? ; "I give thcfe Booh 1 for- the founding cf a Collrge in this Colony' Bought with the income of the James Dwight Fund 9/S" A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA W. A. HIRST AUTHOR OF " ARGENTINA " ' ° 3 3 => j 3 3 3 3. ° °\'?%>1> *»>\>> WITH TEN MAPS • 3 D » 3 3 S '. ' °=3' 3 3 3 3 3 3 O » 3 » 3 3 3 3 => => 3 3 . , ° ' 3 > , NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1915 PREFACE WITH the exception of a small handbook pub lished in the United States, and a brief Guide issued by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, this work is the only book of the kind with which I am acquainted. As far as possible, it is written from personal knowledge, and I am much indebted to information kindly furnished by various Consular officials. Many of the books which I have consulted are mentioned in the text. It is hoped that this Guide may be useful at the present time, when the question of food supplies is prominent and when the successors of Cochrane have cleared the South American coast from the marauder. The book was ready for the press at the end of last July, but its publication was delayed owing to the war and again owing to my military duties. W. A. HIRST Yorkshire Hussars Harrogate February 23, igis CONTENTS INTRODUCTORY ...... ARGENTINA ...... • 27 BOLIVIA ....... 79 BRAZIL ....... 99 CHILE ....... 153 COLOMBIA ...... 185 ECUADOR ....... 203 THE PANAMA CANAL ..... 221 1 PARAGUAY ...... ; PERU ....... f " — 239 257 I URUGUAY ....... 293 VENEZUELA . ... 3'3 INDEX ........ 333 LIST OF MAPS PAGE ARGENTINE ..... . 26 BOLIVIA ...... . 78 BRAZIL ...... . 98 CHILE ... . . . — -. 1-5-2 COLOMBIA. . . . . . ¦ — 718? ECUADOR ...... . 202 PARAGUAY ..... . 238 PERU .... . 256 URUGUAY . .... . 292 VENEZUELA . \ 312 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA INTRODUCTORY i. Brief Sketch of a Tour THE traveller can leave Liverpool by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company or sail from South- amp*on by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in either case Pernambuco and Bahia will probably be the first South American ports at which the vessel touches. These lines are now under one management. Sometimes one or both of these ports is omitted. Probably, in any case, a casual glance at either place will satisfy most people, but some may wish to examine the fine railway system of Pernambuco, or to explore the interesting interior from Bahia, including the dia mond mines. Such excursions will add materially to the length and cost of the tour. Rio de Janeiro, the capital of Brazil, is the first important objective, and a fortnight should be enough for that town and Sao Paulo. The steamer could be rejoined at Santos, where a long stay is not recommended. Most travellers will desire to see one or two countries in particular and spend as much time as possible in them at the expense of the others, but forthe impartial traveller the half-month between the two steamers of his line will give sufficient 2 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA time for Brazil. From Rio or Santos it is a short journey to Montevideo, and the ocean ship can then be abandoned until Valparaiso is reached. Beyond the fine ranches of Lemco (which can also be conveniently visited from Buenos Aires), Uruguay does not demand much attention. From Montevideo the Argentine capital is reached either by boat or rail, and perhaps there will be a temptation to devote the whole of the remainder of the 180 days to the premier Republic of South America, which, for the regular business man, as distinguished from the pioneer, offers by far the greatest attractions. Not that there is not in Argentina abundant work for the pioneer, for both Patagonia and the Gran Chaco are almost virgin fields, but the machinery for development is there, while hardly a beginning has been made in most of the equatorial regions. Most people will decide to omit Paraguay altogether from their itinerary. The journey thither used to be immensely long and tedious, but railway communication is now complete to Asuncion. The country is very backward and seldom visited by Englishmen, but historically and physically it is one of the most interesting places in South America. Some sixty years ago an English traveller1 wrote : "That it has been shut up for some mighty purpose is quite obvious. It has been the focus to which the docile race of the Guarani Indians and the organizing talent of the Jesuits were concentrated ; it was besides a part of Southern America where the civilization of the Spaniards was first planted, the spot where the seed of the first crop, now effete, was sown. ... I am convinced that these people are to be a part of the hands by which English heads are to do wonders for civilizing the rich deserts of South America." A murderous foreign war and revolutions have postponed their destiny, and, such as it is, Germans have more 1 C. B. Mansfield. Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plate, pp. 352-3. INTRODUCTORY 3 hand in its control than Englishmen. More probably preference will be given to the Iguazu Falls, one of the finest natural sights in South America, and the excur sion can now be made in a reasonable time.1 But Argentina unquestionably demands more time than any other country in South America. If the Republic could acquire population, she would take a very high rank among nations. Buenos Aires, of course, will be the headquarters for a considerable time, and hence Bahia Blanca, the Liverpool of South America, and Mar del Plata, its Brighton, should be visited, while northwards there are many claims on the attention. As before said, Paraguay and the Iguazu Falls can both be best reached from the capital, but it will be difficult to spare the time. However, a trip to Rosario can be done comfortably within three days, and it would be advisable to prolong the journey at least to Cordoba. Tucuman is also easily accessible by rail, and there are many interesting places farther north, including the Famatina mines. Further, if an intro duction can be obtained, it would be desirable to visit an estancia or ranch, which gives the visitor an oppor tunity of enjoying the life of the campo, where con ditions approach more nearly to the Argentina of fiction — the land of cattle-riders and endless grassy plains. One month is very inadequate for Argentina, but, of course, a round tour consists chiefly in omitting indispensable places. Further, it is impossible to take the voyage round Cape Horn without missing the rail way journey across the Andes. Some people perhaps will prefer to take only the round trip, i.e. to go to Valparaiso by rail from Buenos Aires and then return the whole way by sea. The voyage along the Chilian coast, a call at Punta Arenas, a possible call at the Falkland Islands, are all things one would not willingly 1 See W. S. Barclay. To the Falls of Iguazu. 4 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA miss. However, according to our projected route, they must be put off to a more convenient season, and the train must be taken to Mendoza, where as long a halt as possible should be made. Puente del Inca will probably claim a couple of days, and then the traveller will run straight to Valparaiso, which has no special point of interest, and the temporary headquarters will probably be at Santiago. For the voyage north the Eng lish boats, not the Chilian, should be chosen. After many halts at the little Chilian ports Iquique is reached, and is worth quite ten days, some five of which may be con sumed by the Nitrate Pampa. Then the boat is taken again to the little port of Arica, not far to the north of Iquique, and the traveller proceeds by the new railway to La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. La Paz will claim some time, and then the journey over the mountains can be resumed to Arequipa, in Peru, and on to the little port of Mollendo. Thence it is a short sea voyage to Lima, via Callao, and the Peruvian capital will probably be chosen as headquarters, for some little time. Lima is an agreeable place and Cerro de Pasco, the highest town in the world, should be visited, while many pleasant excursions can be made to places on the coast or in the interior. The voyage will be resumed from Callao. A few people may wish to disembark at Paita and see Piura, but the great majority will go direct to Panama. The one objection to visiting the interesting Republic of Ecuador is the yellow fever scourge, which rages at Guayaquil, and a further inconvenience will be the quarantine at Panama. In fact, many vessels do not call at Ecuadorian ports. But even if the traveller does not wish to land, it is worth while to take the opportunity of seeing the magnificent panorama of river and forest scenery, and the chance of a glimpse of Chimborazo. INTRODUCTORY 5 Panama and the Canal will take a few days. After this, the voyager may decide to bid good-bye to South America and sail homewards from Colon by the West Indies or New York, but he will perhaps wish to see something of Colombia and Venezuela. This will not be altogether convenient, for the English lines do not touch at La Guiara and the other ports on their homeward voyage ; it will therefore be necessary to go by a foreign boat. North Brazil has also been neglected. In fact, to see South America thoroughly, three separate voyages are required. The first, from Pernambuco to Panama, has been already described. The second should begin at Liverpool or Southampton, proceed to Venezuela and Colombia, and the oppor tunity eouid easily be taken at the, same time of seeing something of Central America and the West Indies. The third should be taken in the Booth Line, from Liverpool to Manaos and back. It will be noted that these have no connexion ; each begins from England, but ocean liners are usually more comfortable than coasting vessels, and, as the second and third journeys are almost wholly in the tropics, considerations of health might make the traveller hesitate to add them on to a six months' strenuous tour. The best time to start on the first tour is in December. The climate of Rio is no worse in January than at any other time ; February is about the best season for Argentina, and a few months later the Andes line might be blocked with snow. Up to Panama the climate will be found delightful, and in May the rains relieve the heat of the Isthmus. 2. Cost of a South American Tour During the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century travellers in South America invariably lamented the unproductive character of a region 6 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA which possessed every kind of natural wealth and nevertheless, owing to its turbulent politics and lack of internal communications, afforded a comparatively unremunerative field for capital and enterprise. In those days travelling was often unsafe and always costly. Now, except in remote and imperfectly ex plored tracts, there is perfect security for life and property, and the expense, though greater than in most parts of the world, is not prohibitive. As several of the South American Republics have become immensely important factors in the world's trade and industry, there is a constant stream of business men from Europe and North America to Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires. Those who are making the voyage for the first time will desire to know its probable cost, and an attempt is made in this section to answer this question. The traveller can book for a tour round South America by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company or the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. There are two choices of route. The best is to go to Rio de Janeiro, then on to Buenos Aires, and cross the continent by rail to Valparaiso. Then a first-class liner is taken to Panama. The Isthmus is crossed by rail and a steamer takes the traveller to South ampton via the West Indies. Tjie cost is £100. The alternative route, though interesting, is con siderably longer. At Buenos Aires, instead of the land route, the sea voyage is prolonged through the Straits of Magellan to Valparaiso. The cost is also ^ioo. American travellers can begin and end at New York for practically the same fare. The above charge includes no expenses upon shore, except the bare railway expenses and sleeping-berth. Four cwt. of baggage are allowed to each adult first-class passenger, but by the Transandine Rail- INTRODUCTORY 7 way only 50 kilos are allowed, and on the Panama railway 150 lb. If a through booking be not desired, the traveller can book from port to port, but this is more expen sive. The charges of foreign steamships are practically the same as those of the two great English lines. The Lamport and Holt Line, from Liverpool, affords a cheaper service. A single first-class ticket to Rio de Janeiro is £18; by the Royal Mail or Pacific the cost is £33. To Buenos Aires the respective single fares are .£20 and ^39. A return passage by the Lamport and Holt to Buenos Aires is £35. In the case of each port the fare from England to London will usually be given in this handbook. Doubtless by a tramp or a sailing vessel the rates of passage would be very low. The tips expected are not larger than elsewhere, and tobacco, wine and such-like things are supplied at reasonable rates. The coasting rates, whether foreign or local, are high, and exorbitant rates are usually demanded by boatmen and conveyers of luggage, but these can usually be reduced by judicious treatment. But in all cases the cost is heavy, and the traveller will make his journey much more comfortably if he limits his luggage to a few suit-cases and steel trunks. Cabs are generally bad and" always dear. In some countries travelling by rail is by no means cheap. The short journey, for example, from Rio to Sao Paulo costs about £2 ios., and the charges in the Argentine are high. On the other hand, they are very low in Chile, and moderate in Peru. It will probably be the hotel charges that a European will be most disposed to resent, and this, rather on account of the indifferent value given than on account of the actual expense, although this is 8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA considerable. The question, however, is dealt with elsewhere, and here is only noted from the point of view of expense. The round trip may be calculated to take 180 days, and we will assume that the traveller crosses the Argentine Republic instead of going by Cape Horn. This includes a short excursion into Bolivia, but it omits Venezuela and Northern Brazil altogether, and , there would be a difficulty in seeing much of Colombia. Some 60 extra days would be required . to rectify these omissions, and more than proportional expense, and there is no doubt that it would be wiser to make a separate trip, for any one who reaches Colon after several months of South American accommodation will probably prefer to sail homewards and leave the Amazon unvisited. Of the 180 days about 70 will be spent on the sea ; the slower coasting service in the Pacific is recom mended as more interesting. The expenses on board are tips, boats (and expenses in port), and the bar-bill. Most people find this last a serious item, for few think of providing themselves with books or work of any kind, and have nothing but cocktails wherewith to kill the time. But 2s. a day is ample allowance — this includes table wines — and as a matter of fact there is very little need of alcohol on the sea. For tips, a shilling a day is enough, i.e. about £1 for a voyage of three weeks, and if the service is really good, something extra might be given. On English boats the attention is all that could be desired. Port expenses are a considerable item. On the Pacific coast the vessels sometimes make two halts a day, and it is advisable to see every possible place. The return fare of the boatman averages quite 2s., and purchases will probably be made. Then at such ports as Pernambuco or Bahia, even if the traveller does not INTRODUCTORY g desire to make a halt, he will wish to lunch or dine on shore, and if the ship delays a day or two, he may prefer to live at an hotel. On the other hand, the ship, in making the ocean voyage, often goes on for a week without touching anywhere. Five shillings a day will probably be adequate. The steamship fare includes the railway from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso and across the Isthmus of Panama. The remaining cost will depend upon individual tastes. One visitor to Peru may wish to spend all his time at Lima, while another may wish to visit Arequipa and other places. The same remark applies to travel away from railways. At least £2$ should be allowed for railways, and, say, .£15 for mule or horse travel, but the latter item can be omitted altogether if desired. When on land, .£1 a day should be allowed for hotels, and ios. for miscellaneous expenses. When the cost of carting luggage, and casual meals, entertain ments, and the like are considered, this pro vision will not be considered excessive. Of course, these expenses may be materially reduced, for hospit able friends are likely to give invitations, and also to show the traveller ways of avoiding expense. But it is prudent to allow as much as has been indicated above. The expense, then, of a round trip may be stated as follows : — Sea Voyage, 70 Days The fare £ ... 100 s. 0 Tips at is. a day Bar account at 2s. a day Port expenses at 5s. a day 3 7 ... 17 IO O IO On Land, iio Days Hotels at £1 a day Miscellaneous expenses at ios. a day Railways Horse or mule journeys ... no - 55 ... 25 ... • 15 0 0 0 0 Total 333 0 10 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA It may be added that Messrs. Thomas Cook & Son lately advertised a personally conducted South Ameri can tour. The cost was 275 guineas, and the route practically identical — but the reverse way— with the above. It lasted, however, only 3J months. The following is a rough time sketch of the tour : Dec. Jan. Feb. I. Leave Southampton „ Cherbourg Mar • 4- Leave Valparaiso by slow boat 3- » Vigo 5- Coquimbo 4- „ Lisbon 6. Huasco 6. Madeira 7- Chanaral 14. „ Pernambuco 8. Antofagasta iS- „ Bahia 9- Iquique, arrive 18. Arrive Rio de Janeiro i7- Iquique, depart Spend a fortnight in 18. Arica Brazil Ten days in Bolivia 2. Leave Santos 28. Leave Mollendo 6. 13- Arrive Montevideo One week in Uruguay Arrive Buenos Aires Spend a month with 3°- Arrive Callao Spend three weeks in Lima and other parts of Peru Buenos Aires as Apr 19. Leave Callao headquarters, visit t> 20. Arrive Salaverry ing Asuncion or » 21. ,, Pacarmayo such places in and Eten Argentina as may » 22. Arrive Paita be desired a 23- Guayaquil, arrive 12. Leave Buenos Aires )> 24. Guayaquil, depart 20. After halt at Men doza and other places arrive by rail at Valparaiso Spend at Santiago and other places in Chile 14 days jj 28. Panama, arrive Spend a week on the Isthmus, and re turn home by Jamaica, arriving at Southampton be fore the end of May December 1st was chosen as being the first of the month and allowing the ship's movements to be taken in at a glance, but December 20th would be a better INTRODUCTORY n date for starting ; Christmas would be best spent on the sea. Sometimes it is convenient to land at Monte video and sometimes at Buenos Aires ; each capital is easily accessible from the other. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company has a D service with cheaper fares. The second tour to Brazil may be briefly indicated. The Booth Line steamers leave Liverpool twice a month for Cherbourg, Vigo, Leixoes (Oporto), Lisbon, Para, and Manaos. Three months would be enough to allow for the tour, and the best time to start would be in January. The minimum cost of the passage would be £6%. The third tour would probably take a little longer. The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company's boats sail every fortnight from Southampton for a round voyage, for which the cost (from Southampton to Southamp ton) is ^45 (minimum fare). It would be necessary to disembark at Cartagena (Colombia), and when that Republic had been seen, a coasting vessel would take the traveller to the ports of Venezuela. The original line could be resumed at Cartagena, and, if desired, a landing might be made at Colon. Thence any part of Central America or any West Indian island might be visited. The return voyage would be from Colon to Southampton by way of Jamaica. The Leyland Line from Liverpool is rather cheaper. It might be found most convenient to take a single ticket (^30) by the Royal Mail to Cartagena or Colon, and after seeing the desired places to ship from Port Limon or Colon to Liverpool or Bristol ; the minimum fare is £2$. 3. Steamship Lines From Liverpool — The Pacific Steam Navigation Company's steamers leave Liverpool once a fortnight for Buenos Aires (tranship at Montevideo). They 12 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA touch at La Rochelle-Pallice, Coruna, Vigo, Leixoes (Oporto), Las Palmas, St. Vincent, Pernambuco (sometimes), Bahia (sometimes), Rio and Santos. The Lamport and Holt leave Liverpool twice a month for Bahia, Rio, and Santos. Steamers of the same line leave Liverpool about as frequently for Montevideo and Buenos Aires. Several other lines leave for the Plate District. The Houlder Line leaves once a month, the others are less regular. The Booth Line's steamers leave Liverpool once a fortnight for Manaos. They touch at Havre, Vigo, Leixoes, Lisbon, Para, Ceara and Maraftham. The Leyland Line's steamers leave Liverpool about twice a month for Colon and the ports of Venezuela and Colombia. The Elders and Fyffes Line's steamers leave Liver pool occasionally for Santa Marta (Colombia) or for Port Limon and Colon. From Southampton — The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company's steamers sail every fortnight from South ampton, calling at Cherbourg, Vigo, Lisbon, Madeira, Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio, Santos, Montevideo and Buenos Aires. The same line sends steamers twice a month to Colon and the ports of Colombia. Passengers can return by the West Indies or New York. From London — The Nelson Line steamers sail weekly to Montevideo and Buenos Aires, touching at Boulogne, Coruna, and Vigo. Foreign lines are numerous, and the following are some of the chief sailings : — From Dover (Amsterdam the previous day), the Royal Holland Lloyd sails every month for Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo and Buenos Aires, touch ing at Boulogne, Coruna, Vigo and Lisbon. From Southampton (starting at Hamburg and Port. Line. Single Fare. *' Return Fare. Rio de Janeiro >* » JiU1) Buenos Aires >> a a Valparaiso (via Andes) Valparaiso (by sea) Callao (by sea) a Callao (by Panama) »j Colon or Cartagena >iu Manaos Royal Mail Steam Packet Company Pacific Steam Navigation Company D Service of R.M.S.P. Company Lamport and Holt Line Royal Holland Lloyd Hamburg American Line Royal Mail Steam Packet Company Pacific Steam Navigation Company D Service of R.M.S.P. Company Nelson Line Lamport and Holt Line HoulderHamburg American Line Royal Holland Lloyd Royal Mail Steam Packet Company Pacific Steam Navigation Company Royal Mail Steam Packet Company Pact&c Steam Navigation Company Royal Mail Steam Packet Company Pacific Steam Navigation Company Royal Mail Steam Packet Company Pacific Steam Navigation Company Royal Mail Steam Packet Company Leyland Line Elders and Fyffes Line Booth Line From £33 £19 From £33 £33— £39 £39 From £39 £30 £20— £30 £20 £11 £35— £45 From £39 From £51 16s. From £54 n From £62 a From £48 From £30 £10 From £25 £*34 From £53 ii £32 From £53 £"53— £59 £62 £5° £36— £54 £35£38 £56-^68 From £62 From £87 14s. 6d. From £81 From £93 £81 From £45 From £45 14 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA touching at Boulogne), the Hamburg American and Hamburg South American jointly dispatch steamers weekly to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo and Buenos Aires, touching at Coruna, Vigo and Lisbon. Excellent fast French and Italian boats make the South American voyage, but they do not touch at British ports. The list on p. 13 of the various lines and their fares to the principal ports may be of interest. 4. Hotels All towns in South America that are of any impor tance possess hotel accommodation, but its quality generally leaves a good deal to be desired. Comfort is not well understood, and the population is com posed of easygoing people who prefer leisure to luxury, or else of persons bent on acquiring wealth rapidly, and therefore not disposed to take trouble over small things. In general it may be said of hotel-keepers that French are better than Italians, Italians than Spanish, and Spanish than natives. English and North Americans are rare in the trade, but, when found, should be made a note of. Mr. Percy Martin, in his racy book, Through Five Republics, says : " Val paraiso, like almost every other city in Chile, with the single exception of Santiago, is sadly deficient in hotel accommodation. Hotels there are, or such as call themselves by this name ; but nous autres would scarcely designate them as worthy of the term, nor give them equal rank with our suburban pothouses." Again : "Attractive as Argentina is, from an architec tural point of view, it possesses scarcely one really pleasant or thoroughly comfortable hotel. In a city claiming something over 850,000 inhabitants,1 possess- 1 The remarkable growth of Buenos Aires is shown by the fact that it now claims half as many inhabitants again, and INTRODUCTORY 15 ing much individual and collective wealth, and a situation almost unrivalled for sanitary perfection, it is certainly remarkable that visitors and residents alike should find so little facility in securing accommo dation." Considerable improvement has been effected since 1905. At Panama, which is not, strictly speaking, in South America, there is a very excellent hotel, and Lima has good hotels and restaurants. In great towns, like Rio and Buenos Aires, fair accommodation can be procured at a high price, and at Santiago and Valparaiso there are clean hotels with eatable food. But in many places the food and accommodation are far below modest European standards. However, at almost every town there is a fonda of some sort, but it is advisable not to arrange for a long stay, unless there is reason to believe that the hotel is tolerable. This important subject will, however, be dealt with in relation to the various towns. 5. Money The monetary systems of the various Republics will be referred to under separate heads. There are a good many English banks in South America, such as the London and River Plate Bank and the Anglo- South American Bank, through which the traveller can make arrangements for a supply of money. But cases may occur of changes in the route or of under estimating the expenses, and it is well to carry a moderate sum in Bank of England notes, for which the exchange is always favourable. In the case of Chile and Colombia, where the currency is depreciated, though the hotel accommodation has not advanced pari passu, there is much less cause for complaint. Great efforts at im provement are also being made in other parts of South America. Mr. Martin's book was published in 1905. 16 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA it is. desirable, before crossing the frontier, to obtain at a bank a supply of the country's money, because the moneyrchangers at the frontier or ports take advantage of the traveller's ignorance of the rate of exchange. In most countries gold is rare, and paper money is commonly used. Nothing in the nature of a cashbox or dispatch-box should ,be carried, for this is naturally the first objective of a thief. The pocket is the best place for money. The heaviest box should be of steel, with a good lock. (See below under Equipment.) 6. Equipment This should be practically as for a journey on the Continent. In addition, there should be riding breeches and leggings and a heavy hunting crop. No arms are necessary, and sport is so rare that, in case an opportunity offers, it would probably be better to buy or borrow a gun than to be at the trouble of carrying a sporting equipment throughout the whole journey. As little luggage as possible should be taken, and it should be packed in flat suit cases and the like. It is well to have one strong steel cabin trunk with a good lock. A supply of cheap, soft shirts should be taken, and these can be thrown away when they become ragged. If it is intended to leave the line of railway, a few flannel shirts should be added ; these the traveller can rough-dry himself at any time. Although luggage should be light, it is as well to make up one's mind from the outset not to purchase anything of much value during the journey, for clothes and all travelling necessaries are extremely dear. In addition to clothes suitable for English winters and summers, a few thin flannel or washing suits of silk or holland should be taken. The traveller should have two soft hats. Silk or felt hats INTRODUCTORY 17 and sun helmets are hardly necessary. It is very inadvisable to burden oneself with traveller's kit, although a small spirit kettle is a convenience. Quinine, chlorodyne, and a few simple drugs should be taken. A small knapsack and a soiled-linen bag are useful. The whole luggage ought, if possible, to weigh under 200 lb. ; the charges for wheeling luggage about a town are exorbitant, and when the traveller desires to go up-country he should leave the bulk with a friend at a port, and journey with a knapsack or bag. Otherwise he should never part with ' his luggage except for a receipt from an authorized person, or the parting may be for ever. The term authorized requires careful definition. One great advantage in small packages is that they are admitted into the railway carriage ; some lines allow a reason able amount of baggage, others attempt to charge and overcharge for every pound. 7. Passports, Customs, Consulates, Hospitality Passports are unnecessary; the South Americans are always glad of visitors. If the traveller wishes to visit disturbed parts, a letter from a Consul or local notability will be much more effective. The Customs give very little trouble. The traveller remarks, " Personal baggage," and his boxes are seldom opened, and difficulties seldom arise about cigars, etc., though of course, if an official discovered that a traveller was carrying several hundreds, there would be trouble. There is no object in any infringe ment of regulations, for cigars are almost equally dear everywhere. . Money should not be offered, though a small tip may be given to a person who gives reason able assistance, but caution is necessary. If possible, the traveller should ask the Foreign Office to give him an open letter to the British Consulates. In 18 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA any case, they are always willing to help a well-bred traveller. But it should be remembered that Con sulates are not cloak-rooms, nor Consuls common carriers, and they are to be treated with considera tion. It is most unfair and ill-bred to have letters addressed to a Consulate, with peremptory orders to forward them to all parts of the world. On special occasions it may be necessary to have one's letters addressed thither, but a letter should be sent to the Consul, explaining that there is a real necessity, and asking him to keep letters till called for. To persons travelling in search of information relative to trade and industries the Consuls are invaluable, but it is desirable to purchase the Trade Reports in London before starting, as that is the place of publication. The information contained is most useful, and it is a great pity that the Foreign Office will not con centrate and make it accessible. It ought to publish a quarterly Consular Review of South America, properly illustrated, which should contain the essence of all Consular reports, and this should be sent to every important business ' house and insti tution connected with South America. The Consuls of the United States are sometimes helpful. In South America the English and people of the country are hospitable. It is a good thing to have letters of introduction, but the friend who gives them should also be asked to write to his friend in South America. Otherwise there is apt to be misunderstanding, or the person whose acquaintance is desired may be away from home. The new friend usually knows persons ¦ upon other points of the route, and is willing to give introductions. The first step is to introduce the traveller as an honorary member at the club, where there is always pleasant society. Spanish-Americans, like Spaniards, are reserved, and INTRODUCTORY 19 do not readily become intimate with strangers, but they are extremely courteous and many of their clubs are open to English visitors. 8. Post Offices and Telegraphs There are excellent postal and telegraphic arrange ments in all the Republics. As before recommended, a traveller should not make a practice of ordering his letters to be addressed to Consuls. By far the best way is to have them addressed to his bank, and thence they can be forwarded to any other bank on the line of route. 9. Climate The climate of this enormous continent is, of course, varied. The Southern Republics may, on the whole, be called temperate, although there is intense cold in the extreme south and considerable heat in the north. It may be said * that in Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador the weather will be found hot and oppressive at all times, and elsewhere the climate is more or less agreeable. In these hot countries November to March is the best time for a visit, while March to October is suitable for the temperate countries ; but arrangements should be made to pass from Argentina to Chile before the end of April, seeing that the line, in spite of the new tunnel, is likely to be closed during the winter months, i.e. May to October. The voyage, therefore, should begin in December or January. If it be prolonged beyond the plan sketched above, Venezuela and the Amazon can be taken in the favourable weather at the end of the year, but climatic difficulties are an argument in favour of making this a separate trip. 1 Of course, heat is seldom encountered at elevations of 3,000 feet and upwards. 20 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA 10. Tobacco, Wine, Restaurants All kinds of tobacco are dear in South America. An English vessel usually sells pipe tobacco and cigarettes at low rates, and a small store may be taken ashore for personal use, but obviously it is important not to trespass upon the leniency of the Custom House officials. They are not disposed to harass the pleasure tourist, but the bringing in of such articles is a matter of delicacy, and is left to the good feeling of the traveller. There are many wine districts in South America, but the beverage is always heavily protected and not cheap, though often of very fair quality. Spirits, on the whole, are not dear, and bottled beer can usually be obtained, but most people will be wise to observe strict moderation in both. Most hotels have restaurants of varying merit. In Buenos Aires, Lima and several other towns there is good catering, but, speaking generally, it will be found convenient to take meals at the hotel, especially as pension terms are the almost invariable rule. n. Shops and Stores These, as might be expected, vary infinitely, from the magnificent business houses of Buenos Aires to squalid shanties, purveying German wares and English tinned goods, such as are found in Eastern bazaars. But a man of modest wants can usually purchase anything he is likely to require in a town of 10,000 inhabitants or upwards, while in the great towns practically everything under the sun can be bought at a price. But most of the good things are imported, and so expensive that a prudent person will defer his purchases, as far as possible, until he visits the Old World. Ludgate Hill provides for 2s. 6d. countless articles that are sold readily for 12s. 6d. INTRODUCTORY 21 all over South America, and most things, such as clothes, trunks, household articles, cutlery and all fancy things are in proportion. As before indicated, it is advisable to spend some care and thought in getting together a light but adequate outfit, so as to avoid the necessity of purchases. 12. Newspapers People who travel in South America will probably be surprised at the excellence of the journals. Those of the great Republics compare not unfavourably with the newspapers of first-class European countries, and (to an English taste at any rate) are greatly superior to those of the United States and their Fleet Street imitations. To generalize about a whole continent is difficult, but it may be said that on the whole sen sationalism is conspicuous by its absence, and that the wisest and most moderate thought is to be found, not in the speeches of statesmen, hardly even in the current literature, but in the columns of the newspapers. Such journals as the Jornal de Commercio of Rio, La Nacion and La Prensa of Buenos Aires, and, on a smaller scale, El Comercio of Lima would do credit to London or Paris. It should be noted that among the Spanish and Portuguese the word Comercio in the title indicates indeed that the paper is specially strong on the commercial side, but not that it is a commercial or financial organ. It is ordinarily almost as general a newspaper as the Daily Telegraph. 13. Language As is well known, Spanish is the language of the civilized population, except in Brazil, where Portu guese prevails. Well-educated South Americans fre quently speak French or English or both, but these are by no means universal accomplishments, although 22 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA in the best shops and hotels of the large towns English is readily understood. The enjoyment and value of the tour will be indefinitely increased by some know ledge of Spanish and, if possible, of Portuguese also, which are fortunately rather easy languages. A man of average ability will find that a fortnight's preliminary study, supplemented by three hours a day on board ship, will give him enough Spanish to read the news papers, and a little practice on shore will soon enable him to carry on a conversation in a rough-and-ready fashion. Many people will be able to add Portuguese to this modest outfit, and those who already know Latin will find their task much lighter, for the Romans set an indelible mark on the language of the Peninsula. The grammars and dictionaries of Hossfeld's series (published at 13, Furnival Street, Holborn, E.C.) are reasonable in price and of good quality, but handbooks and vocabularies are very numerous, and can be bought at most of the book shops in Charing Cross Road or New Oxford Street. The hasty traveller will do well to choose a handbook which gives the pronunciation of common phrases as well as the actual Spanish, for the most intelligent foreigner can hardly be expected to recognize his mother tongue in an English dress. A prosaic but useful piece of advice is to pay special attention to culinary terms ; otherwise a meal at a restaurant is a lottery in which the traveller who has not enough Spanish or Portuguese to read the bill of fare (usually enormously long) is likely to draw far more blanks than prizes. The above elementary hints are obviously only for the tourist. Any person who wishes to suc ceed in business in South America must, of course, make a careful study of Spanish, and learn to speak and write it fluently. This would appear to be axiomatic, but, if we may judge by the complaints INTRODUCTORY 23 of the Consular Reports and other evidence, there are many people who try to persuade South Americans to buy goods in an unintelligible language. The day for such easygoing methods, if indeed it ever existed, has long since gone by, and the importance of Spanish and Portuguese is now recognized by all business men, while the traveller for pleasure who neglects Spanish will lose at least one-half of the enjoyment of his tour. 14. Books about South America At the end of the account of each Republic there will be found a brief note which deals with one or two works describing that particular place and likely to prove useful to the traveller. But to take, on a journey, ten or more (physically) heavy volumes might be troublesome, and therefore a brief note on general books about South America will not be out of place. It may be added that a few days devoted to making notes in a good library will certainly not be wasted, for the very best guide-book a man can possess is that written by himself. If he knows beforehand exactly what he wants to see, he will see much more than those who drift along in impartial ignorance. The two small handbooks on South America have been already noticed in the preface.1 There is an excel lent description of the whole of South America in Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel ; the part to be consulted is Central and South America, vol. 1, 2nd edition, published 1909. This, of course, is strong on the geographical side and contains very good maps. For statistics, the Statesman's Year-book is too 1 South America, published by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, and Prac tical Guide lo South' America, by Albert Hale, published at Boston, U.S.A. 24 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA well known to need description. The South American series (published by Mr. T. Fisher Unwin) has already issued volumes on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Venezuela, Colombia, and Uruguay, and more will be published before long. Mrs. Robinson Wright has written large and handsome books (published in Philadelphia) on Brazil and several other Republics ; they are well illustrated and contain much interesting information, but the writer is an incorrigible optimist, and may possibly fail to convince the reader that all is for the best in the best of all possible South Americas. A monthly magazine, entitled the Bulletin of the Pan- American Union, is edited at Washington by Mr. John Barrett, a gentleman who has a very wide knowledge of Latin America. This periodical is well illustrated and contains useful articles and notes which survey the Western Hemisphere with extensive view from Mexico to Cape Horn. Those who wish for special information about remote districts should consult the articles which appear from time to time in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, whose high standard of accuracy is beyond praise. A word may now be said of books of travel or history, dealing more or less completely with South America as a whole. In the course of this work reference is made more than dnce to Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle ; here it need only be said that a pocket edition is an indispensable travelling companion. A very agreeable and comprehensive book is Mr. F. Alcock's Trade and Travel in South America, published 1903, which describes a "round trip." The South American Republics (1903-4), by Mr. T. C. Dawson, who has had experience in the United States diplo matic service, gives a useful historical survey of all the countries, and Mr. C. E. Akers's History of South America 1854-1904 is also helpful. To indicate the INTRODUCTORY 25 sources of South American history would be going far beyond the scope of this brief note, but it is hardly necessary to say that those who wish to make a thorough study of the subject must learn to read Spanish and Portuguese. It may be added that Southey's History of Brazil is by no means out of date, while such collections of voyages as those made by Hakluyt and Purchas afford a delightful means of learning the history of South America in the sixteenth century. Another fairly comprehensive work, which deals chiefly with the industrial resources of the countries described, is Through Five Republics (1905), by Mr. Percy F. Martin. This gives much information about Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Mr. C. W. Domville Fife's Great States of South America (1910) describes the most important Republics. The London Times often issues a South American supplement containing very valuable articles on political and commercial subjects. The general ver dict must be, on the one hand, that a great many books, good, bad, and indifferent, have been written on South America, and some places and questions have been exhaustively described and discussed, but, on the other hand, there are enormous gaps in our knowledge, and it is still almost impossible to obtain information about many important districts. There is ample matter for the pen of a ready, still more for that of a thoughtful, writer. ARGENTINA f\ RGENTINA is the second in size of the South / -TTLAmerican Republics and the first in civilization VanoVprosperity. The combined boon of climate, soil, Jftrid facilities of communication gives it a great advan tage over its neighbours, and the enormous yield of grain and pastoral products makes it supremely im portant in the industrial world. The area is 1,153,119 square miles and the population is estimated at 7,171,910. It is thus more than five times as large as France, and has somewhat less population than Belgium. Such a huge territory, extending from the c tropic of Capricorn to Tierra del Fuego, has naturally a great variety of climate and physical conditions in general, but it falls info four tolerably well defined geographical divisions. These are : Firstly, th%-Andine region proper, which runs from the^BoJiwan- frontier alonguie Chilian border to the heaH^atefs^of the Rip Negro] "The Andea Tcee— a — roTTg^range of gigarrtic (geaks, of which Aconcagua attains a height of 'about 23,000 feet, and the climate is, in general, extremely dry and the hills bare of vegetation. South of the Rio Negro (in Patagonia) the hills are lower and the climate becomes more humid. At Ushwiya in Tierra > del Fuego the annual rainfall is 120 inches, while at San , Juan, almost under the Andes, it is only 3. Secondly, Patagonia, which stretches from the Rio Colorado to Cape Horn. This is a thinly populated region which used to be known as the Great Shingle 27 28 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Desert. It contains many fine rivers, but eastwards the rainfall is scanty, and it has hitherto been neglected by all but sheep farmers. In the north, however, irrigation is being applied and the wheat prospects are good. Thirdly, the Gran C.h.amj a l-ni^gh denomi nation for the northern region, which has_a_hpt and mcdst-GfetiateT^roduces rice and sugar, and contains much virgin fqrgsL- The north-eastem- p~arT is very imperfectly explored, and many of the Indians inhabit- ing~~fhe-fe>rpsts are hqstile: — Fvmlhly, Urn-Pampas, the heart of the Republic. which-^Tave~gfverr-A^:gerrtirJa its fameand wealth and comprise all the^bes't-^astoral and^grairr=gf6W4»g--fefTasrr This islEe true~Argentina, or the historic Plate district, as the whole country on each side TrHh^^stuary used to be called — a land that yielded no gold or silver to the adventurers, a long succession of flat, grassy stretches, where wild cattle multiplied apace, and famous even in the old Spanish days for the export of hides. Up to comparatively recent years the cattle were slaughtered for their hides only, and their carcasses left to rot on the ground, so that travellers constantly expressed vexation at the sight of waste, not only of meat, but ok valuable vege table products, which could have been raised in profusion had there but been a market for them. With the improvement of industry and the making of railways a great trade in meat and wool sprang up, and in course of time alfalfa (lucerne) was introduced, which made the task of fattening cattle easy, It was also discovered that the Pampas were marvellously well adapted for the cultivation of wheat and maize, and now the railways pour vast cargoes of grain into ocean going steamers at Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia Blanca. The tendency is for arable to encroach upon pastoral land. Thus the picturesque gaucho plays a less prominent part in the country than he used to do, but ARGENTINA 29 he is still the most interesting feature of the Pampas. Although the derivation of the word is disputed, it seems probable that the name was brought from Spain, but the gauchos have undoubtedly more Indian than Spanish blood in their veins. They are expert stock riders, bringing down refractory cattle with their unerring bolas, and their wonderful feats of horseman ship have been described more vividly and more accurately (as is the case with many other things South American) by Darwin in The Voyage of the Beagle than by all the numerous writers who have succeeded him. The gauchos are brave, cruel and reckless ; they thoroughly know their craft, and they have the frankness, hospitality and rude poetical "instincts that go with a life of boot and saddle. They are changing, but not yet changed. The Pampas them selves are slowly changing and being gradually occu pied by the small cultivator from Northern Italy, but at present Argentina is big enough for both. Droughts and locusts are the curse of the agriculturist, and one of the chief matters of State policy is discussion of the means of destroying the winged pest. As yet no effectual means have been discovered, yet even locusts put but a slight check upon the exuberant fertility of the country.1 Drought is a more serious danger, for the normal rainfall of Argentina is barely sufficient for its needs, but in many districts the defect can be mitigated by irrigation. Apart from the Province of Buenos Aires, where the average rainfall is something over 30 inches, the following figures relating to several widely sepa rated towns will give some idea of the general climate of the Republic. Rosario has 46 inches, Tucuman 39, Cordoba 26, Salta 23, Bahia Blanca 19, La Rioja 12, Mendoza 6. The river system of Argentina consists 1 See Koebel, Argentina Past and Present, pp. 206-16. 30 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA chiefly of the huge streams which discharge them selves into the Plate estuary. The Parana rises far away in the mountains of Brazil, and first touches Argentina in the Province of Misiones, near the famous Iguazu Falls. ~ Then it forms the southern boundary of the Republic of Paraguay, and a little north of Corrientes absorbs the Paraguay River, and turning abruptly south, makes its way to the Plate. The breadth at Rosario, some 200 miles from Buenos Aires, is 20 miles, and it is estimated that during the floods the volume of wafer rolled down to the sea is 1,650,000 cubic feet a second. Its noble tributary, the Paraguay, receives two large affluents, the Pilcomayo and the Bermejo, which both drain the northern parts of the Gran Chaco. The River Uruguay divides Argentina from the little Republic of that name and Brazil, meeting the many mouths of the Parana some distance to the north of Buenos Aires. In the arid west several large rivers, such as the Mendoza and the Dolce, fail to find their way to the Plate and lose themselves in sands or morasses. In Patagonia the chief streams are the Colorado, the Negro, the Chubut, the Deseado, the Chico, the Santa Cruz and the Gallegos. Every Argentine river necessarily flows east or south, for the Andes form an impenetrable barrier to the Pacific. The excellence of the Parana as a waterway has caused Rosario, within some fifty years, to grow from an insignificant village to a town of 200,000 inhabitants, and the opening up of the Pampas by great lines of railways has enabled the produce to be brought to the sea for export. The lakes of Argentina are numerous and are found in all parts of the country ; there are many hundreds in the Province of Buenos Aires alone. The largest are in Patagonia. In ancient times the major part of the country was covered by the great Pampean Sea. The Pampas, ARGENTINA 31 formerly submerged, are now overlaid with loess. The Andes consist of gneiss, granite and schist. The greater part of the country is quaternary, but the north-east is sandstone of uncertain age. The flora of Argentina varies greatly and falls into three geographical divisions — the tropical and sub tropical north, the treeless Pampas, and the deserts and forests of the south. In the north the palm is the most characteristic tree, and the wax palm (Copernicia cerifera) is the most important variety. The pindo (Cocos australis) is also common. The algarroba (Prosopis) is a valuable tree, and much valuable timber is to be obtained, including the quebracho, the urunday, and the lapacho. The Pampas, as is well known, are in many places covered by the pampa grass (Gynerium argenteum), but the grass varies considerably, and the thistle is an unwelcome European intruder. The paraiso (Melia azedarach) has been introduced, and is one of the few trees that flourish here. The Pampas are said by Hudson to be the poorest in floral species of any fertile district of the globe. In the desert parts of Patagonia the vegetation is mostly scrub. In the humid west there are dense forests, the beech being common. The fauna of Argentina is less imposing than was the case in prehistoric times, when huge mammoths, as is proved by numerous remains, used to roam the Pampas. The typical South American animals — jaguars, pumas, tapirs, monkeys — are numerous in the north. The birds are very various and very gay in plumage. To the plains jaguars and pumas have been attracted by the herds of cattle, but the guanaco is there the chief animal. The ostrich {Rhea Ameri cana) is common. An interesting animal is the viscacha {Lagostomus trichodactylus), which burrows in the earth and lives on friendly terms with the burrowing owl. Reptiles are not important, and the 32 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA alligator is invariably small. In some places ticks and other parasites are troublesome. The most remark able and the most satisfactory feature of the Argentine fauna is the immense number of cattle and sheep, which were introduced early in the sixteenth century, and, having flourished in a surprising manner, now constitute a main source of the country's wealth. The Republic is divided into 14 Provinces and 10 Territories. Of the Provinces the most populous are Buenos Aires,, Santa Fe, Cordoba, Corrientes and Tucuman. The Territories are undeveloped regions which, roughly speaking, make a northern, western and southern fringe round the heart of the Republic, and their population is extremely scanty. For example, the territory of Santa Cruz has an area of 109,142 square miles and an estimated population of 4,394. The prosperity of Argentina has made it attractive to immigrants from Southern Europe. Population is the Republic's great need, and they flock rapidly in ; but there is unfortunately a considerable outflow, because in bad times some of them seek new fields, and, further, many peasants come over from Europe for the harvest only, and return to their homes when it has been reaped. The following figures show the tendency in recent years : — Year. Immigrants. Emigrants. Excess in favour of Immigration. 1904 125,567 38,923 86,644 I9°S 177,117 42,869 134,248 1906 252:536 60,124 192,412 1907 209,103 90,190 118,913 1908 255.7IO 85,412 170,298 I909 231,084 94,644 136,440 1910 289,640 97,854 191,786 191 1 225,772 107,632 118,140 I912 348,570 142,460 206,110 ARGENTINA 33 The nationality 1857 and 1911 of the various immigrants between is shown : — Italians . Spaniards French .. Russians Syrians .. Austrians Germans British Swiss Portuguese North Americans 2,052,925 1,132,460 201,732 115,827 89,442 74,!9i5o,73i 48,526 30,619 16,419 5,010 The following is the analysis for 191 1 Spaniards Italians ... Austrians Germans SwissFrench ... British ... 118,723 58,185 24,78523,45o 16,694 4,916 !,730 In the eighties there was a large influx which was checked by the financial crisis of 1891, but now the figures are as high as ever. In this movement the Italians have played a great part, and Argentina has been called " Italy's finest colony," but there is no doubt that the country would fill up more rapidly if better inducements were offered to small rural pro prietors. The immigration law is liberal, although all males born in Argentina are liable to military service. The Consul-General of Argentina in London has given the following advice : " The best chances of employ ment are, of course, for those who can speak some Spanish and are farm labourers, dairymen, or stock men of practical experience ; but mechanics are in fair demand, especially in the building and allied 34 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA trades. Clerks, shop assistants, and others in search of office work, etc., are strongly advised not to emigrate, unless they can count beforehand on a good chance of immediate employment. Persons with some capital, not burdened by families having many members unable to work, may find good openings even in towns ; but as a rule there is more chance of success in agricultural or pastoral enterprises." Although there is a flourishing Welsh colony at Chubut, in Patagonia, Argentina in general is not a place for the " small man " from the United Kingdom. In the higher grades of manual and other labour there are numerous openings, but the post should be secured before leaving home. In his latest Report the British Consul-General at Buenos Aires says : " In the early part of 19P13 the distress among immigrants from the United Kingdom became so acute that a warning had to be issued by the Emigrants' Information Office in London. This warning applies with special force to unskilled work men and clerks in search of speculative employment in Argentina." The fact is that Argentina is not a country for the English labourer, who cannot possibly compete with the Spanish or Italian peasant, nor, as has been already indicated, has the population problem been yet settled to the extent of making Argentina attractive as a permanent home even for the peasant of Southern Europe. The Report says : " English men should bear in mind that Argentina is not a manufacturing country, and those who do not bring sufficient money with them to take up holdings and work them incur great risk in venturing to this country. At present the national Government does not make any gratuitous land grants as an inducement to the intending settler. With enormous tracts of valuable land lying idle in the almost unpopulated' ARGENTINA 35 districts, the problem of labour supply is naturally one of vital consequence, and it is now being urged that it is by withholding the offer of cheap land and proper protection to the settler that the large exodus continues unchecked either by the great natural re sources of the country or *the remarkable fertility of the soil." Products and Industries In 1912 the imports amounted to ... £76,970,700 „ exports „ ... 91,878,300 These figures are a record for the foreign trade. The imports chiefly consist of textiles, coal, every kind of railway and building material, locomotives, machinery and agricultural implements, pitch-pine, naphtha, petroleum and various oils, sackcloth, motor cars, yerba mate and wine. The following countries had the chief share in the import trade : — United Kingdom •¦ £23,733,800 Germany 12,788,300 United States 11,825,900 France 7,523,700 Italy 6,497,400 Belgium 4,074,100 Spain 2,385,700 Brazil .,. 1,909,400 Great Britain has long occupied a most command ing position in the trade of Argentina, and her activity continues to expand, but relatively it cannot be said that her position has improved. A few years ago Great Britain sent to Argentina more goods than the United States, Germany and Belgium combined ; now it will be seen that this is far from being the case. All honest competition is welcomed, but it should be added that some of the methods of the 36 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA United States are neither beneficial to foreign traders nor to Argentina herself. The trust methods, while restricting competition, increase the cost of Hving, and it is the duty of the Argentine Government to take sharp measures against those who endeavour to enrich themselves at the cost of all others. In coal, railway material, textiles, especially cottons and many kinds of metal goods, Great Britain has the largest share. The bulk of the sackcloth comes from India. Motor-cars come principally from France, agricul tural machinery, naphtha and petroleum from the United States, general machinery, paper, jewellery and many small items from Germany. In Sheffield and Birmingham goods the market is being lost to Germany, and in several other branches our firms have not maintained their ground. However, British trade in Argentina is undoubtedly in a most flourish ing condition. This result is due largely to the immense amount of capital which our investors have entrusted to the Republic. In this respect France comes next ; her capitalists have of late shown con siderable energy in the Republic, and the amount of French capital invested stands at nearly 50 millions sterling. The exports fall into two great groups — agricultural products (chiefly grain) and pastoral products (chiefly meat and wool). The following countries are most prominent in the export trade : — United Kingdom £24,274,700 Germany 10,799,000 Belgium 7,451,600 France 7,210,400 United States 6,478,200 Brazil 4,529,300 Italy 4,029,600 Holland 3,205,400. ARGENTINA 37 Our country is exceptionally situated for trade with Argentina, as we require food and raw material and Argentina needs manufactured goods and coal. On the other hand, the United States produces much the same staples as Argentina, and therefore buys com paratively little in her markets. Apart from Brazil, the trade with other South American Republics is surprisingly small ; that with her neighbours, Chile, Bolivia and Uruguay, is hardly worth mentioning. This is partly the result of jealous protection, but it is very noticeable that the various Republics have few dealings with one another and take little interest in what is happening over the border, unless a boundary dispute happens to be in progress. Chilian news papers are hardly ever seen in Argentina, and vice versa. The wheat production of Argentina increased at an enormous pace during the early years of the present century, reaching in 1908 the figure of 5,238,700 tons, but of late years it has been adversely affected by the drought. There are now 17,000,000 acres under wheat, but, if labour were available, it would be easy to increase the area to 80,000,000 acres. Owing to this lack of population and the uncertainty of the rainfall, the Republic cannot be implicitly relied upon as an exporter, and, further, the methods of cultivation are entirely extensive, and thus produce very indif ferent results, considering the acreage. Mr. A. Stuart Pennington remarks : " The average yield per acre in the United Kingdom is 31 bushels, in Manitoba (Canada) 19 bushels, the United States 13 bushels ; but in Argentina it rarely exceeds 12 bushels per acre, and is, as a rule, nearer 10." The following figures show the fluctuations in wheat exports : — 38 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Tons In 1908 the wheat exported was... ... 3,500,000 „ 1909 J) tl ... 2,514,100 „ 1910 ft a ... 1,883,600 „ 191 r ij )t '•• ... 2,285,900 ,, 19" ii ,, . . . 2,629,000 The chief corn-bearing region lies in the Provinces ,of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, Entre Rios and the Central Pampas. With irrigation Patagonia might be a great wheat-growing district. Argentina now exports more maize than any other country. In 1910 the crop was a failure, but in 1909 the production was 4,450,000 tons, and in 1911 it was 7,515,000 tons. In linseed also the Republic heads the list of exporting countries, producing yearly about 600,000 tons. Alfalfa has of late become an astonishingly produc tive crop, and is of the utmost value to the estancieros, who are thus able to fatten stock quickly. In 1912 the yield was 4,031,300 tons. Oats are cultivated to a considerable extent. Sugar is a large crop, and Tucuman is the centre of the industry ; it is perhaps more completely dependent upon protection than any other industry of its size in the world. The vine is a valuable crop, and to the production of wine the Province of Mendoza contributes by far the largest share. The total yield is over 40 million gallons. A traveller says : " The most popular wines are red and white clarets, the better qualities of which are excel lent, but many other kinds are made. The country wine is by no means as cheap as it ought to be, owing to high protection. Although this excellent industry is rapidly increasing, it does not go near to supplying home consumption ; indeed, the value of the imports of wines and spirits is slightly in exSess of the total production. The export of wine is, of course, prac tically nil, for neighbouring countries follow the ARGENTINA 39 example of Argentina in protecting their own vine yards by high tariffs and every kind of fomento." Tobacco is not a very important crop, and the acreage has lately fallen from 40,000 to 24,400 acres. Little is at present done in the way of growing cotton, but the possibilities of that crop in the Chaco are enor mous. The sub-tropical region in the north yields much valuable timber, the best being the famous red quebracho (Lozopterigium lorentzii). In 191 1 there were exported 473,644 tons of quebracho logs, and the extract of quebracho is very valuable for tanning purposes. The pastoral industries are the oldest in the country, having been founded in 1536, when Pedro de Men doza set down 72 horses and mares in the country. The Spaniards also introduced cattle and sheep, and the export of hides soon became a flourishing busi ness. The following is the census of animals in Argentina : — - Sheep 67,211,754 Cattle 29,116,625 Horses 7,531,376 Goats 3,245,086 Hogs -¦ 1,403,59! Mules 46S,o37 Donkeys 285,088 Their value is estimated at some ^129,000,000. Immense pains were taken during the latter half of the nineteenth century to improve the breed of horned cattle, and the results are to be seen in the magnificent herds in all parts of the Pampas. The Durhams are, on the whole, the favourite breed, crossing well with the native stock, and are specially valuable when lucerne can be obtained. They are largely employed by the well-known Bovril Company. Next in favour comes the Hereford, the white-faced, red-bodied 40 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA animal that flourishes exceedingly on the Pampa grass. They are employed by the Lemco andOxo estancias. The Aberdeen Angus is also highly esteemed. Equal pains have been taken to improve the breed of horses, and a glance at any show-list or racing programme will show the high value placed upon English blood-stock. The improvements in the methods of slaughter, and especially in chilling and freezing meat, have caused a rapid expansion in the cattle trade. The life on the estancia has been a favourite theme for the pen of the descriptive writer, but conditions are both more luxurious and more scientific than they were in old days. The merino sheep, which the Spaniards introduced, ran wild for nearly two centuries, and became poor and coarse. Early in the nineteenth century pure-bred rams were re-introduced from Spain, and the export of merino wool became large, but experience gradually showed that the rich pastures of Argentina were far more suitable to English breeds than to the merino, and, as the English also afforded better mutton, they were preferred, and a hardy cross-breed came into favour. At present seven-eighths of the wool exported is cross-bred. The Lincoln is the favourite breed, but in Patagonia the hardy Romney Marsh is pre ferred. In 191 1 the wool export was 330,836 bales. The trade in frozen mutton is less than in beef, but is very considerable ; in 1912 the export was valued at £1,123,000. Considerable mineral wealth is known to exist, but hitherto its development has been insig nificant and far from lucrative, although there is a famous mine at Famatina, in the Province of Rioja, where gold, silver, and copper are produced. Hardly any coal is found. Great interest has been taken in the numerous discoveries of petroleum which have ARGENTINA 41 been made in many parts of the Republic — in Jujuy, in Salta, at San Cristobal in Santa Fe, in Mendoza, and, in particular, in Commodoro Rivadavia ' in Chubut. It is expected that the annual output will soon be nearly 30,000 tons. The lack of coal is likely to prevent Argentina from becoming a con siderable manufacturing country. The only important manufactures are the semi-rural ones of sugar, wine, milling, and meat-preserving. The sugar mills employ most hands. There are said to be over 30,000 factories in Argentina, which, it will be seen, are small, as they employ only 329,490 workers. They include brick works, boot factories, sawmills, carriage works, tobacco factories, tanneries, breweries, wool factories, match factories, and many others. Unlike Brazil, Argentina has very few cotton-mills, possibly owing to the drier climate. Although the Republic has failed to develop manufactures on a large scale, a high protective tariff is in force with this object, and thus living is very expensive. The latest Consular Report issued at Buenos Aires says : " In common with other progres sive countries, Argentina has experienced an almost continuous rise in the prices of food-stuffs and manu factured goods ; 191 2 shows an appreciable increase in the cost of living. This increase is particularly noticeable in the prices of articles of prime necessity. The rise at the outset was accompanied by an increase in the rate of wages, but the proportion has not been maintained, and the working-man is consequently the sufferer. ... The question has also come before Congress with a view to lowering the customs duties on articles of primary necessity." Bread and rent have gone up in price to an alarming extent during the last few years. Nothing has done more to create industries in Argentina than the railways. There are now about 42 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA 20,000 miles of railway in operation. Much informa tion about them may be obtained from a little book entitled the Manual of Argentine Railways, by S. H. M. Killik, which is published annually in London. Only 12 .per cent, of the total mileage is owned by the State. There are four great lines which, like many of the numerous smaller Argentine railways, are under British management and have been built with British capital. 1. The Buenos Aires Great Southern principally serves the great Province of Buenos Aires, and is now extending far beyond Bahia Blanca, originally the southernmost point, and will eventually pass through the territory of Neuquen and penetrate through the Andes into Chile. Its mileage, which is 3,641, is larger than that of any other Argentine line, and 691 additional miles will soon be open. 2. The Buenos Aires and Pacific is the only railway in South America which has succeeded in linking together the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, for, thanks to its enterprise, a railway journey may now be made from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso. The last link in the chain was forged in April, 1910, when the tunnel connecting Chile with Argentina was opened. The company is, therefore, justified in its proud title of Pacific. It has 3,416 miles in operation. 3. The Buenos Aires Western, having made a small beginning in 1857, is the oldest of Argentine railways. It runs from the capital to Mercedes, and then takes a southern course, serving a rich wheat country, and eventually reaching Bahia Blanca. It has a mileage of 1,781. 4. The Central Argentine, an extremely well-managed line, connects Buenos Aires firstly with Rosario and afterwards with Cordoba and Tucuman, far away to the north-east. Although severe competition is en- ARGENTINA 43 countered on certain parts of the route, it is probably the most prosperous railway in the whole of Argentina. It carries an immense quantity of grain. The mileage is 3,067, and many extensions and improvements are being made. All these four lines are broad gauge, 5^ feet, while the other lines, numerous but mostly English, employ a variety of gauges. The British capital invested in railways alone is estimated at £194,500,000, and banks, tramways and other enterprises account for about ^40,000,000 more. The railway policy of the Argentine Government has always been strongly in favour of private enterprise as against any form of Government management, but under the Mitre Law there is an excellent provision under which those railway companies that accept it pay a tax of 3 per cent, of their net receipts, and the sum raised is spent in constructing and maintaining roads and bridges which give access to the lines. This is all the more necessary because Argentine roads are not, generally speaking, good. Almost every book upon the Republic describes the railways. In the notes upon the towns some particulars are given about the various means of communication. Coinage The real monetary unit is the gold dollar ; $5.04 are equivalent to the pound sterling. There is not, however, "any gold or silver coin in general circulation, and none has been for many years. Paper money constitutes the circulating medium of the country, and $100 paper (termed moneda nacional) have the exchangeable value of $44 gold. This state of things has been in force since 1899, when the Conversion Law was passed. In 1912 the paper money in circula- 44 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA tion was 722,924,213 paper pesos. The Banco de la Nacion Argentina has a capital of 120,999,950 paper pesos. Finance In 1912 the revenue was £29,377>100 „ „ expenditure was £28,776,000 The internal debt is £46,345,000, and the external £58,276,000. Although the revenue is large and expanding, the expenditure usually exceeds it, for the finances are in a state of considerable confusion, which is regretted by business men. About five-sixths of the gold revenue comes from customs duties. In spite of haphazard methods of finance, the credit of Argentina is good, owing to her immense wealth, and her 4 per cent, gold loans are usually quoted at 90 or there abouts. History When the Spaniards and Portuguese first came to South America the country now called Argentina was principally inhabited in the south by the warlike Araucanians, and in the north by the more docile Guaranies. We have but scanty information about them, and the history of the country may be said to begin in 15 16, when the first European sailed up the River Plate. This was Juan Diaz de Sblis, a brave navigator dispatched by the King of Castile, but his fate was tragic, for on landing he and his boat crew were killed and eaten by savages, so that the remainder of the crew, horrified by their com mander's fate, made the best of their way home ; and an exploring expedition by Cabot, made ten years later, left no permanent results. It was in 1535 that the Spaniards made their first attempt at a colony, when ARGENTINA 45 Pedro de Mendoza appeared with a large expedition" and founded the city of Buenos Aires — "so named in regard to the freshness of the air." The colonists suffered great hardships from privations and the hostility of the Indians, and Buenos Aires was twice abandoned during the early stages of its struggling existence ; but Asuncion, far to the north, was much more successful under the governorship of the able Irala, who kept the Spanish flag flying, and thus a base of operations was established, which enabled the Spaniards to spread their power in several directions. From Asuncion the enterprising Juan de Garay pushed southward, and in 1573 founded Santa Fe at the junction of the Parana and Paraguay. In 1580 he founded Buenos Aires for the third time, and the city very quickly began to prosper, and became an important emporium for the trade in hides. Although but forty-five years had elapsed since the Spaniards had introduced horses and horned cattle, the Pampas were already grazed by vast herds of wild cattle. The well-being of the young settlement was largely due to the wise Governor Hernan Darias, whose dealings with the Indians were at once firm and humane. Under him, in 1620, Buenos Aires was .separated from Asuncion and became a separate governorship, but both colonies remained under the viceroyalty of Peru. The history of Spanish Argentina is, on the whole, prosperous and un eventful. In those days colonies were looked upon as "plantations" existing for the benefit of the mother country, and all writers have denounced the illiberality of the Spanish economic policy, which ordered Buenos Aires to trade with Cadiz by way of Peru and the Isthmus of Panama. This illiberality, however, was common to all nations ; the laws were easily evaded, and a brisk contraband 46 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA trade grew up with the English and Dutch. Out of this arose quarrels with England, and these (together with Indian wars and constant hostility from the Portuguese, both on the Brazilian border and at Nova Colonia in Uruguay), make up the main disturbing events in the first two centuries of Argentine history. The disputes with England came to a head in the notorious war of Jenkins's Ear, so unwillingly begun by Walpole in 1739. The result was inconclusive, but it illustrates the fierce struggle for markets which then, as now, was one of the chief motive powers of States. The Spanish colonial system, though hard to alter, was beginning to crumble, and in 1773 there was a further disintegrating stroke in the expulsion of the Jesuits, who had long been protectors and civilizers of the Indians in the upper part of the Plate District. In 1776 the Spaniards began enlightened reforms. Buenos Aires was freed from servitude to Peru and placed under a separate viceroy, who ruled over such parts of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay as were then accessible to the Spaniards. At the same time free trade was established between Buenos Aires and Spain. But these changes did not avert the coming storm. The revolt of the North American colonies had caused in the civilized world a great ferment, which was intensified by the French Revolution, and the doctrine of the Rights of Man began to make head way in South America. That it would bear any immediate fruit in Argentina seemed improbable, but a momentous event — the English expedition — showed the people the weakness of Spain, and gave them con fidence in their own strength. As Spain was in alliance with France, the British Government- directed expeditions against the Spanish colonies in the Plate ARGENTINA 47 district, and Montevideo, having been taken and lost in 1806, was captured a second time in 1807, anc* from this base the pusillanimous Whitelocke, who had arrived at the head of a fine army, began operations against Buenos Aires. The troops forced their way into the town, but met with a severe check from the Creoles, who fought with unexpected skill and determination and Whitelocke made a most dis graceful capitulation, by which he agreed to evacuate both Buenos Aires and Montevideo. The expedition retired ignobly from the Plate River on September 9, 1807, and Whitelocke, it is some satisfaction to know, was tried by court-martial and cashiered. The only permanent result of this affair was that it opened the eyes of British merchants to the enormous value of the Argentine market. Within less than two years the men of Buenos Aires learned that Spain was helpless, and had been practically annexed by France ; they therefore called upon the Spanish viceroy to form a Pro visional Government, which was done on May 25, 1810, and this is held to be the beginning of the Revolution. The resistance of Spain, comparatively feeble in these parts, was shattered by Belgrano's victory at Tucuman in 181 1, and henceforth Argentina was chiefly engaged in securing the independence of the rest of South America through the exploits of her heroic general, San Martin, and in suppressing anarchy at home. This last was by far the longest task. In 1825 Argentina stood forth as a Republic in the polity of nations, having been recognized by Great Britain and the United States. But several ferocious tyrants sprang up and made the constitution a dead letter, until in 1835 the crafty Rosas established absolute dominion and put all rivals to death. Like the dictatorship of Francia, the tyranny of Rosas is one of the best-known circum- tances in South American history, but the Argentine 48 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA was a baser and more cruel man than the Paraguayan, and his fall and exile in 1852 were greeted with universal approval. The history of the Republic went on unprosperously, for progress was retarded by the formidable war with Paraguay (see pp. 250-1), and by quarrels between the Porteiios, who wished the Port (i.e. Buenos Aires) to be the head of a strong centralized Government, and their rivals, who wished for a Confederation. Eventually the Porteiios may be said to have triumphed, for Argentina is undoubtedly a Federation, and the President at Buenos Aires has tolerably effective powers over the Provinces. It was about the year 1870 that Argentina, having obtained peace abroad and, to a lesser extent, at home, began the career of prosperity which is the most remarkable phenomenon in modern industrial history, and has hitherto had no bounds put upon it, except lack of population. This prosperity led to over-speculation, and the well-known financial and political crisis of 1891, but there was a rapid recovery, which, however, appeared likely to be checked by the prospect of a war with Chile over a serious boundary dispute. Both countries, to their honour, agreed to submit the matter to the arbitration of King Edward VII, but the task of delimiting Argentine Patagonia from Chile was very difficult, and several times the disputants seemed to be on the verge of war. In 1902 the dispute was happily settled, and its settlement is greatly to the credit of General Roca, the President, who helped to calm the angry passions of two proud nations. In 1904 his term of office came to an end and Dr. Manuel Quintana took his place. He died in 1906, and his place was taken by Vice-President Senor Alcorta. At the beginning of 1908 there were disturbances, accom panied by an attempt upon the life of President Alcorta, but they did not lead to any very serious ARGENTINA 49 result. Vague rumours of impending trouble with Brazil, based on the increase of naval armaments by both countries, were emphatically denied, and subsequent events seemed to show that they had no foundation. In 1910 Dr. Saenz Peiia was elected unopposed to the Presidency, and in the same year the Centenary was celebrated by the holding of industrial exhibitions in the capital and by the reception of foreign delegates from all parts of the world. These celebrations gave occasion to reaffirm the long-standing friendship between Argentina and Great Britain, but they were somewhat marred by anarchist demonstrations and threats of a general strike, which caused the capital to be placed in a state of siege. As has been well pointed out by Mr. Stuart Pennington, this measure is not a proclamation of martial law, but corresponds to the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act in Great Britain or Ireland. The vigorous measures of the Government had their proper effect, and now Argentina is not only prosperous, as has long been the case, but also tranquil. For the last few years the Republic has had no history. The Constitution. It is Federal in type, being less centralized than that of Chile, but more so than that of Brazil. The President, who is elected for six years, is assisted by eight Secretaries of State. The National Congress consists of a Senate of 30 members and a House of Deputies of 120 members. BUENOS AIRES Steamship Lines — Buenos Aires is a great shipping centre. The various lines and their rates of passage have been mentioned in the Introduction. These are the Royal Mail So A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Steam Packet Company and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, the Lamport and Holt, the Houlder, the Nelson, the Hamburg-American, and the Royal Holland. Several Italian and French companies run good fast steamers from various continental ports, and there is through communica tion by the Lamport and Holt Line between Buenos Aires and New York. Practically all these lines touch at the Brazilian ports and most at Monte Video. Ships belonging to the New Zealand Shipping Company call here on their homeward voyage. The Lloyd Brazileiro have a coastal service from Brazilian ports to Buenos Aires. Vessels of the Royal Mail and the Pacific Companies and also of the Lamport and Holt proceed round the Horn to Pacific ports. There is a good service of steamers up the Parana River ; the Lloyd Brazileiro and many other companies dispatch steamers to Rosario, Parana, Corrientes, Asuncion (Para guay), Corumba (Brazil), and many other fluvial ports. The ships come up to the quay. It is easy to land, but the conveyance of luggage to the hotels is difficult and expensive, and the cabs are indifferent. Railways — Some description has already been given of the railways. Unlike every other capital in South America, Buenos Aires is the heart of the national railway system, and is quite as important a railway centre as London. In the Paseo de Julio is the Retiro, the terminus of the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway. This is the point of departure for Mendoza and Valparaiso. The journey to Mendoza takes 33-J- hours and the first-class fare is £5 5s. This includes a sleeping-berth ; it is a very comfortable journey. A ticket for lunch, dinner and early coffee on the train may be obtained for ios. 6d. This station (the Retiro) is shared with the Central Argentine Railway, which is the line for Rosario, Cordoba, and Tucuman. The first-class fare to Tucuman is £4 15s., and there are restaurants and sleeping cars. The Buenos Aires Great Southern has its terminal station in the Plaza de la Constitucion, and is the point of departure for Mar del Plata and Bahia Blanca. To Mar del Plata the journey takes 9 hours and the first-class fare is £2 12s. 6d. To Bahia Blanca the journey takes about 14 hours and the. price of a first-class ticket is £2 18s. 6d. The trains are provided with restaurants and sleeping-berths. Hotels — Much has been written about the hotels of Buenos ARGENTINA 51 Aires, and much might be said both for and against them. The following are among the principal : The Plaza, Plaza San Martin ; the Royal, Calle Corrientes, 780 ; the Palace, Calle 25 de Mayo, 221 ; the Majestic, Avenida de Mayo ; the Grand, Calle Florida, 25. These are extremely expensive hotels, ranging from about £1 a day up to a very large amount, and they are very sumptuous. The Royal is much frequented by diplomatists. The Grand, in the fashionable Calle Florida, is perhaps the most expensive. The Phoenix, Calle San Martin, 780, will probably suit English visitors best. The charge is 17s. 6d. a day, and the cuisine and accommodation are good ; it is under English management. The Hotel Provence, much frequented by English, is moderate in its charges — about ios. 6d. a day ; it is com fortable and old-fashioned. The Londres and the Mayo are finely situated in the Plaza de Mayo. Rooms can be taken with or without board, at moderate prices, and fine restaurants are attached. The proprietors of each are Italians. Among the numerous restaurants may be mentioned the Sportsman, the Charpentier, the Royal Kellar, the Bal- domeros, the Harguindequey, and the Brunswick (charges moderate). British Consul — British Minister, Sir Reginald T. Tower. Naval Attache, Captain H. C. Grant. Military Attache, Lieut.-Colonel Sir E. Grogan. First Secretary, H. W. Gaisford. Consul-General, H. G. A. Mackie. Vice-Consuls, W. G. C. Gardner, P. E. Davies, C. F. A. Bristow. Banks — London and River Plate, Anglo-South American Bank, British Bank of South America, London and Brazilian Bank, Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata, Banco de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Newspapers — Buenos Aires is celebrated for its excellent journalism. Some 400 journals of all descriptions and languages are published in the city. The two great morning newspapers, La Nacion and La Prensa, are up to the best European standard, while La Argentina (circulation about 200,000) is a most enterprising paper. Other morning papers are El Pais, El Tiempo, El Diario de Comercio, and El Correo Espanol. Evening journals are La Razon and El Diario. There are two excellent English dailies, the 52 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Standard and the Buenos Aires Herald, while French journalism is represented by Le Courier de La Plata, German by Deutsche la Plata Zeitung and Argentenisches Tageblatt, and Italian by La Patria Degli Italiani. The English weekly, the Review of London and River Plate, is well known, as also is Caras y Car etas, a cleverly illustrated weekly publication. The Revista de Economica y Finanzas comes out every fort night. M. Walle ' says of La Nacion and La Prensa : " These are the two giants of South American journalism, and they have no reason to envy English or American newspapers. In these journals we find fewer trivial scraps of news and less to stir up popular passion than in many of our own papers, and we are kept in perfect touch with the life and general affairs of the country." Argentina has fortunately taken France instead of the United States as its model in journalism, and the articles, reviews and general contributions have a real literary touch, and the service of news is superior to that of Parisian journals. La Nacion belongs to the family of the famous Bartholome Mitre ; it is a high- class Liberal paper. The magnificent offices of La Prensa in the Avenida de Mayo are said to be the finest in the world. The Standard was founded by Mulhall, a member of one of the best-known Anglo-Argentine families. English Church — Buenos Aires has an old-established church, dedicated to St. John. Buenos Aires, the second Latin city in the world, has a population which is estimated at 1,439,528. The traveller may be disappointed with the approach up the great Plate estuary, for the coast is almost dead level with the water and no imposing view can be obtained of the " City of Good Air," but on landing he will be amazed by its size and general magnificence. The best time to visit Buenos Aires is either in March or October, but the climate is tolerably good all the year round, -the hottest weather occurring about Christmas-time. The temperature hardly ever falls below freezing-point, and probably at no time more than two degrees. The mean temperature is about 1 L' Argentine telle qu'elle est, p. 126. ARGENTINA S3 6o° Fahr. ; the maximum 1030. Buenos Aires is described by its residents as " undoubtedly one of the healthiest cities in the world." The death-rate per 1,000 is 15*2 and the birth-rate 34*31. Like Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires has been trans formed in modern times. Not many years ago the buildings were low and in the Spanish style, but, beginning with the era of feverish prosperity before 1891, the citizens pulled down the old houses and set up tall erections in various styles of architecture. Unfortunately, they were not able to plan their town on the spacious scale of the Brazilian capital, and, in fact, they were obliged to keep almost exactly to the old lines, owing to the enormous cost of land. Undoubtedly the streets are too narrow for the traffic and obscure the effect of the sumptuous buildings, which rise up luxuriantly in the Calle Florida and other fashionable parts ; the only broad street in this district is the Avenida de Mayo, which in recent years was driven through the centre at great cost. It runs from the Plaza de Mayo in the east, near the dockyards, until it meets, in the west, the street of Entre Rios at right angles. This street is more than a mile in length and about 36 feet broad ; it is fringed by magnificent shops, hotels, clubs, and offices, and is one of the handsomest modern thoroughfares in the world. It is easy to find one's way about Buenos Aires, as far as the central parts are concerned, for the town is laid out on the Spanish plan with the streets at right angles ; if the pedestrian is walking from east to west, he is certain sooner or later to pass every street that runs north and south. The principal east and west streets are Tucu man, Lavalle, Corrientes, Cuyo, Cangallo, Bartolome Mitre, Rivadavia, Avenida de Mayo, Victoria. These are crossed by 25 de Mayo, RecOnquista, San Martin, Florida, Maipu, Esmeralda, Suipachu, Pellegrini, 54 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Cerrito. This parallelogram, which embraces about a square mile, includes practically all the town part of Buenos Aires which he need see. The more distant points will form objects of separate excursions. This congested spot is Buenos Aires ; the impression invariably given is one of bustle, wealth, and luxury. Those who have made money love to spend it royally, and one of the best described South American scenes ' is the Avenida Alvear, leading to the park at Palermo, along which pour magnificent equipages carrying ladies whose toilets show that expense is no consideration. The chief shopping street is the Calle Florida, whose fine buildings are obscured by the narrowness of the thoroughfare. In Buenos Aires the objects of interest are so numerous that it is difficult to know where to begin with their description. A beginning may be made with the parks and squares. A beautiful feature of Buenos Aires is the number of squares or plazas, but unfortunately most of them are situated at some distance from the centre. Noteworthy are the Plaza de Mayo, which contains the Government Palace, the Municipal Palace, and the Cathedral ; the Plaza Lavalle, a large square containing a statue of General Lavalle ; the Plaza San Martin at the termination of the street of that name and the Calle Florida, which has a statue of the great Argentine general ; the Plaza de Libertad, the Plaza de la Constitucion, and many others. A most charming park is 3 de Febrero at Palermo, which is the Bois de Boulogne of South America. Adjoining it is the Zoological Garden, which contains a very large and varied collection of animals. Still farther away is the fine park, the 9 de Julio, which is modelled upon the Champs-Elys^es. The two principal race-courses are at Palermo and Belgrano. Here valuable thorough breds contend for rich prizes ; the wealthy Argentinos have spared no trouble or expense in improving their ARGENTINA 55 horse-flesh and have imported many of the best English stallions. The racing season is from March to December. The entrance to the grand stand is 12s. 6d. At Palermo and at the numerous grounds in the outskirts of the city polo, football, cricket, golf, lawn-tennis, and many other games and sports are pursued vigorously, the Argentino having taken kindly to them, largely under English tuition, for the English have, ever since Whitelocke's expedition, been busy in Argentina both in business and sport. The English visitor will find the social life of Buenos Aires extremely pleasant ; there are two excellent clubs in the Calle Bartolome Mitre— the English Club and the Club de Residentes Estranjeros. The French Club is in Calle Florida, 112, the German in Calle Cordoba, 731. In the Calle Cangallo is the English Literary Society, with a good library. The chief Argentine club is the Jockey Club in the Calle Florida, probably the most sumptuous club in the world ; the entrance fee is enormously high. There are many fine public build ings in Buenos Aires. One of the most prominent is the Palace of Government (Casa Rosada), in the Plaza de Mayo, which stands on the site of the old fort erected by Juan de Garay in 1590. The present edifice, a huge parallelogram about 400 feet long and 250 deep, was built in 1894. Although the two wings are not in architectural harmony, the building has an imposing effect. Besides the Presidential offices, here are lodged those of the Foreign Minister, the Minister of War and several others. At the west end of the Avenida de Mayo is the Congress Hall, a building with a huge dome, whose weight is said to be 30,000 tons. The Hall is in the Greco-Roman style and cost nearly two millions sterling, but in spite of its cost and size, the architecture has been severely criticized. The National Library, Calle Mejico, 560, possesses 180,000 volumes 56 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA and the Library of General Mitre is in the Calle San Martin. The Bolsa (Exchange) is a fine building. The Cathedral, in the Plaza de Mayo, with a handsome facade and large dome, was built in the eighteenth century. It contains a fine monument to General San Martin. In spite of the vast sums which have been spent upon it, Buenos Aires cannot be called a satis factory town, for its streets are too narrow to carry its traffic. The Argentine Baedeker asks : " When shall we have sideways 7 yards broad, like the two rides of Broadway, where the fashionable people expatiate, or ten or twelve, like the boulevards of Paris, which allow the stranger space to drink his coffee and watch the human flood pass by, talking, gesticulating, moving to and fro at ease?" One great advantage is possessed by Buenos Aires in its numerous, rapid and. cheap tramways, which enable the traveller to visit every part of the city. There are many theatres, among which may be ? mentioned the Opera, Calle Corrientes, 860, which is open from May to August and is devoted chiefly to Italian opera ; the Colon, in the Plaza Lavalle, which cost about £"350,000 and is the finest theatre in Latin America — a distinction possessed by several other South American towns ; it is undoubtedly one of the most graceful buildings in the city, being partly Ionic and partly Corinthian ; it will hold 3,500 people — the San Martin, Calle Esmeralda, 257, which deals in comedy and variety shows ; the Odeon in the same street is a comedy theatre ; the Victoria in the street of the same name plays vaudeville ; the National Theatre, Calle Corrientes, 950, intended for native plays ; the New, a finely appointed building in the Avenida de Mayo ; and the Argentino, Calle Bartolome Mitre, 1444, which pro duces French and Italian plays. Among music-halls may be mentioned the Casino, Calle Maipu, 336, the t X ARGENTINA 57 Royal, Calle Corrientes, 829, and La Scala ; but these places of entertainment have little that deserves recommendation. There is a University at Buenos Aires with over 4,000 students. Argentina is less distinguished for culture than many of her smaller neighbours who cannot compare with her in wealth and importance. The energy of the country is chiefly absorbed in money-making) and there is little time for the humanities. The attitude is exemplified by the fol lowing anecdote. An English gentleman said some thing to an Argentine man of business about poetry. *' You talk of poetry," he replied. " Well, Mr. , I never knew any one who cared for poetry make any money on the Bolsa." On the practical side there have been some noteworthy achievements. Calvo (d. 1906) is the author of Derecho Internacional, a work of the highest authority and of world-wide fame. Dr. Luis Maria Drago also has enriched International Law both in terminology and practice. The Drago Doctrine is thus explained in the Annual Register for 1907 : " The Convention (II) embodying, in a modified form, the ' Drago doctrine ' that force must not be used for the recovery of ordinary public debts originating in contracts, was adopted in the ninth plenary sitting of the Conference (October 16th) by thirty-nine votes with five abstentions (among them Venezuela). The Convention, which was described as one of the few successes of the Conference, was not to apply if the debtor State refused or ignored an offer of arbitration, obstructed the process, or repudiated the decision ; and on these points certain South American States made reservations." The Annual Register continues : " This doctrine was put forward in a diplomatic note (December 29, 1902) during the Venezuela crisis by Dr. Luis Maria Drago, then 58 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Argentine Foreign Minister, now a delegate to the Conference. He there maintained that no European State was entitled to intervene by force in the affairs of an American nation, still less to occupy its territory, in order to recover a debt due from its Government to the subjects of the intervening State, such an inter vention being an infringement of the sovereignty of the debtor State and of the principle of the equality of sovereign States. Senor Calvo, an eminent Argentine jurist, had deprecated such intervention in principle, without absolutely excluding it, and had approached, but not precisely asserted, the Drago doctrine." The Drago doctrine is possibly more satisfactory to the smaller Latin American States than to their creditors. The novel has been cultivated with some success by Argentine writers. In 1851 a good romance named Amalia was published by Jose Marmol, a writer who took the elder Dumas as his model. In 1888 there appeared Leon Saldivar, by Carlos Maria Ocantos, which is much admired for its powerful studies of life in Buenos Aires. The most popular Argentine novel, which is generally considered one of the best ever written by a South American author, is La Gloria de Don Ramiro, which was published in Madrid in 1908 by Senor Enrique Larreta. It is an historical romance dealing with the times of Philip II of Spain. The best of all South American histories in the Spanish language, Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay, Buenos Aires y Tucuman, was by the Argentine Dean Funes, who lived through the revolutionary wars ; it was published in Buenos Aires in 1816-17. General Bartolome Mitre wrote valuable Lives of Belgrano and San Martin. During Spanish times the poetry produced in the Plate district was not of much importance, but the revolution inspired many poets, and the Lira Argentina ARGENTINA 59 is a mine of patriotic verse. However, in this favourite Latin American field, it must be admitted that the Argentine harvest is scanty. Esteban Eche- verria, a notable poet, sang in the early years of the Argentine Republic and wrote vigorous lyrics, but he was as much a social reformer and politician as a poet, and his verse took a gloomy cast from his surroundings, which were a living example of the failure of democratic aspirations. He said, " Thou shalt suffer the martyrdom that, for him who is born a poet, is reserved by impious fate." Juan Maria Gutierrez (1809-78) is considered the most complete man of letters produced by Argentina, for the pursuit is usually ancillary to politics or diplomacy. Unlike, again, the generality of Spanish-American poets, he is an open-air writer ; his ode, Amor del Desierto, is an example. Jose Marmol, the novelist, was also a powerful poet and wrote vehemently against the hated tyrant Rosas. There are now, besides the extremely able journalists of Buenos Aires, a number of accomplished literary critics, but Buenos Aires is not, like Rio de Janeiro or Bogota, a centre of culture, and it is significant that most of the literary men contrive to reside abroad, and even, in many cases, publish their works in Europe. Buenos Aires, with its excellent railways, is the best centre in South America for excursions, and the traveller will probably make it his headquarters for a considerable time. The nearest place of interest is La Plata. LA PLATA Railways — The town is reached by the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway ; there is a choice of two routes : (1) from the Casa Amarilla, (2) from the Plaza de la Constitution. 60 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA By the former route Quilmes (Hotel del Progreso) is passed— a small manufacturing town of 5,000 inhabitants, situated 12 miles from the capital. La Plata itself is only 39 miles from Buenos Aires. Hotels— Hotel Mainini, Calle 7 and 50, about 15s.. a day ; Hotel Comercio, Calle 9 and 51, the same charge. Restaurants are the Navarro and the Sportsman. British Consul — Vice-Consul, S. H. Puleston. Banks — Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata. Newspapers — El Dia, Buenos Aires, El Argentina, El Pueblo, La Provincia, Los Debates, El Mercurio, La Reforma, La Verdad. La Plata, with 106,382 inhabitants, is the capital of the Province of Buenos Aires and something of a white elephant among cities. It was founded in 1882 and laid out on a magnificent scale, on the familiar rectangular plan, which is modified by diagonal avenues. The disagreeable North American plan is followed of giving numbers instead of names to the streets. There is a splendid park, planted with tall eucalyptus-trees. Noteworthy buildings are the Government Palace, the University, and the Municipal Buildings. There is a race-course and three theatres — Olimpo, Argentino, and Del Lago. But with all its splendours La Plata is a lifeless city, and all visitors comment upon its want of animation ; it is over shadowed by its great neighbour, Buenos Aires. The great excellence of La Plata is its Museum, standing in the Park, which was founded by F. P. Moreno, the explorer and scientist, in 1884. The architecture is ingeniously symbolistic ; there are fourteen salons and the anthropological and palseonto- logical collections are among the best extant. There is a National University, to which is attached the Astronomical Observatory. From the port of La Plata, which is Ensenada, a great quantity of frozen meat is shipped. ARGENTINA 61 MAR DEL PLATA Railways — The distance from the capital is 340 miles, and the trains of the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway perform the journey in 9$ hours. The station is in the Plaza de la Constitution. The first-class fare is £2 12s. 6d. A seat in the Pullman car is extra. Meals are served on the train. Hotels — The Bristol, a sumptuous hotel, from 30s. a day. Victoria, Royal, Comfortable, Carmen, Progreso, La Perla ; these are good hotels and more economical, charging about 18s. a day. The Hotel Universal charges about 13s. a day ; it has a good name. There are a number of second-class hotels, including the Sportsman, the Frascati, and the Continental, which charge about 9s. a day. A restaurant is attached to the Hotel Bristol, and there is an excellent restaurant, Del Capitan. The usual price of a dinner is 5s. Newspapers — El Progreso, La Razon, El Orden, La Tribuna, La Capital (weekly). Mar del Plata, a fashionable seaside and bathing resort with a population of 15,000, which is trebled by visitors during the season, was founded in 1879. Besides its bathing attractions, which are on an elaborate scale, and the other amusements common to seaside resorts, Mar del Plata is well known fof golf and pigeon-shooting. It is, however, so like other places of the same kind that a detailed description is not necessary. BAHIA BLANCA Railways — Bahia Blanca is 408 miles from the capital and the journey takes about 16 hours ; there is a choice of several routes by the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway (Plaza de la Constitucion). Meals are served on the train. The single first-class fare is about £2. Hotels — Sud Americano, Avenida Colon, 122, from 13s. a day ; Royal, Calle Brown, same price. Also Hotel de Londres, Calle O'Higgins, with good cooking ; Las Nuevas Flores, Calle Chiclana; La Vasconia, Avenida Colon. Among the restaurants may be mentioned the Jockey Club, Calle 62 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA O'Higgins ; El Espanol, Calle Alsina, 166 ; Universal, Calle O'Higgins. British Consul — Vice-Consul, C. C. Cumming. Banks— London and River Plate, Anglo-South American, Banco Espanol de la Rio de la Plata. Newspapers — La Nueva Provincia, El Comercio. Bahia Blanca, with a population of 72,706, is a very modern town, having been founded in 1828 as an out post against the Indians. A few years later Darwin says : " Bahia Blanca scarcely deserves the name of a village. A few houses and the barracks for the troops are enclosed by a deep ditch and fortified wall." In those days it was engaged in constant wars with the Indians, who were ruthlessly exterminated. No his torian, by the way, ever thinks of comparing the treatment of the Indians by Royalist Spain with that meted out to them by Republican South America. The Spanish Governor had to swear an oath to protect the Indians, and this he did unless prevented , by the greed of private exploiters. Nor is it the custom now, as it was in Spanish days, to send missionaries to devote their lives to civilizing the Indians ; at least, such missionaries as are at work do not come from the South American Republics. Even when the warlike Indians had been exterminated, the remote situation prevented expansion, and in 1880 the population was only 2,000. Bahia Blanca received a great access of importance when the Government began to build Puerto Militar, at a distance of 20 miles, which is by far the greatest naval port of the Republic. Mean while the town was rapidly becoming noted for the exportation of wheat ; its commercial prosperity was created by the five railways which give it access to every part of the Province of Buenos Aires. There is a good service of electric tramcars, which belong to the two railway companies. The lighting is chiefly by ARGENTINA 63 electricity, but an English company supplies gas. The Great Southern Railway has a harbour at Ingeniero White, 4J miles from Bahia Blanca, which dates from 1885. Here is accommodation for the largest ships and two huge grain elevators. Port Galvan is a similar harbour belonging to the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway. At Puerto Militar great harbour works are being carried out for the Govern ment by a German firm at a cost of £1,340,000. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company and the Mihanovich and other coasting lines frequently call at Bahia Blanca. The following figures show the importance of the shipping : — 1912 British vessels Others Total Vessels 343 64 407 Tonnage 862,305 167,280 1,029,585 There were also 12 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 14,446. A year or two ago the prosperity of Bahia Blanca suffered seriously from poor harvests, but in 191 2 the exports beat all records, as the following figures show : — Cereals Wool Tons Tons 1907 ... 865,400 84,100 1908 1,215,900 85,170 1909 ... 970,000 80,400 1910 820,900 67,300 1911 504,°OO 65,000 1912 « 1,759,200 93,800 Bahia Blanca is undoubtedly one of the most rising ports in the world, and its population has trebled within a very few years. 64 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA ROSARIO Railways — Rosario is rather more than 180 miles from Buenos Aires, and the journey takes about 6 hours. It can be made most comfortably in the Central Argentine Railway ; meals are served on the train and there are good sleeping berths. The same remark sfpplies to the Buenos Aires and Rosario Railway, whose trains also start from the Retiro. The train passes over flat country through great fields of maize and rich pastures grazed by fat stock, and at times glimpses are caught of the majestic Parana. Rosario can, of course, be reached also by steamboat, and a large number of cargo vessels sail from England direct to this port. Hotels — Hotel Savoy, a first-class and well-appointed house ; the price of a room is from 4s. to ios., and the pension terms vary from 17s. 6d. to 25s, a day, according to the position of the rooms. Britannia, a comfortable hotel kept by a Canadian family ; the charges are ios. 6d. a day. Others are the Grand Hotel Central, the Royal, the Universal, the Frascati, the Italia. These are fairly comfortable places ; it is the custom in Rosario to serve the wine of the country free at meals. There are several restaurants. British Consul — Consul, S. S. Dickson. Vice-Consul, A. S. Nolan. Banks — London and River Plate, London and Brazil, British Bank of South America, Rio Espanol del Rio de la Plata. Newspapers — The chief morning newspaper is La Capital, which was in existence in 1868, the chief evening El Messajero. English Church — The English Church of St. Bartholomew is in the Calle Paraguay. Rosario, which has 213,000 inhabitants, is the second city in Argentina, and is even more modern than Bahia Blanca, having been an insignificant village less than seventy years ago. In 1868 Burton says : " The main interest of the settlement is its prodigious growth. In 1850 it was a miserable hamlet of mud huts, sheltering 600 souls ; in 1852 it numbered 1,500 to 2,000 ; in 1855 it had 6,000; in 1857, 12,000. The census of 1858 gave it 13,826, and now its population ARGENTINA 65 cannot fall short of 25,008." He gives a most enter taining account of the diversions of Rosario, which principally consisted in baiting bulls, donkeys, monkeys, and other animals.1 Rosario owes its sudden leap into prosperity to the downfall of the tyrant Rosas, who had imitated the policy of Francia in trying to isolate his subjects from the world. As the industries and commerce of Argentina expanded, Rosario became one of the chief ports, and immense quantities of wheat, maize and linseed are shipped. The temperature varies greatly and changes are sudden, making the climate dangerous to those of deli cate constitution. The temperature in January runs from 86° to 980 Fahr., in June from 480 to 68°. The death-rate is about 30, the birth-rate 35 per thousand. The best time for a visit is from March to , May, or from September to October. It is during these months that the climate and health of Rosario are usually at their best. Rosario is a handsome town, with streets wider than are to be found in Buenos Aires ; the Calle Cordoba is perhaps the best. The chief open space is the Pare Independencia, towards the south of the town, with a large artificial lake ; this pleasure-ground has been carefully planted with rare shrubs, and is One of the best in South America ; here are a race-course and a flying-ground. The town is laid out with the utmost Spanish regularity, and the busiest part is where the parallel streets of Cordoba, Santa Fe, San Lorenzo, and Urquiza intersect the parallel Maipu, San Martin, and Libertad. There are several splendid boulevards — the Orofio, the Pellegrini, and the Wheelwright. There is a first-rate service of electric,. tramcars. Theatres are the Olimpa and La Comedia in the Calle General Mitre and the Comic in the Calle Cordoba. It is pleasant to notice * Battlefields, p. 236. 66 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA that Dean Funes, the historian, is commemorated by the name of a street. The well-stocked Zoological Gardens should be visited. The Palace of Justice is an immensely large building, with a tall tower, and the Bolsa and many of the commercial buildings are hand some. Rosario is well supplied with educational- establishments. The situation is on a high bank, which affords a fine view of the Parana, which is here 20 miles wide, while it screens the town from the river.1 Two places are well worth a visit — the wharfs, where . immense sums have been, and are being, spent on improving the berthing accommodation, including £200,000 on a grain elevator, and the workshop of the Central Argentine Railway, where carriages are made and locomotives repaired. It is curious to think that Asuncion had a railway before Rosario. There are many English inhabitants and , a pleasant club. Rosario's grain traffic, as already stated, is enormous, but it is also a considerable manufacturing town. Brewing, ice-making, the manufacture of liqueurs are carried on, and here is the largest sugar-refinery in South America. It employs 800 workers and pro duces 80,000 tons of sugar in a year. Although half a century ago a determined effort was made to depose Buenos Aires and promote Rosario to ' " We may remark that the approach to the town is a shelf of hardened silt, varying from 60 to nearly 100 feet high, which is, in fact, the edge of the Pampasian formation. The outline, viewed in perspective, is diversified by headlands and double distances, escarpments and undercliffs — here grass-clad, forming comparatively level downs like those of Dover; there dotted with tree clumps and single trees" (Burton, p. 237). The com parison with Dover is an exaggeration, but Burton's book is worth far more attention than it has received, for vigorous books upon South America, written by keen observers, are not common. ARGENTINA 67 the position of capital, this great commercial city is not even the capital of -the Province of Santa Fe. This distinction is enjoyed by Santa Fe, a small town of 48,600 inhabitants, founded by Juan de Garay in 1573. Santa Fe" (hotels, the Grand and others ; charges about ios. a day) is 288 miles from Buenos Aires, and is reached by the Buenos Aires and Rosario Railway, but it has little to attract the traveller. There are, however, several northern towns which are well worth a visit. CORDOBA Railways — The distance from the capital is about 420 miles, and the best trains take 16 hours over the journey. The price of a single first-class ticket with sleeping-berth is £2 18s. The journey is made by the Central Argentine Railway. Hotels — Gran Hotel San Martin, Calle San Geronimo, an up- to-date hotel, charging about £1 a day; Gran Hotel de Roma, Calle Dean Funes ; Gran Hotel Victoria, Calle San Martin ; Gran Hotel de la Paz, Avenida Velez Sarsfield ; all these are considerably cheaper, British Consul — The Vice-Consulate is vacant. Banks — Banco Aleman Transatlantico. Newspapers — Los Principios, La Verdad, La Voz del Interior. There are also three evening papers— Justicia, La Petita, and La Libertad. Cordoba, with a population of 100,000, the capital of the province of the same name, is an old and famous city. It was founded by Cabrera in 1573, and as long as the Jesuits were allowed to continue their beneficent work it was famed for learning and its University had a great reputation. It was called La Ciudad Docta. There are three theatres — Revira Indarte, Avenida Velez Sarsfield, which will hold 2,000 ; Argentino, Avenue General Paz ; and Calderon, Calle Constitucion. There is much to interest the visitor. The city is pleasantly situated in a valley 1,240 feet above the sea-level, and Nueva Cordoba and Alta Cordoba are now more agreeable places 68 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA of residence than the old town. It is bisected by the little river Primero. In New Cordoba a beautiful and elevated park has been made. In Alta Cordoba is another pleasant park by the river named Las H eras. There are two race-courses. The city has been greatly improved in recent years and has been opened out by fine avenues, among which the Argentina and General Paz may be noticed. Any part of the town or suburbs can be reached by a good service of electric tramcars. In the handsome Plaza San Martin stands the cathedral, one of the best examples of church architecture in Argentina, whose domes and pinnacles give an Oriental effect. The old Jesuit Church, built in the seventeenth century, has a beautiful interior. In the Plaza San Martin also is the old Cabildo, and there are several other good public buildings and fine statues of Velez Sarsfield and General Paz. In Cordoba is the National Observatory, founded in 1869,. which is extremely well equipped ; it sets the time for the whole Republic. There are Museums of Mineralogy and Geology, of Botany, of Zoology, and the Poly technic Museum. The University of Cordoba is one of the most famous in South America. It was founded in 1613 by Fernando de Trejo j Sanabria, who en dowed it with his whole fortune. It is a large and well-built structure, and possesses a library of 30,000 volumes. As has been said, it had a great reputation for learning, but with the expulsion of the Jesuits and the subsequent establishment of a Republic the Uni versity and all other good institutions decayed ; in 1870 it was greatly improved by President Sarmiento. Here Francia, the Paraguayan Dictator, was educated. Dean Funes, who, as at Rosario, is commemorated by the name of a street, spent all his life at Cordoba. This city is a very important trade centre and has a number of small manufactures. ARGENTINA 69 Within 50 miles of Cordoba and easily accessible by rail are the Sierras de Cordoba, called the Argentine Switzerland. Here are several small health resorts with hotels, among which may be mentioned La Falda, which has an extremely good hotel ; the Eden, with 92 bedrooms — terms from its. a day. La Falda, which is 5,000 feet above the sea-level, has lovely scenery. TUCUMAN Railways — Tucuman is 745 miles from Buenos Aires. The journey can be made by the Central Argentine or the Buenos Aires and Rosario Railway ; the first-class return fare is £8 8s. Hotels — National, Calle Las Heras ; Universal, Plaza de la Independencia, Hotel Europa, Calle 25 de Mayo. All these are fair hotels. British Consul — Vice-Consul, F. E. Tirbutt. Banks — Banco de la Provincia de Tucuman. Newspapers — El Heraldo, El Or den, El Diario del Norte, La Verdad. Tucuman, the capital of the Province of the same name, has 78,695 inhabitants. It stands about 1,300 feet above the sea-level. The town was founded in 1565, and has always been an important place. In 1816 a Congress met here and declared the inde pendence of Argentina. Tucuman is an attractive town, with a spacious Plaza de la Independencia, flanked by the Cathedral, the Government Palace, which has replaced the old Cabildo, and other hand some buildings. There are a good many French in Tucuman, and they maintain a good school. The climate is rather warm and enervating ; the maximum temperature is 1040 Fahr., the mean 68°, and the annual rainfall is 39 inches. ." on train, ' . Villa Mercedes dep. 8.30 p.m. #5 to »6 (Sleep in train) San Luis . ,, 1i.05p.rn. Mendoza . arr. 4.30 a.m. . ..m • ARGENTINA 73 Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday Mendoza . arr. 4.30 a.m. Transandine Railway (buffet on train) (Change) Mendoza . dep. 5.00 a.m. Puente del Inca arr. ri.oo a.m. Las Cuevas I( 12.00 noon Lunch, (Change rail to coach, and lunch) Chile Time 82 to $3 Las Cuevas dep. 12.00 noon ja Summit . arr. 1.20 p.m. 0 Juncal a 4.00 p.m. O (Change coach to rail; g,j,2 £¦ Los Andes arr. 6.15p.m. Chilis Tran; andir Sailw; Dinner, $2 > (Customs and change (at Los Andes Los Andes dep. 6.50 p.m. •, or Llai-Llai) Llai-Llai . arr. 8.30p.m. Llai-Llai dep. 8.50 p.m. (Change) fi^'S Valparaiso arr. 10.40 p.m. « M- Santiago . j, I0.I5p.m. ; Approximate Cost of Journey— Buenos Aires to Valparaiso or Santiago Through Fares — Including beds in train, 50 kilogrammes luggage, collected from and delivered to hotels at points of departure and destination. First class £12 ; half-ticket (3 to 12 years) £7 Second class £7 ; „ „ „ „ £4 The train passes through monotonous country, •chiefly pastoral, and there is no object of special interest until Mendoza is reached. At Mendoza the most satisfactory hotel is the Hotel de Paris, kept by an obliging old Frenchman, and good accommodation and food are provided, while the charges are reason able. The wines of the country .are good. The London and River Plate Bank and the Anglo-South American Bank have branches here. Mendoza, with 40,000 iiahabitants, is a charming town, the centre of a wine district and in full view of the Andes. A traveller who visited it a few years ago thus describes 74 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA it : " At the west end a large park and zoological gardens are being made, and at sunset there is a beautiful prospect from their pleasant walks, which seem to be under the very shadow of the Andes. Their grim and jagged forms appear to be within an easy walk.1 But Mendoza itself is like a large park ; conduits of clear water run on each side of the streets, and their banks are lined with trees. The principal street, the Calle San Martin, is quite as rustic as the others, and it contains nearly all the shops, which are large and good for a provincial town. There is an excellent English Club with a large membership, and as the climate of Mendoza is genial, the town is by no means a bad place of residence. The chief peculiarity of the climate is the almost complete absence of rain. Mendoza stands at an elevation of nearly 3,000 feet above the level of the sea, and is thus, as might have been expected, temperate. The thermometer rarely touches freezing-point, and seldom or never ioo°Fahr., but the rainfall is only a few inches yearly, and this rich district is entirely dependent for its fertility on irrigation." The streets are wide, and the houses are low as a precaution against earthquakes. Mendoza has a grim memory of the terrific earthquake of March 20, 1861, which destroyed the great majority of the inhabitants. Fortunately the town, apart from slight shocks, has been immune since that date, and the only signs of the havoc are the ruins of the old cathedral, which has. been replaced by a less massive building on a different site. Mendoza is entirely devoted to the wine industry, and the Bodega Tamba, said to be one of the largest wine factories in the world, is well worth a visit. The town is rapidly expanding, and the price of land has risen to a remarkable extent. They are, however, at least 30 miles distant. ARGENTINA 75 Here the gauge of the line is changed, which, however, remains under the control of the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway as long as it is in Argentina. After a journey of about 6 hours through a barren mass of mountains the well-known Puente del Inca is reached. As the name implies, here is the Bridge of the Inca, and many people take advantage of the hotel and halt to view this natural curiosity, but possibly those who merely give it a hasty glance while the train is waiting have the best of the bargain. For the trains run but three times a week, and thus two days must be spent in this desolate spot, where the scenery (except for the view of the glittering peak of Aconcagua) is not attractive, at an elevation of nearly 9,000 feet; which is very likely to cause discomfort. The experience, however, is not uninteresting ; the climate in March is cold and bracing, and a pleasant walk or ride of 10 miles may be taken to Las Cuevas. For the attractions of this " rising watering-place," which are soon exhausted, a recent traveller may be quoted : "The bridge itself has a commonplace appearance, but it is an extraordinary natural phe nomenon. It appears to be a natural dam of earth and rock lying athwart the Cuevas River, which has managed to bore a passage through the barrier. The stone, earth, and shingle which compose the arch have been cemented together by deposits from the hot springs, and the bridge is 66 feet high, 120 feet wide, and 20 or 30 feet thick. Underneath the vaulted arch there bubble up springs of very high temperature, and the most striking feature here is the glittering and jagged masses which adorn the grotto. The baths are considered to have great medicinal value, and there is a variety called the champagne bath, which all visitors are urged to take." From Puente del Inca the train soon reaches 76 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Las Cuevas, which is very near the frontier . line. Until recently it was necessary at this point to cross the pass on mule-back or in mule-cart, and thus an opportunity was given of seeing the statue of Christ, which Argentinos and Chilians set up on the frontier to celebrate the peaceful settlement of their boundary dispute. But in 1910 the remarkable tunnel was opened, and the two countries are now linked by the iron rail. On emerging, the train stops at El Portillo, and is,- of course, on Chilian soil. The journey to Valparaiso may be briefly described. At first the country is completely barren and very forbidding in appearance, but soon after leaving Juncal the line runs into a broad valley watered by the River Aconcagua, where lucerne grows abundantly and there is plenty of tillage. At Llai-Llai — the junction for Santiago — a good dinner may be obtained at 8.30 p.m., and at 10.40 p.m. the train reaches the terminus, the third of the Valparaiso stations, ,and a cab is taken to the Royal Hotel. The journey from ocean to ocean has been achieved. For early Argentine history the Ensayo of Dean Funes, published in Buenos Aires in 1816-17, is best, but unfortunately it has never been translated into English. Both in history and description the Mulhalls have done very good work, and a new edition of their Handbook of the River Plate would be welcome, while useful historical accounts of the country may be found in the books of Mr. C. E. Akers and Mr. T. C. Dawson, who deal generally with the history of South America. Books on modern Argentina are very numerous ; that by M. Walle is very full and well written. A considerable amount of information will be found in the following works : — Koebel, W. H. Modern Argentina. London, 1907. Argentina Past and Present. London, 1910. Hirst, W. A. Argentina. London, 1910. South American Series. Martinez, A. B., and Lewandowsky, M. Argentina in the XXth Century. (Translated.) London, 1911. ARGENTINA 77 Martinez, A. B. Baedeker de la Rtpublique Argentine. 3rd Edition. Barcelona, 1907.1 Pennington, A. S. The Argentine Republic. London, 191 1. Walle, P. L Argentine telle qu'elle est. Paris, 1912. 1 This is a most useful book, and it would be well if other South American countries possessed something of the kind. It gives all the information which is familiar to readers of Baedeker. ' ' mugalii0^^0 A RGENTINE ^- BOLIVIA Railways shown thus 200MILES I | "GiomAPHiA-LTttosmm, lohdon. wcr. BOLIVIA BOLIVIA is the fourth largest of the South American Republics, having an area of 708,195 square miles, but the population is estimated at no more than 2,267,935. It is, in fact, the most sparsely populated of all, having a density of no more than 3*38 to the square mile. The backwardness of this Republic is accounted for by geographical conditions, a remote situation, and a troubled history. Since the war of 1879-81, when the valuable Province of Antofagasta was lost, there has been no access to the sea, and egress to the neighbouring countries is difficult on the west owing to the mountain barrier, and on the east owing to dense forests. But communications are being rapidly improved, and, with the extension of railways, the great natural resources of Bolivia, now almost untouched, will be more effectively utilized. The country now suffers from lack of population. In round numbers the population may be described as consisting of 300,000 uncivilized aborigines, 1,000,000 mestizos (men of mixed blood, chiefly Indian with a slight Spanish strain, who speak native languages but are tolerably civilized), and 700,000 Spanish -speaking people with a considerable amount of Spanish blood in their veins, who constitute the aristocracy of the country. High spurs of the coast Andes penetrate eastwards into Bolivia, e.g. Sajana, which attains a height of 21,000 feet, but far more imposing is the main chain 79 80 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA (Cordillera Real, or "Royal Cordillera), which runs .from Lake Titicaca south-east right through the country. Of these the noblest .mountains are Illimani (21,339 feet), close to La Paz, and Sorata (23,500 feet), about 100 miles north-west. Illimani was climbed in 1898 by Sir Martin Conway, who gives a vivid descrip tion of this great exploit. " Notwithstanding the fog ? ' below, the view was impressive, for we stood out in clear air and brilliant sunshine, with towering clouds and snowy peaks near at hand. The peaks, draped in broken ice, were magnificent. The southern con tinuation of the Cordillera likewise lifted itself into sight, but of Mount Sorata and the northern range we saw nothing, while only patches of the Bolivian plain were seen through gaps in its nebulous covering." * It may be added that the view from great heights seldom realizes expectations. The elevation of the Bolivian towns is so great that the traveller is liable to suffer from soroche, or mountain sickness, unless he approaches them by slow degrees. La Paz, the largest town, stands at 12,476 feet above the sea-level, Oruro 12,200, while Potosi has the unwholesomely high altitude of 13,325 ; except for Cerro de Pasco in Peru, it is the highest town in the world. Sucre and Cocha bamba have more moderate elevations — about 8,000 feet each. The districts of which the two latter are the centre grow cereals and are mainly agricultural. These mountains hold immense wealth in gold, silver, tin and copper, although the famous mines of Potosi are not nearly as productive as they were in old times. The eastern portion of Bolivia is imperfectly known, but much knowledge has been gained by the explora tions of Major P.. ,.H. Fawcett, who has contributed valuable papers to the Geographical Journal. " East of the Cordilleras is a region of forest and vast campos. 1 The Bolivian Andes, p. 138, BOLIVIA 81 or grass plains. With the exception of a few unim portant streams which empty themselves into the great lakes of Titicaca and Poopo, all the rivers flow from or through the Cordilleras into the basins of the Amazon or Paraguay." The frontiers (especially the Brazilian) are the worst parts. "The climate, except on the extreme frontier, is not unsuitable for a white man. Everything grows luxuriantly. On the great grass plains which lie inside the belts of rich forest bordering the rivers] there is ample scope for cattle- raising. There is practically an unlimited field for the prospector ; and the rifle can be relied upon for food within the limits of the Amazonian forests." But the forests on the affluents of the Amazon are unhealthy, almost impenetrable, and infested by hostile Indians and many animal and insect pests. " Insects are legion. They are the pest of South American travel : mosquitoes of course ; roca-roca, a microscopic fly, which at times makes observation work by night almost impossible ; marigwis, or the Portuguese pium, which in the dry season attacks in thousands, every one leaving its small blood-blister ; ' gehene/ a microscopic nightfly which penetrates any mosquito net ; tavenas, or a species of poisonous house-fly ; wasps and bees of all sorts." After this description of discomforts (of which the above is but a short extract) by Major Fawcett, it is easy to sympathize with Sir Martin Conway's comment : " I am thankful to say I have not been in the parts of Bolivia described to-night." Yet the Madera-Marmore Railway and the Sao Paulo-Corumba line will tap the forest wealth of Bolivia on the Brazilian side, while, on the south side, Tupiza will 'soon be in railway communication with Argentina. Bolivia has already 780 miles of railway, and many more lines are under construction or projected. The Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway runs 82 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA from the port of that name through Oruro to La Paz. The Arica-La Paz Railway connects La Paz with the port of Arica. The Bolivia Railway connects Potosi and other towns on the highlands with the Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway. The Peruvian Corporation owns one or two short lines in the neighbourhood of La Paz. A short account is given of the railways under the headings of the towns. Bolivia lies entirely in the torrid zone, and the climate is, of course, determined more by elevation than by latitude. The Yungas or lower eastern slopes, up to an elevation of 5,000 feet, have a mean tempera ture of about 740 Fahr. On the highlands, where most of the population is located, the mean temperature ranges between 500 and 6o° Fahr. ; here the cold is severe between April and August, while November, December, and January have a mild and summerlike climate. From ,17,000 feet and upwards is a region of perpetual snow and quite uninhabited. The rain fall is moderate in most places, usually not exceeding 30 inches annually. The hills on the eastern side consist chiefly of palasozoic rocks and granite ; the western Cordillera is mostly Jurassic and cretaceous beds. The palaeozoic rocks are often overlaid with red sandstone, and here most of the copper ore is found. The chief mineral wealth occurs among the palasozoic rocks. The flora of Bolivia is tolerably various owing to the eastern forests. The vegetable wealth is very great, although, excepting in the case of rubber, not much use has hitherto been made of it. The coca plant, whose leaves are chewed as a stimulant by the Indians with most pernicious results, grows freely in the eastern forests and quinine is abundant. Almost every kind of tropical produce can be raised. On the uplands, of course, vegetation gradually becomes scanty. BOLIVIA 83 The fauna of Bolivia is numerous, and corresponds closely to that of Peru. The puma and jaguar are found in the forests. As in most parts of tropical and sub-tropical South America, the peccary and tapir are abundant. The ant-bear and one or two other varieties are not uncommon, and the chinchilla, the skunk, and other animals valued for their fur are often met with, while monkeys are common. The alpaca, the vicuna, and the guanaco are the most valuable of Bolivian animals. Rattlesnakes and other poisonous serpents infest the forests, and the huge anaconda is extremely common. The birds are a varied tribe, and in the Andes the magnificent condor is often seen. Products and Industries The wealth of Bolivia is, as yet, mainly mineral. It furnishes one quarter of the total tin supply of the world. This metal is found in almost every part of the great mountain range, but the chief mining centre is Oruro, and among the principal mines are La Salvador, San Jose, and the Huanuni group, which includes the mines of Negro Pabellon, Morocala, and Vilacollo. Silver is found, but it is less important than in earlier days ; the chief mine now is that of Huanchaca, which yielded 5,000 tons of silver during the first twenty-five years of its existence in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Gold is widely diffused, but the mining is mostly carried on in primitive fashion, and copper is not now very im portant. A considerable amount of wolfram and bismuth is obtained. The mineral wealth of Bolivia is enormous, but mining industries are hampered by the inaccessible situation of the richest deposits, and thus the cost of transportation is large. The soil of 84 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Bolivia is fertile, but is imperfectly cultivated, and the food-stuffs raised are insufficient for home con sumption. Wheat, maize, barley, and beans are grown, and coca, quinine, and coffee are exported. Some sugar and cotton is raised. The chief vege table product. is rubber, which is gathered extensively along the River Beni. For the most part the industry has been carried on in a reckless manner, and trees have been ruthlessly destroyed. The Indians of the forest are more hostile than they were fifty years ago. " Since that time the savage has been sacri ficed to rubber ; slaughtered often under circum stances of horrible barbarity ; his villages burnt and his farms destroyed ; either to secure forced labour for the rubber estates, or to exterminate him from the field of its exploitation " (Major Fawcett). Cattle and sheep are raised in considerable quantities. Bolivianos l In 191 1 the imports were 58,371,409 „ „ exports „ 82,631,169 The imports are mainly cottons, woollens, railway plant, mining machinery and textiles. The following are the chief importing countries : — Bolivianos United Kingdom ... 12,470,046 Germany ... 10,310,934 United States ... 9,864,615 Chile - 9,837,313 Belgium ... 4,063,954 It is worthy of remark that our country has made great advances in the Bolivian trade within recent years. In 1898 its exports fell far below those of 1 The boliviano is worth about is. 8d. BOLIVIA 85 Germany, and since then they have multiplied nearly twelvefold. The chief articles exported were : — Bolivianos Tin 52,639,603 Rubber 18,921,192 Silver 4>587.745 Bismuth 2,106,162 The United Kingdom figures very prominently in the export trade, taking articles valued at 59,582,279 bolivianos, while Germany, as second share, only takes 10,992,723. There is practically no immigration into Bolivia, and this is a great misfortune for the country, which, above all things, needs workers to develop her wealth. Coinage In 1906 a law was passed providing for a coinage on a gold basis, and the English and Peruvian pounds (which are identical in value) are legal tender, while the monetary unit and silver coin of general circulation, i.e. the boliviano, has a value of nearly is. 8d. Revenue and Finance In 1912 the revenue was ^1,378,968 „ „ expenditure was ... 1,388,523 The revenue is derived mainly from customs duties, export duties, and spirit duties. There is an export duty on tin amounting to is. 5^d. — 5s. 7^d. per cwt, according to its value. There is also an export duty on rubber. The external debt, of recent creation, amounts to £1,500,000. There is an internal debt of 10,533,688 bolivianos. 86 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Constitution Bolivia has a Constitution, which was last re modelled in 1880, centralized in type, with a President, two Vice-Presidents, and six Ministers. There is a Senate with 16 members and a Chamber of Deputies with 75 members. Bolivia is divided into 9 Departments and 55 Provinces. History Bolivia was at first held in slight repute by the Spanish conquerors ; but in 1545 the stupendous silver-mine of Potosi was discovered, which caused the Spaniards to turn their attention to that region, and three years later La Paz was founded to become a large emporium of the stream of traffic between Potosi and Lima. According to some estimates, the amount of silver yielded by the Potosi mine in 300 years was £340,000,000. "To work these mines the Spaniards ruthlessly impressed the helpless Indians. Each village was required to furnish a certain number of labourers annually. Lots were drawn as if for a proscription, and the unhappy creatures who drew the bad numbers went off to meet a certain death in the dark wet pits and galleries, bidding good-bye to their wives and children like men stepping on the scaffold. The destruction of life was frightful, the official returns made by the officials charged with the impressment demonstrating that in the neighbourhood of Potosi the Indian population fell within a hundred years to a tenth of its original numbers." » It should, however, be remembered that these cruelties were perpetrated in direct defiance of the 1 Dawson. The South American Republics, ii. p. 242. BOLIVIA 87 orders of the Spanish Government at home; and the condition of the Indians was much improved by the labours of the Jesuit missionaries. They made a thorough study of the Indian languages, and brought Christianity to the Chunchos of the Beni and to the remotest forests of the interior. Towards the end of the sixteenth century gold was discovered, and the washings were at first enormously productive, but were gradually exhausted within a hundred years. Till 1776 Bolivia formed part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, but at that date it was detached and added to the Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, and in 1780 the general unrest was exemplified by the sanguinary revolt of Tupac, a descendant of the Inca kings. This Indian rebellion, which was suppressed with great cruelty, was a revolt against Creole tyranny, and the Indians did not show much enthusiasm for the " patriots " during the Revolution. Bolivia was the scene of fierce fighting, and for a long time the Spanish loyalists had the advantage. But the vic tories of Bolivar and Sucre in Peru broke their power and left the Spanish forces in Potosi so completely isolated that the end soon came, and in April, 1825, the last Spanish army was defeated. Thereupon the Liberator Bolivar, whose standard Lord Byron had dreamed of following, gave the new Republic his name and its present inconvenient boundaries, with the important exception that Bolivia then had the maritime province of Antofa gasta, since lost. General Sucre was first President, but within two years he was driven out, and Bolivia fell into anarchy, which lasted for more than forty years, and needs no description. In 1879 Bolivia, being involved with Peru in the nitrate dispute against Chile, took the losing side, and, sharing in Peru's defeat, lost Antofagasta, and all access to the 88 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA sea, which has never been recovered. However, this severe blow appears to have braced the Republic, for its subsequent history has been more peaceful and prosperous. The resources of the country de veloped, revolutions became less frequent, and a troublesome boundary dispute with Brazil was settled by the cession of part of the Acre territory on the promise of Brazil to build the Madera-Marmore Railway, which, it is hoped, will soon be completed. The news that the arbitrators in the boundary dispute with Peru had decided against Bolivia caused some excitement at La Paz in 1909, but happily no war resulted. Further boundary troubles occurred with Ecuador, but the boundaries are being deter mined by English exploration parties, and the recent history of Bolivia has been peaceful. Senor Eliodoro Villazon was elected President in 1909, and he was succeeded by General I. Montes, who was elected in 1913. The recent history of Bolivia consists chiefly in railway building and in negotiations to secure ports upon the Pacific and affluents of the Amazon and River Plate. If these matters be settled satis factorily, the prosperity of the Republic will proceed apace. LA PAZ Communications — To reach the chief city of Bolivia the traveller has a choice of three routes — from Antofagasta; Arica, or Mollendo. Perhaps the best tourist route is to enter by Arica and leave by Mollendo. 1. By Antofagasta — The distance to La Paz is 719 miles. With a view to escaping mountain sickness (soroche) it is well to halt at the Chilian town of Calama (Grand Central Hotel), where the elevation is only 7,435 feet. Thence the journey proceeds through vast extinct volcanoes, over Ascotan (13,010 feet) the highest point, and so across the frontier at Ollegue (about 1,000 feet lower). Farther inland is Uyuni (good French hotel), at an elevation of 12,000 feet, whence there is a short branch line to a silver-mine. Then, BOLIVIA 89 after a long, dreary stretch, the lake of Poopo is reached. This sheet of water is 55 miles long and 25 broad ; it is very shallow. From the lake it is but a short journey to Oruro (12,200 feet), an important mining town with about 20,000 inhabitants. Here there is a fair hotel and a considerable English colony, engaged in the management of mines. On this subject Sir Martin Conway has a remark which is worth considering : " Speaking generally, this was characteristic of South America : where work was to be done involving the management of men in any numbers, or of machinery, there was generally an English-speaking person in control ; whereas, where it was a question of selling cheap goods to suit the local taste and requirements, such trade was in the hand of Germans. Germany has learned what Eng land has not, the importance and profitableness of exporting her shopkeepers. In the great tide of English emigration, the shopkeeping element has taken but a small part." Oruro is a dreary-looking place and has no attractions apart from its mines ; it is quite devoid of vegetation. The railway then proceeds north-east till it arrives at Alto de La Paz, from which is obtained a view of La Paz itself, lying in a hollow at a distance of 5 miles. Here the steam line comes to an end, and it is necessary to descend to the town in a small electric railway. The total journey takes 36 hours. 2. Arica is 267 miles from La Paz. The first-class fare on this line is 2^d. a mile ; the time occupied on the up journey is 15 hours, on the down 12. The highest point on the line is 13,986 feet above the sea-level. 3. Mollendo (in Peru) is 531 miles from La Paz, and this route is even loftier than the other two. The journey is, at first, highly picturesque, and the pretty town of Arequipa, which is described in the Peruvian section, is passed. The highest point of this line is 14,666 feet. At Puno (12,540 feet) the rail is left for the steamer, and the marvellous Lake Titicaca is crossed. At Guaqui the train is rejoined, and it is a short journey of 55 miles to Alto La Paz. The journey occupies 28 hours. Hotels — Hotel Guilbert. This is an old-established and good house. The rates are from 8s. 6d. to £1 a day. British Consul — Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo tentiary and Consul-General, W. G. Gosling. Vice-Consul, G. T. Maclean. 90 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Banks — Commercial Bank of Spanish America. Newspapers — La Paz, El Tiempo, La Verdad, El Progreso Bolivia, La Epoca, El Diario, La Tarde, La Accion. The Comercio de Bolivia is a weekly. Opinion seems to be greatly divided as to whether La Paz or Sucre is the capital. Some authorities compromise by saying that Sucre is the nominal capital and La Paz is the seat of government. As La Paz is undoubtedly the seat of government, the foreign Ministers, the chief trade, and the principal railway, it certainly might be called the capital without quali fication. It is beautifully situated with the noble Illimani in full view. The population is 78,856. When the city was in process of building there was no railway, and the materials were laboriously brought up by means of mules ; it is not to be expected, therefore, that it -should abound in fine buildings. The streets are very steep. The fashionable parade is the Plaza Murillo — a garden with delightful flowers — and the Alameda is a fine promenade bordered by trees. The Executive Palace and several other Govern ment offices look upon the Plaza_Mayor. Here also is the fine cathedral, which, however, has been inter rupted in its construction by various political troubles, and is still unfinished. It was begun in 1835, and is designed to hold 12,000 people. The old church of San Francisco is also a handsome building. La Paz possesses a university with Faculties of Law, Medicine, and Theology. There is also a military school. The city is lighted by electricity and has a service of electric cars. There is an excellent market well provided with fruit. Situated near the source of the Chiquiapu River, and standing 12,120 feet above the sea-level, La Paz has a cool climate. The mean temperature is 540 Fahr., and the records vary from 190 to 75° Fahr. The place is tolerably healthy, but the high elevation is trying to BOLIVIA 91 weak hearts, and, indeed, affects every one unfavour ably. The higher the elevation, the less the supply of oxygen, and thus vigour declines. Sir Martin Conway points out that this is very noticeable in the case of racing, which is a favourite sport at La Paz, but the atmosphere diminishes the power of the horses, and a distance of but half a mile is too great a strain upon the thoroughbred. He mentions that a very fine horse was brought up from Chile and allowed to race before he was acclimatized. The strain was too great, and he died the next day. As we have seen, many South American countries have distinguished themselves in the field of poetry and general culture, but it cannot be said that the literature of Bolivia has attained more than a local reputation. One of her best poets is Ricardo Busta- mente, who published in 1883 an epic, Hispano- America Libertada, in honour of the memory of Bolivar. The poem, which is a glorification of the various events and heroes of the revolution, shows the influence of Camoens. " Buenos Aires ! matrona americana, La emula de Sevilla en jentileza ; Al borde de su rio, asi galana Monstrandose cual culta en su belleza : Del Sultan de los rios gran Sultana ; Nido de amor, verjel de la belleza, De bravos patria, de poetas cuna, — Epocas cuenta de cruel f ortuna ! " * A distinguished lover of books was Jos6 Rosendo Gutierrez, who compiled a very comprehensive bib- 1 " Buenos Aires ! mother of America, rival of Seville in comeli ness, on the banks of thy river how gaily dost thou display the charm of thy beauty, mighty Sultana of the Sultan of rivers ; nest of love, garden of beauty, land of brave men, cradle of poets — in what cruel days was thy lot cast ! " 92 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA liography of Bolivian literature. But Bolivia has, as yet, contributed little to the world's literature. La Paz is the chief centre of commerce and has an active trade. British traders have been recommended by the Consul to extend their operations here, for the foreign trade has multiplied in a marvellous manner during the last few years. British trade has also made considerable headway. Merchants are recommended to pack their goods very strongly to protect them against the rough usage which they will receive on the mountain tracks. When the traveller has spent a short time at La Paz, it is probable that he will have had enough of Bolivia and be anxious to get to a lower level. But he will be omitting a far more beautiful and agreeable city than La Paz if he fails to visit Sucre. SUCRE Communications — Potosi is the nearest railway-station, and is 72 miles from Sucre. The journey is made by diligence. It goes by way of Negro-Tambo, Bartolo, Lagurillas, Quebrada Houda, Pampa-Tambo, and Calera. Hotels — Gran Hotel Colon, Plaza de 25 Mayo; Hotel de 25 Mayo, Plaza de 25 Mayo ; Hotel Espana. British Consul— Consul, E. F. Moore. Banks — None. Newspapers — La Mana-iia, La Industria, La Capital) El Dia. The Revisto de Derecho y Jurisprudencia is a monthly publication. The, beautiful city of Sucre, with 23,416 inhabitants, occupies, as has already been stated, a somewhat uncertain position. It was first known as Charcas, later as Chuquisaca, or Golden Bridge, and the Spaniards called it La Plata, from the quantity of silver discovered in the neighbourhood. It was finally BOLIVIA 93 named Sucre in honour of the general who was the first President of Bolivia ; it was the only honour he received in his lifetime, for the Bolivians drove him out of Sucre, and he was shortly afterwards murdered by his countrymen, the Venezuelans. During the Spanish dominion it was the chief city in Bolivia. In 1826 it was declared the provisional capital of the Republic, but this is an honour which has also befallen La Paz, Oruro, and Cochabamba. Since 1898 La Paz must be considered as the capital, although the Supreme Court is still located at Sucre. Standing 8,860 feet above the sea-level by the Cachamayo, a feeder of the Pilcomayo, Sucre is a very charming place with a perfect climate. The chief square is the Plaza 25 de Mayo, in the centre of the town, and the Plaza Libertad, the Plaza Sucre, the Plaza Rocoleta, and the Plaza Monteagudo may also be mentioned. In the principal square is the new Government Palace, the finest building in the town. The Palace of Justice, where the Supreme Court holds its sessions, is also handsome. Sucre is the seat of the Archbishop of La Plata, and the cathedral dates from the seventeenth century. In it is a fine painting on copper, The Vision of San Cayetano, which was brought from Spain. The chief university in Bolivia, that of San Francisco Xavier, was founded in 1623, and is the second oldest in South America. It has about 200 students. At Sucre is the Archivo Nacional, which is one of the best historical collections in South America. Many years ago the town was thus described, and it has not altered much since : * " The streets and squares of the town are broad, and fairly well paved, and the town has altogether a rather imposing appear ance, although it is to be regretted that the sanitary 1 Mathews. Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, pp. 265-6. 94 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA arrangements of the municipality should in Sucre, as well as in the other principal towns of Bolivia, be remarkable and conspicuous solely from the utter absence of care or attention to the commonest require ments of our times." Some improvements have been made in the sanitation, and visitations of typhoid are less frequent. The industries are insignificant ; there is a chocolate factory and a flourmill. Sucre is remarkable for a curious sweetmeat made out of clay, which is rolled into sticks and greatly enjoyed by the Indians. Cochabamba Communications — Cochabamba is somewhat more accessible than Sucre. It is rather more than ioo miles from Oruro, and a line, which will soon be completed, is open for part of the way. The journey can also be made by diligence, lasting 2 days and costing about £2 ios. Hotels^ — Gran Hotel Continental, Plaza de 14 Setembro ; Hotel du Commerce ; Hotel Central. British Consul— Vice-Consul, A. Barber. Banks — None. Newspapers — Eraldo, El Ferrocarril. Cochabamba, the capital of the Department of the same name, has an elevation of nearly 9,000 feet and a population of 24,512. It is beautifully situated in a valley to the south of the great mountain Tunari. Founded in 1570, it received in 1786 from Charles III the title of " loyal and valorous," in recognition of its services in putting down the Tupac-Catari rebellion. It rose against the Spaniards on September 14, 1809, and the principal Plaza's name commemorates the date. Cochabamba has, like Sucre, several pleasant, park-like squares and a beautiful Alameda. The public buildings are of the usual type, and there is a hand some cathedral. It is a busy trade centre, being near BOLIVIA 95 a good agricultural district, and it is hoped that a railway will soon be built to Chimore, a district rich in rubber. Mathews said : " The chief wealth of the Department appears to be in agriculture, for Cocha bamba may certainly claim to be the agricultural capital of Bolivia, La Paz, Potosi, and Oruro being the chief mineral centres, whilst the true capital of the Republic, Sucre, is the political and educational centre. Cochabamba is the storehouse for the crops of wheat, maize, barley, and potatoes that are grown on the plains on which the city is built. There are many large gardens in the outskirts of the town, which produce fruits of all kinds, such as grapes, oranges, apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and straw berries. Roses, carnations, camelias, and most European flowers are also grown, so that a visitor may easily fancy himself in the South of France, or even in a well-stocked garden at home, only that the latter idea must be one of the finest summer days of England for the comparison to hold good at all, for it is almost impossible otherwise to compare the blue sky and fine, clear atmosphere of Cochabamba with our own murky and cloudy skies." If the traveller has seen Oruro, Potosi, Sucre, Cochabamba, and La Paz, he may claim to have a very fair knowledge of Bolivia, but probably most will be satisfied with Oruro and La Paz. Before many years have passed, it may be easy to enter Bolivia by rail from Buenos Aires, and even from Brazil. The development of the marvellous system of waterways afforded by the Amazon and the River Plate is in its infancy, and will make travelling much more easy for the next generation in South America. Now much of the best country has to be approached through the inhospitable Andes, and the traveller in Bolivia will be fortunate if he has escaped several sharp attacks of 96 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA mountain sickness. However, the chance of escape is increased if the heights be ascended in stages of not more than 5,000 feet. English books on Bblivia are not numerous, but a work of the South American Series has just been published on it — i.e., Walle Paul : Bolivia (translated by Mr. Miall). London, 1914. The following deals with the mountainous parts of Bolivia : — Conway, Sir W. Martin. The Bolivian Andes. London, 190 1. A very valuable work is — Mathews, E. D. Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers. London, 1879. Several towns in the east of Bolivia are admirably described. The following is a comprehensive survey of the country : — Wright, Marie Robinson. Bolivia. London and Phila delphia, 1905. An old work gives valuable information about the forest products : — Weddell, H. A. Voyage dans Le Nord de la Bolivie. Paris, i853- Van Brabant, W. La Bolivie. Paris, 1909. This last work gives much useful recent information. / ~1 VENEZUELA** "" "X j . #8^? GUIANA/) - 0> ?%^ V33 . PAI mV ^a xCeara \ lPWut- O 8 O Is ilem)i»,.,^ ^mm/Toipis^mm * i^1 1 - BRAZIL | Railways shown thus ;»=» ? o SOOMILES ^ f-~jk®Zs.PAULO„ ...... ^^ - / -. ' .¦ ' '. . :¦:¦:- ¦¦¦¦ ¦ ¦ . ¦ ri^/^yXvx: :::::: ::.:¦:: ^:-::;o:^:::o::o::-; ;P6rto Alegre URUGUAY) ISil WWLTt 3iSTKAND.WND0H.WC BRAZIL FEW people realize the enormous size of Brazil. It is by far the largest of the South American Republics, and covers more than half the continent. If Alaska is excluded from the area of the United States, Brazil ranks as the fourth largest country in the world. The area is 3,218,991 square miles, and the population is estimated at 21,580,000. It has con siderably more than twice as many inhabitants as any of its neighbours, but about one million of them are more or less savage Indians. From a glance at the map of Brazil it will.be seen that the country is divided by Nature into three parts. In the north is the Amazon with its tributaries. The basin of the Amazon, it will be observed, possesses a fair number of towns and settlements, though, owing to its immense area, they appear but few and far between. The next division consists of Brazil proper, and includes the States of Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Bahia, Pernambuco, Ceara, and others. In the south we have the region of the Rio Grande do Sul, which is made up of the States of Rio Grande, Santa Catherina, and Parana. The centre of Brazil, which stretches from the Amazon basin in the north to the basin of the Parana in the south, and is bounded on the east by the State of Goyaz, is absolutely uncivilized and much of it unexplored. Naturally, with such an immense territory, the geographical and climatic conditions 99 ioo A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA vary extremely. The Amazon is the largest river in the world, and by far the greatest part — 3,380 miles — of it is in Brazil. The banks are covered with immense virgin forests, which flourish in the hot and humid atmosphere engendered by the river. The valley of the Amazon has been populated within comparatively recent times, and is still in an undeveloped state. s Brazil proper, the ancient and historic Brazil, is situated in a tableland near the Atlantic sea-border, stretching from the confines of Uruguay to French Guiana. The length of the tableland is about 2,000 miles. It is highest in the south, where it reaches an elevation of about 3,200 feet, and slopes gently down as it goes north. The presence of this high ground is very clearly indicated by the map, which shows that practically no rivers of any size flow into the Atlantic south of the San Francisco. Many have their sources in the country, but they all flow inland and sweep round the tableland to empty themselves into the sea far away. Notable among them is the Parana, which rises in Minas Geraes and flows south through Paraguay to join the River Plate ; the Uruguay also rises in Rio Grande and is the boundary line between that State and Santa Catherina, until it reaches the borders of Paraguay, where it turns south and divides that country from Rio Grande, and finally flows through Uruguay to join the waters of the River Plate ; on the other hand, the San Francisco, which has its source also in Minas Geraes, flows almost due south up to Pernambuco, when it turns sharply to the east and empties itself- into the Atlantic. In the south of Brazil the Atlantic side of this plateau is an immense bank about 2,500 or 3,000 feet high. This long ridge is called the Serra do Mar in the south and the Serra Gual in the north. Behind the Serras is the State of Minas Geraes, a mountainous and rugged region. The BRAZIL 101 landscape of Sao Paulo forms a sharp contrast to it ; the bleak, inhospitable nature of the country is changed and Sao Paulo, where developed, is a fertile and pleasant region. Brazil has the reputation of being a land of forests, which it chiefly owes to the proximity of the forests of the sea coast. There is a strip of land between the Serra and the sea upon which the wet winds of the Atlantic are condensed and trickle down to form swamps along the coast strip, where tropical vegetation flourishes, and from the sea the impression is given that Brazil is covered with forests. But behind the Serra the landscape is quite different, and even where woods occur, they are less luxuriant. The climate of Brazil, as far as the temperature is concerned, is very much the same all the year round, and the seasons, instead of being divided into summer and winter, are distinguished as the wet and dry periods. The rainy season begins in September and lasts till March. The dry season, though hot, is more healthy. This applies to the Brazil of the coast and north ; the tableland has a temperate climate, and that of Rio Grande approximates to the climate of Buenos Aires. The geology of Brazil is noteworthy because its formations are of immense antiquity and have existed without disturbance from a very remote period. The mountains consist chiefly of high strata of gneiss and metamorphic schists with granite and various eruptive rocks. The tablelands are horizontal strata dating from the Silurian age. The flora of Brazil is tropical, and, despite the immense number of naturalists who have investigated it, they have by no means exhausted its immense variety. The timber of Brazil has been held in high esteem ever since the discovery of the country. One 102 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA of its most valuable trees is the wax palm (Copernicia cerifera), whose roots have valuable medicinal proper ties, while its fruit and stem yield milk, as well as wine and vinegar, and the straw is valuable and the leaves produce Wax. The coconut-palms grow in great variety. Dye-woods, aromatic shrubs, and nut-bearing trees are innumerable. Orchids and fruits are very numerous, but under the section devoted to products a brief account will be given of a few of the principal vegetable crops. The fauna is numerous, but the only large mam mals are the jaguar, puma, peccary, tapir, capybara, aquatic manatee and fifty species of apes. The peccary is a kind of hog, and the white-lipped variety (Dicotyles labiatus) is very savage. The capybara is a huge guinea-pig. The rattlesnake is common and the insects are present in the forests in innumerable variety. Commerce and Products Brazil exports raw materials and imports manu factured goods. In 191 1 the imports were 1,003/924,736 milreis.1 „ „ exports were 795,563,450 The following are the countries most largely repre sented in the import trade : — Milreis Great Britain 230,541,951 Germany ... United States France Argentina . . . Portugal ... Italy 133.274.167 106,798,624 70,260,12160,476,80942,692,593 33,104,015 1 The milreis is worth about is. 4d. BRAZIL 103 The imports of Brazil are very general in character, and the principal items are machinery, cotton goods, wheat, flour, jerked beef, coal and wine. England sends most of the cotton goods. The exports of Brazil are chiefly coffee and rubber, and coffee is by far the most important, as the following list of the exports in 191 1 will show. Coffee £40,401,206 Rubber 15>057>°I5 Yerba mate 1,983,209 Cocoa 1,641,381 Cotton 978,998 Tobacco 965,375 Skins 647,564 Sugar ••• ... 408,659 To this list should be added diamonds, which are exported in considerable quantities, but the exporters contrive to evade the vigilance of the customs officers. Coffee is by far the largest product of Brazil, which contributes four-fifths of the world's supply of that article. The coffee-growing States are Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, and Minas Geraes, but Sao Paulo is much the most important. The industry was introduced early in the eighteenth century and made little progress until about 1840, when the crop amounted to 40,000 tons. It steadily increased, and by 1870 the production of Brazil was 3,763,908 bags,1 or a little more than one-half of the total coffee of the world. Sao Paulo at one time had produced cane, cotton, and cereals, but the coffee fever seized upon all the inhabitants : every one believed that coffee-planting was the one path to wealth, and the production increased by leaps and bounds. The last years of the * A bag is 132 lb. 104 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA nineteenth century saw the activity at its height, and in 1901 .the production amounted to 16,270,678 bags. In the eighties and early nineties the prices had been highly remunerative, varying from £2 16s. per cwt. to £$ 4s., but the immense increase in supply had the inevitable effect, and the price fell in 1901 to £1 4s. In October, 1905, it was clear that the harvest would be on an unprecedented scale, and the planters, and 'with them the whole State of Sao Paulo, were face to face with ruin. The State Government, which had long regarded the position with anxiety, had, in 1902, passed a law prohibiting any further planting of coffee, but this was no immediate remedy, fof the coffee shrub takes some years to come to maturity. The State, therefore, began borrowing money with a view to buying up the surplus stock of coffee and holding it for a rise, and thus the great valorization scheme came into being. The first step was for the State of Sao Paulo to buy up the surplus supply of coffee, which was done at a price more than double that prevailing in the open market. This had the effect of paralysing speculation, for no merchant was now willing to buy coffee with the risk of seeing the market suddenly flooded by an unlimited supply emitted by the State. The crop of 1906 amounted to over 20 million bags. By way of a counterpoise a tax of 3 francs was imposed upon all bags of coffee exported from Brazil. But the price continued to fall. By 1907 the State, having purchased 10,000,000 bags and sold 3,000,000, found itself possessed of a stock of 7,000,000 bags, and was in a position of great embarrassment, for it could not continue to sell without utterly demoralizing the market. At last, with the aid of the Federal Govern ment, a loan of ^15,000,000 was raised with the help of English, French, and Belgian bankers. The coffee BRAZIL tos was then handed over to the trustees of the loan as security. At the same time the export tax was raised to 5 francs a bag. The difficulties were not ended, but it was finally arranged that the Government purchases should be limited to 500,000-700,000 bags in any one year, and an equally important measure was the im position of a prohibitive tax on the export of coffee above a fixed amount, viz. : — Bags. 1908-9 9,000,000 I909-IO 9,500,000 I910-II 10,000,000 The experiment has hitherto been successful, partly owing to the falling off in the crop, and the price of coffee is now satisfactory.1 In 1910 Consul O'Sullivan- Beare, who made a valuable report on the subject, concluded : "Thus it will be seen that in spite of much adverse criticism and gloomy prognostication, the State of Sao Paulo has emerged triumphantly from the ordeal of its attempt to interfere with the laws of demand and supply in the matter of coffee. It is true that the amelioration in the condition of the State within the past three years is to be attributed to good fortune rather than to good management. Neverthe less, on the principle that ' nothing succeeds like success,' the State is to be heartily felicitated upon the condition of prosperity to which it has eventually attained. At the present time the market price of coffee stands higher than at any other period during the past sixteen years. The State has already made considerable progress towards amortization of the coffee loan, and will have no difficulty in liquidating it within the stipulated period of ten years. The 5 franc surtax on coffee exported is hardly felt by the planters, in view of the rise in prices ; and lastly, the 1 The price is now about £2 8s. 106 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA State can count upon making a clear profit of some ^4,000,000 in connection with the sale of the balance of the stock of valorization coffee. In a word, the position of the State of Sao Paulo, financial and eco nomic, is more satisfactory at the present time than at any previous period during the history of the State." Next in importance is the rubber industry. It is „only about thirty years ago that the development of the Amazonian regions and the systematic production of rubber began. Labourers were imported from the State of Ceara, and the demand for rubber increased faster than the supply. In 1890 the export was 16,000 tons, in 1900 28,000, in 1905 33,000, and in 1907 35,404. In 1910 the amount was 38,547, and in 191 1 36,547. The fall in price is naturally checking the prosperity of the industry. The tree which yields the best Para rubber, the Hevea brasiliensis, is found all over the swampy districts about the Amazon. Good rubber is also produced by the Castilloa elastica, which grows on firm, dry soil, and is therefore more common along the upper branches of the Amazon. Ceara rubber comes from the Manihot Glaziovii, and Mangabeira rubber from the Hancornia speciosa. The process of rubber-gathering and its preparation for the market have often been described, and so also have the cruelties which have been perpetrated on the un fortunate paraoras, or rubber-gatherers. Mr. Martin * says : "The man who makes most money in rubber- growing is probably the proprietor of the ground or the lessee. He is a terrible sweater, and grinds the unfortunate seringueiros mercilessly. He builds their huts and dwellings, and transports them at his own cost to the Seringal, where they work the trees and extract the sap, nominally keeping for themselves ' 50 per cent, of the rubber extracted.' I say nomin- 1 Through Five Republics, p. 224, BRAZIL 107 ally advisedly, because the truck system is in force here in its worst form. The employer of seringueiro labour insists upon supplying his workmen with all their requirements, such as clothes, boots, food, drink, etc. — especially drink — and sells all these bien entendu at his own price. By the time the unfortunate work men have paid for their luxuries, or, rather, for them combined with the system of fines and other imposi tions, their ' 50 per cent.' has dwindled considerably." It is convenient for the British public to assume that Putumayo is an isolated instance, and that there was no reason to suppose that a rubber forest was not an earthly paradise up to the revelations in Truth. But the above extract was published in 1905, and every one who knows anything about South America knows that Putumayo was fairly typical of the remoter rubber forests, just as the conditions described by Mr. Martin represent the true nature of the Brazilian rubber industry. Further, it may be doubted whether the whole storm of moral indignation has ameliorated the lot of a single rubber-gatherer, and, like Macaulay's virtue, our humane susceptibilities will go quietly to sleep, and the oppression will continue as long as there is a demand for wild rubber. The industry of yerba mate is elsewhere described. Cocoa is grown in very large quantities, especially in the State of Bahia. The cotton-growing industry is developing rapidly in Brazil. It can be grown in nine States, from Bahia to Manahao. The zone in Brazil where cotton can be grown is far vaster than that of the United States, but as yet the production is small in comparison. The growers, as a rule, are small farmers, who raise it in conjunction with other crops, such as maize and beans, and the cultivation is of a very primitive kind. The greater part of the Brazilian cotton crop 108 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA is consumed at home. It is very desirable in the interest of Brazil that cotton-growing should be encouraged to the greatest possible extent, for the Republic now depends for its wealth chiefly upon coffee and rubber — commodities which are subject to strong competition, whereas the demand for raw cotton has for many years been greater than the t supply. Tobacco is a most important, crop in Brazil, and the quality is very good, while its cultivation is easy and lucrative. It is chiefly raised in Bahia, Para, Minas Geraes, Rio Grande do Sul and Goyaz. A French traveller says that notwithstanding the faulty methods of cultivation, " the tobacco leaf of Bahia is deservedly renowned and appreciated, so that French tobacco manufacturers make very large purchases every year." There is a large export of hides, which come chiefly from the cattle-raising States in the south. . The sugar-growing industry of Brazil, which was founded in the seventeenth century, is considerable, although not so large as it was some years ago. The cane is grown in most States, but most of all in Per nambuco, and the port of Pernambuco is the centre of the industry. With better methods, the production would be much larger. It is hardly necessary to say that Brazil pursues a policy of -high Protection, The duties are very high, and thus the prices of all articles are enhanced, in consequence of which Rio de Janeiro is one of the dearest places imaginable. The object of the Govern ment is to protect home manufacturers, who could otherwise hardly withstand the competition of the foreigner, and, further,, it is difficult to see how the public revenue could be raised were it not for the tariff. The burden upon the poor is heavy, and BRAZIL 109 probably there is in Brazil a stronger Free Trade party than in any other South American country, and the question is frequently argued in the excellent Jornal do Commercio. It is certain that the tariff wall has enabled industries to grow up. The manufacture of cotton goods is the most important. It is principally carried on in the States of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, and great pains have been taken to obtain the best instructors and the most modern machinery. The yarn is usually imported, and the varieties of cotton cloth turned out are, for the most part, coarse. Brazil possesses 194 cotton-mills, with 761,816 spindles and 27,958 looms. Woollens are manufactured to a considerable extent. Flour-milling, glass and biscuit factories, and a number of small and miscellaneous industries may be noted. Brewing is carefully protected, and there are most flourishing breweries in Rio de Janeiro and elsewhere. But it will be seen that manufacture is not a very important element in the national life when it is said that the 3,258 factories of Brazil employ only 151,841 persons. The mineral production of Brazil is small, con sidering the immense wealth which the land conceals. What was said by Sir Richard Burton forty-five years ago remains true : " The riches are still in the ground, and the nation is undoubtedly poor." It is certain that in former times Brazil produced gold to the value of over ^100,000,000, and it is still found in nearly every State, but the mines of Minas Geraes are the only ones that are really productive. The two chief companies are the St. John del Rey and the Ouro Preto, both English. The natives obtain a considerable amount of gold by washing. In Minas Geraes and several other States there are extensive iron deposits. Much interest has of late been taken in them, but as yet no A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA little has been done to exploit this wealth, and Brazil continues to import a great quantity of iron. There are productive manganese mines, and the export of that article amounts to about .£380,000. On the coast from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro are very valuable deposits of monazitic sand, which are employed in making gas mantles. These are the largest in the r world. Coal exists in considerable quantity, but is not worked to any large extent. The most interesting mining industry of Brazil is the diamond. Diamonds were first discovered by the Morrinhos River near Diamantina in 1721. This industry was at once declared the property of the King of Portugal, and it soon became very lucrative, the export of stones between 1732 and 1771 being valued at .£3,600,000. In 1832 the diamond-fields were thrown open. The " Braganza," now one of the crown jewels of Portugal, was found in the eighteenth century, and other noteworthy finds were the " Regent," and the "Estrella do Sul." This last weighed 255 carats in its rough state and 125 when cut. In 1910 the " Estrella de Minas," of 175 carats, was discovered. Of this industry the most important centre is Diamantina in Minas Geraes, but they are found also in the States of Bahia and Matto Grosso. Diamond-mining in Brazil is carried on chiefly by small, isolated workers, who employ very primitive methods, washing the diamondiferous gravel in the batea, or basin of hard wood, and the process is very similar to that of gold- washing. Extremely valuable are the carbons which are used for pointing the drills used in mining opera tions. A few years ago a fine stone of a reddish colour, weighing 2f carats, was sold in London for .£3,000. It is believed that many Brazilian diamonds are sold as Kimberley products, and, indeed, the South American variety is considerably more valuable BRAZIL m than that of South Africa. The produce of Brazil is undoubtedly large, but, owing to smuggling, it is impossible to know what is the real value of the diamond export. The mining situation in Brazil is summed up by the Consul of Bahia, who says : "There is no doubt that minerals of various classes exist in the State, but it appears to be, at present, impossible to work them at a profit." The cost of transporting machinery up-country devours the earnings. Money and Exchange The standard coin of Brazil is the milreis, the par value of which is about 27d. There are no gold coins circulating in Brazil and their place is taken by a paper currency. This is considerably depre ciated and is practically inconvertible. At present the rate of exchange stands at about i6d. In 1889, at the time of the revolution, the paper issue amounted to 174 millions of milreis, and the exchange was slightly above par at 27^1. The new . Republican Government soon followed the bad example set by many South American Republics, and proceeded to issue paper money recklessly. The result was disas trous. By 1897 the exchange had fallen to 9^d., while two years later it was as low as 6d. or 7d. Having thus depreciated the currency, the Government then set to work to attempt a remedy. As usual when a large banking reform was contemplated, an appeal was made to London bankers. In 1898 what is known as the funding loan was negotiated in London, and it was carried out by the Rothschilds. A loan of £10,000,000 was issued at 5 per cent, interest, which was guaranteed by a first mortgage on the customs receipts of Rio de Janeiro and the other ports. Brazil paid the Rothschilds for the bonds as they were issued 112 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA in paper money, reckoned at an exchange of i8d., which was immediately destroyed. This plan was partly successful and exchange rose again. By 1908 about 145 millions of milreis paper had been destroyed, and the exchange had risen to i6d. The aim of the Brazilian financiers was as much to steady the rate of exchange as to raise it, and to attain this object the Caisse de Conversion was instituted in 1906. It is similar- to the Argentine Caisse de Conversion. Its function is to issue notes against gold received by it from the Government and other depositors. These notes are convertible on presentation to the Caisse. By this means the exchange has been steadied, as the convertible paper currency of the Caisse has acted as a counterbalance against the inconvertible currency of the Government. The Caisse notes are convertible at the rate of 15 milreis to the pound sterling. They amount to about one-sixth of the total notes circulating in Brazil. Finance and Revenue Since the abolition of the Empire the finances of Brazil have been mismanaged by the Republican Government, and deficits are very common. Between 1906 and 1909 the total deficit was about -£10,170,000. In 1912 the revenue was .£34,506,954 and the expendi ture .£34,492,689. For 1913 the estimated revenue was ^39,603,165 and the expenditure ^41,890,535. The foreign debt amounts to ^82,903,120 and the internal paper debt to 620,525,600 milreis. Railways Considering its size and population, Brazil is not very well supplied1 with railways, having a mileage of only about 13,611. There is no general system, and a glance at the map, will show that the various BRAZIL 113 lines form little knots about the sea-coast, having grown up around the chief centres of population. Of late considerable improvements have been made, especially in the country from Rio de Janeiro south ward, and the Brazilian and Uruguayan capitals are now united by lines of railway. Brazilian railways are partly State-owned and partly owned by companies. In many cases the Government has granted a company concessions and guaranteed a fixed rate of interest for a certain period. This system has not proved very satisfactory. At present the policy of the Federal Government is to buy up when possible the railways from the companies that own them. It does not intend to work them, but to lease them to tenant companies. Under this scheme the Bahia system has been expropriated and leased to the Auxiliary Railway Company. The State of Sao Paulo has bought the Sorocabana Railway and leased it to a Franco-German syndicate. The Great Western Railway, one of the best lines on the continent, has a large system radiating from the port of Pernambuco. The Bahia system is, on the whole, less efficient. There is now a much improved combination of railways in the south of the Republic, and considerable extensions are being made. An interesting and valuable line is the Madera- Marmore Railway, 210 miles in length, which has lately been constructed round the series of cataracts and rapids on the Madeira and Marmore Rivers, by which navigation was interrupted. From Porto Velho on the Madera, which was the farthest point to which steamers could come, a railway has been built to Guayara Mirim on the Marmore. Hence also a line was built to Riberalta, in Bolivia, and a port on the Beni. The result has been to open an Atlantic outlet for the trade of Bolivia. - H4 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Immigration It is necessary before closing the account of the industrial conditions of Brazil to say a few words about immigration, for upon that its progress mainly depends. Every country in South America suffers from lack of population, and Brazil perhaps more so than any other ; in fact, her two staple industries, coffee and .rubber, were insignificant until the one received the assistance of Italian peasants and the other of the men of Ceara. During the past century fully three million immigrants have entered BraziL In 19 n the number was 153,203, and the following table shows their nationality : — Portuguese 46,754 Spaniards 27,007 Italians 22,821 Russians 13,898 Syrians 6,233 Germans 4,223 Austrians 3.327 French i.34° Swedes 1,116 English ^045 Others 5.852 These figures, however, are net, i.e. they take no account of emigration, which is sometimes consider able, and so it may be imagined that the Government and employers of labour look upon the prospect with anxiety. The prosperity of the State of Sao Paulo was entirely built up by Italians, who used to pour in multitudinously. They were extremely good workers, and assimilated very well. It was believed that a million Italians had settled in the State of Sao Paulo, and most of them had forgotten their own language. "A Venetian meeting a Sicilian will speak to him in Portuguese rather than learn the Southern dialect." BRAZIL US But, not unnaturally, the Italian Government became anxious about the constant drain upon the population, and began actively discouraging emigration in 1902, while, at the same time, the coffee crisis caused many of the Italians to leave Sao Paulo. To some extent the falling-off has been counterbalanced by an increase in the number of Spaniards ; but, although the Brazi lian Government makes every effort to attract immi grants, and has made admirable provision for their welfare from the moment of their landing, the popu lation difficulty remains. About one-fifth of the population is negro, and the negroes are extremely inefficient workers ; no planter of Sao Paulo would hire any kind of native labour if he could obtain Italian. The German immigration into Southern Brazil is now small, but up to 1859 the Germans entered the country in great numbers, and these people have proved very tenacious of their nationality. In many parts of Rio Grande do Sul German is the current language. Estimates of the number vary very much, but some computations put them at nearly a million. It is certain that Brazil is no place for the English settler, who is constantly warned not to come. The Consul at Bahia says : " The country is not suited for colonization by Europeans, and can never be expected to progress like the more temperate States in the south of the Republic." Brazil, as a whole, is less attractive to emigrants than Argentina, still less than Canada, Australia, and the United States. Everything is very dear, and wages are low. * History and Constitution Brazil was one of the earliest portions of the New World to be discovered. In 1499 Vincente Yanez Pincon sighted Cape Augustine and coasted along H6 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA as far as the Amazon. He carried home various pro - ducts, including the Brazil wood, which gave the name to the whole country. The wood is mentioned by Ascham in his Toxophilus, and the name Terra de Brazil was at once applied to the new land. The next year Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived off the southern coast of the State of Bahia. He did nothing of impor tance on this coast, but he sent a vessel to Portugal formally announcing the discovery, and the King, Don Manuel, began to take an interest in his new territory. Amerigo Vespucci was dispatched, but he failed to establish a permanent settlement, and for a long time the Brazilian coast was neglected. But the Portuguese knew that Spain was making efforts in the Plate dis trict, and they wished to secure a position on a conti nent which seemed likely to fall entirely under Spanish influence. So Alfonso de Souza, a brave and able navigator, sailed with five ships and reached the coast near Pernambuco early in 1531, ^nd sailed southwards with the intention of founding a settlement on the Plate. But, having lost a ship, he thought it prudent to retrace his steps northwards, and in 1532, on the 1st of January, entered the magnificent bay of Rio de Janeiro, and gave to the place the name of the month of the discovery. He also established a post at Sao Vincente in the State of Sao Paulo, and the Portuguese colonists soon began to flourish. De Souza is undoubtedly the founder of Brazil. Within a few years twelve fiefs were granted on the coast between the Amazon and Santa Catherina, and , six of them became permanent centres of Portuguese influence. Pernambuco was on the track of all ships voyaging to South America, and it early became the seat of the sugar trade.1 But the Spanish explorers ¦ In 1586 it was the leading port of the east coast. See Purchas His Pilgrimes, xvii. 263 : " Now to return unto Fer- BRAZIL 117 were making great progress on all sides, and the Portuguese Government found it necessary to con centrate its petty chiefs and appoint a responsible governor. The first governor was Thomas de Souza, who in 1549 established his capital at Bahia. Six Jesuits, the first of that Order to land in the New World, accompanied the expedition, and they at once began their labours among the Indians, the principal of which was to discourage cannibalism. At Rio de Janeiro the French at this time held possession. The story of their ejection is thus told in Purchas 1 : " But the King of Portugall sent a power of men against the Frenchmen, and first took the French ships by Sea, and then landed and besieged the Fort, and in time took them with the Captaine, and because the French Captaine was a Gentleman and never hurt the Por- tugals, they gave him thirtie thousand Ducketts for his Ordnance, with all things that they had in the Fort, and so sent him for France, and the Portugals inhabited the River." The name of the Frenchman was Villegagnon, and the settlement by the Portuguese was effected in 1 567. By this time the civilized population of Portuguese Brazil was about 60,000, of whom 20,000 were whites. Rio de Janeiro was as yet insignificant compared with Pernambuco and Bahia. When Portugal became united with Spain, Brazil attracted the hostile attention of English marauders, and her coasts were plundered by Withington, Caven- namboche, inhabited by a Portugall Capitaine called Eduarte Coelio, this is the greatest Towne in all that Coast, and hath above three thousand houses in it, with seventie Ingenios of Sugar, and great store of Brasill wood, and good store of Cotton, yet are they in great want of victuals, for that all they have cometh out of Portugall, and from other places there on the Coast." ' Ibid., 264. n8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA dish, and Lancaster. But these incursions had small effect, and enterprising Portuguese leaders made conquests over the Indians, and frustrated French efforts to re-establish themselves in South America. However, their ill-starred amalgamation with Spain brought upon the Portuguese another very formid able enemy in Brazil. The Dutch, after long fighting, ^subjugated practically the whole group of settlements, and when Count John Maurice came out in 1630 and began to rule the new conquests with vigour and prudence, it seemed that they would be the dominat ing power along the Atlantic coast of South America. But that nation has always lost its dominions by fail ing to support its brave commanders, and Maurice offended the Calvinist ministers and the trading in terests, and when he retired in 1644 the fortunes of the Dutch were beginning to wane. In 1640 Portugal had recovered her independence and was in a position to help her Brazilian subjects to expel the Dutch. This great work was chiefly accomplished by John Fernandes Vieira, and by 1655 Pernambuco and all the other places were surrendered by Schoppke, the Dutch commander. Thus South America was aban doned to the Latin race. The rest of the seventeenth century was uneventful, but during the Dutch wars the Brazilians had engaged in less creditable transactions than resistance to the invaders. The Paulistas, or men of Sao Paulo, from time to time ravaged the Jesuit settlements to the south and perpetrated horrible outrages. Their in cursions had an extremely important result in deter mining that a large slice of South America should be not Spanish but Portuguese. A considerable portion of the forest country along the Plate affluents, as well as Uruguay (Banda Oriental), was marked out for Spain, but it was lost owing to the aggressions of BRAZIL 119 the Paulistas. During the eighteenth century also there was a standing quarrel between Spain and Portugal over the coast boundary. In 1690 gold was discovered, which attracted a host of adventurers. In fifty years the State of Minas Geraes produced seven and a half million ounces of gold, but after a time the mining industry lan guished under illiberal laws. The War of the Spanish Succession involved Brazil in the troubles of Europe ; and later, in 1718, a French fleet attacked Rio de Janeiro, but was compelled to surrender after hard fighting. The Portuguese treated their prisoners barbarously. Next year the French Admiral Duguay- Trouin, with a strong fleet, destroyed the Portuguese ships and captured Rio, but, having no wish to establish a settlement, returned to France almost immediately with much booty. About this time diamonds were discovered, and Brazil was long the chief source of the world's supply. The rest of the century was a time of tolerable prosperity. There were endless disputes with Spain over the port of Colonia, which the Por tuguese had placed in the heart of Spanish territory, and some fighting occurred, chiefly during the Seven Years War, but at last, in 1777, Colonia was given up to Spain. On the other hand, Rio Grande do Sul was recognized as the possession of Portugal ; this was practically a legacy of the Paulistas. The high-handed Pombal was as rigorous a reformer in Brazil as in Portugal, and in 1760 he committed the great crime of expelling the Jesuits. The colony, however, continued to prosper. The capital had been transferred to Rio de Janeiro in 1763, but Bahia remained the chief trade centre, and the increasing practice of importing negro slaves added to the prosperity of the sugar and mining industries. However, the great event of 1789 was 120 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA beginning to cast its shadows, and Brazil, like its neighbours, was infected with the revolutionary spirit. A futile conspiracy of poets in Minas came to a head in the very year 1789, and the leader, Tiradentes, was hanged. But Brazil, large and heterogeneous in race, was the least favourable part of South America for the new doctrines, and the royal migration helped to stimu- Jate the loyalty of the people. This is one of the chief events in Brazilian history. The Regent Dom John, with his wife, children, and mother, left the Tagus for Brazil on November 29, 1807, and the colony at once felt the benefit of the royal presence. The disabilities of Brazil under the Portuguese colonial system have been thus described : x " All intercourse and commerce between Brazil and foreign nations were prohibited. The vessels of allies were occasionally permitted to visit certain ports ; but the crews were only allowed to land under supervision. All manufactures, except that of sugar, were forbidden ; and the Crown drew vast revenues from the tithes, which under a Papal Bull it had appropriated, and from the royalties of the. gold and silver mines. With the arrival of the Prince Regent and the establishment of the seat of government at Rio, all this was abruptly changed. A royal decree of January 28, 1808, threw open all the ports of Brazil to the commerce of all friendly nations. Industries were freed from all restrictions ; and the exploration of the interior was encouraged. Supreme tribunals were created ; and a National Bank, a Royal Printing Press, a Military Academy, and a Medical School were established. These reforms were in no small measure due to British influence, which was dominant in the 'Portuguese Court ; and there can be no doubt that the concession of freedom of trade was highly advantageous to British commerce." - Cambridge Modem History, x. 311. BRAZIL 121 At this time Brazil had three million inhabitants, of whom one-third were negro slaves. Dom John liked Rio and set up an extravagant Court in his new home, nor did he return to Portugal at the end of the war, but declared Brazil a kingdom, much to the dis satisfaction of the Portuguese. In i8i6the mad queen, his mother, died, and he thus became John VI. Signs of the revolutionary spirit began to show themselves, but the King had good troops and easily suppressed the outbreaks. In 1820 revolutionary troubles broke out in Portugal, and on February 26, 1821, the Brazilians took up arms to secure a constitu tion. King John nominated his son Pedro as Regent and departed to Portugal. Towards the end of the next year Brazil declared itself independent and Pedro I became the first Emperor. It may be added that he had not a shadow of right to any such title, for he himself was a minor king, and he succeeded to no empire, but to a congeries of plantations. Some fighting was required to expel the Portuguese loyalists and troops, but the Brazilians, aided by Lord Cochrane, easily accomplished it. The new Emperor soon lost his popularity, and in 1831 abdicated and went to Europe, leaving his young son to become Pedro II. Though more fortunate than her neigh bours, Brazil had been suffering various foreign and domestic troubles, and there was talk of a Republic, but in 1840 the majority of the youthful Emperor was proclaimed, and Dom Pedro II, as he is always called, began a long and not unprosperous reign. The country gradually began to flourish, and the cultivation of coffee was greatly extended. But in 1850 the terrible yellow fever began its ravages, and this scourge helped to reconcile the people to the abolition of the slave trade, for it was believed to have been introduced by the imported Africans. 122 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA At this time the Marquis of Parana ruled well and developed the material resources of the country, but in 1856 a commercial crisis occurred. Brazil had con ferred a great benefit upon Argentina in ridding her of the tyrant Rosas, and later she was called upon to do a similar service for Paraguay. This led to a serious war, which checked her prosperity. It lasted from . 1865 to 1870, and will be described in the history of Paraguay. The chief honours were won by Brazil, for Marshal Caxias showed great military skill, and General Camara had the honour of destroying one of those " despicable tyrants " against whom Bolivar had warned posterity. For many years Brazil's history was uneventful, and although affairs went not unprosperously, discontent was gathering, and unfortunately the Emperor's best act contributed to his unpopularity far more than any, of the unwise proceedings of his Ministers. The slave trade had been abolished, but, although diminished, slavery remained. In 1856 the slaves of Brazil num bered two and a half millions ; in 1873 they had fallen to a little over one and a half millions. The Emperor's health declined, and from time to time his daughter Isabel acted as Regent. Her position was very diffi cult, for she earnestly desired the abolition of slavery, but the rich slave-owning classes, who would lose by abolition, were the main support of the throne. Never theless, she bravely encouraged the reform, and in 1888 signed the law of abolition. The next year the Empire was at an end. Republican doctrines had made headway in "the army, and the class that supported the Emperor had been alienated. In November, 1889, the revolution came about without a blow, and a Republic was pro claimed. On November 16th the Emperor and his family were placed upon a ship and sent to Europe. BRAZIL 123 The downfall of the Empire was a great blow to Brazil. Up to 1889 she was far ahead of the other South American nations in prosperity and efficiency of administration. Since then she has relatively retro graded and has been outstripped by Argentina. The subsequent history has not presented many features of importance. There was a rebellion in 1894 and a con siderable amount of fighting. Dr. Prudente de Moraes Barros became President and attempted to reform the administration, which had fallen into confusion and corruption since the deposition of Dom Pedro II. His period of office was full of trouble. A dangerous insurrection was raised by a fanatic named Consel- heiro which required a large army to suppress, and soon afterwards a determined attempt was made to assassinate the President. However, Moraes suc ceeded in restoring peace to Brazil, and under his successor, Dr. Campos Salles, strenuous efforts were made fo reorganize the finances and improve Brazilian credit — a task which was carried on by Dr. Rodrigues Alves, who succeeded in 1902. By this time tolerable tranquillity had been restored to Brazil, although she has never regained her old prosperity. Dr. Affonso Penna, who became President in 1906, died in 1909. The next year Marshal Hermes da Fonseca was elected without serious, trouble. There have since been several small rebellions and mutinies. The state of Brazil cannot be considered satisfactory. Her economic troubles are severe, and these are partly due to political defects. The Brazilians form one of many instances of a people who have obtained par liamentary government long before they were fitted for it, and thus they experience all its evils and few of its advantages. Out of the numbers qualified to vote very few will take the trouble to exercise the franchise, and those who do vote yield to pressure 124 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA rather than to their political convictions. The results of the elections, therefore, are determined by small political cliques, which misgovern the country without let or hindrance. The Constitution It would be tedious to give the details of the con stitution of each South American Republic in turn, and therefore the following (description of the Brazilian constitution -may serve as a type. The form of govern ment is Federal ; it is based upon the union of a number of States, and the official designation, therefore, is the United States of Brazil. The powers of the Union, as it is called, are strictly discriminated from those of the States. It may not interfere in State matters except : — (i) To repel foreign invasion, or the invasion of one State by another ; (2) To maintain the Federal Republican form of government ; (3) To re-establish order and tranquillity in the States at the request of the respective Governments ; (4) To assure the execution of the laws and Federal decrees. The Union, of cdurse, reserves the usual Federal powers, i.e. it imposes duties on foreign imports, and controls the stamp duties and the posts and telegraphs. It alone may create banks of emission and create and maintain customs-houses. The States have consider able powers of imposing duties upon articles coming from other States, and the trade and progress of Brazil are hampered in consequence. The legislative power is vested in the Congress, with the sanction of the President of the Republic, Con« BRAZIL 125 gress consists of two bodies, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Chamber of Deputies is elected by direct suffrage and must not exceed one member for every 70,000 inhabitants. Members of the Senate must be over 35 years of age, arid are elected for nine years. Three Senators sit for each State and three for the Federal District. The Senate has the power to try and sentence the President and other Federal officers. The President presides over its deliberations. The President is head of the Executive and has very large powers, among which is that of choosing and dismissing all Cabinet Ministers. His term of office is four years, and he is elected by direct suffrage. Cabinet Ministers may not sit in Congress. There are the following portfolios : (1) Public Works, Agriculture, and Industry ; (2) War ; (3) Marine ; (4) Foreign Affairs ; (5) Interior ; (6) Finance. The judicial power of the Union rests in a Federal Supreme Court and in as many lower Federal Courts as Congress may create. The judges are appointed by the President and hold office for life. The Federal Supreme Court has the duty of trying the President and Cabinet Ministers for crimes against the Republic or common crimes. Citizens over twenty-one years of age shall be electors. Included in the constitution is a Declaration of Rights, of which the following arethe most important clauses : — " Before law all persons are equal. The Republic does not recognize privileges of birth, or titles of nobility, and abolishes all existing honorary orders, with all their prerogatives and decorations, as well as all hereditary titles and that of councillor. "All persons and religious corporations may exer cise publicly and freely the right of , worship, and may 126 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA associate themselves for that purpose and acquire property, with due observance of the provisions of common law. "The Republic recognizes civil marriage only, the celebration of which shall be gratuitous. "The instruction given at public institutions shall be secular. "The death penalty is abolished, except in case of martial law in time of war. " The institution of trial by jury is maintained." It will be observed that the Brazilian constitution is modelled upon that of the United States of America, which is, to a large extent, the model for other South American Republics, and their constitutions hence forth will only receive notice when they differ in some important point from the Brazilian, or otherwise present some feature of special interest. PERNAMBUCO Steamship Lines — This is the first South American port at which the steamers from Europe touch. The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company calls here, but the Pacific Steam Navigation Company often omits Pernambuco. The distance to Bahia is 390 miles and to Rio de Janeiro 1,125. Tne lines and fares are given in the Introduction. There is a fairly frequent coasting service north and south, provided by the Lloyd-Brazileiro, the Companhia Pernambucana; and others ; but these lines are not recommended. The vessels go as far north as Manaos and as far south as Buenos Aires, and also proceed up the Plate rivers as far as Asuncion. There is also a service to New York. More details about the shipping lines of Brazil will be given under the head of Rio de Janeiro. Railways — There is good connexion with the neighbouring towns through the Great Western Railway. To the north Parahyba and Natal may be reached, and to the south Natal. Hotels — Hotel Moderno, Empreza de Banhos do Mar, on the BRAZIL 127 Reef ; Grande Hotel Commercial, Sul Americano. The charges range from 13s. to £1 a day. British Consul— Consul, H. E. Dickie. Banks — London and River Plate Bank ; London and Brazilian Bank. Newspapers — 0 Jornal do Recife, Correio de Recife, A Provincia. Pernambuco, or Recife, was from the first an im portant town : allusion has already been made to its history. It derives its alternative name from the reef, which at the same time affords a harbour and impedes navigation, as, unfortunately, only ships draw ing 23 feet of water can enter the harbour. The landing has to be made by small boats. Pernambuco, which has a population estimated at 200,000, is divided into three parts — Recife, San Antonio, and Boa Vista, the first two of which are connected by handsome bridges. Recife is the business part, San Antonio is inhabited by the poorer class, and Boa Vista is the fashionable quarter. Pernambuco is pic turesque, but the streets are dirty and malodorous and the population is largely negro ; it is not likely that a tourist will wish to make a stay here. Sugar and cotton and hides are the principal export. It is the sixth port of Brazil. In 1911 its imports were 53,952,804 milreis and the exports 19,445,822. BAHIA Steamship Lines — These are practically as at Rio de Janeiro, which see. The ships stand out at some distance and passengers are landed in boats. Bahia is 390 miles from Pernambuco and 735 from Rio. Railways — On the land side Bahia is isolated to this extent, that she has no railway communication with the great neighbouring towns of Pernambuco to the north or Rio to the south. The Bahia and San Francisco and the San Francisco Railways have a line running about 350 miles north to Joazeiro. The Central of Bahia Railway gives communication to several towns. 128 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Hotels— Hotel Sul Americano, Rua S. Pedro; Grande Hotel Paris, Praca Castro Alves, with French and Portuguese cooking. These, the two best houses in the town, charge from ios. to 13s. a day. Similar is the charge of several boarding-houses, with European cooking, which are well situated in the district of Victoria. They, however, give monthly terms at about £13 5s. a month. The Consul reports that "houses continue scarce and dear, and the hotel accommodation is poor.'- British Consul— Consul, E. M. de Garston. Vice-ConsuL, Frank Stevenson. Banks — London and River Plate, British Bank of South America, London and Brazilian Bank. Newspapers — Diario da Bahia, A Bahia, Diario de Noticias. Bahia, the capital of the State, is a large town and port with about 300,000 inhabitants. It stands on the great bay of All Saints, which is about 20 miles long and 25 miles broad. Though extremely picturesque, it is eclipsed by Rio de Janeiro and has been comparatively neglected by the pens of descrip tive writers. Yet the bay is of extreme beauty and is much more open than that of Rio. Darwin wrote with enthusiasm of the luxuriant vegetation which grew upon its shores. It is well sheltered and is being further improved. In 1911 the imports were valued at .£3,989,819 and the exports (for 1912) at .£5,844,758. The principal exports are cocoa, tobacco, coffee, sugar and hides. In 1912, 533 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,834,314, entered the port; considerably more than half of this was British. Allusion has been made to this ancient city in the historical section. Early in 19 12 there were serious disturbances and the city was bombarded by the Federal army. The Palace of the Governor and the State Library were burnt. On landing, the visitor will probably feel disappoint ment, for the business part of the town lies along the water edge, and the streets are narrow, ill-paved, BRAZIL 129 and evil-smelling. But behind lies a steep ridge of moderate height, which is mounted by means of a useful lift. Here are good houses, wide streets, and pleasant gardens, which are refreshed by the sea breezes. There is said to be one church in Bahia for every day in the year. Some of them have hand some and costly interiors. Negroes abound in Bahia. There are many handsome public buildings and the town and its surroundings are picturesque, but it is not a place to be recommended for a long stay. The mean temperature is about 8o° Fahr. and the humidity of the air makes the heat very oppressive. The rainfall is about 48 inches annually. Yellow fever and bubonic plague frequently visit the town, and smallpox, which is endemic, causes 'great havoc among the poorer classes. September and October are the best months for a visit ; in the tour mapped out in this book, January is given, and it would be unwise to alter the arrangement for a place of comparatively small importance ; the January climate is not much worse than the average. Bahia has a number of cotton-mills and miscellaneous manufac tures. There is a very good service of electric cars. An interesting excursion might be made to the diamond- mines, but these are somewhat inaccessible and would require several weeks which would be spent in rough travel. Those who wish for information about the interior of Bahia and other parts of Brazil should read Sir Richard Burton's admirable book, which describes conditions which have hardly been modified by the puny railway enterprises of Bahia. RIO DE JANEIRO Steamship Lines — The steamers and passage rates of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, and various other lines, English and foreign, 130 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA . , have been dealt with in the Introduction. The Italian Lloyd are among the best and fastest of the steamers. The ships of the New Zealand Shipping Company and the Shaw Savill call here on their way home from New Zealand. The Lloyd- Brasileiro and Lage Brothers, with several others, afford a coasting service. Both the Lamport and Holt and the Lloyd- Brasileiro give a service to the United States. The distance to Bahia is 735 miles, to Pernambuco 1,125, to Santos 199, to Montevideo 1,180, to Buenos Aires 1,305, to Southampton 5,034, to Hamburg 5,519, to Genoa 5,040, and to New York 4,748. Railways — Rio has a good railway service. It has communica- cation with Victoria, Espirito Santo, and Ouro Preta in the north, and in the south with Sao Paulo and Southern Brazil generally. Hotels — The two best hotels in Rio are the Hotel dos Estran- geiros, Praca Jose de Alvear, and the Hotel Internacional, which is situated at some distance in the suburbs. Their terms are from £1 a day upwards. The Avenida and the Hotel do Concordo em Paineiras may also be mentioned. The Restaurante Barros, 98, Rua da Alfandeza, is a good restaurant. British Consul— The post of British Minister is vacant. Consul- General, D. R. O'Sullivan-Beare. Vice-Consuls, E. Hambloch, C. G. Pullen. Banks — London and River Plate, British Bank of South America, London and Brazilian Bank, Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata. Newspapers — Jornal do Commercio. Jornal do Brazil, O Imperial, Geseta do Notacis, Le Bresil, A Noticia (evening). The Jornal do Commercio is one of the best newspapers in the world. It is conducted by the able and independent Senhor Jose Carlos Rodrigues. L'Etoile du Sud is a French weekly. The Brazilian Review is an excellent weekly, published in English. Anglican Church — This is in the Rua Evaresta da Vega. Rio de Janeiro, the capital and chief seaport of Brazil, is the second largest city in South America, with a population of about 870,000. Its history has been referred to in the historical section. It is an extremely beautiful city. The charms of Rio Bay have BRAZIL 131 been celebrated, perhaps with some exaggeration, by every traveller who has visited it ; and though it cannot claim to be the loveliest of sea approaches, the com bination of blue water, rugged hills, and tropical vegetation makes the harbour a very lovely place. It has been thus described by Sir Richard Burton : " ' Rio Bay,' like all the beautiful sisterhood, from Cornish ' Mullions ' westward to the Bay of Naples, must be seen in * war-paint.' Most charming is she when sitting under her rich ethereal canopy, whilst a varnish of diaphanous atmosphere tempers the distance to soft and exquisite loveliness ; when the robing blue is perfect brilliant blue, when the browns are dashed with pink and purple, and when the national colours suggest themselves : green, vivid as the emerald, and yellow, bright as burnished gold. Then the streams are silver, then the scaurs are marked orange and vermilion as they stand straightly out from the snowy sand or the embedding forest, then the passing clouds form floating islets as their shadows walk over the waters of the inner sea, so purely green. Then the peasant's whitewashed hut of tile and ' wattle and dab,' rising from the strand of snowy sand, becomes opal and garnet in the floods of light which suggest nothing but a perpetual springtide. And every hour has its own spell. There is sublimity in the morning mists rolling far away over headland brow and heaving ocean ; there is grandeur, loveliness, and splendour in the sparkling of the waves under the noonday sun, when the breeze is laden with the perfume of a thousand, flowers ; and there is inex pressible repose and grace in the shades of vinous purple which evening sheds over the same." This beautiful city was not long ago a very undesirable place of residence, for yellow fever carried off a great number of victims. The deaths from the scourge were^- 132 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA i9°° 345 1902 984 1901 299 I9°3 584 Between 1850 and 1903 Rio had lost 58,635 lives to yellow fever. About this time energetic sanitary mea sures were taken and vigorous war was waged upon mosquitoes, with such excellent results that yellow fever has been completely banished from Rio de Janeiro, and the official statistics claim that it is an extraordi narily healthy town. However this may be, the sanitary condition has undoubtedly been greatly improved This improvement is partly due to the rebuilding of the city. Up to very recent years Rio was a meanly built town with dark and narrow streets. The " open ing into wider parts " began at about the same time as the sanitation, being carried out in 1903 and the years following. The most splendid feature is the Avenida Central, nearly a mile and a half long, which runs along the northern extremity through the old town, from sea to sea, and is, perhaps, the handsomest street in South America. Here are most of the finest public buildings and many shops and superb offices. It is crossed at right angles by the ancient Rua Ouvidor, still the best shopping centre. Another magnificent promenade is the Avenida Beira Mar, which runs southward along the bay for more than three miles, wandering between blue water and gay flower-gardens. The Jardim Botanico, which was established in 1808, is one of the chief sights of Rio. It occupies an area of 2,000 acres and is traversed by a magnificent avenue of palms. The arrangements, for the study of botany are very complete and the garden is one of the best in the world. Very beautiful are the various public gardens, among which may be mentioned the Praca da Repub- lica, the Praca Duke de Caxias, and the Passeio Publico, Like all other South Americans, the Brazilians are fond BRAZIL 133 of statues. In the Praia da Gloria may be seen the statue of the Viscount of Rio Branco, which was erected to commemorate the fourth centenary of the discovery of Brazil. In the Praca Tiridentes there stands an equestrian figure of Dom Pedro. There is also a statue of General Osorio, who gained distinction in the war with Paraguay, and many more. The public buildings of the capital are mostly modern. The City Palace, which dates from 1743, is now the Telegraph Office. The Palace, occupied by the Emperor, at Sao Christovao, is now a National Museum, but the best collection is at the National Museum in the Quinta da Boa Vista, which has especially fine collections of natural history specimens and fossils. Here is the great meteoric stone, Bendigo, which was discovered in 1781, in the State of Bahia. The Cattete Palace, now occupied by the President, is one of the older buildings. This list is almost exhausted with the Palacete Itamaratz, the official residence of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, a pleasant building whose plainness contrasts with the florid appearance of the modern buildings. These are numerous, and the Municipal Theatre is one of the most handsome. It is situated in the Avenida Central and bears some resemblance to the Opera House in Paris. Here also are the National Library, with over 200,000 books, and the Palace of Fine Arts. The Mint is an extremely imposing building. Among the hand somest of the edifices are the newspaper and insurance offices, and Rio, with its combination of the old and the new, has an interesting and picturesque appearance, which is greatly enhanced by its beautiful environs. Beautiful as Rio is, the traveller will not, in all prob ability, desire to make a long stay here. The climate is hot, humid and enervating; the mean temperature is 740 Fahr. The least oppressive time is between April and November, but the climate is rendered much more 134 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA trying by the practical absence of seasons; the tempera ture remains at a high level, night and day, all the year round. The humidity which greatly aggravates the heat is caused by the Atlantic trade winds, which blow fpr a great part of the year. Further, Rio is an extremely expensive town- A recent Consular Report says : " The cost of living in Rio de Janeiro may, at a fair estimate, be considered about three times as expen sive as in Europe." In Buenos Aires and Santiago the prices are probably but little lower ; there, however, the climate is pleasant and luxuries, or what would in Europe be called necessaries, can be forgone with less discomfort. The traveller is recommended to make his way to Sao Paulo, before he begins to feel the effects of the climate of Rio. The town has an extremely good service of electric tramcars, which is provided by the Light and Power Company. The beautiful environs, as well as Rio itself, can thus be seen easily and cheaply ; the hired cabs are wretched. All tourists go to the Jardim Botanico, at the foot of the hills of Gavea and Cor covado. The distance is about 6 miles and the return fare about is. Another indispensable excur sion is to. Corcovado itself, which is made by taking the little rack railway from Cosme Velho. There are seven trains a day and the return fare is 4s. The view from the summit, 2,000 feet above the sea, is magnificent. Not less delightful is a visit to Tijuca, which lies about 7 miles from the centre of the city. It is reached by tram, supplemented by a funicular railway up the mountain. The little town (Hotel Tijuca), a favourite summer resort, is 1,200 feet above the sea-level, while the summit of the mountain is about 3,300 feet. There is a fine waterfall. The return fare is about is. 9d. The number of churches in Rio is large, but those BRAZIL 135 which possess merit are few. The largest and best is the Church of the Candelaria, with two very graceful towers and a rich interior. The people of Brazil are, for the most part, deeply religious. There are, of course, many English, French and Germans in Rio, and besides many handsome native clubs, each body of aliens has several clubs of its own. The outdoor amusements cannot compare with those of Buenos Aires. Racing is popular, but is on a smaller scale than in Argentina. There is a good race-course. Besides being the seat of the Federal Government, Rio has immense commercial importance. In 191 1 the imports were 280,384,706 milreis and the exports 121,819,726 milreis. Rio is one of the best harbours in the world. Its industries are considerable. Cotton is the principal, and Rio has twenty-four factories. In all, there are said to be 670 large manufacturing establishments in Rio, which include tobacco, matches, boots and shoes, candles and beer. Hardly any of these industries could exist but for an extravagant system of Protection, which imposes a very heavy burden upon the poor and makes, as has been pointed out, Rio de Janeiro a place to be avoided by the tourist with moderate means. Even French observers, who are accustomed to Protection and approve it in moderation, point out that this excessive system of duties is beneficial to no one but the Brazilian manufacturers. There is a strong minority in Brazil that favours a more liberal fiscal system. Like all Latin Americans, the Brazilians love poetry. The principal Brazilian poets are Antonio Gonzaga, elsewhere noticed, and Antonio Goncalves Dias, a native of the State of Maranhao, who was born in 1824, and perished by shipwreck on the homeward voyage from Portugal in 1864. His Cangdo do Exilio 136 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA (" Minha terra tern palmeiras ") is a noble poem. There are several other poets of repute, but Goncalves Dias surpasses all of the nineteenth century. There are two outstanding novelists, Jose de Alencar (1829- 77), famous for Guaranz, and Joaquim de Macedo, for La Brunette. A useful historian of Brazil was Varnhagen, Viscount of Porto-Seguro. Though the mass of Brazilians are sunk in ignorance, there is a leaven of highly cultivatednersons in the larger towns, and their newspaper press is, relatively at any rate, much better than our own. There are no Universities in Brazil, but there are twenty-five Faculties that confer degrees. All visitors to Rio make the journey to Petropolis. This little town is situated at a distance of 28 miles from the capital at an elevation of 3,000 feet, and has a population of 40,000. The railway journey occupies nearly 2 hours and the return fare is us. There are fine views. The place has several hotels, the Rio de Janeiro (German), Hotel Europa (Portuguese), and the Modern (Italian). It was founded in 1845 by a band of Germans who intended it to be an agricultural settlement, but the conveni ence of its position made it a kind of American Simla, and here reside for the greater part of the year the foreign diplomatists. Petropolis has received much praise from travellers, who were no doubt grateful for the comparative coolness of the climate, but it is rather an untidy place, and the scenery is disappoint ing. There are, however, pleasant gardens. Besides being a fashionable resort, Petropolis is an industrial town with several large cotton-mills and breweries. One day is quite enough to devote to Petropolis. The traveller will leave Rio de Janeiro without BRAZIL 137 regret, and will take one of the crazy cabs and make his way to the Central station, whence the train will take him to Sao Paulo in about twelve hours. SAO PAULO Railways — Sao Paulo promises to be the most important railway centre in all Brazil. The distance from the capital is 300 miles and the return fare, first class, is about £3 15s. The journey is made by the Central Brazilian Railway. Sao Paulo is distant 45 miles from its port, Santos, and the return fare, first class, is about 17s. The journey is made by the Sao Paulo Railway. There is now railway connexion between Sao Paulo and Montevideo, but the journey is very long and tedious, and to most people the sea voyage would be preferable. Hotels — Sportsman, Rua Direita (good table) ; Majestic, Rua Sao Bento ; Grand, Rua Sao Bento. The charges are from 15s. a day. British Consul — Consul, G. G. F. Atlee. Vice-Consul, C. W Miller. Banks — London and River Plate, British Bank of South America, London and Brazilian Bank, Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata. Newspapers — 0 Estado de Sao Paulo, A Platea, A Tribuna, Sao Paulo, Deutsche Zeitung, Voz de Espana. Sao Paulo is a large and very handsome city with a population of 410,702. It stands 2,000 feet above the sea-level and has a mild and pleasant climate. The busy part is the Rua Direita, which is joined by the Rua Sao Bento and the Rua Quinze de Novembro. The outskirts of the city are traversed by fine avenues. There is a very good service of electric tramcars. Sao Paulo is the centre of the coffee industry, to which it owes all its wealth. The population consists largely of Italians, who during the last thirty years have come to the State in enormous numbers, and, although the crisis in the coffee industry checked the influx, immi gration is now once more becoming large. In 1912 138 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA there entered the State 103,005 persons as against 39,143 who left it. The State is devoted to agricul ture, and, possessing a fine climate, fertile soil, and abundance of water, it is carried on with great success. Besides coffee, sugar, rice, cotton, maize, beans, tobacco and fruits of every kind are produced. Only 4,450,820 acres of the area (which is as large as Italy) are under cultivation, and much of it has hardly been explored, but, with the development of railways, it will soon be one of the richest places on the face of the globe. Although the English colony is small, Sao Paulo is a pleasant place for a visit. There is a small race course. The growth of the city has been enormous ; in 1887 the population amounted to only 47,697. The city has been well laid out and the public gardens are very beautiful. Sao Paulo is now almost as important a manu facturing centre as Rio de Janeiro. It possesses 31 cotton, 17 wool, and 4 jute factories, besides several for the manufacture of boots and shoes. No fewer than 50,000 persons are employed, and the output is about £15,000,000 yearly. The city possesses many fine public buildings, and, though less interested than Rio in literature and art, it takes a prominent place in education. The Academia de Direita or Law School is famous, and has trained many statesmen and jurists. There are also a Medical School and a Polytechnic, and much more attention is bestowed upon primary and second ary education than in other parts of Brazil. The suburbs are very handsome, and their principal feature is the splendid Avenida Paulista ; the Jardin de Luz is a beautiful park. Among the chief buildings may be named the Government Palace, the Palace of Agriculture, the Hospedaria de Immigrantes (a most BRAZIL 139 useful institution), the Santa Casa de Misericordia, which is the chief hospital, and the Public Library. The suburb of Liberdade is picturesque, and perhaps the favourite objective for a walk or short drive is Ypiranga, an extremely fine monument erected in 1885 to commemorate the proclamation of independ ence in 1822. Here is a good natural history museum. The churches are not remarkable. A French traveller calls Sao Paulo " une ville triste et sans distractions," and the evenings there are certainly very quiet. But it has an extremely healthy and pleasant climate, and for those who are interested in the industries there is much to see. Sao Paulo is by no means the geographical centre of Brazil. Campinas approximates nearer to that position. This town (Hotel Villela), which has about 90,000 inhabitants, lies 65 miles north-west of the town of Sao Paulo, and at one time was of equal importance. It is the centre of a rich coffee district and is a hand some town, but the situation is unhealthy. The traveller, however, is more likely to turn his thoughts to Argentina and take the short railway journey to Santos. SANTOS Railways — The particulars of the journey between Santos and the State capital are given under Sao Paulo. The Santos and Sao Vicente Railway is a short electric line. Hotels— The Sportsman, Rua 15 de Novembro, 60 ; the Palace Hotel, Praia de Jose. The traveller is recommended to go to Santos the day before his boat sails, and thus avoid spending more than one night in the town. British Consul— R. A. Sandall. Banks — London and River Plate, London and Brazilian Bank; Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata. Newspaper — A Tribuna. 140 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Santos, which has a population of 71,980, is a purely commercial town. It was founded by Braz Cubas in 1543, but long made very slow progress, owing to its swampy and unhealthy situation. It used to have a terrible reputation for yellow fever, but of late years great improvements have been made, and the port is now free from it. It is a tolerably healthy place now, but it has no attractions whatever except its com merce. The suburbs are more pleasant. Santos is an excellent harbour, and the largest ships lie alongside its quays. Owing to its immense exports of coffee, it has far more commerce than even Rio de Janeiro, i.e. it is the chief port of Brazil. In 191 1 the imports were 280,384,706 milreis, the exports 480,899,954. It is not very probable that many travellers will wish to visit Southern Brazil. The climate is good, but the objects of interest are by no means numerous. However, there is a choice of two routes, the easy one by sea or the more fatiguing one by land. The latter, however, would have the advantage of enabling the traveller to see Uruguay at a smaller cost of time than would be demanded by the scheduled route. In this case a day trip would suffice for Santos, and he would begin the journey from Sao Paulo. RIO GRANDE DO SUL Steamship Lines — Vessels of the Hamburg-America line call here regularly. A coasting service is maintained by the Lloyd-Brasileiro. Railways — A line of about 140 miles in length runs to Bage, and thus Rio Grande is joined to the general railway system of Southern Brazil. The return first-class fare to Bage is £2 3s- Hotels — The Hotels Paris and Brazil are in the Rue Marechal Floriano. The charges are about ios. a day. British Consul — Consul, E. J. Wigg. BRAZIL 141 Bank — London and Brazilian Bank. Newspapers — Unimportant. There is an Anglican Church. Rio Grande do Sul is an insignificant town with about 40,000 inhabitants. It was founded in 1737 by Jose da Silva Paes, but it has never been of much importance until it became an industrial centre. It is lighted by gas and has tramcars. The chief buildings are the Municipal Palace, the Church of Sao Pedro, and the Bibliotheca Riograndense, with 30,000 volumes. The mean temperature is 66° Fahr. The seasons are : summer from January to March, autumn from April to June, winter from July to September, and spring from October to December. In the high grounds of the interior the winters are rigorous. As a port the town suffers from a very awkward bar, situated 9 miles away, which prevents the approach of large ships. The exports are hides, horns, bone, dried beef, wool, and hair. They were valued at 10,288,345 milreis in 191 1. The imports are small. There are forty-eight factories in the town, including the oldest woollen mill in Brazil, and there are cotton, biscuit and other factories. If the traveller goes by rail from Sao Paulo to Uruguay, there is no need to visit this town. A journey may be made, return fare 5s. 6d., to Pelotas (Hotels, Allianca and Brazil). M-' PORTO ALEGRE Steamships — The journey from Rio Grande do Sul (180 miles) is made by a small steamboat over the shallow waters of the Lagoa dos Patos. Railways— A line belonging to the Rio Grande Railway system runs to Cacequy, whence it is possible to go north to Sao Paulo or south to Montevideo. There is also a line to Novo Hamburgo. Porto Alegre is 96 hours by rail from Rio de Janeiro. 142 A, GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Hotels — Grande, from ios. to 14s. a day ; Grande Hotel Schmitt, from 9s. to 12s. British Consul — Consul, T. C. Dillon. Bank — London and Brazilian Bank. Newspapers — Jornal do Commercio, Correo do Povo, Gazetta do Commercio, A Federacao, Deutsche Zeitung. Porto Alegre, the capital of Rio Grande do Sul, is, an attractive town of over 100,000 inhabitants. Its prosperity is largely due to the German element ; there are a number of German colonies round about Novo Hamburgo. It was founded in 1743 by immigrants from the Azores, and in 1807 the seat of the State Government was transferred hither from Rio Grande do Sul. The first Germans came in 1825, and great numbers arrived after the Prussian revolution- of 1848. The climate is good ; the mean temperature ranges from 590 to 820 Fahr. The annual rainfall is 30J inches. The city is well laid out with broad streets, the chief of which are the Voluntario da Patria and the 7 de Setembro. There are many fine squares, as the Praca Harmonia and the Praca da Independencia, and there is a pleasant park. The city stands high on a promontory near the mouths of the Jacuhy and Guahyba Rivers. There is a good service of electric tramcars, and the suburbs are pleasant. The Municipal Palace, the Military Schools, the hospitals and the theatre are handsome buildings. Porto Alegre is reckoned as a port, although accessible, only to vessels drawing 9 feet. It exports the same com modities as Rio Grande do Sul. In 191 1 the exports were 5,916,789 milreis and the imports 32,203,940. It has a number of miscellaneous factories. The State of Rio Grande do Sul is important and progressive. Agriculture, although the methods are somewhat primitive, is vigorously pursued, and a great quantity of wheat is raised. Wine is also BRAZIL 143 cultivated, and about 5 million litres are sent yearly to the north of Brazil. But by far the chief industry is pastoral. The beasts are inferior to those of Uruguay and Argentina, but a great quantity of beef is raised, and improvements have been effected by the introduc tion of Durhams, Herefords, and Polled Angus. Bage, SSo Gabriel, and Pelotas are great centres of the meat trade. The Amazonian Region As has already been pointed out, the only convenient way to visit the Amazon is to make a separate tour. It is easily reached, and the boats are good. The vast territory watered by the Amazon has been fre quently described. The Amazon is fully 4,000 miles in length, the greatest river in the world, and it drains an area of 2,722,000 square miles. After entering Brazil it has over two hundred affluents, of Which eighteen are rivers of the first rank. The chief are the Javary, the Jutahy, the Jurua, the Purus, the Madeira, the Tapajos, the Zingu, the lea, the Yapura, the Negro, and the Trombetas. The Madeira has a length of 3,000 miles. It is the only highroad for Northern Brazil, leading far into Peru, and, as has been seen, there is now access into Bolivia with the help of the Madeira- Marmore Railway. Its volume of water is immense — said to be 500,000 cubic feet per second — and where it enters the sea, whose waters it discolours for a distance of 120 miles, its breadth is 158 miles. The Brazilians call it the Rio-Mar . or Sea-River, and it well deserves that title. The two Amazonian States are Para and Amazonas, both very thinly inhabited. Amazonas, by far the largest of all Brazilian States, has an area of 732,439 square miles and a popula- 144 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA tion of only^ 249,756. Yet, among all the rich regions of Brazil, there is none more wealthy than this uninhabited region, and Humboldt long ago said that commerce would eventually be concen trated upon the Amazon, which would be the seat of the world's civilization. A beginning has been made with the rubber traffic, to which the inhabi tants devote themselves with short-sighted exclusive- ness, and the competition of plantation rubber will probably be a blessing in disguise by compelling them to turn their attention to cocoa, tobacco and cotton, which are but a few of the products of this bountiful region. Nearly every, book1 on Brazil gives an account of this industry, which may be usefully illustrated by a visit to Kew Gardens. Rubber was not known to the civilized world until 1736, and for more than a century was little used except by artists. It is now one of the most valuable of commercial products, and its importance has been greatly enhanced by the rapid advance of the motor-car. A trip into the centre of the industry is easy and pleasant owing to that magnifi cent waterway the Amazon, and it is the only montana (forest) part of South America which can be penetrated without serious discomfort. The hotels are comparatively good. PARA Steamship Lines— The steamers of the Booth Line leave Liver pool twice a month for Para, touching at Cherbourg, Vigo, Leixoes (Oporto) and Lisbon. The minimum single fare is ^28. The steamers come up to the wharf. There is also a coasting service by the Lloyd Brasileiro from Pernambuco. Railways— There is a line to Braganca, about 150 miles distant, 1 See in particular an excellent illustrated account by M. Paul Walle, Au Brhil du Rio Sao Francisco a. L'Amazone, pp. 343-74. BRAZIL 145 Hotels — Cafe du Paz, Placa da Republica (good), about £1 a day ; Hotel do Commercio, Rua da Industria, French, good cooking ; Hotel Universal, Hotel Americana ; these are about 16s. a day. There are several restaurants. British Consul— Consul, G. B. Michell ; Vice-Consul, J. Bremner. Banks— London and River Plate, London and Brazilian Bank, Newspapers — Folha do Norte, A Provincia do Para, 0 Jornal. Para, as it is usually called, instead of receiving its cumbrous full name of Santa Maria de Belem do Grao Para, is one of the most flourishing cities in Brazil, and has a population of about 200,000. It stands on a bend of the River Para or Tocantins, about 80 miles from the sea; and 2,142 miles from Rio de Janeiro. Para is an extremely handsome town, with great park like squares and avenues. The finest of the squares is the Praca da Republica, which is adorned by many magnificent public buildings, among them the Theatro da Paz, the best in Brazil outside the capital. Among the avenues, the most noteworthy are the Avenida da Republica, Sao Jeronymo, Nazareth, and Indepen dencia. The tall trees and tropical luxuriance of vegetation add greatly to the attractions of Para. There is an old cathedral, and many of the public and private buildings are very handsome. The Museum in the Avenida da Nazareth has a good natural history collection, and there is an attractive Botanical Garden. The service of electric tramcars is excellent. There is here a large English colony, and the bulk of the trade and industries is in English hands. The cost of living is extremely high in Para. The climate is better than is usual in the coast regions of Brazil ; the mean annual temperature is about 8o° Fahr. There are only two seasons, the rainy, from December to May, and the dry season, which .occupies the rest of the year. The heat is tempered 146 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA by cool breezes, and the mornings, up to ten o'clock, are generally fresh and pleasant. As is well known, Para is the centre of the rubber industry, to the best variety of which it gives the name. It is the third port of the Republic. In 191 1 the imports were valued at 47,591,607 milreis and the exports at 93,247,097. The harbour has undergone recent improvement at great expense. MANAOS Steamship Lines — The voyage of the Booth Line steamers is prolonged from Para to Manaos, occupying 4 days up stream, while the down-stream journey is made in 2. It is possible to proceed up the river to Iquitos by the Iquitos Steamship Company. There is a frequent service by Brazil ian vessels. The fare from Para to Manaos is £8 13s. 4d., to Iquitos about ^21. Manaos is 925 miles from Para and 3,204 from Rio de Janeiro. Rai lways — None. Hotels — Hotel Casina, Gran Hotel. The charges are £1 a day. British Consul — Vice-Consul, W. Robilliard. Banks — London and River Plate (Agency), London and Brazilian Bank. Newspapers — A Amazonas, Correio do Norte, A Noticia, A Illustracao. Manaos, which a quarter of a century ago was a village, is now a fine town of 50,000 inhabitants, situated on the left bank of the Rio Negro, 8 miles from the Amazon. It is the capital of the State of Amazonas. Like all the new towns of Brazil, it pos sesses splendid avenues, of which the chief are the Avenida da Eduardo Ribeiro, the fashionable pro menade, the Rua Municipale, Jose Clemente, Remedios, and 15 de Novembro. The streets are planted with fine trees, brilliantly lighted, and have a good service of electric tramcars. Manaos is distinguished for the splendour of its public buildings, one of the best of BRAZIL 147 which is the Theatro Amazonas, which cost £4.00,000 to build, the Palace of Justice, and many others. Opposite the theatre is a fine piece of statuary which commemorates the opening of the Amazon in 1866 to the vessels of all nations. Manaos is another great centre of the rubber trade. In 191 1 the im ports were valued at 25,108,151 milreis, the exports at 111,351,659. A brief account has now been given of the Amazonian region, Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Rio Grande do Sul. This field is probably large enough to satisfy the average tourist, but it only touches the fringe of Brazil. Many other States are of considerable importance, and would repay a visit. There is Ceara in the north, which has an extensive railway system and produces a great quantity of cotton. There are the States of Alagoas and Sergipe to the north and Espi- rito Santo to the south of Bahia, typical coast regions, producing sugar and cotton. Maceio, the capital of Alagoas, is a flourishing town with nearly 50,000 inhabitants. Farther south are Parana and Santa Catharina, which inland have a delightful climate and extremely fine scenery. Herba mate is the chief product, but wheat is also raised, and there is a con siderable variety of crops. Curityba, the capital of Parana, is a large city with about 50,000 inhabitants. It is better to travel to these States by sea, as the land journey is uncomfortable and costs about £9 — fully double the price for a sea passage. More important are the great States of the interior, which are store houses of vast, undeveloped wealth. Matto Grosso, the second largest of the Brazilian States, has fewest inhabitants ; with an area considerably larger than the whole of South Africa, it has less population than 148 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Johannesburg. The journey from Rio de Janeiro to Cuyaba, the State capital, which is made by way of Buenos Aires up the River Paraguay, occupies fully 30 days. At no distant date Corumba, the chief river port, will have a railway-line to Sao Paulo. Stock-raising is the principal industry of Matto Grosso, but when the communications are improved this vast district will be one of the best agricultural regions in the world. Not dissimilar is Goyaz, though smaller and somewhat more populous. This State has rail way communication with Sao Paulo, and its principal industries' are stock-raising and tobacco. In early times these States produced enormous quantities of gold, but there is now little mining carried on in either of them. Most important of all the inland States of Brazil is Minas Geraes, which is the most populous of them and the only one where there is any adequate exploitation of the mineral resources. A French writer remarks that those who only visit the coast towns of Brazil take away a very superficial notion of the country : " It is in the interior where the life, the work, and commerce keep longest the tradi tional forms, and here we can best judge of the evolution and the moral and material progress of the country." The hilly and well-watered State of Minas Geraes has an excellent climate, owing to the upland situation of its towns, which stand at least 2,000 feet above the sea-level, and St. Hilaire said of it that " if there exists a country which in the future is capable of surpassing the rest of the world, it is the province of Minas, when its infinite resources shall have been exploited by a less scanty population.'' Gold and diamond mines are largely worked, and there are immense deposits of iron ore, but even here only small beginnings have been made. That of Morro Velho, near Bello Horizonte, is the chief gold-mine. BRAZIL 149 The soil is extremely fertile, but better agricultural methods are urgently needed. The capital, Bello Horizonte, is 16 hours by rail from Rio, and the return fare is about £4 12s. This beautiful town, 2,000 feet above the sea-level, is planned on an ambitious scale with long and spacious avenues. It is quite a new place, and has only recently been made the capital. There are many handsome public buildings and a few small manu facturing industries. One avenue — the Affonso Penna — is 150 feet broad and 2 miles long. Ouro Preto, the old capital of the State, is still the mining capital ; all round are sixteenth and seventeenth- century mines, that were worked in primitive fashion and abandoned as soon as these methods failed. The two towns have not more than 25,000 inhabitants each. Here is a monument to the conspirator Tira- dentes, who belonged to this town. Not less important is Diamantina, a town about their equal in size, which has lately been connected with the rest of Brazil by the Central Railway ; it is a progressive town, the centre of the diamond industry, and will undoubtedly play a great part in the future industrial history of Brazil. Sir Richard Burton, who believed that in Brazil " the true exploitation of precious lithology has still to begin," says of Diamantina, which is almost the highest of Brazilian towns, standing 5,700 feet high : " In the clear, bracing air European fruits and vege tables thrive ; the soil is sometimes rich and deep, and the abnormal expense of provisions would make the neighbourhood an excellent market for an agricultural colony." Minas Geraes played a part of some impor tance in the history of Brazil, being almost the first district in South America to begin a revolutionary movement, but it is still more celebrated for its poetry, which indeed was commingled with its politics. ISO A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Antonio Gonzaga was, apparently on insufficient evidence, charged with participating in the conspiracy and banished to Mozambique. Only Tiradentes was executed. Gonzaga, who was born in Oporto, is the chief patriotic poet of Brazil. Of him Burton says : " Remarkable for grace and naivete, his erotics contain not a trace of coarseness : they are sentimental, dashed with a tinge of melancholy, which of course deepens in the gloom of his prison. As is the case with all the better Portuguese poets, his style is remarkably correct and his language studiously simple, withal sufficient." It will be seen that, quite apart from the tourist tracts, Brazil offers much that is of interest, and, indeed, the climate of the interior is infinitely superior ' to that of the coast, which has given Brazil its indif ferent reputation. But to visit even a few of these places would require a large expenditure of time and money, much monotonous voyaging on uncomfortable 'steamers, and much mule-riding. At some of these interior towns, we are told, hotels of the tenth order are highly acceptable, and at many there are none at all. The traveller must be prepared for many discomforts. BOOKS ON BRAZIL Bates, H. W. The Naturalist on the River Amazon. London, 1873. Many editions. Denis, Pierre. Brazil (translated by B. Miall). London, 191 1. South American Series. Domvile-Fife, C. W. The United States of Brazil. London. Oakenfull, J. C. Brazil in 1911. London, 1912. Southey, R. History of Brazil. London, 1810-19. Probably the best modern work on Brazil, an extremely com prehensive industrial and topographical survey, is two volumes by a Frenchman — Paul Walle. Au Bresil — De L'Uruguay au Rio Sao Fran cisco. Paris, 1910. BRAZIL 151 Paul Walle. An Brtsil—Du Rio Sao Francisco a V Amazon. Paris, 191 1. The account of Brazil with most literary merit, describing older conditions, which, however, have not undergone much change, is — R. F. Burton. Explorations of the Highlands of the Brazil. London, 1869. Useful works on special subjects are — Cattelle, W. R. The Diamond. London, 1912. Casabona, L. Sao Paulo du Brisil. Paris, 1908. 9 ^ I ik CO lilijiiipi? \ Rtia ** s Antofagasta [ llg Li fff^ r ? i Sf^"4 W^§}f.hifigf:al *=€ it f£ Wf^"Ca/ilero> ) fl-4^ tfOptopoJ jC^F* §I;:S$P§* In ifrvnoji 4§ z Ipfe ^ 9 wW "^ VALPARAISO/ \>§^TIAGO Pklnlenii, '\JiS.Firfindo r JcfM 1 f fhiiMT Str.ofMagWari, CHILE Railways shown thus *=» 0 200 MILES WEOmmiA-LTt 33 STRAND LONDW.IV.C. CHILE Area, Soil and Climate IN proportion to its area, Chile is the longest and narrowest country in the world, stretching from the Province of Tacna, lat. 170 S., to Tierra del Fuego, lat. 550 S., and even farther, if the group of islands which ends with Cape Horn be counted. The length is nearly 3,000 miles and the mean breadth not more than 70 miles. A glance at the map will show that this peculiar configuration is due to the natural wall of the Andes, which effectually cuts off Chile from all the rest of South America, with the exception of its northern neighbour, Peru. The area of the Republic is about 308,000 square miles, and the population is nearly 4,000,000. A country of such length from north to south, running along the western slope of the Andes, has, as might be expected, great varieties of climate, which depend chiefly on the variety of the rainfall. Chile comprises three regions — the desert of the north, the central zone, which is fertile and tem perate, and the rainy and inclement southern territory. As Darwin noticed, Chile owes all its rainfall to the Pacific, save for Tierra del Fuego, which also draws moisture from the Atlantic. In the south, furious gales, which blow perpetually from the Pacific in a westerly direction, bringing banks of clouds against the mountains in Magellanes, Chiloe and Llanquihue, cause an enormous rainfall. But towards the central 153 _iS4 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA latitudes the winds have a south-westerly trend, bring ing the clouds more gently ashore, and giving good rain, which becomes less and less copious the farther north the traveller goes. Hence, between Valdivia and Coquimbo lies a favoured country, which has given Chile its good climatic reputation. The air is exhilarating, the sun bright, and yet rain is usually plentiful. This region includes the Provinces of San tiago and Valparaiso, which are the most populous districts of Chile, and the whole country down to Valdivia ; this is the Chile which travellers have in mind when they write their glowing descriptions of the climate and the country. But even here droughts are not uncommon. The following rainfall figures will show what varieties of humidity are to be found : — Inches Iquique ... ... ... ... ... o-5 Coquimbo r6 Valparaiso ... ... ... ... ... I3"S Santiago 14-5 Talca 197 Valdivia ii5'o Punta Arenas 22-5 But, taken as a whole, the climate of Central Chile is delightful, and reminds one strongly of England at its best. But this inestimable benefit is in danger of being lost, unless the Chilian Government takes better care of its forests, which are an invaluable means of pre cipitating rain and averting droughts. A traveller noted that at the small town of Los Andes a thousand well-grown shrubs were being daily destroyed for fire^ wood. North of Coquimbo the winds begin to blow (if they blow at all) due south, thus causing the clouds to run parallel to the land and to miss it altogether. Accordingly the towering Andes precipitate no rain, but stand, grim and treeless, looking upon the desert CHILE 155 which forms the whole of the north of Chile, and yet, by a strange paradox, is the chief source of its wealth, for it contains the boundless deposits of nitrate — the staple of Chilian commerce. A word will be said about the nitrate fields under the head of Iquique ; it will here suffice to say that these regions offer a prospect of desolation surpassed by few places on the globe. Thus there are two extremes of south and north — moist and dry. The north is so dry that nothing will grow there, and the inhabitants are mere colonists, bringing their food by sea from more favoured regions. Here, however, there are flourishing towns, whereas the rain and general inclemency of the extreme south has an even more desolating effect, and it is inhabited by the naked Yaghans, who are in as low a state of savagery as when they were visited by the Beagle. " In seasons of famine they strangle the old women and keep the dogs alive — ' Doggie catch otter, old woman, no ! ' Malformed children and incurably diseased persons are always strangled." But these Spartan methods do not secure the happiness or the continuity of the race. " There is absolutely no room for sentiment in that savage climate ! Nor is it wonderful that they have diminished " from 2,500 to a bare 200 in thirty years' time." They are " drunken, lazy, and incorrigible liars." T These people are now confined to the western sea board of Tierra del Fuego. A little farther north are the Alakalufs, a fishing and hunting tribe, who are on a somewhat higher level ; in the more temperate regions the Indians become more civilized. Including the Araucanians, there are about 100,000 Indians in Chile. In Tierra del Fuego itself and elsewhere in 1 These quotations are taken from Mr. Scott Elliott's book and from an article by Mr. Barclay in the Geographical Journal of January, 1904. 156 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA the south of Chile there is splendid grazing land for sheep hardy enough to stand the rigorous climate ; a great quantity of excellent wool is raised, and Punta Arenas has thus become an important place. The temperate climate and long sea-border have made the Chilians a hardy, seafaring race, and they are the most vigorous people in South America. The two remarkable features about the geology of the country are the comparatively recent formation of the Andes and the fact that in the earliest times a large part of Chile — the Nitrate Pampa — was covered by the great Pampean Sea, which also extended over the whole of Argentina. Chile was a mere strip of rock following the line of the present seacoast. Then, after the Silurian age, the seafloor eastwards was disturbed by submarine volcanoes, and the land became overlaid with Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. The original rocks themselves are probably Palaeozoic. The Andes were formed by volcanic disturbance and consist almost entirely of Cretaceous and Jurassic beds. The mountain system of Chile consists of the Andes, but they do not form a single chain. The Cordillera of the Andes rises in the east and. continues the whole length of the country, while the outer Cordillera runs nearly parallel, but disappears almost entirely in the north and south. The best and most populous part of the Republic, including Santiago, is comprised within these two barriers. The Andes reach their greatest height along the frontiers of the Argentine Provinces of Mendoza and San Juan. It should be remembered that Aconcagua, which is possibly the highest peak in the New World, is in Argentina, and also that no two authorities agree as to the heights of the various mountains and show con siderable discrepancies even as regards their names. The height of the Andes in the north, though great, is CHILE 157 less than the central part of the range, and as they run south they become steadily lower ; the highest point in Tierra del Fuego barely reaches 7,000 feet. The following are among the highest peaks of the Andes : — Feet Socompa ... ... ... ... ... 19,600 Azupe de Copiapo Cerro del Mercedario ... Tupungato San Jose de Maipu Tronador 19,700 22,32022,000 17,644 9,79° The last two are enumerated, not as being of remark able elevation but because they belong to the southern chain. Hundreds of the Andes are quite unknown, and many of them are fully 20,000 feet in height ; most of them are extinct volcanoes, and a few still show some activity. It is only in the north that the outer Cordillera attain great heights, such as Tacora (19,800) and Parinacota (20,950). South of Valdivia this range disappears altogether. The rivers of Chile, though short, are very useful, for they enable the arid country to be irrigated. The principal are the Copiapo, Huasco, Coquimbo, Limari, Aconcagua, Maipo, Maule, Biobio, Bueno, Valdivia, and Maullin. The Biobio, the most con siderable of these, is only 220 miles long. Lakes are numerous, and the largest is Llanquihue, with an area of 285 square miles. The flora of Chile is distinguished by the great number of indigenous forms. The north is an arid desert, practically devoid of vegetation. Gradually it becomes more plentiful, and when the Province of Coquimbo is reached, the peculiar Chilian types of flora begin to make their appearance. Grapes and figs reach a high point of excellence, strawberries are indigenous, and willows grow by the sides of the 158 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA streams. It seems certain that the potato was first met with in Southern Chile. The cocoanut-palm (Palma Chilensis) is common, and there is a great variety of forest trees. There are at least ninety different varieties of valuable woods, and it is unfortunate that the Government of Chile does not take better care of the forests. The fauna of Chile is comparatively scanty and uninteresting. Rodents are tolerably common, among which are the chinchilla and the copyu, perhaps allied to the beaver ; both are valued for their fur. The guanaco is common. Jaguars and venomous snakes are wholly wanting, and there are no apes. Imported cattle and sheep do well in Chile. The only copious form of fauna in the country is the tribe of birds, many of which are indigenous, and among them the condor and the parrot are conspicuous, while in the southern regions sea-fowl are very numerous. In the islands humming birds are not uncommon. Foreign Trade and Products The foreign trade of Chile is large and increasing. Values, it must be remembered, are throughout ex pressed in the gold peso,* which is worth i8d. The paper currency fluctuates, and the system badly needs reform. Gold dollars In 191 1 the imports were 348,990,354 exports „ 339,409,363 In imports England came first with (roughly) in millions, followed by Germany with 89 and the United States with 43. Argentina, Peru, France, Belgium, Italy, India and Australia came next with smaller amounts. Textiles, coal, oil and machinery are the principal items, but the imports are of the miscellaneous character common to South American CHILE 159 countries, for Chile has not been able to develop manufactures on a scale nearly equal to meeting the home demand, in spite of rigorous Protection. The openings for trade in English goods are numerous, and our Consuls are constantly urging merchants to get into personal touch with their customers and push their trade, nor have those who have followed this advice ever regretted the step. As English firms have a very old connexion with Chile, English trade is at a considerable advantage, but perpetual efforts are needed to retain and improve it. England takes a very large share of the exports — 145 millions, Germany taking 71, the United States 53 and France 16. The enormous proportion of 294,431,542 pesos gold is classified under the head of mineral products, and quite five-sixths of this is nitrate, for the ancient glory has departed from other branches of Chilian mining ; however, many copper-mines are still worked, and a fair amount of copper and copper ore is still produced. The value of this export is usually about a million sterling. Tin ore is also exported. Agriculture is an extremely important industry in Central Chile, and Chilian wheat is highly esteemed. The export of cereals is considerable, although naturally the bulk is consumed at home, as Northern Chile produces no food-stuffs whatever. The Chilian timber, as has been pointed out, is valuable. In 1910 the agricultural production was thus esti mated : — Wheat PotatoesBarley Beans Maize Oats Peas Tons 248,460 101,240 26,281 I8,SI315,510 13,002 3,743 160 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA The amount of wine produced was 26,004,394 gal lons. The live stock comprised 3,537,738 sheep, 1,640,322 oxen, 415,000 horses, and mules, and 159,000 pigs. Chile is famous for its honey. In 1910, 5,550 tons of honey and 1,000 tons of wax were produced, chiefly in the districts of Coquimbo and Aconcagua. Wine of an excellent quality is made in Chile, the 'principal seats of viticulture being the Provinces of Santiago and Aconcagua. The Chilian wine industry is not much smaller than that of Argentina, and, on the whole, Chilian wines are the best in South America. The manufacture of wine was only com menced about forty years ago, so it will be seen that great progress has been made, and it is estimated that only one-tenth of the area suitable for viticulture is used for that purpose. The Panquehue vineyard in Aconcagua and the Macul vineyard, n miles from the city of Santiago, are among the largest in Chile. Those who wish to trade with Chile must neces sarily study the tariff, which is very elaborate and liable to constant changes. The first article of the import tariff states : " All foreign products shall, on importation for consumption, be liable to a duty of 25 per cent, on their valuation, with the exception of those subject to a duty of 60, 35, 15, and 5 per cent., those liable to specific duties and duty-free articles." No less than 59 articles are subject to a duty of 60 per cent. On the other hand, a great number of raw materials and implements of industry are on the free list. Chile, having practically a monopoly in natural nitrate, is in the happy position of being able to make it a large source of revenue. There is a duty of about 5s. on every quintal of nitrate exported, which is an important source of revenue. CHILE 161 Paper Money The Chilian currency has long been in an unsatis factory condition, and enlightened statesmen have made many attempts to reform it, but their efforts have been frustrated by various interests. A forced paper currency is in circulation, which fluctuates considerably ; the paper peso usually hovers in value between iod. and i2d. The unit of value, which is used for reckoning the customs and international transactions generally, is the gold peso, but it is merely a standard of value, not a circulating medium. Its value is i8d. The urgently needed reform of calling in the forced notes and establishing the gold peso as the sole unit of value has been repeatedly postponed. The last postponement was till the year 1915. There does not seem to be any serious intention to improve matters. Railways Chile is not an easy country for railway construc tion ; the mountains leave little level ground, and most of the lines are short, running either west to east or from one neighbouring port to another. However, Chile has been extremely enterprising in railway con struction, and the Copiapo-Caldera Railway, begun in 1848 and finished in 1851, was the first line ever built in South America. The only trans-continental line is that from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso, and the Arica- La Paz Railway, opened in 191 2, is a remarkable achievement. The most useful, however, is the Longi tudinal Railway, which is now nearly complete and supplies a long-standing need. Until very recently the Chilian high-road north of Valparaiso was the sea ; southward there was communication as far as Osorno, which has recently been extended to Puerto M 162 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Montt in Llanquihue, thus completing the southern section. The northern part was not begun" till 1908, and immense progress has been made with it. There is only one portion unfinished— that from Arica to Jazpampa, and this missing link is only 150 miles in length. The gauge is metre. The utility of a line which connects all the transverse railways of the • country may easily be imagined. The total length is a little over 1,800 miles, and the greatest altitude reached is at Illapel — 4,585 feet. A detailed account of the railways will be found under the headings of the towns. The country has open 3,952 -miles of railway. Finance and Government Chilian finance is complicated by the double mone tary standard. In 1912 the revenue was, 101,050,000 gold pesos, and 189,200,000 paper pesos. The expen diture was 71,358,378 gold, 281,128,726 paper. The external debt was 336,781,600 gold ; the internal was 180,593,372. The credit of Chile stands high in the money market. The army and navy of Chile are excellent, and as it is an accepted policy to keep them in a high state of efficiency, the expenditure on armaments is considerable. Chile has, like other South American Republics, a President, Senate, and Chamber of Deputies, but it differs from most in being highly centralized. Con gress, which is swayed by powerful families, has more power than the President. Chile is, like every other South American Republic, an oligarchy, and the Government habitually interferes with every election. Chile has had a more tranquil history than any of her neighbours, and has enjoyed better government ; there is, however, a considerable amount of dis content. CHILE 163 History The history of Chile is one of the most interesting in South America, but only a brief recital is possible in the space at our disposal. The name is probably derived from the ancient Indian word tchile, signifying snow. The land was originally inhabited by the Arau- canians, a fierce race, against whom, however, the Incas of Peru made headway and extended their empire southwards, probably as far as the River Maule, which is some distance north of the present Concep cion. When Pizarro had conquered Peru, he sent the valiant Pedro de Valdivia southwards on an adven turous expedition, and Santiago was founded in 1541. The Araucanians proved themselves the most formid able opponents the Spaniards had' ever met, but in 1550 he defeated them in the bloody and decisive battle of Andalien and afterwards founded the city of Concepcion, not far from the site of his victory. Two years later he founded the pleasant city to the south which still bears his name. But Valdivia, though one of the greatest of the Spanish conquerors, grew reckless with success, and, while pursuing the skilled Araucanian leader, Lantaro, was by him over whelmed and killed near Tucapel. In spite of this reverse the Spaniards held grimly on, and Mendoza, the next Governor of mark, defeated and slew both Lantaro and his successor Caupolican. But the Arau canians still resisted stubbornly, and the troubles of the Spaniards were greatly increased by a navigator whom they called " Francisco Drac," a native of Plymouth, a man of low condition, but a skilful seaman and a valiant pirate. Drake's marvellous voyage (1577-80), during which he landed at Valparaiso and Serena, gave the Spaniards a sense of insecurity which lasted as long 164 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA as they retained their colonial Empire, because they never knew when some daring sea-dog might choose to intercept their treasure-ships or vessels carrying reinforcements from one point of disturbance to another. For more than a century and a half the history of Chile is chiefly a history of the relations between the Spaniards and Indians — attempts to tame athem through the Jesuits and other mild means alter nating with sanguinary measures of repression — until in 1722 a treaty was made by which the land south of the River Bio Bio was left to the Araucanians, while Chile northwards was committed to a Spanish Governor who was under the Viceroy of Peru. The Araucanians, as a separate nation, are now nearly extinct, but many of them fused with their conquerors, with the result that the Chilian is the best fighting man in South America. Like all other Spanish dominions, Chile suffered much from the oppressive commercial policy which hampered trade and industries in the supposed interests of the mother country, but there was considerable progress in the eighteenth century, and Spanish policy rapidly became more liberal. Much of this improvement is due to the Irish adven turer, Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, who began life as a beggar-boy in Sligo. Having drifted to the Pacific coast, he gradually worked his way upwards, and gained surprising success as manager of the Arau canians, to whom he dealt out mercy and justice in royal fashion. Among many good acts, he made a road from Santiago to Valparaiso, and was rightly rewarded with the governorship of Chile in 1788. O'Higgins ended his adventurous and beneficial career as Viceroy of Peru, in which office he died in 1800 at the age of eighty. But not even good adminis tration and liberal concessions could suppress the excitement which spread over South America as the CHILE 165 result of the revolt of the American Colonies and the French Revolution. The breaking away from Spain was bound to come, and in it the chief part was taken by Bernardo O'Higgins, illegitimate son of the old Viceroy. The history of the revolution in Chile is not unlike that in other parts of South America. The Chilians declared themselves independent in 1810 ; there was fierce fighting with the Spanish loyalists, but the help of San Martin, the great Argentine general, enabled the Revolutionists to gain a decisive victory at Chacabuco in 1817, and shortly afterwards the battle of Maipu effectively crushed the power of Spain in Chile. The story of Lord Cochrane's exploits in aid of Chilian independence is well known. O'Higgins had been the liberator of Chile and was made Dictator, but in 1823 he was deposed and driven into exile by an ungrateful mob, thus sharing the fate of Bolivar. For some years anarchy prevailed, but in 1831 General Prieto came to the front, and in 1833 drew up a highly centralized Constitution. Then for more than forty years Chile, in sharp contrast to most of its neighbours, was fortunate enough to experience a succession of firm Governments, and enjoyed in consequence tolerable prosperity and tranquillity. In the seventies, the discovery that the nitrate deserts were of untold value led to quarrels between Chile, Peru and Bolivia. On the whole, Bolivia must bear the blame for embroiling Peru in a disastrous war with Chile (1879-83). Peru made a gallant resist ance, but was completely defeated, first by sea and then by land. The immense importance of sea power in South America was conclusively demonstrated, for Chile could make no use of her army against Peru until the latter's fleet was destroyed. This done, the Chilians invaded Peru with a strong army, and on January 13, 1881, defeated the Peruvians with [great 166 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA slaughter at Ghorillos, a few miles from Lima, and four days later, after further fighting, they entered the capital. The soldiers fought with conspicuous bravery, but sullied their victory by unnecessary cruelties. A long guerilla war followed, but a peace was made in December, 1883, by which Bolivia lost Antofagasta and thus all access to the sea, while Tarapaca (capital Iquique) was unconditionally ceded by Peru to Chile. Peru also handed over Arica and Tacna to Chile for ten years on somewhat vague terms, and these last two Provinces, which Chile still holds, have been a constant bone of contention between the two countries. Before the war the Conservatives had been in power ; after that event the Liberals had their turn, but national affairs went less smoothly. In 1891 President Balmaceda attempted to establish a tyranny and caused a fierce revolution, which entailed much blood shed and ended in his defeat and suicide. Admiral Jorje Montt became President and ruled well, but unfortunately the creditable efforts which he made to improve the currency were thwarted by Congress. The boundary troubles with Argentina are noticed under the heading of that Republic. Among the most important events of recent years were the wool boom in the south, which collapsed early in 1905, and the great earthquake which devastated Valparaiso in August, 1906. The people of Valparaiso and the Government met this calamity with resolution and energy, and its ravages were soon repaired. In 1906, Pedro Montt was elected President, and, proving himself more capable than several of his recent predecessors, devoted himself to the task of developing the resources of the country, so that the humdrum politics of railways, nitrate and currency became of more importance than wars or revolution. In 1909 the nitrate combination, which restricted CHILE 167 the output, came to an end. In 191 o the railway from Arica to La Paz, in Bolivia, was begun, and thus was redeemed a promise made to Bolivia in 1905, when that Republic ceded all claims to a port or coast strip on condition that the railway should be built. Earlier in the same year the last link had been made in the Transandine Railway, which thus gives uninterrupted communication between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. Unfortunately, towards the end of the year Pedro Montt's career of usefulness was cut short by death, and he was succeeded by Senor Barros Luco. Chile's main weakness is, firstly, that Congress is dominated by an oligarchy whose want of disinterested ness is reflected by the state of the currency, which enables a fortunate few to benefit by high prices, and secondly, the state of education, which may be judged by the fact that 75 per cent, of the population are classed as illiterate. Nevertheless, whatever blemishes it may possess, the Republic is stable and flourishing. FROM PUNTA ARENAS NORTHWARDS BY SEA » PUNTA ARENAS Steamship Lines— The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company's steamers and those of the Pacific Steam Navigation Com pany call twice a month on the outward and twice a month on the homeward voyage. The Lamport and Holt and the Kosmos (German) call about once a month. Railways — None, except a line of 5 miles to the coalfields at Loreta. Hotels— Royal Hotel (English), good ; Kosmos (German), gives very fair accommodation ; Hotel de France (French cook ing), the catering is good. The terms of all three are from 7s, to ios. a day. British Consul — Captain C. A. Milward. Bank — Anglo-South American Bank. Newspapers — Chile Austral,. El Comercio, El Magellanes, 168 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA This flourishing place, with a population of 12,000, stands on York Peninsula in the Straits of Magellan, and is nearer to the South Pole than any other town in the world. It is a most important place of call, and its communications are described as being " with the outside world entirely by water, within Patagonia by horse or. carriage." The roadstead affords good anchor age, and there is a mole 200 feet long with a steam crane. It is distant 1,425 miles by sea from Valparaiso. Punta Arenas, which was founded in 1851, is the capital of the Territory of Magellanes, which has an area of 64,000 square miles and a population of less than 20,000. It has become noted in recent years for sheep-raising, and has a large export trade in wools, skins, hides, tallow, and frozen meat. Most of the wool goes to the United Kingdom, which has by far the largest share in the trade of Punta Arenas. The appearance of the town is rapidly improving ; the wooden buildings are being replaced by permanent structures, and there is probably no healthier town in Chile. The death-rate is 23*29, the birth-rate 45^23 per thousand. As for the climate, 700 Fahr. is a hot day, io° is a cold day, and the rainfall is more or less as in England ; the climate is less rainy than that of Scotland. Pursuing the journey northwards, the traveller reaches in four days Valdivia, with its port, Corral. VALDIVIA Steamship Lines — As at Punta Arenas. Railways — A State Railway line runs to Antilhue, about 20 miles eastwards, where the main line, which will take the passenger to any part of Chile, is reached. Hotels — Gran Hotel Colon, Maipu 7 ; Hotel de France ; Daguerre Hotel. British Consul— Vice-Consul, P. M. Nicholson. CHILE 169 Bank — Banco de Chile. Newspapers — La Liberlad, El Correo de Valdivia, and German newspapers. Valdivia, a pleasant town situated upon the river of the same name, 12 miles from the sea, is the capital of the Province. Its population is 22,598. Corral is a tolerable harbour ; goods are towed thence to Valdivia, where is the custom-house. This town was gallantly captured by Cochrane in 1817. In 1851 it was colonized by Germans, who at first suffered great hardships, but they are now very numerous in the Province. It is an important agricultural centre, and exports hides and wheat. The industries are con siderable and continue to make progress. There are timber factories, tanneries, flourmills, breweries, dis tilleries, sugar refineries, and there is shipbuilding on a small scale. The climate is humid, with usually about 180 wet days in the year. Valdivia is 437 miles by sea from Valparaiso. The next place of importance is Concepcion, with its ports, Talcahuano and Penco. CONCEPCION Steamship Lines — As at Valdivia. Railways — The ports of Talcahuano and Penco have short lines to Concepcion, and the line is continued from Concepcion to Rosendo, which is on the main line of the Chilian State 1 Railways. The railway journey to Santiago occupies about 12 hours. Hotel — Gran Hotel Colon. British Consul — Consul, W. Borrowman. At Talcahuano — Vice-Consul, H. J. Coke. Banks — Anglo-South American Bank, Banco de Chile. Newspapers — El Sur, El Pais. Talcahuano is situated on the Bay of Concepcion, about 9 miles from Concepcion. It is one of the best harbours in Chile, and possesses a Government dry- 170 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA dock 656 feet long and 70 feet wide. It is a military port. Penco, with about 2,000 inhabitants, is 10 miles from Concepcion ; it is a small port, but is chiefly known as a watering-place. Talcahuano is 474 miles from Valparaiso by sea. Concepcion, the finest of the minor cities in Chile, is situated on the River Bio Bio, 353 miles distant from Santiago. It has a population of 60,000. The present city is not upon its original site ; it was first founded by the daring Pedro de Valdivia in 1550. After his defeat and death it was destroyed by the Indians, but it was soon rebuilt and took a leading part in the incessant wars with the Araucanians. In 1751 it was completely destroyed by an earthquake. Here Bernard O'Higgins proclaimed the independence of Chile early in 1818, and it was the scene of several of his successful operations against the Spaniards. In 1835 it was again laid in ruins by an earthquake which is described by Darwin. Concepcion is a well-built town, lighted by electricity and served by a street railway, and it possesses a cathedral and several fine churches. It is the capital of the Province of the same name. Being the centre of one of the best agricultural districts, it has a large trade, and exports from Talcahuano grain, nuts, dried fruit, timber, skins and honey. There are timber factories, tanneries, flourmills, and several other industries. The ship pursues its northern course, passing the minor port of Constitution (population 13,914 — 322 miles by sea from Valparaiso), and reaches Valparaiso, VALPARAISO Steamship Lines— All the ships which call at Punta Arenas and other southern ports come to Valparaiso. There are frequent sailings of merchant ships to Australia and New Zealand, The Cia, Sud Americana de Vapores (Chilian) \'\ CHILE 171 maintains a fortnightly service between Valparaiso and Panama. Railways — There is railway communication with Santiago to the * south-east, Coquimbo to the north, and Argentina eastwards.1 Valparaiso has railway-stations — the Port, Bella Vista, and Baron. Hotels — The Royal, Calle Esmeraldas, 49 (ios.-^2 a day), best ; the Palace, Calle Blanco, 280 (Ss.-^i a day) ; Hotel Francia e Inglaterra, Calle Serrano, 47 ; Hotel Central, Calle Victoria, 84, with restaurant. British Consul — Consul-General, A. Maclean. Vice-Consul, S. G. Irving. Banks— London and River Plate, Anglo-South American Bank, Banco de Chile, Banco Aleman Transatlantico. Newspapers — El Mercurio, La Union, El Dia. Valparaiso, the chief port and commercial town of Chile, with a population of 179,815, is situated on the bay of the same name, at a distance of 62 miles from Santiago. It was founded in 1536 by Juan de Saavedra, but long remained a place of little importance. It was sacked by Drake in 1578 and by the English and Dutch at the end of the century. It became a munici pality in 1791, but during the war of independence had a population of only 6,000. In 1866 Admiral Nunez bombarded the town for three and a half hours and destroyed property worth two millions sterling. But the most terrible catastrophe is of recent date, being the earthquake of August 16, 1906, when probably 1,000 persons were killed and as many more sustained injuries, while the damage to property amounted to .£20,000. Valparaiso, or the Valley of Paradise, owes its name, not to its own natural amenities, but owing to the fact that Juan de Saavedra was born at a village of that name in Spain. It has a good climate, but otherwise is not an attractive place. Being the terminus of the 1 The journey from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso is described in the Argentine section, 172 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA railway from Buenos Aires and the port of a rich district, it has an enormous trade, and presents an aspect more business-like than beautiful. The terrible earthquake of 1906 did much to. spoil its appearance, which has many natural advantages, for Valparaiso is situated on a fine bay, 3 miles across, and backed by hills of moderate height, which would be imposing if crowned by handsome buildings. However, earth quakes and good architecture do not go well together. The streets of Valparaiso are narrow and poor, and the shops below the level which would be expected in such a flourishing town — below those of Lima, for example. In spite of its immense shipping traffic, the harbour is only moderately good, being exposed to the north and only partially sheltered from the south winds, but fortunately the Pacific here does not belie its name. In rough weather it is a troublesome landing-place, for travellers are always taken ashore in boats, and the charges are then exorbitant. Under normal conditions the fare does not exceed one paper peso. Great improvements are being carried out, including a large breakwater to protect the north-west side and long rows of wharves. The cost is to be £2,800,000, and it is hoped that the works will be finished in 1919. Nevertheless, Valparaiso retains all its historical dignity and life as the port of the Chilian capital Santiago, and is full of traders, among whom the English take a prominent place and are at last beginning to take steps to maintain their threatened commercial ascendancy, in accordance with advice that has fof many years been showered upon them by innumerable authors, journalists, and Consuls. Most of the imports of Chile come through Valparaiso, but the export trade is not large, because the town is not a nitrate port. It has the usual theatres, places of amusement, and public buildings CHILE 173 which might be expected in a place of its importance, but unless the traveller has business here he will not be likely to make a long stay. There is, however, a large English community whose headquarters are the Albion Club. Valparaiso has an excellent service of electric tramcars which connect it with Vina del Mar, some 4 miles distant. This popular suburb and watering- place has a good hotel (the Grand) and sea-bathing, but it is by no means beautiful. It is, however, a favourite health resort, and many people who have business in Valparaiso live here. In October, November and February there is racing at the Cancha. SANTIAGO Railways — Santiago is easily accessible by rail from Valparaiso, the journey taking 3 hours and 40 minutes by the best trains. It has also main line communication with the south ; the journey to Tacahuano occupies about 11 hours. The principal station is the Central, and there are also the Bodega del Norte and the Bodega del Sur. Hotels — Hotel Oddo, Calle Ahumado, 327 (14s. a day). Rooms can be obtained without board for 6s. a day. Grand Hotel, Calle Huerfanos, 1164, with about the same charges. These two are the best hotels, and the Oddo has the better cuisine of the two. Hotels with lower charges are the Hotel Fornos, the Royal Hotel, and the Hotel de Francia. British Minister — Vacant. Consul — Consul, Allen C. Kerr. Banks — Anglo-South American Bank, Banco de Chile. Newspapers — El Mercurio, El Diario Illustrado, La Mariana, La Union, La Prensa, El Industrial (evening), The South Pacific Mail. It is said that sixty newspapers and periodicals are published here. There is an English Church. Santiago, the capital of Chile, has a population of 332,724. Founded in 1541 by Pedro de Valdivia and named by him after St. James, the patron saint of Spain, it has always been a handsome and prosperous 174 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA city. . It suffered terribly from an earthquake in 1647. During the Revolution it early declared itself on the popular side, but the history of Chile belongs to the seacoast, and there are not many striking events to record in connection with Santiago. The city stands in a pleasant tableland, 1,860 feet above the sea-level. The best time to visit Santiago is in the summer, between October and April. The mean * annual temperature is about 580 Fahr. A temperature of 940 Fahr. is considered very high and 330 Fahr. very low. The death-rate is about 50 per thousand ; neither Santiago nor any other town in Chile is healthy, owing to defective sanitation and the careless habits of Chilian toothers. The city is lighted with electric light and has a good system of electric tramcars, and the streets are broad and well paved. Both in Valparaiso and Santiago the tram-conductors are women. The principal boulevard, the Alameda de las Delicias, is 350 feet wide, flanked by handsome houses, and extends for 2 miles through the city. The Parque Cousino has an area of 201 acres. The principal square is the Plaza da Armas. The Cerro de Santa Lucia, a rugged rock over hanging Santiago, and considered the glory of the city, has been spoilt by garish buildings, but it gives a fine view of the Andes. As at Buenos Aires, a very fashionable crowd is to be seen in the afternoons during the season. The capital has a glamour which attracts Chilians to it, and many think that to have a handsome house in a fashionable quarter and to drive in handsome equipages through its boulevards, is the sum of human felicity. Among the busiest of the streets is the Calle de Estado, containing fine shops, where European luxuries are to be obtained at a high price. This street connects the Avenida de las Delicias with the Plaza da Armas, where is CHILE 175 the Cathedral. Nearly all the houses in Santiago are of stucco, and the best effects are got out of this unpromising material ; many of the buildings are rose- pink. Most of them are built in the comfortable old Spanish style round a patio or courtyard. The Cathedral was originally built by Pedro de Valdivia, but the present building, which has no very remarkable features, belongs to the eighteenth century. One or two of the ecclesiastical buildings of Santiago date from the sixteenth century. The Houses of Con gress are a usual example of South American archi tecture, with graceful Corinthian porticoes, and the Government Palace is a building without much distinction. There is a Municipal Theatre. The Biblioteca Nacional contains 120,000 volumes and 6,500 manuscripts, some of which are of great value, having been obtained from various archives at Lima and elsewhere. The National Museum in the Park of the Quinta Normal has an excellent natural history collection. The University of Chile was founded in 1843 and has five faculties — Theology, Law and Political Science, Medicine and Pharmacy, Physical Science and Mathematics, Philosophy, Philology and Fine Arts. Education is at a low ebb in South America, but the standard of culture among the upper classes is above the Latin-American average. Chile has been more distinguished in jurisprudence and political science than in the humanities. Lastarria, a pupil of the Venezuelan Bello, was a well-known political philosopher in the early days of the Republic. It is regrettable that so fine a city, with a delightful climate and situation, should be unhealthy, but Chile, which should be the healthiest of all the ten Republics, is, in fact, the unhealthiest, and the death-rate of Val paraiso is still higher than that of Santiago. The qauses have been already indicated. The British work- 176 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA ing man, it should be added, is always warned not to go to Chile, as the conditions are such as make it impossible for him to work side by side with the native labourer. In the higher grades of commerce and industry there are many openings, ^ but for the manual labourer none. The cost of living is very high, although prices are a little lower than in Argen tina or Brazil. THE NITRATE REGION The traveller who wishes to see the Nitrate Region will retrace his steps to Valparaiso and take one of the comfortable steamers of the P.S.N. Co. to Iquique. One of the slower steamers which make numerous halts may be recommended, for the voyage is pleasant, the sea usually calm, the climate mild, and the leisurely mode of proceeding, with the occasional chance of landing at a small port, has considerable charm. The day after leaving Valparaiso Coquimbo is reached. COQUIMBO Steamship Lines — As at other -Chilian ports. Railways — There is a line 59 miles long from this place, by La Serena, to Rivadavia, and another to Ovalle, 61 miles distant, whence Santiago and Valparaiso can be reached. Hotels— Unpretending. Consul — Consul, G. L. Ansted. Banks — Anglo-South American Bank, Banco de Chile. Newspaper — El Condor. Coquimbo, the port of the Province of that name, which is one of the richest in Chile, stands on the bay of the same name; its population is 12,106. Coquimbo is one of the richest districts in Chile, and produces copper, iron, gold, silver and lead. It CHILE 177 has a well-protected anchorage with a good passenger mole and wharf ; ships anchor about a quarter of a mile from the shore. It is not an attractive town. La Serena, the capital of the Province of Coquimbo^ which is only 5 miles distant, can be easily reached by rail. It is a pleasant place and has some small industries. Coquimbo is 198 miles north of Valparaiso. The steamer touches at Huasco, famous for raisins, with an important industry of copper-smelting, and Caldera, the port of Copiapo, which also has smelting works. The same is to be said of Chanaral, where a halt may be made. Both these places have railway connexion with Copiapo. Taltal, the most southerly of the nitrate ports, is a place of greater importance, but it is one of the most desolate places imaginable. Here is a British Vice-Consul. The next halting-place is Antofagasta. ANTOFAGASTA Steamship Lines — As at other Chilian ports. Railways — Here trains start for La Paz in Bolivia by Uyuni and Oruro. There is also communication with the northern port of Mejillones. Hotel — Grand Hotel (from 7s. a day). Consul— Consul, H. W. W. Bird. Banks — Anglo-South American Bank. Banco de Chile. Newspapers — El Industrial, La Prensa, El Mercurio. Antofagasta, a flourishing town and port, with a population of 32,496, is the capital of the Province of Antofagasta, which was wrested from Bolivia in the war of 1879-83. The town is well built and has electric tramcars. The distance by rail to Oruro in Bolivia is 573 miles. Copper-smelting is carried on and the town is an important centre of the nitrate industry. After a sail of about 20 hours Iquique is reached. 178 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA IQUIQUE Steamship Lines — As at other Chilian ports. Railways — The Nitrate Railway connects the town with the Nitrate Pampa and the ports of Patillos, Caleta Buena and Pisagua. Hotels — Phcenix (about ios. a day), Europa and Terminus. The Phcenix is the most frequented, but the accommodation is on a modest scale. Consul — Consul, E. F. Hudson. Bank — Anglo-South American Bank. Newspapers — La Patria, El Diario, El Tarapaca. There is an English Church. Iquique, the second port of Chile and the capital of Tarapaca, is an attractive town and well laid out, although it owes all its vegetation to irrigation, being situated in the great nitrate desert, whose bare black mountains rise up behind the town. There is a large and hospitable English colony, whose members are almost all engaged in nitrate. There is an excellent English club, a race-course, and a sports club, where all kinds of games are played. The population is 44,171. THE NITRATE OFICINA The Nitrate Railway climbs from Iquique up the hills into the Pampa, as the nitrate plateaux are called. A railway journey of 5 hours will bring the traveller into the heart of the nitrate region, where, if he has an introduction, he will have an opportunity of seeing an oficina, or combined mine and factory. It may be added that picture postcards give a false idea of the nitrate desert. Being coloured in Germany by artists who cannot imagine a place totally destitute of herbage, they usually contain neat little patches of green representing trees and grass. In fact, there is not a blade of grass in the whole Pampa, still less a tree. The compensations for those who live here are CHILE 179 the invigorating air of the desert and polo, and, of course, they are allowed periodical leave to Iquique, but many prefer the Pampa to the town. The process is as follows : The raw material {caliche) is found in the ground, usually at a depth of a few feet, but if the caliche is very rich in nitrate, diggings may be made to about 50 feet. A paying percentage is 15, while 40 is considered extremely rich. A hole is drilled and the ground is disturbed by blasting powder, then the huge fragments into which the ground breaks are further divided by dynamite. These large blocks are then broken by hand into blocks several times the size of ordinary bricks, and loaded into carts which are brought on rails by mule to the oficina. The caliche looks like white quartz, but is much softer. At the oficina, after being broken into the size of road metal by machinery, it is placed in trucks and then run into tanks. Here it is treated with water which, having been used before, and therefore containing nitrate ingredients, affords a quicker process than ordinary water. The caliche remains in this boiling water for about three hours. The valuable liquid which is obtained is run off into tanks, where it remains for about twelve days. It is used over and over again for the treatment of raw material. A certain amount of solid waste is left, which has to be carted away, but the valuable residue becomes crystallized and as white as snow. The best contains less than 2 per cent of salt, i.e. is nearly pure nitrate. It is spread on the ground and dried in the sun for forty days ; then it is put into sacks, loaded into railway trucks, and is ready to be shipped. The oficina here described employs 400 men ; it has a neighbour under the same manage ment with 900, and there are great numbers similar in size and organization all over the Pampa. The lowest wage is four dollars (about three shillings and six- 180 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA pence) a day, and some labourers get ten. There are various provisions for the amusement of the workers — football, music-rooms, and the like, while schools are provided for the children. About half the men are married. Meat, which costs the company 80 cents a pound, is sold to them for 40, and there are stores at which they can buy various articles. Travelling circuses, which often visit the oficinas, do excellent business. The men have no trade unions : an attempt was made to start them, but the officials decapped with the money. However, labour troubles are not unknown ; at the end of 1907 great discontent was caused by the fall in value of the Chilian dollar, although the men's wages were raised in compensa tion. In this connexion an extract from a Consular Report may be of interest : " A very serious strike occurred in December, 1907, all the oficinas in Tarapaca closing down on account of the workmen abandoning them and going to Iquique, where nearly 20,000 were collected. The strike degenerated into open rebellion against the authorities, who were finally obliged to use force to quell the riot, some 500 men being killed and wounded. A great exodus of foreign workmen took place after this event, it being estimated that nearly 40,000 Peruvians, Bolivians and Argen tines left Tarapaca." During the last few years, although the Chilian Government has not put its coinage in order, the nitrate industry has become steadily more prosperous, and little is now heard of labour troubles. The most satisfactory workmen are Chilians, Peruvians and Bolivians ; English labourers. cannot stand the climate. After a few years, a thrifty workman can earn enough to go and live in the south in independence, but, in fact, most workmen save up a few hundred dollars and go to town and get rid of them in a few days. The gunpowder for blasting is CHILE 181 made in the oficina. The best machinery is English ; many Chilian oficinas use native machinery, but it is unsatisfactory. Often the refuse from Chilian machinery contains 15 per cent of nitrate, while that from English contains only 2 or 3 per cent. Further facts about the industry and the combination to restrict output (which broke down in 1909), can be obtained in the Consular Reports.1 ARICA AND TACNA After having seen Iquique and the Pampa, the traveller will doubtless take the P.S.N. Company steamer to Mollendo and Callao. It may, probably miss Pisagua and Arica, both smaller nitrate ports. Arica has been well described by Mathews in his book, which is noted in the Bolivian section. Arica has 4,866 inhabitants. The hotel is the Americano (about 7s. 6d. a day) ; the British Consular Officer is Vice-Consul G. de M. Mackirdy. It is connected with Tacna by a railway line (gauge 4 feet 8J inches) of 30 miles. Much more important is the Arica-La Paz railway which has been lately opened. Begun in 1906, it was finished in 1913 ; it is a metre-gauge line and the length is 271 miles, comparing favourably with 531 from Mollendo to La Paz and 711 from Antofagasta to La Paz. The contract price was ^2,245,000. The highest point is 13,986 feet. Arica was the scene of a great battle in 1879 between the Chihan and Peruvian armies. Mining is the principal industry. 1 Further attempts to restrict the supply were made in 1913, but it is always extremely difficult to induce all the firms to join in an agreement. The following is the world's estimated con sumption : — 1911 1972 1913 Tons Tons Tons 2,313,450 2,485,860 2,464,540 182 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Tacna, the capital of the Province of that name, is an important trade centre with 10,412 inhabitants. The hotels are the Americano and Reiteri at about 7s. 6d. a day. The British Consular Officer is Vice- Consul A. P. Roe. Shortly after passing Arica the vessel glides into Peruvian waters, and the journey must consequently be resumed in the Peruvian section. Chile is the subject of a fair number of books, including — Scott-Elliot, G. F. Chile. London, 1907. South American Series. Anonymous (compiled by the International Bureau of Pan- American Republics). Chile. Washington, 1906. Smith, W. Anderson. Temperate Chile. London, 1899. Russell, W. H. A Visit to Chile. London, 1890. Koebel, W. H. Modern Chile. London, 1913. COLOMBIA THE Republic of Colombia is a large tract of country occupying the north-eastern corner of South America, with a seaboard of nearly 600 miles on the Pacific Ocean, and more than 700 miles on the Caribbean Sea. As regards both area and population, there was long considerable uncertainty, partly owing to the boundary disputes, and partly owing to the un developed state of the country, which makes accurate census returns difficult, but the census of 191 1 gives the area as 463,155 square miles and the population as 5,031,850. The latter is an extremely liberal estimate. This does not include an uncertain mass of uncivilized Indians who must be rapidly disappearing, if the calcu lations of 220,000 in 1881 and 130,000 in 1908, are correct. Some of these are in the lowest state of savagery and employ poisoned arrows, while tribes in the forests about the Putumayo are said to practise cannibalism. Besides these there are at least 200,000 full-blooded Indians who are partially civilized, and some of these, such as the Chibchas of the Bogota plateau, are fine races and of great industrial value. Of the Chibchas Mr. Petre says : "As porters there are few finer men anywhere. As the steamer is loading or discharging, men hurry up or down the steep banks, each carrying his 140 lb. bag of coffee as if it were a trifle. A single man will shoulder and walk off with a packing case which it would take three English rail- 186 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA way porters to handle." There are numbers of negroes on the hot and unhealthy plains of the coasts, while the highlands of the interior are chiefly inhabited by the pure-blooded Spaniards, who are not very numerous, and the mestizos, who are a cross between Indians and Spaniards. Mulattos and Zambos (negro-Indians) are not uncommon, for the Colombian race is extraordi narily mixed. There are three regions : firstly, the coast zone, hot and damp and usually unhealthy for Europeans ; secondly, the mountain district, consisting of three huge chains running northwards and north east, one of which reaches as far north as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta near the Caribbean coast, and offering every variety of climate; and thirdly, the large and more level lands about the affluents of the Amazon and Orinoco, . which are partly covered with dense forests and partly with grass which affords excellent grazing. The climate naturally depends more on the altitudes than the latitude, and the only temperate regions are among the mountains, upon whose plateaux is to be found such civilization as exists in Colombia. There is constant rain along the Pacific coast and there is also a very heavy rainfall on the low-lying Atlantic sea-board. The heat is great all over the plains, but less intense on the Pacific side than on the east and south. The plains are malarious. The geology of Colombia, which is imperfectly known, is igneous and volcanic ; the oldest rocks are gneisses and schists, which are overlaid with sandstone, slate and limestone. The Cordillera of Bogota consists of cretaceous beds. The mountains of Colombia are divided into three groups — the Eastern, Central, and Western Cordillera. Among the eastern range the highest peaks are the Sierra Nevada de Chita and Cocui, which are each about 16,800 feet. It is in the interior of the country that COLOMBIA 187 the most extensive mountain system and the greatest elevations are to be found, including Tolima (18,400), Huila (18,000), Mesa de Herveo (18,300) and Ruiz (17,400). All of these are covered with perpetual snow. The western range is not so high, Cerro Torra, which attains the height of 12,600 feet, being the principal. The river system of Colombia deserves careful study. The Magdalena is the fourth river in South America, being surpassed only by the Amazon, the Parana, and the Orinoco. It rises on the borders of the Depart ments of Popayan and Neiva, at an elevation of about 12,000 feet, and after pursuing a course of more than 1,000 miles falls into the Caribbean Sea. It is navig able for steamers from Neiva to its mouth, a distance of some 480 miles, and barges can proceed to a much greater distance. It has been called the Danube of Colombia and until recently was the principal and almost the only means of internal communication. At a point about 200 miles from its mouth it is joined by the Cauca, which has a length of some 700 miles, of which about 300 are navigable. The Atrato (400 miles) drains the north-west, being fed by innumerable mountain streams and having therefore a huge dis charge of water. The only other important river which reaches the Caribbean Sea is the Sinu, draining the flat district around the Gulf of Morosquillo. Flow ing into the Pacific are the San Juan (200 miles), the Patia (250), and several smaller streams. Many of the affluents of the Amazon pursue their course through Colombia, including the gigantic Putumayo and Yapura, and a host of others. The Meta flows into the Orinoco. The lakes of Colombia are inconsiderable and there are only two of any size — the Mocoa in the Department of Pasto and the Tota in the Department of Santa Rosa. Lake Fuquene is remarkable as being one of 188 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA the sacred lakes of the Chibchas, who used to throw treasure into its waters. Colombia has a rich flora ; a large proportion of its area is covered with tropical forest, but the vegetation, of course, gradually disappears as high altitudes are reached. The flora has been described as rivalling that of Brazil in the variety of its plants and the splendour of its foliage and blossoms. The palm is the charac teristic tree and its varieties are numerous and valuable. A common variety is the Mauritia flexuosa, and the peach palm (Guilielma speciosa) grows abundantly. The tagua (Phytolephas macrocarpd) is found along the rivers in the western regions, and produces the ivory- nut, which is of high commercial value. Yet another palm is the Carludovica palmata, whose leaves supply the material which makes the so-called Panama hats. In the Central Cordillera palms are found up to a height of 10,000 feet. The forest woods are numerous and Colombia has a large variety of orchids. Among the fauna of Colombia, the puma, the jaguar and two species of bear represent the fierce animals, while the tapir is very common. Monkeys abound in the forests and there are several kinds of deer. The bird tribe is extremely numerous. There are many kinds of snakes, some of which, including the dreaded rattlesnake, are very venomous, and boas are very common in the neighbourhood of the Caqueta ; the rivers swarm with caymans. A peculiarity of the Republic as compared with its neighbours is the large urban population. There are probably fifty towns with a population of 5,000 and upwards> and several of these, apart from Bogota, where the Spanish literary tradition has always been strong, are distinguished for the humanities and general culture/in which the Colombians are far more advanced than in politics and industry. Lack of means of com- COLOMBIA 189 munication is, however, a serious impediment to every kind of progress. The following are the principal towns : — Bogota ... Medellin ... Barranquilla Cartagena ManizalesSonson ... Pasto Cali Aguadas ... Population 120,000 71,00448,90736,63234,72029,346 27,76027,747 26,423 COMMERCE AND PRODUCTS In 1911 the imports were valued at 18,108,863 gold pesos.1 In 191 1 the exports were valued at 22,375,899 gold pesos. During the last few years Colombia has enjoyed a fair amount of prosperity, but the last years of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the present were calamitous, and in 1905 the foreign com merce was smaller than in 1880. The chief imports are cotton goods and manufactured articles generally, flour and machinery. The United States took the lead in trade until quite recently, but Great Britain is now slightly ahead. The chief countries, as regards imports, are — Gold Pesos Great Britain .. 5,838,789 United States ¦• 5,404,975 Germany .. 3,242,634 Spain .. 1,870,835 France .. 1,718,747 The largest export was coffee, valued at 9,475,448 gold pesos. Gold amounted to 3,751,632, and bananas to 1 The gold peso is worth 4s. The paper peso, which alone circulates, is worth about £d. 190 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA 2,172,000. Other considerable items were : hides, 1,779,790 ; hats, 1,088,821 ; rubber, 900,886; and ivory-nuts, 739,419. Great Britain takes more than half of the exports. The Republic is celebrated for the fine quality of its coffee, which grows in almost every part at elevations of a few hundred feet above the sea-level to about 7,000 feet. It flourishes best at a temperature between 590 and 770 Fahr. The best coffee districts are Cundinamarca, Santander, Antioquia, Caldas, Cauca, and Tolima. The coffee from Fusagasaga, about 40 miles south-west of Bogota, and from Tolima commands the highest price. The shrub begins to bear after about three years, and reaches maturity in six ; the average product is about one pound yearly, and there are two crops, one in March and one in October. Coffee-growing would be more profitable, if the means of communication were im proved. The wealth of Colombia in the precious metals is prodigious, and the Department of Antioquia (capital Medellin) is the chief gold-producing district, but the inaccessibility of the Colombian mines makes them difficult to work at a profit. This is particularly the case with the famous emerald-mines of Muzo, about 100 miles north of Bogota, to reach which "the traveller is obliged to pass through some of the most dangerous mountain passes, and over precipices where a false step would dash him and his mule to destruc tion" (Millican). These mines have practically a monopoly in supplying the world with emeralds, for none compare in colour with those of Muzo. They are worked by the Government, which is "reticent" as to the profits,, but these are undoubtedly large, and estimates varying from .£100,000 to ^200,000 a year have been given. COLOMBIA 191 To return to gold, the Frontino and Bolivia Mining Company exploit several rich mines in Antioquia, but it is believed that the valley of the San Juan is even richer in auriferous deposits, and much gold is also found in the Cauca Valley. Since the conquest Antioquia and Cauca have each produced over fifty millions sterling of gold, while Tolima has yielded some twelve millions. Platinum, iron and silver are also found, and other metals are extracted in smaller quantities. The mineral wealth of Colombia is un doubtedly great and very imperfectly developed. There are valuable salt-mines at Zipaquira. Although agriculture is in a backward condition, almost any kind of crop can be raised at the various elevations. Banana cultivation (near Santa Marta) is increasing, and the grazing industry is of some importance. Tobacco is largely grown in the Cauca Valley and is principally exported to Germany, while cotton is cultivated in Antioquia and along the Atlantic coast. Tropical products, especially rubber and vege table nuts, are largely exported. Internal Communications The roads of Colombia are very bad in spite of efforts on the part of the Government to improve them, and the River Magdalena is still the best high way. Railways have existed in Colombia since 1867, but the country presents formidable engineering diffi culties, owing to the ranges of mountains which break it up into sections ; and there is little system in the lines, which run largely at cross purposes and have varying gauges. That of the Barranquilla and Santa Marta Railway is 3 feet 6 inches, the Girardot Railways 3 feet, and several are metre gauge. There are now 621 miles of railway. The bulk of the companies are 192 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA under British control, but a fair proportion belong to the Government or to Colombian companies. There are three groups : J the Barranquilla (the oldest), the Cartagena, and the Santa Marta, which lead from the three chief ports so named and have a united length of over 130 miles ; the three lines connecting Bogota with the Sabana or tableland of Bogota, known as the Sabana, the Northern, and the Southern Railways, with * a united length of about 80 miles ; and lastly the lines which serve the valley of the Magdalena, namely, the Girardot, the Dorada, and the Antioquia Railways, with a mileage of about 310. There are also two isolated railways — the Cauca, which is planned to connect Bogota and the Pacific port Buenaventura by the rich Cauca Valley, but is unfinished as to five-sixths of its designed course ; and the Cucuta Railway, which connects the town of that name with Puerto Villamizar on the River Zulia, near the Venezuelan frontier. Some account will be given of the railways under the headings of the towns. Finances The finances of Colombia are somewhat confused, and those who wish to study them are referred to the various reports of the Incorporated Society of Foreign Bondholders. This confusion is largely due to the reckless emission of paper money, which has made the Colombian currency the worst, or nearly the worst, in Latin America. The monetary unit is the gold peso of 4s., but gold or silver coins are rarely seen, and the peso has sunk almost to the vanishing-point. This was not always the case. In 1897 the paper peso was 1 Much of this information is taken from a valuable Report for 1910, by Mr. V. Huckin, Acting British Consul-General at Bogota. COLOMBIA 193 worth is. 8|d., but the revolutionary troubles at the beginning of the century, culminating in the loss of Panama, brought about alarming depreciation. Coins disappeared, and the paper money brought back the memory of the assignats in the worst days of the French Revolution. By an important law of 1905 this undesirable state of things was, to a certain extent, stereotyped, for the rate of exchange was fixed at 10,000, i.e. 100 gold (4s.) dollars were to be rated at 10,000 paper pesos, and now the paper peso fluctuates round the 10,000 point, or, in other words, is worth sometimes more, sometimes less, than a halfpenny. The same law made provision for the redemption of the paper money and the re-establishment of a metallic currency, and it is to be hoped, for the sake of Colombia and all who are interested in the country, that these provisions will be carried out. It is hardly necessary to say that the traveller should invest sparingly in the paper money, buying only the bare amount required for his needs, for he will find a difficulty in getting rid of his surplus stock when he quits the country. For 1913 the budget was thus estimated : Revenue, 15,641,303 gold pesos, and expen diture 15,620,568. Three-quarters of the revenue came from the customs ; war and the service of the debt were the principal items of expenditure. The external debt amounts to nearly 2\ millions sterling. Constitution The constitution of Colombia changes so frequently that a detailed description of it would be superfluous. History Owirig to the abundance of gold, the sure magnet for fierce adventurers, the land now known as 194 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Colombia has experienced a history more troubled than is usual even in South America. It was visited by Columbus in 1498, but Bastida, who had himself cruised along the coast two years earlier, was the first to make a permanent settlement, founding Santa Marta in 1525 on the north coast. A few years later, Pedro de Heredia explored the valley of the Cauca and won an immense amount of gold. But the real founder of Colombia, which he called New Granada, was Quesada, who, leaving Santa Marta, made his way up the River Magdalena, and reached Bogota in 1537. The next year there arrived simultaneously the German adventurer Fredemann from Venezuela, and Belalcazar, Pizarro's lieutenant, from Quito, but the tact of Quesada averted a collision, and their joint forces devoted themselves' to the task of subduing the Indians, who were conquered with more than the usual brutality. Under the Spaniards New Granada was im portant as a main source of gold supply, and its large trade (hampered, however, by short-sighted regulations), passing through the excellent harbour of Cartagena. Independence was won in the great revolutionary war with the Spaniards (1810-19), and with the help of Bolivar there was formed the Republic of Colombia out of Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, and the present Colombia. Troubles quickly arose, and in 1831 Colombia (with Panama) seceded and called itself the United States of New Granada, under a federal con stitution. It would serve no purpose to relate the vicissitudes of the next half-century, but a landmark may be named in 1886, when General Rafael Reyes abolished the federal system, making the States simple departments and proclaiming the Republic of Colombia. Changes in names and constitutions, how ever, brought no tranquillity, for civil war remained practically chronic ; and among many other dis- COLOMBIA 195 turbances, the Department of Panama was, in 1901, in a condition of such disorder that the United States, England, and France were obliged to land troops at Colon to preserve the peace. This episode leads to the circumstance which has made Colombia important in recent history. The United States had decided to make the Panama Canal, and therefore found it necessary to insist upon perfect order in the Isthmus, and also to enter into delicate negotiations with Colombia as the sovereign State which had originally given the concession to M. de Lesseps's company. In 1903 the Hay-Herran treaty was negotiated at Washington, by which Colombia agreed to transfer the concession to the United States and cede to them a strip of land 10 miles wide for the purpose of the CanaL In return she was to receive .£2,000,000 in cash, and, after ten years, an annual rental of .£50,000 as well as certain benefits in respect of 50,000 shares which she held in the old company. But in September, 1903, the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty on the ground that when it was signed the Republic was in a state of civil war and the plenipotentiary had no authority. The Department of Panama, which was expecting great benefits from the Canal, was very indignant, and, breaking out into revolt, declared itself independent on November 3rd. In spite of the protests of Colombia, the United States hastily recognized the independence of the new Republic of Panama, and negotiated with it the same treaty that Colombia had rejected. Colombia was thus left in the lurch, losing not only money of which she was in sore need, but a valuable piece of territory as well. It was not till January, 1910, that Colombia consented to recognize the independence of Panama in consideration of a sum of .£500,000 as payment of Panama's share in the public debt of Colombia. This 196 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA aggression on the part of the United States has left an indelible impression upon the Colombian people, and in 191 2 the Government refused a proposed visit from Mr. Knox, the American Minister, who was touring in the Caribbean Sea.1 In 1905 General Rafael Reyes was elected President for a special term of ten years, and succeeded in main taining tolerable order and developing the resources of the country. But in 1909 he retired to Europe on the ground of ill-health, and the next year Senor Carlos Restropo was elected for the ordinary constitutional term of four years, without serious disorder. Although the currency is in a state of deplorable confusion and the finances not altogether satisfactory, Colombia has made considerable progress since the disasters of 1903, and her prospects are brighter than ever before in her history. BARRANQUILLA, SAVANILLA, AND PUERTO COLOMBIA To speak of the port of Barranquilla or Savanilla is now a misnomer, for a bar across the River Magdalena prevents ships coming to Barranquilla, and Savanilla, its former port, has been abandoned in favour of Puerto Colombia, a few miles west. Barranquilla and Puerto Colombia are 17 miles apart. Barranquilla, however, is still called the port, although dependent on Puerto Colombia for its ocean traffic. Steamship Lines — The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company has a fortnightly service for Puerto Colombia to and from Liver pool. The home journey is made by Colon and Jamaica. The same line has a fortnightly service to New York. The Leyland Line from Liverpool calls about twice a month. There are frequent sailings of the Hamburg-American Line 1 Since the above was written the United States have made offers of compensation. COLOMBIA 197 to New York and also to the ports of Central America. There are also the Cie. Gen. Transatlantique to France, La Veloce to Genoa, and a line to Barcelona. The R.M.S.P. Company's fare is £30 — return ^45. The fare to New York by the best lines is £16 13s. 4d. — return £31 13s. 4d. The journey from Puerto Colombia to Cartagena by sea takes 5 or 6 hours. Railways — From Puerto Colombia to Barranquilla there are three trains a day by the Barranquilla Railway and Pier Company. The journey occupies an hour. Steamers from Barranquilla to Calamar give connexion with the railway from Calamar to Cartagena. Hotels — There are two unpretending hotels at Puerto Colombia. At Barranquilla there are several. " There are many worse places to sleep in than a third-floor room on the north side of the Pension Ingles " (Petre). The charge is 12s. 6d. a day. There is also the Central Hotel. British Consul — Consul, John Gillies. Banks — Banco de Bogota, Banco Central, Banco de Colombia, Banco de Credito. N ewspapers — Inconsiderable. Puerto Colombia is a very small place, only noted for the great iron pier, 4,000 feet long, which was built in 1893 at a cost of .£60,000. Barranquilla (with Puerto Colombia) is the chief port of the country, having a total trade of considerably over 2\ millions sterling. The population is nearly 50,000. Barranquilla is an entirely modern town, and though of great commercial importance owing to its ocean and river trade, has no other features of interest except a cathedral. It is the starting-point for Bogota, the capital. The ocean steamer, after leaving Puerto Colombia, soon arrives at Cartagena. CARTAGENA Steamship Lines — As at Puerto Colombia. Railways — The Cartagena Railway Company has a line of 62 miles to Calamar. 198 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Hotels— Walter's, Calle de San Agustin (ios. a day) ; Mariani's, Calle del Cuartel (ios. a day). British Consul— Vice-Consul, William Dickin. Bank — Martinez & Co. Newspapers — Inconsiderable. This ancient seaport, with memories of Drake, the Inquisition, and Admiral Vernon, presents a beautiful appearance from the sea, and is an extremely pic turesque town. The great Spanish fortifications, built by order of Philip II, are still intact. The harbour is the.best in Colombia, and the port, which declined after the fall of the Spanish power, is now reviving. It has, on the average, about half the trade of Barran quilla, but may rival it in the near future. Like all Colombian coast towns, Cartagena is hot. Santa Marta, founded by Bastida in 1525, is the oldest settlement in Colombia, but its importance is of recent date and due to the operations of the United Fruit Company, which exports bananas in great quanti ties ; Santa Marta, indeed, has a larger export trade than any Colombian port except Barranquilla and Cartagena. The banana district is served by a railway 58 miles long. The Fyffes' Line has a regular service to England, ships of the United Fruit Company sail frequently to New York, and Santa Marta is a port of call for the Hamburg-American Line. BOGOTA Communications — Calamar, which is the first stage, can be reached either by Cartagena or Puerto Colombia. The journey up the Magdalena to La Dorada, a distance of 600 miles, occupies about 10 days. The steamboats of the Colombian Navigation Company are generally preferred, but if the river is low it is better to go by a smaller line, as a large boat is liable to go aground. Mosquito nets are necessary, and it is well to take a small store of delicacies COLOMBIA 199 to eke out the regulation food. In fact, in Colombia the traveller needs more kit than in other South American countries. From Dorada there is a short railway journey to Honda. Here the Hotel America offers fair accommoda tion. From Dorada it is pleasanter to take the road, and a mule-ride of 3 days will bring the traveller to Bogota. The inns on this road are very fair. Otherwise the steamer may be resumed from Honda to Girardot — a distance of 93 miles — and from the latter place there is a railway of 82 miles to the Sabana of Bogota. This brings the traveller to Facativa, which is still 25 miles from the capital, but the Sabana Railway accomplishes the journey, and thus the distant goal is at last reached. The total fare from Cartagena to Bogota by this last route is £9, to which should be added about £1 5s. extra for a cabin on the steamers — a necessary item. Hotels — The best is the Hotel Freese in the Plaza Bolivar, the next the Hotel Metropolitano. Both are unpretending. Two others are the Hotel de Europe and the Hotel Blume, the last being suitable for ladies. British Consul — Mr. P. C. H. Wyndham is Minister Resident and Consul-General ; M. Badian is Vice-Consul. Banks — Banco de Bogota, Banco de Colombia, Banco Central. Newspapers — El Nuevo Tiempo, El Liberal, La Cronica, El Diario, La Gaceta Republicana. Excellent reviews are El Semanario and El Revista Nacional Colombiana. Bogota, the capital of Colombia, with a population of 120,000, was founded by Quesada in 1538, and from the first was one of the chief seats of the Spanish power. Here in 1810 the Junta declared New Granada independent ; the capital was seized in 1815 by the Royalist General, Pablo Morillo, who held it for four years, till he was driven out after the battle of Boyaca in 1819. The city stands at an elevation of 8,563 feet above the sea-level, and, like many Spanish-American capitals, is extremely remote in situation. As has been seen, it depends for its intercourse with the outer world chiefly upon the River Magdalena, from which, how ever, it is distant about 60 miles as" the crow flies. 200 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA It is the terminus of three short lines of railway. The Sabana Railway has already been mentioned. The Northern Railway runs to Zipaquira, famous for salt mines, at a distance of 38 miles. The town (population 12,000) has a good hotel. The Southern Railway, about 20 miles in length, goes to Sibate. The town is laid out on the usual Spanish-American # plan, and the best square is the Plaza Bolivar, with a statue of the Liberator. Here is the National Capitol, a building which has unfortunately been left unfinished : and on the east side is the Cathedral, begun in 1572, but not completed till the early part of the nine teenth century. There are 29 churches in Bogota, of which Ejipto, Las Nieves, and Santa Barbara belong to the sixteenth century. Not far from the Plaza is the Presidential Palace, an unpretending but well- planned building. Bogota has a large and very good market, which is well supplied with a great variety of fruit. The town is ill-paved and the trams are indif ferent. The Theatre, a handsome building, was erected as early as 1793. The National University was founded in 1867, but the College of Nuestra Senora del Rosario dates from 1654. Bogota is distinguished for its culti vation of the humanities. A French observer says : " The best society of Bogota cultivates literature, art and science. Its high standard of intellectual culture enables it to engage in the pursuit with ease and success. One might say that all branches of human knowledge are studied and cultivated. Besides their devotion to poetry, many gentlemen and ladies of Bogota have excellent taste for painting and music, and thus there is at Bogota a literary and artistic movement which exercises a powerful influence upon the intel lectual development of the whole country." Colombia ranks higher in poetry than any other Latin American nation. Everywhere it is held in high estimation, but COLOMBIA 201 nowhere more so than in this country, where soldiers and statesmen are expected, as in the days of Elizabeth, to be able to turn verses as well as to be skilled in the politics of war and peace. Many of the earlier poets found their inspiration in the war of indepen dence, but the favourite strain is erotic, and this usually proves wearisome to European taste. But Diego Fallon (1834-1905) is described as a philosophical descriptive poet ; his output is very small, but the two short pieces La Luna and La Palma are among the gems of modern poetry. Rafael Pombo (1833- 1912) is a typical Colombian poet. Jorge Isaacs (born 1837) wrote Maria, one of the most popular of South American novels, and it would be difficult to name a Spanish American town where the humanities are more zealously and successfully cultivated than at Bogota. Most travellers will return from Bogota to the coast by the way they came, but a more interesting experi ence would be to make a round trip, taking the railway to Girardot, and then marching over the Quindio Pass to Buenaventura, the chief Colombian seaport on the Pacific. The journey, after leaving the railway, is not much less than 200 miles, but the route is extremely beautiful. Three very excellent books have been published on Colombia, namely : — F. L. Petre. The Republic of Colombia. London, 1906. Henry Jalhay. La Ripublique de Colombie. Brussels, 1909. P. J. Eder. Colombia. London, 1913. South American Series. There is some very useful information in a paper by R. B. White in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society for May, 1883, and Mr. Hiram Bingham's Journal of an Expedi tion across Colombia and Venezuela* is interesting. 1 New Haven, Connecticut — also London — 1909. ECUADOR ECUADOR is a country which has always been more interesting to geographers than to any other class. From the French savants of the eighteenth century, who were commissioned to measure an arc of the meridian on ground then supposed to be the highest in the world, to the intrepid men of our own day who have climbed Chim borazo and Cotopaxi, it has always been the delight of the explorer. On account of these very geogra phical difficulties it is backward both politically and industrially, and its chief commercial significance is as the main source of the supply of cocoa, which grows in Los Rios and other provinces near the sea. Roads, except mule-tracks, are almost unknown, and railways are very scarce ; hence the trader and tourist do not frequent Ecuador. The soil is so luxuriant that the inhabitants can easily supply their wants, and thus become indolent. "At a very trifling expense," says Mr. Whymper, "they can breakfast on chocolate, dine on bananas and coconut, and fall back at night on pine-apples." The chief geographical feature consists in the vast add volcanic Andes — the western dominated by Chim borazo (20,498 feet), and the eastern by the fiery Cotopaxi, with a pipe over 100 feet in diameter, at the bottom of its crater, communicating with the lower regions. "At intervals of about half an hour the 204 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA volcano regularly blew off steam. It rose in jets with great violence from the bottom of the crater, and boiled over the lip, continually enveloping us. The noise on these occasions resembled that which we hear when a large ocean steamer is blowing off steam" (Whymper). These mountains make communications difficult, and earthquakes give a constant sense of insecurity. The coast zone is extremely hot, and in the south, dry ; then comes a region of great fertility, where cocoa, cotton and sugar are grown, and considerable tracts of forest are interspersed. Higher up come plateaux, where wheat is cultivated and most of the towns (which are never large) are situated. On the other or eastern side of the watershed are dense, impenetrable forests, watered by the great rivers, the Napo and Putumayo, and sparsely inhabited by savage Indians. This region is the huge, ill-defined Province of Oriente, which has hitherto been fruitful in little but boundary disputes with Peru, Brazil and Colombia. A word will here after be said of these disputes, which disturb the peace of South America and arrest its progress ; here it may be noted that they disturb our statistics, for Ecuador has "claims" which would possibly double her esti mated size if they were decided in her favour and accepted by her neighbours. Again, a census is not popular with the inhabitants, who associate it with revenue exactions, and the latest trustworthy enumera tion was made in 1898. The area may be provisionally stated at 156,305 square miles, of which the indefinite Oriente claims 100,000. There are sixteen Provinces and one Territory (the Galapagos Islands), and their united population (including uncivilized Indians) is probably 1,400,000. Pinchincha, in which Quito stands, is the most populous Province. The following are the chief heights in the western mountain chain :-— ECUADOR 205 Feet Chimborazo 20,498 Illiniza 17,405 Carihuairazo 16,515 Cotocachi 16,301 In the eastern chain the principal peaks are : — Feet Cotopaxi 19,613 Cayambe 19,186 Antisana 19,335 Altar ... 17,730 Only two rivers of any importance flow into the Pacific ; they are the Guayas, a most useful river, to which Ecuador owes practically all its foreign commerce, and the Esmeralda in the north. The great rivers are affluents of the Amazon or its tribu taries. The second largest is the Napo. "The noble river, even when not swollen, is broader than the Thames at London Bridge, although it takes three weeks down-stream to reach its mouth in the Maranon ; and the distance from Agauno to the sea is about 3,000 miles." J The Putumayo, a still greater stream, rises in Colombia, and much of the Ecuadorian territory through which it flows is disputed and the respon sibility for the atrocities thus conveniently shifted upon Peru. The Indians in that neighbourhood, according to Mr. Simson, who wrote before the civilizing influence of Latin America reached the Putumayo, were good-tempered and splendid workers when kindly treated. The lakes of Ecuador are quite unimportant. The geological system of the eastern Cordillera is ancient, consisting of gneiss, mica and schist. The 1 Simson. Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador, p. 126. 206 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA western Cordillera consists chiefly of volcanic por- phyritic rock, belonging to the Mesozoic period. The sea-belt consists mainly of Tertiary and Quaternary beds. The lowlands of Ecuador are covered with luxuriant tropical vegetation, and practically all tropical products can be grown. These include cocoa, coffee, tobacco and all kinds of fruit. At moderately high elevations barley, maize, beans and lucerne are cultivated, and higher still there is abun dance of grass. By far the most important vegetable product of Ecuador is the cocoa plant (Theobroma cacao), which is chiefly cultivated on the moist, hot lowlands, while the vegetable ivory and the toquilla straw for making hats, obtained from the Carludovica palmata, are valuable commercial products. The red-wood (Humiria balsamifera) and the polo de cruz {Jacquinea ruscifolia), and other forest trees yield good timber. The fauna of Ecuador resembles that of the neighbouring countries. It includes, as usual, the puma, jaguar, bear (Ursus ornatus), fox and weasel. Tapirs, peccaries and opossums are very common, while the larger animals are represented by alpacas, guanacos, and vicunas, with a few kinds of deer. Snakes are numerous from anacondas down wards, and the bird life of Ecuador is extremely varied. Insects are even more numerous, and, in particular, the varieties of» beetles are endless. The uncleanly habits of the people are very favourable to the multiplication of specimens of vermin, which may be found in great variety at many of the hotels, and apart from this travel in Ecuador is rendered dis agreeable by the denizens of the forest, among which the vampire is formidable, and quite justifies the evil reputation given him by the poets. Much valuable information upon the flora and fauna of Ecuador is given in Mr. Whymper's book. ECUADOR 207 Products and Industry In 191 1 the imports amounted to £1,647,660 „ exports „ £2,806,236 The chief sharers in the import trade are the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany and France. Although Great Britain has long held first place, her imports are dwindling, while those of the United States are increasing. Germany, on the other hand, does not make much progress. Great Britain's share in the export trade is comparatively small, and is exceeded by France, the United States and Germany. Textiles are the principal imports, but the list is varied, as Ecuador has practically no manufactures. The following are the principal exports : — Cocoa ... Panama hats Coffee ... Ivory nuts Rubber ... Sucres * 16,486,206 2,889,919 2,303,618 1,787,9921,404,438 Cocoa is by far the chief industry of the Republic. The plant grows chiefly in the valley of the Guayas, and Ecuador contributes about one-third of the world's supply. The hat industry is the most interest ing in the country. The hats are made from the pliant leaves of the toquilla (Carludovica palmata), and the hats ought to be called Ecuadorian, for here all the best are made. Peru and Colombia also manufacture them, but none are made in the town or Department of Panama, which gave them its name because it was the place of purchase. The coast Indians carefully select the valuable toquilla straw, which they divide into the right widths with their thumb-nails, and * The sucre is worth 2s. 208 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA plait in circular form from the apex until the hat is finished. This plaiting is done in the small hours of the morning when the air is moist. The ivory- nut industry is noticed in the Colombian section. A fair amount of coffee is grown. The wild rubber- trees are becoming exhausted, and attention is now being given to planting. Although the country has great mineral wealth, mining has not hitherto been 'very profitable, but there is a productive gold-mine, worked by North Americans, at Laruma, in the Province of Oro. Coinage Although the money of Ecuador is minted abroad, there is an excellent monetary system. The gold condor is equal to the English sovereign, and it is subdivided into ten sucres, or two-shilling pieces, which form the unit of value. The general circula tion is in bank-notes of local issue, all of which are changeable at par for gold. The quintal of 101 lb. is the favourite weight, although the French metric system has been assumed (by law) to be in force since 1856. Except for the Guayaquil-Quito Railway (to be hereafter mentioned) there are no railways in being, except the short one from Puerto Bolivar, which serves an important cocoa district. Several, how ever, are projected. The finances of the Republic are in some confusion, and it is not very easy to get information about them. In 1912 the revenue and expenditure were each returned at £1, 897,132. The revenue is chiefly raised from customs duties. The foreign debt is £3,333,399 and the internal debt £1,180,180. The latest report of the Incorporated Society of ECUADOR 209 Foreign Bondholders commends the Republic for the efforts it is making to satisfy its obligations to creditors. Constitution Ecuador has a constitution which is centralized in type. There is a President, who holds office for four years, assisted by five Ministers. The Congress con sists of the Senate of 32 and the Chamber of Deputies of 42 members, and, as is only natural in a backward and almost unexplored country, liberty, toleration and order are not prominent characteristics. Foreigners, however, are not molested. History Long before the advent of the Spaniards the table lands round about Quito had been conquered by the Caras, a warlike race, whose kings, called Shiri, reigned in Quito, where they attained a fair measure of civilization. But not long before the Spanish con quest they were overthrown by the Incas, who incor porated their territory with the numerous provinces of the Inca Empire. The Spaniards established them selves at Quito in 1533 under the leadership of Benalcazar, and by 1550 systematic rule began. It can never be too often affirmed, in contradiction of the parrot-tale of Spanish oppression which is repeated by so-called historians, that the Spanish Government was essaying with remarkable success a task which has no parallel excepting in the dominion of ancient Rome, and that their system was a marvel of wisdom. Their Governors were builders of cities, lawgivers, and protectors of the Indians, and even in the mines, where the regulations were disregarded, the treatment of the Indians compares very favourably with that of the rubber-gatherers under Republican rule in the 210 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA twentieth century. The new conquerors introduced wheat, barley, rice, indigo, sugar-cane and the culti vation of the banana, and while bringing prosperity to their subjects, they gave them also the inestimable value of peace. " Spain in America inherited and preserved something of the majesty of the Roman Peace." * Equally baseless are the wild statements that intellectual life was crushed and torpor reigned ' under the Spaniards ; on the contrary, culture was introduced and universities founded by them, and a great part of their good work perished with the revolu tion. The Church, which is specially singled out for ignorant vituperation, was the pioneer of intellectual life and progress. Writing on Ecuador, the editor of the Antologia says : " To the monastic orders, and especially to that of San Francisco, is due the first culture of the country and the establishment of the first schools." In 1736 Ecuador figured in the history of science, being visited by a party of French savants, who came to measure an arc of the earth's meridian. The history of the Province of Quito was one of uninterrupted peace and prosperity during the seven teenth and eighteenth centuries. Accordingly, in 1809, when the revolutionary spirit began to spread, the efforts of the turbulent Creoles, eager to gain political power for themselves, met with little response from a contented people, and Montes, the Spanish general, ruled the Province wisely and well for many years, while the Spanish cause continued to prosper in the north of the continent. But the victories of Bolivar turned the tide, and, with the aid of the famous Sucre, the Ecuadorians won their indepen dence by the battle of Pichincha, near Quito, on May 24, 1822. The people joined the Colombian Federation (i.e. Colombia, Panama and Venezuela), ' Cambridge Modem History x. 277. ECUADOR 211 but in 1830 they broke away under Flores, and became the Republic of Ecuador. Flores, with the help of his army, maintained his ground till 1845, when he was driven into exile. The rest of the history of the country is a tedious record of tyrants, revolution, and bloodshed. The most masterly of the tyrants was Moreno, who first became President in 1861, and after a stormy career, in which he showed himself, perhaps, the best ruler of this unfortunate Republic, he was assassinated by the Liberals in 1875. After this political conditions grew worse than ever, and to this day have never shown the slightest indication of im provement. In the later years of the century Alfaro was prominent, and in 1901 General Plaza was elected President. He held office for a considerable period, but Alfaro continued to possess much power. In 191 1 General Estrada became President, but he died before the end of the year and a revolution broke out. It was headed by General Alfaro and a colleague. The latter surrendered and was treacherously shot by the mob of Guayaquil. General Alfaro was afterwards captured and imprisoned in Guayaquil. The blood thirsty mob broke into his prison and murdered him with barbarities the like of which have not been seen for many centuries. This brutal ferocity shows that the people of Ecuador, in spite of a few exceptions, are still a nation of savages, and it is a great pity that they ever disengaged themselves from the beneficent control of Spain and have had the opportunity to sully the pages of history with incessant and wanton bloodshed. In 1912 General Plaza was elected President. Such has been the miserable history of a country which possesses many natural advantages ; under firm and good government it could hardly have failed to become a highly prosperous community, but, in fact, 212 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA it has not made the slightest progress in a century ; it has actually retrograded. The net result of the troubled history of Ecuador — i.e. the result which to-day has most interest for South America and the civilized world — is the great boundary dispute. The main fact to bear in mind is that in 1830 and long afterwards both Ecuador and Peru were in a state of , distraction and anarchy, that treaties made at that time were often the work of factions, and have not the inviolable character which European nations associate with these solemn compacts, but that Peru began to shake off her anarchy at an earlier period, and even in the fifties, sixties, and seventies made serious attempts to establish communications upon the affluents of the Amazon and to develop the adjacent country. Con sequently she has always been in a better position to establish her claims, and is now on stronger ground than Ecuador in equity if not in law. The Ecua dorians declare that a treaty was made between Peru and the Colombian Federation in 1829, and ratified at Lima in 1830, which confined Peru to the south of the rivers Macara and Maranon, i.e. took from Peru the whole territory now in dispute. But they admit that, when Ecuador broke away from Colombia in the same year, this important treaty was unaccountably over looked by the Ecuadorian Government, and that for many years the bickerings went on without any refer ence to it. The fact is that boundary treaties are useless unless accompanied by a scientific delimitation of boundaries, and neither party was then competent to carry it out. There is no doubt that in 1852 Peru handed over to Brazil a huge slice of the disputed territory lying near the confluence of the Yapura and the Amazon. This calm assumption of proprietorship, coupled with the establishment of Peruvian settlements at Iquitos and Loreto, was a standing source of annoy- ECUADOR 213 ance to Ecuador, and in 1887 the two Republics agreed to refer the matter to the decision of the King of Spain. Both sides complicated the matter by reference to the shadowy claims of Colombia (late New Granada), and as both feared an adverse decision there were constant intrigues. The proceedings dragged on till 1909. Then Ecuador, suspecting that the arbitration would be unfavourable, proposed a direct arrangement, which Peru declined. The boundary line proposed by the King of Spain was made known; the Ecuadorians were highly indignant at its unfavourable character ; feelings rose to a dangerous height, and in April, 1910, the Republics were on the verge of war. In November of the same year the King of Spain, by the advice of his Govern ment, withdrew from the arbitration, whereupon Peru offered to refer the matter to the Hague Tribunal, but Ecuador declined the invitation. Peru's offer (provided that a competent and im partial boundary commission were established) is the best solution. On the one hand, Ecuador cannot expect to take territory that has been peacefully possessed by Peru for half a century; and, on the other hand, she ought to be allowed to retain such a slice of the Province of Oriente as will give her access to the navigable waters of the Napo, if not of the Putumayo. This is reasonably necessary for Ecuador, while peace and good relations are a vital necessity for both Republics. GUAYAQUIL Steamship Lines — The Pacific Steam Navigation Company gives a good service north and south. The journey to Panama takes 3^ days and the cost of a first-class ticket is about £13. The Kosmos Line (German), which touches at the chief ports between San Francisco and the Magellan Straits, also puts in at Guayaquil, but all lines are apt to 214 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA leave it out of their schedules, as it is liable to the scourge of yellow fever. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company connects at Colon with the Panama Railroad Steamship Line for New York, to which the first-class fare is £28 7s. A passage from Guayaquil to Southampton by the combined Royal Mail and Pacific Steam, including railway fare from Panama to Colon, is £41 ios. The journey from Callao to Guayaquil, in a good but leisurely steamer stopping at Peruvian ports, takes about 5 days. The following extract from the diary of a traveller who approached from Callao explains itself : — "May nth — The weather is warmer. Early in the morning we saw the coast of Ecuador and passed a barren island on the port side. We were soon in the River Guayas (Yambeli Channel), and passed the island of Puna, which, like the coast generally, is covered with trees, and the river is very wide. We are near the island bank and can scarcely see the mainland to the east. Yellow fever is very bad here ; there is a German barque in the river which has lost its captain and half its crew. When we came close up to ] the island the view was picturesque ; Puna is overgrown with woods and must be full of mosquitoes, but the sight of green is pleasant after the arid coasts of Chile and Peru. We finally anchored off the small town of Puna on the north side of the island and not far from the ill-fated barque. It is empty, waiting for a crew. When the tide served, we resumed our voyage up the river at about 5 o'clock, but soon after sunset we anchored again and restarted towards midnight, reaching Guayaquil, I suppose, before dawn. "May 12th — We are off Guayaquil, a large town on the right bank. The doctor came on board early. Ever since we entered the river a fumigator has been going, and every precaution is taken against yellow fever. The scenery is good. The river is more than a mile broad ; the water is slow and slimy, and a good many branches and rubbish t float down. The land close to the banks is tilled, but other wise trees cover everything, and all the low hills round about are densely covered. Nothing can be seen of the great mountains. We are taking no cargo here, and it seems that this is only a formal call, for the Ecuadorian Government has threatened to withdraw the subsidy unless more fast ships come to Guayaquil. About a dozen passen gers came on board — French, American, and the like. I was ECUADOR 21 s > told that the new railway barely paid expenses. We left for Panama at about 5 o'clock, and had a fine view of the river as we went down. Here and there the woods have been cleared and there are small estancias, but in general there is nothing but forest. Sometimes we were within 100 yards or so of the bank, and saw right into the virgin forest. We stuck in the mud once. The weather was very hot till we got the evening breeze. A good shower fell." Railways — The line for Quito, 325 miles in length, starts from Duran, a town on the left bank of the river. The line passes through Latacunga and goes up the mountains to Quito. Financially the line has hitherto been a disappoint ment, partly owing to the primitive nature of the industries and partly owing to the unsatisfactory arrangements made for paying interest on the railway bonds. However, it remains the chief public asset of the Republic. There are paddle steamers on the river. Hotels — The Paris, the Victoria, the Guayaquil. The charges are from 12s. to £1 a day. British Consul — Consul, A. Cartwright ; Vice-Consul, G. A. Powell. Bank — Commercial Bank of South America. Newspapers — El Grifo del Pueblo, El Telegrapiro. Guayaquil, with a population of 80,000, is the largest town in the Republic and the only one of real commercial importance. It was founded in 1535 by one of the lieutenants of Pizarro, and soon became a place of importance, but it suffered much from the buccaneers. It was attacked in 1624 and sacked by the French in 1686, and in the following year was plundered by an English pirate. William Dampierre sacked it in 1707, and it suffered the same fate in 1709. It is also subject to devastating fires, which from time to time have destroyed great parts of it.. These troubles, and the backward condition of the country, kept its population almost stationary, and in 1736 its inhabitants were estimated at 20,000, while about i860 they were said to number not more than 24,000, 216 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA and the population was said to be decreasing. . How ever, during the war between Chile and Peru Guaya quil benefited at the expense of her neighbours, and has rapidly increased and is becoming tolerably prosperous. Guayaquil has been thus enthusiastically described by an Ecuadorian poet : — " Guayaquil, cuidad hermosa, De la America guirnalda, De tierra bella esmeralda, De la mar perla preciosa." It certainly has a picturesque situation among green woods on a fine river, but can hardly inspire enthu siasm in an impartial stranger, for the old town is ill-built and very dirty, and the new town nothing remarkable. A. greater disadvantage is the yellow fever, which visits the town with great regularity. This and other fevers are at their worst during the rainy season from January to April, while during the rest of the year sthe climate is drier, cooler, and more healthy. The death-rate is estimated at 40-45 per thousand. The maximum temperature is 90-950 Fahr., the minimum 64-660. The rainfall is from 75 to 90 inches. A good water supply has been introduced, and steps are being taken to improve the sanitation ; there is no reason why Guayaquil should not be as healthy as Panama. The principal street is the Malecon, but there are few fine buildings. The Cathedral, planned on an ambitious scale, is con structed of bamboo, and most of the buildings are timber. Apart from its commerce, Guayaquil has very few features of interest. It is one of the chief ports of the Southern Pacific. In 1910 there entered Guayaquil 213 vessels of 396,262 tons, nearly half of which were British. Trade here is said to be very honourable, with few bankruptcies. ECUADOR 217 \ QUITO Communications— The Guayaquil-Quito Railway has been already mentioned ; the line is metre gauge and the journey takes 48 hours ; the trains only run in daylight. Hotels— The old hotel was Giacometti's, near the Cathedral. British Consul— Consul-General and Charge d' Affaires, J. Jerome. Banks— None. Newspapers— El Comercio, La Prensa. It is possible that the railway will galvanize into life this very backward city, which stands at an elevation of 9,350 feet, and, although the capital, has few of the characteristics which civilized nations associate with the word. It derives its name from the Quitu race, who possessed the land before the advent of the Caras. Spanish rule was established here by Benalcazar in 1534. Its history has not been eventful, and the principal events in its annals are earthquakes, which occur with terrific violence. The most severe were in 1797 and 1859. For more than a generation its population has been estimated at 60,000 to 80,000, but Whymper, who gives a plan of Quito, dated 1875, declares that it did not then, in his opinion, exceed 30,000, and probably there has been no great increase since his visit. The climate is pleasant ; the temperature seldom reaches 900 Fahr., or falls below 650. Unfortunately the habits of the people — half- Christianized pagans — are very dirty, and the water supply is bad. The city is traversed by two deep ravines (quebradas), and is built on very uneven ground, but the streets are laid out upon a very regular plan. In the centre is the Plaza Mayor, where the Government Offices, the Episcopal Palace, and the Cathedral are grouped. A great part of the area of Quito is covered with fine churches, which 218 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA contrast strongly with the mean, ill-built houses. Quito has a University, which was founded in 1620 ; it has thirty-two professors and five faculties. Considerable efforts have been made by the Uni versity for the promotion of science, which, it may be remarked, are invariably ignored by North American writers, who declaim vaguely about ignorance and priestcraft. For many years the late Professor William Jameson held the Chair of Botany here, and he did invaluable work in classification of the botany of the country. In poetry, Ecuador may claim a high place. Jose Joaquin Olmedo is reckoned one of the three or four great poets of South America, and he has been called the American Quintana. He was one of the poets of the Revolution and wrote in praise of Bolivar. His strain is lofty and dignified, far above the usual manner of Latin American poets, and to European readers perhaps not the least of his merits will be considered his pure diction and the pursuit of classic models, so that he appears to be rather a Spanish poet than one of the Latin Americans. Later in the century the contemplative poet, D. Julio Zaldumbide, wrote short Nature lyrics with success. Montalvo, who gave his attention chiefly to politics, was an able thinker, and one of the most prominent of the Liberals who opposed Moreno. It will be obvious from this brief notice of the intellectual life of Ecuador that the country has, in this respect, made progress out of all proportion to her material advance. Beyond Guayaquil and Quito there are few places of importance in the "Republic. Manta has some shipping trade, but it is insignificant compared with Guayaquil. The same remark applies to Esmeraldas, which is * a well-situated port to the north. In ECUADOR ' 219 December, 1913, it was seized by the revolutionaries, and two months later was bombarded and burnt by the Government forces. Riobamba is a quiet town, subject to terrible earthquakes ; in 1880 it was described by Whymper as having an empty and deserted air, but its population has since that date increased considerably. Cuenca, with 30,000 inhabi tants, is the third largest town in Ecuador, and is situated in a rich agricultural district. There is no reason why the ordinary traveller should do more than make the journey to Quito ; few enter the country at all. The Galapagos Islands In view of the opening of the Panama Canal, the Galapagos Islands (Indian name for tortoises, which used to swarm upon them, but have been much diminished by promiscuous slaughter) may become important as a coaling station. They lie on the Equator, and consist of fifteen large islands, and about forty small, with a total area of 3,170 square miles and a population of 500. The largest are Albemarle (1,710 square miles), Indefatigable, Narborough, Chatham, James, and Charles. Chatham Island is 530 miles from the nearest point in Ecuador, 620 miles from Guayaquil, and 840 from Panama. They are most remarkable geological formations, volcanic in origin, and as late as 1907 there was a discharge of lava from James Island. Both flora and fauna present many peculiar and indigenous species. Discovered by the Spaniards in 1535, they were a great place of resort for the buccaneers, to whom they owe their individual names. Always an object of much interest to geographers, they were annexed and occupied by the Republic of Ecuador in 1832, 220 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA which has used them chiefly as penal settlements, and thus arrested their development. In 1892 she changed their name to the Colon group, and also renamed each island, but the old nomenclature has prevailed against the new. Darwin visited them in 1835. and described them in his inimitable manner. Literature upon Ecuador is scarce and not up to date, with the exception of Mr. Enock's book ; much of the geo graphical information is contained in German and Spanish works. Whymper's book is interesting. The following may be useful to the traveller : — Orton, James. The Andes and the Amazon. 3rd ed. New York, 1876. Hassaurek, F. Four Years Among Spanish Americans. 3rd ed. Cincinnati, 1881. Simson, A. Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador. London, 1887. Whymper, E. Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator. London, 1892. Rice, A. H. From Quito to the Amazon via the River Napo. Geog. Journal, April, 1903. Enock, C. R. Ecuador. London, 1914. South American Series. THE PANAMA CANAL AS the Republic of Panama belongs to Central, not to South, America it will not find a place in this handbook, but the Canal, which was the occa sion of transforming it from a Department of Colombia to an independent State, requires notice. The ports of Colon and Panama, indeed, have long been the gates of South America, and, joined as they now are by a railway, and destined in a short time to be linked still more effectually by the Canal, they force themselves ever more and more upon the attention of the traveller. He will probably decide to take in the Isthmus either on his outward or home ward voyage, and his decision will be wise both on the score of convenience and the immense interest of the works which may be destined to effect a revolution in the world's trade. To give the history cf projects and attempts to make an Isthmian Canal would fill a large volume. Charles V is said to have entertained the scheme, but the wars of Spain with various nations of the world were unfavourable to the arts of peace, and undoubtedly the disastrous failure of the Darien Expedition in the reign of William III gave little encouragement to our country men to engage in pacific enterprise on the Isthmus of Panama. However, neither Great Britain nor the United States ever lost sight of it, as is shown by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which provided 222 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA that neither. Government should obtain or maintain exclusive control over any canal which might be cut through the Isthmus, nor build fortifications thereon. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 showed the mighty possibilities of this type of engineering, and eventually Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had been brilliantly successful in the Eastern work, formed a company to undertake a twin enter prise in the West. Designing to make a sea-level canal, the French began operations in 1881, and worked till 1889. Their engineering and machinery were superb, and they actually accomplished nearly one-third of the necessary excavation (40 million cubic yards out of 129 millions), but, as is well known, reckless finance ruined them, and neglect of sanitation helped in the same direction. The Company fell with a great crash in 1889, after about 60 millions sterling had been spent or embezzled. A new French Company was- soon formed, which, by keeping the works from deterioration, marked time, so to speak, till 1904. Meanwhile a rival North American Company became engaged upon the Nicaragua Canal, but in 1893 it also fell into finan cial difficulties from want of funds. The United States Government looked upon this route with some favour, and in 1898 the war with Spain re minded it that, from a naval standpoint at least, the Canal was an urgent question. Great Britain in 1901 surrendered all her rights under the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 ; the treaty by which the surrender was confirmed was called the Hay-Pauncefote. The French Company agreed to hand over all its plant to the United States Government for about eight millions sterling. Nothing now remained but to deal with the Colombian Government, of which Panama formed a part, and a treaty was arranged THE PANAMA CANAL 223 by which the United States were to acquire the Canal Zone (a strip of land extending 5 miles on each side of the route) for $10,000,000 down and a yearly payment of $100,000, to begin after nine years. Colombia, at that time, was in a revolutionary and distracted state, and various circumstances led her to believe that she could obtain better terms, which, indeed, were remarkably unfavourable to her. Ac cordingly, on August 12, 1903, the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty. The people of the Panama Department, fearing that they would lose their Canal, broke out into revolution and proclaimed themselves independent on November 4th. On November 7th the United States recognized the new Republic of Panama, and prevented Colombia from making any efforts to put down the revolution. This gross viola tion of international law has made the United States justly feared and hated in Latin America. Had the European nations behaved in the same manner in 1861, the history of the United States would have lasted less than a hundred years. The denial of the United States that they fomented the revolution is obviously absurd, and is answered by the fact that M. Bunau-Varilla, who admittedly fomented it, was the first Minister to the United States appointed by the Republic of Panama. The United States refused to submit the question to the Hague Tribunal. Long before the new Republic had been constituted, the United States made with the Revolutionists the Hay- Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which was practically the same as that which had been rejected by Colombia. One clause in it was to this effect : " The Republic of Panama further grants to the United States in per petuity the use, occupation and control of any other lands and waters outside the Zone above described which may be necessary and convenient for the con- 224 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA struction, maintenance, operation, sanitation and pro tection of said Canal." Thus the Revolutionists not only alienated the most valuable strip of Panama, but practically agreed to surrender the whole country on demand. From that time the Republic of Panama has been, to all intents and purposes, a protectorate of the United States. The way was thus cleared, and the financial future of the Canal was secure, backed by the unlimited resources of the United States. The making of the Isthmian Canal (this is the official name) was entrusted to the Isthmian Canal Commission, which was consti tuted early in 1904. General Davis, the chief member of the Commission, was appointed Civil Governor of the Canal Zone ; he was assisted by six other Commis sioners. The first Commission had to encounter very great difficulties and was unsuccessful in meeting them ; resignations were numerous. President Roosevelt found it necessary to take energetic measures and to make many changes. At last, in 1907, a new Com mission was appointed, and Colonel George W. Goethals was nominated its Chairman and Engineer- in-Chief, and the immense progress hitherto made is due more than anything else to his organizing ability and strength of character. He is, like several other members of the Commission, an officer in the Corps of Engineers. The United States Government wisely abandoned civilian control, and gave the task of con structing the Canal to the War Department. Journalists love to tell of the despotic methods and benevolent attention to detail which characterize Colonel Goethals. In 1912 he was appointed Civil Governor of the Canal Zone. He has unlimited powers and there is no appeal against him. The excellence of the police of the Canal Zone would be greatly appreciated in any other part of the territory belonging to the United States. As has THE PANAMA CANAL 225 been already said, the difficulties confronting Colonel Goethals were enormous, and one of the principal lay in the unhealthiness of the Isthmus, for the country between Panama and Colon is very malarious in the low-lying parts, and the whole district was subject to epidemics of yellow fever. Unnumbered multitudes died of it during the French period of construction. M. Bunau-Varilla said : " Subtle and fugitive, the mysterious disease seems to defy all observation, to laugh at all remedies. The victim whom it has struck is in the hands of hazard. The most erudite and devoted physicians must content themselves with ad ministering, not remedies which will check the pro gress of the malady, but simple palliatives, the effects of which were more moral than real." Hygiene was, therefore, the first consideration, for, as Colonel Gorgas, the head of the Sanitation Depart ment, at once reported : " The experience of our pre decessors was ample to convince us that unless we could protect our force against yellow fever and malaria we would be unable to accomplish the work." Fortunately, it had been discovered by Colonel Ronald Ross that malaria is caused by the bite of the female species of the anopheline mosquito, and a campaign was commenced against this noxious insect. Mosquito- proof huts were built, drainage improved, and stagnant pools drained or filled up, or, failing that, treated with petroleum to kill the larva?, and brushwood was cleared away. The same proceedings were taken against the stegomyia mosquito, whose bite causes the yellow fever. Here the success was wonderful, and yellow fever has been banished from Panama. Typhoid fever is largely caused, by the common house-fly, and this noxious creature is destroyed as far as possible, and all rubbish which harbours it is daily burned. The following table, shows how marked the improve ment has been : 226 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA 1907 Average number Total deaths Rate per 1,000 White employees 10,709 179 1671 Black employees 28,634 953 33 '28 39,343 1,132 2877 1909 Average number Total deaths Rate per 1,000 White employees 12,300 145 11*9 Black employees 32,000 380 11 '9 44,3oo 525 1 1-9 The general health of the Canal Zone, which, of course, includes a large number of persons besides the labourers, has greatly improved ; the death-rate is now 25 per 1,000. The superior class of employees are said to be on the "gold roll," because they are paid in American dollars, while the bulk are described as on the " silver roll," being paid in the Panama dollar, which is worth 2s. id. Such white navvies as are engaged are nearly all Spaniards and number about 5,000, and the other white workers — either superintendents or superior mechanics — are usually citizens of the United States. Most of the negroes are British subjects, and make excellent navvies, those from Barbados and Jamaica being the best. The difficulties regarding hygiene and the labour supply have been triumphantly sur mounted by skilled sanitation, organization, and an efficient police. It is believed that the engineering difficulties also, which have been a subject of hot controversy, have been satisfactorily settled. M. de Lesseps designed a tide-level canal and intended to carry away the waters of the Chagres River to the sea by channels. This scheme is still attractive to many. Mr. Vaughan Cornish * says : — 1 The Panama Canal and its Makers, pp. 52-3. For the account of the Canal (which I have only inspected between the Culebra THE PANAMA CANAL 227 " The Board of Consulting Engineers, summoned by President Roosevelt in 1905 to advise the Isthmian Canal Commission, recommended, in a majority report, a tide-level canal as practicable and best fulfilling the national requirements defined by the Spooner Act of 1902. But whereas they had detailed schemes for high-level canals before them, they were, in the matter of the sea-level project, at the disadvantage of having to act in a constructive capacity and elaborate the details of a scheme before they could criticize it. Moreover, five of the eight who constituted the majority were European engineers, who returned to their duties as soon as the report was drafted." For good or evil, Congress, in 1906, adopted the minority report in favour of an 85-foot-level lock canal,1 and although the decision has been adversely criticized by the French engineer M. Bunau-Varilla and others, it seems to be in a fair way to success. The total length of the Canal, from deep water in Limon Bay to deep water in the Pacific, is 50J miles ; the crux of the position is the Gatun Dam. The channel begins in Limon Bay and runs for 7 miles to the Gatun Dam, which has converted the old bed of the Chagres into a lake with an area of 164 square miles. The dimensions are (see Mr. Martin's article) as follows : length, almost i£ miles ; J mile wide at its base, 400 feet wide at the water surface, 100 feet at the top ; with its crest the elevation will be 115 feet above mean sea-levels, or 30 feet above the normal Cut and Panama) I am indebted largely to this book, and also to the valuable article by Mr. Percy F. Martin, F.R.G.S., in the Engineer of June 9, 1910. ¦ The principal reasons in its favour were : (1) Greater capacity for traffic than would be afforded by the narrow water way proposed by the majority ; (2) greater safety ; (3) quicker passage ; (4) shorter time for construction ; (5) less cost. 228 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA level of the lake. Here are the first three pairs of docks (the Gatun), -with a lift of 85 feet. There will then be a clear course of some 24 miles to the Culebra Cut — where the traveller will no longer be able to see the marvellous spectacle of thousands of men cutting through a mountain — and here the bottom width will be narrower, reduced from 500 feet to 300 feet. At the fortieth milestone is Pedro Miguel, and here is another pair of locks with a lift of a little more than 30 feet. Two miles farther on comes Mira Flores, with two pairs of locks having a combined lift of a little more than 34 feet, and then the Canal at sea-level will make its way by Balboa into the deep water of the Pacific. The whole success of the Canal depends on the Gatun Dam, and President Taft's Commission declared them selves satisfied as to its stability. Fortunately this part of the Isthmus is outside the earthquake zone. In October, 1913, the Gamboa dyke, the last serious obstruction, was blown up, and it is hoped that in a few months the landslide which partially blocks the Culebra Cut will be cleared away. It is expected that the Canal will be open to traffic on January 1, 1915 ; it will have cost at least ^80,000,000. The United States will gain greatly in saving of distance, as the following figures will show : — Miles From New York to San Francisco— By Magellan 13,135 By Panama 5,262 Distance saved 7,873 From New York to Callao — By Magellan 9,613 By Panama 3,363 Distance saved 6,250 THE PANAMA CANAL 229 From New York to Valparaiso — By Magellan By Panama ...¦ Distance saved ... From New York to Yokohama — By Suez By Panama Distance saved ... The convenience to England is less. From Liverpool to San Francisco — By Magellan By Panama Distance saved ... From Liverpool to Callao — By Magellan By Panama Distance saved ... From Liverpool to Wellington — By Suez By Panama Distance saved ... 8,3804,633 3,747 14,924 9,219 5,7°5 Miles 13.502 7,8365.666 9,980 5.937 4.043 12,989",425 1,564 That the Panama Canal will be a commercial suc cess in the near future is an impossibility. The chief export from the Pacific coast of South America is nitrate, and this is now conveyed to Europe by sailing vessels through the Straits of Magellan, and in all probability will continue to be so conveyed. There is little saving in distance from Iquique to Liverpool by adopting the Panama route, nor is there much object in saving time or distance with such a cargo. It is supposed that the Canal will develop the Pacific coast, but it will not make the conveyance of produce over hundreds of miles of mountain road any easier or cheaper. When the internal communications of 230 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Colombia, Ecuador and Peru are improved, the Canal will be helpful to those countries, but it is difficult to see how Buenaventura or Esmeraldas will benefit by being able to send their goods to their destination more rapidly. There are already more than enough ships to carry their goods. If the Canal tolls are high ships will not use it, and if they are low they will hardly pay the interest on capital. Of course the trade of New York with China and Japan should be stimu lated, and many people in the United States look with complacency on the prospect of the Canal competition hitting fairly hard the great railway-lines from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and some affect to think that the Mexican railways will be formidable competitors, but it is hardly likely that either they or the lines that cross Costa Rica or Guatemala will have sufficient facilities to make much impression on the Canal traffic. How ever, the general conditions are not such as to make us anticipate that the Panama will enjoy anything like the prosperity of the Suez Canal. Again, the American flag is seldom seen in South American ports ; apart, therefore, from the receipt of the Canal tolls, other nations will derive more benefit from it than the United States. However, the question of commercial results is secondary ; the real cause of the Canal was anxiety for the safety of the navy, which was liable to be destroyed by an inferior force so long as the Atlantic and Pacific fleets were unable to render mutual support. In that respect the new waterway will doubtless be very valuable, but it may probably cost ^4,000,000 a year in efficient upkeep. With the object of making it effective in naval strategy the United States are forti fying the Canal in flagrant violation of the Hay- Pauncefote Treaty. A more serious violation of solemn pledges is the proposal, to exempt coasting THE PANAMA CANAL 231 vessels which fly the Stars and Stripes from the Canal dues — a proposal which has aroused considerable in dignation among the better classes in the United States. President Wilson is anxious to maintain the national good faith in this respect, and it may be that by the time this is published the matter will have been honourably settled. The Panama Canal, which is being made by the War Department, is more a military than a commercial venture, but it will undoubtedly bring considerable material benefit both to North and South America. PANAMA Steamship Lines — The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company serve Panama. There is a fast weekly service to Callao, a 10 days' service to Guayaquil, and numerous services to all the Pacific ports by slower boats. The first-class fare to Guayaquil is £10 ios., to Callao ;£i8, and to Valparaiso £30. The Panama Railroad Steamship Line has a frequent service to San Francisco and all intermediate ports. The steamer disembarks passengers at Balboa (Bocas del Toro), about 2 miles from Panama. Railways — The Panama Railway was opened in 1855. It cost 8,000,000 dollars and an enormous number of human lives. The fare to Colon is 12s. 6d.T It is an uncomfortable line and ithe luggage charges are high. The station is near the Tivoli Hotel. Hotels — The Tivoli at Ancon in the Canal Zone, but close to the town (£1 a day). This is probably the most comfortable hotel between the Isthmus and Cape Horn ; the rooms are cool and mosquito-proof, and the table is very good. The Central, in Panama itself, somewhat less expensive. British Consul — Sir Claude Mallet is Minister Resident and Consul-General ; Vice-Consul, P. Helyar ; Pro-Consul, E. S. Humber. Bank — The International Banking Company. N E wspapers — U nimportant. 1 The traveller should remember that the Panama dollar — the " tin dollar," as it is called — is worth only 2s. id., half of the American dollar. 232 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA The Bay of Panama, which is studded with islands, is ver-y picturesque, with a view of green hills rising on the mainland. On one of the islands may be seen fhe graves of a number of officers and men of the United States man-of-war the Chesapeake, the, victims of yellow fever. A drive of some 2 miles takes us to the town. Panama, with 37,505 inhabitants, is a some what ramshackle place. It is not in the Canal Zone. The Americans have greatly improved the town, which was not only insanitary but also disreputable in the French days. It contains little of interest, although the houses are comfortable in appearance and some are picturesque, being built in the Spanish style with pleasant patios. But the streets, narrow and crooked, have a shabby appearance, and the shops, mostly kept by Chinese, are poor. Small remains of the great wall, built in 1573, are still to be seen. The town, which was founded in 1519 on a site 7 miles away by Pedro Arias de Avila, is the oldest Spanish town in South America, and has always been an important place. The trade was very large. An English traveller1 in 1572 says: "The ships which go out of Spain with goods for Peru go to Nombre de Dios, and there discharge the said goods ; and from thence they be carried over the neck of a land, unto a port town in the South sea, called Panama, which is 17 leagues distant from Nombre de Dios. And there they do ship their goods again, and so from there go to Peru." Some years later a Spaniard gives an interesting description of Panama, in which he points out that, in spite of the strong fortifications, it lay very open, especially on the side of Nombre de Dios, and was liable to be " spoiled by the pirates." It was, in fact, these pirates who were a lasting thorn in the side of Panama, although that city was more fortunate 1 Hakluyt, xi. pp. 391, 392. THE PANAMA CANAL 233 than Nombre de Dios in being on the Pacific side, and therefore less exposed to their attacks. Still, it was several times sacked. Sometimes, however, the spoilers failed, and several of the crew of the noted Oxenham were hanged at Panama. In 1670 Morgan sacked Portobello. Having carried off his booty to Cuba, he soon returned with a like design against Panama. He landed in October and seized a Spanish castle on the Chagres River. In the January of the next year he appeared before Panama, and captured it after hard fighting; after the battle fearful cruelties were per petrated by the victorious pirates. When he returned to England he was knighted by Charles II, but it was felt that the methods of the buccaneers could not continue, especially as the relations between England and Spain were improving, and Sir Henry Morgan himself was sent out to suppress piracy. Panama was rebuilt in 1673 upon its present site with a massive wall encircling it. The next affair of importance on the Isthmus was the disastrous Darien enterprise, which brought ruin or death upon many thousands of Scotchmen. The history of the town during the eighteenth century is uneventful, nor did it take a prominent part in the revolt against Spain. New Panama had never been as prosperous as Old, and moreover suffered much from fires and earthquakes ; it followed the universal rule of decline which came upon every part of South America when " liberated " from Spain. However, towards the middle of the nineteenth century the development of California and the west of North America generally drew traffic to the Isthmus, and in 1855 the Panama Railway was built. Since that time Panama has been a comparatively busy place, but suffered terribly from yellow fever. Since the North American occupation it has become a 234 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA healthy town. Panama is a more agreeable place of residence than Colon, and it is desirable to stay here while- inspecting the Canal. One stroll through the town will exhaust its interests, and, as the Canal is accessible at all points by rail, a very few days will suffice for it and such other modest attractions as there are in the way of excursions. Moreover the Canal itself is rapidly becoming less interesting ; the panorama of the Culebra Cut has vanished, and there will soon be little more to see than there is at the Suez Canal. The traveller will not be sorry to leave, for the climate is very enervating, and his only regret will be the Tivoli Hotel. It will be long before he comes across anything of the kind again in Latin America. The Cathedral, standing in the principal Plaza, was completed in 1760; it has two handsome towers which are decorated with mother-of-pearl. The church of San Felipe Neri was built in 1688. There is a pleasant drive to Old Panama through the sugar-fields. Here are a few ruins overgrown by rank vegetation near the sea. It is interesting as the first spot where the Spaniards built a city in the New World. Miraflores, Empire and Gatun will all have to be visited by rail when the Canal is inspected. The coolest time in Panama is from November to February, but the heat is never remarkable ; it is, however, trying owing to its extreme humidity. The climate resembles that of Bombay City ; the temperature never reaches ioo° Fahr., and the climate is extremely equable. The maximum temperature ranges from 8i*6° to 86" i°, and the lowest from 740 to 76-6°. Thus the visitor may be assured of never feeling cool. He will also seldom feel dry, especially if he visits the town after March, when, apart from the perspiration, he will be con stantly caught in drenching showers. The annual rainfall of Panama is 60 inches. THE PANAMA CANAL 235 COLON Steamship Lines — Colon has very numerous means of com munication with Europe and New York. The steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company call fortnightly and proceed back to Southampton by way of the West Indies. The same line has a frequent service to New York — first- class fare £15 12s. 6d. The Leyland line from Liverpool calls about three times a month. The Elders and Fyffes line sails from time to time for Bristol or Liverpool. The Cie. Gen. Transatlantique gives a monthly service to France, La Veloce to Italy, and the Cia. Transatlantica de Barcelona to Spain. Communications with New York and the West Indies, in addition to those already given, are numerous through the Hamburg-America, the Panama Railroad Steam ship Line, the United Fruit Company, and others. The ports of Central America and Mexico are visited by many of the lines that go to New York. Railways — The Panama Railway connects Colon with Panama. The journey takes about 2\ hours, and there are views of dense jungle interspersed by banana patches. Hotels — A large and expensive hotel, called the Washington, has just been built by the United States. A room costs about 12s. a day. At the Imperial Hotel a room costs about 4s. a day. British Consul — Consul, H. O. Chalkley. Vice-Consul, J. R. Murray. Bank — International Banking Corporation. Newspapers — Inconsiderable. Colon, with 17,748 inhabitants, is a modern town, its site having been selected in 1850 as the terminus of the Panama Railway. It was called Aspinwall, after William Aspinwall, the American who was responsible for the railway, but the name was afterwards changed to Colon in honour of Christopher Columbus. This place, which has little to interest the traveller, is outside the Canal Zone, but, as at Panama, the American quarter adjoins, and the Government of the United States have exercised the rights which it possesses of improving the sanitation, so that Colon is 236 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA a fairly healthy town. The rainfall amounts to over ioo inches yearly. Here the traveller, according to the plan mapped out, will end his experience of Latin America, and sail homewards by way of the West Indies or New York. Literature upon the Panama Canal is now tolerably large and is rapidly increasing. The following books contain useful information : — Cornish, Vaughan. The Panama Canal and its Makers. London, 1909. Edwards, A. Panama : the Canal, the Country, and the People. London, 191 1. Lindsay, Forbes. Panama and the Canal To-day. London, 1912. Fraser, John Foster. Panama and What it Means. London, i9r3- PARAGUAY PARAGUAY is the smallest of the South American Republics, except Uruguay, having an area of 145,400 square miles and an estimated population of 800,000. The remote situation and the peculiar circumstances of its history have combined to retard the Republic's progress ; but the improvement of its communications has made this remoteness a thing of the past, and if political conditions improve, there is hope of an era of prosperity. A considerable pro portion of the inhabitants are pure Indians, but the majority, though white, are of mixed blood (Spanish and Guarani) and speak Guarani or lengua general, as well as Spanish. The country is divided into two uneven parts by the River Paraguay, and of these, the smaller or western belongs geographically to the Argentine Chaco and, being subject to constant floods owing to its excessive flatness and having a salty soil, is probably of little agricultural value. A traveller says : " For nine months of the year the interior of the Chaco is one vast swamp, so far as is known at present. During a 200-mile ride, including the return journey, over a tract chosen by the Indians as being the highest and driest, I can safely say that 180 miles lay through water, and this in the middle of November, with the sun almost vertical." The climate, however, is said to be tolerably healthy, if the mosquito-infested ground near the river be avoided. The malaria is 240 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA fortunately of a mild type. The eastern division of Paraguay has much greater natural advantages, being hilly and well wooded. The general climate is pleasant and healthy, with nine months of " perpetual " spring, and three hot months, namely December, January, and February. The best time to visit the country is during the months of May, June, July, or August, when the climate is delightful. The geology of Para guay has been imperfectly investigated. A large part of the surface is covered with Quaternary deposits, and the rocks in the hilly parts are composed of red sandstone, as is the case with Rio Grande do Sul. Paraguay is divided into two botanical zones — the eastern and the western. The eastern, which, as we have seen, is the more fertile and valuable portion of the country, is largely covered with tropical and sub-tropical forests. The western division is a vast swamp, dotted with forests. All over the Republic the valuable quebracho Colorado (axe-breaker) is to be found, the best timber in South America, which also" yields a highly prized extract. This has been else where noticed. Not less economically valuable is .the Ilex paraguayensis or yerba mate, which yields the famous Paraguay tea, an article which from the first attracted the curiosity of the Jesuits and Spanish settlers, and has often been described. Oranges and tobacco are other important products, and there are numbers of dye-woods and medicinal plants. The fauna of Paraguay is large and varied, bearing a considerable resemblance to that of Brazil. The rivers swarm with crocodiles, of which the largest example is the yacar6 (Alligator sclerops). There are several very venomous snakes, including the rattle snake and the little green nacanina. There are also boas, and many huge and dangerous watersnakes. The puma, jaguar and tiger-cat (Felts Geoffroi) are PARAGUAY 241 the principal savage animals. The wild dog (Canis jubatus) is large and fierce, hunting in packs. The peccary, tapir and ant-bear are common. The birds are almost as varied as in Brazil. Products and Industries In 191 1 the imports were ^1,295,699 „ „ exports „ 983,381 The imports consist principally of textiles, provi sions and hardware. The following are the principal importing countries : — United Kingdom £370,040 Germany t 363,533 Argentina IS4-992 France 86,300 Spain 82,725 United States 77.905 Italy 70,37i Paraguay is a cattle-*aising country, and before the disastrous war half a century ago occupied a more important position in the trade than Argentina, but the almost complete destruction of her male popu lation ruined all her industries. Cattle-breeding has since revived, and there are many ranches, including those of Lemco. A census taken in 1902 gave the number of horned cattle at 3,104,453, and this is the industry which is said to offer the best prospects to immigrants. A great quantity of dried meat and hides is exported. The other leading products are tobacco, yerba mate, oranges, timber and quebracho extract. A recent Consular Report remarks: "It is said that the climate and soil are peculiarly suitable for the cultivation of cotton, but the cultivation has not hitherto been worked on a commercial basis. The quality of the cotton planted in the Chaco is said 242 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA to be the finest known. The average yield is stated to be about 12 cwt. of cotton (with seed) per acre, or 870 lb. of pure cotton per acre. Coffee, sugar, rice, manioca and other products are grown for local consumption, while essence of the leaves and flowers of the bitter orange, which grows wild in the forests, and palm kernels are produced in some quantity for export." Yerba mate, which, like rubber, is both collected wild from the forest and cultivated in plantations, forms one of the main industries, and is the favourite beverage of the Plate "countries. The soil of Paraguay is peculiarly suited to the raising of tobacco, which has long been one of the most valu able of its crops. Seed has been introduced from Cuba, and it is believed that it will be possible to rival Havannah tobacco. There is no doubt that Paraguayan tobacco is the best in South America. The Paraguayan timber is the strongest, hardest, and heaviest in the world. The quebracho Colorado will not float, and this is also the case with the palo santo (Guayacum officinalis), the caranday (Copernicia ceri- fera), the nandubay (Acavia cavenia) and several other species. The ibyraro (Ruprechtia excelsia) is used for making wheels, the tatane (Acacia maleolus) is valuable for boat-building, and there is abundant rosewood and various other kinds of cabinet-wood. Oranges are grown abundantly ; the season is from May to August. The mineral wealth of Paraguay is unexploited, and is probably small compared with that of most South American Republics. Iron, manganese and marble are widely diffused. Copper and salt are also found. The richest deposits of iron are in the north, especially between the rivers Apa and Aquidaban. Under the tyrant Lopez attempts were made to develop an iron industry, and a foundry was PARAGUAY 243 established at Ibicuy, but the enterprise has never been resuscitated. The trade figures of Paraguay are not up to date. The following list of the principal exports in 1910 will show the character of its production : — »al Exports from Paragu AY DURING THE YEAR 1910 Dried meat 17,481 cwt. Beef extract 8,960 lb. Quebracho extract ... 11,538 metric tons Hides — Dry 77,005 pieces Salted 223,877 „ Horns 6,033 cwt. Oranges . 10,895,379 dozen Tangerines 442,340 „ Timber- Logs, etc 94,431 metric tons Posts 58,543 pieces Sleepers 133,488 „ Stakes 718,007 „ Quebracho 14,888 metric tons Tobacco — Para 22,942 cwt. Pito 77,587 „ Negro 109 „ Yerba— Ground 237,263 lb. Unground . 6,106,159 „ The exports of Paraguay to the United Kingdom are practically nil, but from Argentina, which is Paraguay's largest customer, a considerable amount of its produce probably finds its way to English ports, though classified as Argentine merchandise. It is hardly necessary to add that Paraguay, like Bohemia, has no seacoast. The prosperity of Paraguay is sadly hampered by revolutions, which are chronic. A considerable amount of valuable crops is already raised, and the 244 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA amount could be enormously increased if the con ditions were more satisfactory and therefore attractive to immigrants. But the influx of settlers is very small, as the following figures show : — 1908 1,774 I9I° 578 1909 830 1911 389 It will be noticed that the revolutions of the last few years have had the effect of attenuating even this tiny stream. Twenty years ago the immigration was somewhat larger than it is to-day. Attempts are sometimes made to boom Paraguay, but' at the present time no one ought to be advised to go there unless he has plenty of capital, and then he will probably lose it. One or two German settlements have been established, and in 1893 a number of Australians were planted on the soil, but the colony, called New Australia, has not been particularly successful. Nearly all the trading firms in Asuncion and else where are German, and it speaks well for the quality of British goods that, even with this handicap, we have a slight lead in the import trade. Paraguay has very few manufactures. The only railway in the country is the Parguayan Central Railway, which runs from Encarnacion on the River Parana to the capital — a distance of 232 miles. The section from Encarnacion to Pirapo was only finished in 191 1, but this 77-mile line was a most valuable piece of work, for (now that a train ferry from Posadas to Encarnacion has been provided) it linked up Asuncion with Buenos Aires. Oppor tunity was then taken to alter the gauge from 5 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 8J inches, and so bring it into conformity with the Argentine North-Eastern Railway. Further, a short branch line is to connect Villeta, which is on the Paraguay 18 miles below Asuncion, PARAGUAY 245 with the main line, and this will be a great con venience when the lowness of the river prevents steamers from reaching the capital. Another line is projected from Villa Rica to Iguazu (near the famous falls), and when that is completed Asuncion will have railway communication with the Brazilian sea port of Sao Francisco. Currency and Finance The Paraguayan currency is by no means in a satisfactory condition, for the paper dollar, which is the only circulating medium, is usually worth about 3fd. During 1910 the rate fluctuated from 6i£ dollars to 80 to the pound sterling. Consequently trade becomes speculative and is seriously discouraged, and it is earnestly to be hoped that the efforts which are being made to effect a conversion will be success ful. Not long ago the Government began to accu mulate a conversion fund by imposing an export duty of one dollar gold upon each hide, and it was hoped to make the paper dollar stable at 5d. and to effect this in 1914. There is no hope, however, that this valuable reform will be carried out in the present year. The following was the estimate of revenue and expenditure for 191 1 : — Revenue Import duties... - £378,357 Export duties ... 99,228 Port charges, etc. 14,400 Stamps and stamped paper - ... 17,3^4 Excise ... 2,171 Post office ... 7,271 Telegraphs 7,286 Property tax ... ... 30,485 Succession duties ... 1,714 Sundries ... 120,665 Total ,,, ... £678,891 246 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Expenditure Legislature £i5>937 Presidency 3,i°7 Interior 134,682 Foreign Affairs 28,015 Finance ... .'. 5I>8oo Justice, Worship and Public Instruction 130,133 War and Marine 133,816 Public debt and pensions ' 169,348 Total 666,838 The external debt is £820,017, and the internal ;£i,383,753- Constitution The constitution of Paraguay is of the familiar type, consisting of a President, elected for four years, a Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. The President is assisted by five Ministers. The Senate has 13 members and the Chamber of Deputies 26. Each Senator and Deputy receives a yearly salary of £320. Small as the Republic is, the constitution is of the decentralized type ; it has been in force since 1870. Public men, however, still prefer coups d'etat to constitutional proceedings, and the Paraguayan con stitution, excellent as it may appear on paper to the admirers of democratic forms of government, is frequently inoperative, and may possibly be too elaborate for the simple people. History The history of Paraguay is of peculiar interest. In the beginning it promised to be the headquarters of Spanish dominion in the Plate District, then the country became subject to two of the most remark able despotisms the world has ever seen — that of the Jesuits and (after an interval) of the dictator Francia. PARAGUAY 247 Finally, in the war of 1864-70, Paraguay suffered a calamity which destroyed three-quarters of its popula tion, and can hardly be paralleled in history. Cabot in 1526 penetrated as far as the site of Asuncion, but it was not till 1537, after the Spanish failure at Buenos Aires, that Ayolas actually founded Asuncion, the first permanent settlement in the Plate District, which his successor Irala made a place of considerable import ance. The Governor was dependent upon the Viceroy of Peru, but his authority long extended over Paraguay, Uruguay and fragments of what are now known as the great Republics of Argentina and Brazil. When, however, Buenos Aires was effectively refounded in 1580, Asuncion began to wane before her younger and better-situated rival, which in 1620 obtained a Governor of her own, and from this time the Jesuit mission is the most interesting feature in the history of Paraguay. Before the end of the sixteenth century the Jesuits were hard at work, spreading Christianity among the Indians and protecting them from their oppressors, but their mission did not become thoroughly effective until 1608, when Philip III gave them permission to con vert the natives on the Upper Parana. In this in accessible region, amidst unexampled difficulties, they set up a marvellous and benevolent despotism which lasted a century and a half and is one of the most renowned instances of the triumph of moral over material forces. Although Asuncion was nominally their headquarters, the territory over which their influence extended lay far more in Brazil and Argen tina than in Paraguay, and they were frequently exposed to the fierce hostility of the Spanish settlers at Asuncion and the Portuguese at Sao Paulo, both of whom preferred exploiting the Indians to converting them. The Paulistas ( Portuguese of Sao Paulo) carried fire and sword into the Brazilian settlements and 248 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA expelled the Jesuits with their converts. They, how ever, worked with all the more vigour in the territory that remained to them and armed the Indians against their cruel enemies. The chief blow which they received was in 1631, when the Paulistas invaded the Province of Guayra, where the settlement was in charge of the heroic Padre Montoya. The Asuncion Governor could give no aid, and many thousands of hapless Indians were carried away to slavery in Sao Paulo. Montoya succeeded in bringing away 12,000 of his flock, and they crossed the Parana near the Guayra Falls, marched down the Parana, and finally established a new settlement beyond the Iguazu. Padre Montoya, who deserves to be called one of the world's heroes, died at Lima many years later and has long been forgotten. The Jesuit dominion has been the subject of praise from hostile as well as impartial authorities, and the chief adverse criticism to be made is that its providence for the wants of the Indians and its masterly organiza tion so deprived the people of initiative that, after the Jesuit expulsion by the famous decree of 1769, they were left helpless and their civilization melted away.1 Meanwhile, in 1728/ secular Paraguay had been detached from the Jesuit mission and became a . secluded and insignificant governorship. It did not, like its neighbours, accept the disturbing revolutionary doctrine which led to a crusade against Spanish authority ; the Paraguayan agriculturist hated the gaucho, and had no mind to be ruled from Buenos 1 " Certain it is that but a few years after their final exit from the missions between the Uruguay and the Paraguay all was con fusion. In twenty years most of the missions were deserted, and before thirty years had passed no vestige of their old prosperity remained," — A Vanished Arcadia, p.xi, PARAGUAY 249 Aires. Belgrano marched into the country expecting to be welcomed, but he was attacked, defeated and made prisoner by the Paraguayans. Had they wel comed the revolution, Paraguay would undoubtedly have become a part of the Argentine Republic. How ever, the country, although it became independent, had not forgotten the traditions of Jesuit autocracy, and Paraguay quickly fell under the despotism of Francia, which lasted from 1816 to his death in 1840. Of him Carlyle says : " The man Rodriguez Francia passed, in a remote but highly remarkable, not un questionable or unquestioned manner, across the con fused theatre ot this world. For some thirty years he was all the "government' his native Paraguay could be said to have. For some six-and-twenty years he was express Sovereign of it ; for some three, or some two years, a sovereign with bared sword, stern as Rhada- manthus : through all his days, since the beginning of him, a Man or Sovereign of iron energy and industry, of great and severe labour." The account given by Carlyle contains many inaccuracies and is coloured by prepossessions. Francia was undoubtedly cruel, but the verdict of Carlyle, which is favourable with qualifications, contains a good deal of truth. At all events he gave Paraguay greater prosperity than it has ever enjoyed since his time. His policy was to isolate the country and make it self-sufficing, nor was he un successful, but his successor, the elder Lopez, raised to power by his intelligence and energy, resumed dealings with the outside world and contrived to involve himself in quarrels with Great Britain, the United States and Brazil. To revert to Francia, it is noteworthy that Sir Richard Burton, who is per haps the only other man of genius who has given careful consideration to the Dictator, who also had better materials for forming a judgment, is in agree- 250 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA ment with Carlyle. He remarks : " Evidently the Republic of the Dictator was a reproduction in a somewhat sterner mould of the Jesuit Reduction system, and it throve because the popular mind was prepared for it. . . . He could say with Solon, ' I have not given you the best possible laws, but those laws that suit you best.' As has been proved by the logic of facts, the people were enthusiastic both for * the system and its administration." The foreign com plications in which the elder Lopez became involved led him to encourage the military tastes of his son Francisco, who had been to Europe and admired the third Napoleon, and eventually this policy proved fatal to Paraguay. Francisco Lopez, a tyrant hardly less extraordinary than Francia and far less estimable, succeeded to power on the death of his father in 1862, and con tinued his plans, which, he hoped, would make him the arbiter of South America. Slowly and thoroughly he had raised, armed and trained a fine army numbering about 60,000, and he watched his oppor tunity. Interference by Brazil and Argentina in the affairs of Uruguay gave him his pretext, and his claim to take part in the settlement led to the tiny Paraguay declaring war upon all three Republics. The war began in 1864, and was not as hopeless a contest as might have been supposed, owing to the military talents of Lopez and his excel lent army, which he kept efficient by relentlessly cruel discipline. The campaigns have been described by the vivid pen of Sir Richard Burton.1 It will suffice to say that Lopez, who with the cruelty of a tiger had the courage of a hero, fought skilfully and doggedly, but resources and numbers told their tale. Paraguay was overrun by the allies, and in 1870 he fell fighting 1 Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay. Published 1870. PARAGUAY 251 in the northern fastnesses of the country which he had ruined. The bloodthirsty tyrant was dead, but the evil which he had done lived after him; out of a population of 800,000, 600,000 are believed to have perished in the war, and Paraguay has never recovered from the disaster. A new constitution was drawn up in 1870, but the people, as a whole, are apathetic and have little control over policy ; the monotonous tale of petty revolutions is all that recent history has to tell. Salvador Jovel- lanos was the first President under the new constitu tion and had a troubled time. The history of the Republic is not noteworthy ; in the eighties it was well ruled by General Caballero and prosperity slowly returned. Of late years there has been an unusually ample crop of revolutions. In 1909 Colonel Jara began to give much trouble and deposed President Gondra, but in July, 1910, Jara's troops deserted him, and Congress met and appointed Senor Rojas as tem porary President. Fighting continued briskly and Rojas had to resign. He was succeeded in his tem porary post by Senor Pena in 191 1. At last the Government began to make head against the anarchy, and the arch-disturber Jara died of wounds received in battle. In the autumn of 1911 Senor Schaerer was elected President, and has succeeded in maintaining his position. The traveller need not be deterred from visiting Paraguay by the reports of revolution, for the combatants never molest foreigners who avoid active participation in the fray. Neverthe less, these tumults inflict incalculable harm upon a promising country and stability is greatly to be desired. A strong man, with financial ability, could probably renovate Paraguay, but such a man has not yet arisen. Recently the South American Missionary Society has done invaluable work among the uncivilized Indians. 252 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA ASUNCION Steamers — Until recently the only means of reaching Asuncion was by water. The journey up-stream requires 4 or 5 days, and the return journey is made in 3. The best steamers are the Mihanovich Line. The fare from Buenos Aires to Asuncion is £8 ios. ; that from Asuncion to Buenos Aires is £6 6s. These fares include meals and a state-room, and the accommodation is excellent. The distance is about 1,000 miles. Railways — It is now possible to travel by the Paraguay Central Railway ; the journey occupies 2 days and 2 nights, and the fare is about £$ 14s. There are dining-cars on the trains. Hotels — Gran Hotel del Paraguay, good, about 16 francs a day ; Hotel Cosmos, fair and with moderate charges ; Hotel Hispano-Americano, fair and moderate in charges, centrally, located. In San Bernardino, a pleasant resort near Asuncion, are Hotel del Lago, very good and terms moderate ; Hotel Rasmussen, fair and moderate in charges. British Consul — The British Minister is Sir Reginald Tower, who resides at Buenos Aires. The British Consul is Consul F. A. Oliver. Banks — Banco Mercantil del Paraguay, Banco Agricola del Paraguay. Newspapers — El National, El Monitor, El Tiempo. Asuncion is a pleasant town with 80,000 inhabitants. As has been seen, it was founded by Ayolas in 1536, and is the oldest Spanish settlement in the Plate District. It was long an important place, but the remote situation placed it at a disadvantage as com pared with Buenos Aires. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries its consequence diminished. Before the war it probably had a population of nearly 50,000 ; in 1868 Burton estimated it at 12,000. It is an extremely sunny, healthy place. The mean tempera ture is 72"460 Fahr. and the average yearly rainfall is 5173 inches. The temperature hardly ever reaches ioo° or falls as low as 400. The town is finely situated on a bay in the River Paraguay, at the point where it PARAGUAY 253 ceases to be navigable for ocean steamers. It is laid out in the familiar rectangular style, owing its present form to the Dictator Francia. The Plaza del Mercado and the Plaza San Francisco are the principal open places. The most noteworthy building in Asuncion is the vast unfinished palace of the younger Lopez, which is now used as a police-station. The Biblioteca Nacional has a valuable collection of historical docu ments referring to Spanish times. The Museo de Bellas Artes has several reputed old masters. Asun cion has been the seat of a Bishop since 1547. The Cathedral was built by the elder Lopez in 1845. The Government Palace is a handsome building with a square tower. Although most of the houses are one- storied, Asuncion is clean and well built, and it is well paved and lighted with electric light. The trams are drawn by mules. Of late the trade of Asuncion has shown signs of expanding, and if Paraguay can get rid of the plague of revolutions the improvement will doubtless continue. San Bernardino is within easy reach of the capital ; the station for it is Aregua. It is a favourite holiday resort for people from Buenos Aires. Here is the beautiful Lake Ipacaray, and the temperate warmth of the climate attracts people who suffer from lung diseases. Here is a German colony. The other towns in the Republic are not of much importance. The second town is Villa Rica, with 28,755 inhabitants, which lies 70 miles south-east of the capital, and is connected with it by rail. It is a centre of the yerba mate trade. Villa Concepcion, with 15,683 inhabitants, is "becoming a place of some importance. It also has a busy trade in the national beverage. The Iguazu Falls are noticed in the Argentine 254 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA section, but even more wonderful than these are the Guayra Falls, which have seldom been visited by a white man. Their position, at the point where the River Paraguay leaves the Brazilian State of Matto Grosso and enters the Republic of Paraguay, is most inaccessible ; the way lies through long stretches of prairies and then through almost impenetrable forests, which are practically uninhabited.1 The insect pests are very numerous. The Falls are wider and deeper than those of Niagara, but as the fall is not so abrupt, the appearance is less imposing. A few years ago Mr. Claude Russell wrote an interesting account of a visit to these Falls in Blackwood's Magazine. Literature about Paraguay is scanty ; there is great need of an up-to-date topographical work on the country. Mr. W. Barbrooke Grubb has written valuable works on the Chaco, but he deals more with the Indians than the physical features. The history, of Paraguay has been adequately treated. Mr. Cunninghame-Graham has written a brilliant study upon the Jesuit Missions. The following list of works may be found useful : — Burton, Sir R. F. Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay. London, 1870. Bourgade, La Dardye. Paraguay (tr. by E. G. Ravenstein). London, 1892. Van Bruyssel, E. La Ripublique de Paraguay. Brussels, 1893. Cunninghame-Graham, R. B. A Vanished Arcadia. London, 1901. Macdonald, A. K. Picturesque Paraguay. London, 1911. Grubb, W. B. An Unknown People. London, 191 1. 1 " If there is charm in the unknown, there is at least as great a charm in the forgotten, and the Salto de Guayra is one of the most forgotten corners of the earth." — A Vanished Arcadia, p. 78 PERU PERU is a large Republic, comprising territory of great variety, which is uncertain in extent owing to boundary disputes. The area is estimated at 680,026 square miles, and the population at 3,530,000. It is divided into three natural regions — the coast zone, the Andes, and the Montana or forest region. The coast zone is about 1,400 miles long and seldom as much as 100 miles broad ; it is the only part that has much population. Here there is scarcely any rainfall, although the climate is moist and warm. The cool Humboldt current is lower in temperature than the Pacific Ocean, and thus prevents evaporation. Fortunately, however, there are plenty of small rivers, and the land, when irrigated, is extremely fertile. It has, in fact, an entirely separate system of hydro graphy, and its puny streams are in strong contrast to the giant affluents of the Amazon which water the Montana. The principal of these little rivers are the Tumbez, Chira, Santa, Barranca, Rimac, Ocona, Gamana and Tambo. They are perennial, having an everlasting reservoir in the snows of the Andes. " The temperature * of the coast region is never oppressively hot. . . . The mean temperatures are as follows : Piura, in the north, 770 Fahr. ; Lima, in the centre, 66° Fahr. ; Moquegua, in the south, 630 Fahr. The maximum temperature in Lima in the 1 Enock. Peru, p. 223. s »W 258 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA summer is 780 Fahr., and the minimum in the winter 590 Fahr." As will be seen, when the products of Peru are described, this is a very rich agricultural district. The region of the Andes presents aspects already familiar to the traveller, who will at least have passed over the range by the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, and may also have traversed Bolivia. Here will be found Cerro de Pasco, the highest town in the world, at an elevation of 14,380 feet, and almost the sole wealth is to be found in the mines, although the Indians cultivate their little patches of land, upon which they rely chiefly for subsistence. Though in hospitable, these grim mountains have more popula tion than might be supposed ; they are inhabited by the same people who lived there during the Inca Empire — the Quechuas and the Aymaras. They are known as Cholos, and are the only real workers in Peru, being excellent miners as well as agriculturists. At moderate elevations a great number of sheep, yield ing excellent wool, are reared, but above 10,000 feet the mines are practically the only industry. Were it not for the useful llama there would be hardly any means of transport. The Montana is a region into which the Spanish Peruvian seldom penetrates ; it has been fruitful in boundary disputes, for, although none of the con tending nations have energy to develop this rich land or power to keep order in it, they will not voluntarily yield a square league of the forests which they have never seen. The district has been well described by Mr. Enock. Unless the traveller is accustomed to roughing it, he is strongly advised not to attempt an expedition in this territory, for the hardships are extreme and much of the country is very unhealthy. A few years ago a young Englishman, who marched from one of the termini of navigation to Pacasmayo PERU 259 on the coast, died as the effect of privations before reaching Panama. A great variety of uncivilized Indians inhabit the forests ; much interesting infor mation may be found in papers read before the Royal Geographical Society. Something will be said about the treatment meted out to these unfortunate people when the rubber industry is discussed. The rivers are the most remarkable physical feature. The Yapura, the northernmost, _may be called the boundary between Peru and Ecuador, and it flows into the Amazon far away in Brazil. The ill-famed Putumayo flows through an imperfectly explored territory, and it is navigable by steamboats for 285 miles. The vast Maranon, which is really the Amazon, is confined to Peru throughout its whole course, and it receives a number of enormous affluents. On the north may be mentioned the Morona, the Partaza, the Tigre, and the Napo. The two principal rivers which it receives from the south are the Huallaga and the Ucayali. On the Maranon is the very considerable port of Iquitos. The Javari flows along the Brazilian border and with the Maranon joins the Amazon at the extreme corner of Peru. The south-eastern border of Peru is formed by the vast Madera, whose principal affluent is the Madre de Dios. The Purus and other great rivers flow through the eastern Montana. To all intents and purposes, this country is only accessible from the Atlantic. If a Peruvian of Lima has busi ness in Iquitos, he goes by Panama. Of the Montana Mr. Enock says : " It consists of (a) the lower slopes, foothills, and valleys of the base of the Andes, covered with timber and intersected by streams whose waters, in many cases, literally ' wander o'er sands of gold ' ; (b) enormous open valleys and plains, free of timber and covered with grass, such as Sacramento Pampa ; and (c) regions of virgin forests, in places almost 260 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA impenetrable and unexplored. This latter -region is traversed by the numerous rivers which are elsewhere described, and it is upon the margins of these that the indiarubber grounds are encountered." The lakes of Peru are important. Lake Titicaca is by far the largest body of fresh water in South America, having an area of 3,300 square miles. It has an elevation of 12,000 feet arid in places a depth of 700 feet. As this huge sheet of water has appa rently a very small outlet, much of the excess is probably carried away by evaporation. In the Junin District is Lake Chinchaycocha at an equal height, and the third in size is Parinacocha ; there are many small lakes among the mountains. It is said that before the coming of the Spaniards the Inca Empire had a population of twelve millions, and of these a large proportion inhabited Peru. The Quichuas formed the most important race of Indians, who had subdued the more ancient Aymara people. They are still the backbone of the country, as has already been noted, and are known as the Cholo Indians. The Indians of the Montana are uncivilized and consist of many tribes, with little cohesion ; they number several hundred thousands. Among them may be numbered the following : the Aguarunas, who live around the Maranon. They are a warlike tribe and use the blow-pipe. The Amahuachus, about the Ucayali River, are similar. The Conibos, who live higher up the same river, are more friendly to the whites. The Campas inhabit a wide tract by the Ucayali and Urubamba Rivers, and are good culti vators and skilled watermen. They are not unfriendly, although some of their sub-tribes are said to practise cannibalism. The Huachipairis, who live by the Madre de Dios, are naked, painted savages, and practise polygamy ; they are unfriendly. The Machi- PERU 261 gangas, who inhabit the banks of the Urubamba and Pachitea Rivers, are somewhat more civilized. The Nahumedes, who are scanty in number, have this point of interest that they are believed to have given the name to the River Amazon, which probably arose through a mistake. These savages wear a chemise (cushma), and when they attacked Orellana while he explored the great river, it is supposed that he mistook them for women or Amazons. The Orejones live about the Napo. The cruel treatment which they have received will, , unless checked, cause them to become extinct. The western mountains of the Andes are formed of Mesozoic beds, and the smaller hills near the coast are composed of granite and various crystalline rocks, interspersed with limestone and sandstone. The eastern Cordillera are of Palaeozoic rock. The flora is extremely varied. Every kind of tropical vegetation flourishes in the Montana, and here the sugar-cane and similar crops are cultivated, as on the irrigated coast zone. The forest trees are numerous, among which one of the most valuable is the Hevea rubber-tree, and palms of all kinds are numerous. Various chinchona-trees grow abundantly. The flora of the Montana is very similar to that of Brazil. Peru is the home of the potato. The species vary with the elevation, but the Peruvian Andes are far more prolific of vegetation than the Chilian and Argentine, and there is fine grazing land at immense heights. If Peru had adequate communications, it is probable that few countries in the world would yield more sugar, coffee, cocoa, and rubber. By far the most valuable of the Peruvian animals is that which consists of four branches — the llama, the vicuna, the alpaca and the guanaco. The llama carries burdens of 75 lb. over the mountain roads 262 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA and affords the only means of transport in many districts, and both it and the vicuna and alpaca are valuable for their wool. The characteristic South American animals are found in Peru. The great condor is not uncommon, and there are immense varieties of sea-fowl. Commerce, Products and Industries In 191 i the imports were £6,371,388 „ exports ,, ... ... 7,422,027 The principal countries in the import trade were : — The United Kingdom £1,719,831 The United States 1,165,602 Germany 946,206 Belgium 333>982 France 289,529 Italy 199,45° In the export trade the following countries have the chief share : — The United Kingdom £2,396,640 The United States 2,°37,599 Chile ... ... ... ... ... 1,274,032 Germany 562,297 France 380,478 Belgium 98,928 The exports are of a varied character, consisting of :— Minerals £1,987,762 Sugar .". ... 1,415,586 Cotton 999,463 Rubber 522,044 Wool 393,94° Petroleum 388,077 Guano 270,593 Hats Hides and skins Rice Cocaine Coca Coffee PERU 263 £172,093 104,808 80,151 73.291 53,00249,408 Peru has always been renowned for fabulous mineral wealth. Enormous quantities of gold were obtained by the Incas and also in Spanish times, but the mining was conducted in unskilful fashion, and the decline in production was not due to any exhaus tion of the mines, but to the political troubles at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. There is no doubt that under favourable circumstances Peru might produce as much gold and silver as ever, but the difficulties of transport are so great that it is impossible to work many rich lodes profitably. When the Republic attained to a some what more settled condition, more attention was paid to its underground wealth, and in 1876 a School of Mines was founded at Lima, and the mining laws have been improved. Many of the rivers of the Montana are auriferous, notably the Maranon, Sandia, Urubamba and others, and the Indians have long had a peculiar practice of paving the bed of a river with flat stones, and when the river is in flood the nuggets brought down the stream are caught in the places between the stones. The Indians say, "We sow stones and reap gold." A few gold-mines are being energetic ally worked in Peru, notably the American mine of Santo Domingo near Cuzco, but the total production is comparatively small — not more than .£200,000 per annum. Since the discovery of the country the total amount of silver mined* has been estimated at .£140,000,000, and to-day the annual production is usually little short of a million sterling. The prin- 264 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA cipal silver-bearing regions are : Salpo, Hualgayoc, Huari, Huallanca, Huayalas, Huaraz, Recuay, Caja- tambo, Yauli, Cerro de Pasco, Morococha, Casapalca, Huarochiri, Huancavelica, Quespisisa, Castrovirrena, Lucanas, Lampa, Caylloma and Puno. In Spanish times quicksilver was produced in great quantities, to the amount of hundreds of tons a year, from the Huancavelica mines, but now the production is very small. Copper is a very important product. Cerro de Pasco is the chief copper district, but the metal occurs abundantly in many lofty regions of the Andes — in Yauli, Morococha, Huayllay, Chimbote, Caja- marca, Huaycayo, Huaraz, Huallanca, Huancavelica, lea, Arequipa, Andahuaylas and Cuzco. It will be noticed that it is frequently found in conjunction with silver. Coal is promising, and there are excellent beds along the coast of northern Chile; it is also found in the Andes. Very valuable petroleum wells have been discovered at Talara and Zorritos in the Department of Piura. Mining labour is rather scarce in Peru, for it is carried on by Cholo Indians who are also small farmers, and they are in the habit of leaving their work at harvest-time and repairing to their homes to reap their crops, but the quality of their work is satisfactory. An English mining super intendent states that they give very little trouble and are excellent workmen, a small minority of them being as good as English miners, though of course the majority are far weaker. The average wage is about 3s. a day, but the most important mining work is done at special contract rates. This gentleman added that there is great need of capital and brains ; with them there would be splendid prospects for mining in Peru. A considerable amount of gold, silver and copper is exported in ore. Rubber is one of Peru's chief industries. The better PERU 265 kind is yielded by the hevea trees, the inferior by the caucho ; the latter kind is obtained by the simple process of cutting down the tree and letting the sap run out ; thus resources have been recklessly wasted. Iquitos, on an affluent of the Amazon, is the great rubber port and the distributing centre into which the wealth of the Department of Loreto is poured. This industry is a source of great profit to Peru, and it could be wished that the methods pursued were in harmony with civilization and humanity, but the barbarities with which Peru is associated in that connexion have rarely been paralleled in the world's history of atrocities. It has long been known by all who are acquainted with South America that rubber-gathering is almost everywhere attended with great cruelty. In 1909 Mr. Hardenburg set to work to bring the abominations of the Putumayo to light, and with the help of Truth, though constantly hindered by the guilty parties, he succeeded, for a brief space, in arousing the public conscience, which, it must be admitted, is now comfortably asleep once more. It should be added ¦ that the company principally "concerned was an English one. Mr. Enock remarks : "The miserable condition of native labour in Latin America ought to be brought home to the directors and shareholders of British and other foreign companies. There are hundreds of rubber, mining, oil, plantation, railway and other companies with scores of noblemen — lords, dukes, baronets — as well as doctors of science, bankers and business men, and even ministers of religion, distributed among their boards of directors. What knowledge have these gentlemen of the conditions of the poor native labourers under their control ? There is a grave responsibility, which has been very easily carried, about this system of absentee capitalism." So revolting were the atrocities that it was considered 266 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA that " something ought to be done." T Sir Roger Casement was directed by the Foreign Office to make an investigation. He completed his Report in 1911, but our Foreign Office did not issue it for a year, hoping that the Peruvian Government might take some remedial measures. This hope was disappointed. As the Annual Register for 1912 said: "The facts were persistently denied by the Peruvian Government until denial became impossible." Sir Roger Casement stated that "the condition of things fully warrants the worst charges brought against the agents of the Peruvian Amazon Company and its methods on the Putumayo." These horrors are minutely de scribed in the two books, and consist chiefly of most aggravated and multitudinous cases of murder and torture, into which it would serve no purpose to go here. But it would be interesting to compare the treatment of Indians under Republican Peru with that under Royalist Spain. North American writers and their English imitators have exhausted their vocabulary in describing the cruelty of the Spaniards, and have asserted in grandiloquent terms that the night of darkness and cruelty was rolled away when the Republics threw off Spanish control. This was obviously absurd, as the slightest knowledge of history would show, but no one concerns themselves about South American Indians, and so possibly these misrepresentations may have hitherto gained currency. The Royalist Government invariably pro tected the Indians against commercial oppressors and established countless missions among them. When the Republican Governments have not actively engaged in the extermination of the Indians, they 1 Full accounts of this matter are given in The Putumayo : the Devil's Paradise (1912), by W. E. Hardenburg, and The Lords of the Devil's Paradise (1913), by G. S. Paternoster. PERU 267 have allowed exploiters a free hand, and this last is by far the crueller course of the two. It will, in the future, require some effrontery to complain of the Spanish treatment of the Indians without con trasting it with present-day treatment. There is apparently no hope of remedying the evils, which will doubtless continue until either the Indians or the rubber-trees are totally destroyed — and the former contingency is likely to take place first. An important product of the Montana is the coca shrub, which flourishes on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera at elevations between 2,000 and 5,000 feet. From this the drug named cocaine is manufactured. It is largely produced in the Depart ments of Cuzco, Huanuco and Junin. The Indians are too fond of chewing the leaves ; used in moderation it is helpful against fatigue, but it is greatly abused and thus becomes a very deleterious drug ; it would be well if the harmless yerba mate could be introduced as a substitute. Good cocoa is grown, and the industry is promising. Peruvian coffee is of the highest quality, but at present the heavy cost of transport paralyses the industry. Peru is making steady progress in the raising of agricultural and pastoral products. Sugar, which is cultivated on the coast, chiefly to the north of Callao, is the largest crop and is of excellent quality. The British Sugar Company has very large estates at Canete, and the output of the whole country is about 200,000 tons yearly. Cotton, as is the case with most Peruvian crops, is dependent on irrigation and is grown near the coast, chiefly in the Departments of Piura, lea and Lima. There are three varieties of Peruvian cotton — the rough, which is the most valuable, and comes from Piura ; the semi-rough, somewhat cheaper, which comes from Pisco ; the 268 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA third, which is least ' valuable, comes from the coast between Huacho and Pisco ; it supplies the demands of the mills of Lima and Arequipa. The rough and the semi-rough are in great request for mixing with wool in making underclothing, and are exported to Liverpool. In the fifth or sixth year the Peruvian cotton plant yields about half a ton to the acre. Besides the large export, some 2,500 tons of cotton are consumed yearly by the Peruvian mills. Rice is a considerable crop, and is grown extensively in the Departments of Lambayeque and Libertad. It and maize are the staple food of the people ; from the latter grain the national beverage of chica is made. Along the southern coasts grapes are largely grown, especially in the Department of lea. Here' wine is manufactured, and the Peruvian red and white wines are extremely good. The Pisco brandy is wel.1 known. The wool trade has made much progress in Peru of late years. In this the firm of Duncan Fox has shown great enterprisey having established a breeding farm near Cerro de Pasco and imported rams from Chile. The firm supplies the woollen factories of Lima with a large quantity of greasy wool. Mollendo, however, is the principal wool port of Peru, being the depot for the produce of the uplands. The alpacas and vicunas are in great esteem. The only other Peruvian product which requires notice is one for which, half a century ago, Peru was extremely well known, namely guano. The trade began in 1840 and the exports soon rose to 200,000 tons. Innumerable web-footed sea-fowl haunt the coasts of Peru, and particularly the Chincha Islands. The deposits of phosphates made by these birds are extremely valuable for manure, but the birds have not been treated with proper care, and the yield of this valuable product has been much reduced. PERU 269 The manufactures of Peru are more developed than those of any South American country except Brazil. There are five flourishing cotton-mills in Lima, and lea and Arequipa have one each. The chief factory of Lima has 400 looms, and 350 hands are em ployed at about 3s. a day. It is worked by petroleum. There are several important woollen- mills at Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. The Santa Rosa Company has a large flour-mill at Callao. There are over twenty factories for the manufacture of cocaine. Beer is brewed extensively at Lima and other places, and there are several factories for manu facturing paper, matches, cigarettes, and biscuits. Paita is renowned for the manufacture of beautiful hats, and there is a large export trade. The railways of Peru resemble those of Chile ; they are short and run into the mountains at right angles to the coast. The only railway which can be called a through connexion is that from Mollendo to Puno, which is about 312 miles long and gives access to Bolivia. The only other one of much importance is that from Callao, through Lima and Oroya, to Cerro de Pasco. There are numerous short lines, but not nearly enough for the development of the country. A very useful product is the contemplated line from Paita on the coast to Limon, a port on the Maranon. This is not likely to be built in the near future, but it would supply a great want, for eastern and western Peru are now as inaccessible to each other by land as Egypt and South Africa are. Some account is given of Peruvian railways under the headings of the towns. Money and Finance Peru was terribly exhausted by the war of 1879-83 and has not yet thoroughly recovered from it, although 27,o A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA yearly the outlook becomes more favourable. In 1897 a gold coinage was established, and in 1901 the silver Peruvian sol was made legal tender up to a sum of ten sols only. The following statement explains the Peruvian monetary system : — Peru is unique in South America in having stable money with clean gold and silver coinage. The Peruvian pound (written " Lp" or " £ ") is maintained at par with the British sovereign, which circulates with it as legal tender. The coins are — Equivalent Metal Denomination Peruvian British U.S.A. and Canada Gold ... Pound 10 sols 20S. $4-87 Half pound 5 ,, IOS. 2-43 Silver... Sol 100 centavos 2S. •485 Half sol 50 „ IS. .24 Fifth sol 20 ,, 5d- .10 Tenth sol 10 „ 2|d. •05 Twentieth sol 5 lid. .025 Copper Centavo grande 2 „ id. .01 Centavo chico 1 ¦„ 1 farthing .005 There is no paper money in Peru. The estimated revenue for 1913 was £3,209,237 „ expenditure „ £2,879,924 The customs form the largest item in the revenue, usually amounting to over .£1,200,000. About a million sterling is contributed by the National Tax Collecting Company, which collects, on commission, a large number of internal taxes. Among them the imports on spirits and tobacco are the most lucrative. The customs duties are high, with the object of protecting home manufactures, and living is expensive, although less so than in many South American countries. The external debt of Peru amounts to • PERU 271 £5,368,788, and the internal debt is about three millions sterling. Peru has, ever since it became a Republic, been in a state of great financial embarrass ment, and there is often a difficulty in paying its numerous public functionaries. It is said that the Government owes tradesmen and merchants in Lima about £2,500,000. The Constitution The constitution of Peru dates from 1830. The executive power belongs to the President, who is elected for four years. There are two Vice-Presidents. The President is assisted by a Cabinet of six Ministers. The legislative power is administered by the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate repre sents the Departments and has 52 members ; the House of Representatives has 116 members. The Republic, it may be mentioned, is divided into 18 Departments and 2 Provinces (Callao and Moque- gua). The Departments are subdivided into Provinces, which number 98 in all, and these again are sub divided into Districts, numbering 801. Puno is the ' most populous of the Departments, but, as has already been stated, the population figures are not to be trusted, and there has been no official census since 1876. The figures given for the total population of Peru are impossibly high. Peru is the only country in South America which does not tolerate religions outside the Roman Catholic Church. History It is not necessary to go into the early history of Peru, which forms the subject of Prescott's well-known work. It will be sufficient to remind readers that the famous Inca race at some unknown date (probably 272 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA not very remote) conquered a pre-Incan race of which almost nothing is known and founded a paternal and splendid monarchy or empire. This was rudely disturbed by the Spaniards under the ruthless Pizarro. Although the Incas were skilful builders and road- makers, workers in metal, weavers, and possessed of some skill in the sciences of astronomy and geography, they had little aptitude for the art of war, seeing that their conquests had been made over naked savages who could not stand against their civilization, and the Peruvians therefore were no match against the Spaniards. In 1532 Atahualpa was treacherously seized and soon afterwards put to death. The con querors engaged in constant quarrels over their spoils and Pizarro was murdered in 1541. The King of Spain determined to end the anarchy, and in 1546 the Viceroy Gasca restored order and established settled government. After his retirement there followed a period of disturbance, but in 1555 the wise Marquis of Cafiete arrived and took measures to repress the idle adventurers. The Viceroys varied in character, and their treatment of the Indians was, on the whole, oppressive, for the wonderful mines were now being worked, and the Indians, forced to unaccustomed toil, perished in great numbers. The chief events of the time, however, were connected with the English marauders, who constantly plundered Spanish treasure-ships. But the history of the times is not altogether written in blood. In 1567 the Jesuits arrived and introduced printing and learning. A University had already been founded at Lima, but unfortunately the Spaniards introduced a home institution that could well have been spared — the Inquisition. In Peru the Spanish dominion was prob ably more severe than in any other part of South America, but even here much good was done. Civiliza- PERU 273 tion, literature, learning and religion were brought from the Old World, and every description of fruit, grain and cattle was transplanted from Europe and began to flourish. On the other hand, Europe received from Peru new vegetable products in potatoes, maize, chocolate, tobacco and quinine. Henceforward Peru occupies an extremely important place in Spanish colonial history on purely commercial grounds. The colonies were allowed to trade with the mother country only, and not directly, but through Panama. Thus Lima was the depot for the whole of South America ; it was necessary to land goods destined for Buenos Aires at Lima and send them through Bolivia into Argentina. Lima became rich and prosperous and was the most refined and learned of the cities of South America. In 1746 its prosperity was checked by a terrible earthquake. In 1767 Peru sustained a great loss, moral and material, by the expulsion of the Jesuits, and discontent became rife, of which one symptom in 1780 was the revolt of Tupac Amaru, a descendant of the Inca Emperors. The authorities were alarmed and, as elsewhere in South America, commenced a reforming policy. The French Revolution had disturbed the whole world, and many circumstances had combined to weaken Spain and give to South America an oppor tunity to become independent. Many of the Spanish Governors were incapable, but this was not the case with Abascal, the Viceroy at Lima. When the Spanish monarchy fell before Napoleon, the standard of revolt arose in every quarter, but Abascal had collected an efficient army and staunchly held his ground. In 1814 and 1815 the Indian risings, which gravely threatened the Royalists, since the Indians formed a great part of their army, were suppressed, and the position of Peru seemed secure. 274 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA But it was impossible for Peru to maintain the Spanish connexion in view of the rapid successes of the revolutionaries in all other parts of South America, and in 1817 San Martin, the brilliant and patriotic Argentine general, shattered the power of the Royalists in Chile and afterwards received the important naval aid of Lord Cochrane, who in 1820 assisted him to land at the port of Pisco. The next year San Martin, having entered Lima, proclaimed Peru's independence, but shortly afterwards retired from the country in favour of Bolivar, the Liberator, The Royalists for a time appeared to be recovering their ground and even reoccupied Lima, but in August, 1824, the victory of Bolivar and Sucre at Junin drove them back to Cuzco, their last stronghold, and in December the famous field of Ayacucho witnessed the final ruin of Spanish hopes in South America. The Spaniards had gone, but absolutism did not depart with them ; in fact, the first act of Bolivar (in 1823) was to depose Riva Agiiero, the first con stitutional President. After a few years as absolute Dictator the Liberator retired to Colombia, and left the new Republic of Peru in a most distressful state. It would serve no purpose to follow the details of its troubles. Darwin, who anchored off Callao in 1835, complains that he was able to see very little of Peru owing to political disturbances, and the following brief remark serves to sum up Peruvian history during a considerable part of the nineteenth century. "No State in South America," he says, "since the declaration of independence, has suffered more from anarchy than Peru. At the time of our visit there were four chiefs in arms contending for supremacy in the government ; if one succeeded in becoming for a time very powerful, the others, coalesced PERU 275 against him ; but no sooner were they victorious than they were again hostile to each other/' Civil troubles were intensified by a brief war with Spain in 1864, which was ended by the good offices of the United States, but gradually the development of the guano and nitrate industries, reinforced by President Manuel Pardo's financial reforms, improved the position of Peru. It was, however, nitrate that caused the dis pute with Chile which led to the disastrous war of 1879-83. This has been well described by Mr. Enock, and here it will suffice to say that, despite the heroic resistance of Peru, Lima was occupied under circum stances of great cruelty, and the war left Peru com pletely defeated and stripped of the Province of Tarapaca. For all practical purposes Arica and Tacna may be added to Peru's loss, since Chile, although a conditional prdmise was made that they should be handed back in ten years, has never restored them. The Republic, crushed under a load of foreign debt, was practically bankrupt, and so, in the interests of foreign bondholders and (incidentally) of Peru itself, there was formed in London in 1890 the company known as the Peruvian Corporation. " Among the principal matters stipulated were : The ceding by Peru of all her State railways, certain sections of which the Corporation were to extend ; free use of certain of the ports on the coast — Mollendo, Pisco, Ancon, Chimbote, Pascamayo, Salaverry and Paita ; the guano existing in Peru up to a certain amount ; land and colonization grants, etc. ; and thirty-three annual sub sidies of £80,000, secured on the Callao customs " (Enock). The relations between the Government and the Corporation have not always been harmonious, but the arrangement, which rescued Peru from debt and secured the development of the country, has, on the whole, been most advantageous to the Republic. 276 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Civil disturbances have by no means died out, but recent Presidents have done their best to develop the resources of the country, and national self-restraint has been conspicuously shown in the recent boundary dispute with Ecuador, which, under rash manage ment, would certainly have led to war. Senor J. Pardo was President from 1904 to 1908, Senor A. Leguia from 1908 to 191 2, and the last was suc ceeded by Senor G. E. Billinghufst. This gentleman was of English origin, and was believed to be popular with the people at large. However, he set. himself to curb the power of the great families, who, as in all other Latin American countries, mono polize the government of the country. Their rule is not usually enlightened, but it is doubtful whether the mob would manage affairs any better. However this may be, Senor Billinghurst became very unpopular in Lima, and in February, 1914, his opponents carried out a coup d'etat, in which one of his principal adherents was killed. The President was completely crushed and went into exile. The recent history of Peru shows that the country is still as liable to revolutions as ever — a most expensive luxury, for the only way to obtain the capital absolutely necessary for development is to preserve public tranquillity. Lima and the Peruvian Coast After a voyage of about 24 hours from Iquique the steamer reaches Mollendo, the third or fourth port of Peru. It is, however, by no means commodious, although the Peruvian Corporation has built a break water and mole. The landing is made by boats, rowed by somewhat grasping boatmen, and even in calm weather there is usually such a swell that the leap to PERU 277 the pier is a feat requiring considerable agility. Mollendo has a considerable trade, but it is a shabby little place, and will only interest the traveller as being the terminus of a very important railway system. The exports are valued at about £600,000 yearly. A French traveller who was here in 1899 says, " Les deiix hotels y sont detestables," but they may probably have improved since then. The Southern Railway (owned, like nearly all Peruvian lines, by the Peruvian Corporation) runs to Arequipa, at a distance of about 100 miles. AREQUIPA Railways — The traveller arrives from Mollendo by the Southern Railway ; according to our route he may arrive the reverse way from La Paz. The country between the coast and Arequipa is steep and arid. The line proceeds up the moun tains as far as Cuzco, which is about 315 miles from Mollendo. At Juliaca there is a junction with a line running south that gives access to Bolivia. Hotels — Central, Europa, France et Angleterre, International. The two best hotels are very comfortable. British Consul— Vice-Consul G. Stafford. Bank — Banco del Peru y Londres. Newspapers — La Bolsa, El Pueblo. Arequipa, founded by Pizarro in 1540, is the City Beautiful (Villa hermosa), with nearly 40,000 inhabi tants, at an elevation of 7,850 feet. There is a service of electric cars. This town is on the banks of the River Chili ; the houses are built low as a precaution against the earthquakes by which Arequipa has often been devastated ; slight shocks are frequent. The Cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1848 ; the present building is a handsome modern structure. It possesses in Mirti a valuable observatory, the property of Harvard Univer sity. A French writer says : "I do not hesitate to prefer a residence at Arequipa to one at Lima ; the climate is 278 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA delicious." It is the capital of the Department of the same name. After leaving Arequipa the train makes its way over the mountains to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, which is itself more than 12,000 feet above the sea level. Here the traveller may take steamer and make his way into Bolivia. As already stated, he may, if he prefers, branch off northward to Cuzco, the ancient capital of the Incas. "To-day," says Mr. Percy Martin, in his recent work on Peru, " the electric light illumines the straight and regular streets of Cuzco ; trams — primitive and uncomfortable, but still tramways — perambulate the thoroughfares; a railway-station, located a mile or so from the town, fills the quiet air with locomotive whist ling, and the shunting of heavy goods wagons can be heard both day and night. The telegraph and the tele phone, fresh fish and meat of the best quality, a profu sion of fruit and the choice of many comfortable modern dwellings make Cuzco a by no means un pleasant place in which to reside occasionally." The Jesuit Church is most interesting, as are the relics of the Incas. Probably many travellers will prefer to neglect the bleak uplands and hurry on to Lima, the pleasantest city in the whole of South America. A fast boat will miss the wine port of Pisco and make the voyage to Callao in about 40 hours. The approach by the island of San Lorenzo with a view of the distant Andes is picturesque. CALLAO. Steamship Lines — The steamers of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company sail direct from Liverpool to Callao ; the cost of the journey by sea all the way is £62. By Buenos Aires and the Andes the fare is £66 16s. A cheaper and quicker route than either is by the Royal Mail to Colon, across the Isthmus PERU 279 by rail, and down the Pacific Coast by the P.S.N. Company j the fare is £48 12s. 6d. The same route by an intermediate F steamer costs £35. The P.S.N. Company and the Chilian Company have a frequent service by fast and slow boats to all Pacific ports, north and south. The Lamport and Holt and the Kosmos Lines sail between Europe and Callao. By the Kosmos the fare (from Hamburg or Antwerp) is £60. The Panama Railroad Steamship Line has a service to New York by Panama and Colon ; the fare is ^34 4s. 7d. The fare by the same line is £25. Railways — There is a railway line to Lima, for which see Lima. The best way to get to Lima from Callao — a distance of 6 miles — is by electric car, which performs the journey in 20 minutes. On leaving the boat the traveller may give his luggage to one of the fleteros, who are very trustworthy and will convey it to a Lima hotel at a reasonable rate. Hotels — Blanco, Genova. British Consul — Consul-General, George G. Wilson. Vice Consul, G. F. Boulton. Newspapers — El Caltao, La Prensa. Callao is the principal port of Peru. It has no objects of interest. Darwin said : " Callao is a filthy, ill-built, small seaport. . . . The atmosphere is loaded with foul smells, and that peculiar one, which may be perceived in almost every town within the tropics; was here very strong." The port is cleaner than it was in those days, but it has an untidy appearance, and every one who has business here lives in Lima if he can afford it. LIMA Railways — Lima is not an important railway centre ; in fact, Peru has no real railway system. There is a line from Callao through Lima to Oroya, whence there is another line to Cerro de Pasco. There is a shorter line to Ancon. There are also railways to Chorillos, Bella Vista and several neigh bouring places, which, however, can generally be reached more conveniently by tram. Hotels — Hotel Maury, Plaza Mayor. Here a room can be obtained for 4s. a day and meals are taken at the restaurant 280 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA attached. This hotel is one of the most comfortable in South America and the food is good. There is an excellent restaurant, the Jardin Estrasburgo, in the same square, and here also are good tea-shops. British Consul — The Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni potentiary is E. A. Rennie. Naval Attache, Captain Heath- coat Salusbury Grant. Military Attache, Colonel Sir E. I. B. Grogan, Bart. Vice-Consul, Robert A. Clay. Bank — Banco de Peru y Londres. Newspapers — El Comercio, La Prensa, El Diario ; these are dailies. Peru To-day is a monthly magazine, published in English, containing useful information about the resources of the nation. The Prisma, Actualidades, Variedades are illustrated weeklies. The Revista Historica is published by the Historical Institute, and the Geographic Society brings out quarterly publications. El Comercio, founded in 1839 by Manuel Ascensio Segura, the eminent man of letters, is probably the best newspaper on the Pacific coast and possesses great influence. There is an English Church. Lima, the capital of Peru, with a population of 141,000, is the most famous city in South America. It was founded by Pizarro in 1535, and here six years later he was murdered. It was by far the most important city in Spanish America and was the depot for all the trade. In 1746 Lima was destroyed by a terrible earthquake, but was soon rebuilt. Lima was long loyal to Spain, but was finally detached by the efforts of the Argentine San Martin. It has never recovered from the troubles of the revolutionary wars, for Peru suffered more than almost any of the Republics from the anarchy which followed the separation from Spain. Darwin said in 1835: "The city of Lima is now in a wretched state of decay ; the streets are nearly unpaved ; and heaps of filth are piled up in all directions, where the black gallinazos, tame as poultry, pick up bits of carrion." He adds : " Lima, the City of the Kings, must formerly have been a splendid town. The extraordinary number of churches N PERU 281 gives it, even at the present day, a peculiar and striking character, especially when viewed from a short distance." Its misfortunes continued to a very late date, for in January, 1881, it was captured by the Chilian troops, when the National Library was sacked and fearful outrages committed. In spite of all these troubles, it is now a very fine city, though the old prosperity has never been recovered. Lima has a very pleasant climate. The Andes keep off the northerly and easterly winds, and cool breezes blow from the Pacific. Rain seldom falls, and great heat and even moderate cold never occur. The mean temperature is 66° Fahr. and the maximum 780. In spite of its charm Lima, it must be regretfully admitted, is not healthy. " The death-rate for Lima in 1909 was 33-85 per 1,000, and the birth-rate 31-02 per 1,000. The death-rate among the poorer classes is very large, due principally to lung diseases." Tuberculosis is indeed a terrible scourge in many parts of Spanish America, and the following table given by Mr. Percy Martin may be of interest :— Mortality per 10,000 Inhabitants from Tuberculosis Lima 62-1 Caracas Rio de Janeiro Santiago Havana Montevideo . . . Buenos Aires Mexico City ... Salvador 6o-o 38-038-0327 i6-o 14-214-0 i3'7 Europeans, however, usually find Lima healthy, and probably the traveller will feel more at home than at any other time during his travels in South America. Not only is the English colony hospitable and the 282 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Peruvians distinguished among South American people for their courtesy and charm, but the town has all the attributes of real comfort and refinement which are absent from many larger and more pretentious places ; and when to these attractions are added a mild and equable climate and much historical and archaeological interest, few will be disposed to dispute its claim to the first place in the order of merit. The English club is the Phcenix, pleasantly situated in the Plaza Mayor, and there are several good Peruvian clubs. Lima stands on the left bank of the Rimac. The Plaza Mayor is the centre of the town. Here are the Government Palace, once the Palace of the Viceroys, the City Hall, the Cathedral, the Archbishop's Palace, and many clubs and shops. Another handsome square is the Plaza de la Inquisicion with a statue of Bolivar. The Plaza de la Exposicion is farther from the centre ; here at the entrance to the beautiful Pasco Colon is a statue of San Martin. The Pasco Colon is the chief fashionable resort, and should be visited on Sunday evening, when the beautiful ladies of Lima assemble here. Here is a statue of Columbus. The finest statue in Lima is also in the Pasco Colon — the monument to the heroic Colonel Bolognesi, who was killed at Arica in the Chilian war. It is the work of the Spanish sculptor Querol. Lima is bounded on two sides by the long Avenida Gran and the Avenida Alfonso Ugarte ; at the end of the latter, on the road to Callao, is the Dos de Mayo monument, which commemorates the successful defence of the port of Callao against the Spaniards on May 2, 1866. By the Pasco Colon is the Exposition Park, and not far away are the beautiful Botanical Gardens. In this neighbourhood are some of the finest public buildings. Lima has 67 churches, headed by the Cathedral, which is one of the best in South America, containing PERU 283 a glass case with the mummied remains of Pizarro, a handsome pulpit and stalls in cedar and mahogany, and a picture by Murillo. Among other churches may be mentioned San Pedro, with good wood carvings, and La Merced, with a silver front to its high altar. There is an excellent service of electric trams, and pleasant excursions may be made to Miraflores, Barranco and Chorillos, all pleasant bathing-places, a few miles southwards. On a sunny morning it is pleasant to stand upon the high cliffs of Miraflores and see the Pacific spreading in front like a lake of glass, the pretty houses of Chorillos on the left, and the smoke of Callao far away to the right. The shops of Lima are good, though not cheap, and there are several theatres and a race-course. Altogether it is an extremely pleasant city. According to North American writers, and those English compilers who have slavishly followed them, the dominant Spaniards were the enemies of every kind of learning and enlightenment, and the Church was particularly hostile to all good works. According to fact, the Spanish Government was as anxious to spread learning as to enlarge its territorial dominions, and its instrument was generally one or other of the religious Orders. The University of San Marcos, the oldest in the two Americas, was founded in 1551 by the Priors of the Dominican Order ; twenty years later it was secularized by Philip II. "The Viceroyalty of Peru," says the editor of the Spanish-American Anthology, "was the most opulent and cultivated of the Spanish colonies in South America," and all through the centuries of Spanish dominion the Uni versity of San Marcos took the lead. The University has five faculties — Jurisprudence, Medicine, Literature, Political Science, and Theology. It would be rash to affirm that the institution occupies the same place as 284 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA it did in Spanish days. A gentleman who holds high office in the University, asked whether there was a faculty of Ancient Languages, replied : " We in , Peru do not study them, for we think it a waste of time to learn dead languages." About 1580 a printing press was set up in Lima, and henceforward Peruvian literature flourished. The National Library was opened in 1822 with an extremely valuable collec tion of books, largely composed of the productions of the Lima press. In 1881 the Library contained 50,000 volumes, when it was pillaged by the Chilians and the books dispersed. At the same time the University buildings were used as cavalry barracks. Through the exertions of Ricardo Palma, the librarian, a consider able number of stolen volumes were recovered, and now the collection is as large as ever. The Athen aeum, a literary club, was founded in 1877, One of the most valuable scientific institutions in South America, the Geographical Society, which was founded in 1888, devotes itself to the advancement of geo graphical knowledge, especially in the unexplored parts of Peru. The Historical Institute was founded more recently. There are Schools of Engineering, Mining and Agriculture. To attempt a survey of Peruvian literature in a page or two is an impossible task, but some mention ought to be made of a few of the distinguished writers. Pablo Antonio Jose Olivade (1725-1803) was a native of Lima, which he had to leave for Europe owing to the hostility of the Church. In Madrid and in Paris he was a very influential figure and was in constant communication with the Encyclopaedists, for which reason he had much trouble with the Inquisition and was obliged to fly from Spain. In spite of his anti clerical views his best poetry is religious, but he is chiefly noteworthy as being a popularizer of eighteenth- PERU 285 century philosophy in Peru, and thus preparing the way for the secession from Spain. Another writer on the same side was Hipolito Unanue, of Arica, who edited the famous Mercurio Peruano. Among his torical writers Mariano Eduardo de Rivero, author of Antiguedades Peruanas, was conspicuous in the early part of the nineteenth century, and there were several noted scientific writers. The greatest Peruvian poet was Felipe Pardo y Aliaga (1806-68), who, born in Lima, was brought up in Spain, where he won the regard of the Spanish poet Lista. He took a consider able part in politics. He is a brilliant lyric and narra tive poet of the classical type, and also a dramatist ; his El Espejo de mi tierra was very popular. Another poet of repute was Carlos Augusto Salaverry, in whose Diamonds and Pearls are a number of good sonnets. Manuel Ascensio Segura (1805-71) was also an accomplished poet, but he is better known for his witty and brilliant comedies of Peruvian life. Pedro Paz Soldan (1839-95) was a clever literary critic. Peruvian literature is not only of the imagination. Besides jurists and scientists, who have written many valuable works, Peru is specially distinguished for her historians. Manuel Mendiburu (1805-85) is the author of Diccionario Biografico del Peru in sixteen volumes, and Ricardo Palma, the librarian, published in 1870 Tradiciones Peruanas in six volumes, which is one of the most valuable historical works upon Spanish Peru. Mariano Paz Soldan (1821-86) did excellent geographical and historical work. Francisco Garcia Calderon, who died in 1905, was a copious historical writer, and his Latin America, which has been translated into English, and deals chiefly with the intellectual life of the Republics, is almost the only work of its kind that has appeared in English dress. This hurried summary will show how distinguished 286 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA is Lima in literature, and in painting and music Peru has accomplished more than her neighbours. The Mountain Railway Every one who visits Lima ought to make the trip up the mountain railway, but he should not fail, as has been mentioned elsewhere, to take precautions against mountain-sickness. It is an extremely dis agreeable ailment, accompanied by severe headache and nausea, which is liable to attack those who sud denly ascend to great heights, and the best precaution is to halt for a few days at a more moderate altitude. Tamboraque (altitude nearly 10,000 feet) may be recommended for this purpose. The wonders of this broad-gauge line to Oroya — begun by the famous Meiggs in 1869 and finished in 1893 at a total cost of £5,000,000 — have often been celebrated. The traveller will leave Lima from the Desemperados station and pass up the fertile and picturesque valley of the Rimac. In ij hours the pleasant sanatorium of Chosica, at an elevation of 3,000 feet, is reached. As the train mounts to greater heights the aspect of the mountains becomes bleaker, and (7 hours from Lima) the traveller reaches Casapalca, which stands in a some what dreary valley at an elevation of over 13,000 feet. Here there is a rich silver-mine under English manage ment, with smelting works for refining the ore ; in busy times as many as 2,000 men are employed — all Indians. The ore averages 60 ounces to the ton, and every year the mine turns out 1-1J million ounces of pure silver and 4,000 tons of copper. The managers of this flourishing mine are most hospitable and exhibit great courtesy in pointing out the various processes. Not long after leaving Casapalca the train passes through the Galera tunnel, at an elevation . of 15,665 feet, and, pursuing its route through greener PERU 287 and more open country, descends to Oroya (12,180 feet). At this town, which does not possess any special attractions, the Central Railway, operated by the Peruvian Corporation, ends ; the distance from Lima is slightly more than 120 miles, and the journey takes about 12 hours, which is a short time consider ing the steepness of the gradients. A change has to be made here to the American line, which runs to Cerro de Pasco, a further distance of 82 miles, and, as the height to be climbed is only about 2,000 feet, the journey can be performed on the same day in a few hours. Cerro de Pasco (elevation 14,200 feet, population 8,000) is undoubtedly the highest town in the world. It is pleasantly situated on a small plateau, and commands magnificent views of the eternal snows. Its prosperity is due to a great American mining syndicate, and its staff, which includes a few Canadians and Englishmen, is the most genial imaginable. Their club, where a fine bowling alley is the chief feature, their base-ball, and, it may be supposed, the profitable nature of their occupation, combine with the general feeling that prevails to make their somewhat isolated life pleasant, in spite of the rarefied atmosphere. The community is numerous, for besides the mines of the town there are a smeltry and coal-mine some 8 or 10 miles distant. The copper-mines of Cerro de Pasco take a very high rank in the world's production of that metal. The latest figures to hand are that the annual output was 50 million pounds of copper and 275,000 tons of coal ; probably the figures have since been exceeded. Silver also is obtained. The coal is mostly, if not entirely, used for smelting, and when the price of copper is low it is the practice to smelt all the ore and export nothing but the pure metal, in order to economize in cost of carriage. 288 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA There is a plan for building a railway from Cerro de Pasco to Pucalpa, about 4 days' journey by steamer from Iquitos. It would be unwise to attempt to reach this Amazonian port by land ; if a visit to it is desired, it should be included in the Amazonian trip, when it can easily be reached from Manaos. Iquitos has a British Consul. Its population is about ro,doo. It exports rubber, hides, vegetable ivory, tobacco and hats. It has a larger trade than any other Peruvian port except Callao. It is connected with Liverpool by the Booth Line, and several other lines of steamers ply the Amazon. The traveller will probably leave Peru with more regret than he experiences in parting from any other Latin American country. Leaving Callao, the com fortable steamer of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company will make its way northwards along the well-named Pacific coast, and probably a brief halt may be made at Supe, a little port protected by a small rocky promontory and backed by the Andes in the misty distance, whose snowy peaks glitter when they catch the sun's rays. It is a sugar port. A far more important sugar port is Salaverry, 256 miles north of Callao ; it serves Truxillo, with which flourishing old town and Ascope it is joined by a railway. The means of landing are primitive ; if the tub which usually serves to haul passengers from the boat to the jetty happens for any reason to be out of use, recourse must be had to a rope ladder, and a considerable swell often adds to the excitement. Pacasmayo and Eten, both sugar ports very similar to Salaverry, are quickly passed, and the next day the vessel reaches Paita (160 miles north of Eten) in a fine bay. PERU 289 PAITA Steamship Lines — As at Callao. Railways — There is a railway at Piura, which is 100 miles inland, and it has been extended to Catacaos, a little farther inland. There is a project for making a line from Paita to a port on the Maranon River — a distance of about 430 miles ; it would be a most useful railway. Hotel — Pacifico (about 12s. a day). British Consul — Vice-Consul, H. E. Dawson. Bank — Banco del Peru. N ewspapers — Unimportant. Paita has a population of only 2,000, but the harbour is one of the best on the Pacific coast. It exports hats, tobacco and charcoal ; the oil of the Department is shipped from Talara and Zorritos. It is the fifth port of the Republic, coming after Callao, Iquitos, Mol lendo and Salaverry. Piura (Gran Hotel and Hotel Colon), with 10,000. inhabitants, is the capital of the Department of that name. It was the birthplace of the heroic Admiral Gran. Its chief importance is in the fact that the finest Peruvian cotton comes from this district ; the best of all comes from Lechura. Not far away is Catacaos, celebrated for the so-called Panama hats. In the Department also are the im portant petroleum wells to which allusion has already been made. After leaving Paita in the evening the vessel will next day be steaming through Ecuadorian waters. There is no lack of books upon Peru ; many of the historical works are well known, and much has been written of late about its archaeology. Sir Clement Markham's works are valuable. Mr. Enock has travelled much in the country, and his books perhaps give the best modern survey of its physical features, resources and general condition. The following books are all useful : — u 2oo A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Plane, Auguste. Le Pirou. Paris, 1903. Enock, R. C. Peru. London, 1908. South American Series. The Andes and the Amazon, London, 1908. Walle, Paul. Le Perou iconomique. Paris, 1908. Wright, Mrs. M. R. The Old and New Peru. Philadelphia and London. Martin, P. F. Peru of the Twentieth Century. London, 191 1. 8 Uj ¦7 \arrX* \ v ^ /i J, ^ ^I/aysand^ 9 *Mnro frawento. §M. __ Mercedes^~vJb£w^z/7i C%%. TrinidaakR. ^L^,. ;"i;M^^c .^Jvi ^TrJtS* % worn ¥0S§tC«^:;;#;#^ ^^ *to&»b : g|) URUGUAY Railways shown thus *3» ioomius 1 "GEOGRAPHIA" UP 33STRAN0, L0NDON.WC> URUGUAY URUGUAY or Banda Oriental is the smallest of all the South American Republics, but being well situated for trade, with old-established and carefully organized pastoral industries, and possessing in Monte video the fifth largest city of the continent, it has an importance out of proportion to its area and popu lation. The area is 72,210 square miles and the population 1,094,688. It is bounded' on the north and east by Brazil, on the south by the wide estuary of the River Plate, and is separated from its western neighbour Argentina by the vast River Uruguay, which gives its name to the Republic. The pleasant climate, the fine pastures, the splendid waterways, the natural adaptability to lines of railway have all contributed to make the Republic prosperous, and a further stimulus is fifty millions sterling of British capital which has been wisely invested in industries and railways. The south of the country closely resembles the characteristic Pampas of Argentina, though, unlike them, it is by no means destitute of stone, which, by supplying cheap railway material, gives it a great advantage over the neighbouring Republic. In the centre and north low ranges of hills (cuchillas) begin to -rise, but their insig nificance is shown by the fact that, although railways are numerous, there is only one tunnel in the whole country — at Banada de Rocha, a little to the north of 294 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Tacuarembo, within a hundred miles of the Brazilian frontier. The Uruguayan Campo is more pleasant than the Argentine, being undulating and purple with the beautiful ¦flos morala. The country is well watered. The northern part of Uruguay is broken and hilly, but no height attains an elevation of more than 2,000 feet. The principal ranges are the Cuchilla de Haedo on the north and the Cuchilla Grande on the south and east ; the scenery is often picturesque. The geology of Uruguay resembles that of Rio Grande do Sul. Sandstone rests upon a foundation of schists and crystalline rocks, and the plains of the south are, like those of Argentina, covered with alluvial deposits. The great River Uruguay never actually enters the country, being its continuous boundary. It is navig able up to Salto, where rapids occur. The chief tributary of the Uruguay is the Rio Negro, which has a course of about 280 miles, and with its affluents drains a large portion of the country. It is navigable as far as Mercedes. All other rivers in Uruguay are small. The grazing-grounds of Uruguay are covered with Pampa grass as in Argentina, and the flora, for the most part, closely resembles that of the Argentine Pampas. Trees are much more numerous than in the neighbouring Republic, and the most valuable for timber are the algarrobo, the guayabo, the quebracho, and the urunday. The willow, poplar, and mimosa are common. Near the Brazilian frontier trees are more numerous and vegetation more luxuriant ; palms grow freely. The fauna is not now particularly numerous, for most of the wild animals have been destroyed. The jaguar, puma, tapir and other common South American quadrupeds still linger on the Brazilian border, and URUGUAY 295 the howling monkey is common in this district. The ostrich (Rhea americana) is seldom seen except upon the ostrich farms. The burrowing owl is found all over the Pampas, and the vulture is common. On the southern coast the rattlesnake may be found. Produce and Industries In 1912 the imports were ^10,506,383 exports ,, ^10,947,872 In 191 1 Great Britain sent to Uruguay goods valued at £2,886,000. In this trade she is far ahead of all others, Germany being second and the United States third. Textiles, coal and machinery are the principal imports. Great Britain's share in the export trade is less prominent, amounting to £1,425,000. In 191 1 the following were the chief exports : — Gold dollars Wool 19,491,000 Hides 9,976,000 Meat and extracts 7,017,000 Sand 1,312,000 Animal fat 1,119,000 Livestock 790,000 Cereals 473,000 The foreign trade of Uruguay is considerably more than twice as large as it was in 1882. Up-to-date figures of the trade cannot be obtained. The figures given above show the vast preponderance of the pastoral industry. The land devoted to that purpose is estimated at 37,000,000 acres, while 1,383,800 are cultivated. The following is the official census of live stock in 1909, and large as the numbers are, they are probably understated : — 296 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Sheep Cattle Horses Pigs-Mules Goats 16,608,617 6,827,428 561,408 93,923 22,992 20,428 The industry is chiefly centred in Salto, Paysandu, and Rio Negro, but it is carried on in all the Depart ments. Durazno and Soriano are largely devoted to sheep. This predominant industry naturally gives Uruguay a rural character. Paysandu and Salto, the next largest towns to Montevideo, have only about 20,000 inhabitants each. All the energies of the people are devoted to the raising and slaughtering of live stock, and the great city of Montevideo lives by handling the products and serving as a centre of distribution for imports. These features are repro duced on a larger and more varied scale in Argentina, and therefore a detailed description of life upon the estancia is not necessary. For many years the great object of the owners of the estancias has been to improve the live stock, and the indigenous cattle have advanced rapidly in quality as the result of lavish importation of Durhams and Herefords. To a smaller extent Devons and Polled Angus have been intro duced. For improving the breed of sheep the Merino, Lincoln, Shropshire, Hampshire, Romney Marsh, and Southdown have been imported, and the Merino makes a particularly fine cross with English breeds for the purpose of wool. The export of frozen beef and mutton, although a young industry, is now on a large scale. For example, La Frigorifica Uruguaya, in the Department of Montevideo, has plant capable of slaughtering daily 200 head of cattle and 2,000 sheep. Another industry is that of jerked beef or charqui, which is exported in large quantities to URUGUAY 297 the neighbouring Republics. It is merely beef cut into long thin strips and dried in the sun. Though readily eaten by South Americans, it is tough and unappetizing to the stranger. The export of wool is very large, and mostly goes to France. Although agriculture is, comparatively speaking, a small industry, the production of wheat, oats and linseed is rapidly increasing. In 1912 the production was : — Cwt. Wheat 4,766,460 Oats 529,872 Linseed 446,340 Barley 36,576 Rye 1,102 The Departments of Montevideo, Salto, Canelones, and Colonia produce wine ; the output is nearly four million gallons yearly. In the north tobacco and olives are cultivated. Efforts are being made to develop the mineral wealth. Gold is found in con siderable quantity in Rivera, a northern Department, and silver, copper and various precious stones are scattered over the Republic, but the produce of the various mines has not hitherto been very large. The roads of Uruguay are much better than those of its neighbours. The national roads have a mileage of 2,240, and other roads amount to 3,100 miles. The railways amount to 1,570 miles. They are all broad gauge (4 feet 8J inches), and all British built and owned. The Central Uruguay Rail way, including the Western, Northern and Eastern Extensions, is by far the most important company in Uruguay, having a total length of 970 miles. It runs north to Durazno and a shorter line runs north east to Minas. The Western Extension runs to the important town of Mercedes on the north-west 298 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA and due west to Colonia Suiza on the coast. The Northern Extension runs from Durazno to Rivera on the Brazilian frontier. This is a most important extension, for it is now possible to journey by rail from Montevideo to Rio de Janeiro; the Brazilian town of Sant' Anna adjoins Rivera. The Eastern Extension starts from Pando, near Montevideo, and goes north-east to Melo; at Nico Perez there is^a branch running almost due east to Treinta y Tres. This brief summary will show what an extensive and valuable line is the Central Uruguay. The North western of Uruguay is 113 miles in length, running from Salto, where the Uruguay becomes unnavigable, to Santa Rosa on the Brazilian frontier. The River Quarahim separates it from the terminus of the Brazil Great Southern Railway, and passengers are now ferried across, but a bridge is being built. The Mid land Uruguay Railway, which serves the chief pastoral district, connects Salto with the capital. It runs by Paysandu and Algorta to Tres Arboles ; here there is a branch line of 36 miles to Piedra Sola, on the Northern Extension. From Tres Arboles it is but a short distance to Paso de las Toros, and thus the north-west is linked up with the main system of the Republic. From Algorta the Midland has a most important branch of 87 miles, which runs to the rising town and port of Fray Bentos. The Uruguay Northern is a short line of 73 miles ; it runs from Isla de Cabellos to San Eugenio on the Brazilian frontier. The Uruguay East Coast Railway is from Olmos, on the line to Minas, eastward to Maldonado, on the coast. All the railways are pros perous, and they have been of incalculable benefit in developing the resources of the country. URUGUAY 299 Money The theoretical monetary unit is the gold dollar, which is Worth 4s. 3d. ; Uruguay is fortunate in having a fixed rate of exchange. There is, however, no Uruguayan gold in circulation. The silver peso, which circulates, weighs 25 grammes. The Bank of the Republic has the sole right to issue notes. The metric system of weights and measures is officially in force, but the old are frequently used, of which the quintal (slightly over 101 lb.) is perhaps the most common. Finance In 1912-13 the revenue was estimated at £7,477,085 „ expenditure „ 7,474,930 The customs duties contribute £3,919,970 to the revenue. The debt I's £28,054,796, and the cost of its service amounts to £1,638,731. The public indebted ness is undoubtedly large in proportion to the popula tion, but South Australia, with about one-third the population of Uruguay, has a larger debt. The financial position of the Republic is undoubtedly high. Constitution The constitution (dating from 1830) possesses few features of special interest. Executive power is, of course, in the hands of the President, elected for four years, who is assisted by seven Ministers. The legisla tive power is in the hands of the Senate (19 members) and the Chamber of Representatives (75). It may be noted that each Department has one Senator, chosen for six years by an Electoral College. The government of Uruguay is tolerably efficient, and the judicial system has lately been reformed. 300 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA History Before the advent of the Spaniards the territory now known as Uruguay was inhabited by the fierce Charrua Indians, and it was here and by their hands that the famous explorer Juan Diaz de Solis met with his death in 1515. Such history as there is belongs to the Plate District, of which the seats of government were Buenos Aires and Asuncion, but there is little to record, for the Spaniards could not make headway against the Charruas. Early in the seventeenth cen tury Hernandarias, the wise Governor of Buenos Aires, sent across the river a hundred head of cattle and the same number of horses and mules. These were turned loose in Uruguay and multiplied exceedingly. In 1618 missionary work began with the Franciscans, and six years later Bernardo de Guzman founded a Jesuit settlement. These circumstances, made a beginning in the direction of prosperity and civilization, but the progress of the district was hampered by incessant wars between the Spanish and Portuguese, who both claimed it. In 1680 the Portuguese daringly established a military settlement at Colonia, almost opposite to Buenos Aires, and this place, being constantly lost and won by either antagonist, played the part of Berwick between England and Scotland. To counter act Portuguese influence the Spaniards on December 24, 1726, founded Montevideo, which, being excellently placed for trade and having a good harbour, soon became a flourishing city. In 1776 Ceballos, the Spanish Viceroy, finally captured Colonia, and Spain and Portugal came to an agreement as to their bound aries. The struggles of the rivals, the advent of the English (which gave the people of the Plate District a taste for British trade which they have never lost), and the beginning of the revolution, which followed almost URUGUAY 301 immediately, are briefly told under the heading of Argentina. When the Spanish Royalists were finally expelled from Montevideo in 1814, the Uruguayan national hero Artigas, a half-savage but magnanimous gaucho, found himself greatly embarrassed, on the one hand, by Argentina, which desired to incorporate Uruguay, and on the other by Brazil, which marched troops into his territory on the specious pretext of putting an end to anarchy. After a fierce struggle of ten years the Brazilians prevailed and Artigas was obliged to seek an asylum with Francia, the tyrant of Paraguay, where he ended his days. But his spirit was not dead. Uruguay chafed under a Portuguese (Brazilian) yoke. A little band of thirty-three (the Trienta y Tres), who have given their name to a Department, succeeded in securing Argentine inter vention, and after several years of war the Brazilians were driven out. Uruguay became independent in 1829, and in 1830 drew up a constitution which still remains substantially in force. Unfortunately Lavallega and Rivera, the two generals who had won their country's independence, turned their arms against each other, and a long period of anarchy and faction fights ensued, of which the evil tradition is not yet extinct. Darwin, who saw much of Uruguay at this time, says : " Police and justice are quite inefficient. If a man who is poor commits a murder, and is taken, he will be imprisoned, and perhaps even shot ; but if he is rich and has friends, he may rely on it no very severe consequence will ensue. It is curious that the most respectable inhabitants of the country invariably assist a murderer to escape ; they seem to think that the individual sins against the Government, and not against the people. A traveller has no protection besides his firearms ; and the constant habit- of carrying them is the main check to more frequent robberies." He also 302 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA draws a dark picture of the corruption of justice, but was not unhopeful of the future of the country, remark ing : " The very-general toleration of foreign religions, the regard paid to the means of education, the freedom of the press, the facilities offered to all foreigners, and especially, as I am bound to add, to every one possess ing the humblest pretensions to science, should be recollected with gratitude by those who have visited Spanish South America." It would be unprofitable to go into the monotonous details of barren wars, but the establishment of the two historic parties, the Colorados and the Blancos, under circumstances reminiscent of the Wars of the Roses, must be noted. In 1835 Rivera adopted red badges for his troops, while his then rival, Oribe, gave his men white favours, and, under the names of Reds and Whites, the two parties have maintained a fierce struggle ever since. Broadly viewed, the Blancos are countrymen and the Colorados townsmen, but this is not a clean-cut distinction, and there is no distinction in principles ; it is really a contest of Ins against Outs. The Colorados have been " in " since 1864, and the periodical efforts of the Blancos to remove them give rise to frequent " revolutions," which, however, are not very terrible affairs. Foreigners are never molested, although indirectly they suffer loss by the dislocation of the labour market and the interruption of business. The progress of the Republic was retarded by its share in the great war with Paraguay in the sixties, but after this the development of communications with the Old World and the cessation of foreign wars brought about an increase in trade and prosperity which no faction fights could check. Turbulence, however, did not disappear. In 1897 President Borda was assassinated in the streets of Montevideo, and the murderer received a sentence of two years' imprisonment, on the ground URUGUAY 303 that his offence was political. In 1903 the Colorados and Blancos engaged in civil war and much blood was shed. President Williman (1907-11) had to sup press a small Blanco "revolution" in 1910, but he was able to report a condition of peace and prosperity when on March 1, 191 1, he handed over charge to his successor, Don Jose Batlle y Ordonez. This gentleman is not new to office, having already served as President from 1903 to 1907. Within the last year or two there has been considerable labour trouble, but the material prosperity of Uruguay is rapidly advancing, and there is good hope that political conditions will show a like improvement. MONTEVIDEO Steamship Lines — These are practically the same as at Buenos Aires ; some of the big steamers pass it, but arrangements can generally be made to be conveyed from Buenos Aires hither with little loss of time. Montevideo is 7,030 miles from England. Railways — Montevideo is, like Buenos Aires, the railway centre of the country, but the Central Uruguay Railway is the only line that has its terminus here. Colon, the inland pleasure resort, is reached by the electric tramcar, and the same remark applies to the bathing places of Pocitos and Ramirez. Hotels — Oriental, Calle Piedras, 135 (ios. to 25s. a day) ; Pyra- mides, Calle Sarandi, 289 (about 12s. 6d. a day) ; Central, Calle 25 de Mayo, 239 ; Grand Hotel, Calle Sarandi, 325-7 ; Palacio Florida Hotel, Calle Florida and Mercedes ; Splendid Hotel, Calle Buenos Aires, 253 ; Lanata, Plaza Matriz. In the neighbourhood there are two hotels which are open in the summer only — the Parque Hotel at Parque Urbano, Ramirez, and the Pocitos Hotel at Pocitos. The hotels of Montevideo are of fair quality ; the Palacio Florida is perhaps the most satisfactory. British Consul — The British Envoy Extraordinary, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Consul-General is Mr. A. Mitchell Innes. The Naval Attache is Captain Heathcoat Salusbury Grant, R.N. ; and the Military Attache, Colonel Sir E. J. B. 304 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Grogan. Vice-Consuls : H. C. Ricardo, Major De S. Dobree, C. E. R. Rowland. Banks — London and River Plate, London and Brazilian Bank, Anglo-South American Bank, British Bank of South America, Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata. Newspapers — El Telegrafo Maritimo, Dia El Siglio Maritimo, Diario del Plata, Montevideo Times. There is an Anglican Church at Montevideo, dedicated to the Holy Trinity, in the Calle Santa Teresa, Montevideo, with a population of 325,000, is situated on the eastern side of a fine bay and looks across the water to the Cerro, on the western side, the high hill which dominates the landscape and gave its name to the city. Montevideo is less than two hundred years old ; reference has already been made to its history. The best part of the town is modern, and is laid out in the usual Latin American fashion, with plazas or squares and long straight streets intersecting one another at right angles. The traveller will find the public cabs indifferent and extortionate, and this defect must be attributed to the excellent and cheap service of the electric tramcars, which run to all parts of the city, suburbs, and neighbouring places, and makes the competition of horse-drawn vehicles hope less. Montevideo has 140 miles of tramlines. The central square is the Plaza Matriz, which contains the Club Uruguay, of which most of the members are Uruguayans, and the English Club. There is a large English colony in Montevideo, which possesses a school and a hospital of its own. The Cathedral, in the Plaza de la Constitucion, is a large building with two lofty towers on the side of the facade, and a huge dome covered with green, blue and yellow tiles. There is a handsome fountain in the middle of the square ; but the only other notable URUGUAY 305 building, apart from the Cathedral, is the stone Town Hall, which goes back to Spanish times. The Plaza de la Independencia is a magnificent square in the centre of the town, surrounded by colonnaded buildings, in which most of the Govern ment offices are located. The Prado, a fine park, is half an hour from the centre of the town by tram, and a pleasant excursion (8 miles) may also be made to Colon, where the eucalyptus avenues are noticeable. But the favourite resort of the people of Montevideo is Pocitos, a small seaside place connected with the capital by an electric tramline, whither numbers go in the season both from the Uruguayan capital and from Buenos Aires for the sea-bathing. Montevideo is very like a smaller Buenos Aires, and its " lions " are exhausted in a proportionately shorter time. Montevideo is a great trading centre, and all the other Uruguayan towns are dwarfs in comparison. English enterprise in railways, tramways, and the meat trade is conspicuous, but it is needless to say that the methods of our merchants are unfavourably compared with those of Germany, and, as competition from that country and the United States is becom ing yearly keener, it may be well to run the risk of telling a very old story by quoting from a Consular Report issued a few years ago. The writer complains that British firms pay insufficient attention to details, and adds : " In tenders for public works German firms study the specifications with minute care, and tender for every item, leaving nothing in doubt, besides drawing up their applications in so clear and simple a manner as to give the minimum labour in examination and the maximum of facility in com parison to the authorities who deal with them ; where as British tenderers sometimes merely quote a lump 306 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA sum, ignoring all details, and often, when details are given, the price of many items is left vague, ' as may be agreed upon.' When goods are imported into the country from Germany, France, the United States of America, etc., . a detailed statement in Spanish of the contents of each package is generally furnished, with metric weights and measures, which facilitates their rapid examination and dispatch ; whereas British firms as a rule content themselves with the brief statement, 'Case containing machinery,' or 'hard ware,' etc., leaving to the custom-house officials the task of working out details and calculations. Then, again, as regards languages, the British commercial traveller, armed with British catalogues and price-lists (although I note with pleasure that some are now printed in Spanish), knows no language but his own, but the German invariably speaks Spanish and English, and he has carefully studied beforehand the needs of the market which he is visiting and the financial position of the merchants." It must be remembered that American (and doubtless German) critics make similar complaints of their countrymen and hold up British enterprise to admiration, and also that the latest figures show that the United Kingdom is holding her own against Germany, but there is no doubt that British merchants often lose ground through slovenly methods, and this advice, which, mutatis mutandis, consular offices all over the world have been sending out for many years, ought to be laid to heart by all who intend to do business in South America. Montevideo is an extremely clean city and enjoys an excellent climate. The mean temperature is about 620 Fahr., and the annual rainfall is 44 inches. There is a good supply of water from the Santa Lucia River. Montevideo is by far the chief port of the Republic. URUGUAY 307 The bay was too shallow to allow large ships to approach within 2\ miles, so new harbour works were commenced in 1901 and are now completed. They consist of two long breakwaters and a basin and docks ; the channel was dredged, and will now admit vessels drawing 24J feet. There are three large dry docks — Jackson and Cibil's, Gounouilhon, and Maua — and their length is 450, 300, and 275 feet respectively. They were built between 1869 and 1874. In 1912, 5,562 vessels of 10,593,958 tons- entered the port of Montevideo, and 5,543 vessels of 10,535,603 tons cleared. The University is situated in the Calle Uruguay ; it has faculties of Law, Medicine, Letters, Mathematics, and Engineering. Uruguay cannot claim any great eminence in literature and learning ; the fact that it is a comparatively modern country may account for this deficiency. Though perhaps inferior to all South American countries except Paraguay, its history is not, like that Republic, by any means a complete blank. The most considerable literary man was Francisco Acuna de Figueroa (1790-1862), who was a facile poet. Another esteemed poet, Adolfo Berro (1819-41), who was cut off by an untimely death, wrote indignant verse against slavery. Jose Enrique Rodo is an able essayist. But the achievements of the Republic have hitherto been small. There is in Montevideo a good National Museum, which has a useful collection of Indian weapons ; a gallery is devoted to Uruguayan painters, and considerable progress has been made in this art. It is extremely easy to visit any place in Uruguay owing to the excellent railway facilities, but there is really little to be seen ; at least the estancias, which are the one sight of the country, will probably be more conveniently viewed in Argentina, There are two 308 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA towns which are not uncommonly visited — Salto and Paysandu. SALTO Steamer Communications — Many steamers, including the Mihanovich, connect Salto with Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and other ports. Above Salto the River Uruguay is un- navigable for nearly ioo miles. Salto is 306 miles by water from Buenos Aires. Railways — Salto is served by the Midland Railway, which joins the Central system at Paso de los Toros. It is 394 miles from Montevideo by land. Hotels — Americano, Concordia, Oriental. British Consul — Vice-Consul, J. J. Armstrong. Newspaper — Ecos del Progreso. Salto is a mean-looking town ; its chief feature is its great saladeros. It is the capital of the Department of the same name, and is the centre of a district completely devoted to pastoral industries. The town is lighted with electricity. There is a population of about 20,000. PAYSANDU. Steamer Communications — Like Salto, various lines ply to Buenos Aires, Montevideo and other ports. Railways— Paysandu is served by the Midland Railway, which joins the Central system at Paso de los Toros. Hotels — Small. British Consul — The Vice-Consulship is vacant. Newspapers — Unimportant. Paysandu, with a population of 20,000, is the capital of a Department of the same name. It was founded in 1771 by Father (Pay) Sandu, who was engaged in converting the Charrua Indians. At one time it was a manufacturing place of some importance, but its prosperity was destroyed in the wars of the mid- nineteenth century. In these troubled times two URUGUAY 309 Scotchmen, Mundell and McEachan, held the position of Intendente, and did good service in pacifying the country. There are many estancias in the neighbour hood, which is a rich pastoral district. Paysandu is famous in the meat .trade, especially for tongues. While in this neighbourhood, it is probable that the traveller will wish to visit Fray Bentos, one of the principal seats of the great Lemco industry. It may be noted that Salto, Paysandu, and Fray Bentos can be visited quite as easily from Buenos Aires as from Montevideo. Fray Bentos, which is a rising place, was the first scene of the operations of Liebig, in 1865, and although this factory is now surpassed by that of Colon and Entre Rios, Fray Bentos is of immense importance, and slaughters not much less than 200,000 animals yearly. By far the favourite animal here is the Hereford, although some Aberdeen Angus are imported. As has been said, there are few places of striking interest in Uruguay. There will be little temptation to visit Revira or any of the frontier towns, but possibly occasion may be taken to visit the pretty little towii of Mercedes, on the Rio Negro. An interesting place in this neighbourhood is Colonia Suiza, near Mal Abrigo, devoted to dairy-farming, with a population of 4,000 Swiss. Mr. Koebel says : "In the three Spanish- speaking Republics of Argentina, Uruguay and Para guay that, together with Southern Bolivia, formed the old River Plate provinces, exist distinct and important settlements of Swiss, Austrians, Poles, Australians, Welsh, Boers and Jews, besides numerous lesser groups of many nationalities beyond. Within the frontiers of each perfect liberty obtains to continue existence as it is led in the country from which the immigrants came, and thus each is provided with its own churches and institutions." 310 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA This colony was first planted in 1862. On the whole, there is much to be said for the plan of making Buenos Aires the headquarters from the first, and visiting Montevideo and other Uruguayan towns thence. It would, however, be a mistake to omit Uruguay altogether. Till recently Uruguay was treated somewhat cavalierly by travellers, who gave it but a hasty glance before passing on to the description of Argentina. Now it has the honour of an excellent work to itself in the South American Series by Mr. Koebel. Mr. Martin's book contains some information about the Republic. Martin, Percy F. Through Five Republics. London, 1905. Koebel, W. H. Uruguay. London, 1911. South American Series. VENEZUELA THE Republic of Venezuela, a large and imperfectly explored country of about 365,000 square miles, is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, on the east by British Guiana, on the south by Brazil, and on the west by Colombia. The population a few years ago was estimated at 2,661,569, the increase by im migration being insignificant. There are a Federal District, thirteen States, and five Territories, and more than 300,000 of the population are full-blooded Indians, of whom about a quarter are absolutely independent. In contrast with Colombia the urban population is very small. Venezuela falls into three natural divisions — the northern uplands along the coast, the central plains or llanos, and the south-eastern uplands. The coast region is the agricultural zone, where almost every product can be raised according to the elevation ; here such towns as Venezuela possesses are to be found. The vast plains, or llanos, extend from the Parima Mountains to the Orinoco and Apure Rivers ; here cattle-breeding is the main industry. The forest extends from the Upper Orinoco to the borders of Brazil. "Here the native Indian has hitherto been comparatively free from the intrusions of the white settler, and still finds a congenial habitat in hunting- grounds that are seldom trespassed upon. The com mercial products of this frontier region consist of copaiba, serrapeas, or ' Tonca beans,' vanilla, mahogany 313 314 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA and other cabinet woods."1 As is natural in an equatorial country, the lower levels are thinly peopled. The hot zone, at elevations below 2,000 feet, has a mean temperature of 770 Fahr., and is, for the most part, unhealthy. The temperate zone, at elevations of from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, has a charming climate, with a temperature ranging from 590 in December and January to 770 in April and May. Above these heights the climate is cold, and in the Sierra de Merida the region of perpetual snow is reached. The inhabitants show great racial variety. Among the aborigines, who, for the most part, are totally uncivilized, the Barre, Carib, and Arawaz stocks are chiefly represented. In the uplands are to be found families of pure Spanish descent — Basque or Catalonian — but the bulk of the civilized inhabitants are Mestizos (mixed Indian and Spanish), and they are seldom recruited by fresh European blood, for the experience of the German colony, which in 1870 was roughly dispossessed, has not been encouraging to immigrants. The want of population has always been and will long continue to be a serious handicap to the progress of Venezuela^ The geology of Venezuela falls into three districts: (1) the country south of the Orinoco, which consists chiefly of granite, gneiss, and other crystalline rocks ; (2) the llanos, which are covered by deposits of the Quaternary age ; (3) the mountains of the north, of which the oldest rocks are granite and crystalline. The Orinoco may be said to monopolize the whole river system of Venezuela. Though not of remarkable length, only a limited number of rivers surpass it in the volume of its waters, and it is said to have 436 tributaries. Some are fed from the Guiana highlands, namely, the Caroni-Paragua, Aro, Caura, Cuchivero, 1 Scruggs, p. 224. VENEZUELA 315 Suapure, Sipapo and Ventuari ; while the Suata, Manapere and Guaritico come from the mountains in the north, and the Apure, Uricana, Arauca, Capanaparo, Meta, Vichada and Guiviare have their sources in the Andes. These are themselves great rivers with considerable tributaries. The Orinoco flows into the sea through a vast delta, which has an area of 7,000 square miles. The following figures will show the greatness of the Orinoco : — Drainage area Length ... Length of navigable water Mean discharge per second 364,000 square miles. 1,450 miles. 4>3°° >, 500,000 cubic feet. At ^present this magnificent river runs almost entirely to waste. There are steamers from Port of Spain, Trinidad, to Ciudad Bolivar, the chief river port of the Republic, but navigation is greatly neglected ; if attention were paid to dredging and to clearing away the shoals and bars, it would be possible to develop the resources of Venezuela. The principal river flow ing due north is the Unane. The lakes are not of great importance ; there are numerous sheets of salt water about the Maracaibo Lagoon. The Lake of Valencia is a considerable sheet of fresh water. The flora of Venezuela is large ; many of the vegetable products (as cocoa) are of great economic value, and there are many salutary medicinal plants. As the country is half covered with forest the timber, as might be supposed, is valuable. The mora is a fine tree of great size with good timber, and the caoba, or mahogany, grows extensively. Ebony and lignum vitse are common in the State of Zulia. Something will be said about the vegetable products of Venezuela when its resources are enumerated. The fauna resembles that of Brazil and other 3r6 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA neighbouring . countries. Such animals as the jaguar and puma are common. There are several species of deer but not in any great variety. The monkey is represented in great variety and the spectacled bear is found in the Andes. The otter is common. The crocodile and the cayman * abound in the rivers. The huge anaconda lurks in the marshes and by the rivers, while the less formidable boa keeps to the woods. As is the case with all parts of tropical South America, the rattlesnake is common in Venezuela. Commerce, Products and Industries There are few countries, even in South America, which are more imperfectly developed than Venezuela. This is largely due to badness of communication. As we have seen, the advantages of the Orinoco are neglected, the roads are bad, and the railways are few. The most important line is the Bolivar Railway Com pany which runs from Tucaras to Barquisimento, with a short branch to Aroa ; the total length is only about ioo miles. The- Gran Ferrocarril de Venezuela is slightly longer and runs from Caracas to Valencia, while the Venezuela Central Railway connects the ' capital with Santa Lucia. Something will be said of these railways under the headings of the towns. There are about 560 miles of line in operation. In 191 1 the imports were £3,774,665 ,, „ exports „ £4,654,996 1 The cayman (Alligator palpebrosus) is the South American alligator. Alligators are distinguished from crocodiles by the shortness and roundness of their muzzle and the inferior develop-. ment of the web between their toes. The North American alligator (Alligator lucius) has a broad snout, divided nostril, and partially webbed toes. The cayman has an undivided nostril and still more rudimentary webbing about the feet. i- VENEZUELA 317 The chief imports were cotton textiles, flour, drugs, rice, butter, wine, machinery and thread. The prin cipal countries in the import trade were : — Great Britain United States Germany... France Holland Spain Italy Bolivars 27,222,098 27.044.344 l6,5S9,3°2 9,624,684 6,853.731 3.452,5933,094,971 Up till this year the United States was ahead of our nation. In the export trade the following countries chiefly figure : — United States France ... Holland ... Great Britain Bolivars 36,725,090 31,928,35122,120,264 10,714,031 The principal articles of export are : — Bolivars Coffee 59,016,625 Cocoa 18,659,956 Balata 12,689,473 Hides 6,049,127 Gold '.. 3,337.886 Goat and kid skins 2,654,492 Rubber 2,667,910 Aigrettes 1,605,423 Asphalt 1,386,184 Copper ore 1,310,400 Coffee, it will be seen, is by far the largest product. It grows best at heights between 2,000 and 7,000 feet ; the Venezuela coffee is superior to that of Brazil. Cocoa is indigenous to Venezuela, and the Republic 318 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA produces about 8,000 tons annually, some of which is the best in the world. It is largely grown in the neighbourhood of Caracas, and also about the Orinoco Delta and in the region of Maracaibo. Rubber of various kinds is raised in large quantities. Balata, which is a species of gutta-percha, is more largely produced than rubber proper. It is chiefly procured from the State of Bolivar and the territory which has the somewhat misleading name of Amazonas. The capital of the latter, San Fernando de Atabapo, is a village of about 400 inhabitants. Both these regions are less known than they were in the eighteenth cen tury, most of the South American Republics having " progressed backwards " since they became indepen dent. Mr. Dalton * says : " The Ventuari is the largest Venezuelan tributary of the Upper Orinoco, yet the 300 miles or so of its course are practically un known to Europeans. As far as its valley has been explored, alternating forests and savannas have been found. Across there in colonial times there was once a track uniting Esmeralda directly with the Lower Orinoco by way of the Caura ; the route lay up the Padamo and then across the head-waters of the Ventuari to the source of the Erewato, a tributary of the Caura. Along this road there was a chain of forts, but the cruelties of the soldiers at last led the Indians to unite for their extermination, and Humboldt tells us that every man in their 50-league-long chain of forts was slain one night in 1776. The Indians told him that by this road it was 10 days from Esmeralda to the head-waters of the Ventuari, and 2 days thence to the mouth of the Erewato." Some day the vast natural wealth of these regions may be utilized. Pastoral products form a considerable item in the 1 Venezuela, pp. 231-2. VENEZUELA 319 export trade. The live stock has been mated : — OxenGoats Pigs Horses Asses 2,004,257 1,667,272 1,618,214 191,079 312,810 Sheep Mules 176,668 89,186 The llanos form a vast expanse ; they vary in utility as cattle-ranches according to the water they receive from the affluents of the Orinoco. The following description shows them at their best : " After wandering for nearly three hours over this monotonous landscape without compass, and guided only by certain landmarks known to the vaqueanos, we came unexpectedly upon the borders of the Mesa, which commands an exten sive view of the lower savannas. As if by magic the dreary scene changed to one of the most glorious panoramas in existence. At our feet lay a beautiful expanse of meadow, fresh and smooth as the best cultivated lawn, with troops of horses and countless herds of cattle dispersed all over the plain. Several glittering ponds, alive with ail varieties of aquatic birds, reflected upon their limpid surface the broad- leaved crowns of the fan-palms, towering above verdant groves of laurel, amyris, and elm-like robles. Farther beyond, and as far as the eye could reach, the undulating plain appeared like a petrified ocean, after the sweeping tempest." T Before the revolution the cattle of Venezuela were far more numerous than they have ever been since, but in the course of the long war with the Spaniards most of the animal wealth of the country was destroyed. 1 R. Paez. Travels and Adventures, pp. 27-8. 320 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA The llaneros were among the bravest of the troops composing Bolivar's victorious army. Subsequently civil wars retarded the recovery of the industry, and, though it employs 60,000 persons, it is carried on unscientifically. With more capital and better com munications the industry should do well. A factory for killing cattle and chilling meat has been established at Puerto Cabello, and doubtless an export trade will soon be built up. Sugar can be grown anywhere in Venezuela ; the chief districts are Maracaibo and Caracas. Here again the methods are antiquated and most of the produce is crude sugar (papelon), which is eaten by the peasants. The industry has lately suffered a heavy blow by the establishment of a Government monopoly in rum. Tobacco and cotton are grown, but the small pro duction might be greatly increased. The mineral wealth of the Republic is very large. Gold is found chiefly in the Yuruari Territory. It is the commodity which first gave fame to Venezuela, and the most noted goldfield is El Callao, which in 1886 produced 177,000 ounces of gold, but it is now little worked. A good many gold-mines are still at work and the produce remains large. Copper ore exists in many places, and there is a large mine in the State of Yaracuy. Silver and iron also occur, and much salt is mined. Asphalt is a very important product, and comes principally from the Bermudez Lake, near the Guanoco River. In 1908 over 37,588 tons of asphalt were exported. The manufactures of Venezuela are small. There are several cotton factories at Valencia, chocolate is made in Caracas, and at both these towns, as well as at Puerto Cabello and Maracaibo, there are breweries. Matches are made for the Government monopoly. Small as these manufactures are, they VENEZUELA 321 would not exist at all but for extravagant protection, which enables them to make a profit. Duties in Venezuela are above the South American average, which is not low ; and it is officially reported that there is no demand for any but the most costly brands of champagne, the duty being so high that the cost of the article is insignificant in comparison. Venezuela is industrially backward, but probably less so than Colombia, and there are certainly pro mising opening for capitalists. Currency The bolivar is equal to the franc. The coinage is fortunately on a gold basis, and some gold and silver is in circulation. The British sovereign is received at a small premium. Constitution The constitution dates from 1909. The President is elected by Congress for four years and is assisted by a Council of Government of ten members, one from every two States. There is also a Cabinet of seven members. Congress consists of a Senate of 40 members and a Chamber of Deputies to which one member is returned for every 35,000 inhabitants. Venezuela presents several points in which its con stitution differs from the average South American Constitution, and further it is a federation ; the States are autonomous. Finance In 1912-13 the estimated revenue was 52,500,000 bolivars „ expenditure „ 52,500,000 „ The debt of Venezuela has given much trouble to 322 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA foreign creditors, but a more or less satisfactory arrangement was made in 1905. Considerable reduc tions have been made in the debt of late years. The external debt amounts to 126,711,537 bolivars, - the internal debt to 62,587,001 bolivars. History In 1498 Columbus on his third voyage sighted the coast of Venezuela, and the next year Alonso de Ojeda made his way into the Lagoon of Maracaibo, where, being struck by the likeness of the shallow coastal waters to Venice, he called the place Venezuela, or Little Venice — a name which gradually attached itself to the whole region. For many years the coast was a prey to adventurers, whose cruelties were so great as to scandalize public opinion in Spain ; but gradually more responsible settlers penetrated inland, founding Valencia in 1555 and Caracas in 1567, near to which the port of La Guiara was soon established, and Venezuela became an important place for trade (chiefly contraband) and for the legend that its hinterland contained El Dorado, a land where gold was the commonest of' metals. The story was believed by Sir Walter Raleigh, who, as is well known, made an attack upon the Spaniards in hope of gaining gold. Many buccaneers were also attracted to Venezuela, and Caracas, Maracaibo and other towns were periodically sacked. A more severe blow to the prosperity of the district than these casual depreda tions was the war of the Spanish Succession at the beginning of the eighteenth century, from which the Venezuelan trade took a long time to recover. Hampered both by the restrictive policy of Spain and their dependency upon the Viceroyalty of New Granada (Colombia), the Creoles became discontented, VENEZUELA 323 and in 1777 the system of monopoly was abolished and Venezuela elevated to the dignity of a Captaincy- General. But these concessions came too laffe to avert the revolutionary spirit which, in the end, detached practically all the colonies from Spain. In 1808, when news came of the expulsion of Ferdinand of Spain by Napoleon's orders, the Vene zuelans refused to accept French rule and for a long time wavered between loyalty to Spain and independence. Eventually Venezuela was the first of all the South American Republics to declare its independence, which step was taken on July 5, 181 1. But there was a strong reaction, and Monteverde, fighting vigorously for Spain, had practically sup pressed the revolution, when Bolivar, the famous general and patriot of Caracas, came upon the scene. The story of his wonderful struggle and his triumph over apparently insuperable obstacles belongs to the history of the world. It will here suffice to say that on June 23, 1821, with the help of the British legion, he shattered the power of Spain in the decisive battle of Carabobo, and in November, 1823, with the capture of Puerto Cabello the last vestige of Spanish dominion vanished from Venezuela. Bolivar had hoped for a great Colombian Union, including Colombia, Vene zuela, and Ecuador, and this combination existed for a time, but the Liberator's hopes of order and freedom were disappointed. Venezuela withdrew from the Union in 1829, and shortly afterwards Bolivar, the greatest of all Venezuelans, died a disappointed man, full of gloomy forebodings for his country and the other Republics which he had helped to make independent. For some time Venezuela enjoyed moderate tranquillity, principally under the guidance of the soldier patriot, General Paez, but in 1846 civil war broke out and trouble continued up to 1873, 324 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA when Guzman Blanco became Dictator and ruled with a mixture of tyranny and wisdom till 1889. Although he amassed a great fortune by oppressive taxation, he kept the country at peace, maintained order, built 500 miles of railways, and gave the Republic the blessing of a stable currency, which it still enjoys. His long dictatorship was undoubtedly beneficial. The people, however, having grown tired of his paternal rule, overthrew it, and after another period of confusion the notorious Castro came to the front in 1899, and in 1902 was elected President- Dictator for six years. He did not succeed in per petuating his rule like Guzman, for, having embroiled the Republic with various foreign Powers and raised many domestic enemies, he was obliged to retire to Europe in 1908, and his efforts to reinstate himself were unsuccessful. Since his retirement affairs have been tolerably tranquil. A new constitution was formulated in 1909, and the next year General Juan Vicente Gomez was elected President. In recent history the most important of Venezuelan events was the boundary dispute with England. In the latter part of the nineteenth century there were considerable gold discoveries between the Orinoco and the Essequibo, which were in British Guiana. Vene zuela, however, objected to see the territory exploited and policed by the Colonial Government, and declared that it belonged to her, on the ground that Spain in 1845 had acknowledged the independence of Venezuela and had renounced in her favour all rights formerly enjoyed by Spain in the territory known as the Captaincy-General of Venezuela. This claim would have included the whole colony of British Guiana. The Government of British Guiana, of course, main tained its rights, and considerable . friction arose between Venezuela and England, in the course VENEZUELA 325 of which the latter made larger claims under the Schomburgk line. In 1895 came the interference of the United States, which led to dangerous tension. It was not a proper subject for arbitration, seeing that, except for a mere fraction, all the territory in dispute clearly belonged to British Guiana. However, the matter was referred to a tribunal of two English, two United States, and one Russian jurists, and in 1899 the decision was given. The tribunal decided upon a boundary line that was nearly identical with the Schomburgk, although Venezuela received a small piece of territory west of that line. The event was no doubt satisfactory, but to arbitrate on territory that was indubitably part of the Colony was a bad precedent. LA GUIARA Steamship Lines — The Harrison and Leyland Line maintains a 10 days' service from Liverpool to La Guiara. They then proceed to New York. The French Compagnie Trans- atlantique calls both on out and home voyages to Colon. Other foreign lines are the German Hamburg-America, the Italian La Veloce, the Spanish Compaiiia Transatlantica and a Dutch line. The coasting trade is carried on by Venezuelan lines, the chief being the Nacional. Passengers from England can go by the Royal Mail to Trinidad and then proceed to La Guiara by a foreign line. The United States Red " D " Line has a fortnightly service to New York. The coasting trade is in the hands of native vessels. The distance to England is about 4,760 miles, and the voyage by way of Trinidad takes about 21 days. Railways — There is a line — La Guiara and Caracas Railway Company — to Caracas, 28 miles in length. The fare is ios. There is also a short line of about 3 miles to Macuto. Hotel — There is one fairly good hotel at 8s. a day. British Consul — Vice-Consul, M. Brewer. Banks — Banco de Venezuela, Banco de Caracas. Newspaper — El Heraldo. This little town, with a population of 8,500, is the 326 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA port of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela. The best time for a visit is between December and April. The temperature (Fahr.) is given as 910 (maximum), 7r6o° (minimum), and 790 (mean), but these figures are probably flattering, as La Guiara has the reputation of being one of the hottest places on the Atlantic coast. It is, however, healthy, and malaria seldom occurs. Before 1887 there was practically no harbour ; it was an open roadstead, exposed to the Atlantic swell. An English company built a breakwater more than 2,000 feet long, under whose shelter passengers are now landed without much difficulty. It is second among Venezuelan ports, Puerto Cabello being the first. At Macuto, a small seaside resort about 3 miles distant, which is -connected with the port by a short railway, there is a fair hotel. The heat is least oppressive between December and April. CARACAS Railways — The La <5uiara and Caracas Railway connects the port with the capital. A correspondent of the Times recently wrote : " It is now possible, if the arrival at La Guiara takes place in the early morning, to hurry through the Customs, . and to go forward to Caracas by the first train at 8 a.m. Though the distance thither is only about 8 miles as the1 crow flies, the narrow-gauge railway, the property of an English company, traverses no less than 28 miles in accom plishing the journey. The track, which winds in and out with steep gradients and sharp curves against the mountain side, and glides through numerous tunnels and over terraces, piled one above the other, cut through the rocks, presents many features of interest, and when half the distance has been covered, La Guiara is seen lying apparently just below the line. Silla, which is the highest peak in the mountain range, is stated to be 9,000 feet in height, but the site of the city lies at a height of 3,000 feet, on a moderate slope facing the south, far below the summit." The Gran Ferrocarril de Venezuela also connects Caracas with Valencia, a distance VENEZUELA 327 of about 1 ro miles. The Central Railway of Venezuela has a line of 48 miles to Santa Teresa. Hotels— The Klindt is the best hotel in Caracas ; the charges are about 12s. 6d. a day. British Consul— British Minister, F. D. Harford ; Vice-Consul, G. G. Smith. Banks — Commercial Bank of Spanish America, Banco de Venezuela, Banco de Caracas. Newspapers — El Tunipo, El Universal, Gaceta Official, El Cojo, Ilustrado (bi-weekly). Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, has a population of 85,000. It was founded in 1567 by Diego de Losada, and soon became the most important town in the district. In 1595 it was sacked by the English buccaneer Amyas Preston, and finally burned, because the Spaniards would not pay the ransom demanded. In 1679 it was pillaged by the French. The history of the eighteenth century was uneventful. In 1812 it was almost destroyed by a terrible earthquake. It took a prominent part in the revolutionary wars and the tumults which have been common since that time. The city is well laid out, but the straightness of the streets is somewhat monotonous. There are three spacious Plazas — the Bolivar, the Washington, and the Miranda. The Independencia Park is very beautiful. Several of the public buildings possess considerable interest. The Capitol is a huge block of buildings grouped round a patio. It serves the purpose of a Congress House and Government offices. Here are a number of portraits of the revolutionary leaders and pictures representing scenes from the revolutionary wars. There is a fine painting of Bolivar addressing the Congress of Angostura, and there are three por traits of the Liberator which are known to be faithful likenesses. The National Museum, which is extremely 328 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA ill kept, is housed in one of the buildings of the University. There is a good National Library in the Plaza Bolivau. The Pantheon is closely modelled upon its Parisian namesake, even to the extent of having once been a place of worship. Bolivar and others of the revolutionary warriors are buried here, and many of them are represented by good marble statues. The Cathedral looks handsome from a dis tance, but it is in poor condition ; it contains a painting of the Last Supper by the Venezuelan artist Michelena. Caracas has an ancient University, but education in Venezuela is not in a very flourishing condition. The Republic, however, takes a high place in litera ture ; some consider that the two natives of Caracas Bolivar and Bello were the two greatest men whom South America has produced. The philosopher-poet Andres Bello (1781-1865) is certainly one of the most considerable figures in South America, not only for his poetry, which ranks him with Olmeda, but also for the immense influence which he exercised upon contemporary thought. He joined in the revolutionary movement, and in 1810 was sent in an official capacity to England with the object of attracting English sympathy to the revolted colonies, and here he had much intercourse with James Mill and other philo sophic Radicals. He remained in England for nineteen years. The rest of his life was spent in Chile, where he became Rector of the University. He was un doubtedly the most accomplished man whom Spanish America has produced. He is the author of one of the best of Spanish grammars, and greatly dis tinguished himself in the study of philology. His Principles of International Law is a work of high authority, and he takes a high rank in philosophy for VENEZUELA 329 his Theory of the Understanding. Although he follows James Mill to a large extent and generally was a preacher of liberalism, he did not follow his master in his materialism, and was, like many Utilitarians, a firm believer in religion. His numerous intellectual interests did not serve to dissipate his genius, nor did his poetry suffer from his philosophy, for his poems, of which the best were written during his youth in England, are likely to last as long as the Spanish language. He is one of the purest of Spanish writers and followed classical models, as all readers of Horace will notice from the first lines of his imitation : — Que nuevas esperanzas Al mar te llevan ? Torna, Torna, atrevida nave, A la nativa costa. His chief work is Silva Americana, in which, like Virgil, he sings the rural charm of his native land — the innumerable herds grazing the llano, which stretches to the mountains white with everlasting snow : — Greges van sin cuento Paciendo tu verdura, desde el llano Que tiene por el lindero el horizonte, Hast a el erguido monte, De inaccessible nive siempre cano. Critics almost unanimously give him the first place among Spanish-American poets, and his place is all the more secure because, like Olmedo, he differs from the bards of those nations in his restraint and calm. "Majestic" is one of the epithets most fre quently applied to him. Another poet of some note was Rafael Maria Baralt (1810-60). He became a Spaniard and died in 330 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Madrid. He modelled himself upon Bello, and his Cristobal Colon was received with great applause, but his lyrics have a tendency to be frigid. Jose Heriberto Garcia de Quevedo was an ambitious writer with a strong belief in his own immortality. He was a philosophical poet of considerable merit, and, like Baralt, acquired Spanish nationality, being an enthusi astic royalist. He was killed during the communist outbreak in Paris. The Venezuelans, even more than other Spanish-American men of letters, studiously avoided living in their own country. Rufino Blanco Fombona, besides being a poet, is a novelist and has written brilliant sketches of Vene zuelan life. The poets and literary men of Venezuela are very numerous,1 and if Caracas is not as cele brated a seat of culture as Bogota, the Venezuelans, even though not, perhaps, owing much to Venezuela, may claim greater genius. Apart from Caracas, the towns^of Venezuela do not offer very much interest, although for the traveller and explorer there is a fine field in the Republic. The second city is Valencia (Hotel Comercio, Hotel Uni versal), with a population of 54,000, which was founded in 1555- It is in miles from the capital and is situated in the most fertile part of the Republic. Its elevation is 1,577 iee* above the sea-level, and the mean annual temperature is 8o° Fahr. In the early days of the Republic it was a seat of Government and remains a flourishing agricultural centre, while several cotton- mills have been established, and it is, indeed, indus trially ahead of Caracas. There is a large Cathedral, which, however, has no remarkable features. The situation of Valencia, on the lake, is delightful. * See a chapter in Souvenirs de Venezuela, by Jenny de Tallenay. VENEZUELA 331 Some 33 miles from Valencia is its port, Puerto Cabello (Hotel des Bains, Hotel de France), which possesses the best harbour in Venezuela ; the towns are connected by a railway. The population is 13,000- Apparently it is one of the least healthy of Venezuelan towns, having a death-rate of 42 per thousand. The ships visiting Puerto Cabello are much the same as those at La Guiara. A glance at the map will show the numerous other small ports on the coast and round the so-called Lake Maracaibo, whence much coffee is shipped, and it will be seen that most of them are connected with the interior by short railways. Ciudad Bolivar (Hotel Chiarelli, Hotel Union) handles the trade of the Orinoco and runs a passen ger service to Trinidad ; the boats are comfortable and the food is good. The city is built on granite, which aggravates the heat, and the mean temperature is 86° Fahr. A more pleasant place to visit, except for its inaccessibility, is Merida (Hotel Briceflo), a Uni versity and Cathedral town, which lies among the mountains at a height of 5,450 feet. In fact, Venezuela does not urgently demand very much time, and a visit to Caracas will probably satisfy most people. Some day, however, it should be a great country. Venezuela is one of the volumes in the South American Series ; the book, by Mr. R. V. Dalton, has an excellent bibliography. The other works are, for the most part, somewhat old, but as the country does not change much, the records of travellers, some of them very well written, are often of value. Dalton, L. V. Venezuela. London, 1912. South American Series. Andre, E. A Naturalist in the Guianas. London, 1904. Scruggs, W. L. The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics. Boston, Mass., 1904. Paez, R. Travels and Adventures in South and Central America. New York, 1868. INDEX Aconcagua (Mountain), 27, 156 (River), 76 Aguadas, 189 Akers, 24, 76 Albemarle, 219 Alcock, 24 Alcorta, 48 Alencar, 136 Alfaro, 211 Aliaga, 285 Alves, 123 Amazon, 19, 81, 143, 212 America, Central, 11 Andes, 27, 31, 79, 194, 156, 157 Andres, 331 Antioquia, 190-2 Antofagasta, 88, 166, 177 Araucanians, 163 Arequipa, 4, 9, 89, 268-9, 277-8 Argentina — Bahia Blanca, 61-2 Buenos Aires, 49-59 Climate, 29 Coinage, 43-4 Constitution, 49 Cordoba, 67-9 Fauna, 31-2 Finance, 44 Flora, 31 Geology, 31-2 History, 44-9 Iguazu Falls, 71-2 Argentina — Immigration, 32-5 La Plata, 59, 60 Literature, 57-9 Mar del Plata, 61 Physical Features, 27-8 Products and Industries, 35- Railways, 41-3 Rivers, 29, 30 Rosario, 64-7 Tucuman, 69-70 Artigas, 301 Asuncion, 2, 45, 71, 252-3 Atahualpa, 272 Atrato, 187 Baedeker, 56 Bahia, 1, 8, 12, no, in, 127-9 Bahia Blanca, 3, 28, 29, 42, 50, 61-3 Banks, 24 Baralt, 329 Barclay, 3, 155 Barranquilla, 189, 197 Barrett, 24 Barros, 123 Bates, 150 Bello, 148-9, 175, 328 Beni, 84, 87 Bermejo, 30 Berro, 307 333 334 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Billinghurst, 276 Bingham, 201 Biobio, 157, 164, 170 Blancos, 302, 303 Boa Vista, 127 Bogota, 186, 188, 189, 198-201 Bolivar, 323 Bolivia — Climate, 81-2 Cochabamba, 94-5 Coinage, 85 Constitution, 86 Fauna, 83 Finance, 85-6 Flora, 82 Geology, 82 History, 86-8 La Paz, 88-92 Literature, 91-2 Products and Industries, §3-5 Railways, 81-2 Sucre, 92-4 Booth Line, n, 12, 144 Borda, 302 Boulogne, 12, 14 Bourgade, 254 Brazil — Amazonian Region, 143-7 Bahia, 127-9 Climate, 101 Commerce and Products, 102-1 1 Constitution and History, 115-26 Fauna, 102 Finance and Revenue, 112 Flora, 101-2 Geology, 101 Immigration, 1 14-15 Literature, 135-6 Money and Exchange, 111-12 Pernambuco, 126-7 Brazil — Physical Features, 99-101 Porto Alegre, 141-3 Railways, 112-14 Rio de Janeiro, 129-37 Rio Grande do Sul, 140-1 Santos, 139-40 Sao Paulo, 139-40 Bristol, n, 235 British Guiana, 324 Buenaventura, 192, 201 Buenos Aires (City), 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, n, 12, 14, 28, 30, 49-59, 161, 252, 273 (Province), 32, 42 Bunau-Varilla, 223, 225 Burton, 64, 66, 109, 121, 149- 51, 249, 250, 252, 254 Bustamente, 91 Cabot, 44, 247 Caldera, 177 Calderon, 285 Cali, 189, 264, 271 Callao, 4, 278 Calvo, 57-8 Carabobo, 323 Caracas, 320, 322-3, 326-30 Carlyle, 249 Cartagena, n, 189, 194-8 Casabona, 151 Casement, 266 Castro, 324 Cattelle, 151 Cauca, 187, 190-1 Caxias, 122 Ceara, 12, 99, 147 Cerro de Pasco, 4, 258, 264, 268, 269, 298 Chagres, 226-7 Charles V, 221 Charruas, 300, 308 Cherbourg, n INDEX 335 Chile— Antofagasta, 177 Arica, 181 Climate, 154 Concepcion, 169-70 Constitution, 162 Coquimbo, 176-7 Fauna, 158 Finance, 162 Flora, 157-8 Geology, 156 History, 163-7 Money, 161 Mountains, 156-7 Nitrate, 176-81 Physical Features, 153-5 Punta Arenas, 167-8 Railways, 161-2 Santiago, 173-6 Trade and Products, 158- 60 Valdivia, 168-9 Valparaiso, 170-3 Chimborazo, 4, 203 Chubut, 34 (River), 30 Ciudad Bolivar, 331 Climate, 19 Cochabamba, 81, 94-5 Cocoa, 107, 207, 317 Coffee, 103-6, 138, 190, 263, 267, 317-18 Colombia — Barranquilla, 196-7 Bogota, 198-201 Cartagena, 197-8 Climate, 186 Commerce and Products, 189-91 Constitution, 193 Fauna, 188 Finance, 192-3 Flora, 188 Colombia — Geology, 186 History, 193-6 Literature, 200-1 Mountains, 186-7 Railways, 191-2 Rivers, 187 Santa Marta, 198 Colon, 5, 8, n, 12, 214, 221, 235-6 Colonia, 300 Colorados, 302-3 Concepcion, 169-70 Consuls, 17, 18 Conway, 80, 89, 91, 96 Copiapo, 177 Copper, 159, 264 Coquimbo, 154, 160, 176-7 Cordoba, 3, 29, 42, 67-9 Cornish, 226, 236 Corral, 168 Corrientes, 30, 71 Coruna, n, 14 Cotopaxi, 203 Cuenca, 219 Cunninghame-Graham, 254 Customs, 17 Cuzco, 267, 278 Dalton, 318, 331 Darwin, 29, 153, 274, 279-80, 301 Davis, 224 Denis, 150 Deseado, 30 Diamantina, no, 149 Diamonds, 110-11 Dias, 135 Dolce, 30 Dom Pedro II, 121-3 Dover, 12 Drago, 57-8 Drake, 163, 171, 198 336 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Echeverria, 59 Ecuador — Coinage, 208 Constitution, 209 Fauna, 206 Finance, 208 Flora, 206 Galapagos Islands, 219-20 Geology, 205-6 Guayaquil, 213-16 History, 209-13 Literature, 218 Physical Features, 203-6 Products and Industries, 207-8 Quito, 217-18 Rivers, 205 Eder, 201 Edward VII, 48 Edwards, 236 Elders and Fyffes Line, 12, I98» 235 Elliot, 182 Emeralds, 190 Enock, 220, 257-9, 265, 275, 289-90 Entre Rios, 309 Equipment, 16, 17 Estrada, 211 Eten, 288 Expenses, 9 Falkland Islands, 3 Fallon, 201 Famatina, 3, 40 Fawcett, 80, 84 Fife, 25, 150 Figuaroa, 307 Flores, 211 Fombona, 330 Fonseca, 123 France, 102, 158-9, 189, 207, 262 Francia, 68, 249-50 Fraser, 236 Fray Bentos, 298, 309 Galapagos Islands, 204, 219 Gallegos, 30 Gamboa, 228 Garay, 45, 67 Gatun, 227-8 Gauchos, 28, 29 Germany, 36, 102, 158-9, 189, 207, 262, 305-6, 314, 317 Girardot, 201 Goethals, 224-5 Gold, 109, 208, 263 Gomez, 324 Gonzaga, 135, 148, 150 Gorgas, 225 Goyaz, 99 Gran, 289 Grubb, 254 Guayaquil, 4, 211, 213-16 Guayas, 214 Guayra Falls, 248, 254 Gutierrez, J. M., 59 Gutierrez, J. R., 91 Guzman, 324 Hale, 23 Hamburg, 12 Hamburg-American Line, 14, i96- 23S Hardenburg, 265-6 Hassaurek, 220 Havre, 12 Hernan Darias, 45, 300 Hirst, 76 Hotels, 7, 14, 15 Houlder Line, 12 Huasco, 177 Hudson, 31 Humboldt, 144, 257, 318- INDEX 337 Iguazu Falls, 3, 30, 71-2, 245, 253 Illimani, 80 Incas, 209, 272 Iquique, 4, 155, 177-81, 229 Iquitos, 212, 259 Isaacs, 201 Isabel, 122 Jalhay, 201 Jara, 251 Jenkins, 46 Jesuits, 2, 46, 117, 164, 246-8, 254, 272-3, 300 Jovellanos, 251 Jujuy, 70 Killik, 42 Koebel, 76, 182, 309-10 Kosmos Line, 167, 213, 279 La Guiara, 325-6 Lamport and Holt Line, 7, 12, 50, 167, 279 Language, 21-3 La Paz, 4, 82-92 La Plata, 59-60 La Quiaca, 70 La Rioja, 29 La Rochelle, 11 Larreta, 58 La Serena, 176-7 Lastarria, 175 Leguia, 276 Lemco, 2, 40, 241, 309 Lesseps, 195, 222, 226 Leyland Line, 12, 196, 235 Lima, 4, 15, 263, 268-9, 273, 279-86 Lisbon, 11, 12, 14 Liverpool, 1, 5, 11, 12, 196, 229 Llai Llai, 76 z Lloyd Brasileiro Line, 50, 126, H4 Locusts, 29 Lopez, 249, 251, 253 Loreto, 212 MacDonald, 254 Macedo, 136 Maceio, 147 Madeira, 143 Magdalena, 187, 198-9 Magellan, 6 Manaos, 5, 11, 12, 146-7 Manizales, 189 Manta, 218 Maranon, 259, 263 Mar del Plata, 3, 50, 61 Markham, 289 Marmol, 58-9 Martin, 14, 25, 106-7, 227, 278, 281, 290, 310 Martinez, 76-7 Mathews, 93, 95, 96 Matto Grosso, 147-8 Maule, 163 Mendoza, 4, 29, 38, 50, 72-5 Mercedes (Argentina), 42 (Uruguay), 294 Meta, 187, 315 Millican, 190 Mitre, 58 Mitre Law, 43 Mollendo, 4, 268, 275-7 Money, 15, 16 Montt, 166, 167 Morena, 211 Muzo, 190 Napo, 204-5, 213, 259 Negro, 27, 30, Nelson Line, 12 New Granada, 194, 199 Newspapers, 21 338 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA New York, 5, 6, 12, 228-9 Oakenfull, 150 Ocantos, 58 O'Higgins, A., 164 O'Higgins, B., 165, 170 Olivade, 284 Olmedo, 218 Ordonez, 303 Oriente, 204, 213 Orinoco, 314-15, 318-19 Oroya, 279, 286 Orton, 220 Oruro, 80, 82, 89, 95, 177 Pacasmayo, 258, 288 Pacific Steam Navigation Com pany, 1, 6, 7, 10, 50, 126, 167, 213, 278-9, 288 Paez, 331 Paita, 289 Palma, 285 Pampas, 28, 30, 31 Panama, 231-4 Panama Canal — Colon, 235-6 History, 221-7 Hygiene, 225-6 Panama hats, 188, 207-8, 289 Para, 11, 12, 144-6 Paraguay Republic — Asuncion, 252-3 Constitution, 246 Currency and Finance, 245 Fauna, 240-1 Flora, 240 History, 246-51 Iguazu Falls, 253-4 Physical Features, 239-40 Products and Industries, 241-4 - Railways, 244-5 Paraguay River, 30, 239, 254 Parana (River), 30, 100, 247-8 (State), 147 Pardo, 275-6 Pasto, 189 Paysandu, 296, 308-9 Pedro I, 121 Pena, 49 Penna, 123 Pennington, 37, 49, 77 Peru — Arequipa, 277-8 Callao, 278-9 Cerro de Pasco, 287 Commerce, Products and Industries, 262-9 Constitution, 271 Fauna, 261-2 Flora, 261 Geology, 261 History, 271-6 Lima, 279-86 Literature, 284-6 Money and Finance, 269-71 Paita, 289 Physical Features, 257-61 Railways, 269 Rivers, 257-9 Rubber, 264-7 Petre, 185, 201 Petropolis, 136 Pilcomayo, 30 Pisco, 267-8, 274-5, 278 Piura, 4, 257, 264 Pizarro, 163, 272, 280 Plate, 30 Plaza, 211 Pombo, 201 Port Limon, 11, 12 Porto Alegre, 141-2 Posadas, 71 Post offices, 19 Potosi, 80, 82, 86-7, 95 Prescott, 271 INDEX 339 Puente del Incas, 4, 75 Puerto Bolivar, 208 Puerto Cabello, 330-1 Puerto Colombia, 196-7 Puerto Montt, 161 Puna, 214 Puno, 271-8 Putumayo, 107, 185, 187, 204-5, 2iS, 259, 265-6 Quesado, 194, 199 Quevedo, 330 Quintana, 48 Quito, 209-10, 217-18 Raleigh, 322 Recife, 127 Restaurants, 20 Restroppo, 196 Reyes, 194-6 Rice, 220 Rimac, 257, 286 Rio de Janeiro, 2, 6, 12, 14, 109, 113, 116, 119, 129-36, 148 Rio Grande do Sul, 140- 1 Riobamba, 219 Rivera, 285 Roca, 47 Rodo, 307 Roosevelt, 224 Rosas, 47 Ross, 225 Royal Holland Line, 12 Royal Mail Steam Packet Com pany, 6, 7, 11, 12, 23, 50, 126, 167, 196, 235 Rubber, 82, 84, 85, 106-7, I9I, 207, 264-7, 317 Russell, C, 254 Russell, W. H., 182 St. Hilaire, 148 St. Vincent, 12 Salaverry, 285, 288 Salles, 123 Salta, 29, 70 Salto, 296-7, 308-9 San Antonio, 127 San Bernardino, 25.2-3 San Juan, 27 San Martin, 274, 280 Santa Catharina, 147 Santa Cruz (River), 30 (Territory), 32 Santa Fe, 67 Santa Marta, 12, 192, 194, 198 Santiago, 4, 14, 15, 76, 154, 163, 173-6 Santos, 1, 2, 12, 14, 139-40 Sao Paulo, 1, 7, 101, 103-6, 109, 1 14-15, 137-9, 247~8 Savanilla, 196 Schaerer, 251 Scruggs, 331 Segura, 280, 285 Shops, 21 Silver, 83, 263-4 Simson, 205, 220 Smith, 182 Soldan, 285 Sonson, 189 South American Missionary Society, 251 Southampton, 1, 5, 6, 11 Southey, 25, 150 Souza, 116 Sucre (General), 87, 93 (Town), 80, 90, 91-4 Sugar, 38, 69, 70, 108, 261-2 Tacna, 182 Tacora, 157 Talca, 154 Talcahuano, 169 Taltal, 177 Tarapaca, 179 340 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA Times, 25 Tin, 83, 159 Tips, 8 Tiradentes, 120, 149-50 Titicaca, 80, 89, 260, 278 Tobacco, 20, 103, 108, 242-3 Tolima, 186 Truth, 107, 265 Truxillo, 288 Tucuman, 29, 42, 47, 69, 70 Tupac Amaru, 273 Unanue, 285 United States, 189, 207, 262, 295, 317 Uruguay Republic — Constitution, 299 Fauna, 294-5 Finance, 299 Flora, 294 Geology, 294 History, 300-3 Money, 299 Montevideo, 304-7 Physical Features, 293-4 Produce and Industries,295-7 Railways, 297-8 Uruguay River, 30, 293-4 Uyuni, 88 Valdivia, 154, 168-9 Valencia, 320, 330-1 Valparaiso, 2-4, 6, 9, 14, 15, 42, 72-6, 154 Van Brabant, 96 Van Bruyssel, 254 Varnhagen, 136 Venezuela — Caracas, 326-30 Commerce, Products and Industries, 316-21 Constitution, 321 Currency, 321 Fauna, 315-16 Finance, 321-2 Flora, 315 Geology, 314 History, 322-5 La Guiara, 325-6 Literature, 328-30 Railways, 316 Vigo, 11, 12, 14 Villa Concepcion, 253 Villa Rica, 253 Villazon, 88 Vina del Mar, 173 Walle, 52, 97, 144, 150-1, 290 Weddell, 96 West Indies, 6, n, 12 Wheat, 37-8, 159 White, 201 Whitelocke, 47 Whymper, 203-4, 206, 217, 219- 20 Williman, 303 Wilson, 231 Wine, 20, 38-9, 74, 160, 268 Yaghans, 155 Yapura, 187, 212 Zaldumbide, 218 Zipaquira, 200 UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON :;;¦;.¦ :- I