codes resulting from the legislative ac tivity of the present reign are : (1) the Criminal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure, drafted by Monsieur Boissonade, on the basis of the Code Napoleon, with modifications suggested by the old Japanese Criminal Law ; these were published in 1880, and came into force in 1882 ; the Code of Criminal Procedure was, however, revised in 1890, in order that it might be uniform with the Code of Civil Procedure, according to the provisions of (2) the Law of the Organization of the Judicial Courts, promulgated in the month of February, 1890, and put into force on November 1 of the same year ; (3) the Code of Civil Procedure, which went into effect at once ; (4) the Civil Code, and (5) the Commercial Code, which were put into force in 1898 ; and (6) divers statutes on miscellaneous subjects.1 There are, according to the Japanese Criminal Code, three kinds of crimes, of two degrees, major 1 These new codes are available in English, as follows: The Civil Code, by Gubbins ; the Civil Code and the Commercial Code, by Ltinholm and Terry ; the Commercial Code, the Criminal Code, and the Code of Civil Procedure, in official translations. 11 162 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN and minor. The three kinds are: (1) against the State or the Imperial Family, and in violation of the public credit, policy, peace, health, etc. ; (2) against person and property ; and (3) police offences. Major crimes are punishable by (1) death by hanging ; (2) deportation with or without hard labor, for life or for a term of years ; and (3) imprisonment on similar terms. Minor crimes are punishable by fines and confinement with or without hard labor. What are called police offences are punishable by small fines running from 5 sen to 2 yen, and by detention for from 1 to 10 days without hard labor. In cases of cap ital punishment no public visitors, only the necessary officials, are allowed to be present. Deportation is usually made to the northern island of Yezo, to work generally in the mines. Convicts are easily recognizable by their " crushed strawberry " uniforms, and are often seen in public ; for convict labor, in the case both of individuals and of gangs, is utilized by the authorities. In fact, all prisoners, according to their abilities, are required to labor nine hours each day in some kind of employment, either inside or outside of the prison. The Japanese policeman is one of the most inter esting " characters " of his nation. He is the suc cessor of the samurai, who, in the old regime, took upon themselves the duty of enforcing justice. He possesses all the pomp and dignity of his knightly predecessor; and he, too, carries a sword. All the LEGAL JAPAN 163 people, from children up to grandfather, stand in complete awe of him. And well may they be afraid ; for in his dealings, at least with the common people, he manifests no gentleness, but by his dictatorial manners compels the utmost respect for himself and the law. He seldom has to use force in making an arrest, unless in the cases of the professional crim inals; and he does not usually find it necessary to use handcuffs, as a strong cord will serve his purpose on ordinary occasions. He is more easily to be found, when wanted, than the proverbial American police man. He is poorly paid, but richly faithful, and in every sense of the words upholds the dignity of the law. His figure clad in white or blue uniform, re spectively, for five and seven months of the year, is familiar and welcome to foreigners, because to them he is invariably kind and courteous. When a person suspected of some crime or mis demeanor has been arrested by the police, he is taken to the nearest detention station and put through a preliminary investigation before the judge of the local court. As this may be delayed, and bail al lowed or not at the discretion of the judge, accused persons are sometimes kept, in detention for a con siderable period. No counsel is allowed at this secret preliminary examination before a kind of jus tice of peace. The latter, from the evidence, either dismisses the prisoner, or imposes a suitable punish ment, or remands him for trial before the proper court. 164 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN A trial in Japan, as in France, is of the " inquisi torial " type, and is conducted by the judge (or judges) alone. "All questions by counsel must be put through him. Counsel do not so much defend their clients as represent them." Witnesses are sworn, so to speak, by " a solemn asseveration," without " any rehgious sanction " ; and this takes the form of a written document "duly signed and sealed." The government is represented by the public procurator, who seems to combine in one person the duties of inspector, grand jury, and prosecuting attorney. Hearsay evidence is admitted; and circumstantial evidence has no small influence. Japanese courts are organized according to the French system, with some modifications along Ger man lines. They are four in kind, from the Local Court, through the District or Provincial Court, and the Court of Appeal, up to the Supreme Court. The local courts have jurisdiction over police of fences and some minor crimes ; the district courts conduct preliminary investigations and have jurisdic tion over crimes; the courts of appeal hear new trials ; while the supreme court hears criminal appeals on matters of law. Japanese courts are very solemn places, with strict regulations as to costume, cere mony, and conduct. The Japanese judiciary is, by this time, pretty much weeded out of the old judges with antiquated notions, and consists very largely of comparatively young men, educated in the modern systems. A COURT BUILDINGS, TOKYO, AND THE MINT, OSAKA LEGAL JAPAN 165 graduate of the Law College of the Imperial Uni versity may attain a seat on the bench after three years as a probationary judge, and one examination ; other persons must pass two severe examinations. The salary of an ordinary judge is small; and just after the Imperial Diet in 1901 had failed to pass a bill for increase of their salaries, a large number went on a strike! Judges are appointed for life on good behavior. The management of the Japanese prison system will bear favorable comparison with that of any Western country ; for it has undergone considerable improvement of recent yea.rs, and is quite up to date. It is rather amusing to recall the fact that, before the new treaties came into effect, by which foreigners were to fall under Japanese jurisdiction, considerable anxiety was manifested lest American criminals, for instance, should suffer inconvenience in Japanese jails I And it was a singular coincidence that the first crime committed after the midnight when those treaties went into effect was by an American, who committed a triple murder in Yokohama. But the trial and treatment of Miller showed to the world that Japanese law and prisons were entirely un worthy of the captious criticism that had been passed upon them. With commodious buildings, ex tensive grounds, ventilated rooms, gardens and shops for laborers, hospitals for the sick, bath privileges, wholesome food, reading matter under certain limita tions, rewards for good behavior, part pay for labor, 166 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN the Japanese prison, especially the largest ones at Tokyo, Yokohama, and other important cities, must be acknowledged to hold high rank among the refor matory institutions of the world. This is, perhaps, as appropriate a place as any to introduce one of the peculiar legal institutions of Japan, that is, the public brothel. As is well known, the social evil is licensed, and therefore legalized, in Japan ; it is not merely not condemned, but actually condoned. In Old Japan the young girl willing to sell herself to a life of shame to relieve the poverty and distress of her parents would be considered vir tuous, because filial piety was regarded as a higher virtue than personal chastity. Nor would the parents who accepted such relief be severely condemned, because the welfare of the family was more important than the condition of the individual. And even in Modern Japan, in the eyes of the law, it is no crime to visit a licensed house of ill-fame ; and visitors to such places hand in their cards and have their names and addresses registered, just as if they were attend ing an ordinary public function. Nay more, an ex- President of the Imperial University, and one of the leading philosophers and educators of the day, has come out in public print and affirmed that, from the standpoint of science and philosophy, he can see no evil in prostitution per se. And when such licensed brothels are allowed near Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, it would appear as if those cults were really culpable not to protest. Indeed, when LEGAL JAPAN 167 the patriotic youth of New Japan, wishing to pay homage at the most famous shrines of Ise, are com pelled to reach the spot by passing along a road lined on both sides with legalized brothels, it looks as if official encouragement to impurity was offered, or at least temptation was presented, to the rising generation. But Christianity has always taught, in Japan as elsewhere, that prostitution, whether licensed or un licensed, is a sin, and has sought by various means to check this terrible evil. Formerly no girl was able to escape from her awful slavery, no matter how much she desired to free herself, except by permission of the keeper ! But within the past few years a campaign has been waged that has greatly weakened the tyranny of the abominable system. A test case, bitterly fought at every point, was carried up through all the courts to the highest, and finally won by those who contended that a girl could not be kept in a brothel against her will. Another test case, carried up to the Supreme Court, and decided in favor of the keepers, to the effect that the financial obliga tions of the girls are valid in law, has given the reform movement a temporary set-back. But, in spite of all obstacles and opposition, the crusade against the social evil has achieved a large measure of success. About 12,000 girls have been set free ; the number of applicants for admission, as well as of unlicensed prostitutes, has diminished ; the number of visitors has so largely decreased, that some brothels 168 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN have been compelled to go into bankruptcy and close up the business ; public opinion has been aroused, and the moral tone of society has been elevated and purified. We must not fail to call attention to the fact that the destructive work of this crusade has been sup plemented" by the constructive work of establishing " rescue homes " under the auspices of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, the Salvation Army, and other Christian organizations. There is also a very large and successful Home for ex-Convicts, conducted in Tokyo by Mr. Hara, a Christian min ister, often called the "Howard of Japan." This title might also be given to Mr. Tomeoka, another Christian minister, who has made a special study of penology and prison management, and is con ducting both a "reform school" and a "school for prison officials." Inasmuch as Japan is under a paternal government, the system of registration is carefully and thor oughly employed. It is practically ubiquitous and universal ; and it is carried to such an extreme as to be vexatious to Anglo-Saxons, especially to Americans. But to a Japanese the seki (register) is all important ; it is the certificate of his (or her) very existence, age, status, occupation, home (permanent or tem porary), and almost of the character of the individual. In case of change of residence, this biographical sketch must be transferred from one locality to another; and even in case of travel, or presence in LEGAL JAPAN 169 a hotel for a single night only, the guest must give an account of himself to the proprietor according to certain blanks supplied by the police. A for eigner is concerned with the following information by Dr. Masujima, the eminent lawyer and jurist of Tokyo: — " A foreign householder who intends to stay for more than nine days at one place in Japan, must, within ten days of his arrival, report to the police regarding him self and persons in his company, stating full particulars, ages, profession or other occupation, the place from which they last came, their home domicile, and the relationship of those persons with him ; as well as the full address of the house in which he lives, counter signed by the landlord, any changes in such information to be treated in like manner from time to time." The subject of taxation is one which may well be mentioned in this chapter, although it is scarcely profitable to devote much space thereto. In Old Japan taxes were paid in kind, chiefly with rice ; but in New Japan they are payable only with cash. The system of taxation is rather complicated and oppres sive ; and yet the people stoically endure their bur dens without indulging in the pastime of agrarian riots. The land-tax of 3^ per cent of the assessed value of the land in the case of rural lands and 5 per cent in the case of urban lands is a very impor tant source of revenue, and has lately been the cause of great trouble in political circles. Other taxes are the business tax, the income tax, the house tax, etc. 170 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN The last mentioned is the one which foreigners claimed to be exempt from paying, but the Japanese government claimed to have the authority to levy; the question has been submitted to arbitration, and is still sub judice. Under the new treaties Japan has the right to levy duties on imports, and thereby secures considerable revenue. In the list of articles exempt from duties we find books, maps, charts, bullion, coins, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, rice, wool, plants, trees, shrubs, etc. ; and in the list of pro hibited articles opium and adulterations are most prominent.1 Inasmuch as the status of foreigners under Japan ese law is a subject of growing practical importance, we make extracts from an address delivered by Dr. Masujima before the New York State Bar Associa tion in January, 1903 : — "The cases in which foreigners are restricted in the enjoyment of private rights, are the ownership of land or Japanese ships, the right to work mines, to own shares in the Bank of Japan or the Yokohama Specie Bank, to be members or brokers of exchanges, to engage in emigration business, or to receive bounties for navi gation or ship building. Any company must, in order to own Japanese ships, have its principal office in Japan, and all members in case of a Gomei Kaisha, all unlim ited liability members in case of either a Goshi Kaisha or Kahushiki Goshi Kaisha, and all directors in case of a limited company, must be Japanese subjects. 1 See " General View of Commerce and Industry in the Empire of Japan." LEGAL JAPAN 171 Otherwise foreigners are as free as the Japanese to own shares in any Japanese commercial companies organized by themselves alone, or in combination with the Japanese, or to engage in any manufacture or other commercial operations. " Foreigners may hold a long lease of land to plant trees or erect permanent structures, which may be arranged for an indefinite term almost perpetual, such as one thousand years, or as long as may be agreed upon. Such a holding is called superficies, and it is very much like a long English lease, the only dif ference being that trees or buildings do not, at the end of the term, revert to the landlord, his right being only that of pre-emption at current valuation. The most advisable way for the enjoyment of the actual and permanent holding of land is for a foreigner to buy land himself through a Japanese, as bare trustee, and to secure its superficies for the period of as long a term as may be desirable for his purposes. " Although no foreigners may work mines individually, they may be taken on mortgage, and a company regis tered as a Japanese organization is entitled to engage in mining; the theory is that foreigners as members merge themselves in the entity of a Japanese cor poration, although it may be composed of foreigners exclusively. "No railway or tramway business is allowed to be carried on unless by a limited company and a con cession for such purpose has to be secured from the proper authorities. No such railway can be pledged, but it may be hypothecated. Japanese pledge corre sponds to English mortgage, differing therefrom in that immediate transfer of possession and holding the pledged property absolutely is essential. Hypothecation does not carry possession nor the right of entry. This con- 172 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN dition of Japanese railway law has not satisfied cap italists as not affording sufficient security to induce investment by them. There has been some attempt to have this law altered, but it has not yet been accomplished. "Banking, insurance, shipping, and all other kinds of commercial business may be carried on in Japan by foreign companies by observing the treaties and certain regulations, such as the registration of their branch offices, their representatives or other matters prescribed by law. " There are two kinds of civil corporations, the one consisting of persons associated together, and the other an estate of aggregate property somewhat like a trust in English law, formed or established for the purpose of religious worship, teaching, art, charity, education, or any other object of public benefit, not aiming at the making of a profit. Such a corporation can come in existence only with the permission of the competent authorities, while Japanese commercial corporations may be formed without it. " No foreign association of persons or trust property is accorded the same rights and privileges as are enjoyed by similar Japanese corporations; such a foreign cor poration has no standing whatsoever in the Japanese courts, and the only way in which it could obtain protection would be to appear in the individual names of its members, just as used once to be the case in partnership actions. Purely technical evidence must be procured and filed before any legal proceeding can be initiated, and the best interests of the corporation might easily be jeopardized. Some foreign religious societies have sought to get themselves incorporated as Japanese corporations, but failed. Japan has no State religion, and she is absolutely impartial in reli- LEGAL JAPAN 173 gious matters. Any religious body so applying must be and show itself to be a purely Japanese institution, free from all control of any sort from its corresponding religious bodies in foreign countries. Any legal con nection whatever between the home body and Japanese organization is a bar to such purpose.1 " A Japanese corporation has almost as large privileges as a Japanese subject. It can own land and exercise other rights not accorded to individual foreigners. A corporation so organized may contain in its ranks for eign members, but it must be of such a nature as not to be under any danger of control of any kind from outside. Even after incorporation, the charter will be forfeited should the policy of the Japanese Government be at any time prejudiced by the conduct of a corporation so sanctioned. " If foreigners wish to do business in combination with the Japanese, the best way would be to form a Goshi Kaisha or limited partnership, they themselves carry ing unlimited liability. To control a Kabushiki Kaisha, or limited company, they should own more than half the amount of capital, either by holding themselves or through their own nominees, and shares should be tied up so as not to allow their transfer without the consent of the board of directors. The advantage of any busi ness being organized as a Japanese corporation consists, as the law now stands, in owning land and having the full rights of Japanese subjects." It should be added here that many prominent Japanese continue to urge that foreigners be allowed to own land, possibly under certain restrictions ; and 1 But missionaries, as individuals, are able to unite in organizing a Japanese corporation. 174 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN that such a privilege is quite likely to be granted before very long. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Suitable works of reference on this chapter are scarce. "The Yankees of the East" (Curtis), chap, viii., and "The Ileal Japan " (Norman), chaps, iii. and xi., furnish some mate rial. Dr. Masujima's papers in the Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan on "The Japanese Legal Seal" (vol. xvii.) and "Modern Japanese Legal Institutions" (vol. xviii.) are quite instructive ; and so is Longford's " Summary of the Japanese Penal Codes " in vol. v. Some specific references have already been made in footnotes. CHAPTER XIII THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN1 Outline of Topics t Not Western " new woman," but abstract, legal new woman in Japan. — Woman in old regime; wife in old regime; lack of "home"; woman anciently honored. — Legal status in Old Japan, in New Japan ; independent person ; marriage ; right of marriage; husband and wife. — Divorce, — by arrange ment and judicial. — Concubinage; child of a concubine. — Pros pects of new woman ; openings for labor. — The " New Great Learning for Women." — Enlarged educational advantages; new schools. — Women in business. — The Empress and the Crown Princess. — The woman question j further needs ; women and Christianity. — Bibliography. A NY intention of using the term " new woman " /-\ in a jocose or satirical way is disclaimed at ¦**¦ -^- the outset. It is not our purpose to refer at all to such a creature as that called "new woman " in the Occident; for it has not yet appeared to any great extent among the Japanese. It may be true, in some cases, that the modernized Japanese woman is "without gentleness or refinement," and may be called a "parody of a man" or a "sickening sort of person." But, as the " Jiji Shimpo" explains^ "the process of the new woman's evolution may be disfig ured by some accident " ; and " the new woman stands 1 Portions of this chapter are reprinted by permission from the "American Journal of Sociology," March, 1903. 176 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN out with objectionable salience because her environ ment is so colorless." It is desired, in the first instance, to consider, not the new woman in the concrete, in the flesh, but the abstract, legal new woman that has been created by the new Civil Code of Japan. In looking through the translation of that document by Mr. Gubbins, we have been deeply impressed with the possibilities which lie before the women of New Japan through the rights and privileges vouchsafed to them under that code. In Old Japan, as stated in a preceding chapter,1 the constitution of the family was practically that of an empire, in which all other members thereof were subject to the despotic authority of the master. A Japanese woman was subject to the " three obedi ences ": as a maiden, to her father; as a wife, to her husband and his parents ; 2 as a widow, to her oldest son, whether real or only adopted. A daughter might even be called upon, for the sake of her parents, to sacrifice her honor and enter a brothel ; and she was still considered virtuous, because personal chastity was a lower virtue than filial piety. A Japanese, like a Grecian, wife was to her hus band a faithful slave, "something better than his dog, a little dearer than his horse "; she was both a drudge and a plaything, to be cast aside as capriciously 1 Chap. iv. on " People, Houses, Food, Dress." 2 The Japanese mother-in-law is an awful tyrant ; but it is always the wife's mother-in-law. , THE NEW "WOMAN IN JAPAN 177 as a child throws away a toy. She must tamely submit to having concubines brought, perhaps, right into the house at the will of her lord ; or she herself might, under slight and flimsy pretexts, be divorced and sent back to her parents. The following " seven reasons for divorce " were laid down by a celebrated Japanese moralist: disobedience to father-in-law or mother-in-law; barrenness; lewdness; jealousy; lep rosy or any like foul disease; garrulousness and prattling; stealing. It is, therefore, a misnomer to speak of " Japan ese homes " of the old regime, in the sense in which we use that little word "home" with all its depth and wealth of meaning and its associated thoughts of "love " and "sympathy." Indeed, the word "home " cannot be perfectly translated into the Japanese lan guage, and is generally transferred bodily with the pronunciation homu. And one of the far-reaching results of Christian mission work in Japan has been the introduction of the idea and the ideal of the Christian home. It should, however, be constantly kept in mind that in the most ancient times women were highly esteemed, and even "used to play an important part on the political stage." In Shinto the central object of adoration is the sun, which is worshipped as a goddess. There have been seated on the imperial throne of Japan eight empresses, one of whom is famous for her martial valor and military exploits. It was when Buddhism became powerful that Hin- 12 178 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN doo and Chinese conceptions of woman's position moulded public opinion and thus eventually changed the manners, customs, and laws of Japan so as to relegate woman to an abnormally inferior position. As only one striking example out of many possible illustrations of the relative positions of man and woman, we note that, in the case of the death of the husband, the law prescribed mourning garments for 'thirteen months and abstinence from impurity for fifty days ; but, in the case of the death of the wife, mourning garments for three months and abstinence for twenty days were sufficient. Mr. Gubbins in the introduction to Part II. of his translation of the Civil Code, writes as follows : — "The legal position of women in Japan before the commencement of modern legislative reform is well illus trated by the fact that offences came under different categories according to their commission by the wife against the husband, or by the husband against the wife, and by the curious anomaly that, while the husband stood in the first degree of relationship to his wife, the latter stood to him only in the second.1 The disabilities under which a woman formerly labored shut her out from the exercise of almost all rights. She could not inherit or own property in her own name, she could not become the head of a family, she could not adopt, and she could not be the guardian of her child. The maxim, mulier est finis familiae, was as true in Japan as in Rome, though its observance may have been less strict, owing to the greater frequency of adoption. 1 Since 1882 they have been upon the same basis. THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN 179 "In no respect has modern progress in Japan made greater strides than in the improvement of the position of women. Though she still labors under certain dis abilities, a woman can now become the head of a family and exercise authority as such ; she can inherit and own property and manage it herself; she can exercise parental authority ; if single, or a widow, she can adopt ; she is one of the parties to adoption effected by her hus band, and her consent in addition to that of her husband is necessary to the adoption of her child by another per son ; she can act as guardian or curator ; and she has a voice in family councils."1 Moreover, although it is true that for the per formance of certain acts (Art. 14) a wife must ob tain her husband's permission, and that a wife's acts may be annulled by her husband (Art. 120), yet it is explicitly stated that "a wife who has been per mitted to engage in one or more businesses possesses in regard thereto the capacity of an independent person." But let us look a little more particularly into the provisions relating to marriage, divorce, etc. The marriageable age is 17 full years for men and 15 full years for women. Marriage takes effect when notice of the fact is given to a registrar, by both parties with two witnesses. From this it will appear that the ceremony is a " purely social function, having no connection whatsoever with law beyond the some what remote contingency of its being adducible as 1 These are composed of a large circle of relatives, and exercise autocratic influence in most important questions. 180 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN evidence of a marriage having taken place." And here is where some Japanese Christians make an unfortunate and sometimes serious mistake, in think ing that the ceremony by a minister of the gospel is sufficient and registration is a matter of convenience. Without registration a marriage is not legal. The right of marriage is not free, except to the head of a family.1 All other persons, whatever their ages, can marry only with the consent of the head of his or her family. Men under 30 and women under 25 cannot marry without the consent of the parents; and minors in some cases must obtain the consent of the guardian or even of a family council. In Art. 790 it is stipulated that " a husband and wife are mutually bound to support one another." A husband manages the property of his wife, unless he is unable to do so, when she manages it herself. " With regard to daily household matters, a wife is regarded as her husband's agent." There are two ways of effecting divorce : either by arrangement, which is effected in a similar way to marriage — that is, by simply having the registra tion of marriage cancelled — or by judicial divorce, which may be granted on several grounds specified in the Code. But divorce by arrangement cannot be effected by persons under 25 years of age, without consent of the person or persons by whose consent 1 The word "family" is here and hereinafter used in a technical sense, peculiar to Japan, of a group of the same surname. In Old Japan the family was the social unit. THE EMPKESS OF JAPAN AND THE PRINCESS IMPERIAL THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN 181 marriage was effected. And if the persons who effect this kind of divorce fail to determine who is to have the custody of the children, they belong to the father; but "in cases where the father leaves the family owing to divorce, the custody of the children belongs to the mother," evidently because she re mains in the family. In other words, children are chattels of the family. The grounds on which judicial divorce is granted include bigamy, adultery on the part of the wife, the husband's receiving a criminal sentence for an offence against morality, cruel treatment or grave insult such as to render living together unbearable, deser tion with evil intent, cruel treatment or gross insult of or by lineal ascendants. The new Civil Code indirectly sanctions concu binage by stipulating (in Art. 827) that "an ille gitimate child may be recognized by the father or mother" by giving notice to a registrar. Such a child is called shoshi, but is not legitimized. It is, however, stipulated (in Art. 728) that between a wife and a shoshi " the same relationship as that be tween parent and child is established." That seems clearly enough to mean that a wife must accept a concubine's child as if it were her own, in case the father " recognizes " it. This would appear to be little, if any, advance over the old rigime, where "the wife of the father," as she was technically called, frequently had to accept as her own child that of a concubine. 182 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Mr. Gubbins makes the following explanation of shoshi : — " This term illustrates the transitionary phase through which Japanese law is passing. Japanese dictionaries define shoshi as the child of a concubine, and this, so long as concubinage was sanctioned by law, and the question of legitimacy never arose, was the accepted meaning of the term. The law of Japan, which, in the course of its development on western lines, has come to accept the principle of legitimacy, and to admit of the legitimiza tion of children by the subsequent marriage of their parents, now recognizes an intermediate stage between legitimacy and illegitimacy." Such is the general outline of the legal status of woman according to the new Civil Code. It will undoubtedly be most interesting to watch the gradual evolution of a new woman in Japan as the outcome of this legislation. It remains to be seen how far the social status of woman will be improved. It is not at all likely that her actual position will be im mediately advanced in any great degree. It is prob able that custom will continue, for a while at least, to wield a mightier influence than the Code; and that, as Mr. Gubbins remarks, "the present transi tional condition of Japanese society may favor a rule being honored more in the breach than in the ob servance." But it will probably not be long before here and there certain women will claim the rights accorded by law 1 and will find a corresponding im- 1 " A Japanese judge has ruled in a certain case that the wife is not obliged ' to obey the unreasonable demands of her husband.' THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN 183 provement in their social condition; and thus the general position of the Japanese woman will grad ually be advanced. And, as a matter of fact, the status of woman in Japan is improving in practice no less than in theory, especially in the new openings for work that render her more or less independent of male support. For instance, although the work of weaving, formerly carried on by women in the homes, is now largely transferred to factories, with modern machinery, there is an increasing demand for female hands. This is also true in cotton mills, match factories, tobacco shops, and many other such places of work. Telephone exchanges, post-offices, railway ticket offices, printing offices, also find girls and women deft and skilful. In hospitals and schools, too, the Japanese young woman is finding her sphere. She is likewise showing her skill and taste in both artistic and literary employments. But in Japan, as else where, this drift into industrial and other occupations is producing a scarcity of servants for housework. Just as Kaibara's " Onna Daigaku " (Great Learn ing for Women) was the standard for female edu cation under the old regime, so New Japan most In this particular instance the man of the house had told the wife to perform some disagreeable manual labor for him ; she refused, and he promptly divorced her. The wife appealed, and her plea was upheld by the court. A very important precedent has been established, and this decision may lead to a revolution in Japanese domestic life, in which, thanks to the'courage of one woman and the enlightening effect of American ideals, the Japanese wife need no longer be her husband's slave." — Congregational Work. 184 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN appropriately has a " Shin [New] Onna-Daigaku," by Mr. Fukuzawa, the famous educator and writer. The following summary thereof is from the " Japan Mail": — "The ' Sekai-no-Nihon ' reviews at some length Mr. Fukuzawa's series of articles entitled ' Shin Onna-Dai gaku,' which have now appeared in book form. We give in a brief form the gist of the reviewer's remarks. Mr. Fukuzawa's object in writing so much on the sub ject of women's position in modern times is to endeavor to create a new standard for women. Hitherto the teaching of Kaibara Ekiken's ' Onna Daigaku ' has been accepted in all quarters. According to it woman occupies a subordinate position, and must on no account assert her independence or claim equality with man. While showing the untenableness of all such theories, Mr. Fukuzawa does not rush to an opposite extreme. He defines woman's position in a remarkably common- sense way. He would not have women attempt to imitate men. They have their own spheres and should keep to them. When discussing the education of girls he insists on the necessity of making a special point of giving them a thorough drilling in household duties. They should have a knowledge of cooking ; they should be taught how to make the most of money, how to man age servants, &c. Next to these things he attaches great importance to their being instructed in the laws of health. Among other subjects botany is to be recom mended as specially suited to the female mind. He further argues that women should be taught Economy and Law. He thinks that a knowledge of these subjects will tend to develop their general intelligence, and save them from becoming the creatures of emotion. In olden times a woman carried a dagger in her girdle to be used THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN 185 as a last resource. In modern times a thoroughly en lightened mind will be her best protection against the dangers to which she is exposed. With the tendency to conceit which is said to be engendered by the kind of education recommended, Mr. Fukuzawa deals in his treatise, arguing that this tendency can be rendered harmless by instruction in the kind of demeanor that best becomes a woman. . . . Marriage according to the old methods Mr. Fukuzawa condemns, and the practice of having the father-in-law or mother-in-law living with the married couple should, he thinks, be discontinued. Marriage should be regarded in a serious light, and the duties and responsibilities it involves should be duly considered. Mothers should take pleasure in instruct ing their children, and should know enough to gain their respect. The whole system recommended is based on Western life and thought. This new Gospel for woman preached by a man who has spent his whole life in advo cating reform, as one of his last messages to the nation, is, says the ' Sekai-no-Nihon,' very striking and likely to effect great good." 1 Within the past decade or so the educational ad vantages for Japanese girls have very largely in creased ; and the number of girls and young women availing themselves of these advantages has grown encouragingly. There has been a marked increase in the number of female pupils in public and private, including mission, schools of all grades; and there have been new institutions organized especially for 1 It is interesting to note that after a marriage ceremony at one of the shrines at Nikko, the bridegroom and the bride were pre sented with a copy of Mr. Fukuzawa's work. 186 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN young women, concerning two of which it is neces sary to speak more particularly. One is a kind of English normal school in charge of Miss Urne* Tsuda, herself a type of the best kind of "new woman" in Japan. She was the youngest of the first group of Japanese girls sent over to the United States in 1871 to be educated; and ever since her return to Japan she has been trying to elevate the condition of her sisters. Her school is intended primarily to train young women to be efficient teachers, particularly of English. Another impor tant institution is the University for Women, opened in 1901 in Tokyo, the first of its kind started in the first year of the new century, as a harbinger that the Twentieth Century in Japan will be largely the women's century.1 What the new woman in Japan is able to accom plish in business lines is well illustrated in the fol lowing paragraphs : 2 — "Mrs. Asa Hirooka, of Osaka, is well known in business circles as the actual guiding spirit and organizer of the famous banking firm of Kajima. A daughter of the Mitsui family, she was married at the age of 17 to Mr. Shingoro Hirooka of Osaka a few years previous to the restoration. The Hirooka family was one of those cele brated banking agents of the feudal barons who flour ished at Osaka during the Tokugawa regime, and, like many of the rest, had its affairs thrown into disorder and was itself reduced to a precarious condition by the political convulsion of three decades ago. The Kajimaya, 1 See Appendix. s Chicago Daily Record. THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN 187 under which style the Hirooka family conducted its busi ness, would certainly have shared the same melancholy fate that overtook so many of its compeers had it not been for the resolute character and business capacity of Mrs. Asa, who assumed the sole direction of affairs, introducing sweeping changes in the organization of the firm, and in a remarkably short space of time succeeded in starting it on a career of fresh and increasing prosperity. " About twenty years ago Moji, the present flourishing centre of the coal business, had scarcely come into exist ence ; in other words, few people had yet commenced to turn their attention to the development of coal-mining. In this venture she encountered innumerable difficulties. In the first place, she had to overcome the determined opposition of the other members of the family. Their position was, in fact, so strong and persistent that she had to engage in the undertaking entirely on her own account and responsibility. She had thus to start afresh with little capital, except her own personal credit, and many were the hardships and disadvantages against which she had to struggle. But there is always a way where there is a will, and our fair but indomitable miner was ultimately rewarded with signal success, and suc ceeded in adding largely to the capital of the firm and in establishing her reputation as a resourceful organizer and a unique business woman. ¦ " All the collieries in her possession have one after another been disposed of at profitable prices, and just at present she is devoting her whole attention to the expan sion of the banking business of the firm. An eminently successful financier and business organizer, she is by no means indifferent to interests of a higher sort. Her self well educated, she takes a keen interest in educa tional matters, especially those relating to her own sex, being one of the principal supporters of Mr. Naruse's 188 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN scheme for a university for girls. By way of giving practical encouragement to the movement in favor of female education, she already employs some educated girls as clerks at her banks, and intends to place a new department which is about to be opened at those banks almost exclusively in the hands of female clerks." This chapter would, of course, be incomplete without at least a few words about the noble first lady of the land. She was brought up in the old- fashioned way, but she is in hearty sympathy with the ideals of New Japan. As she has no children of her own, she has adopted the entire nation and completely won their love ; she is, indeed, the mother of millions. She is especially interested in educa tional and benevolent institutions; she is the active patron of the Peeresses' School, the University for Women,1 the Red Cross Society, and other philan thropic enterprises. In times of calamity her purse is always opened for a liberal contribution to the suffering.2 Another lady of special interest is Princess Sada, the young wife of the Crown Prince. She was born in 1884, and was educated in the Peeresses' School until her betrothal, when she was placed under pri vate tutors. She was married on May 10, 1900, 1 " H. M. the Empress gave a donation of 2,000 yen to the Women's University established by Mr. Jinzo Naruse. Prince Iwakura and Marquis Hachisuka will call at the Imperial Palace in a day or two in order to express the gratitude of the university for this munificent donation." — Japan Times. 2 Her birthday on May 28 is annually observed by Christian women in special services. THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN 189 and is the mother of two healthy sons. The young couple are said to live a happy and congenial life. In conclusion, we make one more quotation, from Miss Bacon's "Japanese Girls and Women," as follows : — "The woman question in Japan is at the present moment a matter of much consideration. There seems to be an uneasy feeling in the minds of even the more conservative men that some change in the status of women is inevitable, if the nation wishes to keep the pace it has set for itself. The Japanese women of the past and of the present are exactly suited to the posi tion accorded them in society, and any attempt to alter them without changing their status only results in making square pegs for round holes. If the pegs here after are to be cut square, the holes must be enlarged and squared to fit them. The Japanese woman stands in no need of alteration unless her place in life is somehow enlarged, nor, on the other hand, can she fill a larger place without additional training. The men of new Japan, to whom the opinions and customs of the western world are becoming daily more familiar, while they shrink aghast, in many cases, at the thought that their women may ever become like the forward, self-assertive, half-masculine women of the West, show a growing tendency to dissatisfaction with the small- ness and narrowness of the lives of their wives and daughters — a growing belief that better-educated women would make better homes, and that the ideal home of Europe and America is the product of a more advanced civilization than that of Japan. Reluctantly in many cases, but still almost universally, it is admitted that in the interest of the homes, and for the sake of future generations, something must be done to carry the women 190 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN forward into a position more in harmony with what the nation is reaching for in other directions. This desire shows itself in individual efforts to improve by more ad vanced education daughters of exceptional promise, and in general efforts for the improvement of the condition of women." Miss Bacon, in her book, traces very clearly the progress that has been made in the condition of woman, and shows how "better laws, broader edu cation for the women, [and] a change in public opinion " are still necessary. And she affirms that " we can feel pretty sure that, when the people have become used to these [recent] changes [of the new Civil Code], other and more binding laws will be enacted, for the drift of enlightened public opinion seems to be in favor of securing better and more firmly established homes." The following is also worthy of quotation : " It is not possible to understand the actual progress made in Japan in improving the condition of women, with out some consideration of the effect that Christian thought and Christian lives have had on the thought and lives of the modern Japanese." BIBLIOGRAPHY. "The Real Japan," chap. viii. ; "Out of the Far East" (Hearn), pp. 83-125 ; " The Yankees of the East," chaps. is., xix.; "An American Missionary in Japan" (Gordon), chap, xv.; "Japan and her People," vol. i. pp. 178-191; "A Japanese Interior " (Miss Bacon) ; and, last and best, Miss Bacon's "Japanese Girls and Women,'' revised edition, illus trated. CHAPTER XIV LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Outline of Topics: Japanese syllabary; i-ro-ha arrangement; arrangement of fifty-sounds; modern inventions. — Chinese ideo graphs ; Kata-kana ; Hira-gana ; Kana-majiri and Kana-tsuki ; vari ety in pronunciation. — Japanese elocution. — Japanese syntax ; logic in linguistics ; a sample sentence ; kind of language ; topsy turvy practices. — Ancient literature ; poetry ; naga-uta and tanka ; hokku ; a poem a picture. — ¦ Characteristics of Japanese poetry. — Modern literature : newspapers ; press laws ; English journals ; Japanese journals ; magazines and periodicals ; books ; what the Japanese read ; their literary taste ; foreign books ; linguistic re forms, theory and practice. — Bibliography. THE Japanese language belongs,- philologi- cally, to the Altaic family, and is of the agglutinative type. Practically, it is musi cal and easy to pronounce, but, on account of its long and involved sentences, difficult to learn. Its alphabet is not phonetic, but syllabic, and very simple and regular. It comprises 73 characters, of which 5 are duplicates of the same sounds, so that there are really only 68 distinct sounds. As many of the sounds, moreover, are only slight modifications of other sounds, they are represented by the same char acters, with certain diacritical signs attached (as in the case of ha, ba, and^a). There are, consequently, in common use only 48 distinct characters, which are 192 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN arranged in such an order as to form a stanza of poetry x as follows : — Iro wa nioedo Chirinuru wo — Waga yo tare zo Tsune naran ? Ui no oku-yama Kyo koete, Asaki yume miji, Ei mo sezu. Which means, being interpreted by Professor B. H. Chamberlain : — "Though gay in hue, [the blossoms] flutter down, Alas ! Who then, in this world of ours, may continue forever? Crossing to-day the uttermost limits of phe nomenal existence, I shall see no more fleeting dreams, neither be any longer intoxicated." In other words, "all is transitory in this fleeting world. Let us escape from its illusions and vanities." Another arrangement, based on the five vowels and their combination with certain consonants, gives fifty sounds, of which, however, two or three are really duplicates. This table of fifty sounds (c/oju-on) is as follows : — a ka sa ta na ha ma ya ra wa i ki shi chi ni hi mi (y)i ri (w)i u ku su tsu nu fu mu yu ru (w)u e ke se te ne he me (y> re (w)e o ko so to no ho mo yo ro wo 1 Arranged by the famous Buddhist priest, Kobo Daishi. 2 Bead from top to bottom and from left to right. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 193 Those in italics are duplicates ; and (w)i and (w)e, though written with different characters from i and e, have practically the same pronunciation. It will be seen that both of these arrangements are more or less artificial; at least, they appear to be mnemonic contrivances, and are certainly very con venient, because they are flexible. For instance, the demands of modern times and European languages for a v sound has led the Japanese to represent it by the simple device of attaching the common dia critical mark to the w series. By a similar device they might utilize the r series for I and the s series for th ! The Japanese characters, not difficult or complex in formation, are modifications and simplifications of Chinese ideographs. There had been in Japan no written language until after the introduction of Chinese civilization in the sixth century A. d., when Chinese words and characters were absorbed by the wholesale. Later, two systems of contracting the complex and cumbersome Chinese ideographs were invented, and are still used to some extent, indeed almost entirely by the uneducated class. The oldest and simplest modification is called Kata-kana (side-letters), and consisted merely in taking part of a Chinese ideograph. But, as these characters were separate, and did not easily run to gether, they have not been used much, "except in dictionaries, books intended for the learned, or to spell foreign names." 13 194 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN The next modification was a contraction of Chinese characters into a running, or grass, hand, and is therefore called Hira-gana (plain-letters). These are all that the ignorant, especially the women, can read. But a Japanese who aspires to the smallest degree. of education must be familiar with many Chinese characters ; and a pupil is, in fact, instructed in that language and literature from the primary school up through the university. Some books are written en tirely in Chinese, and, of course, can be read only by the best educated. But the commonest method for newspapers and books which are not intended for a limited circulation among the erudite only, is the use of a mixture of Chinese and Japanese characters, of which the root forms are Chinese, and the connec tives, agglutinative particles, and grammatical end ings are Japanese; this is called Kana-majiri. For even more general circulation the Chinese characters will be explained by Japanese characters at the side ; this is called Kana-tsuki. This practice of mixing the characters of the two languages leads to some variety in pronunciation. That is to say, a word written with Chinese ideo graphs may be read with the Japonicized Chinese pronunciation or with that of the pure 'Japanese word of which it is the equivalent. For instance, the Chinese characters which make up the word meaning "Japan" are usually pronounced Nippon, or Nihon, by the Japanese, but may also be read, in LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 195 pure Japanese, as Hi-no-moto. It is practically the same as when we are allowed to read "etc." either as "et cetera " or as "and-so-forth" (or "i. e." either as " id est " or as " that is "). In connection with this topic of reading, we may as well touch on the elocutionary element in reading by Japanese. Their style of reading, as amusing to us as ours is to them, may be called "sing-song": they rise and fall by monotones, and, going very rapidly without attention to the beginning or the end of a sentence, catch breath now and then by a peculiar sucking sound. They seem to make no attempt to read "with expression," as we call it; and, when they come to study English, are a great trial for a while, to the foreign teacher! The peculiarities of Japanese syntax have been so attractively discussed by Mr. Perciyal Lowell,1 that any other writer on that subject must at the outset acknowledge his indebtedness to that author. It will be unnecessary in this chapter to go, into details; it will be sufficient to mention several of the points in whiph Japanese and English syntax are different. For instance, a Japanese noun knows no distinction (in form) of gender and number; a Japanese adjec tive or adver-b has no terminational comparison; a Japanese verb. is proof to the distinctions of number and person. In the Japanese language the connec tives which correspond to our prepositions are placed after their nouns; the verbs always come last; our i See " The Soul of the Far East," pp. 78-109. 196 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN personal and possessive pronouns are supplanted by honorific expressions; and the definite article, the relative pronoun, and the pure temporal conjunc tion are lacking. To illustrate the first point, it is enough to say that a teacher once asked a young Japanese pupil, "Have you any brothers?" and received this answer: "There are four men; but they are all women." In the question, the generic term kyodai, which may be applied to both sexes, although strictly it should be limited to the male sex, was employed; in the reply, the generic term for " man " was used in the first clause, and the proper specification was added in the second clause. What he literally replied was this : " There are [= I have] four [such] persons; but they are all women." And, in Japanese, " man, " whether singular, dual, or plural, whether single or married, may be simply hito ; and yet the idea of "men" may also be ex pressed by doubling the word into hito-bito; while that of "women" is expressed by suffixing domo or tachi to onna and making onna-tachi, onna-domo. With reference to language in general, a most patriotic Japanese once proved, to his own satis faction, "the wickedness of foreign nations, not only in act but in speech," and illustrated by the fact that the Europeans, for instance, put the verb before the noun, and said, "see the moon." But the Japanese said "moon see," because, "if the moon was not there first, you could not see it afterwards " ! LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 197 Some of the peculiarities of Japanese sentences are illustrated in the following : " The man whom I met yesterday went to Tokyo by the nine o'clock train this morning," if translated literally from Japan ese, would read: "My yesterday-on met man-as- for, this morning's ninth-hour's train-by Tokyo-to went." In short, the Japanese language is an involved, complicated, impersonal, neutral, obscure, but withal a pretty, musical, logical, and polite tongue. Cham berlain says : " Japanese is probably — all things con sidered — the most difficult language on the face of the earth." A Japanese book begins where an English book ends; it is read from top to bottom in lines running from right to left; and the "foot-notes" are at the top of the page, while the reader's mark is inserted at the bottom. Books are always arranged on a shelf or elsewhere, with the first volume at the right hand, or in horizontal piles. The Japanese call our style of writing "crab- writing," because it "goes backward" and across the page like a craw fish; and the individual just quoted, claimed to be able to judge of the hearts of foreigners by fheir writing, " which was crooked " ! Inversion appears again in such expressions as "east-north," "west- south," instead of "northeast," "southwest." The address of a letter runs as follows : " America, United States, Illinois State, Chicago City, Hyde Park Dis trict, Washington Avenue, 0000 No., Smith, John, 198 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Mr." In dates the order of year, month, day, is fol lowed. The word for roof (yane) means literally " house-root, " because a Japanese house is constructed to fit the roof, which is made first. But, as words are only the expression of thought, this contrariety must be traced back to the thoughts and ideas of Japanese, who, in so many other things, seem to us as " topsy turvy " as we seem to them. Japanese literature of the old regime was written partly in classical Chinese, partly in pure Japanese, and comprised mostly mythology, history, law, poetry, romance, drama, and Buddhist and Confucian phi losophy. As we cannot go into details on this sub ject, so tempting, we shall confine ourselves to a few comments on Japanese poetry, which is more original and less Chinese than prose. The Japanese are very much addicted to writing poetry; like Silas Wegg, they drop off into poetry on every possible occasion. They are, in one sense, " born " poets, and, in an other sense, made poets: poeta Japonicus et nascitur et fit, — " The Japanese poet is both born and made." There are certain rigid forms, and only a few, for verse; and all fairly educated Japanese know those forms. In school, moreover, they are carefully taught the theory and the practice of versification. Occasionally a Japanese poem will be rather long, and is then called naga-uta (long poem) ; but usually it is only a "tiny ode" of 31 syllables, arranged in 5 lines of respectively 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables. The LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 199 following is a specimen of such an uta, or tanka, from the famous "Hundred Poems ": — Kokoro-ate ni " If it were my wish Orobaya oran White chrysanthemum to cull : — Hatsu-shimo no Puzzled by the frost Oki-madowaseru Of the early autumn time, Shiragiku no hana. Iperchance might pluck the flower."1 There is also an abbreviated form called hokku, which contains only the 17 syllables of the first 3 lines of the tanka. The following is an example : — Kare-eda ni U no tomari keri Aki no kure. " On an autumn evening a crow perches on a withered branch." The quaintness and simplicity of Japanese thought and expression appear very clearly in their poetry. It has been truly said that a Japanese poem is a picture or even only the outline of a picture to be filled in by the imagination. It may be merely an exclamation, without any logical assertion, like the following, written a thousand years ago : — Shira-kumo ni " The moon on an autumn "Hane uchi-kawashi night, making visible the Tobu kari no very number of wild geese Kazu sae miyuru flying past with wings inter- Aki no yo no tsuki. crossed in white clouds." 2 1 Translation by Prof. Clay MacCauley, Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxvii. 2 From Chamberlain's " Things Japanese." 200 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Japanese poetry has no rhyme, no parallelism, no alliteration, no accent; it is almost all lyrical, and abounds in acrostics, anagrams, and palindromes. Its chief subjects are taken from nature, and a poem may be evoked by the simplest thing. Although Japanese poetry is difficult to understand, it is in teresting to study. Japanese literature of the new regime is too varied to enumerate, as it covers, in both original and trans lated work, about all the fields of modern thought, as well as the fields of the old regime, just mentioned. The development of newspapers is, perhaps, one of the most interesting phases of the progress of New Japan. The year 1902 was the thirtieth anniver sary of the establishment of Japanese journalism. Before that time small sheets, each like a modern "extra," were issued to give account of a murder or an important event, and were hawked about by street- criers. But the "Nisshin Shinjishi," started in 1872 by an Englishman named Black, was the first attempt at a real newspaper.1 Now there are probably more than 1,000 papers, magazines, etc., published in the empire. The newspapers are issued daily, and cost from 25 to 50 sen per month. Most of the metro politan papers indulge in wood-cuts, even cartoons. At first the press laws were rigorous and the 1 It is, however, only fair to state that Joseph Heco, who was probably the first naturalized Japanese citizen of the United States, claims the same honor for his " Kaigai Shimbun," published in 1864 to give a summary of foreign news. See his " Narrative of a Jap anese," vol. ii. pp. 53, 59. EDUCATORS AND SCIENTISTS OF JAPAN BARON ISHIGURO, VISCOUNT MORI, MR. FUKUZAWA, DR. KITASATO LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 201 official censors zealous; so that a Japanese editor must weigh carefully his utterances, and even then was likely, in a time of great political excitement, to bring upon his paper the ban of either temporary or total suspension. Some of the papers tried to cir cumvent the laws by having an extra edition issued under a different name, so that when one was sus pended the other might continue; and sometimes a paper had nominal editors, or dummies, to suffer the punishment of imprisonment, while the real editors, or criminals, remained at their desks! It might be added, in this connection, that a public speaker also was liable to interruption by the police if he was considered by them to be uttering sentiments subver sive of peace and order. Perfect freedom of speech and liberty of the press do not now, and cannot yet, ex ist in Japan ; but the restrictions have been gradually withdrawn, and are now comparatively small. Newspapers in foreign languages, most of them in English, are issued in Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki, and Tokyo. Of all these, the "Japan Mail," of Yokohama, is facile princeps, for it does not deal in captious criticisms of the mistakes and sins of the Japanese, but is keenly sympathetic with their desire for improvement and progress in all lines. The "Japan Times," of Tokyo, is owned, managed, and edited by Japanese, and is a valuable paper. Deserving also of mention are the "Japan Daily Advertiser," of Yokohama, and the "Herald" and the " Chronicle " of Kobe. 202 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN It is rather a difficult task to select from the ver nacular newspapers the few most worthy of mention; but two from Osaka and six from Tokyo will suffice. The " Osaka Asahi Shimbun " is said to have the largest circulation in the whole country; and the " Osaka Mainichi Shimbun " is well known. In Tokyo the most prominent journals are the " Jiji Shimpo, " the "Nichi Nichi Shimbun," the "Kokumin Shim bun," the "Mainichi Shimbun," and the "Hochi Shimbun." Another Tokyo paper of very large circulation is the "Yorozu Choho." Almost all the newspapers of Japan are morning papers; but, as they generally go to press early in the evening of the preceding day, the "news" is not the latest. But very important events will always be published in "extras " at any hour.1 There are also magazines galore of every kind. Some of them prove rather short-lived ; but most of them find a constituency, as each one seems to have its own field. Probably the largest and most suc cessful magazine is named " Taiyo " (Sun), which issues monthly about 250 pages of Japanese matter, with 24 pages of English matter, and is finely il lustrated. Its leading articles by well-known writers cover a great variety of topics. The "Kokumin- no-Tomo" (Nation's Friend) is another excellent magazine, famous for the admirable style of its contributions. The " Rikugo Zasshi " (Cosmos) is philosophical and religious. There are a great 1 See also Norman's " Real Japan," chap. ii. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 203 many Shinto, Buddhist, and Christian weekly and monthly periodicals, which are published primarily for the edification of the believers. " Of making many books there is no end " in Japan. Composition is apparently such an easy task, and publishing is so cheap, that every person inspired with an idea is tempted to rush into print. And those who are not so fortunate as to be rich in " ori ginal " ideas, have an inexhaustible field in the trans lation of books from English and other Occidental languages; indeed, a fair living may be made in that way. Japanese taste in reading is illustrated by a table accompanying a recent official report from the Impe rial Library at Tokyo. During a period of 24 days covered by the report, the readers numbered 7,770, and the books called for were classified as follows : — Japanese and European Chinese works. works. Theology and religion 635 14 Philosophy and education 2,368 145 Literature and languages 8,038 938 History, biography, geography, travel . . 9,768 460 Law, politics, sociology, economy, statistics 6,577 304 Mathematics, natural philosophy, medicine . 9,506 388 Engineering, military arts, industries . . . 4,943 205 Miscellaneous books 4,840 530 The table will interest American readers as show ing how large is the number of European works included. It may be added that the Japanese are decidedly a reading people. Even the "jinrikisha man, " waiting on the street-corner for a customer, 204 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN is generally to be seen reading a newspaper, maga zine, or book. The leading firm of booksellers in Japan recently asked a large number of eminent Japanese men of letters, of science, of business, etc., to name their favorite European or American books. The 73 an swers received have been published in a Japan ese periodical, and are interesting as displaying the literary tastes of Japanese readers of foreign literature. The most popular work is Darwin's "Origin of Species," which received 26 votes; next come Goethe's "Faust," the " Encyclopsedia Britannica," and Hugo's "Les Miserables," in the order named. Among English men of letters, Byron and Tennyson are the most popular. The names of Stevenson, Hardy, Meredith, "Mark Twain," and other recent writers are rarely met with, while that of Kipling occurs not even once. Among continental writers, Tolstoi, Schopenhauer, Heine, and Zola are fre quently mentioned; and Nietsche's " Zarathustra " is characterized more than once as the greatest work in the last decade of the nineteenth century.1 Some interesting information with reference to the demand for foreign works in Japan has been made public in the " Japan Times " by a Japanese importer of foreign books, and several items therefrom are of interest. Works relating to architecture and building, chem- 1 Reprinted, by permission, from " The Dial," Chicago. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 205 istry, electricity and magnetism, engineering and me chanics, manufactures and industrial arts, metallurgy and mining, together with dictionaries and encyclo paedias, enjoy the largest demand. In chemistry, Remsen is one of the popular authors ; in metallurgy, Phillips's work heads the, list; in electricity and magnetism, Thomson's works find the largest num ber of purchasers ; and there is an active demand for Taggart's "Cotton Spinning." The favorite diction ary is "Nuttall's Standard Dictionary," of which the firm above named has already sold between 200,000 and 300,000 copies! Next comes "Webster's Con densed Dictionary," and even "Webster's Un abridged " sells at the rate of from 50 to 60 copies per month. The "Students' Standard Dictionary" also sells well. Works on scientific subjects, especially new publi cations, are in great demand, and show the eagerness of Japanese students to become acquainted with the results of the latest investigations. In astronomy, Newcomb and Holden's popular treatise comes first. In pedagogics, Herbart is the most popular author at present. In history, Fisher's " Universal History " heads the list; in general, works on modern history are in greater demand than those of earlier periods. The greater demand for language books, among which the Otto series stands first, may be due to the near approach of the date of mixed residence. Mathe matical books are only in fair request. In medicine, German books have practically driven 206 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN from the field works in other languages. In politics and diplomacy, however, French works are preferred ; Walker's " Political Economy," Jevons's "Money," and Bastiat's " Science of Finance " have a large sale. In law, German works are beginning to pre dominate. Taine's "English Literature " heads the list in works of that class, and is used as a. text-book or work of reference in several higher institutions of learning. Of books on Japan, Griffis's "Mikado's Empire " maintains its ground as the favorite. Works on antiquities and ethnology, elocution and oratory, theology and. religion, are said to be practically de void of demand; but philosophical works find good sale, with Herbert Spencer in the van. Fifty years ago a foreign book had to be smuggled- into Japan and studied secretly ; and many an earnest scholar paid with his life the penalty for desiring a broad education through books. Fifty years ago, Dutch books were about the only ones, except Chinese, that got into the empire even by smug gling. Now information is eagerly sought from all quarters of the globe ; and books in many languages are readable by Japanese.1 It is generally supposed that languages, like poets, are "born, not made," and that the changes in a language come, not artificially, but naturally. Inter esting, therefore, is the spectacle of an attempt to effect a tremendous reform in a language, many cen turies old, by legislative enactment. The nation 1 Reprinted, by permission, from " The Dial," Chicago. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 207 which is making this apparently foolish and useless attempt is Japan, which has already often startled the world by its marvellous reforms. And if its wonderful success in legislative reforms in other lines are any criterion in this case, it will succeed in ef fecting much-needed reform in its language. At the sixteenth session of the Imperial Diet, a sum of money was appropriated for a " linguistic commission. " This was appointed in the spring of this year, has held several meetings, and has already arrived at some decisions. It has been decided, for instance, that " a phonographic script "is to be employed; but the much discussed question, whether it shall be the common Japanese kana (syllabic characters) or Roman letters, is still on the docket. It is also proposed to reduce the number of Chinese ideographs in common use. Moreover, the differences between the written and the spoken language are to be abolished ; and the formal epistolary style is to be reformed. It has also been decided that the whole system of Japanese etymology must be "carefully revised." Even the "problem of local dialects" is to be attacked, and "a standard' dialect fixed. " It is noticeable that the commission is not afflicted with trepidity, but is proceeding with the utmost courage to attack the most difficult prob lems. It is composed of some of the most practical as well as the most scholarly men of the empire, and its work will be watched with the deepest interest, both at home and abroad. And the great changes already effected in the Japanese language since the 208 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN country was opened are some warrant for believing that this commission will achieve a measure of success.1 And yet we understand that legislative enactment alone cannot make these reforms perfectly effective ; but we are gratified that intelligent public opinion will support these reforms, not only theoretically, but also practically. For the full fruition of such reforms must be attained through the schools and the public press ; and the latter has already begun to work along these very lines. It is, indeed, well for Japan that her leaders realize the necessity of breaking loose from her thraldom to Chinese letters, literature, thought, and ideals. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Rein's "Japan"; "Advance Japan'' (Morris), chap. xi. ; Knapp's "Feudal and Modern Japan," vol. ii. chaps, i.-iii. ; and "Japan in History, Folk-lore and Art" (Griffis), pp. 76-91, 104-107. For special study of the language, Imbrie's " English- Japanese Etymology," Chamberlain's "Hand-book of Colloquial Japanese" and" Moji no Shirube"2; Aston's "Grammar of the Japanese Written Language " ; and Brinkley's Dictionary. On the literature, Aston's "History of Japanese Literature," entire; see also Chamberlain's "Japanese Epigrams" in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part ii. 1 Reprinted, by permission, from " The Dial," Chicago. a Or " Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing." CHAPTER XV EDUCATION Outline of Topics : Old-style education ; study of Dutch ; modern education ; branches of curricula ; three kinds of schools ; school age ; the Imperial Rescript ; kindergartens ; elementary schools ; middle schools ; higher schools ; universities ; normal schools ; agricultural schools ; technical schools ; commercial schools ; foreign language schools ; art and music ; eleemosy nary institutions ; female education ; professional schools ; private schools ; mission schools ; foreign instructors and study abroad ; teachers' associations ; libraries ; scientific study ; defects of Jap anese education. — Bibliography. THE old-style education was at first Buddhist, afterwards Confucian, in method and mat ter. It comprised chiefly instruction in the Japanese and the Chinese languages, literature, and history, and was mostly confined to the samurai (knights), or military class* Female education con sisted mainly of reading and writing Japanese, the elaborate rules of etiquette, and "polite accomplish ments " in music and art. All instruction was given pretty much by the Chinese system of lectures ; and a "memoriter" method of learning hampered original investigation. Especially in the domain of Japanese history, so called, on which rested the political in stitutions, skepticism was practically synonymous with treason. 14 210 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN According to a Japanese authority, " the first book published [in Japan] on foreign subjects " was by the famous scholar Arai Hakuseki [1657-1725] under the title "Seiyo Kibun " (Notes of the Western Ocean). Early in the eighteenth century a few scholars were officially commissioned to study Dutch; and many others secretly engaged in the same pursuit. It was almost entirely through the Dutch that, during the period of seclusion, the Japanese obtained their knowledge of Western countries and peoples, of history and science, especially of medical science. Several Dutch scholars also studied Japan and the Japanese. But since the opening of Japan new ideas have gradually come to prevail; and especially since the Restoration of 1868, education, like all other insti tutions of Japan, has had the methodical and progres sive spirit of Western civilization infused into it. Foreigners, especially Americans, were called in to remodel the whole system and to instruct in the new education. Thus in the various provinces the system of education was graded and made harmonious for the entire empire. Kindergartens have been estab lished in many localities, and are especially valuable, because most mothers are incompetent to give satis factory home instruction. Six is the age at which a child may enter the " elementary school " for a course of eight years; next comes the "middle school " for five years; then the "higher school " for two or three years, and, finally, the Imperial Universities at Tokyo EDUCATION 211 and Kyoto, each with its various colleges. There are also normal schools, "common" and "higher," for the training of teachers, and a great many technical and professional schools, public and private. Mis sionary schools of all grades are doing an excellent work, and in many particulars supplying a great need. Co-education prevails only in the elementary schools ; and the higher education of woman has been sadly neglected, but better provision for it is gradually being made. The first year of the new century was marked by the establishment at Tokyo of the first University for Women.1 The Crown Prince Haru attended the "Nobles' School," and, if he lives to ascend the throne, will be the first Japanese Emperor educated in a public school; and the Crown Princess Sada attended the Peeresses' School. The principal branches taught in the elementary schools are reading, writing, arithmetic (Japanese and foreign), composition, grammar, geography, his tory, physical exercise, morals (Confucian), and English; those in the middle and higher schools are Japanese and Chinese history, composition, lan guage and literature, general history, mathematics, sciences, philosophy, morals, physical exercise, Eng lish, French, and German; in the universities the lines of study are varied and specialized. The Japanese learn both to translate, write, and speak the modern languages, and in the university may study Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. i See " Chautauquan" for April, 1902. 212 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN If we classify Japanese schools according to man agement, there are three kinds: those respectively under the central government, local authorities, and private auspices. Those of the first class are under the supervision of the Department of Education, are mainly special schools and higher institutions of learn ing, and are supported by appropriations voted by the Imperial Diet in the annual budget. Those of the second class are mainly elementary, middle and nor mal schools, are under the supervision of the local authorities, and are supported by local taxes, some times supplemented by national aid. Those of the third class are supported chiefly by tuition fees, but may also be assisted by individual beneficence.1 The school age for children is from six to fourteen, and covers the period of the elementary school ; while the period of compulsory attendance is from six to ten years of age. During the latter period education is free ; and in any case tuition fees are arranged to suit the financial ability of the payer. Corporal punishment is not allowed in any school. The inspiring motive of education in Japan is found in an Imperial Rescript, which the Emperor issued in October, 1890. A copy of this is kept, often hanging framed, in every school, and on special occasions it is read aloud, while all the scholars reverently listen with bowed heads. It reads as follows : 2 — 1 For a statistical table of scbools in the empire, see Appendix. 2 Official translation, from Cary's " Japan and its Regeneration." EDUCATION 213 "Our Ancestors founded the State on a vast basis, while their virtues were deeply implanted ; and Our sub jects, by their unanimity in their great loyalty and filial affection, have in all ages shown them in perfection. Such is the essential beauty of Our national polity, and such, too, is the true spring of Our educational system. You, Our beloved subjects, be filial to your parents, affec tionate to your brothers, be loving husbands and wives, and truthful to your friends. Conduct yourselves with modesty, and be benevolent to all. Develop your intel lectual faculties and perfect your moral powers by gain ing knowledge and by acquiring a profession. Further, promote the public interests and advance the public affairs ; ever respect the national Constitution and obey the laws of the country; and in case of emergency, courageously sacrifice yourselves to. the public good. Thus offer every support to Our Imperial dynasty, which shall be as lasting as the universe. You will then not only be Our most loyal subjects, but will be enabled to exhibit the noble character of your ancestors. "Such are the testaments left us by Our ancestors, which must be observed alike by their descendants and subjects. These precepts are perfect throughout all ages and of universal application. It is Our desire to bear them in Our heart in common with you, Our sub jects, to the end that we may constantly possess these virtues." There are between 200 and 300 kindergartens, public and private, in Japan; and they are con ducted, SO' far as outward forms are concerned, very much as in America and Europe. The common means of training are games, singing, conversation, and. handiwork. But the Christian kindergartens 214 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN are the only ones that carry out to full fruition the real spirit, as expressed in Froebel's own words : " My system is based upon religion and leads up to religion." The Christian kindergartens are quite popular and successful. The Japanese eleme'ntary school, like the Ameri can grammar school, covers a period of eight years, which is, however, divided into two parts of four years each. The lower portion is called the "com mon elementary school, " and the upper portion is the "higher elementary school." In many a small vil lage only the former is maintained, and the latter is often carried on by the co-operation of several vil lages ; but in large places both exist, either separately or conjointly. Under certain circumstances a sup plementary course may be established in elementary schools (Sho Gakko). English may be begun in the higher elementary school, and it is. required in every middle school. Each prefecture must maintain at least one middle school (Chu Gakko), and three prefectures have as many as seven each. This institution corresponds practically to an American high school; but its course of study covers five years, besides the op portunity of a supplementary year. Candidates for admission must be over twelve years of age, and possess attainments equal to those who have com pleted the second year of the higher elementary school. Thus two years of these schools lap over each other. The number of middle schools, in spite IMPEEIAL UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS, TOKYO EDUCATION 215 of annual increase, is still inadequate to accommodate all the applicants. There are in Japan seven " higher schools " (Koto Gakko), located at Tokyo, Sendai, Kyoto, Kanazawa, Kumamoto, Okayama, and Yamaguchi. These bear numbers in the order given above, and are often called by the name "High School," because the word Koto means simply "high grade." If the reader, for in stance, sees elsewhere a reference to the " Third High School," it will refer to the Koto Gakko at Kyoto. The word "Higher" is, therefore, used in this book to avoid confusion. These schools are clearing-houses, or preparatory schools, for the universities, and have also their own complete departments. At present there are only two public universities in Japan, — at Tokyo and Kyoto. The former con tains six colleges (Law, Medicine, Engineering, Literature, Science, and Agriculture) ; and the latter consists of only four colleges (Law, Medicine, Sci ence, and Engineering), but others will be added gradually. There are also just two great private universities, both in Tokyo: the Keio-gijiku, founded by the late Mr. Fukuzawa, the "great commoner," and the "grand old man " of Japan; and the Waseda, founded by that veteran statesman, Count Okuma. There is no Christian institution of university grade, although it is confidently expected that the Doshisha, at Kyoto, will soon be elevated again to that rank. The Japanese universities have very good accommo dations and equipment, with strong faculties, and are 216 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN doing work worthy to be compared with that of Oc cidental universities. One of the most unique phases of university work in Japan is the fact that the Im perial University in Tokyo maintains a chair of seis mology, or, in other words, supports a most important "professor of earthquakes" ! Common normal schools number over fifty; there must be at least one in each prefecture, and in four cases there are two or three each. Besides these and above these is a "higher normal school," or normal college, in Tokyo, with an elementary school and a middle school for practice work. There, is also in T5kyo a "higher female normal school," with a kindergarten, an elementary school, and a high school for practice work. But these provisions are inadequate to supply the increasing demand for teachers in public schools. Inasmuch as Japan is an agricultural country and is rich in forests, agricultural and dendrologi- cal schools are a necessity, in order that the people may be able to make the most out of their re sources. The Sapporo Agricultural College, founded by Americans in 1872, is the best of its kind, and furnishes a broader course of study than its name implies. And, in order that the industrial life of New Japan may be elevated, and both capital and labor may profit by the latest inventions and improvements, manual training and other technical schools have been started and are very popular. EDUCATION 217 In view of the fact that the Japanese are not fitted by natural temperament for a mercantile life, and yet the geographical position of Japan is so well adapted to a commercial career, the need of thorough instruc tion in modern methods of business, has been keenly felt, and is being supplied by business colleges, of which the Higher Commercial School in Tokyo is most useful and prosperous. Formerly an adjunct of the above-mentioned insti tution, but now an independent organization, is the Foreign Language School, Tokyo. Besides this, several foreign languages are taught in the middle and higher schools and the universities; and there are also, a great many private schools and classes for instruction in one or more foreign languages. English is* of course, the most popular and most useful. The Tokyo Fine Arts School is the best of its kind, and gives instruction in painting (both Japan ese and European), designing, sculpture, and "in dustrial arts," like engraving, puddling, casting, lacquer, etc. The Tokyo Academy of Music is a type of its kind, and gives instruction in vocal and instrumental music and musical composition. It has accomplished wonders along those lines. The education of the blind, the deaf, and the dumb is not neglected in Japan; there are ten schools for the benefit of these unfortunates; and the govern ment institution in Tokyo is the most important. Charity schools and orphan asylums are also carried 218 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN on, chiefly under Christian auspices, in very poor districts in large cities. During the early years of New Japan female edu cation was almost entirely in the hands of the Chris tian missionaries, who alone seemed to realize the necessity of a better education and training for the future mothers of the nation. But thinking Japan ese have come to realize, with Count Okuma, that all countries which have attempted "to work with the male sex as the single standard" have "fallen signally behind in the march of progress " ; and that " Japan by raising woman to her proper place should provide herself with a double standard." Thus it has come about that educational privileges for girls and young ladies are increasing. Law schools, medical schools, theological semi naries, and other professional schools are numerous ; on these lines private enterprise is very active, because the public institutions are inadequate. There used to be a great dearth of good private institutions of learning, and this lack was partly due to the fact that private enterprise in this direc tion received little encouragement, and public spirit was lacking on the part of those who might have assisted in this way. But recently both the ad vantages of private schools and the opportunities thus afforded to men of means have come to be appreciated. In this connection a few words should be written concerning mission schools, which will also be con- EDUCATION 219 sidered in the chapter on Christianity. In spite of limitations both from within and from without, these institutions, having their "ups and downs," never theless maintained themselves and have won popular favor against a strong prejudice. They have always insisted upon a high mental and moral standard, and have without doubt aroused the public schools to raise their standards and ideals. Whatever may be said for or against mission schools as evangelizing agen cies, it is generally acknowledged that, as educa tional institutions, they have been models of correct pedagogical principles and exemplars of high morality. It is also interesting to note that, after a period during which the Japanese thought that they could teach foreign languages as well as foreigners, there is an increasing demand for foreign instructors. Within the past two years several young men from America have been engaged as teachers of English in middle schools; and such opportunities are in creasing. Moreover, a larger number of students than ever are annually sent abroad by the govern ment, or go abroad at their own expense, to finish their education. Thus narrow prejudices are dissi pated and minds are broadened. Another means for improving the educational sys tem of Japan is to be found in teachers' associations, educational societies, and summer institutes. The first two are local ; the last are national. The educa tional societies are for the purpose of increasing the general interest in education in the different locali- 220 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN ties; the teachers' associations are, as in America, for the improvement of methods of instruction ; and the summer institutes are for the same purpose on a broader scale. What was written about private schools may be re peated concerning libraries. No Japanese Carnegie has yet appeared ; only a few men, like Mr. Ohashi, of Tokyo, and Baron Kodama, Governor-General of Formosa, have endowed libraries as memorials. The; largest publio library is the Imperial Library1 in Tokyo, with over 400,000 volumes, of which more than 50,000 volumes are in European languages. It is in the domain of science that the Japanese have achieved, perhaps, their greatest intellectual successes, Their work in original investigation isi always painstaking, and in many cases it has at tained an international reputation. The names of Dr. Kitasato, associated with the famous Dr. Koch in his researches, and Dr. Aoyama, the hero of the pest in China, are well known ; and now comes Dr. Ishigami, who claims to have discovered the germ of smallpox. The ehief defects in the Japanese educational system are on three lines: dependence on Chinese ideographs, vague instruction in ethics, and en couragement of cramming. The removal of these hindrances to progress is engaging the attention of thoughtful educators, but is a slow and gradual process. 1 This has recently secured the famous Max Muller Library. EDUCATION 221 BIBLIOGRAPHY. "The Wee Ones of Japan" (Mrs. Bramhall), pp. 97-108; " A Japanese Boy " (Shigemi) ; "Japanese Girls and Women " and "A Japanese Interior" (Miss Bacon), all give interesting accounts of school life in both Old and New Japan. The Department of Education issues annually in English, for f ree distribution on application, a "Report," which contains the latest statistics and other information. " The Educational Conquest Of the Far East '* (Lewis) is an excellent discussion of educational conditions and problems of the day in China and Japan. CHAPTER XVI ESTHETIC JAPAN Outline or Topics : Japan's debt to art. — Wide diffusion of aesthetic ideals. — Chinese origin of Japanese art. — Painting the key-note. — Considered a form of poetry. — Characteristics. — Color prints. — Sculpture. — Keramics. — Metal work. — Cloisonne". Lacquer. — Embroidery. — Music. — Poetry. — Dancing. — Drama. Tea ceremonies. — Flower arrangement. — Landscape gardening. — Unity of the arts. — Bibliography. IT has been said with a great deal of truth that no other country in the world owes so much to its art as Japan. As Huish puts it, " Japan would never have attracted the extraordinary notice which she so rapidly did had it not been for her art. . . . Her art manufactures have penetrated the length and breadth of the world." Yet it is a curious fact, to which Chamberlain calls attention, that the Jap anese have "no genuinely native word" for either art or nature. The expression "fine art" is com monly represented by the word bi-jutsu, a Chinese compound meaning literally " beauty-craft." So in timately are aesthetic ideals bound up with the whole course of Japanese life and modes of thought, that art is not, as in the Western world, a mere sporadic efflorescence, but the inevitable expression of the spirit of the Eastern civilization, and needing there- ESTHETIC JAPAN 223 fore no distinctive term to denote it as a thing set apart and existing by itself. While this is true, it is also true that Japan furnishes no exception to Mr. Whistler's dictum that "there never was an art-loving nation." The ex planation of this seeming paradox is one which needs to be borne in mind. The aesthetic ideals crystallized in the works of the countless generations of artists who for more than a thousand years have held to them firmly as their guiding principles, have become so much the intellectual heritage of the people as a whole that it is most natural that the foreign observer, noting the aesthetic impress upon everything about him, should look upon the Japanese as a nation of artists. To an extent not known elsewhere the Jap anese mechanic is indeed an art-isan. And there is a measure of truth in Percival Lowell's assertion that there are " no mechanical arts in Japan simply because all such have been raised to the position of fine arts." 1 From the Japanese point of view, however, differ ences in degree of artistic perception are as pronounced among the Japanese as among other peoples. In Japan, as in all other lands, artistic inspiration is given to but few among the many ; artists having creative genius tower high above their fellows ; and the little touches that excite the wonder and admira tion of the outside world are seen to be in large degree the outcome of conventional notions rather than the expression of individual feeling. » " The Soul of the Far East," p. 121. 224 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN The art of Japan like most other elements in her civilization is of Chinese origin. Concurrently with the introduction by way of the Middle Kingdom of that stream of abstract idealism known as Northern Buddhism, China became the fountain head whence until comparatively recent times a succession of aesthetic ideas spread over Japan.1 Modern Chinese art is justly held to possess little merit, but in the days when it exerted its dominating influence upon the Japanese mind it had attained a very high stand ard of excellence, and in particular some of the Chinese painters were among the greatest the world has ever known. With the exception of a few original modi fications, the product of temperament and historical situation, everything in Japanese art has come from China ; yet the generic ideas have been so worked over and transformed in the process that the result ant is distinctly not Chinese but Japanese. The in fluence of Buddhism has been very great ; it would indeed, be difficult to overestimate it.2 Most of the earlier artists were Buddhist priests, and, until the revival of Shinto as the State religion, during the present reign, Buddhism was directly and indirectly one of the principal promoters and patrons of the arts. 1 While it is possible and even probable that this movement may have begun before the formal introduction of Buddhism from Korea in the year 552, our present knowledge of the history of art in Japan anterior to that event is not sufficient to warrant any definite assertion respecting it. 2 See " The Ideals of the East," by Kakasu Okakura. London, 1903. PAINTING BY YASUNOBU : HERON AND LOTUS ESTHETIC JAPAN 225 Foremost among the arts of Japan, both relatively and as the key which is necessary to understanding and appreciation of the others, is painting. It is an art differing in many respects from that of the European schools of painting, but not less worthy of serious consideration, and in certain qualities it ranks supreme. To those who have seen the masterpieces preserved among the temple treasures, or hidden in the collections of Japanese noblemen, and have felt their grandeur and charm, this will seem far short of over-statement. In the West, however, there is little opportunity to gauge the achievements of the great Japanese painters,1 and it is even possible to spend a lifetime in Japan and remain in ignorance thereof. Japanese critics have always considered painting to be a form of poetry. The painter therefore strives to represent the soul of things rather than their vis ible forms. Not that he scorns realism, indeed he is often minutely realistic in a way that is unapproach able ; but realism with him is only incidental, his main purpose being to produce a poem in form and color. To this end all irrelevant details are neces- 1 The principal collections of Japanese paintings in America are the Fenollosa collection in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and that of Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit. A few fine works are owned by Mr. Henry O. Havemeyer, Mr. Howard Mansfield, and Mr. C. D. Weldon, of New York ; Mr. Denman Ross, Mr. Quincy A. Shaw, and Mrs. John Gardner, of Boston ; Mr. Charles J. Morse, of Uniontown, Pa. ; and Mr. Frederick W. Gookin, of Chicago. In Eng land the most notable collections are those of the British Museum and Mr. Arthur Morrison, of Loughton. There are also a number of private collections in France and Germany. 15 226 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN sarily omitted. Nothing is given that in any way interferes with the central thought. Reduced thus to its simplest elements, his art calls for the utmost harmony in all that enters into it, and first of all for perfect composition of line, mass, and vacant space. Scarcely less important is color arrangement, includ ing the balancing of light and dark as factors in the result. A high degree of technical skill is also requi site, for the poetry would be lost should the execution seem labored. The greatest works are, in appearance at least, spontaneous to an astonishing degree. Won derful indeed are the possibilities of a single brush stroke in the hands of a master. The effects pro duced range from almost microscopic realism to the broadest impressionism, the latter quality being pre dominant in the works of some of the most eminent artists. So far as it is possible to sum them up in a brief statement, the distinguishing characteristics of Jap anese painting are these : — 1. Excellence of composition. 2. Subtlety and beauty of line. 3. Remarkable command of the brush, and directness of method in its use. 4. Simplicity of treatment, and rigid exclusion of non essentials. 5. Absence of chiaroscuro, and the employment of notan, or contrast between light and dark. 6. Skilful generalization of forms. 7. Poetical conception. 8. High development of the sense of harmony in color. ESTHETIC JAPAN 227 Any such summing up is, however, necessarily im perfect. It is not feasible to give here any account of the various schools and artists, and the reader desiring more extended information is referred to the sources indicated in the bibliography appended to this chapter. Before leaving this branch of the sub ject, mention should be made of calligraphy, which, although justly regarded in Japan as an art, is not so much a separate art as the art of painting applied to writing the Chinese ideographs. It will not appear strange, therefore, that masterly writing should be esteemed equally with painting. An art closely allied to painting is that of chromo- xylography, or color printing from engraved wood blocks. Nothing could be simpler than the method employed, the sheets of paper being laid face down on the block which has been previously inked with a brush, and pressure is then applied by rubbing the back of the sheets with a pad held in the hand of the printer. Nevertheless no greater triumphs of the printer's art have ever been achieved than the beautiful color prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries after designs by Harunobu, Koriusai, Shunsho, Kyo- naga, Toyokuni, Utamaro, Hokusai, and other noted artists of the Popular school. Though still in use, this process is largely being superseded by the cheaper, if less artistic, processes of lithography, collotype, etc. In glyptic art the triumphs of the Japanese have been little less than in that of painting. The most remarkable specimens are the ancient figures in bronze 228 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN and in wood which are preserved in the temples. The Daibutsu, or gigantic bronze statue of Buddha, at Nara will serve as an example, having been illustrated so often that all the world is familiar with its appearance. The objects upon which the art of the Japanese sculptors has been exercised are many. Particularly in the carving of the masks used in the No dances, and the little ornaments called netsuke, the skill and artistic qualities displayed are often of the highest order. It would be difficult to overpraise the best work of such artists in this line, as Deme Jikan, Minko, Tomotada, Miwa, and many others. As in the case of painting, the method used by the carver must be direct and masterly to satisfy Japanese taste. Only clean, strong strokes will pass muster. There must be no niggling nor retouching. Visitors to the shrines at Nikko will be impressed by this quality in the remarkable works to be found there by the famous seventeenth-century sculptor Hidari Jingoro, that is to say, " Left-handed Jingoro." One of the most ancient of the arts of Japan is that of the potter. It is also one of the most profit able for study. The principles which have been enumerated as applicable to painting will be found carefully embodied in the fabrication and ornamenta tion of keramic wares, the variety of which is endless. In some instances these wares are known by the names of the makers, as Ninsei, Kenzan, Kozan, Seifu, and others; but in general they are desig nated by the names of the provinces wherein they : • ¦ . % I a. PAINTING BY HO-ITSU : VIEW OF FUJI-SAN .ESTHETIC JAPAN 229 are made. Thus we have the wares of Satsuma, Hizen, Arita, Imari, Kaga, Kyoto, Owari, Bizen, Iga, Ota, Soma, Izumo, and many more. Occasionally the name of a particular locality is used, as for instance that of Seto in Owari. Here it was that Shirozaemon, called "the Father of Pottery," established himself in the thirteenth century ; and such was the repute of the products of his kiln that Seto-mono, or Seto ware, became a generic name in Japan for all keramic pro ductions, quite as in English we use the term " china " for all kinds of porcelain wherever made. Unfortunately the Japanese potter of to-day is largely under the influence of foreign markets, to the great degradation of his art. The condition is well portrayed by Huish, who says : " The wealthy ' red-hairs ' who came to him from the West could see no beauties in the objects that had given the greatest pleasure to the men of refinement of his own country; and in order that the potter might participate in the overflow of silver dollars with which the foreigners were blessed, he was obliged to put aside those prin ciples which he and his father before him had looked upon as the fundamental ones of their craft, and pro duce wares totally at variance with his preconceived ideas of the right." Many and distinctive are the arts of the Japanese metal-workers. They are widely renowned for their skill in compounding numerous alloys, for inlaying one metal upon another, for clever manipulation of refractory materials such as wrought iron of exceeding 230 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN toughness which they nevertheless carve and chase almost as though it were wax, for casting in bronze and iron by the cire perdue process, and especially for the manufacture of armor, both offensive (such as swords and spears) and defensive (such as helmets and coats of mail). Japanese swords excel even the famous blades of Damascus and Toledo, and the names of the swordsmiths Munichika, Masamune, Muramasa, and others, are now of international rep utation. The blades which were made by these men are not only of extraordinary excellence, but are also veritable works of art and highly prized as such by connoisseurs. Equally celebrated in different lines are the works of the Miochin and Goto families ; and among the metal-workers of to-day are many worthy successors of these giants of the past. The art of enamelling upon metal is, with some exceptions, comparatively a new one in Japan, but is now very popular. The wares are known to the Japanese as Shippo-yaki, and in general, in the West, as cloisonne". The centres of the enamel-workers are Tokyo, Kyoto, and Nagoya, and the best-known makers are Namikawa, of Tokyo, the inventor of' the " cloison-less " enamel, and his namesake of Kyoto. One of the most distinctive of the arts of Japan is that of lacquering, and the Japanese product far excels that of any other makers. The lac, which is a varnish made from the poisonous sap of a tree of the sumac (rhus) family, is applied in thin layers on a carefully prepared ground, usually of wood, and ^ESTHETIC JAPAN 231 after being dried in a moist oven or steam-chest, is carefully rubbed down and polished. This is repeated with each layer. Various substances, metallic and other, are mixed with the lac or applied to its surface before it is dry, and it may be carved and inlaid in different ways. This is a bare outline of a process which is long and tedious and which has many varia tions. Extended accounts with many interesting de tails will be found in Rein's " Industries of Japan," in the ninth volume of the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, and in Volume VII. of Captain Brinkley's "Japan." Embroidery, like the designing for brocades and other fabrics, is an art which follows closely the analogies of the art of painting, and is governed by the same aesthetic principles. The embroiderers in Japan are not women but men, and in their work they often display remarkable taste and ability as designers, as well as craftsmanship of the highest order. To Occidental ears Japanese music, set, as it always is, in a minor key and abounding in discords, seems unworthy of the name of music. To characterize it as merely " strummings and squealings " because it does not conform to our ideas, is, however, an unfair aspersion. The fact is that it is based upon a scale which differs from that which we use, one of its peculiarities being the introduction of a semi-tone above the tonic. In the Japanese mind music is so closely related to the sister arts of poetry and dancing that neither can well be treated separately. As 232 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Captain Brinkley tells us : " There is no Japanese music that will not serve as accompaniment for the Japanese stanza, and the stanza, in turn, adapts itself perfectly to the fashion of the Japanese dance. The law of the unities seems to have prescribed that the cadence of the stanza should melt into the lilt of the song, and that the measure of the song should be worked out by the 'woven paces and waving hands' of the dance. The affinity between them is so close that it is difficult to tell where one begins and the other ends." Japanese poetry is also conspicuously different from that of the Occident. It is a form of word painting in brief lyrics, and " it is primarily an expression of emotion." The odes which all Japanese learn to compose are verbal melodies which can be neither transposed nor translated. Owing to the nature of the Japanese language, there are no accented syllables, nor is there any quantity, nor any rhyme. This is well explained by Aston in his " History of Japanese Literature." He says: — " As every syllable ends in a vowel, and as there are only five vowels, there could only be five rhymes, the constant reiteration of which would be intolerably mo notonous. . . . The only thing in the mechanism of Jap anese poetry which distinguishes it from prose is the alternation of phrases of five and seven syllables each. It is, in fact, a species of blank verse." The art of dancing, which consists mainly in rhythmic posturings, often of great beauty, and re- .ESTHETIC JAPAN 233 quiring not only physical training of the most rigor ous character but a high degree of skill, is in turn intimately associated with the histrionic art. For an account of the early dances and their gradual merg ing into the classical drama or dance known as No (literally, "accomplishment"), the reader is referred to the third volume of Captain Brinkley's " Japan : Its History, Arts, and Literature." Few foreigners ever learn to appreciate Japanese dancing. Its pri mary purpose is mimetic " The mechanics of the dance," says Brinkley, "are as nothing to the Jap anese spectator compared with the music of its motion, and he interprets the staccato and legato of its passages with discrimination amounting almost to instinct. In exceptional cases the foreigner's perception may . be similarly subtle," but as he must generally be unable to apprehend the esoterics of the dance, he is " like one watching a drama where an unknown plot is acted in an unintelligible language." As to the Japanese drama proper, it differs from our own chiefly in the stage setting and accessories, and in the greater importance given to the mimetic side of the performance. An art essentially Japanese is that of flower arrange ment. In its origin it is closely related to the Cha-no-yu, or Tea Ceremonial, which developed into a cult during the Shogunate of Ashikaga Yoshimasa in the fifteenth century. This cult, which was founded on the four cardinal virtues of urbanity, courtesy, purity, and imperturbability, has been a 234 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN mighty force in holding the Japanese true to a high standard in matters of taste, by combining " aesthetic eclecticism of the most fastidious nature with the severest canons of simplicity and austerity." The end has been achieved not so much by the elaborate code as through what it stands for; the ceremony being in reality a gathering of connoisseurs to view works of art, each of which to win favor must meet the requirements of the most exacting taste. Out of the aesthetic necessity of making fitting disposition of the flowers introduced into the tea-room, grew the art of Ike-bana, or flower arrangement. This has gradually come to have an elaborate code of its own, and several distinct " schools " have arisen. In a general way it may be said that the art consists in arranging flowers with regard to harmonious com position of line, while keeping in mind certain poetic analogies which must not be violated, and the ap pearance of vitality and natural growth. Here, again, the principles of composition in painting find their application. Still another application is found in landscape gar dening, which in the hands of the Japanese is also a fine art. This too has its different " schools " and its special code of rules, formulated during the many centuries of development at the hands of successive generations of artists. Japan is, in truth, a shining example of the essen tial unity of all the arts, and illustrates admirably the truth of the old saying, Natura artis magister ^ESTHETIC JAPAN 235 (Nature the mistress of art). Unfortunately, what has been said in this chapter applies more to Old Japan than to the Japan of to-day. Modern Japan, whether rightly or wrongly, is becoming tired of being praised for aesthetic excellence, and is more anxious to be appraised and appreciated for its material, social, commercial, and political " progress." To the cul tivated Japanese, who regard art as the highest out come and flowering of civilization, this tendency is not encouraging. And as to the future of Japanese art, its perpetuation must come from excluding rather than attempting to amalgamate Western ideas. In the impressive words of Okakura, the outcome will be " victory from within, or a mighty death without." BIBLIOGRAPHY. Painting: " The Pictorial Arts of Japan" (Anderson) ; "Cata logue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British Mu seum " (Anderson) ; " The Painters of Japan " (Morrison). Prints: " An Outline of the History of Ukiyo-ye " (Fenollosa) ; " Geschichte des Japanischen Farbenholzschnitts " (Seidlitz) ; "Japanese Blustration" (Strange); "Japanese Wood En gravings " (Anderson) ; " Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood cut Printing " (Tokuno). Pottery: "Catalogue of the Morse Collection of Japanese Pottery, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston" (Morse); "Japan: Its History, Art, and Literature " (Brinkley) ; " Keramic Art of Japan " (Audsley and Bowes) ; " L' Art Japonais " (Gonse). Glyptic Art: "Histoire de l'Art du Japan," published by the Japanese Commission for the Paris Exposition of 1900. This work contains much information about all the arts, not available elsewhere. Metal Work — Lacquer: "The Industries of Japan" (Rein); " Notes on Shippo " (Bowes) ; " Ornamental Arts of Japan " 236 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN (Audsley) ; "L'Art Japonais" (Gonse) ; "Japan and its Art" (Huish). Music : " The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan " (Piggott); " Miyako-Dori " (Bevan). Poetry: " History of Japanese Literature " (Aston) ; "Classical Poetry of the Japanese " (Chamberlain) ; " Japanese Odes " (Dickins). Drama: "Artistic Japan," vol. v. (edited by S. Bing). Flower Arrangement : "The Flowers of Japan and the Art of Floral Arrangement " (Conder). Landscape-Gardening : " Landscape- Gardening in Japan" (Conder). General : " An Artist's Letters from Japan " (La Farge) ; " Jin rikisha Days in Japan " (Scidmore). CHAPTER XVII1 DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO Outline of Topics: Religion in Japan; Shint5; a "natural religion"; simple services; religious patriotism; perfunctory wor ship ; Shinto doomed " as a religion " ; secularization of Ise shrines ; element of embarrassment to Christians; "worship" (?) of Em peror's portrait; difficulties in translation of Christian terms; method of reforms in Japan; future of Shinto. — Bibliography. IT is a curious fact that Japan cannot boast of an indigenous religion, or of much original mental or moral philosophy. " Shinto " (The Gods' Way), purely Japanese in its origin, is only a cult, a system of worship, not a religion, or even a phi losophy. Buddhism and Confucianism came in from China, perhaps through Korea, and Christianity en tered from Europe and America. Shinto is a system in which the deification and worship of heroes, emperors, family ancestors, and forces of nature play an important part. It has no dogmas, no sacred books, no moral code, " no philos ophy, no code of ethics, no metaphysics " ; it sums up its theory of human duty in the following injunction: " Follow your natural impulses and obey the laws of 1 A large portion of this chapter is reprinted, by permission, from " The Standard," Chicago. 238 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN the State."1 It requires of its adherents nothing except worship at certain temples or shrines on stated days. A "pure Shinto" temple is an ex ceedingly plain affair, in front of which, at a little distance, is invariably set a torii, or arch. Without idols, the temple contains, as emblems of Shinto, strips of paper hanging from a wand, together with a mirror. The form of ordinary worship is simple : it consists of washing the face, or hands, or both, with holy water; of ringing a bell, or clapping the hands, to call the god's attention; of casting in a coin as an offering; of standing with clasped hands during a short prayer, and of making a farewell bow. This ceremony is sufficient to " cover a multitude of sins " ! At the regular festivals there are special and elaborate services, at which the priests (often lay men) officiate. Pilgrimages to holy spots, usually "high places," are important in Shinto. But Shinto seems destined to decay as naturally as it developed. According to the best authorities, it was, in the original and purest form, ancestor- worship combined with the worship of nature. That is to say, it arose from the natural reverence paid to ancestors, whether individual or national, and from 1 "Shinto signifies character in the highest sense, — courage, courtesy, honor, and, above all things, loyalty. The spirit of Shinto is the spirit of filial piety [Lat. pietas], the zest of duty, the readiness to surrender life for a principle. ... It is the docility of the child ; it is the sweetness of the Japanese woman. ... It is religion — but religion transmuted into hereditary moral impulse — religion transmuted into ethical instinct. It is the whole emotional life of the race, — the Soul of Japan." — Heaen. DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 239 the awe inspired by the wonderful and frequently horrible forces of nature. In time these two ele ments became more or less confused, so that eventu ally, in some cases, national ancestors were identified with heavenly bodies, and the sun, for instance, wor shipped as a goddess, was called the special ancestor of the Japanese nation. It seems proper, therefore, to call Shinto, so far as the word "religion "is ap plicable to it, a "natural religion" in more senses than one of the word "natural."1 It has just been intimated that the word "religion " is not in all points applicable to Shinto. It has, for instance, no dogmas or creed, except the very simple and general injunction: "Follow your own natural impulses and obey the laws of the State." Dr. Nitobe says, in his book entitled "Bushido": "The tenets of Shintoism cover the two predominating features of the emotional life of our race — patri otism and loyalty." Its services are very simple, 1 " ShintS is the Japanese conception of the cosmos. It is a com bination of the worship of nature and of their own ancestors. . . . To the Japanese eye, the universe itself took on the paternal look. Awe of their parents, which these people could comprehend, lent explanation to dread of nature, which they could not. Quite co gently, to their minds, the thunder and the typhoon, the sunshine and the earthquake, were the work not only of anthropomorphic beings, but of beings ancestrally related to themselves. In short, Shinto ... is simply the patriarchal principle projected without perspective into the past, dilating with distance into deity." " Shinto is so Japanese it will not down. It is the faith of these people's birthright, not of their adoption. Its folk-lore is what they learned at the knee of the race-mother, not what they were taught from abroad. Buddhist they are by virtue of belief ; Shinto by virtue of being." — Lowell, "The Soul of the Far East." 240 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN and consist of the presentation of offerings and the recital of formal addresses, which are partly praises and partly prayers. In one ritual, that of purifica tion, it is true that there may be seen signs of moral instruction ; but this is now a mere formal ceremony, performed, perhaps, only twice a year in some, not all, of the principal Shinto shrines. Certainly, in the sense that Christianity, with its creeds, whether simple or complex, its moral doctrines, its spiritual teachings, its outlook into the future life, its re straining and uplifting influence upon the individual and society, is called a religion, Shinto has no right to that appellation. But as a system of national as well as of individ ual worship, including prayers to the deified an cestors or national heroes or to the personified and deified powers of nature, Shinto is properly a re ligion. And there can be no doubt that, in the eyes of the great mass of the people, it has all the force of a religion. One needs to stand but a few minutes in front of a Shinto shrine to observe that the mode of worship is practically the same as that before a Buddhist temple. This does not refer to the regular public ceremonies at stated times, but to the brief ordinary visits of the common people to the shrines and temples as they may be passing by. In their hearts there is apparently as much "wor ship " and " reverence " in one case as in the other. And this superstitious attitude of the people toward Shinto has been utilized on more than one occasion DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 241 in political measures, so that Shinto has often been nothing but a political engine. " In its lower forms [it] is blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates. " It has thus been unfairly used as a test of so-called patriotism, a kind of ecclesiastical patri otism, founded on mythology and superstition. Thus Shinto has been, as Sir Ernest Satow called it, "in a certain sense, a state religion, since its temples are maintained out of the imperial and local revenues, and the attendance of the principal officials is re quired by court etiquette at certain annual festivals which are celebrated at the palace." Similarly, local officials are required to be present and "worship" on certain occasions at local shrines. As Dr. Griffis has remarked, "To those Japanese whose first idea of duty is loyalty to the Emperor, Shinto thus be comes a system of patriotism exalted to the rank of a religion." But the relation of the educated classes toward Shinto is quite different. A knowledge of science has shown the foolishness of personifying and deify ing the forces of nature and of worshipping foxes, badgers, and other animals. Moreover, the scientific study of the Japanese annals has revealed the ab surdities of much that had been accepted as real history, and has shown that the so-called historical foundation of Shinto is a mass of myths and legends. The well-educated Japanese do not believe the non sense of the " Kojiki " upon which the claim that the Emperor should be worshipped is based ; but few, if 16 242 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN any, dare to give public expression to their own pri vate opinions, for they love life and reputation more than liberty of speech. And many of those who really know better not only will employ the old fic tions in word of mouth or on the written page, but will even visit shrines and go perfunctorily through the forms of worship. Now it is quite evident that, ever since the opening of Japan and the consequent spread of popular edu cation, the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and the propagation of Christianity, Shinto as a religion, has been doomed. Not merely monotheism, but also science, ridiculed the Shinto doctrine of myriads of gods ; and even atheism and agnosticism, so heartily welcomed in Japan, would not lend any support to the superstitions of Shinto. Ever since the Restora tion of 1868, which was, of course, a revival of pure political Shinto, frequent attempts have been made to have Shinto declared, in actual fact, by special enactment, the State religion of Japan. But reli gious Shinto has been suffering a gradual decline, as Dr. Griffis shows in "The Religions of Japan." For a little while the council that had charge of Shinto matters " held equal authority with the great council of the government. Pretty soon the first step down ward was taken, and from a supreme council it was made one of the ten departments of the government. In less than a year followed another- retrograde move ment, and the department was called a board. Finally, in 1877, the board became a bureau." And, in the DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 213 closing year of the nineteenth century, another step downward was taken by making a complete official demarcation between Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Hereafter Buddhist and Christian matters come under the charge of the Bureau of Religions ; while Shinto affairs are entirely secularized and set apart under a Bureau of Shrines. This is the final step in the official disestablishment of Shinto. It is one of the greatest triumphs of civilization and Christianity in Japan, for it has evidently been made necessary by the spread of the gospel ; and this move is fraught with deep significance, with great promise and encouragement. Even before this official action had been taken, the necessity for completely secularizing Shinto had been fully recognized within its own circles. In 1899 the officials of the Great Shrine at Ise, in which are preserved the mirror, the sword, and the jewel, the three sacred treasures of Shinto, took ' the proper legal steps to become a secular organization. They asserted that Shinto is "merely a mechanism for keeping generations in touch with generations, and preserving the continuity of the nation's veneration for its ancestors." Shinto could never hope "to stand as a religion," but it might stand "as the embodiment of a national sentiment. " According to the editor of the " Japan Mail, " the leaders of Shinto have "shown great astuteness " in taking that step; and others have even suggested that they have very shrewdly laid a most dangerous trap for Christians 244 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN by attempting to deprive them of a valid reason for not participating in ShintS ceremonies. And there is no doubt that there still remains an element of embarrassment to Christians. Nominally and theoretically, Shinto is no longer a religion ; it is " merely a cult embodying the principle of veneration for ancestors, and having for its chief function the performance of rites in memory of the [so-called] divine ancestors of the empire's sovereigns." But the common people will continue to regard Shinto in the light of a religion, and to worship and pray at the shrines. Until, therefore, the masses are edu cated up to a knowledge of the distinctions between " human " and " divine, " " secular " and " religious, " " reverence " and " worship, " they will continue to bow their heads, clap their hands, and mumble their prayers at Shinto shrines. Christians, of course, ought not to indulge in such practices ; but, because such thiDgs are done by those who do not know better, should they refrain entirely from par ticipating in national celebrations and patriotic cere monies ? Or should they, regardless of what others may be doing, take part in whatever way their con sciences will allow? Is this a case in which Paul's instructions about eating meat and things offered to idols would be applicable ? This is really much the same question that arose some years ago with reference to bowing be fore the Emperor's portrait. To that ceremony the common word for " worship " [reihai or hairei] was DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 245 applied; and therefore many Christians conscien tiously refused to perform it. Now, those Japanese words are composed of rei, a very common term in dicating any polite act, and hai, which in its original ideographic form was written with a picture of two hands clasped, and therefore naturally indicates worship. But this word hai is an integral part of such words as haiken (a very polite expression for "please let me see"), haishaku ("please lend"), haikei (the humble phrase at the beginning of a letter). In all these cases the word hai expresses a humble request to a superior, originally made with clasped hands and bowed head. These words are in daily use by Christians, including missionaries, without conscientious scruples, because they are ap parently cases of what rhetoricians call " fossil meta phors." It would appear, then, that hai, which gives reihai its significance of "worship," may have shades of meaning, just as we speak, not only of the "worship of the one, true God," but also of "hero- worship." It is, in fact, a question of terms in a language and among a people where such fine dis tinctions are not drawn between the secular and the religious, the common and the uncommon, the holy and the unholy. In a country where each person must humble himself before others and must express that humility in words and deeds that to Occidentals suggest Uriah Heep, and where profound bows are the most ordinary occurrence, bowing to the Em peror's portrait is scarcely "worship." It is no 246 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN more "worship " or "idolatry " than baring the head when the United States flag was raised at San Juan de Porto Rico, or when the British sing " God Save the King," or than standing with bared and bowed heads before an open grave. To repeat, the whole question is largely one of terms in a language under going great transitions and modifications through contact with Occidental thought and speech. In this connection the whole subject of trans lation comes up. What Japanese words, for in stance, shall be used for "God," "spirit," "love," "home," "worship," "personal," and many other terms? The ideas included in such words do not exist in the Japanese mind, and therefore there are no absolutely equivalent terms. Either old words of lower concepts must be used, or words must be coined; in either case the full idea of the original is not transferred to the Japanese mind without considerable explanation. But this is a digression. This disestablishment of Shinto is another instance of the peculiar method by which reforms, whether political, social, or moral, are usually accomplished in Japan. In Occidental nations political reforms have been initiated by the people, by the power of public opinion ; and popular rights have been wrested by the ruled from the unwilling rulers, whether feudal barons or monarchs. But in Japan all the political and social reforms of the last few decades have been imposed by the ruling classes upon the indifferent o a piw w > Rear-Admiral Kimotsuki in the " Taiyo " (Sun). See also chap. xiii. of "Japan in Transition " (Ransome). 292 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN is expected to be finished before long. ... As for fuel, our supply of coal from the mines of Hokkaido and Kyushiu is so abundant that the surplus not re quired for our own consumption is exported largely into various parts of the East, where no productive coal mines have been found except a very few ones of poor quality. . . . " Taking all these [things] into account, it is not too much to say that the future situation of Japan will be that of a central station of various water passages, — a situation most conducive to the good of our country; and that, numerous as the attractive places of his torical interest and natural beauty are, it is chiefly from our excellently advantageous position, a connect ing link common to the three chains of water passage to and from Europe, America, and Asia, that we shall be able to obtain the largest share of the riches of the nations of the world." With reference to the success of Japan in such a purpose as this, there can be very little doubt; for the natural advantages are so great that they require comparatively little -improvement. But, besides this aim of commercial prosperity, there is a higher ambition. One writer1 says: — "Japan's mission at this juncture would be to act as the leader to the Asiatic countries in introducing modern civilization : China and Korea, for instance, can learn about civilization much faster and easier than from the countries in Europe and America, for they have common systems of letters and to a certain extent of ideas." 1 Editorial in the "Taiyo" (Sun). THE MISSION OF JAPAN 293 Prof. K. Ukita1 makes the following suggestion: " It is the mission of Japan to set up an example of a civilized and independent national state for her Asiatic neighbors, and then to make a confederation of all the Asiatic nations on the basis, of international law ; just as it is the mission of the United States of America to form one vast pan-American Union of all the re publics of the new hemisphere, and thus to hasten on the progress toward the organization of the whole world." Again we quote from the editor of the " Taiyo " (Sun), as follows: — " It is our duty to transmit the essence of Occidental civilization to our neighbors, as better success may be realized by so doing than by introducing there the new institutions directly from the West. The present state of things in China does not allow her to appreciate fully the ideas of Westerners, more so because their fundamental conception of morals is at variance with that of Occidentals. But Japan has every facility to win the confidence of China, in consideration of its geographical situation and of its literary affinity. The valor, discipline, and order of our army have already gained the confidence and respect of the Chinese, and it now remains for us to guide them to higher pos sibilities with enlightened thoughts and ideas. Such a work cannot be accomplished in a day ; it will require years of perseverance and toil." Now, it may be profitable to ascertain to what ex tent Japan is fulfilling her self-appointed but natural 1 Formerly of the Doshisha. From the " Taiyo." 294 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN mission to uplift her neighbors and kindred in Eastern Asia. In Korea, for instance, what is the scope of Japanese influence? In that peninsula there are about 16, 000 Japanese, by whom almost all the im portant enterprises of the country are managed. Of the foreign trade of Korea, by far the largest per cent of both exports and imports is in connection with Japan ; while the trade of Russia with Korea is posi tively insignificant.1 The principal articles of export to Japan are agricultural products, while the imports from Japan are chiefly manufactured goods. At every open port of Korea there is a Japanese post and tele graph office, through which alone can communication be had with foreign countries. As Korea is almost wholly destitute of shipping, her coasting trade is chiefly carried on by Japanese vessels, which also furnish almost all the means of trade and travel abroad. In railways, too, the Japanese have largest control; and their banks are strong and prosperous. Fisheries and mining likewise furnish employment for Japanese, who also carry on numerous miscel laneous business enterprises. When we pass on to China, we find most astonish ing results, a full treatment of which would require a volume, so that we must be content with a few typical examples. In Fuchow, for instance, in the six years since a Japanese consul first landed there, the number of Japanese residents has increased from 8 to 70, and the number of Formosan natives, now 1 For important statistics, see Appendix. THE MISSION OF JAPAN 295 naturalized Japanese, who are staying there, is more than 160. The Osaka Shosen Kwaisha J has a branch office in Fuchow ; and the Formosan Bank has sent there a special commissioner. In Amoy also, on ac count of its proximity to Formosa, Japanese influence is growing. The great increase of Japanese enterprise on the Yangtse River during recent years deserves a para graph by itself. There are several Japanese lines of steamers, besides special vessels for the coal and iron trade. " Side by side with this development of car rying facilities many Japanese, in the capacity of merchants, Government employes or projectors, may be seen travelling in the Yangtse Valley ; and further the number of persons engaged in the translation of Japanese books into Chinese has increased in an ex traordinary degree. . . . Nothing is more remarkable than the popularity enjoyed by Japanese things and Japanese subjects. " In view of the complications with Russia, it is well to call attention to the fact that Northern China, especially Manchuria, is most important to Japan from the commercial point of view. The trade with Niuchwang alone is from 10,000,000 to 13,000,000 yen per year, and that with all Manchuria amounts to about 20,000,000 yen annually. It is perfectly natural, therefore, that Japan should object to con tinued Russian occupation, from which she has al ready suffered by direct and indirect interference, 1 Osaka Merchant Steamship Company. 296 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN and that she should demand a fair field with " open doors. " From such instances, of which more might be cited, it is apparent that Japan is doing her duty in the way of helping China to the benefits of ma terial civilization. But her influence is being ex erted for good on higher planes. For, as the editor of the "Japan Mail" observes, "every Japanese sub ject employed in China in whatever capacity will be a centre for diffusing the light of liberalism"; and "the Chinese are apparently to be led along their new path by the Japanese," who "have some degree of distant kinship with the Chinese." The words of Dr. Hirth will add weight because he is, perhaps, the most eminent Chinese scholar in the country and holds the professorship of Chinese in Columbia University, New York City. He spoke as follows : a — "No capable observer of events in China since the Imperial Court returned to Peking can doubt that the government has decided to adopt the policy of Japan, which is to take the methods of western civilization for their models. In directing the new movement in China, Japan is taking the lead over other foreign nations, and this, it is asserted, is due to her superior command of the language. "Moreover, every educated Japanese is imbued with the ideas prevalent in Chinese literature, religious and political, and hence he has a different standing in the 1 "The Political and Commercial Reasons for the Study of Chinese." THE MISSION OF JAPAN 297 eyes of the Chinese from that of Americans and Euro peans. China has thus placed the work of educating the rising generation in the hands of the Japanese as being less likely to destroy the old knowledge while familiarizing the students with the advantages of the new. " A National University has been established by the Emperor at Peking, which it is calculated will be the model for educational institutions all over the country. Recently a Japanese professor has been selected to draft a new code of laws for the empire. The reason why a Japanese was selected for this work in preference to an equally learned German, American, or Englishman, ^s because men who are both willing and capable of making due allowance for traditional prejudices will never arise from a country where the study of Chinese institutions is so much in its infancy as with all of us, except Japan." The present peaceable invasion of China by Jap anese, "not this time with guns for weapons, but with ideas and educational influences, " is along these seven lines : x — " 1. The Agricultural College, established some years ago at Wuchang by the Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and managed for some time by an expert American, has now been given over to Japanese management. " 2. The military school in Hangchau is taught wholly by Japanese. "3. A large amount of translation work is done by the Japanese. "4. Many Chinese students have been sent by Chang Chih-tung during recent years to be educated in Japanese schools for Chinese government service. i " Chinese Recorder." See also Appendix. 298 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN " 5. More than one large and influential Chinese news paper is owned and edited by Japanese, one of which is an especially strong advocate of closer union between the two great nations of the East. "6. Nearly 100 Japanese students are in attendance at school in Shanghai, studying Chinese and English with a view to positions of usefulness in China. " 7. A large and increasing number of translation socie ties are being organized in Shanghai, the principal object of which is to get into circulation books on Western learning. The significant fact is that the large majority of them are translated from the Japanese rather than European languages, because, as they say, the Japanese have already selected the best, and they wish to profit by their experience. Books on Political Economy, General Science, Agriculture, Pedagogics, Ancient and Current History are now commonly on sale in Chinese bookstores, most of which are advertised as having been adapted from the Japanese." There is yet another country which is feeling the influence of Japan; and that is Siam. No doubt much of this increased interest in " things Japanese " may be attributed to the recent visit of the Siamese Crown Prince to Japan. He is having a Japanese building constructed for himself; and the king is to have a Japanese garden and house added to the grounds of his palace. The trade between Japan and Siam is not yet very extensive;1 but it is capable of considerable expansion. Siamese boys and girls have begun to resort to Japan for educational advan- 1 Japan exports chiefly matches, lamps, and coal, and imports principally rice and cotton-seed. THE MISSION OF JAPAN 299- tages; so that, in more senses than one, Japan is coming to be the teacher and leader of Siam. But there is another phase of the Far Eastern situation that demands close attention. The United States has definite and direct interests of several kinds in Japan, Korea, China, and Siam; and she must maintain these at all hazards. Through the possession of Hawaii, Guam, and particularly the Philippines, she has become a Pacific Power, more than ever concerned, and directly, in Oriental poli tics. The advent of the United States into that field was hailed with joy by the Japanese, who have the utmost confidence in our international policy. In view of the fact, therefore, that the United States, by virtue of providential necessity, must be reckoned as a factor in Oriental politics, and cannot herself ignore such responsibilities, there is only one course open, only one policy to be pur sued. It is most clearly our duty as a nation (pas sively, if possible, but actively, if necessary) to support the Anglo- Japanese Alliance in its efforts in behalf of the nations of Eastern Asia. The union of the greatest nations of Europe, America, and Asia in a complete Anglo-Japanese Alliance would make a "triple alliance" practically invincible. There are two rival interests contending for mas tery on the other shore of the Pacific Ocean, — Russia and Japan. Toward the former we must feel grati tude for her attitude toward us when our Union was in utmost peril; but that sentiment is overbalanced 3D0 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN by other considerations. Toward the latter we have an imperative duty, as toward a protege, because it was America who started Japan on her present career and must acknowledge the responsibility to assist her in every laudable purpose. And certainly her aims in the .Far East coincide with ours and with the dictates of civilization. The supremacy of Japan in Eastern Asia means far more for America and American institutions than does the domination of Russia. Japan to-day enjoys rights unknown in Russia: social freedom, political privileges, repre sentative institutions, local self-government, intel lectual liberty, freedom of assembly and of the press, and religious liberty. Japan is already far in advance of Russia and, in many respects abreast of Germany, in civilization. And, as "Japan holds the key of the Far Eastern position," she is our natural ally. Dai Nippon banzai — " Long live Great Japan. " But let us now revert again to the Japanese writer quoted near the close of the first chapter. With a reminder of the ever westward course of empire, he pens a paragraph so bold and suggestive that it is worth transcribing:1 — " Two streams of civilization flowed in opposite direc tions when mankind descended from their primitive homes on the table-land of Iran or America. That towards the west passed through Babylon, Phoenicia, Greece, Rome, Germany, England, and culminated in America, while 1 Uchimura's "Japan and the Japanese." 1 WWJ ¦¦ -'•¦'.¦ ¦' ¦ H^^^^H^ESzti i i ^hH MBwreasp'^-F^* M mkSMmL, W'/| BlMiif'Ai." ¦ l' : 1 ^^^^TaHg IHHB^HiHBIi^^Hi j IMPERIAL DOCKYARD, YOKOSUKA THE MISSION OF JAPAN 301 that through the east travelled through India, Thibet, and China, culminating in the Manchoo Court of Peking. The moral world is also a magnet with its two opposite poles on the opposite banks of the Pacific, the demo cratic, aggressive, inductive America, and the imperial, conservative, and deductive China. There have been con stant attempts for the union of these magnetic currents. . . . Grander tasks await the young Japan, who has the best of Europe and the best of Asia at her command. At her touch the circuit is completed, and the healthy fluid shall overflow the earth ! " In fact, it seems not improbable that the nation which, having from ancient times imbibed and assim ilated the elements of Oriental civilization, has been swallowing and digesting Occidental civilization, may produce a new and strong tissue. It is, therefore, argued with no little force that "to reconcile the East with the West : to be the advocate of the East, and the harbinger of the West : this we believe to be the mission which Japan is called upon to fulfil." To most persons, undoubtedly, this conception of the future of Japan appears to be teeming with na tional vanity. And, indeed, it cannot be denied that New Japan is extremely egotistic. She views with evident self-gratulation the astonishing progress she has made, and believes herself capable of even more wonderful transformations. And surely, when we contemplate the history of the past fifty years, and consider the remarkable facility with which Japan has metamorphosed herself, we need not wonder that she is confident or even boastful. To those conversant 302 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN with this people, their capabilities, and possibilities, the above forecast of Japan's future seems to photo graph, with some exaggerations, the natural and not altogether improper self-confidence and reliance of an able, growing, and independent nation, which has shown an inexplicable power of assimilating the various and diverse elements of civilization. Even a foreigner has so much confidence in the grand future of Japan that lie expressed himself in the " Atlantic Monthly " (June, 1892) in the following strong language : — " In bringing to pass the fusion of eastern and western types, which . . . shall create in both hemispheres a far more rounded civilization than either has ever known, Japan has the inestimable privilege of becoming our most alert pioneer. Through her temperament, her in dividuality, her deeper insight into the secrets of the East, her ready divining of the powers of the West, . . . it may be decreed in the secret council chambers of des tiny that on her shores shall be first created that new latter-day type of civilized man which shall prevail throughout the world for the next thousand years." But while we may not, perhaps, be fully warranted in such sanguine expectations, we cannot help being impressed with the fact that the prospects of Japan are unusually bright. She slept for 250 years while the Occident was moving rapidly onward in the path of civilization, and she must now hasten to catch up. But she can avoid the pitfalls into which the others, now and then, here and there, have fallen, and by which they have been delayed. She can profit by THE MISSION OF JAPAN 303 the mistakes, by the costly experiences, of those who preceded her along the rough road. She must move quickly to make up for lost time, but not too rapidly; she must "make haste slowly." She can never go back, except to ruin and death. She has stepped into the path of progress forever. She must discard all things, whether manners, customs, letters, political forms, superstitions, moulds of thought, or anything else which tends to retard her onward move ments. But it is sincerely to be hoped that even the demands of modern progress will allow her to retain much of that grace and charm, of that quaint sim plicity, of that light-hearted and merry nature, all of which characterize the Japanese. We believe in Japan. We are confident that she has powers, both patent and latent, which will enable her to achieve still greater successes than she has yet accomplished. We have had our "blue spells," when, for this or that reason, we felt discouraged over the apparent failure of some movement 'for re form; but in most instances we have eventually seen success crown the effort. With reference to political affairs F. V. Dickins has well expressed it: "There is a silent strength underlying the sound and fury of Japanese politics which will enable the country to weather much worse storms than any that threaten it." 1 Therefore we reiterate that we have confidence in the future of Japan and the Japanese. We repeat that their achievements up to date are a 1 "Life of Sir Harry Parkes." 304 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN guarantee of continued success in the future. We dare prophesy that they will yet display wonderful transformations in their development. We feel per fectly warranted in applying Vergil's line, — Hos successus alit ; possunt, quia posse videntur, which Conington translates into two verses, — " These bring success their zeal to fan, They can because thet think they can." APPENDIX APPENDIX Provinces and Prefectures THE following list gives in detail the divisions of Japan into Provinces (Kuni), according to "Circuits": — Go-Kinai (Five Home Provinces). Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi (or Senshiu), Settsu (or Sesshiu). Tokaido (Eastern Sea Road). Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Totomi, Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi, Awa (or Boshiu), Kazusa, Shimosa, Hitachi. Tosando (Eastern Mountain Road). Omi, Mino, Hida, Shinano (or Shinshiu), Kozuke (or Joshiu), Shimozuke, Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Rikuchu, Mutsu, Uzen, Ugo. Hokurikudo (North Land Road). Wakasa, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchu, Echigo, Sado Island. Sanindo (Mountain Shade Road). Tamba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hoki, Izumo, Iwami, Oki Islands. Sanyodo (Mountain Sunlight Road). Harima (or Ban- shiu), Mimasaka, Bizen, Bitchu, Bingo, Aki, Suwo, Nagata (or Choshiu). Nankaido (Southern Sea Road). Kii (or Kishiu), Awaji Island, Awa, Sanuki, Iyo, Tosa (or Toshiu), of which the last four are in the island of Shikoku. Saikaido (Western Sea Road). Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzen, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyuga, Osumi, Satsuma (or Sasshiu), Iki Island, Tsushima Island, of which all except the last two are on the island of Kyushiu. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE OF JAPAN l (25 Tears) Cektral Meteorological Observatory (1876-1900) 35° 41' N. Lat., 139° 46' E. Long. Height, 70 feet. Inches and Fahrenheit degrees. JiH. Fes. Mae. Apeil. Mat. June. July! Aug. Sept. Oct. Not. Dec. Yeab. Mean temperature . . 36.9 38.4 44.2 54.3 61.9 68.8 75.8 78.2 71.6 60.3 50.1 41.3 56.8 Mean max. temperature 46.8 47.5 53.4 62.9 70.2 76.1 83.0 86.0 78.9 68.9 60.1 52.0 65.5 Mean min. temperature 28.6 30.4 35.3 45.6 53.5 62.2 69.6 71.8 65.5 63.1 41.7 32.4 49.1 Absolute max. temp. , 97. ) (July L4, 18911) Absolute min. temp. . 15.4 (Jan. I 13, 1876) Mean rainfall .... 2.14 3.03 4.32 5.04 5.91 6.52 5.01 4.37 8.12 7.07 4.35 2.02 57.90 No. rainy days . . . 7.2 9.1 12.4 14.8 13.3 14.4 14.1 11.8 16.2 13.1 9.0 6.3 141.6 Days with snow . . . 4.0 29.96 n22°w. 4.5 29.97 K.16°W. 2.8 29.95 N.8°W. 0.1 29.94 N.51°E. 0.2 29.99 N.14°W. 1.2 29.95 M.25°w. 12.829.90 1J.1°W. Mean barometer . . . (reduced freez. point) Mean direction of wind 29.84 s.44°E. 29.77 s.39°E. 29.77 s.20°E. 29.79 S.21°E. 29.87 N.47°E. 29.98 N.4°-w. COo obdooWoo ? 1 From Chamberlain's "Things Japanese.' APPENDIX 309 Hokkaido (Northern Sea Road). Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari, Hitaka, Tokachi, Teshiwo, Kushiro, Nemuro, Kitami (all on the island of Yezo), and Chi- shima, or the Kurile Islands. Ryukyu (Loo Choo) Islands. This group constituted one, the 85th, Kuni. The following is the list of Japanese Prefectures (Ken and Fu) : — The Fu number three : Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka. The Ken number forty-three: Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga, Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyama, Niigata, Fukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Iwate, Aomori, Nara, Wakayama, Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Shimane, Tottori, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi, Nagasaki, Saga, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and Okinawa (Ryukyu Islands). Hokkaido and Formosa are at present administered as " territories " by the Imperial Government, although the former has recently been granted a small measure of local self-government. Tables of Japanese Monet, Weight, anh Measure 1 Length (Sashi). Japanese Weights and Measures. As the use of the Japanese weights and measures is becoming more and more frequent in reports and books from the Far East, the following tables will be found useful to all persons who wish to ascertain the equiva lents of the Japanese terms in similar terms in use in the United States and in England :— 1 From " Japan and America." 310 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN LONG MEASURE (SASHI) 1 Mo (0.0001 Shaku) 0.000099 foot. 1 Rin (10 MS) 0.00099 foot. 1 Bu (10 Bin) 1.4317 lines. lSun(10Bu) 1.1931inches. 1 Shaku (10 Sun} 11.9305 inches. 1 Ken (6 Shaku) 1.9884 yards. 1 Jo (10 Shaku) 3.3140 yards. 1 Cho (60 A'en) 5.4229 chains (1-15 m.). 1 Si (36 Chi) 2.4403 miles (2J m.). 1 Kai-Ri (Marine Ri) 1.1507 miles. DRY GOODS MEASURE (KUJIRA-JAKU) 1 Sun (0.1 Shaku) 1.4913 inches. 1 Shaku (10 Sun) 14.9130 inches. 1 Tan (about) 11 yards. 1 Hiki (about) 22 yards. WEIGHT (HAKARI) IMS 0.000008 pound (avoirdupois). 1 Rin (10 Mo) 0.000083 pound 1 Fun (10 Rin) 5.7972 grains 1 Momme (10 Fun) 2.12 drams 1 Kin (160 Momme) 1.3251 pounds 1 Kwan (1,000 Momme) 8.2817 pounds CAPACITY (MASU) 1 Shaku (10 Sai) 0.00397 gallon. 1 Go (10 Shaku) 1.2706 gills j 0.0199 peck. 1 Sho (10 Go) 1.5881 quarts ; 0.1985 peck. 1 To (10 Sho) 3.9703 gallons; 1.0951 pecks. 1 Koku (10 To) 39.7033 gallons ; 4.9629 bushels. SUPERFICIAL MEASURE (TANBETSU) 1 Square Shaku about 1 square foot. 1 Tsubo (36 Square Shaku) 3.9538 square yards. 1 Se (30 Tsubo) about 119 square yards. 1 Tan (10 Se) 0.2451 acre. 1 Ch6 (10 Tan) 2.4507 acres. 1 Square Ki 5.9552 square miles. MONEY 1 yen $0.4935 1 sen one-half cent. APPENDIX 311 Money, Weight, and Measure of Various Countries in Terms of those of Japanese MONEY English pound (20 shillings) 9.763 yen. Shilling (12 pennies) 0.4881 "' Penny (4 farthings) 0.0407 " Hong Kong dollar 0.949 " American dollar (100 cents) 2.006 " Cent 0.02 " German mark 0.478 " French franc 0.387 " Chinese tael 1.298 " Manila dollar 6.985 " Mexican dollar 0.965 " ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LENGTH Mile (1,460 yards) 14 chS and 49 ken. Yard (3 feet) 3 shaku. Foot (12 inches) 1 shaku. Inch 8 bu and 4 rin. GERMAN, FRENCH, AUSTRIAN, AND ITALIAN LENGTH Metre 3 shaku and 3 sun. Centimetre (1-100 metre) 3 bu and 3 rin. Millimetre (1-1000 metre) • . . 3 rin and 3 mo. ENGLISH CAPACITY Gallon (liquid) 2 shS, 5 g6, and 2 shaku. Bushel (wheat) 2 to and 1 go. AMERICAN CAPACITY Gallon (liquid) 2 sho and 1 go. Bushel (wheat) 1 to, 9 sho, and 5 go. Weight ENGLISH AND AMERICAN (HEAVYWEIGHTS) Ton (20 hundredweight, or 2,240 pounds) about 270 kwan and 946 momme. Short ton (2,000 pounds) 241 kwan and 916 momme. Hundredweight (112 pounds) 13 kwan and 547 momme. Pound (16 ounces) 121 momme. Ounce about 8 momme. 312 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN LIGHT WEIGHT Pound 99 momme and 5 bu. Ounce 8 momme and 3 bu. Grain 1 rin and 7 mB. Area AMERICAN AND ENGLISH Acre 4 tan and 24 ho. Arable Land in Japan1 The "Nichi Nichi Shimbun" argues that the real question for the Japanese to consider is development of agriculture, not a paltry lightening of the fiscal burden now imposed on agriculturists. When the area of cul tivated land in the various countries of the world is compared with the total areas of those countries, start ling figures result. Bath of Area of Cultivated Land to Total Area of Country Belgium 53.9 Austria 36.7 Prussia 50.3 Spain 35.7 France 50.2 Holland 27.3 Germany 43.4 England 27.9 Denmark 42.5 Portugal 24.9 Italy 39.9 European Russia . . . 16.4 Hungary 37.7 Japan 13.8 Japanese habitually plead that their extraordinarily low place on this list is the result, not of want of industry, but of natural obstacles, much of the surface of their islands consisting of mountains and hills which cannot be made arable. The " Nichi Nichi " alleges that such an excuse is merely partial, and that a little energy and resolution would soon change the situation. At any rate, the opposition offered by politicians to the present 1 From the " Japan Mail." APPENDIX 313 land tax is not in the genuine interests of agriculture, hut in the interests of political popularity. Mr. Megata, an official of the Finance Department and an expert statistician, has figured out that in 1901 more than 15,000,000 acres were in cultivation. The actual yield of rice for 1902 has now been definitely ascertained, and is indicated in the following table : — Teas. Yield in Koku. 1893 37,267,418 1894 41,859,047 1895 39,960,798 1896 36,240,351 1897 33,039,290 1898 47,387,666 1899 39,698,258 1900 41,466,734 1901 46,914,943 1902 36,999,348 Average year 40,856,217 The figure for the average year is obtained by taking the seven-year period 1895-1901 and omitting the exceptional years, 1898 and 1897. Fruit-Gkowing in Japan1 Fruits originally cultivated, and probably native in Japan, include the orange, pear, peach, sour plum, almond, grape, persimmon, loquat, pomegranate, ginko or salisburia, and fig. The mikan, or Japanese sweet orange, is smaller, sweeter, and less juicy than the oranges raised in America, and the thin membrane sepa rating the sections of the fruit is tougher ; it has a very pleasant flavor, and is much used for food by both natives and foreigners. It is cultivated all through the warmer regions of Japan, and is the most plentiful of the fruits raised there, being found in the markets from early autumn until late the following spring. The persimmon 1 From a Report by U. S. Consul-General Bellows, Yokohama. 314 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN comes next to the orange in the number produced, and is a favorite with the natives, but its season is com paratively short. It closely resembles the persimmon of America's Southern States. The sour plum is ex tensively cultivated and yields a good crop, but the other fruits named above, though more or less widely grown, are produced in much smaller quantities — the fig being most abundant and most valued of the less important fruits. The government has introduced peaches, pears, and grapes from Europe and America, and has found the soil and climate well adapted to their production, so that these are now cultivated in addition to the native varieties of the same fruits. Of the fruits wholly un known in Japan until introduced from abroad, the apple has proved most successful, and it has become a chief product of some districts in the Hokkaido, or northern island. The apples are of fine appearance and excellent flavor, and the trees yield a profit very encouraging to the cultivator, so that the area of their production is being increased. The natives eat fruit chiefly fresh, and its use as a table diet is not general, although increasing. The processes of drying and can ning fruits are beginning to come into use, but only as a means of preserving the fruit for home consumption, not for export. Factories in Japan * No. OP Factoeies Factories. Horse Powee. Powee. 1894 2,409 41,031 3,756 1895 2,758 61,252 4,396 1896 3,037 64,429 4,603 1897 2,910 63,434 4,377 1898 2,964 79,016 4,131 1899 2,305 76,885 4,394 1900 2,388 95,392 4,896 1 From the " Japan Times." APPENDIX 315 Factories with Motor Power No. OF Factories. Horse Power. No. op Operatives. Silk reeling Cotton and silk spinning Ships, machines, etc. . . . Weaving Cement Printing Paper-mills ( 1,046 | 1,722 ( 117 j 112 f 155 j 198 ( 25 j 56 ( 251 | 37 ( 30 | 15 \ U 18 9,3626,631 12,52320,463 2,5774,190 3,005 2,5961,0991,825 216531 3,097 3,398 112,887 I 102,071 56,41780,10716,65418,131 7,924 9,5882,7123,5543,2335,224 1,7612,909 Factories without Motor Power No. of Operatives. Silk reeling Cotton and silk spinning Ships, machines, etc. Weaving ...... Cement Printing 17,61414,077 38 542 4,512 3,195 28,90034,965 5,0992,870 2,7842,617 1 The first figures in each group represent the end of 1896, and the second figures the end of 1900. 316 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Cleaeing-Housbs of Japan The following table shows the development of the clearing-business in Japan : — Total of Checks and Bills Cleared. OF Tokyo. Yen. Osaka. Yen. 1893 18941895 1896 1897 1898189919001901 19021903 70,000,00078,500,100 131,600,000 184,800,000 250,300,000 383,400,000433,800,000675,400,000 565,000,000 614,700,000 756,100,000 31,300,00032,600,00034,500,00065,700,00072,200,000 97,300,000 161,000,000255,500,000 263,700,000298,700,000 395,900,000 Ship-Building in Japan1 Recent orders which have been placed in the hands of the Nagasaki Dockyard and Engine Works and the Kawasaki Dockyard Company, Limited, by the Nippon Ytlsen Kaisha and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, serve to remind the resident of the rapid development of the ship-building industry in this country, while at the same time affording evidence of the growth of the country's mercantile marine. The order placed with the first- named yard is for four large steamers of 6,000, 5,400, 2,500, and 1,900 tons, respectively, the largest vessels being intended for the Japan Mail Steamship Company's European and Australian lines. Nor is the Osaka Shosen Kaisha in a different position. This enterpris ing company also has found it necessary to order new vessels, and has found it economical to order them in 1 From a Eeport by U. S. Consul Lyon, Kobe. APPENDIX 317 Japan instead of from abroad. The fact is worthy of note, for it is the first time in the history of the country that orders for eight ocean-going steamers have been in hand at one time. This may, we trust, be held to indicate that the shipping and ship-building industries are in a healthy and prosperous state. The contrast between the condition of the local ship building trade now and that of a few years back is a striking one. Perhaps the first real impetus given to private ship-building here was due to the enterprise of the late Mr. E. C. Kirby, at whose yard at Onohama — the plant of which was subsequently removed to Kure — one large cruiser and several smaller gunboats and steamers were successfully launched. Since then, the yards at Kawasaki, Osaka, Ishikawajima, Uraga, and Nagasaki have taken up the work vigorously, and demon strated beyond possibility of cavil their ability to turn out ocean-going craft, and large river steamers of the highest standard. With the productions of Osaka and Kobe ship-building establishments trading regularly on the Yangtze, and 6,000-ton liners from the Nagasaki Shipbuilding Engine Works, making record voyages between Seattle and the Orient, and others running regularly between home ports and London, there is no longer room for surprise in viewing Japan-built steamers. There is no doubt that with the opening up of additional lines in the China and Japan seas, sufficient work for local ship-builders will be forthcoming for some years to come, and it is therefore unlikely that they will enter into serious competition in the near future with ship building yards in Shanghai, Hongkong, and Singapore. The home demand seems likely to engage their activities for some years yet, though the presence of a 700-ton steamer for the Shanghai customs on the stocks at Kawasaki may be held to belie the prediction. . . . Al though Japanese ship-builders may have quite enough to 318 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN do in the near future to meet the home demand, a young rival has entered the lists against the great ship-building concerns of the West; and this in itself is no small credit to the nation, which is already able to plume itself upon having accomplished more in a generation than any other people in Asia or in the South Seas, and as much, relatively, as the American and English peoples whose homes are on the Pacific slope. The Osaka Exhibition x Considering that only thirty years ago Japan had no such institution as a factory, and knew nothing what ever of iron foundries or machine shops, the Japanese- made machinery display at the exhibition at Osaka is astonishing. There we find silk-weaving and mat-mak ing machines, electrical motors and generators, gas and oil engines, locomotives, electrical fittings, tools, belt ings, match-making machine, lemonade-making machine, distilling machine, fire-brigade appliances, rice-cleaning machines, huge steam navvy, oil tanks, soap-making machines, printing machines, massive hoisting engine, tea-refining machinery, heavy mining machinery, and many other smaller machines, all of Japanese manu facture, admirably made, and well adapted to the purposes designed. In general manufactures the empire makes a good showing in certain lines. Straw braid, in all conceivable styles and uses; shibori, a beautiful dyed stuff, making pretty dress material; woollen serges and woven silks, particularly a delicate fabric of mixed silk and cotton (the output of this fabric already totals $1,500,000 per annum) ; cheap and good cotton blankets, Japanese towels, artistic designs in tiles and roofing materials, drainpipes, fireproof bricks. In drinkables, also of home manu- 1 From " Japan and America," by Walter J. Ballard. APPENDIX 319 facture, there is beer by the carload; sake, the famous native drink, enough to quench the thirst of an army. One of the best exhibits is in clocks ; some of them very handsome and very cheap, made by one or other of the twelve Japanese clock companies. The porcelain exhibition is good, consisting of beautiful vases, artistic porcelain trays, basins, teacups, etc. The exhibit of Japanese-made shoes is quite creditable. Other native manufactures exhibited are bamboo furniture, whatnots, over-mantels, fire screens, shell buttons, paper lanterns, fine silken rugs, shawls, paper, camphor, oils, soap, all kinds of sauces and relishes, silks of every hue and de scription, silk lace, gold and silver thread, linen, duck, tent cloths, ivory work, bronzes, lacquer and silver work, surgical instruments, pianos, organs, and other musical instruments, bicycles, gymnastic and athletic goods, microscopes, cameras, barometers, and almost every kind of educational apparatus. The natural products of the country are exhibited to good advantage. Rice, tobacco (manufactured and unmanufactured), silkworms, various varieties of silk cocoons, tea, huge oranges, sugar, furs, woods, pearls, coral, fish (dried and salted). Mushrooms are a special exhibit of one prefecture, tea of another, and so on. The whole section of the agricultural experiment station is complete and admirable in every way. In the foreign section we find weaving-machines (only introduced last October, and already largely sold), German shoe-making and cigarette-making machines, and searchlights from Nuremberg, match and matchbox- making machines, rifles, wire samples, chemicals, per fumes, British-made electrical appliances, timber, paints, varnishes, gas and oil engines, steam-engines (British), a turbo-alternator (electric) from Newcastle-on-Tyne, rubber and steel goods from England, Maxim's famous guns, fountain pens, typewriters, Indian cotton, Ameri- 320 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN can bone goods, American motor cars and bicycles, meat extracts, American provisions, American lighting and heating apparatus for railway carriages and street cars, refrigerator cars, Boston pile-sinking outfits, New York pumps, marine gasolene engine, and sewing-machines. Canada also makes a good exhibit of the cereals and food products of the Dominion, with the Canadian system of cold storage, and of pulp woods, furniture, and iron work. Cost op Living in Japan How Laborers Live The following tables are from " The Labor World " for July 1, 1898. The editor sent a form to be filled out by the laborers themselves, to get accurate statistics of their lives and work. A few samples throw light upon the inner life of Japanese laborers : — No. 1. — House, two rooms ; a family, — man (30), wife (23), mother (53), two sisters (14 and 11) ; occupation, blacksmith. Working days in a month 26 Working hours in a day 12 Daily wages $0.52 Monthly income 13.83 Monthly expenses 13.65 House rent, one month 0.96 Rice 5.76 Fuel and light 1.08 Vegetables 0.87 Fish 0.96 Sake (rice beer) 0.24 Soy (Japanese sauce) 0.73 Tobacco 0.20 Hair cutting and dressing 0.83 Bath 0.88 Pin money 0.25 Sundries 0.89 No. 55. — House, two rooms, with kitchen; a family, — man (27), wife (25), boy (6), girl (2) ; business, iron worker. Daily wages $0.25 Overtime income for one month 1 ,50 Monthly income 8.28 APPENDIX 321 Monthly expense 9.44 House rent 0.75 Rice 3.25 Fuel and light 0.41 Vegetables 0.60 Fish 0.60 Soy and miso 0.23 Tobacco 0.25 Hair cutting and dressing 0.18 Bath 0.20 Pin money 0.60 Sundries, including interest on debt 2.37 Increase in Living Expense The following interesting comparison between the cost of living in 1889 and 1899 is from " The Miyako " : (Calculated monthly expenditure of a family of six members — a mar ried couple, a parent, two children, and one servant — living with strict economy.) 1889. 1899. yen. yen. House rent (a house containing the furnished rooms of 6, H, and 2 mats, respectively 2.50 5.00 Cleaned rice (at the rate of 2 sho per day) 4.50 7.00 (1 to 3 slid (8 sho 5 go~ per yen.) per yen) Soy 0.45 0.75 Salt and miso (including 1$ go of salt and some miso) . 0.40 0.70 Oils (3 sho of kerosene and 5 go of vegetable oil) . . . 0.45 0.69 Sugar 0.60 0.90 Milk (1 go per day) 0.90 1.10 Newspaper (only 1) 0.25 0.35 School expenses (for 2 children) 0.80 0.90 Stationery expenditure (for the children) 0.60 0.90 Hair dressing 0.34 0.69 Price of bath (every other day for the family) .... 0.90 1.50 Vegetables 0.90 1.50 Fish food (9 messes for the family) 1.08 1.80 Beef (6 messes for the family, about § of 1 pound . . 0.60 1.20 Tsukudani and other auxiliary foods (6 messes) . . . 0.24 0.42 Tea 0-40 0.50 Fuel '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 2M JJW Total 17'21 28-20 Security money for rent 7-00 15-00 These include necessaries, but if other petty expenses are taken into calculation, a family of 6 members as 21 322 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN mentioned above will require a monthly income of at least 35 yen on which to maintain themselves decently. Wages of Japanese Workmen Following is an ofiicial table of the wages of day laborers of the whole empire for the year 1900 : — Occupations. Average. Carpenter $0,270 Plasterer 0.270 Stonemason 0.365 Sawyer 0.265 Roofer 0.255 Tile-roofer 0.295 Brickmason . . . . 0.315 Floor-mat maker . . 0.235 Furniture maker . . . 0.265 Paper-hanger 0.250 Joiner 0.259 Tub-maker 0.225 Wooden clogmaker . . . 0.200 Shoemaker 0.235 Saddler 0.235 Cartwright 0.235 Tailor for Japanese clothes 0.195 Tailor for foreign clothes . 0.280 Maker of cloth bags, cases, etc 0.220 Dyer 0.145 Cotton-carder 0.185 Blacksmith 0.240 Occupations. Avebage. Maker of fancy goods . . $0,210 Founder 0.235 Pulley-driver 0.190 Lacquer-ware maker . . 0.235 Lacquer-sap gatherer . . 0.180 Oil-presser 0.180 Paper-maker 0.160 Tobacco-cutter .... 0.215 Compositor 0.175 Pressman . . ... 0.170 Ship-carpenter .... 0.280 Gardener 0.260 Peasant (male) .... 0.150 Peasant (female) .... 0.095 Sericulturist (male) . . . 0.165 Sericulturist (female) . . 0.095 Silk-spinner (female) . . 0.100 Weaver (male) .... 0.165 Weaver (female) . . . . 0.100 Confectioner 0.160 Fisherman 0.190 Coolie 0.165 Employe's Engaged by the Month In sake brewery .... $5,465 In soy brewery . . . 3.110 Servant (male) .... $1.36 Servant (female) .... 0.78 Male Peasant Engaged by the Year . . . $16.06 Female $8.53 Railways in Japan The report on railway development shows that since the government constructed its first line of eighteen miles from Yokohama to Tokyo in 1872, a great trunk APPENDIX 323 line of 1,200 miles has been built, and the total mileage in the country increased to 4,115, which in 1900 handled 113,000,000 passengers and 14,000,000 tons of freight. Of the total mileage 2,967 miles are owned by private corporations and 1,148 by the government, which was the pioneer in the movement to give the country modern land transportation. No private construction was done until 1883, when the government had 181 miles of rail way under operation, and it was not until 1889 that private enterprise began to lead the governmental effort. The state railways now in operation cost, according to the report, the sum of 85,573,511 yen, while the private systems represent an expenditure for construction to date of 191,230,291 yen. The government now has under construction lines that will cost 21,683,789 yen, and the private corporations have work that will cost 6,283,139 yen. The report thus classifies the capital of the private railroads: Stocks, 181,267,472 yen; bonds, 11,017,800 yen; other liability, 9,930,784 yew; miscellaneous, 8,070,- 901 yen. According to the reports made on the railways at the end of the year 1900, the gross earnings of both state and private railways for that year were 44,934,394 yen, the gross expenditure 20,732,764 yen, and the net profit 24,200,130 yen. At the end of 1901 the state had 1,017 miles of new line under construction and the private companies had 817 miles projected, so the increase of this and the suc ceeding year will be large. The people of the country opposed the construction of the first line from Yoko hama to Tokyo as a dangerous thing, and it was sev eral years before public opposition to the innovation was entirely removed. Bond issues for railway construction were opposed, but the government insisted on its policy and finally won general support. At the end of 1901 324 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN on all lines there were 1,350 locomotives, 4,529 passenger coaches, and 19,820 freight cars in use. Postal Savings in Japan1 The following is a brief survey of the working of Japan's Postal Savings System during the past eight- and-twenty years. It must be admitted at the outset that the system of postal savings in Japan cannot boast of any particularly brilliant record. The study of it reveals, however, a state of things which is not without some encouraging features. We give below the amounts of the deposits and some other items for every third year since the inauguration of the institution : — Deposits at the End Amount pee Teas. op THE Teae. No. op Deposepoes. Depositoe. Yen. Yen. 1875 15,000 1,800 8 1878 286,000 14,100 20 1881 821,000 38,900 21 1884 5,260,000 141,200 37 1887 18,213,000 668,800 31 1890 19,197,000 813,700 25 1893 26,155,000 1,060,200 24 1896 28,251,000 1,273,300 21 1899 23,455,000 1,397,600 16 1902 28,536,000 2,707,500 10 The sudden drop between the years 1896 and 1902 is owing to the fact that the extraordinarily high interest offered by the ordinary banks during that period of monetary stringency diverted deposits from the Post Offices. The gradual fall in the general rates of interest since then has already begun to turn the tide back in favor of the Post Offices, as shown by the figures for last year. What is particularly satisfactory is the in- 1 From the "Japan Times." APPENDIX 325 crease in the number of depositors, the increase in this respect being far more remarkable than the increase in the amount of the deposits, as shown by the decreasing amount per depositor. This means, if it means any thing, that the advantages offered by the Postal Savings Bank are more and more extensively appreciated by the poorer classes. The amount of deposits at the Postal Savings Bank seems, to be steadily increasing since the end of last year, for Mr. Matsunaga of the Communications Department, writing in the March number of the " Ginko Tsushin- Roku," tells us that it is already nearly 30,000,000 yen. Not altogether unsatisfactory as is this result of the offi cial efforts to encourage the saving habit among the people, it must be noted that we are in this respect far behind some of the European countries. Consulting the statistics for the year 1898, we find the postal savings reached in that year to £120,000,000 in England, £33,000,000 in France, £21,000,000 in Belgium, £4,800,000 in Austria, £1,000,000 in Hungary, £2,700,000 in Holland, and £3,400,000 in Sweden. In spite of the great improve ment effected in the system of late years, especially in the way of simplifying the official procedure connected with the acceptance and repayment of the deposits, much still remains to be done in order to bring the facilities provided by it within easy reach of the people by in creasing the number of the Post Offices authorized to receive deposits throughout the country. While speaking of savings, it may not be uninterest ing to mention a few figures on the state of the deposits at the ordinary banks. We do not happen to have at hand the statistics covering all the banking concerns in the country. The " Ginko Tsushin-Roku," however, sup plies us with reliable statistics up to February, 1902, so far as the principal banking centres are concerned. We find, then, that the total amount of deposits at the banks 326 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN belonging to the clearing-houses of Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya, Yokohama, and Kobe, stood at the end of Feb ruary at 308,289,000 yen, made up as follows : — Yen. Tokyo 119,268,000 Osaka 75,824,000 Yokohama 49,280,000 Kobe 23,423,000 Kyoto 22,616,000 Nagoya 17,878,000 The above figures do not include the deposits at the Bank of Japan, which usually amount to from fifty to sixty million yen. We may approximately estimate the maximum limit of the loanable capital in our money market at any one moment at about 500,000,000 yen. The Oil Industkt' in Japan * Japan's oil industry has a brilliant future before it. The use of kerosene in the country has grown at a won derfully rapid pace. In the first year of Meiji the amount of oil imported was 639 koku. In 1901 it had reached 1,300,000 koku. The value of the oil imported in 1868 was only 7,236 yen ; that imported in 1901 was 14 million yen. The following table shows the rate at which the import of kerosene into Japan increased : — Years. Koku. Value. Yen. 1868 639 7,236 1872 8,936 160,608 1877 53,645 605,598 1882 413,644 2,320,905 1887 421,177 1,871,428 1892 653,785 3,328,398 1897 1,221.164 7,667,350 1900 1,356,846 14,162,652 1901 1,379,927 14,943,400 1 From the " Japan Mail." APPENDIX 327 Notwithstanding the large supply that has come from abroad, of late years the demand for the Echigo oil has gone on increasing, as shown in the subjoined table, which covers seven years. Yeaks. Koku op Ceude Value. Petroleum. Yen. 1895 158,334 526,976 1896 207,470 619,333 1897 257,614 668,677 1898 355,006 670,308 1899 544,583 1,450,904 1900 836,628 2,142,003 1901 1,115,807 2,345,916 It is calculated that about 5/10 of the total quantity of this crude petroleum was used for lighting purposes. It would seem, then, that Echigo supplied 3/10 of the total amount of oil used for lighting in Japan during the seven years, and that the remaining 7/10 came from abroad. Taking the year 1901, the value of the crude petroleum being 2,345,916 yen, it is estimated that when refined this amount of petroleum would fetch not less than 4 million yen. But the fact remains that the pro portion of oil imported is still very large, so that there is room for a further great development of the business. As to the limits of the Japanese supply of oil, it seems impossible to obtain any trustworthy information. Echigo is by no means worked out : new fields are con stantly being discovered in that province. Then petro leum has been found in Hokkaido and in the Yamagata and Shizuoka prefectures. So that among Japan's modern industries her oil trade may be pronounced to be full of promise. How the quality of the Japanese oil compares with the American and Russian brands, we are not told by the Jiji, but from other sources we gather that when properly refined Japanese petroleum is equal to the best American and Russian oils. 328 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN NATIONAL The following table * shows the national development in population, the past 30 years. Tear. Population. (in Thousand.) State Expenditure. Yen. Trade. Yen. 1872 33,210 57,730,025 43,204,462 1873 33,300 62,678,601 49,742,830 1874 33,625 82,269,528 42,779,120 1875 33,997 69,203,242 48,586,738 1876 34,338 59,308,956 51,676,296 1877 (unknown) 48,428,324 50,769,424 1878 tt 60,911,336 58,862,974 1879 35,768 60,317,578 61,128,772 1880 35,929 63,140,896 65,021,987 1881 36,358 71,460,321 62,250,133 3882 36,700 73,480,667 67,168,344 1883 37,017 83,106,859 64,712,861 1884 37,451 76,663,108 63,544,112 1885 37,868 61,115,313 66,503,659 1886 38,507 83,223,960 84,044,745 1887 39,069 79,453,036 96,711,932 1888 39,607 81,504,024 131,160,744 1889 40,072 79,713,671 136,164,472 1890 40,453 82,125,403 138,332,086 1891 40,718 83,558,891 142,454,540 1892 41,089 76,734,740 162,428,833 1893 41,388 84,581,872 177,970,036 1894 41,813 78,128,643 230,028,141 1895 42,270 85,317,179 265,372,756 1896 42,706 168,856,509 289,517,234 1897 43,228 223,678,844 382,435,848 1898 43,763 219,757,568 443,255,909 1899 44,260 254,165,537 435,331,802 1900 .... 292,726,996 491,691,839 1901 266,856,824 508,166,187 1902 .... 275,751,194 Note. — In expenditure, the figures from 1872 up to 1898 are taken from the settled account, and those of 1899, 1900, and 1901 from the actual account. 1902 is from the Budget. In railways, the figures show the mileages of the lines belonging to the government as well as those belong ing to private firms opened to traffic at the end of the respective years. The tonnage of vessels shown in the table is that of steamers. Before 1 From the " Toyo Keizai Slmnpo" (Oriental Economist). APPENDIX 329 DEVELOPMENT. finance, trade, railway, vessels, telegraphs, savings, and currency, within Railway. Miles. Vessels. Ton. Telegbaphic Lines. Si. Savings. Yen. Monet in Chlculation. Yen. 18 22,364 87 132,611,498 18 26,988 806 .... 159,423,361 38 26,120 1,758 157,660,830 38 42,304 1,833 15,224 154,931,596 65 40,248 2,156 41,845 163,692,344 66 49,105 2,876 100,138 175,432,023 68 43,899 3,512 286,289 221,994,874 73 42,763 3,842 494,114 215,912,239 98 41,215 4,489 662,091 203,994,171 122 41,044 5,078 821,938 195,742,688 170 42,107 5,477 1,058,225 186.376,681 244 45,350 5,871 2,298,502 182,625,317 262 49,845 6,122 5,260,484 177,978,053 353 59,613 6,283 9,050,255 181,433,916 430 63,314 6,353 15,462,054 198,557,838 593 72,322 6,818 " 18,417,022 200,157,163 912 81,066 7,588 20,142,169 207,825,609 1,136 88,816, 8,191 19,976,419 220,748,343 1,339 93,812 9,250 19,197,942 205,408,438 1,716 95,588 9,113 26,424,174 210,872,584 1,870 102,301 9,920 30.031,483 219,848,385 1,938 110,205 10,230 32,199.954 244,847,437 2,118 169,414 11,502 32,772,652 256,088,534 2,290 213,221 12,212 41,143,695 291,665,016 2,507 227,841 15,431 46,693,884 307,461,803 2,948 426,624 18,360 51,550,536 330,470,142 3,120 464,246 20,561 52,532,992 285,589,698 3,638 498,376 24,342 68,829,712 332,702,090 3,855 534,239 27,390 72,897,286 318,280,814 4,026 306,315,006 1896, the figures represented the aggregate amount of both registered and . unregistered tonnage, while from that year up to 1902, the figures only represented registered tonnage. In savings, the figures show the total amount saved in the post offices as well in the savings banks at the end of the respective years. The figures from 1890 to 1900 indicate, however, the amounts of the postal savings only. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF JAPAN i From the official statistics we give a table of Japan's foreign trade each year from 1868 to 1901. Imports Compared with Exports. Exports. Yen. Imports. Yen. Total. Yen. Increabb. Decrease. Yen. Yen. 1868 15,553,472 12,908,977 870990 10,693,07120,783,633 790090 26.246,54433;692,611 660 080 4,860,401 080 1869 7,874,655 1870 14,543,012 510 33,741,637 360 48,284,649 870 19,198,624 850 1871 17,968,608 660 21,916,727 650 89,885,336 310 3,948,118 990 1872 17,026,647 220 26,174,814 930 43,201,462 150 9,148,167 710 1873 21,635,440 850 28,107,390 030 49,742,830 880 6,471,949 180 1874 19,317,306 090 23,461,814 400 42,779,120 490 4,144,508 310 1875 18,611,110 610 29,975,627 620 48,586,738 230 11,364,517 010 1876 27,711,527 500 29,964,678 960 51,676,206 460 3,746,848 540 1877 23,348,521 600 27,420,902 950 50,769,424 550 4,072,381 850 1878 25,988,140 280 32,874,834 170 58,862,974 450 6,886,693 890 1879 28,175,770 190 32,953,002 390 61,128,772 580 4,777,232 200 1880 28,395,386 660 36,626,601 000 65,021,987 660 8,231,214 340 1881 31,058,887 930 31,191,246 020 62,250,133 950 132,358 090 1882 37,721,750 570 29,446,593 980 67,168,344 550 8,275,156 590 1883 36,268,019 590 28,444,841 780 64,712,861 370 7,823,177 810 1884 33,871,465 500 29,672,647 450 63,544,112 950 4,198,818 050 1885 37,146,691 430 29,356,967 920 66,503,659 350 7,789,723 510 1886 48,876,312 790 32,168,432 260 81,044,745 050 16,707,880 530 1887 52,407,681 150 44,304,251 690 96,711,932 840 8,103,429 460 1888 65,705,510 210 65,455,234 010 131,160,744 220 250,276 200 1889 70,060,705 820 66,103,766 600 136,164,472 420 3,956,939 220 1890 56,603,506 030 81,728,580 500 138,332.086 530 25,125,074 470 1891 79,527,272 340 62,927,268 380 142,454,540 729 16,600,003 960 1892 91,102,753 630 71,326,079 500 162,428,833 130 19,776,674 130 1893 89,712,864 590 88,257,171 710 177,970,036 300 1,455,692 880 1894 113,246,086 150 117,481,955 460 230,728,041 610 4,235,869 310 1895 136,112,177 920 129,260,578 280 265,372,756 200 6,851,599 640 1896 177,842,700 620 171,674,474 250 289,517,234 870 53,831,713 630 1897 163,135,077 320 219,300,771 640 382,435,848 960 56,165,694 320 1898 165,753,752 880 277,502,156 510 443,255,909 300 • 111,748,403 630 1899 214,929,894 310 220,401,925 990 435,331,820 300 5,472,031 680 1900 204,429,998 980 287,261,845 580 491,691,839 560 82,831,851 600 1901 252,349,542 100 255,816,644 700 508,166,187 800 3,467,101 600 CO o » From the " Taiyo " (Sun). APPENDIX 331 The Wealth oe Japan The following estimate gives an idea of the wealth of Japan and its distribution : — Land 7,000 mill Mines . .' 500 ' Live-stock 80 ' Buildings 1,900 Furniture 400 Railroads 350 Warships and merchant-ships .... 250 Specie 200 Miscellaneous 300 Goods and other products 800 Total 11,080 ons yen. On the position Japanese occupy as regards the ac quisition of wealth Mr. Kure Bunso, the well-known statistician, writes in the " Shakaigaku Zasshi " as follows : There are only two men in Japan who pay an income tax on over 250,000 yen. There are only 13 men in the whole country who pay on 39,000 yen, being in the pro portion of 4 persons to every 100,000 inhabitants ; only 67 who pay on 24,000 yen, being in the proportion of 2 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants ; 96 persons who pay on 17,000 yen, being in the proportion of 2.8 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants ; those who pay on 11,000 yen number 140, being in the proportion of 4 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants. Out of every 1, 000 inhabitants there are only 7 persons who make 2,700 yen a year. Thus it is seen that when compared with the French and the English the Japanese are extremely poor. The Germans seem to be rich to the Japanese, though when compared with the French and English they are poor. General Grant, when in Japan nearly twenty years ago, remarked that Japan was fortunate in having such an equality among all classes of the people. He said that 332 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN the gulf between the rich and the poor did not exist here. Equality may be all very well in its way, but, says Mr. Kure, a state of equality in which most of the people hardly have enough to live on is anything but desirable.1 The new building of the Mitsui Company in Tokyo is constructed upon steel frames, and is the only one of its kind in the East. The Mitsui Bank is the oldest banking establishment in Japan, more than 200 years old. The building area is 2,600 square yards on a site covering 2J acres. Japanese Year Periods It should be borne in mind that the Japanese year periods do not regularly correspond with the reigns of the Emperors, because " a new one was chosen whenever it was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign event." But hereafter the era will correspond with the reign of an Emperor. The names of some of these eras are quite famous, like the Eliza bethan or the Victorian Era in English history. As the first era was a time of great reforms, it is known as the Taikwa Reformation; the Engi Era, in the tenth century, is celebrated for important legislation; the Genroku Era, in the seventeenth century, was " a period of great activity in various arts " ; and the Tempo Era, of recent days, was " the last brilliant period of feudal ism before its fall." This name was also given to the large 8 rin piece coined in that era. The Wado Era, in the fourteenth century, was so named on account of the discovery of copper ; and the second era, Hakuchi, commemorates a "white pheasant," presented to the Emperor. i From the " Japan Mail." APPENDIX 333 LIST OF JAPANESE TEAR PERIODS.1 Name. Japanese Era. a Christian Eea. Name. Japanese Era. Christian Era. Taikwa . . . 1305 645 ! Tengen . . 1638 978 Hakuchi . . 1310 650 Eikwan 1643 983 (Blank) . . . 1315-1331 655-671 K wanna 1645 985 Sujaku . . . 1332 672 Eien 1647 987 Hakuho . . . 1332 672 Eiso 1649 989 Shucho . . . 1346 686 Shoriaku . 1650 990 (Blank) . . . Daiho [Taiho] 1347-1360 687-700 Chotoku 1655 995 1361 701 Choho . 1659 999 Keiuri . . . 1364 704 Kwanko 1664 1004 Wado . . . 1368 708 1 Chowa . 1672 1012 Reiki .... 1375 715 Kwannin 1677 1017 Yoro .... 1377 717 Ji-an 1681 1021 Jinki .... 1384 724 Manju . 1684 1024 Tembio . . . 1389 729 ' Chogen 1688 1028 Tembio shoho . 1409 749 Choriaku 1697 1037 Tembio hoji . 1417 757 Chokiu 1700 1040 Tembio jingo . 1425 765 Kwantoku 1704 1044 Jingo keiun 1427 767 Eijo . 1706 1046 Hoki .... 1430 770 Tengi . 1713 1053 Teno . . 1441 781 Kohei . 1718 1058 Enriaku . 1442 782 Jiriaku 1725 1065 Daido 1466 806 Enkiu . 1729 1069 Knllill 1470 810 Joho 1734 1074 Tencho . 1484 824 Joriaku 1737 1077 Jowa . . 1494 834 Eiho . 1741 1081 Kajo . . 1508 848 Otoku . 1744 1084 Ninju 1511 851 Kwanji 1747 1087 Saiko 1514 854 Kaho . 1754 1094 Tenan . 1517 857 Eicho . 1756 1096 Jogwan . 1519 859 Jotoku . 1757 1097 Gwangio 1537 877 Kowa . 1759 1099 Ninna 1545 885 Cho.ii . 1764 1104 Kwampei 1549 889 Kajo . 1766 1106 Shotai ¦ 1558 898 Tennin 1768 1108 Engi . . 1561 901 Tenei . 1770 1110 Encho . 1583 923 Eikiu . 1773 1113 Johei . . 1591 931 Genei . 1778 1118 Tengio . 1598 938 Hoan . 1780 1120 Tenriaku 1607 947 Tenji . 1784 1124 Tentoku . 1617 957 Daiji . 1786 1126 Owa . . 1621 961 Tenjo . 1791 1131 Koho . . 1624 964 Chojo . 1792 . 1132 Anna 1628 968 Hoen . 1795 1135 Tenroku 1630 970 Eiji . 1801 1141 Ten-en . 1633 973 Koji . 1802 1142 Jogen 1636 976 Tenyo . . . 1804 1144 i From official sources. 2 Beginning 6G0 B. C. pwMMWMMMMMMMI-lMMl-'UhiMUM-ll-lM tD»lSin«O!OCOCDiXl«>CO«DC»000000C0C000Q00000COC0v*;UC0tCiiat0MHr-'OOOO«0lE(0CDlO(C00C0C0(X00SN OOgnf^HOCDMQCOSUOCDCOVifkWtOCOSCJDr^WCCCC MS CO £ * O CO OJ (J- H fji W K J- 4 B s g a *° "- oi a E ? s; g. g- i,5 3 ol Si.q »»iSB'A. "(TBI irEc oh3:3 <8 B ' a I JHHMMKMMMMHMUMh APPENDIX 335 Name. Japanese Era. Christian Era. Name. Japanese Era. Cheistian Era. Kwansho . . 2120 1460 Tenna . . . 2341 1681 Bunsho . 2126 1466 Jokio . 2344 1684 Onin . . 2127 1467 Genroku 2348 1688 Bummei 2129 1469 Ho-ei . 2364 1704 Choko . 2147 1487 Shotoku 2371 1711 Entoku . 2149 1489 Kioho . 2376 1716 Mei-o 2152 1492 Gembun 2396 1736 liunki 2161 1501 Kwampo 2401 1741 Eisho 2164 1504 Enkio . 2404 1744 Dai-ei 2181 1521 Kwannen 2408 1748 Koroku . 2188 1528 Horeki . 2411 1751 Tembun 2192 1532 Meiwa . 2424 1764 Koji . . 2215 1555 Anei 2432 1772 Eiroku . 2218 1558 Temmei 2441 1781 Genki 2230 1570 Kwansei 2449 1789 Tensho . 2233 1573 Kiowa . 2461 1801 Bunroku 2252 1592 Bunkwa 2464 1804 Keicho . 2256 1596 Bunsei . 2478 1818 Genna . 2275 1615 Tempo . 2490 1830 Kwanei . 2284 1624 Kokwa 2504 1844 Shoho . 2304 1644 Ka-ei . 2508 1848 Eei-an . 2308 1648 Ansei . 2514 1854 Jo-o . . 2312 1652 Manen . 2520 I860 Meireki . 2315 1655 Bunkiu 2521 1861 Manji 2318 1658 Genji . 2524 1864 Kwainbun 2321 1661 Kei-o . 2525 1865 Empo 2333 1673 Meiji . 2528 1868 The names of these periods are made by the various combinations of 68 Chinese words of good omen. There are, moreover, other expressions which more closely resemble such common Occidental phrases as the Victorian Era, the Elizabethan Era, the Age of Pericles, except that in the impersonal Orient such expressions are named more often from places. In Japanese history, for instance, it is very common to read of the Nara Epoch, the Heian Epoch, the Muromachi Period, the Kamakura Period, the Yedo Era, the Tokyo Period (Modern Japan). Personal names are applied, however, in such cases as the Hojo Era, the Ashikaga Period, the Tokugawa Era, the Fujiwara Period. 336 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN Chronological Table of Emperors and Empresses.1 1. Jimmu (660-585 B. c.) 2. Suizei (581-549) 3. Annei (548-511) 4. Itoku (510-477) 5. Kosho (475-393) Koan (392-291) Korei (290-215) Kogen (214-158) Kaikwa (157-98) Sujin (97-30) .. Suinin (29 b. c-70 a. d., 12. Keiko (71-130 A. D.) 13. Seimu (131-190) 14. Chiiai (192-200) [15. Jingo 1 (201-269)] 16. Oji'n (270-310) Nintoku (313-399) Richfu (400-405) Hanzei (406-411) Ingyo (412-453) Anko (454-456) Yuryaku (457-479) Seinei (480-484) Kenso (485-487) . Ninken (488-498) 26. Muretsu (499-506) 27. Keitai (507-531) 28. An kan (534-535) 29. Senkwa (536-539) 30. Kimmei (540-571) Bidatsu (572-585) Yomei (586-587) Sujun (588-592) Suiko (593-628) Jomei (629-641) 36. Kogyoku (642-645) 37. Kotoku (645-654) Saimei (655-661) Tenchi (668-671) Kobun (672) Temmu (673-686) Jito (690-696) Mommu (697-707) 6. 7.8. 9. 10.11. 17. 18.19.20.21. 22. 23.24. 25. 31.32. 33.34.35. 38. 39. 40.41.42.43. 44. Gemmyo (708-715) 45. Gensho (715-723) 46. Shomu (724-748) 47. Koken (749-758) 48. Junnin (758-764) 49. Shotoku (765-770) 50. Konin (770-781) 51. Kwammu (782-806) 52. Heizei (806-809) 53. Saga (810-823) 54. Junna (824-833) 55. Nimmyo (834-850) 56. Montoku (851-858) 67. Seiwa (859-876) 58. Yozei (877-884) 59. Koko (885-887) 60. Uda (888-897) 61. Daigo (898-930) 62. Shujaku (931-946) 63. Murakami (947-967) 64. Reizei (968-969) 65. Enyu (970-984) 66. Kwazan (985-986) 67. Ichijo (987-1011) 68. Sanjo (1012-1016) 69. Go-Ichijo 2 (1017-1036) 70. Go-Shujaku (1037-1045) 71. Go-Reizei (1046-1068) 72. Go-Sanjo (1069-1073) 73. Shirakawa (1073-1086) 74. Horikawa (1087-1107) 75. Toba (1108-1123) 76. Shutoku (1124-1141) 77. Konoye (1142-1155) 78. Go-Shirakawa (1156-1158) 79. Nijo (1159-1165) 80. Rokujo (1166-1168) 81. Takakura (1169-1180) 82. Antoku (1181-1185) 83. Go-Toba (1186-1198) 84. Tsuchimikado (1199-1210) 85. Juntoku (1211-1221) 86. Chukyo(1222) 1 Empresses in Italics. Bracketed names (Nos. 15 and 99) are omitted from some lists. 2 Go is a prefix signifying the second of the name. APPENDIX 337 87. Go-Horikawa (1222-1232) 88. Shijo (1233-1242) 89. Go-Saga (1243-1246) 90. Go-Fukakusa (1247-1259) 91. Kameyama (1260-1274) 92. Go-Uda (1275-1287) 93. Fushimi (1288-1298) 94. Go-Fushimi (1299-1301) 95. Go-Nijo (1302-1307) 96. Hanazono (1308-1318) 97. Go-Daigo (1319-1338) 98. Go-Murakami (1339-1367) [99. Chokei (1368-1383)] 100. Go-Kameyama (1383-1392) 101. Go-Komatsu (1392-1412) 102. Shoko (1413-1428) 103. Go-Hanazono (1429-1464) 104. Go-Tsuchimikado (1465-1500) 105. Go-Kashiwabara (1501-1526) 106. Go-Nara (1527-1557) 107. Ogimachi (1558-1586) 108. Go-Yozei (1587-1611) 109. Go-Mizuno-o (1612-1629) 110. Myosho (1630-1643) 111. Go-Komyo (1644-1654) 112. Go-Saiin (1655-1663) 113. Reignen (1663-1686) 114. Higashiyama (1687-1709) 115. Nakano-mikado (1710-1735) 116. Sakuramachi (1736-1746) 117. Momozono (1747-1762) 118. Go- Sakuramachi (1763-1770) 119. Go-Momozono (1771-1779) 120. Kokaku (1780-1817) 121. Ninko (1817-1846) 122. Komei (1847-1867) 123. Mutsuhito (1867- ) N. B. — Nos. 36 and 38 were the same empress ; likewise Nos. 47 and 49. We append also a list of the sovereigns of the " Northern Court" during the separation, as follows : 1. Kogon (1332-1335) 2. Komyo (1336-1348) 3. Shuko (1349-1352) 4. Go-Kogon (1352-1371) 5. Go-Enyu (1372-1382) 6. Go-Komatsu (1383-1392) In 1392 Go-Komatsu became em peror over the reunited empire. Ministerial Changes in Japan1 The following table shows the cabinet changes that have taken place since constitutional government was instituted : — Premier. Teem of Office. Trs. Mos. Ito Okuma-Itagaki .... Apr. '88-Oct. '89 Dec. '89-Apr. '91 May '91-July '92 Aug. '92-Aug. '96 Sept. '96-Dec. '97 Jan. '98-June '98 June '98-Oct. '98 Nov. '98-Sept. '00 Oct. '00-May '01 June '01- 1