/S9S.

THE
CATHOLIC MOVEMENT

LOSDON : PIUXTED BY
SPOTTIBWOODE AND CO., XEW-STREET SQUABE
ASD PAitLIAMEKT STBEET

THE

NEW REFORMATION
A NARRATIVE OF THE
OLD CATHOLIC MOVEMENT
FROM 1870 TO THE PRESENT TIME
WITH A HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
BT
THEODOEUS

'UNITAS IN NECESSARIIS'

* The struggle of' the Old Catholics is in itself the same struggle which has been maintained
in the Church of England by those who, from the time of Lord Falkland down to the present
day, have endeavoured to set forth more reasonable views of religion, in distinction from the
hierarchical or Puritan views which have alternately been upheld by the fashion of the day or
the domination of party ' — Dean Stanley, Preface to Father Byaclnthe^s Catholic Reform
' The Old Catholic body seems to hold out to the English Church an opportunity which has
been denied to it for three hundred years ' — Canon Liddon, Preface to Report of the Bonn Conference

LONDON
LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO.
1875

All rights reserved

PEEFACE.

This volume is designed to supply an authentic and
accurate history of the Old Catholic movement, from
July 1870 down to the present time. It seems in
every way probable that the principles advocated by
the leaders of this movement will before long become
the subject of deep and widespread interest not only
on the Continent, but also in England ; for while, on
the one hand, Old Cathohcism holds firmly by aU that
is most ancient and truly catholic in Christian doctrine,
it is, on the other hand, strictly in unison with the in
creasing tendency of the age to merge minor dogmatic
differences in the recognition of fundamental truths.
An effort at Church Eeform and Christian Unity, sup
ported by scholars and thinkers of confessed ability,
like DoUinger, Eriedrich, Eeinkens, Von Schulte, and
Michaud, abroad, and bishop Wordsworth, bishops
Harold Browne, dean Stanley, and canon Liddon, at
home, seems to nierit a closer attention than it has yet
received from the religious public in England. The
comments of the daily press too often show how iin-

VI PEEFACE.
perfectly the remarkable development that has taken
place in the aims and relative position of the Old
Catholics is comprehended ; and .it is hoped that this
endeavour to trace out that development as discernible
in the successive Congresses, the Synodical enactments,
and the Conference of Bonn, may be of service in as
sisting to win for the whole movement that serious
consideration which it deserves from the politician as
well as the theologian, from the Protestant Dissenter
not less than the English Churchman.
A Historical Introduction, explanatory of the chief
points at issue in relation to the subject throughout
the history of the Church, has been prefixed, and will
probably be of service to those with whom the
question of the Eomish supremacy has not been the
object of previous investigation. To this, again, the
account given of the assembling and proceedings of
the Vatican Council has appeared a necessary addition,
as a connecting fink with the ensuing pages.
July 1875.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTIOK
Two opposed theories in the early Catholic Church respecting the Pope's
power and prerogatives — Catholic doctrine concerning Infallibility 
the sentiment of nationality repudiated by Christianity — connexion
between this sentiment and some of the early heresies — relations of the
Bishops of Rome to the Church in the first foiu- centuries — view of
Gregory the Great — relations of Rome to Christendom during the first
eight centimes — the power to decide upon questions of doctrine vested
originally ia General Councils and not in the Pope — the False Decretals
invented to support the pretensions of Rome — Mercator, Ansehn of
Lucca, Gratian, the Canon Law. Claims of the Papacy to temporal sove
reignty — Donations of Pepin and Charles the Great — Innocent III.
Decline of General Councils — the Schism — Innocent appeals to
national interests. The Saeculwm Synodale — Council of Pisa — Coun
cil of Constance — question of conciliar suffrage — proceedings of the
Council — decisions of the fom-th and fifth sessions — criticism of
Janus — theory of General Councils restored, although reform is
frustrated — policy of Pope Eugenius — Council of Basel — Councils
of Ferrara and Florence — reconciliation with the Greek Church —
fallacious nature of the compromise — Council veisus Pope — election
of Nicholas V. — ^the Pragmatic Sanction — failiu-e of Church reform.
Increasing corruption of the Church — revival of national differences
— The Renaissance. The Rbfoemaiion : — Diet of Spires — Confession
of Augsburg — ^importance attached to formularies of faith — different
formularies of Lutheranism — the unity of Roman Catholicism unreal —
doctrine of Justification — its difierence from the Catholic doctrine —
Luther's views respecting Church government — the Catholic theory
— the Church the guardian of tradition — theory of development —
theory of the Catholic priesthood — the Pope and the Episcopate —
counter-teaching of Lutheranism — results of this teaching — Cal
vinism — controversy respecting the Eucharist — the Chm-ch of Eng
land — the Forty-two Articles — distinctive theory of Church go
vernment — declaration of bishop Jewel — the Liturgy — decline of
the Liberal party in the Romish Church. The Council of Trent — its
composition and character — its decrees directed chiefly against the
Reformation — PaUavicini and Sarpi — refusal of the Council to sanction

Vlll CONTENTS.
the theory of Papal Infallibility— general results. Change in the
character of the Popes— rise of the Jesuit Order— Protestantism
becomes divided by theological controversy— ifa consequent losses
— rise of Arminianism — agreement between Jesuitism and Ar-
minianism— rise of Jansenism— condemnation of the Jansenist tenets
— Bull In Coma Domim- suppression of the Jesuit Order— the
French Revolution — reactionary tendencies by which it was fol
lowed. Pius IX.— his character— his early sympathies with Libe
ralism—Revolution of 1848— reaction favourable to the Jesuits —
change in the policy of Pius— his defects and his virtues — his
ecclesiastical policy — Dogma of the Immaculate Conception — the
'Sylla,bus'  page 1-50.
CHAPTER I.
THE VATICAN COUNCIL.
Tkttat.t.trtt.ttv always a theory with respect to Church tradition — the
real question at issue — first announcement of an (Ecumenical Coun
cil — objects for which it was to assemble — protests of the press against
its reported designs — protest of Prince Hohenlohe. Leaders of the
Liberal party — Dr. DoUinger, Dr. Eriedrich, Von Schulte, Hane-
berg, Strossmayer. Leaders of the Liberal party from France —
Darboy, Dupanloup, Ginoulhiac. English bishops. Criticism evoked
by the publication gf the Meihodus and Ordo — first assembling of the
Council — its composition — inequalities in the representation of dif
ferent countries — Schema de Doctrina — vigorous opposition — the
Schema withdrawn for amendment. Schema de Disciplina — ably op
posed by Strossmayer — petition of the majority for an enunciation of
the Dogma, of Papal Infallibility — counter-petition of the minority —
petition of a third section. Rumours of the designs of the majority
— intimation given by the French Government. The new Regolamento
— published expressions of opinion by DoUinger, Gratry , Pusey, Newman,
and Montalembert. Reluctance of the Opposition to adopt a decided
course — opposition to the Regolamento — Strossmayer's speech — he
vindicates Protestantism from the charge of infidelity — scene in the
assembly — the preamble withdrawn and amended — opposition to the
clause enhancing the authority of the Roman Congregations — the
clause ultimately retained — results hitherto attained by the majority
— renewed protests of European Powers — reasons for hastening on the
acceptance of the dogma. The Constitutio de Ecclesia Christi — exten
sion given to the Papal jurisdiction — the Dogma concerning Papal
Infallibility — historical precedents pleaded in justification — definition
of doctrine by former Popes — infallibility bestowed on the successors
of St. Peter — the Dogma as defined — debate on the dogma — speeches
of Hefele, Sohwarzenberg, CuUen, Simor, MacHale, Dai-boy, Stross
mayer — the speech of bishop Maret interrupted — forebodings of the
miuority — illness of many of the bishops— signs of tergiversation on

CONTENTS. IX
the part of certain members of the minority — the final voting — strength
of the minority — pamphlets by Darboy and Guillard — the minority
determine to leave Rome — declaration of the dogma. Outbreak of
the war — connexion between the two events — political results of the
declaration of the dogma — ^faU of the temporal power . pasb 61-92.

CHAPTER II.
THE TEAE 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH.
Teeghteesation of the German bishops — the pastoral from Fulda — Lord
Acton's letter — the archbishop of Munich and Dr. DoUinger — Protest
of the professors of Nurnberg — ^it calls attention to the political bear
ings of the new dogma — suspension of three of 'the professors by
bishop Forster — movement in the Rhine Country — declaration piib-
' lished at Munich — ^position of the Old Catholic party at the com
mencement of 1871 — servility of the inferior clergy of Germany.
Father Hyacinthe — his Appel aux J^veques Catholiques — the 'five
wounds of the Church.' Switzerland — Pfarrer Egli of Luzern refuses
to read the dogma — his declaration. Pamphlet by Dr. Von Schulte —
Friedrich and DoUinger finaUy refuse to accept the Vatican decrees —
DoUinger's defence of his refusal — he calls attention to their political
bearing — asks for another General Council — reply of the archbishop —
address to DoUinger by the professors of the university — public in
terest in the question — ^the archbishop excommunicates DoUinger and
Friedrich — Renftle of Mehring foUows the example of Egli — Old
Catholic address to the King of Bavaria — public meeting at Munich
— submission of Hefele and Haneberg — address of the German bisjiops
to the clergy — they deny that the dogma implies a personal infalli
bility — their acceptance of the bull Unam Sanctam — their address to
the laity — denunciation of modern learning. Encyclicals and allocu
tion of the Pope — new declaration by leaders of the Old Catholic
party — refusal of the rites of the Church to Dr. Zenger — Old Catholic
memorial to the Government — ^funeral of Dr. Zenger- — ^position of the
Government — action of the university of Munich — proposals for a new
Council. The Congress of Munich : — Scheme for local organisations —
difficulties by which it is attended — declaration of religious policy —
first resolution (on doctrine) — second resolution (concerning the con
stitution of the Church) — [digression on the history of the Church of
Utrecht — negotiations between the Bavarian Old Catholics and those
of Utrecht — correspondence between Renftle and the archbishop of
Utrecht — deputies sent by the archbishop to the Congress] — third
resolution (on Chjirch reform and reunion) — fourth resolution (on
status of the inferior clergy) — fifth resolution (on aUegiance to the
State) — sixth resolution (demanding the suppression of the Jesuits) —
seventh resolution (assertion of Old Catholic rights) — formal expres
sion of respect for Dr. DoUinger — conclusion of the Conga-ess. Sub-

X CONTENTS.

sequent results— Bernard and Hosemann— formation of TemrM— pre
valent impressions in Europe with respect to the position of the Old
Catholic party  page 93-136.

CHAPTER III.
THE TEAK 1872 AND THE CONGEESS OF COLOGNE.
De. Doilingbe's inaugural address — views of the Old Catholic party —
policy of the Bavarian and Prussian Governments — decree of the
Austrian Government — lectures on the movement, deUvered at Mimich
— Reinkens — the abb(5 Michaud — religion in France — Michaud's de
cision — his influence in France — his scheme of reunion — ^progress of
ideas among the Old Catholic party. Invitation to the archbishop of
Utrecht — he visits Cologne — his arrival at Munich — confirmation at
the church of St. Nicholas — dinner in honour of the archbishop —
confirmation at Kiefersfelden — confirmation at Mehring — coniirma-
tions at Kempten, Kaiserslautem, Zweibrucken, Landau — ^his return to
Utrecht — influence of his tour on the whole question. Contest at the
university of Munich vsdth respect to the professorships. The CoN-
geess op Cologne: — members representing other communions —
— letter of the bishop of Lincoln to the clergy of his diocese — ^his
letter to the Old Catholic committee — speeches of the EngUsh bishops
at the Congress — speech of Huber — principal subjects of debate —
question of Old Catholic organisation — appoiutment of Reunion Com
mittee — speech of Reinkens — Dr. BluntschU on renunciation of exclu
sive pretensions — conference of committee with other members of the
Congress — speech of MicheUs — statements of Anglican bishops — dis
cussion of questions of Church reform — speeches of Friedrich, Rein
kens, and Von Schulte — general impression produced by proceedings
of the Congress. Extension of the movement to Switzerland — •
Pfarrer Geschwind of Starrkirch — meeting at Olten — success of Rein
kens' oratory — position and prospects of the Old CathoUc partv at the
close of 1872  page 137-172.
CHAPTER lY.
THE YBAE 1873 AND THE CONGEESS OF CONSTANCE.
Expulsion of the Jesuits from Germany — effects of the papal encyclical
of Dec. 1872 — the Falk Laws — speeches of Prince Bismark — opposition
of the German bishops to the Falk Laws — action of the Government.
Switzerland — Nippold's address at Bern — bishop Lachat expeUed
from Soleure — Mgr. Mermillod expelled irom Geneva — reforms insti
tuted by the Council of State— Father Hyacinthe invited to lecture
at Geneva. Excommunication of Baron Richthofen — Old CathoUcs
recognised by the Prussian Government— election of Reinkens as Old

CONTENTS. XI
Catholic bishop — death of the archbishop of Utrecht— consecration
of bishop Reinkens — the episcopal office as thus restored — comments
of the Allgemeine Zeitimg. Spread of the movement in Switzerland —
resolutions of the Conference at Olten. The Congress op Constance : —
news of approaching recognition of bishop Reinkens by the Prussian
Government — foreigners at the Congress — American andEnglish guests
— preliminary addresses — assembly of delegates — address of Von Schulte
— proposals for a Synod— the scheme of constitution — final meeting —
speech by Michelis — scheme for assisting theological students and the
poorer clergy — speech of dean Howson — speeches at the first public
meeting — the services on Sunday — proceedings at the second general
meeting — conclusion — dean Howson's letter to the Times. Observa
tions of Michaud on the proposed Church constitution — election of
Reinkens recognised by the Government — he takes the oath of aUe
giance — his defence of his conduct. Correspondence between the
Old CathoUcs and the Anglo-Continental Society — appointment of a
committee — letter of the bishop of Winchester— questions proposed
for consideration in connexion with the Church of England —
proposals for a Conference. Papal encycUcal and bishop Reinkens'
reply  page 173-208.

CHAPTER V.
THE TEAB 1874 : THE SYNOD OF BONN — THE CONGEESS OF
FEEIBUEG  THE CONFBEBNCE AT BONN.
State of parties at commencement of the year — Prince Bismark and the
Ultramontanists in the Prussian Diet — imprisonment of German ecclesi
astics — ^biU passed by the Federal CouncU — supplementa,ry laws enacted
by the Prussian Parliament — the Old Catholics avow their sympathy
and co-operation. The Synod oe Bonn : — scheme of Church reform —
declarations on confession, fasting, and use of the vernacular in Divine
service. Switzerland — the movement in the canton of Bern — Con
gress of Bern — resolutions of the Congress — Father Hyacinthe and
the Liberal party at Geneva— he disapproves then- policy and resigns
his cure. The Congress of Feeibueg :— change in the relative im
portance of the Congress — success of the movement in the Duchy of
Baden — ^the movement aided by the new State legislation — delegates
and guests present — Reinkens' testimony to the increasing general suc
cess of the movement — testimony of Von Schulte — resolutions de
manding State recognition and aid — speeches at the public meetings—
Reinkens on Creeds. The Oonfeeence of Bonn :— DoUinger's letter
of invitation— delegates and guests — character of the proceedings —
DoUinger's opening address — propositions forwarded by Mr. Meyrick
 the Old Catholics disavow the binding nature of the Tridentine
decrees. Discussion on the Filioque. DoUinger's speech on the his
torical relations between the Eastern and Western Churches— true

xn CONTENTS.
origin of the Great Schism— the Schism further perpetuated by the
Vatican CouncU — sympathy between the Old Catholics and the
Orientals— obligations of the Latin to the Greek Church— progress of
the Latin Church in later times — prospect of reunion. Discussion on
the Filioque with the Orientals — they insist upon its omission — re
sumption of the discussion with the Anglicans — the article as finaUy
adopted. Articles of Faith: first four articles, on the apocryphal
books, the authority of translations, reading of the Scriptures in the
vidgar tongue, use of the vulgar tongue in the Liturgy — fifth article
(on justification by faith) — sixth article (on merited salvation) —
seventh and eighth articles (on works of supererogation and the num
ber of the sacraments) — use of the word ' sacrament ' — ninth article (on
tradition and the episcopal succession of the Church of England) —
DoUinger vindicates the episcopal succession of the English Church —
he declares many ordinations in the Romish Church to be far more
questionable — tenth article (rejection of the dogma of the Immaculate
Conception) — eleventh and twelfth articles (on confession and indul
gences) — thirteenth article (on prayers for the dead) — article on invo
cation of saints withdrawn — fourteenth article (on the Eucharist) —
resolution passed at close of the fifth meeting. Discussion on points
of difierence between the Western and Eastern Churches : state of the
soul after death — rites of baptism and confirmation — enforced clerical
celibacy — conclusion of the Conference— address of the Anglo-Con
tinental Society — criticisms of the English press on results attained
by the Conference  page 209-275.

coNCLUsioisr.
SiATisTicg of the Old CathoUc party up to March 31st, 1875, in Ger-
' many — prospects of the movement in France, Switzerland, and Austria
— remarkable advance in Italy — Holland: consecration of the new
archbishop of Utrecht — Mexico — Dr. DoUinger's invitation to the
Patriarchate of Constantinople — Poland — effects of the papal en-
cycUc of Feb. 6th in Germany — Dr. Petri's BUI in the Prussian
Landtag — the university of Bonn. Mr. Gladstone on the ' Vatican
Decrees ' and ' Vaticanism ' — subsequent controversy on the subject 
indifferentism not the true remedy — the case for Prussia stated by
Michaud— his view corroborated by Mr. Gladstone. Claims of the
movement to the consideration of different parties in Eno-land  canon
Liddon's estimate of its merits  page 276-292.

Note.
The Second Synod of Bonn, May 19-21, 1876 . . , page 292.

A LIST
OF THE
(ECUMENICAL OE GENEEAL COUNCILS
OE THE CHUECH.

The following list of the General Councils down to the
Council of Trent may be accepted as a correct list of the
Councils whose decisions are recognised as valid hy Rome.
It is extracted from the Preface to the Conciliengeschichte
of bishop Hefele, one of the most learned of the Eoman
Catholic body. The line drawn after No. 7 denotes the
point from which the Old Catholics no longer accept the
decisions of the Councils as binding on the Church. Those
marked with an asterisk would not be recognised as Free
Councils by Old Catholic authorities, who would also equally
object to the omission of the Council of Pisa in 1409 : —
1. The first of Nicffia in 326 (D. 11).
2. The first of Constantinople in 381 (D. 16).
3. That of Ephesus in 431 (D. 23-27).
4. That of Chalcedon in 461 (D. 3&-9).
5. The second of Constantinople in 653 (D. 50-61).
6. The third of Constantinople in 680 (D. 80-85).
7. The second of NicEea in 787 (D. 87-91).
8. The fourth of Constantinople in 869 (D. 97-103).
9. The first of the Lateran in 1123 (D. 116-16).
10. The second of the Lateran in 1139 (D. 116-17).
11. The third of the Lateran in 1179 (D. 121-22).
12. The fourth of the Lateran in 1215 (D. 128-34).

xiv (ECUMENICAL OR. GENERAL COUNCILS.
13. The fii-st of Lyons in 1245.
14. The second of Lyons in 1274 (D. 141).
'15. That of Vienne in 1311 (D. 145-48).
16. The CoimcU of Constance, from 1414 to 1418 ; that is to say— (a)
the latter sessions presided over by Martin V. (sessions 41-45 in
clusive) ; (6) in the former sessions all the decrees sanctioned by
Pope Martin V. — that is, those concerning the faith and which
were given conciliariter (D. 158-167).
17. The CouncU of Basle, from the year 1431 ; that is to say — (n) the
twenty-five first sessions until the translation of the Council to
Ferrara by Eugenius IV. ; (V) in these twenty-five sessions the
decrees concerning the extinction of heresy, the pacification of
Christendom, and the general reformation of the Church in its
head and in its members, and which besides do not strike at the
authority of the Apostolic chair ; in a word, those decrees which
were afterwards sanctioned by Eugenius IV.
176. The assemblies held at Ferrara and at Florence (1438-42) cannot
be considered as forming a separate (Ecumenical CouncU. They
were merely the continuation of the CormcU of Basle, which was
transferred to Ferrara by Eugenius IV. on Jan. 8th, 1438, and
from thence to Florence in Jan. 1439 (D. 170-77).
*18. The fifth of the Lateran, 1512-17 (D. 186-87).
19. The CouncU of Trent, 1645-63 (D. 191-94).

The letter D denotes the reference to Denzinger's Enchiridion Sym-
holorum et Deftnitiorum quae de Rebus Mdei et Morum a Coneiliis Oecu-
menicis et summit Pontijicibus emanarunt (ed. 6, 1874). This wiU be
found an accurate and inexpensive text-book of the Decrees accepted by
the Ancient and the Romish Church, as also of the heresies from time to
time anathematized.

THE
NEW EEFOEMATION.
INTEODUCTION.
Within the last few years the Christian world has again intkod.
seen brought before it, under circumstances of unusual opposed
significance and with the presage of results of momentous theCaTho-
importance, the claims of two ancient but distinct and respectSg
opposed theories respecting the authority and preroga- power" and
tives of the Pope of Eome. These theories are gene- [™es5*"
rally known within the Eoman Catholic Church as those
of the papal system and the episcopal system. The for
mer claims for the supreme pontiif the unhesitating
and unquestioning submission due to the spiritual vice
gerent of God on earth, responsible to God alone for
the exercise of his power, invested with attributes dif
fering not merely in degree but in kind from those
which we are warranted in ascribing to any other
ecclesiastical ruler in Christendom — the depositary of
that unerring judgment promised to the true Church at
large. The latter theory repudiates, to a great extent,
this conception, as involving in spiritual affairs a des
potism not less to be feared than a tyranny in a polity.
It regards the Pope as simply the personal representa
tive of the Church's collective authority, the organ of
her utterance. It denies that in his individual capacity
he is entitled to claim the gift of infallibility more than
any temporal monarch, appeahng in support of this

2. THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. denial to historic evidence.^ To assume his immunity
from error as a man, it declares, is to ignore many
glaring and incontrovertible facts in the lives of not a
few who have, in past times, disgraced the papal chair.
In brief, the upholders of the latter theory, though not
refusing to admit the Pope's primacy, deny ahke his
sovereignty and infalhbility.
It must not, however, be inferred that those who
maintain this latter theory deny that infallibility is be
stowed upon the Church, but they hold that it resides
in her collective and unanimous voice, in a consensus
between the episcopal order and their chief. ' The
dogmatic decrees of the episcopacy,' says an eminent
Catholic writer, 'united with the general head and
centre, are infallible ; for the episcopacy represents the
universal Church, and one doctrine of faith, falsely ex
plained by it, would render the whole a prey to error.
Hence, as the institution which Christ hath estabHshed
for the explanation and preservation of His doctrines
is subject, in this its function, to no error, so the
organ, through which the Church speaks, is also exempt
from error.''''
Such are the respective views, on a question of
primary importance, which at the present day divide >
the two great parties in the Catholic Church. Both
parties, it is to be observed, claim to belong to the
true Catholic communion and profess the Catholic
faith, their conception of Church government differing
materially from that of either the Lutheran, the Cal-
vinist, or the member of the Church of England. And
we now propose to state succinctly the main facts in
^ As in the famous instance of Honorius I., who, on his maintaining
the doctrine of Monothelitism, was declared a heretic by the Third
CEcumenic CouncU of Constantinople. Gieseler, ISccles. Hist, (ed David
son) II. 177.
2 Miihler, SymboKk (ed. 1871), p. 393.

INTRODUCTION, 3
the historical data for or against this theory of the introd.
papal power and the papal infallibility which is respec
tively maintained and denied by the Ultramontanist
and the Liberal Catholic.
Eeligious behef, before the Christian era, was Tiiesenti-
characterised in a marked degree by the sentiment of na^onaiity
nationality. Gibbon, in his ' History of the Decline bTchria-
and Fall of the Eoman Empire,' ^ has pointed out to *'™'*- ¦
what an extent this feeling was recognised at Eome,
and how the devout polytheist, though fondly attached
to his national faith and its attendant rites, regarded
with tolerance, and even with respect, the creeds and
ceremonial of other lands. In direct contrast to this
tendency, Christianity was distinguished by its repudia
tion of national difierences. ' It was,' says Dr. Dolhn-
ger, ' the first that appeared among mankind with a
claim to cathohcity. It declared itself to be a uni
versal religion ; one that did not belong to any people
in particular, but, on the contrary, whose calling and
innate qualification were to extend itself over the sur
face of the globe ; to receive into its bosom every
variety of population ; to satisfy their rehgious wants,
and, regardless of national or geographical boundaries,
to establish a great Kingdom of God on earth — to found
a Church for humanity.' ^ We meet, it is true, from
very early times, with examples of a contrary tendency
and of endeavours to set up a national Church indepen
dent in its action and subject to no central authority.
Such was the schism of the Donatists in North Africa
in the fourth century. Such was the heresy of the connexion
Monophysites in the fifth century, which resulted in this7eTti-
the foundation of the Coptic or Egyptian Church. And "ome o"'
to the same counter-theory may be referred the rise, at here'"'''

resies.

1 Gibbon (ed. Smith), I. 166.
2 DoUinger, The Church and the Omrches (transl. by M'Cabe), p. 20.
B 2

THE NEW REFORMATION.

INTROD.

Relationsof the
bisliops of
Rome to
the Church
in the
first four
centuries.

View of
Gregory the Great.

Relations
nf Rome to
Christen-

a later period, of Byzantinism, the expression of the
national pohtical spirit of the Greek Empire. These,
however, were but exceptions to the general view, and,
in the language of the writer above quoted, it may be
said that the Church was ' nationally colourless.' Nor
is it possible to deny that this fact was productive of
feehngs which did much to restrain the barbarism and
ferocity of the Middle Ages ; the consciousness of form
ing part of a great Christian commonwealth gave to
Europe a sense of unity and hke aspirations which
would otherwise have been altogether wanting.
The researches of some of the most eminent authori
ties in the province of Church history may be regarded
as unanimously pointing to the conclusion that, during
the first four centuries, the bishops of Eome exercised
no special authority over the collective Church. The
Great Councils, like that of Nicaea in 325, of the first
of Constantinople in 380, of Ephesus in 431, were con
voked by the emperors without reference to the wishes
of the primate at Eome. It is not until the Council of
Chalcedon, in the year 451, that we find such delibera
tions presided over by the papal legate. The decision
of a General Council did not depend on the sanction of
the Pope ; while, on the other hand, any definition of
dogma on his part required the assent of an (Ecumeni
cal Council. Dispensations from Church laws and sen
tences of excommunication were forms of authority
equally unassumed by him and unconceded by others.
Gregory the Great disclaimed as blasphemous a title
which should invest him or anyone else with an imphed
power to regulate the decisions of a General Council.
Such was the theory of the pontifical prerogatives held
by the last of the Fathers.
Again, in the period during which the authority of
the Eoman see, viewed under its negative aspect, still

the first
eight".centuries.

INTRODUCTION. 5
bore this character, we find the adjustment of disputes ^tkod.
on questions of doctrine and ritual going on altogether d"-" during
independently of Eome. Elements of greater or less ei'lh!'"'
diversity — whether as they presented themselves in the " *
writings of the Apostolic Fathers, in different schools
of interpretation, in Judaistic and Gnostic teachers, in
the Apologists of the second century or the polemical
writers of the third — became blended and partially in
corporated in the tradition of the Church with but
little deference for the views of those who professed to
be the successors of St. Peter. The more important
contributions to patristic literature did not emanate
from Eome or even from Italy. Ignatius, in the first
century, taught in Syria. Irenaeus, in Gaul, in the
second century, attacked what he regarded as corrup
tions of the faith, without once adducing in his support
the decisions of the Eoman bishop. Clemens, at Alex
andria, in the third century, exhibited the doctrines of
Christianity as harmonising, with Greek philosophy, not
with Eomish tradition. Cyprian, at Carthage, in the
same century, who by his treatise De Vnitate Ecclesiae,
so greatly advanced the ecclesiastical conception of the
dignity and functions of the episcopal office, repudiated
the supremacy of Eome. 'Without prejudice to its
agreement with the Church Universal,' says an able
writer on the subject, ' every Church is to be seen
managing its own affairs with perfect- freedom and in
dependence, and maintaining its own traditional usages
and discipline, all questions not concerning the whole
Church, or of primary importance, being settled on the
spot. The Church is organised in dioceses, provinces,
patriarchates (National Churches were added after
wards in the West), with the bishop of Eome at the
head as first Patriarch, the centre and representative of
unity, and, as such, the bond between East and West,

6 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. |>etween the Churches of the Greek and the Latin
tongue, the chief watcher and guardian of the, as yet
very few, common laws of the Church — for a long
time only the Nicene ; but he does not encroach on the
rights of patriarchs, metropolitans, and bishops. Laws
and articles of faith, of universal obhgation, are issued
only by the whole Church, concentrated and represented
at an (Ecumenical Council.' ^
On the teachers of the Churches in other lands it
devolved to defend and illustrate Christian doctrine ;
and the claims of those who have sought to justify the
Eoman supremacy on the authority of tradition have
long been shown to be untenable. It is true that
Irenaeus asserts that the Church at Eome was founded
by St. Peter; but his statement is manifestly incorrect;
and it Is -in the highest degree improbable that the
apostle ever visited the imperial city.^ It is true that
certain lists have been brought forward to prove the
episcopal succession from his time ; but these again
completely contradict each other. It is consequently
neither to rightful inheritance nor to the reward that
waits on signal services that the historian finds himself
compgUed to assign the pre-eminence, which, with the
advance of the fourth century, had undeniably been
conceded to the Eoman see. Yet the causes are in no
way difficult to discover. The gradual dechne of those
rival capitals of the West that might have contested
the palm of superiority, Eavenna, for example, and
Carthage — the rigid centrahsation of the civil govern
ment, to which the ecclesiastical government became
^ Janus, The Pope and the Council, pp. 85-86.
' Thus the CoimcU of Chalcedon, while admitting the primacy of the
Roman see, did so, not in recognition of an assumed descent from St.
Peter, but of the bishopric of the Imperial City : — Koi yap ti^ tipov,} t^q vpm-
litiTipne 'PkiftriQ, 5ca to PaaiKivnv ti'iv ttoXiv sKfiViji/, oi n-nVfpff iUonoi
c'tKoSidiiiKaai. Til Trpiaptla. Hai'duin, Acta Ccmciliorum, II. 613.

INTRODUCTION. 7
insensibly assimilated — the fidelity which, even amid introd.
Teutonic communities, the Latin clergy still cherished
towards the parent city — aflSord an adequate though
less flattering explanation.
But while circumstances hke these were, without The power
doubt, combining to raise the bishop of Eome to a upon quea-
kind of primacy among other bishops, the prestige doctrine
with which his see was invested was still far from con- orighSiy
stituting him an arbiter in questions of belief and doc- coundis^
trine. The guardianship of the Christian faith from the the Pope."
influences of corrupt teaching was, as already stated,
the function, not of an individual, but of a Council
which represented the collective wisdom of an as yet
undivided Christendom. The Councils of Nicaea, Ephe
sus, and Chalcedon, which respectively promulgated the
Nicene Creed, condemned the Nestorian heresy, and
claimed for the bishop of Nova Roma authority co
equal with that of the bishop of the parent city, were
held far away from Eome ; nor indeed do we find any
distinct assertion on the part of the Pope of a right to
decide upon matters of doctrinal belief, before the time
when the Church was rent asunder by the excommuni
cation of Photius by Nicholas I.^ — the Pope under
whose sanction the unjustifiable and growing preten
sions of the Eomish see began to invoke the support of
fictitious precedents.^
Among other facts which especially mihtated against
1 ' For the first thousand years no Pope ever issued a doctrinal de
cision intended for and addressed to the whole Church. Their doctrinal
pronouncements, if designed to condemn new heresies, were always sub
mitted to a Synod, or were answers to inquiries from one or more bishops.
They only became a standard of faith after being read, examined, and
approved at an CEcumenical Council.' — Janus, The Pope and the Council,
p. 78. ^ 'No branch of the papal theocratic monarchy, whether in relation
to spiritual or secular matters, had not been aheady contained in the idea
of the papacy, as it was apprehended by a Nicholas.' Neander, Church
Hist. VI. 122. Cf. Milman, Lat. CJiristianity, Bk V. c. iv.

THE NEW REFORMATION.

INTROD.
The False
Decretalsinvented to
support the
pretensions of Rome.

Mercator.

Anselm of
Lucca.

Gratian.

The Canon
Law.

the claim of the Popes of Eome to a direct and unbro
ken succession from St. Peter, was the suspicious cir
cumstance that from the time of Clemens down to that
of Siricius, who died at the close of the fourth century,
the papal decrees were altogether wanting. Suddenly,
in the middle of the ninth century, it was proclauned
that these missing decrees had been found. An un
known individual, named Mercator, brought forward
what professed to be a completion of the genuine and
authoritative work of Isidorus (a Spanish bishop of the
seventh century), De Officiis Ecclesiasticis. That is to
say, he produced what served, ostensibly, to render
that work an entire collection of the decrees of Eome
from the earliest times. This forgery, which is now
undefended by even the most zealous Eomanist, exerted
an influence far beyond what Mercator could ever have
anticipated, for it led to a fundamental change in the
constitution and government of the Church. It was
accepted without scruple, apparently without enquiry,
by Pope Nicholas ; the policy which it represented was
further developed by Hildebrand, under whose auspices
Anselm of Lucca compiled a new and complete system
of Church law, and was yet more fully elaborated in
the famous Decretum of Gratian. This last-named
compilation, which appeared in the year 1151, com
prised the forgeries of Mercator, together with the ad
ditions made by Anselm, and also large additions made
by Gratian himself. The importance of the work is
not easily to be exaggerated, for, at a time when legal
studies were reviving in Europe, it formed the basis of
what is known in history as the Canon Law, or the code
of the ecclesiastical courts, whose jurisdiction through
out the Middle Ages was often far more potent than
that of the civil tribunals. At the universities which,
in the following century, began to rise throughout

INTRODUCTION. 9
Europe, it became a leading and often absorbing introd.
branch of study. Not a few of the Popes owed their
elevation to the pontifical chair almost entirely to
their eminence as canonists ; and a knowledge of the
subject was the surest avenue to preferment and
honour in the ecclesiastical body.
While the power of the papacy was thus beine built claims of
1 T ^^ ¦ . -"^ ^T . . . . . the Papacy
up, another bold innovation on the primitive constitution to temporal
of the Church was made by the introduction of territo- reignty.
rial claims. About the middle of the eighth century
we meet, for the first time, with an allusion to the no
torious fabrication known as the Donation of Constan- Donations
tine. According to this invention, the emperor, on the andcharies
occasion of his baptism by Pope Silvester, had bestowed
the whole of Italy, including the northern provinces,
upon the papal see. And just as this story served as a
precedent for the grant which King Pepin made of the
exarchate to Pope Stephen III. in 754, so that grant
was, in turn, pleaded in justification of the yet more
extensive concessions obtained from Charles the Great.
It was thus that a material addition was made to
the strength of the papacy ; and the Popes, released
from all dependence on the Eastern emperors, began to
acquire a claim to direct participation in the political
affairs of Europe.
The results of this acquirement of political power,
combined with supremacy over the whole Western
Church, are to be seen coining into full operation with
the accession of Innocent III. to the papal chair ; and innocent
during the next three centuries the pretensions ot Eome 1198-1216.
were proclaimed in all Christian countries, and received,
in most cases, with servile assent. It may indeed ap
pear difficult now to understand how such could have
been the case, when we compare the exorbitancy of
her claims with the obvious weakness of the arguments

10 THE NEW REFORJIATION.
INTROD. whereby they were enforced. But the facts are ren
dered more intelHgible on considering the superstitious
and uncritical character of that age ; and that not merely
aU learning but even the art of writing was almost solely
confined to those who were most interested in advanc
ing and maintaining the pretensions of the Eomish see.
Hence — though instances of indignant protest and even
of effectual resistance are not rare — ^it was not until the
revival of learning, in the fifteenth century, that these
forgeries and fabrications were critically examined and
exposed by the scholarship and learning of the Ee-
naissance.
Decline and As the powcr of thc Pope bccame thus augmented — >
tinuance of and his temporal and territorial supremacy, his right
Councils, of interference with ordinary episcopal jurisdiction, his
authority to grant indulgences, and even his superiority
to the decrees of a General Council, were successively
proclaimed — the importance of the bishops of the
Church, both in their individual and collective capacity,
proportionably declined. They were no longer sum
moned to confer on points of doctrine, on questions of
organisation, or on matters for reform, and (Ecumenical
Councils gradually fell into disuse. The tenth and
eleventh centuries witnessed no Council that deserved
to be considered oecumenic ; and when, in the year 1123,
Cahxtus II. called together at Eome what was known as
of the"^ the First ^ Lateran Council, the episcopal suffrage was
Lateran. completely outwcighcd by that of monastic dignitaries.
The assembly altogether failed to represent independent
action, and was under the dictation of the Pope. The
same may be said of the Second Lateran Council, held
in 1139, and of the Third, held in 1179. Church reform
was urgently needed, but they effected, in this direc
tion, practically nothing; and the best and ablest Church-
' I.e. the First Lateran CouncU for which Rome claims oecumenicity.

INTRODUCTION. 11
men of the age looked despairingly around. ' Who,' said introd.
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, in a letter to Eugenius TIT.,
' who will give me the consolation ere I die of seeing the
Church in the condition she was in in her early days ? '
It is not, indeed, until the fifteenth century that we The Papai
find any assembly convened and meeting under condi- 1375-1413.
tions which entitle it to take rank, as a free and oecume
nical body, Avith the first eight General Councils. In the
fourteenth century, however, the great schism between
the rival Popes subjected the belief in papal infallibility
to a severer strain than it had ever before known. The
more devout the Catholic, the more he was scandalised
and distressed as he perceived that even the sacraments
of the Church must be held to have lost validity, if admin
istered, as was asserted, by each rival pontiff, without the
pale of the true communion. The more loyal the patriot,
the more he deplored the continued agitation of a ques
tion over which, to quote the language of Dean Milman,
' the best might differ, and which to the bad was an
excuse for every act of violence, fraud, or rapacity.'
The involved appeal to national interests and national involved
preiudices proved, moreover, fatal to the old sense of national
. interests.
Catholic unity, the partizanship of different states being
almost entirely decided by pohtical motives. Germany
and Bohemia declared for Urban VI., not because they
believed his election to be the more valid, but because
they recognised King Wenceslaus as emperor. England
gave him her support as the Pope hostile to France.
Scotland espoused the side of (Element VII. because
he was supported by the power hostile to England.
Hungary declared for Urban as one who might aid her
pretensions to Naples.
Amid the anarchy and dissensions that thus pre
vailed the conviction steadily gained ground that these
evils were the outcome of the monopoly of power by

12

THE NEW REFORMATION.

The
SneculumSynodale.
Councilof Pisa.

INTROD. the chief pontiff; and that the surest remedy was to be
found in the restoration of the rights of the episcopal
order and the revived action of General Councils. We
now, accordingly, enter upon a period when, to use
Mr. Gladstone's expression in reference to the subject,
it seemed as if ' what we may call the Constitutional
party in the Church was about to triumph ; ' ^ and early
in the fifteenth century commenced that succession of
General Councils which has gained for these times the
designation of the ' Saeculum Synodale.'
At the first of these Councils, that convened at
Pisa in the year 1409, the power of the assembly was
demonstrated by the deposition of the two rival Popes
(Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. ) and the election of
Alexander V. But, as though the reforming energy had
expended itself on this preliminary effort, the measure
was unproductive of any commensurate results. The
deposed Popes refused to recognise the validity of the
decision, while their successor showed no real desire
for energetic reform.
A far more decisive advance was made at the
Council of Constance, summoned in the year 1415.
The circumstances under which it met were full of pro
mise, and expectation was proportionably high. It was
convened by the joint command of the emperor Sigis-
mund and the Pope, a fact that in itself afforded no
shght guarantee for the security of Teutonic interests ;
it was held in an imperial city on the German side of
the Alps ; it was inspired by the presence and guided
by the authority of Gerson, the famous chancellor of
the university of Paris, and advocate of the rights of
Councils ; it was attended by delegates from every
nation in Christendom. It was understood that the re
conciliation of the Eastern and Western Churches, and

Council of
Constance.

The Vatican Decrees, p. 68.

INTRODUCTION. 13
the question of the supremacy of General Councils introd.
over the Pope, would be submitted to its deliberations.
A third question, that of the right of suffrage, de- Question of
manded the first consideration of the Council — a ques- sXage.
tion, as we shall hereafter see, again raised and again
decided at the Council of the Vatican, though with
widely different results. It was determined that pro
fessors and doctors, as well as bishops and abbots,
should be admitted to take part in the proceedings,
and also that, as was the custom in the mediseval uni
versities, the assembly should vote in ' nations,' a deci
sion which struck, at the outset, at undue papal influence,
by reducing the vote of the whole Italian ' nation ' to
one vote in four.
The measures thus taken to secure an equitable re- Proceed.
presentation of a collective Christendom enabled the cmmcii.
Council to assert its power with a freedom and bold
ness that had long been wanting in the Church. The
infamous John XXIII. was compelled to abdicate and
to read aloud his declaration before the assembly.
Gerson, speaking on behalf of the great majority, de- Decisions of
clared that Jesus Christ was the one primal and perfect andfltth
Head of the Church, the Pope only so in a secondary
sense ; that the union between the Pope and the
Church was liable to be dissolved ; that the former,
though necessary to the Church's complete organisation,
might be deposed ; that he was bound to obey and
could not annul the decisions of an (Ecumenic Council,
which was the sole, supreme, and indisputable voice of
the Church.^ In the fourth and fifth sessions these de
clarations received the assent of the assembly, and were
embodied in formal decrees without one dissentient
voice ; ^ for a time it seemed as though the fraud of
1 Milman, Hist, of Latin Christianity, Bk. XIII. c. ix.
^ The following is the decree concerning the authority of Coimcils : —
'Sancta Synodus Constantiensis . . . declarat, quod ipsa, in Spiritu

14

THE NEW REFORMATION.

Criticism
of Janus.

INTROD. centuries had been swept away, and that the Church
had to a great extent regained her ancient consti
tution. 'These decisions of Constance,' says the writer
whom we have before quoted, ' are perhaps the most
extraordinary event in the whole dogmatic history of
the Christian Church. Their language leaves no doubt
that they were understood to be articles of faith, dog
matic definitions of the doctrine of Church authority.
They deny the fundamental position of the papal sys
tem, which is thereby tacitly but very eloquently sig
nalised as an error and abuse. Yet that system had
prevailed in the administration of the Church for
centuries, had been taught in the canon law books and
the schools of the religious orders, especially by the
Thomist divines, and assumed or expressly affirmed in
all pronouncements and decisions of the Popes the new
authorities for the laws of the Church. And now not
a voice was raised in its favour ; no one opposed the
doctrines of Constance, no one protested ! ' ^
An unlooked-for event — the death of Eobert Hal-
lam, bishop of Salisbury — checked the onward current
at its full flow. He had not only been the leader of the
English party, but his ability, prudence, and firmness

Failure of
furtherefforts at
reform.

Saneto legitime congregata, concilium generale faciens et Ecclesiam
Oatholicam repraesentans, potestatem a Christo immediate habet, cui
quilibet cujuscumque status vel dignitatis, etiamsi papalis existat, obedire
tenetur in his quae pertinent ad fldem et exstirpationem dicti schismatis
et reformationem dictae Ecclesiae in capite et membris. Item declarat,
quod quicunque cujuscumque conditionis, status, dignitatis, etiamsi
papalis, qui mandatis statutis, sen ordinationibus aut praeceptis hujus
sacrae synodi et cujuscimque, alterius concilii generalis leo-itime con-
gregati super praemissis, sen ad ea pertinentibus, factis vel faciendis,
obedire contumaciter contempserit, nisi resipuerit, condio-nae poenitentiae
subjiciatur et debite puniatm-, etiam ad alia juris subsidia, si opus fuerit,
recurrendo.' The Ultramontanists maintain that these decrees were not
sanctioned by Martin in his 'Bulla Confirmationis ' of 1418. See Den-
zinger, pp. 168-9 ; and Hefele's list, at commencement, and following note.
^ The Pope and the Council, p. 302.

INTRODUCTION. 15
had also won for him the confidence of the emperor introd.
and the German ' nation.' His loss almost paralysed
the party of reform and encouraged their opponents to
new and successful intrigues. The English deputies
were induced to make common cause with the Italian
' nation,' and the Council was consequently prevailed
upon to proceed to the election of a new Pope before
any further measures had been carried. In Martin V.
the reformers encountered an antagonist of a different
order from John XXIII. His reputation for sanctity
and learning inspired confidence in the virtuous, while
his tact and dexterity baffled the counsels of the wise.
His acceptance of the tiara necessarily involved the
recognition of the su|)reme authority of the assembly
and their deposition of his predecessor. Yet notwith
standing, on the day following his election, that
assembly was called to listen to the re-enactment of all
the decrees of the pontiff whom they had set aside.
All hopes of reform, it was perceived, were for a time
at an end. The fair promise of the great Council
faded away in almost complete disappointment. Even
the election of a supreme pontiff of abihty and high
character turned to the disadvantage of the reformers,
by depriving them of one of their most undeniable and
weighty arguments.
One result, however, unquestionably remained. Restoration
The Council of Constance had restored the Church theory of
theory of Councils and had asserted conciliar supre- councils.
macy. It is true that the principle only survived, as
has been aptly said, as a ' barren abstract proposition ; '
but before the Council dissolved its decrees had been
confirmed by the Pope,^ and he had consented to an
1 His act of ratification extended to all the decrees that had been
given conciliariter, a term opposed to nationaliter, as denoting the vote of
the whole Council in distinction from votes taken only at the sitting of
certain 'nations,' The exceptions referred to by Hefele (see List of

16

THE .NEW REFORMATION.

INTROD.

Policy of
Pope Eugenius.

Council of
Basel.

enactment for the convention of an (Ecumenical Coun
cil every ten years. It was thus that, although he
availed himself of every expedient for evading com
pliance with this proviso, he eventually found himself
compelled to issue the summons for the Council of
Basel — the last Council that can be regarded as really
free and cecumenic. Pope Martin died before it met,
and his successor, Eugenius IV., vainly endeavoured to
carry on the same procrastinating pohcy. His disputes
with the Council at one time reached a point where his
own deposition seemed imminent ; but by the inter
vention of the emperor an understanding was effected.
Eugenius withdrew his opposition, and acknowledged
the principle of (Ecumenical Councils, and the vahdity
of the decrees of Constance.
For four years (1433-7) the Council of Basel held
repeated sessions, and its transactions exhibited a mode
ration and fairness that promised solid results. All the
least defensible abuses in the Church — the arbitrary
power of the Pope, the rapacity of the papal court, the
Eoman monopoly of the richer benefices, the irregu
larities in the promotion of the clergy, the corruption
of the different rehgious orders — were in turn freely
discussed, and remedies of a reasonable character pro
posed. As soon, however, as Eugenius saw that the
propositions tended to a hmitation of his own power,
he fell back on his former pohcy. He again assumed
an attitude of uncompromising resistance, and another
open rupture between Pope and Council seemed in
evitable. At this juncture the revival of the scheme
of reconcihation with the Eastern Church suggested a
means of escape from the difficulties of his situation.
He alleged that the convenience of the Eastern dele-
Ooimcils, at commencement) were really inconsiderable, including only
a decree on Annates and another respecting a book by the Dominican
Falkenberg.

INTRODUCTION. 17
gates rendered it desirable to transfer the Council to introd.
Italy, and a new series of conferences was now held at councils of
Ferrara, and subsequently at Florence. The majority IZlZlt^
of the representatives at Basel disregarded his sum
mons, and continued to hold their sessions in that city ;
though it was evident that they could scarcely con
tinue to claim to be regarded as an (Ecumenical Coun
cil. England, engrossed with the approach of civil
war, withdrew altogether from the deliberations. The Reconciiia-
assembly on the other side of the Alps, again, numbered Greer
but two delegates from Northern countries ; and the ^^''"'^'
presence of the Greek delegates only imperfectly re
deemed it, even in appearance, from being completely
at the Pope's dictation. The position of the latter, in
fact, did not admit of the assertion of any real inde
pendence. The circumstances under which the com- Fallacious^TiflTJiotpr of
promise between East and West was effected — a com- the com
promise as unreal in spirit as it was fruitless in results p"""'^^'
— are familiar to the student of Church history. The
Orientals, when pressed with the canons of Isidore and
Gratian, did not hesitate to reply curtly, that ' these
were all apocryphal.' It was mainly through the ex
ertions of their eminent countryman Bessarion that they
at last consented to admit the claims of the Pope to
rule the Church ' in the manner contained in the Acts
of the (Ecumenical Councils and of the Canons.' ^ It
^ Ka6' ov TpoTTOV Kai iV toXq irpaKrlKOtQ rwif oiKovfXEytKuJu t^vvo^oiv Knl tv
ToiQ hpoTg navoai SioKaix^dviTai. This was correctly rendered in the Latin,
quemadmodum et in gestis oecumenieorum conciliorum et in sacris canoni-
hus ccmtinetur. It is thus quoted by the fifteenth and early sixteenth
century theologians. In the Roman edition of Abraham Cretensis, how
ever, says JanuSj ' by the imobtrusive change of a single word, what the
Greeks intended to have expressed by it had disappeared, viz. that the
prerogatives attributed to the Pope are to be understood and exercised .
according to the rule of the ancient Councils. By this change the rule
was transformed into a mere confirmatory reference, and the sense of the
passage became, that the prerogatives enumerated there belonged to the
Pope, and were also contained in the ancient Councils.' — The Pope and
C

18 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. lias been clearly pointed out — and the fact is deserving
of special notice as an example of the contempt for
historical precedents, or perhaps more frequently the
ignorance of ecclesiastical history, that has too often
characterised the proceedings of the Vatican^that
Eugenius and his advisers understood and accepted this
concession in a totally different sense from that in
which it was -made. The Greeks understood by the
' (Ecumenical Councils ' only those of the first eight
centuries, the same that the present advocates of
Cathohc reform recognise as authoritative on points
of doctrine. Eugenius, on the other hand — ^probably
through real ignorance of the state of the question con
cerning the Pope's supremacy before the time of the
False Decretals — supposed that the term included all
the Councils of the Church up to Tiis own day; and,
interpreting the words in this sense, it was certainly
undeniable that by some of the later Councils the
papal supremacy had been admitted.
Council The seeming success of these negotiations lent new
Pope. strength to the Ultramontane party ; and Eugenius,
after declaring that the wall of separation was broken
down, and calling upon the heavens to rejoice and the
earth to exult, proceeded to denounce the Council at
Basel and its decrees in unmeasured terms. The Coun
cil replied by decreeing his deposition and re-electing
Amadeus of Savoy; and once more, and for the last
time, a Pope and Antipope were to be seen hurhng
anathemas at each other. Both France and Germany
evinced but httle interest in the struggle, and their in
difference was shared by most of the other European
states — feehngs which are doubtless to some extent
attributable to pohtical sources of distraction, and
the Council, pp. 325-6. Denzinger (p. 171) accordingly gives us ' quem
admodum etiam in gestis,' &e.

INTRODUCTION, 19
partly to the conviction that the Council was impotent introd.^
to carry any measures of effective reform, but most of
all to the dechne which the papacy had undergone in
the estimation and reverence of men. The consum
mate diplomacy of .^neas Sylvius Piccolomini, after
wards Pius II., confirmed the triumph of the Ultra
montanists. Nicholas V. was raised to the pontificate Election of
on the death of Eugenius IV. Amadeus of Savoy ceded
his rival claims, and, on being elected a cardinal, re
tired into private life. The Council of Basel yielded
to political influence and submitted, in 1449, to an
honourable dissolution. Its Acts concerning promo
tions and dignities in the Church were ratified; the
supremacy of (Ecumenical Councils was once more
recognised by the Pope ; and the long struggle of the
Saeculum Synodale was succeeded by a period of de
ceptive calm under the rule of Nicholas V. and his
immediate successors.
But while the cause of ecclesiastical reform had
been defeated at Basel it had effected a signal victory
in France. The statesmen of the realm, though indif
ferent to the proceedings of the Council, had resolved
on decisive measures at home. In the year 1438 they
had enacted the famous Pragmatic Sanction, the palla- The Prag-
dium of the Galilean Church.- By this charter the sa^iction.
right of the disposal of benefices became vested in the
Crown. The freedom of Church elections and the su
premacy of General Councils was recognised. And the
most practical abuses of the Eomish system were, for a
time, swept away throughout the land.
But speaking generally, the policy advocated at Failure of
Pisa, Constance, and Basel remained inoperative. The reform.
Church was still unpurified at its source, and reform,
if conceded in theory, found little expression in disci
pline. In those times it was difficult for abstract prin-
c 2

20 THE NEW REFORMATION.
introd. ciples and common rights to combine against private
interests, selfish aims, bribery, and pohtical corruption ;
and a tone of deep despondency, on the part of all
thoughtful writers, is observable in the latter part of
the fifteenth century. The evils they saw around them
seemed overwhelming. The whole purpose that under-
Pei-version lay the aucicnt hierarchical theory had been wasted
arcMcai'^ and misapplied. The Church seemed less to exist for
theory. ^^^ natious thau the nations for the Church. ' When,'
says an eminent writer, 'the development of a me
thodical and harmonious rule of hfe for Christendom
should have been her highest aim, we find the Papal
Church assuming into this aim, and therefore into her
theory, the principle of authority, power, and lordship^
in such a way that she no longer subordinates herself
as a means to the spiritual renovation of the nations, but
the perversion takes place, that that authority and lord
ship are treated as its one end and highest good.' ^ The
Popes, sunk in indolence and false security, connived
at or openly sanctioned all the abuses which ultimately
excited a new movement, the movement that culmi
nated in the Eeformation. On the corruption and
venality of the papal court, as attested by important
authorities like Cosmas de Villiers, Pico of Mirandula,
Macchiavelli, and the speakers at the Lateran Council
in 1516, it is needless here to dwell ; but it deserves a
passing comment as the connecting link between the
failure of the efforts towards reform by means of
General Councils and the rise of a new school of re
formers. It wiU be of service to point out how, in the
doctrines taught and the institutions established by
the Protestant movement, we are confronted by theories
differing in-principle both from the Old Cathohcism and
from Ultramontanism. ^ Dorner, Hist, of Protestant Theology, I. 22.

INTRODUCTION. 21
It was observed at the commencement that the introd.
primitive conception of the Cathohc Church was di- increasing
vested of the spirit of nationahty. The faith proclaimed Jlhf""
to Jew and Gentile, bond and free, could not recpg- ^'""¦''''"
nise a theory of separate and dissociated communions.
It was this conception which, notwithstanding the
schism between East and West and the rivalry of the
Antipopes, Eome had hitherto proclaimed and had
cherished with a certain success. When the sixteenth
century dawned, the allegiance of Western Christendom
to Alexander VI. was still undivided and unquestioned.
But now the exorbitant pretensions and widespread de
moralisation of the Church began to bring with them
t|ieir own retribution in the subversion of that ancient
claim to universal deference which Eome might other
wise have long preserved unchallenged. The unblush- Revival of
¦> 1 T^ IP • national
mg nepotism ot the Popes, the ¦ preference given to differences.
Italian ecclesiastics in the distribution of benefices, the
wealth extorted from other countries to defray the un
bounded extravagance of the Curia, the antagonism
between Emperor and Pope, called up and at last
arrayed against each other, in permanent hostihty, all
the ancient national jealousies and antipathies. The
great revival of classical learning, known under the
name of the Eenaissance, proved also largely instru- The Re
mental in bringing about the Eeformation ; and this,
less than is generally supposed by the direct influences
of the literature which it brought to light, than by the
critical and enquiring habits of thought to which it gave
rise. As learning and scholarship became more widely
diffused and studious and thoughtful intellects found
subject-matter which afforded scope for speculation,
criticism, and discussion, without exposing the enquirer
to the charge of heresy or of contempt for authority,
the Teutonic and the Latin minds developed their dif-

naissance.

22 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. ferent characteristics with greater freedom. And the
very studies which under happier circumstances might
have proved a bond of union, only served to bring out
into more noticeable contrast divergent sympathies and
aims. The forces of decentralisation already at work
acquired a new and powerful momentum. It is well
known how adroitly and successfully Luther availed
himself of these tendencies in his struggle with Eome,
and it is not altogether without justice that some have
asserted that Lutheranism took its rise in a spirit of
German nationality.
The Refor- As there is no period of Church history which has
been so wilfully and persistently misrepresented by
the writers belonging to different parties as that of the
Eeformation, so there is none more deserving of careful
study by all who wish to obtain a firm grasp of the
historical connexion between the reformed and the
medieval Church. When theologians of a certain
school are to be found asserting that the Eeformation
was neither a revolt nor a revolution, but simply a re-
establishment of the principles of Christianity, it becomes
all the more important to explain clearly how it is that
the leaders of the Old Catholic movement, while mak
ing a like assertion as regards their own doctrine, un
hesitatingly recognise and even publicly proclaim the
considerable if not essential difference between the Old
Catholicism and Protestantism.^
Diet of ¦ In the year 1529, at the Diet of Spires, those states
SDir6S I *' X '
which had initiated a Scriptural reformation were called
upon by the majority of the states, whose policy was
sanctioned by the emperor, to commence a counter^
movement. The protestation of right which they drew
1 Dr. Nippold, speaking at Berne so recently as January 1873, observed,
' Diese Manner recht gut wissen, warum sie sich nicht Protestanten sondem
Altkatholiken nennen.'— Fortran, in ' Zeit und Streit-Fi-agen,' p. 14.

INTRODUCTION. 23
up on this occasion gained for them the name of Pro- introd.
testants. In the following year the Protestant princes of Ger- confession
many adopted at Augsburg a new Confession of Faith, burg"f 530..
drawn up by Melanchthon and approved by Luther,
which represents the basis of the belief of the Lutheran
or Protestant Church.
It is always of importance to remember, when criti- importance
cising the history of the sixteenth century, how inse- tws period
11 11 CI , • toformu-
parable appeared, to the men or that age, the retention laries of
of the rehgious spirit and the possession of a distinct,
exact, and carefully formulated doctrinal creed. To
minds of a certain order the necessity for such a creed
wiU always present itself in a far stronger light than to
others ; but it is unquestionable that the prevailing ten
dency during the last three centuries, at least among
Protestant communions, has been towards a higher
estimate of the value of the spirit of Christianity and a
less rigid interpretation of special dogmas. But to the
men among whom Luther, Melanchthon, Cranmer, and
Calvin lived and worked, it seemed indispensable that,
if they were to secede from Eome and to rally round
a new standard of faith, they must be bound together
by a common creed, and be led with no uncertain
sound to the battle with papal errors. Hence in the Different
successive enunciations of the doctrines of Lutheranism, of LuthS--'
whether that put forth at Augsburg, or in the Articles ^""•
of Smalcald in 1537, or in Luther's Catechisms, or in
the Formulary of Concord in 1577, it is only just that
we should recognise not simply the dogmatic spirit of
the theologian but a series of almost inevitable responses
to the wishes and exigencies of an entire communion.^
" Dr. Adolf Pichler, -in an article in the Contemporary for 1870,
admits that ' there is not to-day in Germany a single Protestant theolo
gian who acknowledges the absolute authority of the symbolic books.'
Principal TuQoch, who characterises this multiplicity of creeds as ' one of

24 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. Such labours, however, could not fail to ehcit more'
or less important differences of opinion. Different
minds originated ' divers interpretations ; ' and these in
turn were repudiated or embraced by separate congre-
The unity gatious. And hence it has become with Eoman Catho-
Catho- lie theologians a trite reproach against Protestantism,
real. that nearly every reformed Church had its own for
mulary or- even several formularies difi'ering from each
other. ^ It has been easier for Protestant writers, in
reply, to admit than altogether to justify the fact, and at
the same time to point out that, in respect to doctrine,
Eomanism itself has been little more than a nominal
unity ; and that far graver contradictions have from
time to time been maintained within its pale, whether
those which confront us at different eraS of Church
history or those which are to be found in the writings
of contemporary theologians.
Doctrine of The doctriuc whicli most of all tended to sever the
tion. theology of the Lutheran Church from that of Eome
was undoubtedly the doctrine of Justification. Luther
taught, and his teaching on this subject was rather em
phasised than modified in subsequent formularies, that
justification does not imply regeneration on the part of
the sinner, but simply ' his acquittal from the punish
ment of sin on account of the justice of Christ, imputed
Its differ- by God to faith.' Man's justice is not of himself. The
theCatho- Catholic doctriue had hitherto been that the justice of
lie doctrine. the most extraordinary phenomena in Christian history, the full signifi
cance of which has hardly been appreciated,' justly describes it as the
residt of the ' exacting demand that was made upon aU the Protestant
Chm-ches to give an account of themselves— of the definite doctrines
which they taught and the principles for which they claimed to exist;
not only with reference to the Roman Catholicism which they repudiated,
but to the civil communities in which they sought to establish themselves,
and the social and ecclesiastical necessities which they professed to satisfy.'
' — Rational Theology, I. 21.
' Bossuet, Preface to the Variations.

INTRODUCTION'. 25
Christ, in the act of justification, is immediately appro- introd.
priated by the behever, becoming part of his inward
self and changing his whole moral existence. Accord
ing to Luther, justice dwells solely in Christ, it does not
pass into the inward life of the believer, but remains in
a purely outward relation to him.
To Cathohc notions this theory appeared fraught
with the most pernicious consequences, as recognising
no moral difference between the converted and uncon
verted, and depriving of all their significance the anti
theses of the New Testament between the old and new
man, the old and the new creation, the first and the
second birth. The doctrine of sanctification, the supple- ^"ctrine"of
ment to this theory — a gradual process resulting from sanctisca-
man's gratitude for the remission of sin, and finding expres
sion in increasing desire and effort to render obedience
to the divine commands — served but very imperfectly to
redeem the former doctrine from these objections. The
radical difference remained; and while the Lutheran
taught that the relation of man to his Saviour was pri
marily and chiefly of this external character, the Catho
lic adhered to that interpretation of the word SiKatovv
(justificare) which makes it to consist in an immediate,
internal, and total change.^
It is well known to every theological student how Luther's
Luther's distinctive teaching on this cardinal point un- specting
derlay his whole religious behef and modified his con- govem-
ceptions of other doctrines, such as those of original
' ' The diiference consists in this — that with the Protestant the ex
ternal relation to Christ is by far the most important thing ; so that at
this point of his spiritu^,! life he can calmly sit down, and, without
advancing a Step further, be assured of eternal felicity, since, by what the
Reformers call justification, his sins have once for aU been forgiven hhn,
and the gates of heaven opened to him. While the Catholic can obtain
the forgiveness of his sins only when he abandons them, and in his view
the justified man— the man acceptable to God— is identical in every
respect with the sanctified.' — Mohler, Synibolik, p. 141.

26 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. sin, faith, good works, predestination, and the sacra
ments. On these latter questions it is needless, however,
here to dwell, and we accordingly pass on to the subject
most closely connected with that of these pages — ^his
views respecting authority and Church organisation. It
has been made a matter of reproach to him, by Cathohc
writers, that the theories he ultimately put forward on
these subjects were adopted by him as the result of the
incompatibility between his specific tenets as a theolo
gian and those maintained by the Church. They con
sequently, assert that the process whereby he arrived at
those theories was an inversion of the natural course.
Had he first of all examined the claims of the Church
to infallibility of doctrine, and decided, for himself, that
those claims rested on no satisfactory basis, his promul
gation of new doctrines, the result of his individual
enquiry into Scriptural teaching, would have at least
merited to be regarded as a logical sequence of action.
As it was, he first set up a new theology and then re
volted from the Catholic faith. To this the only reply
must be, that Luther's creed, hke that of nearly all re
ligious reformers, was the outcome of a gradual process
and partook of the nature of an induction. It was by
a series of investigations with respect to successive
points in the teaching and practice of the Eomish
Church, that he finally deduced from thence his main
generalisation on the whole question of ecclesiastical
government.
The Catho- The Catholic theory, as it has found expression in
the writings of the ablest theologians, from St. Cyprian
down to Dr. DoUinger, and has been always maintained
in theory amid numberless departures from that theory
in practice, exhibits to us a one true, undivided, and
visible Church, uniting in herself divine and human
elements, inspired, and yet working by human ministers.

lie theory.

INTRODUCTION. 27
the corresponding fact to the Incarnation. As the introd.
Word became flesh, so, at Jerusalem, the Holy Spirit
was present to the senses as a ' rushing mighty wind.'
The Church is Christianity in its objective form. ' If,'
says Mohler, 'the Church be not the authority represent
ing Christ, then all again relapses into darkness, uncer
tainty, doubt, distraction, unbelief, and superstition ;
revelation becomes null and void, fails of its real pur
pose, and must henceforth be even called in question
and finally denied.' ^
Hence while the Protestant affirms with Luther that The
man arrives at doctrinal truth by the study of the ^rdJlnof
Scriptures, the Cathohc declares that though the Scrip- *™'^''"°-
tures are the source of doctrine, the individual judg
ment cannot rely on its own unaided interpretation, but
must trust on all points of difficulty and doubt to the
teaching of the Church. On the Church descended those
gifts of unerring wisdom which, since the time of the
Apostles, have been vouchsafed to no single man. Hence
the theory of tradition (traditio exegetica) discernible
from the earliest times in the Christian Church, and
styled by Irenaeus kovwv ttjs d\7j6eCa<s. ' Without this
rule,' says the writer above quoted, ' it would be im
possible to determine with certainty, safety, and general
obligation the peculiar doctrines of Christianity. The
individual, at best, could only hazard the assertion, this .
is my view, my interpretation of Scripture ; or, in other
words, without tradition there would be no doctrine of
the Church, and no Church, but individual Christians
only ; no certainty and security, but only doubt and
probability.' ^
In harmony with this theory of what may be Theory of
termed the perpetual inspiration of the Church, we find meat°^
the Catholic writers maintaining a theory of doctrinal
development. According to this view, experiences
I SymhoUk, p. 342. = Ibid. p. 363.

28

THE NEW REFORMATION.

INTROD. which in the eyes of many appear unmitigated evils,
the rise of successive heresies — Gnostic, Manichaean,
Pelagian, and Protestant — have in reality been pro
ductive of good by the clearer conceptions they have
evoked of different doctrines. From the Council of
Nicaea to that of Trent, the Cathohc beheves he can
discern an increasingly intelhgent apprehension of spi
ritual truth, a deeper insight into the mysteries of the
primal revelation. As an illustration of his theory he
appeals to the example afforded in the canon df Scrip
ture, respecting which' such singular diversity of opinion
prevailed in the early Church, but which was ultimately
definitively decided for all true Cathohcs, and the ques
tion set at rest by authority.^ When, however, he sees,
as in the case of Luther, a solitary theologian seeking to
re-open that question, and calling in doubt, as Luther
did, the inspiration of the Epistle of St. James and of
the Eevelation of St. John, he asks how, if such liberty
of judgment is to be conceded to the individual, the
Church can ever hope to rejoice in oneness of commu
nion and unity of doctrine ?
Again, as a necessary corollary of his theory of a
visible Church, the Cathohc postulates the outward re
cognition and formal consecration of a visible and se
parate priesthood. The power of consecration resides
with those who preserve unbroken the episcopal succes-
' ' That the increase and expansion of the Christian creed and ritual
and the variations which have attended the process in the case of indi
vidual writers and Churches, are the necessary attendants on any philp-
sophy or polity which takes possession of the intellect and heart, and has
any wide or extended dominion ; that, from the nature of the human
mind, time is necessary for the full comprehension and perfection of great
ideas ; and that the highest and most wonderful truths, though commimi-
cated to the world once for aU by inspired teachers, could not be com
prehended all at once by the recipients — ^but, as received and transmitted by
minds not inspired, and through media which were human, have required
only the longer time and deeper thought for their fuU elucidation.'— Dr.
Newman, Development of Christian Doctrine (ed. 1846), p. 27.

Theory of
the Catho
lic priest
hood.

anism.

INTRODUCTION. • 29
sion from the first Apostles, from those who were no- introd.
minated and consecrated by Christ himself. At the The Pope
head of this great order, as the lineal representative of episcVate.
the first bishop, stands the Pope — ^the centre of the
Church's unity. On him, as the vicegerent of Christ
on earth, the successor of St. Peter, it devolves to main
tain that unity. He recognises in the episcopal order a
divinely appointed institution ; and believes that on its
members, in their collective capacity, have descended
those spiritual gifts promised to the first Apostles ; while
they, in turn, regard him as their chief. Their decrees,
sanctioned by his authority, represent the final verdict,
the infallible utterance of the Church.^
Turning now to the Lutheran doctrine, we find the counter-
Eeformers declaring, in opposition to this elaborate Luther-
hierarchical theory, that the Scriptures are at once the
sole source, standard, and judge of Christian belief.
The mediating ofiice of the Church represents, in their
view, the introduction of a fallible and human element
between the divine Word and the individual soul. Tra
dition is but man's invention ; and if they assented to
the decisions of the first four (Ecumenical Councils,
it was not from deference to the authority of those
Councils, but because they found that their decisions
were in harmony with Holy Writ. In the Bible alone
the devout and enquiring mind might find, unaided, the
knowledge necessary to salvation. Hence they regarded
the priestly office, with its sacrament of ordination, and
its limitation to a separate order, as unnecessary. Every
' It may be worth while to quote here the view expressed by Dr.
Hefele, prior of course to the decree, of the Vatican Council, of the trae
relation of the Pope to an CEcumenical Council. 'An (Eciunenical
Council,' says this writer, ' represents the whole Church. There must
therefore be the same relation between the Pope and the Council as exists
between the Pope and the Church. The Pope is the centre of the
Church, and therefore neither above nor below it ; he is therefore neither
above nor below a General Council. '-^Introd. to Conciliengeschichte,

30 THE NEW REFORMATION,
INTROD. true Christian is himself a priest, a member of a uni
versal priesthood. Surveying the clergy of his day,
among whom, it must be admitted, the character of
priest had sunk to its lowest degradation, Luther con
temptuously observed that ' one could shave the hair
off any sow and put a dress on any block.' He ap
proved, indeed, the delegation of certain duties to one
member of a congregation, but this he looked upon as
a mere arrangement of convenience — a theory which
soon resulted in practical abuses against which it was
found desirable to provide by requiring, in the Augs
burg Confession, that no one should teach in public nisi
rite vocatus. The episcopal office was regarded by the
Eeformers as an excrescence on the primitive system,
and they abolished it accordingly. In short, while the
Catholic first postulated the existence of a visible
Church, and an organised hierarchical system, from
whence the invisible Church was to rise, the Lutheran
assumed, first of all, an invisible Church and a uni
versal priesthood, from whence whatever he recognised
of a visible Chiurch (if, indeed, it deserved the name)
was subsequently to emerge. •
airteaoh- '^^^ theory of the supreme right of private inter-
ing. pretation soon began to bear fruit in the rise of other
communions. In the year 1536 appeared the ' Christian
Institutes' of Calvin, and in the year 1561, at the con-
caivinism. fercuce at Poissy, the distinctive tenets of Calvinism
came formally under discussion. In the following year
appeared the ' Heidelberg Catechism,' compiled by the
command of the Count Palatine, and from this event may
be dated the existence of Calvinism as a separate sect.
contro- Among the doctrines accepted at Augsburg that
Xe'u^ cousubstantiation, or the real presence of Christ's
charist. body and blood in the Eucharist, had proved an in
superable ground of division ; it was firmly defended

INTRODUCTION. 31
by Luther, but his friend and feUow-student, Carlstadt, introd.
and subsequently both Zuinghus and (Ecolampadius,
espoused a counter-view. Interpreting the words
' This is my body,' as purely figurative, they denied
that the Eucharist could be partaken of in any other
than a spiritual sense, or by any but believers. To
•this view Calvin gave the support of his powerful intel
lect, and the question alone would have sufficed to
constitute an important element of difference. To this
controversy, however, succeeded that on predestination,
a doctrine which Calvin carried to still greater lengths,
teaching that the true believer is never suffered to fall
from a state of grace. In regard to Church organisa
tion Calvinism was mainly in ' agreement with Lu
theranism, though Calvin adhered to the rite of ordina
tion, and was even inclined to number it among the
sacraments. Passing on to the consideration of the distinHive The
features of the Church of England, we find a third England"
communion, differing in some important respects from
either of, the foregoing. At its commencement, it is
true, the Enghsh Eeformation seemed likely to result
in httle more than a general adoption of the Lutheran
tenets. Cranmer, along with Melanchthon and Calvin,
appears even, at one time, to have cherished the design
of a general congress of the Protestant divines for the
purpose of establishing an authoritative standard of faith.
The Forty-two Articles, compiled in 1552, were for the The Forty-
most part a transcript of the Confession of Augsburg, cies.
At the accession of Ehzabeth the ' Institutes ' of Calvin
were in such general use among the clergy as almost to
represent their text-book of theology. The alterations
introduced in the Thfrty-eight Articles of 1563, by
Archbishop Parker, represented mainly the influence
of the Wirtemberg Confession of 1551. During the

32 THE NEW REFORMATION,
INTROD. i-eign of Elizabeth, however, w-e find the newly-created
Di«tj°«'je bishops beginning to take ground which served to
Church establish a marked difference from either the Lutheran
govern-
ment. or tfic Calviuistic Church. This difference was not
with respect to doctrinal belief, for Jewel, Whitgift, and
Hooker were all inchned to Calvin's theology, but with
respect to the theory of Church government,^ Elizabeth-
Deciara- proclaimed herself a Catholic sovereign ; and Jewel,
Bishop in his 'Apologia,' maintained the Catholicism of the
Church of England. The Church of Eome, he asserted,
was mediaeval, the Church of which he was a bishop
claimed to be primitive. Along with Parker, he called
to memory that ancient British Church whose bishops
held authority independent of Eome, ' We are come,'
he says, 'as near as we possibly could to the Church of
the Apostles and the Old Catholic bishops and fathers ;
and have directed, according to their customs and ordi
nances, not only our doctrine but also the sacraments
and the form of common prayer,' ^ At the same time
he professed the greatest reverence for the decrees of
the early Councils, and vindicated the legitimacy of the
The Li- Enghsh bishops. The Liturgy of the Church of England,
taken almost entirely from the Eoman hturgy, discloses
none of those Erastian views towards which Cranmer
had so decidedly leaned. To those who maintain that
the Eoman hierarchical system is merely part of the un
authorised inventions of medigsval Eome, this retention
of much of that system along with the rejection of
doctrinal abuses has always appeared an anomaly. It
1 See Hunt, Hist, of Religious Thmght in England, I. 64 ; Hook,
Lives of the Archbishops (New Series), V. 21-22 and 157.
> Apology (Works, V. 614). In Jewel's writings we find the theory
of infallibility altogether abandoned. In his Letter to Di: Cole (Ibid. I.
57), he expressly admits that Councils may err, though he attaches great
importance to their authority. On the other hand, he asks what need
is there of bishops and Councils if the Ohiu-ch cannot en-? ribid V
468-70.) ¦ ^

INTRODUCTION, 33
has been called ' the Anglican solecism,' ' A Catholic introd.
hierarchy,' ejaculates Mohler, ' and a Protestant system
of faith in one and the same community ! '
It is undeniable that as these three communions sue- Decline of
1 1 . T • 1 /^i 1 /. T-« t^^ Liberal
cessively arose, the party withm the Church of Eome party in the
which represented, to a great extent, the modern Old church.
Catholic theory, dechned perceptibly both in influence
and importance. The growth of heresy appealed
strongly to the loyalty of the orthodox. And hence,
with the advance of the century, the sentiments which
actuated men like Eeuchhn, Sadolet, Zasius, and Wicel,
abroad, or Sir Thomas More, Colet, and Bishop Fisher,
at home, no longer found the same powerful advocacy.
Proposals for a reformation of abuses, which should
leave the hierarchical system untouched and permit the
Church still to render to the bishop of Eome all the
honours accorded to him in the first eight centuries,
appeared but half-measures. The pleadings of their
supporters were drowned in the mighty cry of Luther
or in the anathemas of Italian bishops.
In the meantime the widespread success of the Ee
formation was met by Eome with her traditional policy
of haughty defiance. To concede nothing, and to brand
as heretics both reformers within the Church and re
formers without — such was the line of action which
finally resulted in the decisions of the Council of Trent. ^J'^j^™";
It is of importance to remember that though the efforts
at reform in the preceding century had been almost en
tirely abortive, the theory of (Ecumenical Councils had
been successfully re-established ; it had been recognised
by the Pope, and still appeared the only legitimate machi
nery for effecting Church reform whenever a more fa
vourable condition of affairs should arise. Accordingly,
when, in the sixteenth century, the causes already re
ferred to once more drew the attention of men to the
D

34 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. necessity for a thorough change, the project of a Council,
really free and truly oecumenical, still seemed to be
the sole method of procedure which offered any pros
pect of success, and the idea was supported by the
most advanced as well as the most moderate reformers,
Luther, at the commencement of his career, was loud
in his demands for a General Council,^ It was the
cherished project of Erasmus, and of Melanchthon, and
was encouraged by all the Protestant princes. So
strongly, indeed, was it advocated, that at the close of
the Diet of Spires the emperor found it necessary to
promise that such a Council should shortly be convened.
Had Eome responded to these feehngs in a spirit of
liberal concession, and without delay or evasion, it is
in every way probable that the religious history of
Europe during the last three centuries would have
been completely changed. From the very first, how
ever, the Ultramontane party met the proposal with a
procrastinating policy which, by gradually cooling the
ardour and discouraging the hopes of the Eeformers,
compelled them to look for a remedy in independent
^ ' An QScumenical Council was the project under the protection of
which the Reformation established itself so securely that it could no
longer be rolled back when the Council itself came to be actually held.
For in the case of the reformers the appeal to a General Council was
equivalent to a continued claim to have part in the universal Chm-ch as
embodied in the Roman Empire, their remmciation of the Pope's authority
notwithstanding ; and the promise obtained from the emperor at the
close of the Diet of Spires, to the effect that he would cause the religious
controversy to be settled by a Council, actually concedes in a provisional
manner to the Reformation full rights within the Chm-ch, so long as the
States of the Empire so comported themselves as they could answer to
God and the emperor — thus at once entirely suspending the binding
character of all such developments as up to that time had not been con
firmed by any General Council with the emperor's approval. At all
events the history of the Reformation, in spite of its various political
vicissitudes, was dominated by this half-churchly principle of law until,
by the religious peace of Augsburg, it acquired positive political rights of
its own within the Empire.'— Ritschl (Albrecht), Orit. Hist, of the C/iris-
tian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, p. 128. (Edin. 1872.)

INTRODUCTION. 35
action, Leo X, dying in 1521, was already occupied, introd.
or professed to be so, in determining what city would
prove most suitable for that assembly which only com
menced its sittings twenty-four years later, ' That
Council,' says Bungener, ' which Luther had called for
in 1517, and which he might have dreaded in 1520 —
in 1545, even before it had been opened, had altogether
ceased, before he descended to the grave, to give any
serious ground of alarm to the Eeformation,'
Again, when at last, on March 13, 1545, the itsoompo-
Council of Trent assembled, it was clearly seen that it character.
would be neither free nor oecumenical. Luther had
postulated an assembly which should neither be pre
sided over nor dictated to by the Pope ; Melanchthon
had warmly advocated the admission of the laity. It was
obviously essential that its. decrees, if they were to com
mand general acceptance, should represent the collec
tive voice of Christian Europe. In reality, however,
the Council was from first to last almost entirely under
the influence of Eome ; it was composed exclusively of
ecclesiastics ; and at its first assembling, though a more
adequate representation subsequently obtained, these
(with the solitary exception of the bishop of Augsburg),
were solely from Ita,lian dioceses. The hostility evinced
towards the German nation throughout the proceedings
sufficiently indicated the strong bias of the majority.
Looking again at the results established by the itsmea-
Coimcil, from its commencement in 1545 to its final chiefly di-
dissolution in 1562, it is evident that they tended far agaLst the
more to the repression of Luthei'an and Calvinistic doc- tion?™'^
trine than to internal reform. The Council of Trent
was, in fact, a great anti-Protestant demonstration.
Every question that had been raised by the Eeformers
in relation to dogma was decided in a direction that
could not fail to widen the breach between them and
D 2

36 THE NEW REFORMATION.-
iNTROD. their opponents. As regarded the Scriptures (1) an ana
thema Avas pronounced against all who should venture
to appeal from tradition to the Bible ; (2) against whom
soever should call in question the canonicity of the
apocryphal writings ; (3) it was declared heretical to
interpret the Scriptures in a sense contrary to that
which the Church held, or to the unanimous consent
of the Fathers. The doctrine of justification, and that
concerning faith, were enunciated in a form directly
opposed to the Lutheran dogma, and to the Articles
of the Church of England.^ 'Faith without love,'
' The following are the more important doctrines respecting justifica
tion anathematised by the Covmcil : —
1. ' That man may be justified before God by his own works, whether
done through the teaching of human nature or that of the law^ without
the grace of God through Jesus Christ.'
2. ' That the grace of God, through JesUs Christ, is given only for
this, that man may be able more easily to live justly and to merit eternal
life, as if, by free will without grace, he were able to do both, though
hardly, indeed, and with difficulty.'
3. ' That without the prevenient inspiration of the Holy Ghost, and
without His help, man can believe, hope, love, or be penitent as he ought,
so as that the grace of justification may be besto^ved upon him.'
4. ' That man's free will, moved and excited by God, by assenting to
God exciting and calling, nowise co-operates towards disposing and pre
paring itself for obtaining the grace of justification ; that it cannot refuse
its assent if it would, but that, as something inanimate, it does nothing
whatever and is merely passive.'
5. 'That, since Adam's sin, the free wiU of man is lost and extin
guished.' 0. ' That by faith alone the impious is justified, in such wise as to
mean that nothing else is required to co-operate in order to the obtaining ¦
the grace of justification, and that it is not in any way necessary that he
be prepared and disposed by the movement of his own wiU.'
15. ' That a man who is born again and justified is bound of faith to
beheve that he is assuredly in the number of the predestinate.'
17. ' That the grace of justification is only attained by those who
are predestined unto life.' — Waterworth, pp. 44-^49.
' It is not to be believed,' says PaUavicini, ' with what care, with what
subtlety, with what perseverance, every syllable of it was weighed and
disousEsd, first in the congregations of the divines, who only advised in
the matter, and afterwards in that of the Fathers who had the definitive
voice.' — Book VIII. c. xi.

INTRODUCTION. 37
it was decided, was nowhere declared by the Bible introd.
to be tantamount to an entire absence of essential
Christianity. The doctrine of the Eeal Presence,
hitherto rather a learned opinion than a dogma, was
defined with a particularity and grossness startling even
in that age. The mass was declared to have been
instituted by Christ himself, and masses for the dead
to be a tradition from Apostolic times. Hostility to
Calvinism dictated a decision which Le Clerc long
afterwards maintained was identical with that of the
semi-Pelagians. The doctrine of works of superero
gation was dogmatised, chiefly, it would seem, from a
spirit of opposition to the Protestant theory ; while
Protestantism itself was made the subject of 430 dis
tinct anathemas.
The history of the Council was written, long after Paiiavicini
its dissolution, by two men of widely different senti
ments, the Jesuit PaUavicini and the learned Father
Paul. The former had access to the original records,
but his sympathies were entirely with the Ultramontane
party, and his partiality is denied by few. The latter,
who was once regarded as a secret friend of Protes
tantism, was probably really a sceptic. It is from these
two singularly diverse sources that those who have
maintained, and those who have impugned, the decisions
of the Council have respectively taken their arguments.
But within the last few years other documents have
been given to the world which have thrown new light
on the subject ; and when we have conceded all the
points urged in favour of the oecumenicity and autho
rity of the Council — the number of able and learned
divines who took part in its discussions — the systematic
order and method of its proceedings — the deliberation
and apparent candour with which at least its earlier
decisions were arrived at,^ — it will still be difficult to
1 The Catechismus Romanus ex Decreto Concilii Tridentini represents

38

THE NEW REFORMATION,

INTROD.

The Coun
cil refused
to sanction
the thooiy
of papal
infalli-bUitv.

General
results of the
Council.

resist the conclusion that its action was unfairly influ
enced and its work confirmatory rather of Eomish pre
tensions than tending to the estabhshment of Christian
doctrine. It seems but imperfectly to compensate for its
harshness in the enunciation of dogma, that the Council
distinctly refused to adopt the theory of papal infallibi
lity by condemning that of the Galilean Church. But
the fact is of considerable importance in relation to our
present enquiry. The article asserting this dogma was
indeed brought forward by the papal legates, but was
ultimately withdrawn ; and on the whole it may be
said that the Council of Trent sustained far better than
some other Councils the rights and dignity of the
episcopal order.
Viewed, however, as an effort towards Church unity
and reconcihation with the Eeformers, the Council must
be regarded as a total failure, Cathohc theologians
are wont to date from thence an important advance
in doctrinal development and theological certainty ; but
its decrees were issued in a defiant spirit ; they were
conceived with but a very imperfect apprehension of
the bearing of many of the Protestant doctrines ; and
they built up a wall of separation between Catholicism
and Protestantism which, down to the present time, has
been the greatest cause of a divided Christendom.
It is accordingly difficult at first sight to understand
the tone of unqualified congratulation in which the
history and results of this great synod are invariably
referred to by Catholic writers; and the explanation
may be of service as illustrative of more recent displays
of the spirit of Ultramontanism. The policy of Eome,
it is to be remembered, strictly corresponds to that of
an absolute despotism. It prefers the unquestioning
the accepted teaching of the Romish Chiu-ch, and is frequently refemed
to by Mohler in his Symbolik as ' a very important voucher for Cathohc
doctrine.'

INTRODUCTION, 39
submission of half a realm to the uncertain and ever- introd.
threatened allegiance of a continent. It will retire, not
without dignity, within narrower limits of sovereignty^
rather than abate one iota of its prerogatives. And
the Council of Trent, while it permanently shut out no
inconsiderable section of Eome's former subjects, un
doubtedly estabUshed a stronger bond of union among
those that remained. ' It drew,' says an eminent Pro
testant writer, ' an impregnable wall round the more
limited but stiU extensive dominion ; it fixed a definite
creed, which, still more perhaps than the indefinite
authority of the Pope, united the confederacy of the
Catholic powers ; it established, in fact, a solemn recog
nition of certain clear and acknowledged points of doc
trine, a kind of oath of allegiance to the unity of the
Church and to the supremacy of Eome.' ^
The success of the policy embodied in the Triden- change in
\ - , . the clarac-
tine decisions was largely furthered by other circum- terofthe
stances. The character of the men who were now
raised to the papal chair lent fresh dignity to the office.
In Paul HI. and IV., and Pius IV. and V., the Church
was conscious of rulers of a different type from Alexan
der VT. or Leo X. — men of strong convictions, to whom
the honour and interests of Catholicism were dear, of
1 Dean Milman, Review of Ranked Hist, of the Popes. Dean Hook,
in his Life of Archbp. Parker, points out with gi-eat clearness the difierence
between the doctrinal decisions of the Council of Trent and the mediaeval
Coimcils, and those of the early Church: 'The Council of Trent,' he
says, ' as was the case with the Councils of the Middle Ages, was con
vened to define the faith according to the private judgment of the persons
composing the assembly. It was with a very difi'ereht object in view
that the first four Councils were summoned. The question then asked
had not reference to the private opinions of the Fathers, but simply to
ascertain with greater precision what the truths were which had been
handed down from father to son. At NicEea, the Fathers of the Nicene
CouncU were very careful to declare that the form of faith promulgated
by them was not an invention or deduction of their own, but simply what
they had received when first they were instructed in the principles of
Christianity.' P. 57,

Popes.

40

THE NEW REFORMATION.

INTROD.

Rise of the
Jesuit
Order.

Protestantism be
comes di
vided by
theologicalcontro versy.

tact, earnestness, and irreproachable morality. These
pontiffs themselves found also, in the rise of a new re
ligious Order, adherents whose loyalty and devotion
were such as Eome had perhaps never before known.
Among those who attended the Council of Trent and
exercised a marked influence over its later delibera
tions was Lainez, the papal legate and general of the
newly-founded Order of the Jesuits. It was he who
had contended for the doctrine of papal infalhbihty;
and he had braved the indignation of nearly the whole
assembly by intimating his readiness to sacrifice the
theory of the apostolical succession of the bishops in
order to enhance more conspicuously the authority
of the Pope. The attitude he assumed is well deserv
ing of attention as supplying the key to the whole policy
of the new fraternity. From the time that Jesuitism
began to prevail in Europe, (Ecumenic Councils
assembled and were talked of no more. A mysterious
influence spread through every Christian country, dif
fusing itself by a thousand channels, and everywhere
operating in favour of papal pretensions and Ultra
montane doctrines. The members of the Eeformed
Churches, which were singularly wanting in organisa
tion of every kind, found themselves confronted at
every point by the greatest masters of method that the
world has ever known.
While again, thus threatened from without by a
force which imperatively caUed for unity and agree
ment within, Protestantism itself, by a strange fatality,
became distracted and divided by controversy and dis
sension. Nor can it be said that the doctrines in
dispute were of that fundamental importance or tradi
tional certainty that demanded their enunciation as
unquestionable dogmas. The subtleties on which the
theologians of Germany at this period mainly expended

INTRODUCTION. 41
their energies rather recall to us those doctrinal subtle- introd.
ties which divided the early Church in the time of the
Gnostics. Yet notwithstanding — and the fact well
deserves to be noted by every student of ecclesiastical
history — these controversies evoked between the Lu
theran party and those who in Germany were better
known as the ' Eeformers ' ^ animosities but little in
ferior to those which separated both parties from
Eome. It was in vain that men of more moderate
counsels, like Calixtus and John Duraeus, pleaded for
mutual concession and toleration. Amid the temper
and spirit stirred up by the writings of fierce polemics,
such as Hutter, Balthazar Mentzer, and Calovius, their
efforts were of small avail. As, moreover, the questions
in dispute were chiefly of a character that baffled the
comprehension of the masses, the people no longer
espoused their distinctive tenets with the same ardour
as that with which they had responded to the call of
Zuinglius or Luther. Dissension among the leaders,
and apathy in those whom they claimed to guide, soon
produced their natural results ; results which the Jesuits,
among whom submission to authority and the interests
of their Order prevailed over every other consideration,
did not fail to turn to advantage. Their admirable
discipline, moreover, was aided by the intellectual
vigour of men of real genius or learning, like Bellar-
mine, PaUavicini, and Bourdaloue, while the Eeformers
on the Continent could boast of scarcely a name of
eminence from the time of Luther down to that of
Bengel, It was thus that, in the last quarter of the sixteenth Consequentlosses of
century, the great Protestant party, which but a few Protes-
' On the Continent the Lutherans were generally known as Pro
testants, the Calvinists as Reformers. See, on these controver^es, Kurz,
Gesch. d. Deutschen Litei-atur (185.3), H. 2 ; and Witte, Memoriae Theolo-
gorum.

42 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. years before had extended its conquests to the Vistula
and the Danube, which had been nominally embraced
by more than nine-tenths of the population of Austria, .
which had been dominant in Western Flanders, and
had gained even in Cathohc principahties numerous
and devoted adherents, was suddenly arrested in its
triumphant progress and eventually driven back. A
reaction set in, which only stopped when the boundaries
of the two parties had been again restricted to the
limits which have been maintained with but little varia
tion down to the present day.
Rise of , , We have already seen that the decision of the
^n™m"" Council of Trcut on the question of grace, and predes
tination was generally interpreted as embodying an
anti-Calvinistic, if not a semi-Pelagian, view. The
teaching of Arminius and Episcopius, in the early part
of the seventeenth century, represents a similar recoil,
though dictated by very different motives, from the
Genevan dogma ; and the whole movement in the
Ketherlands, known as that of the ' Eemonstrants,' was
mainly an effort to revert to the simpler teaching
of the primitive Church in opposition to the increasing
Agreement tendency to rigidity of doctrine observable both in
,ie3urti"m Catholic and Protestant theology. At the Synod of
Dort, in 1618, this party was treated with unjustifiable
severity and the Arminian tenets were formally con
demned ; yet throughout the seventeenth century,
both in England and on the Continent, they continued
to spread and to find illustrious adherents. It may
perhaps suggest that the connexion between specific
dogmas and the true spirit of Christianity is less essen
tial than many would fain have us beheve, when we
observe at this period the Jesuits — the most vehe
ment supporters of the doctrines of submission and
obedience to papal authority — at one, as regards the
doctrine of predestination, with those who pleaded.

and Armi
nianism.

INTRODUCTION. 43
most earnestly for liberty of conscience and freedom in introd.
the matter of Scriptural interpretation. ' The former,'
says an editor of the famous ' Provincial Letters,' ' while
attaching themselves to the absolutism of Ultramon
tanism, on the one hand, and that of Louis XIV., on the
other, proclaimed themselves the defenders of human
freedom as an article of theological belief; the Jan-
senists, who in politics were on the side of liberty,
asserted their belief in the absolutism of the Divine
dispensations.' ^ The rise of Jansenism, which, like ^"^^ »*¦.
1- .... Jansenism.
Arminianism, was a movement originating in the Low
Countries, and the appearance, in 1640, of the ' Augiis-
tinus ' of the founder of the sect — a work for which a
well-informed writer claims ' an effect on the whole
history of the Western Church for the succeeding 150
years which probably no other volume ever occasioned '^
— marks another reaction, this time favourable to Cal
vinism, abroad ; and in Pascal's ' Letters ' we see his
brilliant genius rallying to the defence of the dogma
of predestination, and involving, for a time, its opponents
in much of the obloquy with which he covered the
tactics and casuistry of the Jesuits.
The formal condemnation of the tenets of Jansenism Condemnation of the
by Innocent X., in the year 1653 ^ — a fatal error on the Jansenist
part of the Eomish Church — again gave the victory to
the Ultramontanists and exp'bsed the Jansenists to cruel
persecution. The despotic power of the Vatican arrayed
its forces against the liberal element in the Church;
and the httle 'Old Catholic' Church of Utrecht —
Jansenism, as it existed in Belgium and HoUand— and
the Galilean Church — were each successively com
pelled to bow, if not altogether to succumb, before
1 Louandre, PrSeis Historique prefixed to edition of Les Provinciales,
p. 11. ^ Neale, Hist, of the so-called Jansenist Church of Holland, p. 7.
' 'Propositi ones Oomelii Jansenii damnatae ab Innocentio X. cum
formulario Alexandri VII.' Denzinger, p. 212.

44

THE nf;w reformation.

Bull In
Coena
Domini.

INTROD. superior pohtical strength. The papal policy had
assumed at this era a character more distinctly menac
ing to the rights of sovereigns and the liberties of sub
jects than any which it had worn since the Eeformation ;
and the Bull, In Coena Domini, promulgated by Urban
VIII. in 1627, gave distinct expression to pretensions
which had hitherto seemed rather to depend on the
mere disposition of the reigning pontiff, ' This Bull,'
says Janus, " excommunicates and curses all heretics and
schismatics, as well as all who favour or defend them
— all princes and magistrates, therefore, who allow the
residence of heterodox persons in their country. It
excommunicates and curses all who keep or print the
books of heretics without papal permission, all — whether
private individuals or universities, or other corporations
— who appeal from a papal decree to a future General
Council. It encroaches on the independence and
sovereign rights of states in the imposition of taxes,
the exercise of judicial authority, and the punishment
of the crimes of clerics, by threatening with excom
munication and anathema those who perform such acts
without papal permission ; and these penalties fall not
only on the supreme authorities of the state, but on
the whole body of civil functionaries, down to scribes,
jailers, and executioners.'
Eepeatedly confirmed by succeeding Popes, ener
getically and universally repudiated by sovereigns and
states, the authority claimed by this Bull may be said
to have been asserted or unasserted precisely as the
influence of the Jesuit Order has been dominant or on
the decline at the Curia. During the pontificate of
Clement XIV. the public reading of the Bull was dis
continued ; and it is hardly necessary to add that it was
Clement XIV, who suppressed the Jesuit Order. It
was a step which he decided upon only after mature

Suppres
sion of the
Jesuit Order in
1773.

introduction. 45
deliberation, and when the mischievous character of introd.^
their activity had already led to their expulsion from
Spain, from France, from the Low Countries, and from
the Two Sicilies.^ The reasons assigned — the manifest
decline in the high character and usefulness of the
Order and their perpetual disagreements with other
religious fraternities — could scarcely, indeed, be cahed
in question ; and the policy of Eome might not im
probably have permanently, assumed a less aggressive
character and one more consonant with modern ideas,
had not the events of the last quarter of the eighteenth
century resulted in a great reaction.
The genius of Voltaire — perhaps the most formid- The French
able assailant that papal Eome has ever known, though tion.
he was himself educated by the Jesuits — precipitated
the French Eevolution ; and with that event not only
Ultramontanism but Christianity itself seemed likely to
be driven from the chief centre of European civilisation.
Napoleon openly avowed the design of overthrowing
the papacy ; and when, in 1799, Pope Pius VI. died in
captivity in France, there were not a few who believed
that it had for ever fallen. Notwithstanding, Napoleon
himself, soon afterwards, deemed it politic to assume a
more conciliatory demeanour, and the Concordat of
180 J, though anti-Ultramontanist in some of its provi
sions, re-established Cathohcism in France.^
The fall of the emperor and the Treaty of Vienna, Reac-
in 1814, mark, however, the real turning-point. Eome, dendesbywhich it
' A good outline of the main facts in the history of the Jesuits in iQyfg^_ '
their relation to states is given by M. Michaud in his ' Reply to M. de
PressensS.' — Le Mouvement Contemporain, pp. 124^153.
^ See Jervis's Studenffs France, p. 591. The Concordat, in one
direction, was decidedly favourable to the claims of Ultramontanism,
inasmuch as it vested the presentations to parochial cures, and removal
fi'om thence, in the bishops ; when once, therefore, the Pope could succeed
in establishing an 'ordinary and immediate' jurisdiction in France he
necessarily became sole autocrat over the clergy.

46

THE NEW REFORMATION.

INTROD.

Pius IX.

His cha
racter.

with the concurrence of the Protestant powers, reco
vered her temporal sovereignty; the restored pontiff
re-established the Jesuit Order ; and Europe, as though
appalled at the anarchy and suffering which it had
witnessed during the prevalence of rationalistic doc-.
trines, fell back on the clergy as its teachers. In the
States of the Church the papal rule recalled the worst
experiences that the people had ever known. Espionage
into private and domestic life became an organised sys
tem. The press was gagged. The police were allies
of a despotism that set all law at defiance. The prisons
were filled with innocent and helpless victims ; while a
foreign mercenary soldiery rendered hopeless the efforts
of patriotic zeal.
Such, for more than a quarter of a century, had
been the chief features of the papal sway over the
domain of its temporal power, when, in the year 1846,
the present Pope was raised, as Pius IX., to the ponti
fical chair. His lengthened reign, his strong individu-
ahty, and peculiar experiences, have enabled this pontiff
to attract to himself a degree of European attention
such as few of his modern predecessors could gain.
Otherwise, apart from the veneration he commands by
virtue of his office, not many, even among the commu
nion over which he rules, would profess to consider him
a man of great capacity or profound knowledge. When
he first set foot in Eome, in 1810, at which time he was
about eighteen years of age, Mastai Ferretti, though
distinguished by his handsome person and amiable dis
position, was remarkable neither for his attainments nor
his abilities.' It was at the advice of Pius VII. that he
became a priest, and it is a current story at Eome that
the ignorance he exhibited at his initiatory examination
1 For most of the facts here given the wi-iter is indebted to the
chapter, ' Einzelne Ziige zu einer Characteristik des P. Pius IX.,' in Dr.
Friedrich's ' Tagebuoh wahrend des Vaticanischen Ooncils.'

INTRODUCTION, 47
was deplorable, A certain natural persuasiveness of introd.
manner, combined with a striking presence, soon made
him, however, popular as a preacher. For administra
tion of any kind he never evinced much capacity ; and
the Institute of St. Michael, of which he was for some
time president, did not prosper in his hands. When Hiseariv
'- '- '¦ ^ sympathies
bishop of Spoleto he early exhibited signs of that im- with
. i. • f ^ T • ^ ¦ ^ Liberalism.
patience and impetuosity of character which, united to
his liberal political sentiments, induced Gregory XVI.
at a somewhat later period to say, ' I have made that
man a cardinal against ray will ; for I know he will be
my successor, and am sure that he wiU destroy the
temporal power, and, if he lives long enough, the
Church as well.' ^ As a politician, his early sympathies
were with the party of revolution in Italy ; and when, in
1831, the late emperor of the French fled for his life to
Spoleto, after the defeat of the insurgents by the Aus-
trians, he owed his safety to the present Pope, at that
time bishop of the city. The earlier years of the
pontificate of Pio Nono augured well for the happiness
of his subjects. He threw open the prison-doors and
granted a general amnesty — ^his successive measures
being an entire reversal of the tyrannical policy of liis
predecessors. Garibaldi and Mazzini were among his
avowed supporters. But in 1848 Europe was again Revolution
convulsed by revolution ; and however favourably we
1 Rosmini, the founder of the Order of Charity, is said to have enter
tained similar forebodings. (See Sat. Rev., April 16, 1870.) Gregory's
prediction is given by Professor Friedrich, 'nach den aUgemein- be-
irannten Aussagen von noch lebenden Zeitgenossen Gregor's.' Mr.
Gladstone's summing up of the characteristics of Pio Nono is fe
licitous : ' A provincial prelate, of a regular and simple life, endowed
with devotional susceptibilities, wholly above the love of money, and
with a genial and tender side to his nature, but without any depth of
learnino', without wide information or experience of the world, without
original and masculine vigour of mind, without political insight, without
the stern discipline that chastens human vanity, and without mastery
over an inflammable temper.' — Article in Quarterly Review on ' Speeches
of Pius IX.'

48 THE NEW REFORMATION.
INTROD. may be disposed to look upon the principles advocated
' by the assertors of popular rights, it cannot be denied
that the results of the widespread struggle were, in
almost every instance, disastrous to the cause of consti-
Reaction tutioual frccdom and liberty of conscience. Jesuitism
favourable "^ . .
to the hailed the symptoms of reaction and again rose to in
fluence and power. ' The State's necessity,' it has been
said, ' became the Church's opportunity,' and ' the Eevo
lution of 1848 proved the portal through which the
incomparably disciplined regiments of Loyola began
their triumphant inarch over the prostrate states of
thfTTfic" Europe.' In no direction, however, were the baneful
PiiTs"'"' effects of their success more conspicuous than in the
ascendancy which from this time his Jesuit advisers be
gan to establish over the mind of Pio Nono. Besieged
by the republican forces in his own palace, he fled to
Gaeta ; and not until Eome had yielded to the arms of
France did he venture to return, escorted by the bayo
nets of Marshal Oudinot. Thenceforth his state policy,
chiefly directed by his new Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, Cardinal Antonelli, assumed a tyranni
cal character, which the remonstrances of the different
powers, though often urged, could never induce him to
modify. His determined restoration of the Eoman
Catholic hierarchy in this country led to a violent de
monstration of anti-Popery feeling, and was generally
regarded as a singularly ungrateful return for the
Catholic Emancipation Bill of some twenty years be
fore. Of this latter measure it may be observed that
it would certainly never have been carried, had not the
Irish bishops expressly repudiated the doctrine of Papal
Infallibility.^ From the conspicuous position which he has so long
1 On this point it will be sufficient to refer to the quotations given in
Mr. Gladstone's pamphlet, The Vaiicmi Decrees in their bearing on dvU
Allegiance, pp. 30, 31.

INTRODUCTION. 49
occupied, the slender qualifications of Pius IX. for his introd.
high office- have been only too discernible. Ignorant of ^^ d«-
both the language and the literature of Germany, he and virtues.
regards with a vague horror all the important contri
butions made by that country during the present cen
tury towards the advancement of scientific thought and
theological learning. He looks upon historical studies
as of little value ; and is but superficially acquainted
even withi theology or with the canon law. On the
other hand, his life has always been morally irreproach
able. His patience and self-command under singularly
trying circumstances have more than once extorted
the admiration even of his enemies ; and at the age of
eighty-three he still discharges with energy and dignity
the onerous duties of the pontifical chair.
His ecclesiastical policy has from the first assumed His eccie-
the character which so clearly exemphfies his mental policy.
idiosyncrasy. Slender as his theological attainments
undoubtedly are, no pontiff- has ever exhibited so strong
a desire to define and promulgate new articles of faith.
Among his earher efforts in this direction, the Dogma Dogma of
of the Immaculate Conception, in 1854,^ attracted per- cuiatr"*"
haps most attention from the theological world; but tion?*''"
this was of small importance when compared with the
famous 'Syllabus 'of 1864, In this manifesto he re- TheSyiia-
capitulated and again enunciated aU his previous de
cisions, condemnatory, of ' the monstrous errors which
prevail, especially in the present age, to the great loss
of souls and detriment of civil society, being in the
highest degree hostile, not only to the Catholic Church
and to her salutary doctrines and sacred rites, but also
1 ' Deflnitio Immaculatae Conceptionis B. V. M.' (See Denzinger,
Enchiridion, p. 324.) ' Quae tenet, beatissimam Virginem Mariam in
primo instanti suae Conceptionis fuisse singulari omnipotentis Dei gratia
et privilegio, intuitu meritorum Christi Jesu Salvatoris humani generis,
ab omni originalis culpae labe praeservatam immunem,'
E

50 THE NEW REFORMATION,
INTROD. to the eternal natural law engraven by God upon all
hearts, and to right reason itself,'
The ' Syllabus (or List) of the Principal Errors of
the Age ' enumerates under eighty different heads the
doctrines marked out for reprobation,^ It censures
much that most Protestants are in the habit of regard
ing as inseparable from the best features of modern
progress ; but it also condemns many tenets which
Protestant not less than Catholic di-vines regard with
unquahfied reprehension. It represents, in fact, the
dogmatic rejection, from the Eoman Cathohc stand
point, of the theories and doctrines of modem science,
wherever these are found to come into colhsion -with
the traditional teaching of the Church, It asserts the
right of that Church to act independently of the State ;
it denies the validity of civil marriages ; it denounces
theories of secular education ' free from aU ecclesias
tical authority, government, and interference' — the sepa
ration of Church and State — the principle of non-inter
vention between different polities — the abohtion of the
temporal power of the Eoman pontiff — the concession
to Protestants to exercise pubhcly their own forms of
worship in Cathohc countries — and finaUy, aU appeals to
Eome to reconcile herself to progress, liberahsm, and
modern science. On the other hand, it makes common
cause with other Christian communions in its condem
nation of pantheism, materiahsm, and rationalism — of
theories that deny the action of Providence upon man
kind and upon the world — of the sceptical explanations
of religious belief and of the miraculous element in the
Scriptures, It asserts the subordination of philosophy
to rehgious truth; and denies that the individual reason
is in itself capable of deciding and determining upon
questions of dogma,
' Syllabus eomplectens pi-aecipuos nostrae aeiatis errores qui notantur
^n Allocutionibus consistorialibus, in Enajclicis aliisque Apostolicis littei-is
sanctissimi domini nostri Pii Papae IZ.— Denzinger, pp. 345-857.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 51

CHAPTEE I.
THE VATICAN COUNCIL.
The outline given in the preceding pages will have chap.
sufficed to indicate the main points in the history of i^tiUf. '
the long struggle between the two theories of conciliar ways a
theory with
and papal infaUibility. That infaUibility, in a more or nh„rchtra
less definite form, has always been assumed as present '^''"'"'
in the Church, can scarcely be questioned, though the
belief has doubtless often been maintained in a manner
repugnant to Scriptural teaching. But when it has
once been admitted that the guidance of the Holy
Spirit has been promised as a perpetual legacy to the
faithful, it is obvious, unless we are prepared to inter
pret this theory in some purely figurative sense which
would deprive it of all practical significance, that the
Divine voice must needs avad. itself of human instru
ments in order to render its utterances authorita
tive among men. From the first assembling of the
Apostles ' with one accord in one place,' on the day
of Pentecost, down to the Council of the Vatican —
whether the synod has been one of bishops, or pres
byters, or deacons — it has ever been the practice
of such assemblies to seek the guidance of the Holy
Spirit in prayer, to assume that that prayer has been
answered, and finaUy to enunciate their decisions as
E 2

issue.

52 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, the ultimate verdict of their ' Church.' For aU prac-
¦ ' tical piu-poses, therefore, the theory of infaUibUity, in
one form or another, is that of every Christian com
munion ; the supernatural element is, in each case, dis-
Thereai tiuctly assumcd.^ And the question really at issue in
question at -' j. ..
the Church of Eome has throughout been — not whether
infallibility is, or is not, given to the Church — ^but
whether this infalhbihty is to be held to reside in one
man, or in some hundreds of men distributed over
Christendom ? And the answer to this question must
evidently be sought in a reasonable interpretation of
Scripture and in a careful consideration of the doctrine
of the primitive Church.
First an- Jt was early in the year 1868 that Apostohcal
TiounCR- .J .J J.

nounce-

fficumtn^ Letters ^ were issued from Eome, convening an (Ecu
menical Council to be held in that city — the first
sitting to take place on the day of the Immaculate
Conception, 1869. The Cathohc journals unanimously
greeted the announcement as a matter for unquahfied
Objects for congratulation. The scope and purpose of the CouncU
sembie.*^" ^cre clearly indicated. The doctrines of the ' Syllabus '
were to be emphatically recognised and enforced. Two
1 The Rev. J. M. Capes, in an able article in the Contemporary
Revierv (Oct. 1871), has rightly pointed out that ' in the nature of things
there is no more difficulty in attributing infallibility to a single li-ring
Pope than in attributing it to an assembly of several hundred dead
bishops.' It is evident that historical precedents and Scriptural authority
must constitute the final test in deciding between the two rival theories.
^ Sanctissimi Domini Nostri Pii, Divina Promdentia Papae IX.,
lAtten-ae Apostolicae, quibus indicitur (Ecumenicum Concilium Romae
habendum et die Immaculatae Conceptioni Deiparae Virqinis sacro A.D.
1869 incipiendum. (Printed, with translation, in Dublin Rev., Oct. 1868.)

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 53
great and pressing evils, it was aUeged, were menacing chap.
the Church : first, the existence of a large number of poh- ' ' '
ticians and pubhc men bitterly hostile to her interests ;
while, secondly, as the result of the activity of this body,
a great social calamity was impending over Europe — the
severance of ci-vil society from the Church's control
and influence. ' Indifferentism,' as denounced in the
' SyUabus,' was declared to be the special cause of these
evils, and was consequently to form the special subject
of the Council's deliberations. ' As previous Councils,'
said a writer in the 'Dublin Eeview,' ' have been sum
moned against Arianism, Nestorianism, Eutychianism,
Lutheranism, so this has been summoned against Indif
ferentism and the e-vils thence flowing forth.' ^ A num
ber of minor subjects were somewhat vaguely described,
as likely to be brought under the Council's considera
tion, but not a word occurred bearing upon the dogma
of Papal InfaUibUity ; and the same journal, referring Papal in
to rumours to the effect that this question would be y°^^^°"
brought forward, observed, 'We cannot find, in the
BuU of Convocation, any reference, however distant, to
such a subject.' In the spring of 1869 it began, how
ever, to be very currently reported, that the dogma
would form at least one of the questions which the
Council would be caUed upon to discuss, if, indeed, its
promulgation were not reaUy the main object that the
assembly was designed to accomphsh ; and while by
the Ultramontane press the prospect was haUed with •
1 Dublin Review (New Series), XI. 513.

54

THE NEW REFORMATION,

CHAP. I.

Protest of
the press

expressions of rapturous delight, not a few of the or
gans of the Liberal party indicated with considerable
boldness the theoretical conclusions involved in such a
dogma, and the practical results to which it might lead.^
It well deserves, indeed, to be placed on record, and
rfpomd'^ is a fact that renders the supineness of the j^rincipal
0 ject. European Powers all the more remarkable, that ener
getic protests, as regarded both the political and eccle
siastical significance of the projected CouncU, were not
wanting, long before the opportunity for energetic
counter-action had passed away. The 'Allgemeine
Zeitung,' in a series of able articles published in the
month of March, entitled ' The Council and the Civilta,'
first exhibited in the light of historical research the true
bearing of the questions which it was beheved would
be brought forward for the Council's decision,^ On the
9th of the same month, eight months before the Coun-
¦^ See Quirinus, pp. 3, 4. It ia significant of the insidious policy and
elaborate strategy of the Romish Church, under Jesuit guidance, that
the pubhc mind was thus artfully prepared for the promulgation of the
doctrine of papal infaUibihty by a aeries of carefully preconceived
measures, the ultimate design of which was, at the time, formally dis
avowed. Dean Howson, at the Bonn Conference in 1874, observed that
it was well understood in England that the dogma of the Immaculate
Conception was only a ballon d'essai sent up before the Vatican Council —
an assertion to which Dr. DoUinger had abeady given the sanction of his
authority. ^ To these articles (better known in their collected form under the
pseudonym of Janus) may be attributed the more earnest tone in which
the subject now began to be discussed by the Liberal press. They clearly
pointed out how en-oneous it would be to conclude that, because the
doctrine had long been maintained by a party, it would add but little to
its jmpoitance to elevate it into a dogma. ' Once fixed as an article of
faith,' said the writer, 'it -will become a new principle of unlimited signifi
cance, whether viewed retrospectively or prospectively. It will become a
principle embracing all individual and social life, for there will then no

THE VATICAN COUNCIL, 55,
cU assembled. Prince Hohenlohe, the Premier of Ba- chap.
varia, called the attention of the Cabinets of Europe Protest of
to the grave political import of the approaching event, Hoheuiohe.
He stated that it had been ascertained, beyond all
reasonable doubt, that the object of the Ultramontane
party was the dogmatisation of the ' SyUabus ' and of
the theory of papal infalhbUity, and pointed out the
effects that such a proclamation must necessarily have
upon the relations of Church and State throughout
Europe. His individual opinion was reinforced by that
of the faculties of theology, and law in the University
of Munich, who, in reply to five questions which the
prince had formaUy submitted for their considera
tion, set forth, in terms which afterwards became only
too painfully intelligible, the evils that would ensue
if the aims of the Ultramontanists were successful.^
Unfortunately, the representations of the Bavarian
Premier failed to convince the statesmen whom he
addressed, and the opportunity for interference was
allowed to pass by. We shall afterwards see how, ,
when it was too late, the action which he recommended
was attempted, and attempted in vain.
It wiU be interesting here to note the previous
career and position at the time of some of those who
were now to represent, either by their presence or their
writings, the Liberal element in Eoman Cathohcism,
longer be any question of the Pope going beyond his proper sphere.
Infalhbility must define its o-wn limits.'
1 Their opinion was subsequently ratified by that of the Catholic
faculties of four other German universities. The questions, with the
answers, are printed in the Dublin Review (New Series), XIII. 469-474.

ger.

56 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, and, at a later period, the party driven by the action
' ' ' of the Ultramontanists into openly-avowed dissent.
Leaders of Dr. Johauu Joscph Isuatius von DoUinger was
the Liberal r to o
Gemin ^°^^ ^* Bamberg, in February 1799, and is conse-
Dr. Doihn- q^g^^jy jjq.^ ^^ j^^g 'j'ji\^ yg^r. He was educated at
Wiirzburg, and after ha-ving been for some time profes
sor at the ecclesiastical seminary at Aschaffenberg, was
appointed in 1826 one of the faculty of theology in the
university of Munich, then just founded. At that
time there were few ecclesiastical scholars of note in
Catholic Germany, and, in default of a reaUy authori
tative guide, his active inteUect and scholarly tastes led
him to prosecute an independent course of research into
the origines of Church history. The first published result
of his labours — ' The Doctrine of the Eucharist in the
First Three Centuries ' — appeared in 1826, and was
subsequently incorporated in the two volumes of his
' Church History ' (1833-5), a work of which, up to
the present time, no more volumes have been issued,
though his ' Compendium of the History of the Church
down to the Eeformation' (1836-43) bore -witness to
the ability and thoroughness of his researches upon a
later period. His ' History of Islamism ' (1838), and
his work on German Lutheranism, ' The Eeformation,
its Internal Development, and its Effects,' were regarded
as works of a high order. His lectures in the univer
sity also produced a considerable impression, though he
for some years ceded his chair to Mohler, of whom he
was an attached admirer and friend, and whose minor

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 57
works he subsequently edited. About this time he as- chap.
sumed the editorship of the ' Historisch-pohtische Blat- " ' '
ter ' ; and from 1845 to 1847 he represented the uni
versity in the Bavarian Chamber, where he was gene
rally regarded as a leader of the Ultramontane party ;
but in 1848, under the predominating influence of a
faction in the Cabinet, who feared alike his abihties and
his high character, he was deprived of both his profes
sorship and his seat in the Chamber. He was there
upon nominated and elected by the Liberal party to a
deputyship to the National Parliament, and, whUe
filhng this post, he both wrote and spoke with great
effect in defence of religious hberty, and as the cham
pion of ecclesiastical freedom represented in Germany
views nearly identical with those espoused by Monta
lembert in France. In the spring of 1849 he returned
to Munich, and was restored to his professorship and
also to his seat in the Chamber. His ' Hippolytus and
CaUistus ; or, the Eoman Church in the Third Century '
(1853), his ' Paganism and Judaism ' (1857), and his
' Christianity and the Church at the Period of their
Foundation ' (1860), now successively appeared, and
raised his reputation, both as a scholar and a -writer, to
the highest eminence — the last-named production being
generally regarded as his masterpiece. In 1861 he
published his ' Church and the Churches,' a work un- His church
and the
dertaken partly from a perception of the dangers that churches.
were then threatening the temporal power of the Pope,
and having for its object to show ' the universal import-

58 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, ance of the papacy as a world-power,' and to mdicate
' ¦ the doctrinal basis of a possible re-union of the
Churches, although with respect to such a scheme he
frankly admitted in his preface, that there was not ' the
smallest probabihty ' that it could immediately be
carried into effect. In fact, for a long time. Dr. Dqlhn-
ger was regarded as a pillar of Ultramontanism ; and a
recent writer in the ' Contemporary Eeview ' has even.
ventured to declare him to be ' mainly responsible for
the mental slavery, the narrow -views, and servile and
superstitious submission to the Pope observable in the
Catholic clergy of Bavaria.'^ In the year 1863 he
showed, however, sympathies of a very different char
acter, in the controversy in which he became involved
Dr. DoUin- whilc Supporting Professor Frohschammer in his de-
ger and
Froh- fence of the hberties of science against the archbishop
of Munich and the Pope. He invited some of the most
distinguished savants of Germany to a conference, pro
fessedly summoned for the purpose of considering and
formally declaring the rights of science. The results
were singularly disappointing. The energetic and
overbearing opposition of those who represented the.
Jesuit party so far prevailed vdth the assembly as
completely to change its purpose, and Dr. DoUinger,
who presided, eventually found himself charged with
the duty of transmitting to the Pope a telegraphic mes
sage, to the effect that the question had been decided
' in the sense of the subjection of science to authority.'
' Contemporary Review, XVII. 268.

schamraer.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL.- 59
The doctrines advocated by Frohschammer were thus chap.
placed under a ban ; his supporters were silenced and " ' '
humiliated ; and the professor himself was left com
pletely isolated. DolUnger submitted unhesitatingly;
and the proceedings probably served reaUy to hasten
on the promulgation of the ' Syllabus' of 1864.
Such were the antecedents and attitude of the future
leader of the movement with the history of which these
pages are especiaUy concerned. Dr. DoUinger was not
himself present at the Council ; but there were not a
few of the same party — if such a name may be
applied to the various elements that composed, for a
few short months, the anti-Ultramontanist section at
the assembly — but httle his inferiors in ability or in
the capacity to estimate in all its bearings the sig
nificance of the occasion that had called them together.^
Dr. Friedrich, professor of theology at Munich — a Dr. Fried-
profound ecclesiastical scholar, to whom the history of
Councils, and especially that of Trent, had for years
been the subject of especial study — attended Cardinal
Hohenlohe in the capacity of theological ad-vdser ; and
his journal of the CouncU, during the greater part of
its proceedings, appeared in the following year, and
' The reference to Dr. DoUinger thus early in these pages wUl become
more intelligible in connexion with the following reference to him : ' The
cardinal legate, Bizzari, observed to a Roman prelate that " the German
bishops, who had once been noted for their docility, were now incon
ceivably obstinate ; DoUinger, however, puUed the strings (stehe hinter
ihnen) ; and his position in Germany was like that of the Pope himself. " '
Friedrich, Tagebuch, p. 122 (Jan. 21, 1870), Similarly the Civilta
Cattolica for Sept. 4, 1869, had, abeady intimated that DoUinger was the
prime instigator of the German opposition. ' AU the threads of the
movement,' it declared, ' converge at Munich.'

60 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, forms a highly valuable record. Equally emment,
 ¦ — ' though known chiefly as an ecclesiastical jurist, was
Professor Yon Schultc, profcssor of the Canon Law at Prague,
Schulte. ^^ ^j^g commencement, indeed, his reputation was that
of a decided Ultramontanist ; but he proved courageous
enough to avow the convictions which gradually forced
themselves upon him with the progress of events.
Haneberg. Haucberg, abbot of the Benedictine monastery of St.
Boniface at Munich, represented an influence unsur
passed by that of any ecclesiastic, in a city conspicuous
Stress- for its strong Catholic sympathies, Strossmayer, bishop
mayer. of the Croatian diocese of Diakovar, and an ardent
Panslavist, was soon to give evidence of that signal
ability as an orator which marked him out for the
leadership of the minority in debate. Cardinal Sohwar
zenberg, archbishop of Prague ; Ketteler, bishop of
Mayence ; and cardinal Eauscher, archbishop of
Vienna, apart from their high position, were also dis
tinguished either by their active participation in the
proceedings of the Council or by their -written contri
butions to the controversy.
Leaders of Amoug the Freuch bishops, the learned and elo-
the Liberal
France™ <liicnt Darboy, archbishop of Paris, whose tragical fate,
Darboy. a fcw mouths later, attracted the attention of aU
Europe, was weU known to be strongly opposed to the
Dupanloup. proposcd dogma ; and the vote of Dupanloup, bishop
of Orleans, was probably regarded by the papal party
as already decided, A native of Savoy, who had risen
almost solely by personal merit, he was distinguished

THE VATICAN COUNCIL, 61
by his labours in the cause of rehgious education. His chap.
liberal advocacy of classical studies, as an important " '
element in such an education, had exposed him to the
attacks of the ' Univers,' while his courageous mainte
nance of GaUican liberties against Ultramontane preten
sions had drawn upon him the hostility of the Jesuits,
On the other hand, he was a strenuous opposer of secu
lar education, and his influence had proved fatal to the
claims of M, Littre at the candidature of that eminent
scholar for the vacant chair in the Academy in the
year 1854, Ginoulhiac, bishop of Grenoble, sustained Ginoulhiac.
the reputation of his Order for learning, a quality for
which the French episcopate is but moderately distin
guished. England sent archbishop Manning, whose English
known determination from the first, to support the
dogma unflinchingly, stood in strong contrast to the
moderation of bishop Clifford and the candour of the
aged MacHale. The most conspicuous of the American
episcopate was bishop Kenrick of St. Louis, whose pam
phlet, towards the close of the Council, so ably vindi
cated the position assumed by himself and his brother
bishops. During the week preceding the opening of the criticism
CouncU, the ' Methodus ' and ' Ordo ' for the regulation of ^^^^"^f^-
its manner of procedure were in circulation among the a^f or^.
assembling members, and at once attracted a large
amount of criticism.^ It was found that, in singular
' This is the Bull kuo-mi as ' Multipliees inter,' or Litterae Apostolicae
quibus ordo generalis in ss. oecum. Concilii Vaticani celebratione servandus
constituitur. Friedrich, in his Journal, under date Dec. 5, 1869, at once

I.

62 THE NEW REFORMATION.
chap, contrast to the order which had obtained at the earher
General Councils and even at that of Trent,^ the Pope
assumed to himself the sole right to initiate topics for
discussion and the exclusive nomination of the officers
of the Council. The bishops, it is true, were invited
to bring forward proposals of their own ; ^ but it was
necessary that they should first of all submit them to a
commission appointed by the Pope, half of whom were
to be Italians, If any proposal were passed by this
commission, the Pope still reserved to himself the
power of excluding it from discussion. Four election
commissions, consisting each of twenty-four members,
and presided over by a cardinal nominated by the
Pope, were to mediate between the Council and the
Pope. When a decree had been discussed and opposed
it was to be referred, together with the amendments,
noted it do-wn as singularly strange, that 'it ixei, as abeady decided
upon, every important point, without the opinion of the Council having
been heard ; ' and after quoting the phraseology of different passages,
observes, ' It must be admitted by everyone who reads these sentences
that the Pope, and he alone, defines and decides : infallibility is here abeady
ascribed not to the CouncU but to himself.' — See Tagebuch, pp. 9-12.
^ Father Theiner, the librarian of the Vatican, who during the Coun
cil ventured to print a portion of the Tridentine Acts, stiowing the modus
procedendi, was forbidden to publish it. He was subsequently dismissed
for having, as it was alleged, shown the MSS. to Hefele and Strossmayer,
contrary to the injunctions he had received not to permit any bishop to
see them. See Quirinus, pp. 194, 655. The Ordo et modus in celebrations
saori et oecumenici Concilii Tridentini observatus is printed by Friedrich
(Documenta I. 265-276), from the Codex Latinus at Munich.
^ ' Licet jus et munus proponendi negotia, quae in sancta oecumenica
Synodo tractari debebunt, de iisque Patriim sententias rogandi nonnisi ad
Nos, et ad banc Apostolicam Sedem pertineant, nihilominus non modo
optamus, sed etiam hortamur, ut si qui inter Concilii Patres aliquid pro-
ponendum habuerint, quod ad publicam utUitatem conferre posse existi-
ment, id libere exequi velint.' — Friedrich, Tagebuoh, pp. 10, 11.

-THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 63
to one of these commissions, by which body it was chap.
again to be discussed -with the assistance of other theo- " ' '
logians. When it came back from the commission it
was to be put to the vote as it then stood, with the
corrections and comments, and to be passed or rejected
without further debate. What the CouncU discussed
was to be the work of unknown divines. What it
voted was to be the work of a majority in a commis
sion of twenty-four. In the right conceded to them
of electing these commissions the bishops certainly
acquired some influence over the Council's decrees ;
but their position was in every way inferior to that of
the theologians nominated by the Pope, for while the
latter might be summoned to defend or alter their
work in councU, the bishops who had spoken, or pro
posed amendments, were excluded from such further
action. 'The Pope,' said. Quirinus, 'appears as the
author of the decrees, the one authoritative legislator,
who out of courtesy aUows the bishops to express their
opinions, but finaUy decides himself, in the plenitude
of his sovereign power, as seems good to him.' It
can scarcely be regarded as surprising that cardinal
Schwarzenbetg declared to professor Friedrich that he
found the proposed ' Ordo ' ' very entanghng ' [sehr
verfanglich). It was on the eighth of December, a day of pouring First as-
rain, amid the thunder of cannon and the pealing of efi^*^"""^"
beUs, that the Council assembled for the first time.
The business was chiefly of a formal character — a

64 THE NEW HEFORMATION-
chap. sermon, an allocution from the Holy Father, and an
' ' ' official decree announcing the CouncU opened, and
appointing Epiphany for its next session. In the mean
time the Liberal party began to take more accurate
estimate of its strength, and to find that its numerical
Itsoompo- inferiority was only too apparent. Out of 921 prelates
who had received summons to attend the Council 767
were present, and of these 276 were from Italian
dioceses. On December 22nd the bishops of Germany
and Hungary accordingly convened a iiveeting, at
which it was decided to endeavour to obtain, as at the
Council of Constance,' some remedy against the nume
rical preponderance of Italy. Eepresenting as they
did, though only sixty-seven in number, a population
of forty-six millions of Catholics, they considered it
unjust that they should be hable to be constantly out
voted by nearly five times their number, when this
large majority of votes represented only some twenty-
inequaii- seveu miUious, the population of Italy. It was there-
tioTof dif- ^°^^ resolved, in conjunction with the more moderate
countries, prclatcs of cvcry nationality represented at the CouncU,
to address the Pope on the subject, and to petition that
the grievance might be adjusted by the di-vision of the
whole number of representatives into eight ^ national
sections, — each section to have freedom of discussion
' See supra, p. 13.
^ The petition, as finaUy adopted, says, ' in sex cbciter dividantur
coetus.' See Friedrich, Documenta I. 247-250. Qubinus, pp. 140-1,
gives some interesting statistics of the inequaUty thus reaUy obtained as
regards a representation of numbers. ' In Church mattei-s,' he says,
' twenty Germans count for less than one Italian.'

THE VATICAN COUNCIL, 65
among its members, and to be entitled to suggest pro- chap.
posals to the four commissions. This petition was " ""^
curtly rejected;^ and the Civilta -Cattolica denounced
it as an unheard-of thing to seek to introduce ' the
modern theory of numbers ' into the Church. The
bishop of Formione, it insisted, with his diocese of
70,000 souls, was entitled to as much weight as the
archbishop of Cologne, who directed the spiritual
interests of nearly two millions.
On December 28th the articles proposed for the
Council's adoption were published under the title of
Schema constituUonis doqmaticae de doctrina Catholica Schema de
" DoctnnM.
contra multipliees errores ex rationalismo derivatos. It
presented a kind of compendium of doctrine, divided
into eighteen chapters, embodying a sort of amphfica-
tion of the earlier part of the 'Syllabus.' Its great
length and 'wholly unconcihar form ' were freely com
mented on by Quirinus. It was already known to be
entirely the work of the Jesuit party, and it now trans
pired that its authors were two German members of that
body, of but slight theological eminence. On Decem
ber 28th and 29th the first debate took place, and the
Schema encountered vigorous resistance. On the first vigorous opposition.
day cardinal Eauscher opposed it in a brilliant speech,
and was foUowed by five others. On the following
day Strossmayer and Ginoulhiac distinguished them
selves by the boldness of their censures — the former
1 Prof. Friedrich admits that the proposed plan would have been
found productive of delay, and that it had been attempted at the Council
of Trent and abandoned as impracticable. — Tagebuch, p. 36.
F

66 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, selecting for especial attack the autocratic mode of
' — ¦ — ¦ expression employed by the Pope in its promulgation.
The freedom of these criticisms alarmed the Ultramon
tanists ; and when the CouncU re-a^sembled, as ap-
The Schema polutcd OH Epiphany (January 6th), the Schema was
ivithdrawn . , -,..-,
for amend- "withdrawn," and it was sought to disguise the unsatis-

ment.

factory progress of affairs by occupying the CouncU
with an individual subscription to a confession of the
Catholic faith.
From this time, up to nearly the close of January,
schema^e the CouucU was occupied with the Schema de disci-
Disciplina. , t* -i
plina, which dealt -with the duties of the episcopal
order, their modes of life, their visitation of the clergy
, and people, and the obligations under which they lay
to visit Eome frequently and to give in regular reports
on the state of their dioceses. Friedrich noted down
in his 'Diary' that he found it yet worse than the
Schema de fide, and censures the manner in which it
passed over the gravest scandal of the time — the im
moral hfe of many of the clergy ^ — ^without attempting
any effectual remedy. Archbishop Darboy significantly
observed that it rendered necessary the discussion, not
only of the duties assigned to the bishops by Eome, but
also of the rights of the Order. ' The design is every-
1 On this point, as not material to the main subject, I here omit to
give the references made in the coiu-se of the debate ; but Friedrich has
given in his Tagebuch a series of statements -with respect to the ' Pfarr-
kochinnen ' which are weU deserving of attention. (See pp. 89-92, 188.)
It is difficult to understand how, with such facts before him, Mr. Capes,
in the Contemporary Review, (Oct. 1871), found himself able to say that
' the Roman Church does not exhibit, as a rule, those flagrant scandals
which give life to the arguments of controversial assaUants.'

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 67
where apparent,' observed Quirinus, ' of increasing their chap.
dependence on the Curia, and centralising all Church "" ' ^
government in Eome stUl more than before.' It was in
the debate to which this measure gave rise, that Stross
mayer assumed that leading position which he con
tinued to occupy so long as it seemed possible that
reason and argument might not altogether be thrown
away on the majority of his auditors in the Council.
His tact, eloquence, and mastery of each subject at AMUty with which
once marked him out for the leadership of the Opposi- it-w^as op-
r re posed by
tion, and his superiority was finally conceded even by mayet
Dupanloup, on whom it had at first seemed probable
that the office might devolve. The effect produced by
his magnificent speech on this occasion, as he passed
under review every main defect in the Eomish ecclesi
astical system, may be inferred from the fact that, on the
foUowing day, the president deemed it advisable spe
cially to enjoin the discontinuance of audible applause.
In the meantime the maiorit-v, alarmed by the Petition of
•^ •" ¦' the ma-
resolution with which the French and German oppo- ¦'e^u'^civ *"
sition bishops maintained their resistance to both por- dogn^a of^
, . papal in-
tions of the Schema, resolved on a more expeditious fallibility.
and less deferential course of action. Under the in
spiration of bishop Martin of Paderborn and Senestrey
of Eegensburg, a petition was proposed, urging that
the pubhc good of Christianity seemed to demand,
' that the Holy CouncU of the Vatican, professing and
again and again explaining more fuUy the Florentine
decree, should define clearly and in words that ad-
¦E 2

68 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, mitted of no doubt, that the authority of the Eoman
¦~^' " pontiff is supreme, and therefore exempt from error,
when in matters of faith and morality he decrees and
ordains what is to be believed and held by all the
faithful of Christ and what is to be rejected and con
demned by them.'
Counter- The petition was not ready for presentation until
petition of
the mi- t}j(3 en(j of Januar-v, and as soon as the opposition
norit}'. "^ ^ 1-
party were apprised of the design they prepared a
counter-petition, which was signed by a majority of
the French and by nearly all the German and Hun-
Petitionof gariau bishops — in aU 137 names. A third petition
a third
party. -yj^as drawu up by a party of compromise, consisting
chiefly of Spanish representatives, and recommending
the adoption of a less positive formula in the dogma.
The Pope rejected the opposition address ; and the
acceptance of the infalhbilist petition being thereby
rendered difficult, it was hastUy withdrawn at the
last moment.
Rumours of It was HOW that ruiuours of a yet more unscru-
designs of ''
piUous course of action on the part of the majority
began to give rise to considerable excitement. It was
said that, on the Schema de doctrina (which had been
referred to the commission for revision) being again
brought before the Council, it would be proposed to
adopt it without further discussion, and that the pre
cedent thus estabhshed would be made use of in carry
ing through measures of yet greater importance. On
the other hand, rumours of a dissolution began also

the ma
jority.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 69
to be heard. The minority could learn nothing satis- chap.
factory except that the French Government had con- intim'ation
veyed to cardinal AntoneUi, through the Marquis de French
Bonneville, the resident ambassador, the feeling of the "^°'-
Cabinet as adverse to any declaration of papal infalh
bility whatever. This indicated .that the Pope could no
longer count on the support of France ; but it also
soon became known that the ambassador had received
for reply a denial of the right of his Government to
interfere, and a general assertion of the rights of the
CouncU. The convictions of the minority at this juncture
were, however, not a little strengthened by the moral
support which they received from some of the most
eminent leaders of religious thought in Europe. An Published
° ¦*¦ expressions
able criticism of the infaUibilist address, from the pen of by'Dmun.
Dr. DoUinger, elicited general attention, and his state- ly.'pu^j-,
ment that his views were shared by the greater number and Monta-
*' ° lembert.
of the German bishops was angrily but vainly chal
lenged by the Eoman party. At nearly the same time
Father Gratry 's ' First Letter,' ^ a sad and solemn
appeal, found its way to Eome. Dr. Pusey 's volume ^
had arrived shortly before, in which he pointed out that
the consequences resulting from the promulgation of the
dogma could not but be fatal to the prospects of reunion
with the Eastern or the Enghsh Church. Dr. JSTewman,^
1 See Letters to Mgr. Dechamp (transl. by BaUy). Hayes, 1870.
* Is Healthful Reurmm Impossible f By E. B. Pusey, D.D. Riving-
tons, 1870.
^ Iietter to Bishop TJllathorne, Standard, April 7, 1870.

70 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, "while declining to give a definite expression of opinion^
" ' ' pointed out the difficulty of maintaining such a doctrine
in the face of historical evidence. But the protest of
Montalembert excited by far the deepest interest.
That eminent man, than whom no Frenchman hving
had given stronger proofs of unselfish devotion to the
Church, was now on his death-bed. In a letter dated
February 22nd he declared that as an Ultramontane of
the old school he felt himself completely severed from
those of the uew, whom he described as ' spiritual ab
solutists transferring to the ecclesiastical world those
traditions of individual and exclusive rule which belong
to secular despotisms. That which was Ultramontanism
in 1847 was caUed GaUicanism in 1870 ! ' ^
The belief iii a dissolution soon died away as the
intentions of the papal party began further to develop
themselves. On February 22nd the oppositionists were
'thrown into a state approaching consternation by the
The^n«w announcement of a new Regolamento, professedly in
troduced for the sake of facilitating the despatch of
business. By this the president was to have the power
of imposing silence on any speaker, and, in the event
of a majority of votes being on his side, to bring any
debate to a peremptory close. It was also announced
that all decrees would in future be regarded as carried
if a majority of votes were in their favour. This
latter decision necessarily caUed forth the strongest
1 It is, however, right to add that Montalembert confessed that, in
anticipation of the doctrine of infaUibility being proclaimed, he should
submit to the Ooimcil's decision. See lAfe, by Oliphant, II. 393-8.

mento.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 71
protests from the Opposition, who, of course, main- chap.
tained the traditional principle that the decrees of A ' — ' —
General Council require the unanimous, or all but
unanimous, assent of its members, to give them the
necessary vahdity.
The only prudent course of action for the minority K^iuctance
at this juncture would obviously have been, to decline tt^t^^
all further participation in the CouncU's proceedings coSrsl
until the Regolamento had been withdrawn. They
shrunk, however, from so decided a policy, ahd their
antagonists turned their hesitation to rapid advantage
by now bringing forward the dogma concerning papal
infalhbihty in its most arrogant and uncompromising
form. On March 6th copies of the decree were for
warded to the residences of the different members
of the Council. ' This,' said Quirinus, ' was the answer
to the protesting movement  The Curia has
known how to give so emphatic an expression to its
contempt for opposition, that even the sharpest and
bitterest words would show less scorn and insolence.
By choosing the precise moment, when the minority
declare that their conscience is troubled and in doubt
about the legitimacy and result of the Council alto
gether, for bringing forward the very decree which
has all along been the main cause of that doubt and
trouble of conscience, they proclaim plainly and em
phatically that they know the Opposition regards its
own words as nothing but words, and that there is no
earnest manly decision or rehgious conviction behind
them.'

72 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. On March 22nd the ine-vitable coUision canie on.
Opposition The Rcgolamento still stopped the way; and a fe-v*-
Begoia- determined spirits were resolved that it should not
mento. become the law of the assembly without at least a
protest, however ineffectual, on their part. It soon
became evident that their opponents were equaUy re
solute. Sohwarzenberg alluded very slightly to the
subject in his speech, but was at once called to order.
Bishop Kenrick, who followed next, spoke -with signi
ficant emphasis of the necessity of defending the rights
mayer's ^^^ privUegcs of his Order. It was on Strossmayer,
speech. howcvcr, that the bruut of the battle devolvcd. Pass
ing over the question of the Regolamento, he proceeded
to criticise a passage in the Schema de doctrina. The
Schema had come back from the commission -with
-alterations of sufficient importance to indicate a, wish
to concihate the feehngs of the minority, but it stUl
contained an assertion which was felt by all hberal
Catholics to be untrue, in stigmatising the Protestant
Churches as the parents of modern infidehty, ' of mon
strous systems known under the names of Mythism,
fatelpro- E,aticnahsm, and Indifferentism.' Strossmayer pro-
tlTthT -tested against the injustice of these charges, and
infidelity, declared that the 'indifference' of Catholics before
the Eeformation, and theu- rationalistic doctrines be
fore the Eevolution, had been the real causes of those
evils. There were many able champions of Christian
doctrine among the Protestants, of whom it might be
said with St. Augustine, ' errant, sed bona fide errant.'

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 73
Long ago Protestants had ably refiited the very errors chap.
condemned in the Schema, and it was but simple jus- " ' '
tice to assert that Leibnitz and Guizot had earned the
gratitude of aU Christian men.
' Each one of these statements,' says Quirinus, ' and scene in
the two last names, were received with loud murmurs, ^^mbiy.
which at last broke out into a storm of indignation.
The president, De Angehs, cried out, " Hicce non est
locus laudandi Protestantes." And he was right, for
the Palace of the Inquisition is hardly a hundred paces
from the spot where he was speaking. Strossmayer,
then reverting to the Regolamento, exclaimed, in the
midst of a great uproar, " That alone can be imposed on
the faithful as a dogma which has a moral unanimity of
the Church in its favour." At these words a frightful
tumult arose. Several bishops rushed from their seats
to the tribune, and shook their fists in the speaker's
face. Place, bishop of MarseiUes, one of the boldest
of the minority, and the first to give in his public ad
hesion to Dupanloup's Pastoral, cried out, " Ego ilium
non damno." Thereupon a shout resounded from, all .
sides, " Omnes, omnes ilium damnamus." The Presi
dent caUed Strossmayer to order, but the latter did
not leave the tribune before he had solemnly protested
against the violence to which he had been subjected.
There was hardly less excitement in the church outside
than in the council-hall. Some thought the Gari-
baldians had broken in ; others, with more presence of
mind, thought infaUibihty had been proclaimed, and

74 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, these last began shouting "Long live the infaUible
' Pope ! " A bishop of the United States said afterwards,
not without a sense of patriotic pride, " that he knew
now of one assembly still rougher than the Congress of
his own country." '
This stormy scene was succeeded, on the foUow
ing day, by a luU, and the majority even appeared
ashamed of their previous -violence. They manifested,
however, no signs of yielding, though some of the
most eminent members of the minority made urgent
representations to the president. At last, on the
morning of the 26th, the influence of an English
bishop (said to be bishop Clifford) prevailed, and the
The pre- preamble which had been so strongly denounced was
amble-with- *¦ ° •'
a«mde™'^ withdrawn. It came back, duly amended, on the 28th,
and was then accepted unanimously.
The feelings thus temporarily allayed were soon
again aroused by the appearance of a supplemental
paragraph, appended to the fourth canon of the
fourth chapter of the Schema de fide et rationed the
import of which pointed plainly at exalting the judicial
authority of the Eoman Congregations — the tribunals
^ ' Quoniam vero satis non est, haereticam pra-vitatem devitare, nisi ii
quoque errores diligenter fugiantur, qui ad illam plus minusve accedunt ;
omnes officii monemus, servandi Constitutiones et Decreta, quibus pravae
ejusmodi opiniones, quae istis diserte non enumei-antur, 06 hao Sancta
Sede proscriptae et prohibitae sunt.' — Friedrich, Documenta, II. 70. Qui
rinus erroneously refers t» this (p. 434) aa part of the CanstUutio Dog-
matica de Ecclesia Christi, which had not yet been voted upon. The
Canons contain the anathemas pronounced against those who maintain
opinions at variance -with the doctrinal teaching enunciated in the
.chapter.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 75
through which the Pope immediately asserts his auto- chap.
cratic powers. The opposition to this paragraph was opposition
considerable, but less unanimous than that previously clause en
hancing the
exhibited, and was dexterously met by the papal party, o" the"'^
The paragraph embodied, it was urged, a form dear to con^ega-

tions.

the traditions of the Curia ; the preamble had been with
drawn ; the decree itself had been materially modified ;
and any further concession would be tantamount to an
acknowledgment of defeat. By persuasion of this
kind the scruples of the Opposition were overcome.
The paragraph was allowed to take its place along
with the first four chapters of the Schema, with
which it was now submitted for the Council's accept-
ance. These chapters had already received consider
able modification; and in the opinion of many the
chief danger now lurked in the supplementary para
graph. But the concession once made could not be The clause
° ^ ultimately
revoked, and on April 24th the CouncU passed the ^JJ^^^*^'"
Constitutio dogmatica defide Catholica ' (now no longer
a Schema), almost without a dissentient voice.
The party of the Curia had thus virtuaUy ensured Eesuits
r J hitherto
its triumph. It had procured the definition and pro- l^^^l^^^
mulgation of the Church's decrees by the Pope as J""'''-
supreme legislator, the CouncU simply confirming and
approving them ; a new method of procedure in the
assembly had been imphcitly accepted ; whUe, in the
fatal paragraph, the Council had been induced to assent
to a declaration which invested with supreme authority
" Documenta, II. 76-83. j

76 THE NEW REFORiViATIOjSf.
CHAP. tJie former dogmatic utterances of the Vatican.^ It
' needed but one step more and their triumph would be
complete. It was accordingly now resolved to bring
on at once the doctrine of Papal InfaUibUity for formal
acceptance.
Renewed ^g the suprcmc crisis drew near, the interest felt by
protests of ^ ' j
PowMs!"" ^^^ Europe in the question became unmistakeably evi
dent. The Powers who had disregarded Prince Hohen-
lohe's warnings stirred themselves to energetic action.
Both France and Austria, while disclaiming any inten
tion of controlhng the pohcy of the CouncU, announced
that they repudiated aU responsibihty for acts which
might exhibit the teachings of the Church in direct
antagonism to the principles recognised by all Euro
pean governments and nations. Prussia, Portugal, and
•Bavaria followed with similar protests. ' All,' said
Quirinus, ' give warning that they shaU regard the
threatened decrees on the power and infaUibUity of thfi
Pope as a declaration of war against the order and
authority of the State.' In England, in the House of
Lords, the bishop of Ely (Dr. Harold Browne) ^ pro
tested against any decision at which the CouncU might
arrive on account of the Council ¦• not being general,
^ ' Some Catholics really seem to speak as though he had never defined
ex cathedra any verity except the Immaculate Conception. On the con
trary, he expressly declares that he has "never ceased " (nunquam inter-
misimus) from condemning ex cathedra " perverae doctrines." ... If for
more than twenty-three years he has never ceased from such condenma^
tions, the number of his ex cathedra acts must by this time be very
considerable.'— Z)t«J&ra Review (New Series), XV. 187.
^ On presenting a petition from the Anglo-Continental Society
(July 8).

THE VATICAN COUNCIL.' 77
not being free, and not anything like that General chap.
Council to which our forefathers professed themselves ' '
ready to submit.' On the other hand, the great majority
in the Council, together with the Jesuits and the Eng
lish converts without, urged on the final measure. An
address, signed by 300 Cathohcs, residents or visitors
in Eome, was drawn up for the purpose of encouraging
the Pope by the expression of their profound devotion
to the Church and to its head. There were also other Reasons for
hastening
reasons for despatch than those derived from past suc^ ™ ^tanct
cess, and these were to be found in the risks attendant do^\.
upon postponement. It was now May ; the hot season
was approaching ; and it was feared that if the whole
Schema, consisting of no less than seventy articles,
were taken in regular order, the Council would have to
be prorogued before the chapter relating to the all-
important dogma could be discussed.
The chapter ^ concerning the infalhbility of the
Pope which it was proposed to annex to the Decretum
de Romani Pontificis primatu, had been distributed
among the members of the Council as early as March
8th ; and on May 1st there appeared, for like distribu
tion, the observations and suggestions of no less than
forty-seven bishops (among whom were Eauscher, Ket
teler, Furstenberg, Hefele, and Schwarzenberg), which
the Commission had a:nalysed for the purpose.^ The
Constitutio dogmatica prima de ecclesia Christi,^ in the ^''^^j.'/^'^j^ Christi.
1 With the heading ' Romanum Pontiflcem in rebus fidei et morum
deiiniendis errare non posse.' — Documenta II. 178.
2 Ibid. II. 212-289.
' Also kno-svn as the Bull ' Pastor estei-nus.'

78

THE NEW REFORMATION,

CHAP, form in which it was now brought before the Council
' ¦ ' and eventually carried, was divided into four chapters :
(1) Concerning the institution of the Apostohc pri
macy in St. Peter. (2) Concerning the perpetuity of
the primacy of St. Peter in the Eoman pontiffs. (3)
Concerning the scope and significance of the primacy
of the Eoman pontiff. (4) Concerning the infaUible
supremacy of the Eoman pontiff.
Of these chapters the first two attracted compara
tively httle attention, for they embodied nothing that
might not fairly be regarded as the prevalent behef of
Catholics ; but the interpretation given to the theory of
the primacy in the third chapter was at once seen to
be a considerable advance even upon the definition of
the CouncU of Florence, for by the insertion of four
Extension additional new clauses the jurisdiction of the Pope was
given to «< x
Sra""^" extended as ' ordinary and immediate ' over the whole
Church.^ A blow was thus aimed at aU those episcopal

' ' Si quis itaque dixerit, Romanum Pontiflcem habere -tantummodo
officium inspectionis vel directionis, non au-tem plenam et supremam
potestatem jurisdictionis in universam Ecclesiam, non solum in rebus
quae ad fldem et mores, sed etiam quae ad disciplinam et regimen Ecclesiae
per totum orbem diffusae pertinent ; aut eiim habere tantum potiores
partes, non vero totam plenitudinem hujus supremae potestatis ; aut banc
ejus potestatem non esse ordinariam et immediatam sive in omnes ac
singulas ecclesias sive in omnes et singulos pastores et fldeles ; anathema
sit.' — Documenta, II. 316. ' The words "' potestas immediata et ordi-
naria " mean that all Christians, whether laymen or clerics, are personally
the subjects, body and soul, of their lord and master the Pope, who can
impose on them without restriction whatever commands seem good to
him. There are, besides the Pope, who exercises immediate authority by
virtue of his universal episcopate, papal commissaries in the separate
dioceses, who call themselves bishops, and are so named by the Roman
Chancery. They exercise the powers delegated to them by the one true
and universal bishop, and carry out the particular orders they receive

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 79
rights for which the archbishop of Paris had recently chap.
so successfully contended, and which, if abohshed, ' — ' — '
would leave the whole Order in a state of abject sub
mission to the Pope. ' Bishops,' observes Quirinus,
' remain only as papal commissaries, possessed of so
much power as the Pope finds good to leave them, and
exercising only such authority as he does not directly
exercise himself; there is no longer any episcopate,
and thus one grade of the hierarchy is abolished.' ^ In
addition to this, in order to preclude the possibility
of any appeal, the decision of the Council of Constance,
establishing the supreme authority of General Councils,
was distinctly set aside, by a declaration that ' it was a
departure from truth to assert that it was lawful to
appeal from the decisions of the Eoman pontiffs to an
CEcumenic Council, as though to an authority superior
to the Eoman pontiff.' ^
Of the fourth chapter the following is a literal
translation : —
That the supreme po-vrer of the magisterium is also con- ^he dogma
tained in the Apostolic primacy, which the Eoman pontifif, pap^'^Ui'-"^fallihUity.
from Rome. According to this view the whole Church has, properly
speaking, no other right or law or order but the pleasure of the reigning
Pope.' — Quirinus, p. 787.
1 Ibid. pp. 668-9.
* ' Et quoniam divino Apostolici primatus jure Romanus Pontifex uni-
versae Ecclesiae praeest, docemus etiam, eum esse supremum judicem fide-
lium, et in omnibus causis ad examen ecclesiasticum spectantibus ad ipsius
posse judicium recm'ri ; Sedis vero Apostolicae, cujus auctoritate major
non est, judicium a nemine fore retractandum, neque cuiquam licere de ejus
judicare judicio. Quare a. recto veritatis tramite aberrant, qui affirmant,
licere ab judiciis Romanorum Pontiflcum ad oecumenicum Concilium
tanquam ad auctoritatem Romaao Pontiflce superiorem appellare.' — Docu
menta, II. 316.

80

THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP. I.

Historical
precedents pleaded in
justifica tion.

as successor of Peter the Prince of Apostles, possesses over
the Universal Church, has always been held by this Holy
See, is proved by the perpetual use of the Church, and has
been declared by CEcumenical Councils themselves, and by
those especially in which the East agreed with tbe'West in
the union of faith and charity. So the fathers of the Fourth
Council of Constantinople, folio-wing the footsteps of their
predecessors, put forth the solemn profession : ' The first
condition of safety is to keep the rule of right faith, and
because it is impossible that the sentence of our Lord Jesus
Christ should be set aside, who said : " Thou art Peter, and
upon this rock I will build my Church," these words are
verified by facts, for in the Apostolic See the Catholic reli
gion has always been preserved immaculate, and holy doctrine
has always been proclaimed. Desiring therefore never to be
separated from its faith and doctrine, we hope that we may
deserve to be in the one communion which the Apostolic See
proclaims, in which is the whole and true solidity of the
Christian religion.' ' Also the Greeks professed, with the
approbation of the Second Council of Lyons, that the Holy
Eoman Church possesses the supreme and full primacy and
sovereignty over the Universal Catholic Church, which it
truly and humbly acknowledges itself to have received -with
plenitude of power from our Lord himself in Blessed Peter,
the Prince or Chief of the Apostles, of whom the Eoman
pontiff is the successor ; and as he, beyond all others, is
bound to defend the truth of the faith, so also, if any ques
tions concerning the faith shall arise, they ought to be defined
by his judgment. Lastly, the Coimcil of Florence defined :
that the Eoman pontifif is the true Vicar of Christ and the
head of the whole Church, and the Father and Teacher of
all Christians ; and that to him, in Blessed Peter, was given

1 From the Formula of Pope S. Hormisdas, as proposed by Adrian II.,
ard subscribed to by the Fathers of the Eighth CEcumenical Council, the
Fourth of Constantinople.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 81
by our Lord Jesus Christ full power to feed, rule, and govern CHAP.
the Universal Church. •  r — '
' To fulfil this pastoral duty, our predecessors have la- Definition
. '^ J' r of doctrine
boured unweariedly that the salutary teaching of Christ bypre-
should be propagated among all the nations of the earth, Popes.
and have watched with like care that when it had been re
ceived it should be preserved pure and uncorrupted. Where
fore the bishops of the whole world, now singly and now
assembled in Synod, following an ancient custom of the '
Church (S. Cyril of Alexandria to Pope S. Celestine), and
the form of the ancient rule (S. Innocent 1. to the Council
of Carthage), have reported to the Apostolic See such dangers
as emerged especially in matters of faith, that the injuries
done to the faith might be repaired in that quarter where
the faith can experience no failure. And the Eoman pon-
tififs, as time and circumstance required, either by convening
CEcumenical Councils, or by consulting the Church spread
over the world, or by local synods, or by other helps sup
plied by Divine providence, have defined that those things
should be held which they knew, by the help of Grod, to be
in accordance with Holy Writ and Apostolic tradition. For infaiii-
the Holy Spirit did not promise the successors of St. Peter towed on
to reveal to them new doctrine for them to publish, but to oessors of
assist them to keep holily and expound faithfully the revela
tion handed down through the Apostles, i.e. the Deposit of
Faith. Their Apostolic doctrine has been embraced by all
the venerable fathers, and has been revered and followed
by all the holy orthodox doctors, knowing well that this See
of S. Peter remains always exempt from all error, according
to the divine promise of our Lord and Saviour to the chief
of his disciples, — " I have prayed for thee that thy faith fail
not, and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren."
' This gift of unfailing truth and faith was divinely
bestowed on Peter and on his successors in this Chair, that
they might discharge the duties of their exalted ofiSce for
G

St. Peter.

82 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, the salvation of all ; that the universal flock of Christ,
—^ — - turned by them from the poisonous food of error, might be

nourished by heavenly teaching, that the occasion of schism
being removed, the whole Church might be preserved in
unity, and supported by its foundation, might stand firm
against the gates of hell.
' But since in this our age, in which the salutary efiBcacy
of the Apostolic office is more than ever required, not a few
are found who oppose its authority, we judge it to be neces
sary solemnly to assert the prerogative which the only be
gotten Son of Grod deigned to join to the supreme pastoral
office. ' Therefore, faithfully adhering to the tradition derived
from the commencement of the Christian faith, to the glory
of God our Saviour, to the exaltation of the Catholic reli
gion, and to the salvation of Christian nations, sacro appro-
The dogma bantc ConcUio, we teach and define that it is a divinely
defined. rv i i i
revealed dogma: that the Eoman pontifif, when he speaks
ex cathedra, that is, when in discharge of his office of Pastor
and Doctor of all Christians, he defines, in virtue of his
supreme Apostolic authority, a doctrine of faith or morals
to be held by the Universal Church, is endowed with the
divine assistance promised to him in Blessed Peter, -with
that infallibility with which our divine Eedeemer willed that
the Church should be furnished in defining doctrine of faith
or morals ; and, therefore, that such definitions of the Eoman
pontifif are irreformable of themselves and not in virtue of
the consent of the Church.
' That if any (which may God avert) shall presume to
contradict this our definition, let him be anathema.''
Debate on The debate began on May 15th, and during the first
the dogma. week a succession of ecclesiastical dignitaries of the
first rank, among whom were the archbishops of Vienna,
' Documenta, II. 317.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 8-3
Prague, Gran, Paris, Antioch, and Tuam, protested chac.
against the fourth article. Archbishop Manning, on the ¦ "
other hand, maintained that any denial of the doctrine
of infalhbility was a heresy, and deserving of the
penalty of excommunication. Bishop Hefele and cardi- speeches of
Hefele,
nal Schwarzenberg were among the first principal ^^J''"'*'^'"^""
speakers ; the former bringing to bear upon the subject simo",'
an amount of historical knowledge which shone supe- Darboy, '
Stross-
rior to that of every other orator. On the 19th cardi- mayer.
nal Cullen, ' the protagonist of Eomanism in the British
Isles,' as Quirinus styles him, vainly endeavoured to
show that the bishop of Eottenberg had contradicted
the assertions contained in his own writings. Simor,
primate of Hungary, to the manifest discomfiture of the
majority, arrayed his unrivalled powers as a Latin
orator on the side of their antagonists. MacHale,
archbishop of Tuam, now a feeble old man, opposed
both the statements and . the arguments of cardinal
Cullen. In the prime of hfe he had occupied a fore
most place among the Irish bishops ; and he did not
afiect to forget that, at the time of the passing of the
Catholic Emancipation Bill he had emphatically repu
diated the dogma now presented for his acceptance.^
His prolix and somewhat involved speech was suc
ceeded by the eloquent and scholarly harangue of the
archbishop of Paris, who not only predicted that the
dogma, if carried, would be fatal both to the Church
^ See on tbis subject tbe evidence collected by Mr. Lowry Whittle,
in bia Catholicism and the Vatican, ch. II. : ' Tbe Teaching of the Catho
lic Church in Ireland on Papal Authority.' G 2

84 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, and to the temporal power, but declared that a decree
" — ' — ' concerning doctrine not accepted by the whole episco
pal body could have no binding force. He concluded
by urging that if the question could not be allowed to
drop, it might at least be deferred to a future discus
sion.^ The next great speeches were those of ConoUy,
archbishop of Halifax, and Strossmayer. The last efibrt
of the bishop of Diakovar was not unworthy the repu
tation he had gained. He fell back on the strong
position afforded in the third century by the doctrinal
teaching of St. Cyprian and the controversy maintained
by that father with Stephen of Eome. He spoke with
energy in defence of the GaUican Church ; and declared
that the dogma of papal infallibility, once proclaimed,
would be ' the death-knell of General Councils.' At the
close of his speech he pleaded forcibly for the princi
ple of moral unanimity, arguing that all patristic autho
rity pointed to three essential conditions for propounding
an article of faith — ' antiquity, universahty, and agree
ment.' Of all the speeches delivered during the
Council this attracted, perhaps, the largest amount of
attention. ' It became,' says Quirinus, ' the topic of
conversation in aU circles in Eome.'
The speech The debate held its course thus far with httle inter-
of bishop ruption. There were still forty-nine bishops to speak,
when, on June 3rd, bishop Maret addressed the assembly.
His speech was distinguished rather by candour than
1 A translation of this speech is given by Quiiinus in Appendix I,

Mavet in
terrupted.

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 85
tact ; and after some trenchant remarks, he was pro
ceeding to argue that for a Council ' to confer ' in
fallibility on the Pope involved a kind of palpable
contradiction and absurdity, when he was rudely in
terrupted by the president. A petition, signed by
150 members, for the closing pf the debate was sud- ,
denly produced ; the question was put, and carried
by a large majority, and the proceedings were abruptly
terminated.^ It was now clearly seen that the minority had ^or^-
•' '' bodniK* of
nothing to hope for from the consideration of their op- ^ty"""""
ponents, and that their protest might as effectually be
given by a silent vote. It even became a question,
whether complete silence would not be the most dig
nified mode of testifying their sense that the Council
was no longer free. Hitherto it had been hoped that
by prolonging the debates a prorogation might be ren
dered inevitable; but this justifiable strategy, it was
now apparent, would not be practicable. At one time
it was resolved to petition that the Council might be
prorogued ; but the increasing acerbity of temper exhi
bited by the pontiff", and the fierceness of his tone at
several of his public audiences, convinced the minority
of the hopelessness of such an appeal. It was evi
dent too that before long, if not prorogued, the Council
would dissolve of itself. The summer heat was begin- ^^^^^J-^^
ning to tell perceptibly on the health of those represen- *'*' " °^''
' The circumstances are detailed at gi-eater length by Quirinus in his
Fifty-seventh Letter.

SG THE NEW REFORMATION.
tatives who came from Northern climes. Eome, said
Quirinus, at the end of June, was like an episcopal
lazar-house. The Opposition members were, of course,
the chief suff"erers ; the Spanish and Italian bishops, who
were either natives of Italy or a similar climate, being
comparatively but shghtly aff"ected. As the police had
orders to prevent the departure of any of the members
unprovided with a passport, and applications for pass
ports were in most cases refused, the unhappy invalids
found themselves in a position not unlike that of the
inhabitants of a besieged city. The numerical strength
of the Ultramontane party, again, enabled it quickly
to repair any losses sustained through sickness, while
the Opposition had already mustered all its avail
able strength ; and finally, while the former were en
couraged by the prospect of a speedy triumph, and
of substantial rewards in the shape of cardinals' hats
and offices of honour and emolument, the latter were
dejected by the consciousness of failure and by fore
bodings of the consequences which would probably
follow upon a faithful adherence to their convictions.
Signs of Already, indeed, a certain degree of vacillation began
yielding on ' ° °
somrmem- *^ ^^ obscrvablc ou the part of not a few ; and it was
oppo°sition. in vain that the more heroic spirits endeavoured to
inspire them with bolder sentiments. Even the un
looked-for secession of cardinal Guidi to the side of
the minority failed to produce more than a passing
elation. A scheme was now proposed, whereby at
the first voting (the secret voting, as it was termed)

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 87
each member of the Opposition should give his vote chap.
juxta modum, signifying thereby only a conditional """"' '
assent to the new dogma; the condition being, that
¦certain modifications (which he was subsequently to
propose in writing) should be adopted before the
dogma was brought before the Council to receive their
public and final assent. It was proposed by bishop
Ketteler, bishop Melchers, and archbishop Landriot of
Eheims that the minority should for the present con
tent themselves with voting in this manner ; and should
at the same time unite in a declaration to the eff"ect
that, unless their written demands were complied with,
their final vote must be a Non placet. This proposal
was fortunately rejected, under the influence of more
courageous advisers, and the sequel fully justified the
hopeful estimate which the latter had formed of the
resolution of their party.
At length, on Jul-v 13th, the Council assembled to The tinai
° ' ¦^ voting.
vote upon the famous fourth clause. Every effort had
been made by the papal party to intimidate their anta
gonists by prophecies of a complete success. The Pope
himself was said to have predicted that not above ten
would vote No7i placet. As it was, there were eighty- strength of
the mino-
eight ; 400 voted Placet, and sixty-one Placet juxta "^'ty-
modum ; ninety-one abstained from recording their
votes. The elements of which the phalanx of the Non
placets was composed are deserving of special notice.
It included, almost without exception, the bishops of
the East — a sinister omen for the prospects of a united

88 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. Christendom, The whole Hungarian episcopate were

I.

there. Nearly aU whose dioceses represented import
ant and stirring cities, the bishops of North America,
of Ireland, and of England, were found in these ranks;
and not a few whose dioceses lay in Northern Italy
completed the list. The names, again, comprised be
yond all question three-fourths of the most eminent
members of the Council, — Schwarzenberg, Mathieu,
Darboy, Eauscher, Simor, Ginoulhiac, MacHale, Dupan
loup, Ketteler, Strossmayer, Clifford, Kenrick, Maret,
and Hefele. In the list of those who voted Placet
juxta modum scarcely a name of note appears.
After the voting had taken place, it was proposed
by the archbishop of Paris, at a meeting of the Oppo
sition, that the dissentients should leave Eome in a
body, so as not to be present on the 18th, when the
dogma was to be promulgated in its entirety. In
the meantime the general feeling of the minority at the
manner in which the Council had been overruled, the
precedents of former (Ecumenical Councils disregarded,
and real freedom of action suppressed, had found ex-
iw Darboy P^ession in two notable pamphlets,— Ce guise passe an
Qumard. Concile and La Derniere Heure du Concile. The
former, published at Paris, and beheved to be from
the pen of M. Guillard, was a sarcastic expose from
official documents of the whole course of procedure,
and concluded with a significant intimation that the
political interests of France were largely involved in
the conclusions of the Council, The second, the work

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 89
of Darboy himself, was an eloquent and convincing chap.
piece of argumentation, pointing out how effectually ¦""
the intervention of the pontiff" had extinguished the
freedom of the Council, and consequently deprived its
decisions of all just claim to be regarded as authorita
tive utterances of the Church.
The suggestion with reference to the joint action Themi-
°" ¦' nority
of the minority made by the archbishop of Paris was to^eave"*
almost unanimously acted upon ; but before leaving
Eome he and his brother dissentients addressed a me
morial to the Pope, wherein having recorded their ad
herence to their already avowed sentiments, they
expressed their unwillingness to give them public ex
pression on the approaching final occasion. ' They
shrank,' says Michaud, ' from uttering their Non placets
in the presence of the Pope, and from opposing him
to his face upon a question to which he, personally,
attached so great an importance.' ^ To this declaration
they subjoined a unanimous protestation of their un
changed loyalty to his Holiness in all other matters.
Having delivered the document at the Vatican, they
then hastened to quit Eome.
It was thus that, on the appointed day, only two pre
lates — bishop Eiccio of Cajazzo and bishop Fitzgerald of
' ' C'est ainsi, en effet, que les ^vSques de la minority ont expliqu^
leur abstention du 18, s'en r^f&ant a leur vote du 13.' Letter ' A Mon
sieur Du Lac, redacteur de I'Univers,' 1" Mai, 1872. Par M. Michaud.
Les Faux LibSraux, p. 162. The language of ' A Bavarian Catholic,' who,
writing in the Contemporary Review for May, 1871, characterises the
conduct of the minority bishops as ' pitiful,' seems hardly warranted at
this stage of the proceedings.

90 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. Little Eock — uttered their Non placets, as the question
Declaration was fiualjy put to the asscmbly in the dark and gloomy
of the
dogma. Council Hall. It was a day clouded with ominous
forebodings. The great war was on the point of break
ing out, and but few visitors remained in Eome to be
spectators of the concluding act of the drama. As the
Pope read aloud the decree of his own infallibility a
storm which had long been gathering broke over St.
Peter's, and the decree was read by the aid of a taper,
and to the accompaniment of thunder and lightning.
To most these circumstances seemed an inauspicious
omen ; but the supporters of the decree professed to
accept them as an expression of the divine sanction,
like that which attended the promulgation of the law
on Mount Sinai.
' Future historians,' said Quirinus, ' will begin a new
period of Church history with July 18, 1870, as with
October 31, 1517.'
outbreakof Qn the Very same day that the dogma was pro
claimed at Eome the declaration of war by France
was made known in the capital of Prussia. To those
who have carefully watched the progress of events
during the last ten years it willbe difficult to beheve
that this was a mere coincidence. It is now very
generally admitted that, under the empress's influence,
the state policy of France had for some years before
been more and more subservient to the aims of the
Jesuits ; that the emperor was thus led to conceive and
set in motion the ill-fated expedition to Mexico, design-

THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 91
ing, by the aid of those who there favoured the same chap.
views, to found, side by side with the Great Eepubhc of connexion'
the North, a Catholic Empire.^ Devotion to the inter- twoTvTnts!
ests of Dltramontanism, it was notorious, had long been
the best stepping-stone to advancement in the civil
administration of France, and was almost essential to
like promotion in the army ; and up to the very day
when the French lines were rolled back in irretrievable
disaster at Worth and Gravelotte, the priest and the
soldier exulted in the confident assurance of the simul
taneous victory of Catholic France and Jesuit Eome.^
However much the proclamation of the dogma Political
. results of
might be regarded as a triumph, the political results by the decia-
which it was immediately attended could have given "^^'^^s"^"-
but httle satisfaction to its supporters. In England it
evoked a display of anti-Catholic feeling such as had
not been witnessed since the creation of the Catholic
bishoprics. It perceptibly augmented the dislike to
'¦ See three able articles in Fraset's Magazine for Feb., March, and
April, 1874, on ' The Religious Question in Switzerland.'
^ So early as May 2, 1870, Friedrich notes down in his Journal, ' Man
munkelt von einem Einverstandnisse der Curie imd der Jesuiten mit den
Tuilerien. Auch andere Pliin, ja eine formliche Restaurationspolitik soil
sich daran kniipfen.' — Tagebuch, p. 375. Compare the languag'e of
Prince Bismark, so late as Dec. 5, 1874, in the Prussian Chamber of
Deputies : ' Gentlemen, I am in possession of conclusive evidence pro-ving
that the war of 1870 was the combined work of Rome and France ; that
the CEcumenical Council was cut short on account of the war ; and that
very different votes would have been taken by the Council had the French
been victorious. I know from the very best sources that the emperor
Napoleon was dragged into the war very much against his will by the
Jesuitical influences rampant at his Court ; that he strove hard to resist
these influences ; that in the eleventh hour he determined to maintain
peace ; that he stuck to this determination for half an hour, and that be
was ultimately overpowered by persons representing Rome.'

92 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, dogmatic teaching in Germany. It provoked the abo-
" ¦ ' lition of the Concordat in Austria. In both Italy and
Spain the old absolutist traditions seemed to have
passed away, and religious influences to be banished
from the pohtical sphere.
Fall of the In the following October, though the circumstance
temporal '-' "
power. attracted but little notice during the concentration of
European interest on the progress of the war, Victor
Emmanuel issued a decree for annexing Eome to the
Italian kingdom ; and in the language of the present
Prime Minister, ' that immemorial and sacred throne,
which emperors and kings for centuries failed to con
trol, vanished like a dream.' ^ ' It is remarkable,'
observed a writer in the Saturday Review, ' how little
attention has been excited by this sudden and to all
appearance final collapse.'
' Speech of Mr. Disraeli at the Mansion House, Nov. 9, 1874.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 93

CHAPTEE II.
THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGEESS OP MUNICH.
It had originally been agreed among the Opposition chap.

party before they quitted Eome, that no further action rp^^. ;^g^_
should be taken by any individual member without the'oerman
previous consultation with the rest. But as, one by
one, they regained their dioceses and began to ponder,
in comparative isolation, upon the difficulties of their
position and the sacrifices which adherence to a policy
of resistance might involve, the original compact was
forgotten. 'The Pope,' observes M. Michaud, 'per
fectly well knew that they were not of the race of St.
Paul, and would prefer their personal comfort and the
preservation of their bishoprics to duty ; and he dealt
with them accordingly.' In the following September
seventeen German bishops issued a Pastoral from The Pas
toral from
Fulda, declaring that it was incompatible with the FuWa- •
principles of the Catholic religion to assert that the
doctrine of papal infallibility was not contained in
Scripture and tradition. Their example was the signal
for a general recantation ; and some of the bishops
who had most distinguished themselves by their bold
resistance to the dogma, now sought to atone for their
former temerity by uncalled-for harshness towards

94 THE NEW REFORMATION.
chap, those of their clergy who showed a tardy submission.
' '""' It is painful to record among the number of those
who exhibited this pitiable tergiversation the names of
Darboy, of Eauscher, Dupanloup, and Schwarzenberg.
' It is grievous,' said Eenftle ofi Mehring, writing in the
following May to Van Vlooten, ' that not a single bishop
in Bavaria and Germany should have remained true to
us.' ^ The course adopted by their two most distin
guished prelates was unanimously followed by the
French clergy. Even in Hungary and America the
defection was scarcely less complete. Among the
English Catholics bishop Clifford observed an ominous
silence, which he subsequently broke by declaring the
decrees of the Vatican to be binding on all Catholics ;
while bishop Brown of Newport, though declaring his
acceptance of the dogma, aff"ected to beheve that, if
erroneous, it might even yet be corrected by another
General Council !
On the other hand, the language of a very small
minority continued to be firm and explicit. In Eng-
A°ton'a land, Lord Acton published a p'amphlet, wherein he
contented himself with recalhng with damaging effect
the arguments and emphatic protestations which had
been so freely employed by the Opposition three
months before. ' Men,' he observed in conclusion, ' in
high position at Eome used to say that the Opposition
was abusing its freedom, to disseminate heresies. If,
at the last moment, the bishops have themselves come
• Die Apostolische Reise des Erzbischofs von Utrecht, p. 5.

Acton's letter.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 95
round to this'view, and recognise as the doctrine and ch.ip.
law of the Church the contrary of what they have "¦ '
hitherto maintained, they will inevitably have to atone
for the scandal they have given. These are things
requiring not simply to be recanted but refuted, for
they were listened to and have roused conviction in
many hearts. The announcement that the Vatican
Council was a long intrigue, carried through by trea
chery and force, has penetrated the whole world.' ^
In Bavaria the attention of the clergy was mainly
concentrated on Munich, and at Munich all were
watching for the decision of one eminent leader. Im
mediately after the proclamation of the dogma, the
archbishop had returned to the city and summoned a
meeting of the theological faculty. It was attended by The arch-
bis imp of
nearly all the professors, at whose head DoUinger Munich
appeared as spokesman. After a few general remarks, ^o'i'"S"'-
the archbishop, evidently nerving himself for a painful
eff"ort, turned to the subject nearest to the minds of all
present. ' Roma locuta est,' said he ; ' gentlemen pre
sent know ftiU well what follows, and that we have no
other course before us than to submit.' He then pro
ceeded to give as favourable a colouring as possible to
the transactions and decisions of the Council. Hane
berg, who stood by the side of DoUinger, expressed the
difficulty he felt in accepting the theory of the Pope's
personal infallibility. The archbishop hastened to
' Sendsohreiben an einen Deutschen Bischof des Vaticanischen Concils,
von Lord Acton. Nordlingen, p. 18.

96 THE NEW REFORMATION,
CHAP, assure him that this dogma had nowhere been defined !
" — ' — ¦ If one part of the decree appeared to imply such a
doctrine, it must be taken in conjunction with other
sentences and expressions. Towards the close of the
audience he turned to DoUinger. ' Ought we not,' he
said, ' to be ready to begin to labour afresh in the cause
of the Holy Church?' ' Yes,' replied Dolhnger, in his
peculiarly decisive manner, ' yes, for the Old Church'
One could see, says Friedrich, that had it been anyone
else who stood before him, the archbishop would have
given expression to his evident displeasure. As it was,
he restrained himself, and simply rejoined, ' There is
but one Church, and that is neither new nor old.'
' But they have made a new one,' rephed DoUinger.
The archbishop continued his observations. A man of
slender theological attainments, and respected rather
for his moderate and well-meaning policy, than for
abihty and learning, he was no match for the eminent
scholars by whom he was surrounded. He talked on
loosely and almost incoherently, until at last a sentence
fell from his lips which Friedrich noted down ' as
worthy of record and transmission to posterity,' ' con
sidering,' he adds, ' that it was uttered in the presence
of an entire theological faculty.' ' You know, of
course,' the archbishop began, ' that there always have
been changes in the Church and in her doctrines.'
These words were sufficient to give rise to manifest
sensation. ' I shall never,' says Friedrich, ' forget
the bearing of Dolhnger and Haneberg as they heard

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 97
them.' It could not escape the notice even of the chap.
speaker. ' At least,' he added, ' you know that dogmas " ' '
have often required to be defined.'
In the following August a Protest was drawn Protest of
professors
up by fourteen Catholic professors at Niirnberg. ^g^^"™'
' Sketched,' as Eeinkens long afterwards observed,
' amid the din of war, it appeared immediately before
the catastrophe of Sedan, and was the first published
declaration against the Vatican treason.' It expressed
with admirable terseness and clearness the grounds on
which the Liberal party rejected alike the decree and
the authority of the Vatican Council, and concluded
with the following significant words : ' By the assertion it oaiis at-
tention to
that all doctrinal judgments of the Popes addressed to ^^^ P°|^J^
the whole Church are infallible, those ecclesiastico- dogma"^^
pohtical maxims and statements of ancient and modern
papal decrees are declared to be infaUible rules of
faith, which teach the subjection of states, peoples, and
princes to the authority of the Popes even in secular
matters, and establish principles, concerning the tolera
tion of heretics and the civil rights of the clergy, opposed
to the present order of society. And thus the peaceful
understanding between Church and State, clergy and
laity. Catholics and non-Cathohcs, wUl be rendered
impossible for the future.'
The pubhcation of this Protest was followed, shortly consequent
, suspension
after, by the suspension by bishop Forster (the bishop of^thr^ee of
of the diocese) of three of the professors, Eeinkens, *'^=^'"^^-
Baltzer, and Weber, who had been most prominent in
H

98 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, its preparation. This act on the part of the bishop
"^ ' ' wore the appearance of yet greater harshness, in that
he had notoriously himself contemplated the resigna
tion of his office as an alternative to the acceptance of
the Vatican decrees. Measures of this kind were, how
ever, evidently not likely to meet with much success
among those who stUl remained firm to their convic-
tortie"^"' tions. In the Ehine country, Tangermann, deprived
S!^trjr. of his -parish by the archbishop of Cologne, became the
moving spirit of the party ; and another Protest, drawn
up at Coblentz, was largely signed in that and other
large towns by many of the educated laity ; whUe the
' Eheinischer Merkur', shortly afterwards started at
Cologne, appeared as an authoritative organ of the
supporters of the movement.
i>s^;?™tion But the manifesto which excited most attention
publishedat Munich, ^^g undoubtedly that pubhshed at Munich, which con
cluded with the following words : ' We do not accept
the decrees illegally established at Eome on July 18th;
we remain true to our ancient Catholic faith, in which
our fathers lived and died, and shall therefore offer an
active and passive resistance to every attempt to force
on us a new doctrine or to drive us out of the
Church.'
Position of When the year 1871 dawned upon Europe, the at-
the Old -*-
party at titudc of the Old Catholic party was thus simply that of
nienc°em"ent dignified and earnest protest. All that their leaders
had hitherto done had been to refrise submission to the
decrees of the Vatican Council— pointing out how free-

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 99
dom and sincerity had alike been wanting to its de- chap.
liberations — and to expose and refute by historical or ' ' '
theological arguments the conclusions involved in the
new dogma. The cause, at this stage, was consequently
defended solely by a few eminent theologians and
their immediate followers. It was a learned contro
versy rather than a popular movement. From the ??'T"'}y.»f
•' ¦'¦¦'¦ the inferior
inferior clergy it received scarcely any support. The German".
relations of the parish priest to his bishop in Germany,
it is to be remembered, differ widely from those that
obtain in England. The former renders to his spiritual
superior the same submission in doctrinal matters that
he looks himself to receive from his own parishioners,
' From the moment a young man takes orders,' says a
correspondent of the ' Eheinischer Merkur,' in allusion
to this subject, ' he submits himself, body and soul,
mind and conscience, to his bishop, unless he would be
denounced as contumacious, whether these commands
are in accordance with canonical rules or not. An ap
peal to conscience is a protest against the bishop's
authority, therefore against one whom the Holy Ghost
has appointed to govern the Church of God. Appeals
against such an one are appeals against the Church, and
against the only one not bound to obey the Church —
against the Pope.' Bishop Ketteler, whose tAventy
years' occupancy of the see of Mayence entitle him to
be heard on such a question, publicly declared ' that
the servility of the lower clerus, in respect of obedience,
H 2

100

THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP. II.

Fatlier Hyacinthe.

is beyond belief, beyond parallel, and even carried so
far as to place bishops in the position of despots.' ^
It was accordingly with no httle reassurance that,
after the Pastoral from Fulda, the Ultramontanists
awaited the gradual subsidence of so much virtuous
indignation and lofty sentiment. They calculated, not
without reason, on the slow but certain effects of pru
dence or despair, and confidently beheved that a few
more months could not faU to reduce what yet re
mained of the old Opposition to the mere shadow of a
party, which would ultimately entirely disappear. That
these anticipations were not verified in the sequel is
undoubtedly to be attributed mainly to a few dauntless
spirits, whom neither the prospect of temporal losses, of
deprivation of office, nor the hostihty of the uneducated
masses, could move to swerve from their plighted faith
and allegiance to their own conscience.
Among those who thus began to attract to them
selves the attention of Europe — though such publicity
was far from being courted by the thoughtful and re
tiring scholars who found themselves summoned to the
front — M. Hyacinthe Loyson, better known as Father
Hyacinthe, now assumed a conspicuous part. A native

^ See Report of tJie Anglo-Continental Society for 1871, pp. SS", 39. It
must, however, be admitted that the French clergy, with few exceptions,
have generally been equaUy wanting in independence. ' We give them
the word of command to march,' said cardinal Bonnechose in the French
Senate, ' and they march.' It may be urged, as some excuse, that ih.e
Concordat between Napoleon and the Pope gives to the French bishops
more arbitrary power over their clergy than in either Germany or Italy,
for in these latter coimtries the canon law still regulates tbe relations
between the different ecclesiastical orders.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. lOl
of Orleans, where his father was a professor, and where ch.\p.
he was 'born in the year 1827, he entered in 1845 the '~~' '
Seminary of St. Sulpice, and was ordained a priest in
the year 1849. He subsequently became a professor
of philosophy at Avignon and Nantes, but eventually
resigned his post at the latter city to assume the vows
of a friar of the Order of the Carmelites. It was in
this last capacity, as a preacher at Lyons and Bordeaux,
that he acquired his reputation as the most effective
pulpit orator of his day ; and his success soon afterwards
induced him to seek the more critical audiences of
Paris, where he further estabhshed his fame at the
Madeleine and N6tre Dame. The boldness of his lan
guage, however, gave oflfence to the Jesuits, and he was
enjoined to exercise greater moderation. The inter
ference, and the dictatorial spirit in which the injunc
tion was conveyed, roused his spirit — already smart
ing under the despotic rule to which the French clergy
are systematically subjected. He threw aside his friar's
gown and declared himself independent. This was at
the very time when the announcement of the impend
ing Council roused the attention of Europe, and his
pamphlet on the subject — a fearless criticism of the
conditions under which the Council was to assemble —
was, perhaps, the most vigorous protest uttered by
the Liberal party. His courageous conduct and real
talents made him at this juncture the object of wide
spread sympathy. It was well known that he had
sacrificed brilhant prospects of preferment, and his

102 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, career was everywhere followed with interest. He
" ' ' crossed the Atlantic and preached to large audiences
in New York, and was enthusiastically received. His
marriage, on his return to London, completed his act
of separation from his Order. ^
In personal appearance, as well as in the character
of his genius. Father Hyacinthe differs considerably
from Dr. Dolhnger. In some respects he strongly re
sembles Mr. Spurgeon. In striking contrast to the
thin, spare form, commanding eye, and intellectual
head of the Munich professor, he possesses a somewhat
sensual physiognomy ; his frame is short and thickset ;
and his countenance, though full of energy, is defective
from the drooping eyelids and thick lips. His gait is
singularly ungraceful. But notwithstanding these dis
advantages, his resonant voice and impassioned rhe
toric possess, especially for his own countrymen, a
powerful charm. In his capacity for stirring a large
and popular assembly he is equalled by none, Eein
kens, perhaps, alone excepted, of liis fellow-labourers
in the cause.
ms Appei In the month of January, 1871, Father Hyacinthe
^oSques published his 'Appel aux Eveques Cathohques,' ad-
Cafholi- ¦*¦
ques. dressed to those of the Opposition bishops who had
brought such signal discredit on the cause they had
originally espoused. It gained a larger share of atten-
' ' It ought to be known that Pere Hyacinthe, kneeling side by side
with his betrothed, received a nuptial benediction from a Roman Catholic
archbishop, who said that be regarded enforced clerical celibacy as a
"plaie de I'Eglise." ' — Letter of the Bishop of Lincoln <m his return from
the Congress at Cologne, p. 33.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 103
tion than any other individual expression of opinion, chap.
and was at once seized by the Itahan police, though ' ' '
the Government subsequently excused the act as that
of an indiscreet subordinate. A report which had
gained credence in some quarters, that the author had
joined the Irvingites, was set at rest by his simple de
claration that he still belonged to the Church of his
baptism — ' a Church greater than those who govern it,
greater than those who defend it.' The ' Appeal ' was
marked throughout by singular calmness and dignity
of expression ; and his demand that those whom he
addressed should clearly state whether ' the decrees of
the late Council were or were not binding on those who
professed the true faith,' told with unanswerable effect.
He dwelt on the indisputable fact, that throughout the
sessions of the Council a numerous and influential
minority had frequently attested by their complaints
the pressure of unjust restrictions upon their liberty of
discussion. The Council therefore had not been free.
As to the dogma which it had promidgated concern
ing papal infallibility, this was no subtle question of
doctrine, but a tenet which required to be tested by
historical evidence ; and if, on being subjected to such
a test, it was found to rest solely on forgeries which
criticism had already condemned, its rejection became
not merely a right but a duty. With regard to the
' Syllabus ' — ^when they saw its ablest defenders com
pelled to explain away its articles in a sense opposed to
that in which they were conceived and plainly expressed

104 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. — the same liberty of judgment must be conceded ; espe-
' ' cially when it was evident that, if interpreted in a na
tural sense, they could not fail to place the allegiance
of the faithful Catholic and the loyalty of the subject in
direct and perpetual antagonism. Passing on to the
effects of the policy of Eome for the last ten years, he
proceeded to point out the disastrous influence of that
policy on rehgious feeling in France. Compelled to
choose between Ultramontanism and Infidelity, the
greater proportion of the educated laity had lapsed into
unbelief, and the consequences, as regarded the prevail
ing tone of morality, had been deplorable. The con
clusion of his ' Appeal ' was marked more distinctly by
the spirit of the theologian, and breathed the atmo
sphere in which the writer had been educated. It
The Five cousistcd iu a fauciful comparison of the wounds of
Wounds Church ^^^ Saviour on the Cross to the present condition of
the Church, sorely wounded in five points relating to
9 her spiritual life. These were (1) ' the darkening of
the Word of God,' in withholding the Scriptures in
the vernacular from the people ; (2) 'the oppression
of intellect and conscience by the abuse of the hier
archical power ; ' (3) enforced cehbacy ; (4) and (5) the
wounds of the feet, represented in ' worldliness of
pohcy and superstitious devotion.' ^
switzer- In Switzerland, though the dissatisfaction of the
land. "
different cantons with the results of the CouncU had
been plainly evinced, the clergy showed httle more
' De la R6forme Catholique, pp. 86-93.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 105
disposition to independent action than their German chap.
brethren. One isolated instance, however, cannot be ' '
suffered to pass unnoticed. Early in February an
episcopal mandate appeared, enjoining a general fast,
on the occasion of the proclamation of the dogma as a
divinely revealed article of faith. In Aargau the au
thorities refused to sanction the proclamation ; but in
the neighbouring canton of Luzern, though the Council
was professedly Liberal, the necessary assent was given.
On February 19th, Pfarrer Egli of Luzern proceeded to Pfarrer
Egli of
read the mandate, but, instead of the sentence contain- Lnzemrefuses to
ing the dogma, he made the foUowing declaration : iogm*''
' I have been taught from my youth, in the Catechism,
by the professors whena student of theology, and since
then in those theological treatises which bear the epis
copal imprimatur on the titlepage, that the infallible
teaching of the Church is to be found in the decisions
of the bishops and the Pope in their collective capacity,
not in those of the Pope alone vrithout the assent of
the bishops, but in their collective capacity, in their
unanimous agreement one with another. All the argu
ments adduced to prove that the Pope alone, by him
self, is infallible in matters of belief, produce in me no
conviction and can consequently form no part of my
belief. I cannot flatter, I can only be true to my
convictions, and cannot consequently reconcile it to
my conscience to confess with the lips that which I do
not inwardly believe ; nor can I proclaim to others as
articles of faith and lay down as binding on the belief

106 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, of Others what I cannot believe myself. I consequently
' ¦ ' protest against all coercive measures whereby the
dogma in question is made compulsory as regards
either myself or others, and against all consequences
resulting therefrom.'
l>amphiet Another protest of a different character, in the form
by Dr. Von ^
Sehuite. gf ^ pamphlet by Dr. Von Schulte, professor of the
canon law at Prague, and at one time an ardent Ul
tramontanist, did nothing to popularise the movement.
It was the learned, profound, and deliberate opinion of
an eminent jurist, declaring the new dogma incompa
tible with the principles laid down in the canon law.
' The limits of papal omnipotence on earth,' said the
writer, ' are thereby made dependent solely on the
Pope's own will.'
Friedrich The general interest in the contest was ^till chiefly
andDBl- ^ _ •'
linger confiued to Muuich, where Dolhnger and Friedrich now
refuse to ' o
Vatican^* alouc defended the banner of the Opposition. It was felt
that on their determination the hopes of their party, whose
numbers were rapidly dwindling from successive defec
tions, almost entirely depended. At last the archbishop
sent in a formal demand for their declaration and sub
mission, at the same time specifying a day before which
their compliance must be notified, unless they chose to
incur ecclesiastical punishment. Both the professors
still demurred, and an extension of the term was
granted. The archbishop, it may be observed, brought
but little unpopularity upon himself by these proceed
ings. A man of far from brilhant attainments, but

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH, 107
moderate in his sentiments, and, so far as his policy had chap.
been able to find independent expression, not unfriendly ~ ' '
to the Liberal party, he was looked upon as simply a
somewhat reluctant instrument in the hands of the
Pope. At the expiration of the extended term Fried
rich sent in his declaration, refusing to acknowledge
the authority of the Vatican Council or the dogma of
papal infallibility. Dolhnger, however, petitioned for
further delay, and another fortnight was granted him.
At the end of that time he declared his agreement with
his brother professor, though his rejection of the dogma
was couched in far more decided and explicit terms.
His decision was received with surprise and consider
able irritation by the Ultramontanists and hailed by the
Liberals with equal satisfaction.
On March 28th the letter conveying his refusal was oouinger's defence of
published in the ' Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung.' The his refusal.
reasons which it set forth were nearly identical with
those urged by Father Hyacinthe, though bearing the
impress of a more profound estimate of the whole
question and of greater deliberation. The writer urged
that the dogma of infaUibility had been maintained on
altogether untenable grounds ; that the passages of
Scripture adduced in its support had been wrested from
their true sense and from the sense in which they had
ever been understood by Catholic theologians ; that it
violated the canon which required that Scripture shpuld
always be interpreted in harmony "with the fathers, for
the fathers had never applied the passages to which

108 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, appeal had been made to the question of the absolute
" ' ' power and authority of the Pope ; that the statement
so frequently put forth in the pastorals of the bishops
— that the dogma had been of universal acceptance
throughout the Christian centuries — was erroneous;
that those bishops whose suffirages had been given in
support of the dogma had been themselves deceived
and misguided by the teaching of erroneous text-books,
like those of Liguori,^ the Jesuit Perronne, Cardoni,
Ghilardi, &c. ; that two General Councils of the fifteenth
century had solemnly defined the limit and character
of papal infallibility in a manner which placed their
decisions in direct antagonism to the Vatican decree ; ^
and finaUy he pointed out that in sanctioning the doc
trines promulgated in the ' Syllabus ' the CouncU had
given its 'adhesion to doctrines incompatible with the
requirements of States and the obligations of loyal
citizens. ' This system,' said the declaration at its con
clusion, ' bears its 'Latin origin on its front, and will
never be able to make its way in German lands. As a
Christian, a theologian, a historical student, and a citi
zen, I cannot receive the doctrine. Not as a Christian,
for it is irreconcilable with the spirit of the Gospel and
vfith the express declaration of Christ and the Apostles ;
it sets up that kingdom of this world which Christ dis
claimed, and that dominion over the Churches which
1 The elevation of Lig-uori to the dignity of a 'Doctor of the Church'
by Pius IX., in the preceding July, had excited great indignation in
Catholic Germany, as indicating more than any other act his determina
tion to support the doctrines of the Jesuits by every means in his power.
" See supra, pp. 13, 19.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 109
Peter forbade to all, himself included. Not as a theo- chap.

logian, for the entire genuine tradition of the Church is '
directly at issue with it. Not as a student of history,
for as such I know that the persistent endeavour to
carry out this theory has cost Europe rivers of blood,
distracted and ruined whole countries, overthrown the
fair organisation of the ancient Church, and produced
and fostered the deadliest abuses in her bosom. Lastly,
I must reject it as a citizen, because with its claim uecaiisattention
for the subjection of countries and monarchs and the '»''/. ,
^ political
whole pohtical order to papal authority, and by the ''^"¦^'"s*-
exemptions demanded for the clergy, it gives occasion
to endless and fatal divisions between Church and State,
clergy and laity. For I cannot conceal fi'om myself
that this doctrine, whose consequences brought the old
German Empire to destruction, would, were it now to
become dominant in Catholic Germany, at once im
plant the seeds of a deadly malady in the new empire
just established.' "
On these grounds Dr. DoUinger had the courage to He asks
<=^ " "for another
demand a reconsideration of the whole question. Let Coundi.
it, he urged, be discussed on its merits as a theological
theory, by the assembled episcopate of Germany, or at
least by the archbishop of Munich and the Chapter
of the cathedral. He can scarcely be supposed to
have entertained any real expectation that his sug-
.o-estion would be listened to ; and in the hopelessness
of the proposal his friends and enemies alike discerned
1 Erklarwig (Munich, 1871), p. 17.

110 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, tiig resolution to maintain the position he had taken up.
Reply of The archbishop replied by a pastoral, denouncing the
bishop. declaration, and declaring that the proposition attached
to it was impracticable ; it was likewise intimated that
DoUinger's adherence to the opinions he had put forth
would convict him of heresy and of disobedience to
the authority of the Church as asserted at a General
Address to CouncU. It was felt that the crisis demanded a fresh
DoUinger
by the expressiou of the sentiments of the Liberal party. An
professors ^ i. ./
university, addrcss was accordingly drawn up and signed by the
professors of the university (with but three exceptions)
expressive of their sympathy with their eminent col
league, and assuring him of their support. In this,
the point to which Dolhnger and Friedrich had directed
attention — the antagonism created by the dogma be
tween Church and State — was again emphasised with
much significance ; and from that time to the present this
aspect of the question has never been lost sight of, and,
as we shall hereafter see, has been brought by succes
sive events into yet greater prominence. It was fuUy
understood that the king was favourable to Dolhnger,
and the sympathy of aU Bavaria was roused as it saw
Public its greatest scholar thus calmly preparing for a con-
que^tlon. t^^^ almost single-handed with the Pope. A large
meeting of laymen was held at Munich on April 10th,
at which it was resolved to petition the king that he
might be pleased to assert his full prerogative in oppos
ing the tendencies of the dogma. Addresses of sympa
thy came in, representing important communities— one

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. Ill
from the Town Council of Vienna, another from an in- chap.
fluential assembly of the citizens of Linz. Nor was the ' ^
interest evinced confined to Germany, it was shared at
nearly aU the great centres of learning or of political
importance. Father Dalgairns, writing in the ' Contem
porary Eeview,' scarcely exaggerated the amount of
attention the struggle had evoked, when he declared
that ' by the light of burning Paris men were still
watching every move of the combat going on between
the archbishop of Munich and Dr. DoUinger.'
The Pope had resigned to the archbishop the un
grateful task of resorting to .final measures, and for
some weeks the latter, influenced, it was said, by the
fear of offending King Louis, delayed to strike the The arch
bishop ex-
blow bv excommunicating the recusants. At last, in ™""n™i,-
.' o ' cates Dol-
April, the -mandate was issued ; both Dr. Dolhnger Fn^ednch!
and professor Friedrich were declared excommuni
cated, and the sentence was read from the city pulpits
to the different congregations. Their fellow-professors
of theology, having all submitted, were now compelled
to separate themselves from their two colleagues by a
public declaration.
Dr. Dolhnger made no appeal to the ecclesiastical
courts, and, by desisting from his function as cornet
minister, he practically recognised the vahdity of the
sentence. His example was followed by Friedrich. Penftiefollows the
Eenftle, a parish priest at Mehring, near Augsburg, ^^™pi«
adopted a bolder pohcy. He had, like Egli at Luzern,
protested against the dogma from the pulpit, and had

112 THE NEW REFORMATION.
chap, like him been excommunicated. With the support
' ' ' and encouragement of his parishioners he had, however,
continued to discharge the duties of his post, and the
Government refused to aUow the bishop of Augsburg
to carry out the sentence by force.
In pursuance of the policy they had adopted, of
tiloiio^" laying the main stress on the political bearing of the
the Ting? dogma. Dr. DoUinger's supporters next drew up an ad
dress to the king, which received the signatures of some
12,000 Cathohcs. Their committee was censured by
the archbishop, who found himself in turn sharply cri
ticised by professor Huber, and was compelled to see
his new line of conduct placed in striking contrast with
the language he had held at the Council. As yet pro
fessor Friedrich had not published his Tagebuch, and
an article which he now inserted in the ' Allgemeine
Zeitung ' — depicting the course of procedure at the
Council, and exposing the tactics of the Curia and the
moral cowardice of the bishops — contained what were
Public ^ to many altogether novel disclosures, and excited con-
meeting at -^ o '
Munich. siderable attention. A meeting held at Munich, at
Whitsuntide, was addressed by professor Michelis, of
Braunsberg, and by professor Huber (Dr. Dolhnger
standing aloof from public demonstrations) ; but al
though affording expression for considerable enthusiasm,
it resulted in nothing that could be regarded as an ex
tension of the Old Catholic programme. On the other
rfHefeie"" liand, the submission of Hefele (who had refused to sign
bei^"""" the Pastoral issued from Fulda), and of Haneberg,
whose example could not but carry great weight in

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 113
Munich, were felt as a serious blow. Their decision chap. II.
appeared to be the result of correspondence with each ' '
other, and both justified it on the same grounds — the
paramount obhgation to labour for the peace of the
Church, and the necessity of ecclesiastical obedience.^
The meeting held at Whitsuntide determined the Address of
German
German bishops to draw up a counter-manifesto. To- \^l^^^
wards the end of May they published two addresses ; "'^^''^"
one to the clergy, another to the faithful laity. In the
first they strenuously inculcated the duty of complete
submission to the decrees of the late Council. They
accused the leaders of the Liberal party of deliberately
altering the tenour of these decrees, ' partly by report
ing the words in a mutilated form or incorrectly, partly
by altering their meaning, by unduly amplifying them,
or by false interpretations.' They affirmed that the Denial of
personal
Council had invested the Pope with no powers superior infaui-
to those to which he had before laid claim, certainly
not with any supreme power. ' It has not,' continued
the address, 'conferred on the Pope any personal infal
hbUity, but simply declared that infallibility is promised
to him in a certain precisely defined and lofty exercise
of his doctrinal office.' They repudiated, as a calumny,
the assertion that the new decrees were in any way
prejudicial to the peace of States or the interests of
^ ' Even bishops have not shaken off the notion that their resistance
to the Pope's demands would be schism, and that schism is the deadliest
mischief in the Church. Bishops Hefele and Haneberg fell victims to
this scrupulosity. Because conscience is not independent, they could no
longer apprehend the clear thought that unity in a lie profits nothing, but
ruins all.' — Bp. Reinkens, Speech at Cologne Congress, Sept. 22, 1872.
I

114, THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, their rulers. As for the Bull Unam Sanctam, that had
II.
'^^e^i.^ been sanctioned by a Council, and, unless it was pro-
Mi uL^ posed to set aside alike concihar and papal decisions,
Sanctam. __ •/? i i
its doctrines must be accepted. But even it the j)apal
claims had ever threatened to interfere with the rights
of States, it was certain that the Pope had long ago
retired within the limits of a legitimate ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, and any apprehension, as regarded the
future, was absurd.
The whole address was certainly dexterously con
ceived. It called first of all for unhesitating submis
sion, and then proceeded to disavow the interpretation
generaUy given to the new doctrines, by retorting upon
the Liberal party aU those charges of disingenuous
artifice which had for months been so loudly preferred
against the Ultramontanes themselves. And lastly,
inasmuch as it had become impossible to disavow a
series of printed and published documents, an endeavour
was made to explain away the most startling expres
sions and passages by assigning to them a vague or
non-natural meaning. But again practice stood out in
singular contrast to profession. The archbishop of
Bamberg applied to the Government for permission to
publish the dogma, and was met by a reftisal — ^he pub
lished it notwithstanding ! The other bishops, in direct
contravention of the existing laws of the State, pub
lished it without even soliciting any permission what
ever. Such were the practical proofs whereby the
supporters of the principles laid down in the ' Syllabus '

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 115
and the Constitutio de Ecclesia sought to convince the chap.
world of their pohtical harmlessness and irrelevancy to. ' ' '
questions of civil obedience !
The address to the faithful laity appealed to the Address to
the laity.
prejudices, still too prevalent in certain sections of
society in Southern Germany, against modern science ;
and artfuUy sought to associate "svith the tendencies
of materiahstic doctrines the views of thinkers hke
DoUinger, Schulte, and Friedrich. ' Learning in Ger- Denunciation of
many,' it said, ' has of late entered upon paths even in modern
the province of theology which are incompatible with
the Catholic faith. This tendency among learned men
to shake off" the authority of the Church and beheve in
nothing but their own infalhbility, cannot be reconciled
with loyalty to the teaching of the true faith.' ' It is a
faUing away from the true spirit of the Church, since
it obeys a spirit of false hberty, which prefers indi
vidual views and opinions to a belief in the divine
authority of the Church inspired by the Holy Ghost.
Taken in connexion with these phenomena, does it not
appear providential that just at the time that so-called
free theological science has raised its head so loftily, the
dogma of the doctrinal infalhbihty of the chief shep
herd and teacher of the Church should have been
proclaimed, in direct contradiction to this false ten
dency in theology?' It then proceeded to protest
against the assertion ' that a new doctrine had been
proclaimed which was not contained in the ancient
traditions of the Church, or that in the doctrine of the
t2

116 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, infallibility and hierarchical supremacy of the Pope
a change had been introduced into the relations of
Church and State, which could in any way endanger
the power of the State.'
Encyclicals Two Papal Eucyclicals which appeared, the first in
thePo°f ^ay, the second in June, though containing no direct
reference to the contest in Bavaria, attracted attention
from the vehement animosity which they evinced to
wards the Old Cathohc party ; and an Allocution, ad
dressed to a deputation of French Catholics at Eome,
gave a shock to the common sense of Europe. In the
latter, Pope Pius denounced the adherents of the
Liberal movement as leaders of a cause more formi
dable than the Eevolution, as men more to be dreaded
than the Communists, ' those fiends let loose from
hell.' On the other hand, his language to some depu
ties from Belgiurn went far to alienate the sympathies
of France, when he unfeelingly contrasted the security
enjoyed by the former cotintry — the divine reward of
Ultramontane loyalty — ^with the terrible calamities
that had befallen the French empire in its unhallowed
compact with Liberahsm.
New Decia- Tlic singular unfairness of the charges and grossness
ration by ° Ob
onhTou '^^ ^^^ misrepresentations to which they had been sub
part/."' jected, roused the Old Catholics to a more formal
vindication of their principles. Dr. Dolhnger himself
now came forward, and, in conjunction with thirty
others, issued a new manifesto.^ An able though far
1 This is given in a French version in Father Hyaciuthe's De la

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 117
from altogether friendly critic of the whole movement,^ chap.
whose writings have called attention, in this country, ""^ '
mainly to the difficulties which have beset its progress,
professed to discern in this document an abandonment
of the position before occupied by its subscribers. He
observed that it no longer spoke of the rights of a
collective episcopate to withstand the mandates of the
Pope — such a justification having been, in fact, with
drawn by the almost complete defection of the bishops
to the papal party; and that the appeal was conse
quently now made to an alleged infallible element
residing in the theologians, the laity, and in uniform
Church tradition. The criticism, unfair at the time,
has since, as we shall hereafter see, become obsolete.
The Old Cathohc party was then in a transition state ;
and it would be easy to point to similar apparent
inconsistencies in past religious movements in their
progress towards harmonious and complete develop
ment.^ The intolerance of the Ultramontane party at this
juncture unexpectedly supplied the Old Cathohcs
with new and yet more forcible arguments whereby to
RAforme Catholique, pp. 73-84. ' Je donne a la declaration signSe a Munich
par M. le professem- DoUinger et par ses amis I'adh&ipn la plus entiere
et la plus expUcite. J'ai la conflance que ce grand acte de foi, de science
et de conscience sera le point de depart du mouvement r^formateur qui
seiil pent sauver I'Eglise Catholique, et qui la sauvera.' — ' Hyacinthe.'
Rome, 7 juiUet, 1871.
' See articles in Contemporary Remew, for May and December 1871,
by ' A Bavarian Catholic'
"^ See, for instance, the almost exactly similar criticism of Luther by
Mohler, quoted at p. 26.

118 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, justify their demands for State protection. Towards
J;^^ the close of June, Dr. Zenger, professor of the Eoman
of the""' law at Munich, died at the age of seventy-three. He
Church to .
Dr. Zenger. ^^d Warmly Sympathised with the Liberal party, having
been among the first to sign the address of sympathy
to Dr. Dolhnger. When on his deathbed he sent for a
Franciscan friar who had long been his personal friend,
and desired at his hands the last sacraments of the
Church. He was told that he could neither be per
mitted to receive the sacraments nor even Christian
burial until he had retracted the opinions imphed in
his signature to the address. This he firmly refrised to
do, and the friar departed. The archbishop was
appealed to, but was found inexorable. Dr. Messmer
subsequently, however, gave the dying man the priestly
absolution ; Eenftle sent in from Mehring the holy
oils and viaticum'; and these were administered by the
excommunicated professor Friedrich.
Old The feeling evoked by the whole circumstances led
Catholic .
j^emoriai ^q the presentation, on the very day following Dr.
Zenger's death, of another petition to the Government,
signed by 18,000 persons, and formally presented by
Dolhnger, Friedrich, and others. • In this the me
morialists distinctly declared that the state of the law
with regard to the relations between Church and State
imperatively called for revision. The denial of the
sacraments of the Church to a man so eminent for his
worth and piety was incontestable proof that liberty of
conscience no longer existed. They called, therefore.

to the Go
vernment.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 119
for the interference of the authorities to enable them chap.
to exercise their religious rights without molestation. "" '
They asked for the grant of one church in Munich,
with its furniture and revenues, wherein they might
assemble. They also requested that it might be made
obhgatory on parish priests to give the necessary civil
sanction to marriages required by the Bavarian law,
whenever the ceremony itself might be performed by
an Old Catholic priest. It was not without reason that
the Saturday Review, in referring to this petition,
affirmed that the contest had entered upon a new
stage, and had become an ' affair of grave public interest
directly affecting the relations of Church and State.'
This petition to the Government was followed by Funeral of
^ -' Dr. Zenger.
a great public demonstration at Dr. Zenger's funeral.
The rites were performed by Friedrich ; and several
State officials, nearly the whole professorial staff" of the
university, together vdth deputations from the diff'er-
ent bodies of students, were present. The Choral
Society sang portions of the service, and at night the
students made a procession by torchlight to the grave.
That the Government was far from indifferent to Positionof the Go-
the contest that was going on, was sufficiently indicated vemment.
by a series of articles that appeared, in the month of
June, in the Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung, and
which had really already embodied the only answer
which the State authorities were able to give to the
Old Cathohc appeal. In these it was clearly pointed
out how, under the existing state of the law, the

120 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. Government was powerless to take any decided action
^ ' in the matter ; and that, untU new laws had been in
troduced, this inability must continue to exist. As
the majority of the representatives in the two Bavarian
Chambers were notoriously Ultramontane, it followed
that the Old Catholics were , precluded from entertain
ing any hope of State protection untU they should
succeed in producing such an effect on public opinion
as would, in turn, influence the decisions of the repre-
. sentative Chamber. To this task, therefore, the more
energetic leaders of the party now began resolutely to
address themselves.
rf^the" ^^^ university of Munich, an academic body
of°MuniciI which, though of comparatively recent foundation, now
ranks third among the universities of Germany, was
the first to take the initiative. In the month of August
it elected Dolhnger rector of the university ; and
shortly after, on the occurrence of six vacancies in the
' Senate,' or governing body, it elected, from its 114
professors, six who were conspicuous for their resist
ance to the Vatican decrees, among whom was Fried
rich. Such was the response of the great educational
centre of Catholic Germany to the sentence of excom
munication pronounced by the archbishop of Munich.
Mere demonstrations of sentiment were, however,
not likely to produce any effect at Eome. Pius IX.
was intent on treading in the steps of Pius IV.,
though he exhibited none of his predecessor's practical
sagacity; and he was prepared to drive the most

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 121
enlightened, virtuous, and influential members of the chap.
Eomish communion into open revolt, rather than '
concede one iota of the unjustifiable claims which he
now asserted. It was, therefore, not surprising that, Proposalsfor a new
amid circumstances of such perplexity and under such Council.
injustice, the minds of the Liberal party, like those of
the leaders of the Eeformation in its earlier stages,
reverted again and again to the idea of a free Council.
CEcumenical, indeed, it might scarcely claim to be ; but
then neither was the CouncU of Trent oecumenical, nor,
indeed, in strictly accurate sense, any mediaeval Council
that. had assembled since the great schism between the
Eastern and Western Churches. It might, however,
from its composition, aspire to win the respect and
confidence of impartial observers ; its proceedings
might be such as to convince the world that they were
the efforts of conscientious men seeking to arrive, by
legitimate and unfettered interchange of opinion, at a
common basis of belief; and might not its decisions
eventuaUy serve to bring about an amount of agree
ment with regard to the fundamental doctrines of the
faith such as Christendom had not witnessed for ten
centuries ? Tridentine experiences and Tridentine doc
trines were, as we shaU see, present to the minds of
not a few, as warnings or as precedents to guide the
•deliberations of the Council which it was now proposed
to assemble at Munich.-'
1 For the whole proceedings of tbe Congress see Stenographischer
Bericht iiber die Verhandlungen des Katholiken Congresses zu Miinchen.
Muncben, 1871.

122 THE NEW REFORMATION,
CHAP. The rapid progress of the Old Cathohc party since
' ¦ the Congress of 1871, both as regards doctrinal views
and general organisation, has doubtless served to im
part to its dehberations on that occasion a historic
rather than a practical interest, but it will be none the
less worth while to note the conditions under which it
assembled and the aims proposed for its attainment at
this stage in its development.
The Con- The Cougrcss assembled at Munich and lasted from
gress of "
Munich, ^i^g 22nd to the 24th of September. It was presided
over by professor Von Schulte,^- and was composed
of some 500 delegates, from almost every European
country, and even from North America and Brazil,
though, as might have been anticipated, by far the
larger number were from Germany. Among the latter
were to be found representatives of nearly all sections
of society, the noble, the Government official, and the
man of commerce.^ The Bavarian representatives,
with excellent judgment and good taste, dechned, as
far as possible, that prominent share in the proceed
ings to which their previous exertions and sacrifices
' Of this eminent leader of the movement Mr. Lowry Whittle says :
'His appearance and demeanour were much more those of an intel
lectual soldier than a professor. Everyone remarked the striking like
ness he bore to the portraits of Count Bismark — a likeness heightened by
his prompt, decided bearing, always, as chairman, appreciating each point
made, and recognising the rights of all tbe members, but taking care to
prevent confusion and waste of time. His fellow-labourers at the Con
gress spoke of him proudly as unserer Bismark.' — Catholicism and the
Vatican, p. 60.
^ Nearly aU the delega.tes, it was ascertained, had, notwithstanding
their different social status, been students at one or other of the German
universities. — Ibid., p. 64.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 123
fairly entitled them; but the admiration and respect chap.
for DoUinger evinced by all present was unmistake- ' " '
able. On his first appearance the whole assemblage
rose up to render him an emphatic mark of homage.
The vice-presidents were Landammann Keller of
Aarau, and Windscheid ; the latter professor of Eoman
law at Heidelberg; the former, a statesman of emi
nence in his own country, whose massive presence,
piercing glance, and resonant voice, gave on the present
occasion singular effect to a mascuhne and commanding
style of oratory. The committee included Dolhnger,
professor Langen of Bonn, Eeinkens of Breslau, Maassen,
professor of the canon law at Vienna, Friedrich, and
Huber, one of the authors of ' Janus.' The most
effective speakers were perhaps Michelis and Eeinkens,
both of whom exhibited the resources of a highly ner
vous and telling rhetoric, as they visited with well-
deserved denunciation the policy of the Jesuits, and
combined in declaring that the suppression of the
Order was essential to the tranquilhty of the State not
less than that of the Church. Father Hyacinthe alone,
among the speakers, represented the country with
which Germany was on terms of such bitter hostility.
No Englishman addressed the Congress ; but a tele
gram from the bishop of Ely expressed the sympathy
of his Church ; and a synodical letter from the bishop
and clergy of the diocese of Lincoln gave assurance of
their 'brotherly feeling' and promise of 'whatever
active co-operation it might hereafter be in their power

124 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, to render.' The Eev. F. S. May attended with ' letters
" ' ' commendatory' from both prelates (the former signing
in the capacity of president of the Anglo-Continental
Society), having left England for the express purpose
of putting himself in direct communication with the
Old Catholic party and obtaining a fuller interchange
of views between its leaders and the Enghsh Church.^
Scheme ^ portiou of the business of the Congress was
for local '¦ °
S?'^^" transacted in private. Organisation was clearly seen
to be essential for success ; and it was accordingly
resolved to draw up a scheme for the guidance of
those who might be endeavouring to form Old Cathohc
Unions and Congregations (Vereine und Gemeine) in
different parts of Europe. The scheme was necessarily
merely provisional in character ; and its authors
laboured under a double difficulty in their uncertainty,
on the one hand, how far the existing authorities might
continue to deny the rites of the Church to members
of the Old Catholic party, and, on the other, how far the
State itself might be willing to support the new move
ment in the endeavour to establish independent organi
sations. The attitude of the German Government at
this time, it is to be remembered, widely differed from
that which it has since been compelled to assume
under the irresistible logic of facts. The testimony of
1 Mr. May was also the bearer of letters from bishop Browne and
bishop Wordsworth to ' oiu^ most reverend brethren in Christ the Lord
Archbishop of Utrecht, Metropolitan of the Netherlands, with his corn-
provincials the Lords Bishops of Haarlem and Deventer.'— See Report of
Anglo- Continental Society (1871), pp. 34, 35,

THE TEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 125
Eeinkens on this point, given two years later, admits chap.
of no reasonable doubt. ' Our religious struggle against "~ ' '
Eome,' he says, in a published letter to professor Mayor,
' was for a long time exceedingly irksome to the leading
statesmen in Germany ; we found not the smallest
encouragement or support amongst the governments,
and only a partial negative protection.'^ Again,' as
Michelis distinctly stated, their design was not to per
petuate a schism, but simply to provide for their own
pressing necessities. Wherever they were not actually Difficulties
debarred from access to the established ministrations of "ttlnded
the Church, it was accordingly no part of their policy
to found a rival communion. We can thus easUy
understand that it was not without some decided dif
ferences of opinion^ and some hesitation that the Con
gress ultimately drew up the following resolutions,
designed simply to guide the efforts of their widely
scattered little communions towards maintaining and
strengthening their local existence : —
1. In all places where the necessity exists, and where
there is a resident element, a regular cure of souls is to be
instituted. The local committees are to decide whether such
a necessity really exists.
2. We have a right to the recognition of our priests
by the State as entitled to discharge Church functions,
wherever and so long as the same involve religious rights.
¦• Reinkens' Speeches, ed. Prof. J. E. B. Mayor, p. 4.
^ Of the opposition of Dr. DoUinger to these resolutions — an opposi
tion which he could not be induced to withdraw during the proceedings
— I consider it here unnecessary to say anything further than that he
subsequently heartily approved the scheme,* and that no one, at the time,
ever called in question the motives in which his dissent originated.

126 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. 3. Where practicable, this recognition is to be claimed.

4. The circumstances warrant our priests in soliciting
from foreign bishops the performance of episcopal functions ;
and we shall be justified, as soon as the proper time has
arrived, in providing for the introduction of a regular epis
copal jurisdiction.
Declaration The programme in which it was sought to lay down
of religious J. o
policy. ^5^ acknowledged doctrinal basis of their policy and to
define their aims, was a more important document. It
was publicly discussed, and after having been embodied
in seven resolutions, was adopted with remarkable
unanimity by the Congress.
The first resolution indicated the doctrinal stand
point — a repudiation of the new dogmas and ad
herence to the Tridentine canons : —
First Ee- 1. We hold fast to the Old Catholic faith, as witnessed
solution, on
dootrme. in Scripture and in tradition, and to the old Catholic wor
ship. As rightful members of the Catholic Church, we re
fuse to be expelled either from Church communion or from
the enjoyment of ecclesiastical and social rights proceeding
from the same. We declare that the ecclesiastical censures
with which we have been visited are arbitrary and objectless,
and that we shall not suffer our consciences to be hindered
thereby from active participation in Church communion.
From the standpoint of the Confession of Faith contained
in the Tridentine Creed, we reject the dogmas set up under
' Pope Pius IX. in contradiction to the teaching of the Church
and to the principles of the Apostolic Council, especially
that of the infallible teaching office, and of the supreme
jurisdiction of the Pope.
The second resolution was aimed at the third chap
ter of the Constitutio de Ecclesia Christi : —

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 127
2. We hold fast to the ancient constitution of the chap.

Church, and repudiate every attempt to thrust out the ^"
bishops from the immediate and independent direction of E^soiutions
"¦ ^ concerning
the separate churches. According to the Tridentine Canon theconsti-
^ _ _ _ _ "^ " tution of
there exists a divinely instituted hierarchy of bishops, the Church.
priests, and deacons. We acknowledge the primacy of the
Eoman bishop, as it was received by the Fathers on the
ground of Scripture. We declare that dogmas of faith can
only be defined in accordance with Holy Scripture, and that
the dogmatic decisions of a Council must be shown to be in
harmony with the originally delivered faith of the Church,
in the direct consciousness of belief of the Catholic people
and in theological science. We claim for the Catholic
laity, for the clergy, and for scientific theology, the right of
a voice and testimony in the enunciation of rules of faith.
The third' Eesolution expressed the sense of the
Congress of the necessity for Church Eeform, and, in
contrast to the whole spirit of the Vatican Council, of
the desirability of admitting the laity to participate in
Church policy. It then went on to record the assembly's
disapprobation of a continued severance from national
communions between whom and themselves no real
dogmatic difference existed, and it was at this stage of
the proceedings that a pleasing task devolved upon
DoUinger, which he discharged in a manner that gave
a special charm to a subject in itself fraught with no
ordinary interest. In order to render the whole matter
more intelligible, it wUl be necessary once more to go
back to history and to give in succinct outline the
substance of his explanation.
Among the different religious communities which

128 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, refer back their origin to the sixteenth century, none
Outline of SO closcly rescmblcd in spirit and in doctrine the
ofthe'^"'' movement with which we are now occupied, as the
Church of
Utrecht, so-called Jansenist Church of Utrecht. Its members
called themselves by the same name {Oud-Katholie-
ken). They denied the immediate jurisdiction of the
Pope. They strongly opposed the superstitious teach
ing of the Mendicant Friars, and recommended the
study of the Bible by the laity. They encouraged
the use of the vernacular in the offices of the Church.
They accepted without demur the decisions of the
Council of Trent. Amid the religious struggles that
agitated the Low Countries in the sixteenth century
the fidelity of the Church of Utrecht to Eome was
thankfuUy accepted and its doctrinale passed uncri-
ticised. No sooner, however, had the Jesuits begun
to prevaU in Holland than they at once detected
the presence of a school of religious thought in little
harmony with their own. The House of Orange, on
the other hand, could not extend its favour to a
communion which recognised the Tridentine canons.
Between the coldness of the Lutheran party and the
hostility of the Jesuits, this inoffensive community
found itself isolated and defenceless. In the year
1580 its political rights ceased to exist, whUe its
revenues became forfeited to the State. It still pre
served its connexion with Eome, until, in the suc
ceeding century, it became involved in the Jansenistic
struggle. Eovenius, the archbishop of the diocese.

THE YEAR I87I AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 129
was the personal friend of Jansenius, and had read, chap.
and admired without misgiving, the learned arguments "~ ^^^
of the Augustinv^. The condemnation of these
doctrines at Eome was received at Utrecht with dis
may, although the httle Church hastened to disarm
the anger of the Vatican by ready submission. But
its sympathies had already been unmistakeably evinced.
It had given shelter to Arnauld, Nicole, and Quesnel,
when driven from France by the intolerance of Louis
XrV., and had thus earned the bitter enmity of the
Jesuits. The machinations of the latter proved only
too successful ; and in the year 1779 the excommuni
cation of both the episcopate and the Church was
pronounced by Pius VI. coram populo. Since that
time the Church of Utrecht has rarely engaged the
attention of Europe. With the accession of each new
Pope it has prayed for a new enquiry and the restora
tion of its privileges, but has simply been met with a
new anathema. It has, however, resolutely adhered
to its traditional principles, and stoutly asserted the
episcopal rights against the centralising tendencies of
Eome. It has preserved its ancient organisation ; and
though now numbering little more than 6,000 souls,
still maintains an archbishop, two bishops, one at De-
venter, the other at Haarlem, together with a college
and a clerical staff" adequate to the wants of the five-
and-twenty parishes in which its congregations are to
be found. With the return of the Jesuit party to
power, it was called to suffer the extreme displeasure

130

THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP. II.

Negotiations be
tween the
BavarianOld Catho
lics and
those of
Utrecht.

and final disavowal of the head of the Church, in the
institution of a new archbishop and bishops, in opposi
tion to its own, — a measure enacted by Pius IX. in the
year 1853. On the other hand, it boldly protested
against the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The
heroism and adverse fortunes of this isolated commu
nity have not escaped the notice of sympathisers both
on the Continent and at home ; and a few years back
its history was sketched by an English clergyman. 'It
seems to me,' said the Eev. J. M. Neale, at the conclu
sion of his work, ' that the little remnant of this afflicted
Church are reserved for happier days. Wherever and
whenever that (Ecumenical CouncU may be, or what
ever other means God shaU employ to restore the lost
unity of Christendom, the labours and trials and suffer
ings of this communion will not be forgotten.' ^
It was scarcely possible but that the similarity of
their position and principles should strike the leaders
of the Old Cathohcs in Bavaria. They resolved on in-
^ Hist, of the so-called Jansenist Church of Holland, p. 380. In
remarkable agreement with Mr. Neale's anticipations we find the Rhei-
nischer Merkur asking, some fifteen years later, ' May not these so-called
" Utrecht schismatics " have been preserved by Providence in their un
regarded existence 'for more than a century, in spite of aU the persecu
tions of Rome, and of their chief foes the Jesuits, for the express purpose
of maintaining the true Apostolic faith in its original purity ; and now
amidst the general shipwreck of well-nigh the whole episcopate, restoring
to the Chiu?ch an orthodox episcopate untainted by tbe Jesuit heresy ? '
For fiurther information respecting the Chui-ch of Uti-echt, see Nippold,
Die altkatholische Kirche des ErMsthunu Utrecht, Heidelber", 1872;
also an interesting article by M. R^ville in Revue des Deux Mondes (May
1872), entitled L'iglise des aimens Catholiques de Hollande; and an
article by Theodor Wenzelbm-ger in Unse7-e Zeit, X. 155, Die altkatho
lische Kirche in Holland, 1874.

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 131
viting the co-operation of their brethren in Utrecht, chap.
Van Vlooten, the pastor at the Hague, had already ' ' '
written to the committee at Munich to express his ad
miration of the ' wise, powerful, and spirited ' opposi
tion they were offering to Eoman usurpation, and the
sympathy with which their efforts were watched by
those who, ' ever since the beginning of the eighteenth
century, had in the Netherlands striven and suffered
for the same cause.' The letter gave rise to a corre- Corre-
^ spondence
spondence between Eenftle of Mehring and the arch- jf^^ftie"
bishop of Utrecht, which has since been pubhshed and arehbishop
„. , . • ^^^ • ^1 1 • • • of Utrecht.
affords an mterestmg lUustration of the relative position
of the two parties. Eenftle had applied to the arch
bishop to obtain from him those rites of confirmation
which, owing to his excommunication, were withheld
from his congregation by Von Dinkel, the bishop of
the diocese.'^ The archbishop, in his reply (dated Aug.
19th, 1871), intimated that he should be willing to ren
der this service, if the proposal were approved by his
own chapter, but at the same time expressed his desire
that the Tridentine canons, or, as he expressed, it, the
Symbolum of Pius IV., should be understood to re
present the basis of doctrinal agreement. It was also
his hope, he said, that schemes of Church reform,
at that time somewhat vaguely indicated, would not
be attempted by the leaders of the new movement,
'without co-operation with constituted authority. That
1 A similar application was made at nearly the same time by M.
Aloysius Anton of Vienna. E 2

132 THE NEW REFORMATION.
would be to have the Reformation over again.' And
finally, writing as he did within a month of the pro
posed Congress, he decided that it would be best to
Deputies await the result of its dehberations. Three deputies
sent by
wsho"'^'' i^o^ Utrecht were accordingly despatched to Munich —
Van Vlooten, Van Beck, and Van Thiel ; and a speech
delivered by the last named was received with unani
mous applause ; while the response of the Old Cathohcs
of Germany to the sympathy thus shown by their
brethren in Munich was now clearly conveyed in a
clause of the following (the third) Eesolution : —
Third Ee- 3. We aim, with the assistance of theological and canon-
solution : . ^ , „ . tt r\t i i.i
on Church ical Science, at a reform m the Church, which may serve to
re-union. abolish the faults and abuses at present existing, and espe
cially meet the justifiable desire of the Catholic laity for
constitutionally regulated participation in Church affairs,
whereby, without danger to Church doctrinal union, the na
tional views and requirements of the Catholic peoples may
be recognised. We declare that the reproach of Jansenism
against the Utrecht Church is causeless ; there is no dog
matic difference between her and ourselves. We hope for
re-union with the Oriental-Greek and the Russian Churches,
separation from these having been unnecessary and founded
upon no irreconcileable dogmatic differences. In contem
plation of the reform at which we aim, and in the progress
of science and increased Christian culture, we hope for a
gradual understanding with the Protestant and the Epis
copal Churches.
The fourth Eesolution dealt with the subject of
clerical education, callmg attention to the dependent
state of the ' inferior clergy ' : —

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 133
4. We regard the culture of scientific knowledge as im- CHAP.
peratively necessary in the training of the Catholic clergy. ' - ¦ •*
We look upon the exclusion (in boys' schools and in the solution:
^ _ . relating to
higher seminaries, under the one-sided direction of the education
and status
bishops) of the clergy from the intellectual training of the of the
. " <¦ 1 . ¦ n inferior
age, as dangerous, m consequence of their great influence, to clergy.
civilisation, and as entirely inappropriate to the education of
a morally virtuous, scientifically intelligent, and patriotic
clergy. We demand for the so-called inferior clergy a position
of dignity, and one protected against the arbitrary exercise
of superior hierarchical power. We condemn the authority
vested in the bishops of removing at discretion {amovihili-
tas ad nuturri) priests with cure of souls, which was intro
duced by the French law, and has lately been more generally
exercised.^ The fifth Eesolution re-asserted fidehty to the civil
power : —
We hold fast to the constitutions of our countries. Fifth Ke-
which guarantee civil freedom and humanitarian culture ; on aiie-
and we assert our loyal and steadfast adhesion to our govern- fhe state
ments in the contest against the dogmatised Ultramontanism
of the Syllabus.
The sixth was an explicit declaration of their behef
' The Concordat of 1801 ; see supra, p. 46. A condition of abject
dependence which the Saturday Review declares ' has led in France to
hundreds of suspended priests being now employed as cabmen, waiters,
and compositors at Paris.' Compare the observations of Michaud :
' Jamais les anciens catholiques ne pourront, en France, provoquer un
grand mouvement de reforms religieuse tant que le concordat de 1801
sera interprSt^ dans un sens favorable a Tultramontanisme, tant que les
%lises et le budget de cultes seront a la disposition des seids ultramon-
tains ; car, aussi longtemps qu'il en sera ainsi, les eccl&iastiques qui en
conscience rejettent I'ultramontanisme n'oseront pas se prononcer centre
lui, dans la crainte, parfaitement fondfe, d'etre interdits par leur ^veque,
et cons^quemment de perdre la place qui leur donne du pain.' — Le
Mouvement Contemporain, pp. 356-7.

134 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, in the necessity for State interference and the suppres-
" ' ' sion of the Jesuit Order : —
Sixth Ee- As it is notorious that the present mischievous confusion
solution: i . /-\ i i
demanding is the result of Jesuit activity, and as this Order has abused
sion of the its power for the purpose of spreading and fostering in the
hierarchy, the clergy, and the laity tendencies inimical to
civilisation, dangerous to the State, and unpatriotic, and as
again it inculcates and imposes a false and corrupting
morality, we declare our conviction that peace, prosperity,
and union in the Church, and just relations between it and
civil society, will be possible only when an end is made to
the pernicious activity of this Order.
The seventh Eesolution was as foUows, and, in the
hght of recent events, has acquired additional inte
rest : —
Seventh As members of that CathoUc Church not yet altered bv
Eesolu- _- . , J J
tion: as- the Vatican decrees, to which the States have guaranteed
sertion of -,• . t ^ ii t ¦, -,.
Old Catho- political acknowledgment and public protection, we maintain
" ' our right to all real goods and possessions of the Church.
Expression When the Congress was at an end, and Dolhnger
of respect °
ul^i!' passed down the haU, the assembly again rose as one
man to pay him a final tribute of respect. So far as
was well possible, he had resigned to others the more
important duties throughout the proceedings, and his
language had been studiously guarded, to some even
disappointing. But it was felt that he was stiU the real
leader of the movement, and that his self-devotion and
quiet heroism had won for the cause a large amount of
Conclusion piibUc Sympathy.
Congress. ^^^ ^j^^^g ^-^^ g^g^ Cougress ended. Some of its

THE YEAR 1871 AND THE CONGRESS OF MUNICH. 135
effects were soon visible. "Within a few weeks Bernard chap.
and Hosemann, the parish priests of Kiefersfelden and subsequent
Tuntenhausen, foUowed the example of Egli and Bernard
Eenftle, and on refusing to accept the Vatican decrees mann."'""
were excommunicated by the archbishop of Munich.
At Kiefersfelden the proceedings gave rise to a singular '
scene ; for on the morning of October 28th, whUe the
archbishop was pronouncing the sentence of excommu
nication within the church, the congregation had with
drawn and were listening to an address from Bernard,
who had ascended a stone pulpit without the walls.
The scheme of organisation was taken up with Formation of Vereins
energy ; Vereins were formed at Stuttgard, Nurnberg, °^ Anions.
Strassburg, Carlsruhe, Tachau, Gratz, Kaiserslautem,
and other places, and amounted before the close of the
year to twenty-three in number. The irritation of the
Ultramontanists found vent in unmeasured vituperation,
which in some instances recoUed with damaging effect
upon its authors — the bishop of Eegensberg, for in
stance, being indicted and fined seventy-five gulden for
abusing the Bhrgermeister of Kotzling. In the month
of November appeared the first edition of Friedrich's
Tagebuch, or Journal, kept during the sitting of the
Vatican Council; and its disclosures, confirming and
supplementing the anonymous revelations of ' Quirinus,'
told with considerable effect on the state of feeling
throughout Germany.
In the wider range of European opinion the prevail
ing impression was evidently to the effect that the atti-

136 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, tude assumed by the Old Catholics was fuUy justified by
Prevalent^ the procccdings against which they protested, but that
impression tt ^ • • j? i •
in Europe a morc distiuct and more liberal enunciation of doctri-
with re-
theMs'itien ^^^ belief was necessary before they could hope to win
Catholic the active co-operation of other Churches. "WhUe
Utrecht appealed to them to take their stand by the
Decrees of Trent, the organs of Protestantism — not
withstanding the sanguine tone of the Anglican party —
plainly intimated that such a decision must exclude the
possibility of intercommunion with the Lutheran or the
English Church. Admiration of the noble spirit and
high purpose of Dolhnger and his supporters could not
bridge over the wide chasm that would stUl exist be
tween them and Protestant communions. But was it
not possible that the convictions which had found such
notable expression in the course of the last eighteen
months might lead to yet more definite resiUts ? Might
not the Old Catholic party, in its earnest repudiation of
new and unscriptural dogmas and in its sense of the
spirit of usurpation in which those dogmas had taken
their rise, begin to examine with more insight the
foundations of even the Tridentine decrees ? Such was
the question which those who watched the movement
with the most unselfish interest were asking, at the
close of the year which witnessed the first Old Cathohc
Congress.

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 137

CHAPTEE III.
THE YEAR 1872 AND THE COJSTGEESS OF COLOGNE.
Towards the close of the year 1871, Dr. DoUinger chap.
dehvered at Munich his Inaugural Address as rector neiiinger's
of the university. The theological faculty, after their Address.
recent submission, had of course no alternative but to
withhold their countenance from the occasion, but
their absence only served to bring into stronger relief
the sympathy expressed by an overflowing and dis
tinguished audience. Members of the Court and Go
vernment, foreign ambassadors, and nearly all the lay
professors and students of the university, thronged the
haU ; and the address, occupying nearly two hours in
the delivery, was frequently interrupted by loud ap
plause. Its most important feature, iu relation to our
subject, was the emphasis with which the speaker dwelt
on the intimate connexion between recent political
events and the Vatican decrees ; and on the direct
chaUenge thrown out by the promulgation of the
dogma to those views with respect to which the learn
ing and intellect of Germany were rapidly arriving at
an almost unanimous conclusion. 'And what,' he
asked, ' has been the influence of late events upon our
universities .P "Why, history, phUosophy, and above

138 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. aU theology, have received a fresh impulse. We are
' "¦ ' entering upon a new era in the rehgious history of
Europe ; and it is evident that the narrow polemical
spirit which has prevailed since the Eeformation must
give place to one of compromise and reconciliation.
The restored unity of Germany points imperatively to
this ; for untU the religious disunion has been bridged
over, the new empire will be but an unfinished edifice.'
Throughout Europe, he affirmed, there was a growing
desire for the reunion of the separated Churches.
Views of It must certainly be admitted that, in relation to
the Old •'
Catholic the question thus indicated, the Old Cathohc party had
already clearly vindicated its claims to the attention
not only of the theologian but of the pohtician. ' The
Old Catholics of Germany,' said M. Michaud, ' under
stand perfectly well that society in the nineteenth
century differs widely from that of the sixteenth ; and
they aim at a different method of procedure from that
of Luther and his followers.' And simUarly another
observer, an Irish clergyman, in a thoughtful and
appreciative sketch of the. movement written about the
same time, said : ' "We are struck by the quiet and
unobtrusive spirit which characterises this movement
of the nineteenth century, as contrasted with the
enthusiasm and the passion of the Eeformation in the
DoUinger fifteenth aud sixtccnth ccnturies.'^ If, indeed, we must
compared to Wyciif. needs seek for a paraUel to Old Cathohcism in past
.history, it will be found rather in the Eeformation of
1 The Old Catholic Movement in Bavaria. By Jolin Newenliam
Hoare, M.A., p. 36,

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 139
Wyciif than that of Luther ; and there are not a few chap.
respects in which the Munich professor strongly re- '
sembles the Oxford schoolman. Both are to be seen
taking their stand on resistance to mediaeval innova
tions ; both are distinguished by their learning ; both
seek to ^ring back the simphcity of the faith by a
movement resulting from profound enquiry and taking
its origin in a learned community.
Notwithstanding the manifest justice of the appeal ^°^w °f
to the sympathies of the State contained in Dr. ^j^stian
DoUinger's address, the Government still seemed desi- ments."
rous of maintaining strict neutrality. An apphcation
from Eenftle of Mehring, dated Nov. 17th, 1871, for the
sanction 6f the Government to a confirmation to be
held in his parish by the archbishop of Utrecht, was
met by an intimation that the authorities did not con
sider the matter to be within their cognizance.^ The
earhest indication of a different policy was given in the
month of January, 1872, on the refusal of the clergy at
Amberg, in the Eegensberg diocese, to inter an Old
Catholic with the customary rites. On this occasion
the district authorities acted with spirit and prompti
tude. They directed that a church should forthwith "
be assigned for the service (which professor Eriedrich
undertook to perform), and that the usual rites should
be formaUy observed. The Prussian Government was
soon called upon to act with equal decision. In the
Ehine country Tangermann continued to display un-
1 The reply of the Government is printed in Die Apostolische Reise
des Erzbischofs von Utrecht, p. 19.

140 THE NEW- REFORMATION.
CHAP, diminished energy ; and early in February the first Old
' — ' — Catholic service in Cologne was celebrated in the
church of St. Pantaleon. The archbishop immediately
ordered a decree of excommunication to be read irom
the city pulpits against all who attended these services ;
and this proceeding was warmly supported by the
army bishop, Namszanowski, who forbade the celebra
tion of the mass in a church which he professed to
consider poUuted by such rites. The intolerance of this
order was all the more striking, inasmuch as the church
had already long been used for the performance of
Protestant worship without any objection being raised.
The Government now gave expression to its disap
proval of this persecution, by formally authorising the
Old Catholic service, and by removing Namszanowski
from his office. In conjunction with the Bavarian
Government, it shortly afterwards decreed that congre
gations registering themselves as Old Cathohcs should
be legally free from the payment of church taxes to
Decree the Eomau Cathohc parish. The Austrian Government
of the
Govern" exhibited less liberality, and pubhshed a decree to the
ment. effect that marriages performed by excommunicated
priests would not be recognised as legal.
Course of With a view to creating among the laity a more
lectures at
Munich. intelligent interest in the cause, it was next decided to
commence a series of lectures at Munich. They were
delivered by Eeinkens, Dolhnger, Cornehus, and Eitter,
and attracted large audiences, and produced a marked
impression on public feehng in that city. At the same

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 141
time it was resolved to extend the scheme to other large chap.
cities, and the assistance rendered in this part of the ' '
undertaking by Efeihkens proved invaluable. It was Reinkens.
about this time that he began to assume that prominent
position in connexion with the movement which has
since famiharised all Europe with his name. In the
prime of life (he was now fifty years of age), his grow
ing reputation for eloquence and learning had long
before exposed him to the dislike and suspicion of the
obscurantist clergy. His hterary efforts had been
remarkably wide and varied ; and in the province of
Church history there was no prominent school of
thought which he had not iUustrated by able investiga
tion and graphic portraiture. Clemens and the philo
sophic school of Alexandria, Augustine and the historic
school of Africa, St. HUary of Poitiers, Martin of
Tours, and Bernard of Clairvaux, have all in turn
been the subjects of his eloquent and subtle pen.
Educated at Bonn and Cologne, he finally settled at
Breslau, where in the year 1853 he was appointed
extraordinary professor of Church History, and subse
quently succeeded as ordinary professor to the chair
of the eminent Eitter. The fearless honesty which
characterised his History of the University, published
in 1862, exposed him to the attacks of the Ultramon
tane party, whose hostihty, however, did not prevent
his election to the rectorship of the university three
years later. His suspension, in 1871, in consequence
of his signature of the Nurnberg Protest, has already

142 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, 'been recorded. ' The suspension,' says professor
' ' Mayor, ' emptied the theological lecture-rooms ; but
• the University of Leipzic did itself honour by confer
ring on Eeinkens the degree of Doctor philosophiae
honoris causa.'
' Eeinkens,' says a journal of his own country, in
describing his character and personal traits, ' is a man
in the prime of manly strength, with a most winning
and gracious ah. The priestly gentleness of his whole
nature, the great goodness of heart which speaks even
in his outward appearance, the blameless purity of his
life, on which not even the foul venom of the lowest
ribald prints of the Ultramontanes can cast a slur, an
unfeigned evangelical piety, are combined with sohd
learning in theology and history, with rare energy,
with an unflagging power of action and inexhaustible
zeal on behalf of his Church, and lastly with pohshed
manners, 'betraying the highest social breeding.''
While Eeinkens was passing from city to city of
Southern Germany and winning multitudes — who, up
to that time, had regarded the cause he advocated with
suspicion, if not with aversion — to real interest and
Religion in Sympathy, a new leader appeared in France. The
rehgious -condition of that country has long been such
as no well-wisher can contemplate without misgiving,
It is represented almost enthrely by two extremes, those
of scepticism and superstition. The advocate of the
> Life of Bp. Reinkens, by the Rev. J. E. B. Mayor, in Reinkens'
Speeches, p. 10,

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 143
doctrines of the Commune smiles sarcastically at the '^^^^'
excitement displayed in the repudiation of one dogma
more, by those who accept ninety-nine others which he
regards as equally false. The devout Ultramontanist
rejoices in the behef that religious assurance has been
confirmed by the proclamation of an infallible spiritual
guide. On the one hand is to be seen nothing but
complete indifference, the indifference of those who
believe that aU rehgion is but a remnant of past super
stition, destined soon to disappear in the increasing
light of science. On the other hand, all mental inde
pendence is wanting, and nothing prevails but a slavish
' submission of the intellect ' — on the part of the lay
man to the priest, on the part of the priest to his
bishop. The great party which once endeavoured to
reconcUe, both in theory and practice, a liberal and
expansive ecclesiastical policy with loyalty to the
head of the Church, has well-nigh disappeared. ' The
GaUican priest,' says a writer long resident in the
country, ' exists no longer but as an historical remem
brance.' ^
Under such circumstances the resolution formed JJl^j,'^^^^
by M. Michaud, of following in the steps of Father
Hyacinthe, seems aU the more deserving of admiration.
A curate at the Madeleine, and still young, he was
already distinguished among his countrymen by his
learning and by attainments far from common in
1 Letter to Dr. Oldknow, in Report of Anglo-Continental Society for
1872, pp. 8-14.

144 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. France. He is conversant with both English and
" ' ' German literature, and is personally well known in
Michaud's this country. He now resolved on resigning all his
decision. •' o o
ecclesiastical appointments ; and accordingly addressed
a letter to the archbishop, announcing his determina
tion — the result of his inabihty to accept the Vatican
Effect pro- dccrees. ' The sensation caused by the publication of
duced in ./ x
• ^'^»"<=«- this letter,' says a correspondent of the Anglo- Conti
nental Society, ' was very great ; the more so as the step
taken in this instance did not announce itself, as in the
case of the Pere Hyacinthe, to be a mere individual
act, but professed to be the precursor of, and to have
in view, general plans of reform. And, in fact, the'
designation of Vieux Catholiques first began to be
heard and spoken of in France only after the step
taken and the movement originated by the Abbe
Michaud.' ^
Unfettered by previous declarations, and a watchful
observer of the tendencies of the new movement, M.
Michaud soon began to advocate a more liberal pro
gramme and a more distinct avowal of policy on the
part of those by whom he was now gladlywelcomed
His scheme as a fellow-labourcr. In a series of spirited appeals,^
of reunion. he called upon aU Christian communions, ' Eastern,
Anghcan, Protestant, and Eoman,' to work together
with a view to a return to primitive and universal
faith. He pointed out that the Tridentine canons
' Same Report, p. 4.
'^ See Plutot la mort que le deshonneur, 1872. Comment Viglise ro-
maine n'est plus I'Eglise catholique, 1872.

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 145
Could only represent a position temporarily assumed chap.
by the Old Catholics in their repudiation of the Vatican ~ — • — '
decrees, and that Protestantism, whether on the Conti
nent or in England, could never admit the oecumenicity
of a Council which had been convened in declared
hostility to Eeformation doctrines. He further pointed
out that no mediasval General Council — that is to say,
no Council subsequent to the schism between East and
"West — could be supposed to command the submission
of the Greek Church. If, therefore, the wide scheme
of reconciliation indicated by Dolhnger were to be
adopted by his party, would it not be necessary at once
to go back to the common ground afforded in Chris
tian doctrine as universaUy received by the Churches
of Christendom before the ninth century? Once let
this view receive the assent of those who might hence
forth represent the Old Catholic party, and their stand
point became intelligible to all. Eome, with her vast
system of mediaeval doctrine, her canonical forgeries,
and her more recent innovations, would thus stand
convicted of heresy. Pius IX. and the bishops would be
the real schismatics ; and it would consequently devolve
on aU true Catholics to seek the services of a new episco
pate, who should render to the reformed Church the
ministrations of their order and be the guardians of the
faith in its ancient simplicity and integrity,^
Such was the ' programme ' advocated by M. Mi- ?^™s™'' "^
chaud ; and in the remarkable progress of ideas dis- oki°Catb'o-
lie party.
^ Programme de Reforme de I'Eglise d'Occident, 1872.
L

146 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, cernible in the interval between the Congress of 1871

and that of 1872, that programme had come to be
regarded with an amount of favour which, at the time
when the Congress at Munich broke up, would pro
bably have been deemed impossible. Much, however,
has been meanwhile effected by an interchange of
views with the representatives of other communions ;
much, again, by the unyielding intolerance of the Ultra
montane party. Bishop Forster's excommunication, in
the month of May, of four men of such eminence as
Eeinkens, Weber, Hassler, and Hirschwalder, for their
steadfast adherence to those views which he had at first
visited only by suspension, evoked a strong feeling in
favour of organised resistance, and largely weighed
with the Committee at Munich in the resolve which
they now formied of inviting the archbishop of Utrecht
to undertake a confirmation tour in Bavaria. The
correspondence on the subject, carried on between Van
Vlooten and Eenftle, shows the honourable sentiments,
as well as generous sympathy, by which the archbishop
Invitation "was actuatcd.^ The refusal of the Bavarian Govern-
to the arch-
utredit.^ ment directly to sanction the invitation appeared to
him, at first, an insuperable barrier ; but after further
consultation with his Chapter he ultimately intimated
his readiness to come in the following JiUy. The Jour
nal of the tour which he subsequently took was edited
and published by Eenftle, and forms one of the most
interesting records as yet furnished by the Old Catho-
1 Die Apostolische Reise des Erzbischofs von Utrecht, pp. 1-32.

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 147
lie movement. There are probably few who will follow chap.

without sympathy the narrative of the experiences of "~ ' '
this venerable representative of a community which
had so long maintained amid obscurity and neglect the
principles of the ancient faith, and who now found him
self suddenly summoned, from a comparatively humble
sphere of action, to minister to the wants of an Ulus-
trious party in a great nation, and himself to receive
in turn the encouragement imparted by assurances of
widespread and powerful sympathy.
At Cologne the archbishop was received by Tan- He visits
Cologne.
germann, who, as already stated, was carrying on
the Old Catholic services at the garrison church, which
the Government had assigned for his use. ' The Ul
tramontanists,' observes the journalist, 'profess to con
sider it desecrated. It has long been used by Protes
tants, and during this time no such charge has been
made. But now that it is used by those who stand by
the ancient faith, it is " desecrated," and desecrated
solely because they maintain the ancient faith ! ' The
aspect of affairs at Cologne was generaUy cheering. The
Old Catholics mustered nearly 3,000 strong in the city,
and Tangermann had already received the names of
more than 2,000 — many of them residents of good
position and liberal education.
It was on the fifth of Ju.ly that the archbishop ^'^''J'jJI^'^^
arrived at Munich, where he was received by a deputa
tion consisting of Von Wolf, the solicitor-general, and
Count Von Moy (acting in the capacity of presidents of

148 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, the Old Cathohc central Committee), and also by

HI

Friedrich, Hassler, and others. On the following Sun
day morning the archbishop, clad in his episcopal robes,
held a confirmation service in the httle church of St.
Nicholas. The foUowing account of the ceremony and
of subsequent proceedings connected with his visit, fur
nished by a correspondent of the Anglo-Continental
Society, offers a more appreciative description than
could well be furnished in the pages of the Journal :
Confirma- The moming was bright, and as many people as pos-
church of sible Crammed the church early, and hundreds more were
las. '° °' quietly awaiting the archbishop's arrival who could not pos
sibly get into the church. There could not have been less
than 1,500 to 2,000 persons interested enough to come out
to the church to witness the archbishop's arrival and the
ceremony. A hearty layman, Herr Schaumberger, kindly
brought the archbishop in his carriage with his chaplain,
canon Van Vlooten of Utrecht, and Herr Von Wolf. At the
church door they were met by professors Friedrich and
Messmer, and another priest, Franz Hirschwalder, editor of
the Old Catholic organ, the 'Deutscher Merkur.' These
were the officiating clergy, with the archbishop and his
chaplain. As the archbishop does not feel himself sufficiently
at home in the German tongue to address a congregation,
professor Friedrich read from the pulpit his pastoral address.
Friedrich delivered it with all the simple hearty earnestness
which marks him, and I never saw people listen with more
marked attention. The archbishop was attired in full archi-
episcopal robes, with mitre and pastoral staff, the latter being
held by professor Friedrich during most of the service. The
officiating clergy accompanied him to the door, kneeling
there for his parting blessing. The crowd outside reverently
saluted him as he entered the carriage and drove off. Two

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 149
attaches of the papai Nuncio were present to watch the pro- CHAP.
ceedings throughout. . — U^ — -
At the dinner there were some twenty of the Committee Dinner in
J j.1. • r • ^ honour of
and their mends, so we were twenty-three or twenty-four in the arch-
all. The university was strongly represented by professors
Friedrich (theology), Cornelius (history), Huber (philoso
phy), Berchthold (canon law), Messmer (Christian archae-
''logy)' fitter (law), and, I think, another ; the president,
Herr Von Wolf, who holds a very important public post as
director of the Department of Public Security for Bavaria ;
Count Moy, master of ceremonies at the Court ; with Herr
Schaumberger, and one or two other laymen of some official
stamp ;• also Pfarrer Eenftle, the parish priest of Mehring,
another priest, Stockbauer, professor in the Munich Art In
stitute, and some younger laymen (whom I was specially glad
to see, as showing a succession to come on in their turn),
made up the little gathering. The archbishop and his
chaplain were placed in the centre, supported by Herr Von
Wolf, Friedrich, Count Moy, and another councillor. As
soon as dinner was over DoUinger came in, and was received
by all standing. I was glad to see him looking quite as
well as last year, and not showing such signs of pressure
from heavy work as might have been expected. Herr Von
"Wolf gave the archbishop's health, and thanked him earnestly
and heartily for so kindly coming to their aid, in the diffi
cult circumstances in which they found themselves, because
they had resolved not to follow the ' Esel-tritt ' — the ass's
tread — of blind unreasoning submission demanded by Rome,
but to go forward in the path of truth and freedom. The
archbishop desired his chaplain (who speaks Grerman well) to
return his thanks and express his earnest prayer and hope
that they would persevere in the path of truth and righteous
ness. The archbishop is a 'most gentle, kind, and yet digni
fied old prelate, and his bearing manifestly told most favour
ably on his German friends. We all, after Herr Von Wolf's

150

THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP. 111.

Confirmation at
Kiefersfel den.

Confirmation at-
Mehring.

speech, went up in turn (after German fashion), to touch
glasses with the archbishop and wish him health. There was
no other speechifying, and the party broke into knots,
moving about the room to chat with friends. I foimd all
most kind, including the archbishop. Some asked if much
sympathy was felt in England for their move for reforma
tion. I assured them there was, and that if a few of them,
who can speak English well, could visit England and see for
themselves what we really are, they would find a hearty re
ception, and would effectively increase sympathy for their
cause. Our good friend, Mr. Bullock, had suggested this
notion to me. I asked professor Huber if he thought that
correct knowledge of the Anglican Church was frequent
among them. He frankly said. No ; that in their training
little heed had been paid to accurate information about
foreign Churches.
The day after the Munich confirmation the archbishop,
with his chaplain and professor Friedrich, went to confirm at
Kiefersfelden. At Kiefersfelden, as at Mehring and Tunten
hausen, the Pfarrers hold their churches, parsonages, and
incomes. This is owing to the practice in Bavaria, whereby
the Crown institutes to the ' temporalities ' of all Chm-ch
benefices, and the ecclesiastical censure and excommunica
tion does not carry with it temporal deprivation, if the in
cumbent can show that he has transgressed no condition of
the Concordat between Eome and the State. This is just the
present case. These Pfarrers appealed to the Concordat
whilst rejecting the infallibility dogma, and the Government
decided their appeal was valid, and left them undisturbed
in possession of the ' temporalia.' Their example may of
course be followed by others if so disposed.
On Wednesday evening the archbishop went to Mehring.
His passage up the broad main street to the parsonage was
touching, preceded and followed as he was by hundreds of the
people, the men bareheaded, all quiet and reverent ; some

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 151
were awaiting his coming, kneeling to receive his blessing, chap.
which he kept giving as he passed slowly along, in his open ¦  ¦ 
carriage, in which also sat the vicar, both bareheaded, going
at foot pace. He was partially attired in his robes, and held
a large white lily in one hand. Next morning the place
looked in holyday trim, the confirmation children flocking
to the church accompanied by sponsors and parents, the girls
in white, with neat wreaths of flowers on their heads. There
were 180 odd, for Pfarrer Eenftle has carried his flock, almost
entirely, heartily with him, and the ice had been broken at
Munich and Kiefersfelden. The church is large, and was
filled with not less than 1,000 people^ — all most attentive and
interested — for this was the first confirmation held in the
place, Augsburg having usually been their centre. After the
service we were kindly asked into the parsonage, and I was
glad to leave our prayer-book with the good Pfarrer, ' in
memoriam ' of this most interesting day. Mehring, probably,
is the most notable ' Alt-Katholik ' gain yet won, and shows
what a few more Pfarrers of the stamp of Eenftle might in no
long time accomplish.

•ma-
tions at

On leaving Munich the next stage in the episcopal Confir
tions 4..,
visitation was the ancient town of Kempten, where a |^[^P^t°
confirmation was held of seventy-one children from the z,"*')™'
town and from Waltenhofen. From Kempten the and" "''
Landau.
archbishop proceeded by lindau and Eomanshorn to
Constance, where he visited the museum which pre
serves so many mementos of the great and good bishop
Wessenberg.^ From. Constance he went by Carlsruhe to
1 An Old Catholic before Old Catholicism was known by that name.
He died in 1860, bequeathing to Constance his house, together with a
large collection of paintings, engravings, and books. He also founded two
schools for orphans, and expressly enjoined that the children should never
be entrusted to Jesuit education. His life has been written by J. Beck,
Freib., 1862.

152 THE NEW REFORMATION,
CHAP. Kaiserslautem, where he was received by Pfarrer Kiihn,
HI. ' ¦'
""^~'' ' and another confirmation was held. Two-thirds of the
population of Kaiserslautem are Protestants, and
Pfarrer Kiihn's ministrations extended to two other
towns, Landau and Zweibrucken. He had accordingly
arranged for another confirmation at Zweibrucken ;
here again the Protestants represent a majority of the
inhabitants, and their friendly feeling was evinced by
the readiness with which they lent their church for the
performance of the ceremony. At Landau the arch
bishop confirmed forty-eight children ; and in a conver
sation with Dr. Zeigler, the president of the Old Catho
lic Committee, expressed himself gratified with all that
he had seen and heard, and full of hope for the
future.
Eetura of , Ou Ms rctum to Utrecht the officials of his church
the arch-
utrecht*" hastened to congratulate him on the auspicious circum
stances of his journey and his safe return. He was
presented with a valuable diamond cross and amethyst
ring. And when, on the foUowing Sunday, adorned
with these gifts, the venerable archbishop celebrated
divine service in the Klarenberg church, surrounded
by an overflowing congregation, whUe the choir, to the
accompaniment of the organ and of sUver trumpets, gave
hearty thanks to God, it seemed as though the httle
Church of Utrecht were entering upon brighter days,
and the prophecy of her historian were approacliing its
accomplishment. 'I think,' observed the correspondent already

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 153
quoted, ' this decided step forward — the archbishop's chap.
confirmation tour — cannot faU to have an important i;;^;^;;;^
bearing on the further course of the movement. It arch'-''
bishop's
marks, more emphatically than before, the determina- to"r oa the
tion of the Old Catholics to sustain their spiritual life i"^'*^'""-
through church worship and ordinances. . ., . Several
thousands of people have now been not only shaken
loose from faith in an infaUible Pope, and from confi
dence in a good deal more of Ultramontane teaching,
but have visibly realised that they can have a bishop
and enjoy all the functions that the Church allots to
him, " by the mercy of God," without depending on
" the grace of the Apostolic See ; " and thus a power
ful link has been snapped — a powerful spell broken.'
In Bavaria the contest was at this time chiefly Contest in
the univer-
directed to the question of the endowment of new pro- Munich
fessorships of philosophy and ecclesiastical history at spect'to'the
. . . , , . professor-
Munich. The Ultramontanes, intent on withdrawmg ships.
the students from the reach of an influence like that
of Dr. DoUinger, pleaded that it was impossible to
send the youth of the university to lectures delivered
by excommunicated professors. The Government so
far yielded to the pressure brought to bear upon the
Cabinet, as to consent that a sum of 4,000 florins for
the endowment of new chairs should be included in
the yearly budget, leaving it with the Senate of the
university to accept or decline the proffered aid ; but
the Senate refused to sanction a scheme which involved
the implied condemnation of the rector of the uni-

commu nions,

154 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, versity, and the efforts of the Ultramontanists were con-
" ' ' sequently foiled.
The second In the foUowiug September the second Old Catho-
Old Catho- ° ^
''."g^™' he Congress assembled at Cologne, and held its sittings
on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd of the month. The work
before it was not less arduous than that of the prece
ding year, and important questions of detail awaited
careful consideration. The extension of the original
pro'gramme demanded by Michaud and others would,
it was foreseen, probably require to be discussed, even
although it might not be desirable, as yet, to arrive at
Members definite conclusious. The selection of the chief city of
represent- •>
i^l^'nf the Ehiueland, so famous for its Ultramontane tradi
tions, showed how the movement was extending north
wards ; and the increasing interest in its progress felt
by the English Church was proved by the presence of
the bishops of Ely and Lincoln, and of other distin
guished members of that communion, among whom
were the Eev. Lord Charles Harvey, Dr. Biber, Dr.
Hobart, Eev. L. M. Hogg, Eev. W. C. Langdon, Eev.
F. S. May, and Eevs. J. and C. Wordsworth. The
party of progress in Eussia ^ was represented by the
archpriest Janyschew (rector of the Ecclesiastical
Academy in St. Petersburg), and Col. Alex. Kireef.
America was represented by the bishop of Maryland.
The archbishop of Utrecht attended with four of his
clergy. Michaud and Father Hyacinthe ^ were there,
1 The Society of Friends of Spiritual Enlightenment, an organisation
representing the Liberal Church movement in Russia.
2 Before attending the Congress, Father Hyacinthe addressed a letter

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 155
as supporters of Old Cathohcism in France : Pressens^, chap.
' III.
as representing a French Protestant element. The ' — ' — '
total number amounted to nearly 500, and included
strangers from Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, Hungary,
and various parts of Germany.
In order that no misapprehension might arise with
respect to the presence of the English bishops,^ his lord
ship of Lincoln, before leaving England, had deemed it
desirable to offer the clergy and laity of his diocese
some explanation of the motives by which he was ac
tuated, and of his views in connexion with the whole
movement. In a letter written on the occasion he dis- Letter of the
claimed aU pretensions of going ' as a representative of Lfncohi''t
the Church of England or even of the diocese ; ' he '^it''^^
went not ' of his own accord,' and had ' neither asked
nor wished for an invitation ; ' ' but having been invited
to go he did not feel it right to decline.' ' If I go to
the Congress,' said his lordship, ' it wiU be in order to
show sympathy with a body of men whom I greatly
admire, and to testify an interest in a cause which I
believe to be the cause of God ; and which seems to
to the President requesting that the Congress might have an opportunity
afforded it of formally deciding whether, notwithstanding his marriage,
Ms attendance was recognised and welcomed by the assembly. His appeal
was supported in an able letter from the bishop of Lincoln, inviting the
consideration of the Congress to the subject, and recapitulating some of
the most cogent arguments in favour of the abolition of enforced clerical
celibacy. (See letter printed along with the bishop's Letter on his Return
from the Congress at Cologne, Lincoln, 1872.) The President, in his reply
to Father Hyacinthe's first letter, intimated that there was no wish on the
part of the Congress to withdraw the invitation that had been abeady sent.
Father Hyacinthe accordingly attended the Congress ; but as it was thought
better to reserve the subject of clerical celibacy for future consideration,
he took no active part in the proceedings.

diocese.

CathoUc
committee,

156 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, liave a strong claim on the siupport and co-operation
" ' ' of all who wish well to the peace, freedom, good order,
and happiness of civil governments, as well as of the
Christian Church.' ' I shall go,' he further added, ' in a
spirit of uncompromising loyalty to those fundamental
principles of Christian doctrine and disciphne which
are contained in Holy Scripture as received and ex
pounded by the judgment and practice of the primitive
Church, and as re-asserted by the Church of England
His letter at the Eeformatiou in the sixteenth century.' ^ This
to the Old •'
letter was accompanied by the Eeply (written in Latin)
which his lordship had forwarded to the Old Cathohc
Committee on receiving their invitation to attend the
Congress. In this he pointed out the broad basis of
agreement between those whom he addressed and
the English Church, and also the stiU existing points of
difference. With regard to the latter, he distinctly
stated that the Symbolum of Pius IV., recognised at
the Munich Conference as the creed of Old Catho
licism, could never be accepted by the communion to
which he belonged. That creed, in addition to the
creed sanctioned by the first seven Councils of the
Church, imposed twelve other articles of faith, and
these not as ' probabUes opiniones,' but as essential
to salvation. But it was impossible to prove that
these had ever been accepted by the ancient Church,
and it was certain that they could not be regarded as
^ The Old Catholics and the Cologne Congress for 1872. By the
Bishop of Lincoln. Lincoln, 1872,

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 157
the doctrines of the undivided Church. In conclusion, chap.
the writer expressed his firm conviction that while thus ' ' '
tenaciously adhering to the dogmas of Pius IV. they
would never be able to oppose effectual resistance to
those of Pius IX.^
In relation to other subiects the bishop's advice was Hissugges-
*' '^ tions to the
given and discussed with equal frankness, and was pro- congress.
bably of real service in rendering more clear the views
of the communion he represented. While readily con
ceding the large allowance to be made for the Old
Catholic party, amid the exigencies of their circum
stances at the time — with governmental authorities and
Ultramontanists alike only too ready to note signs of
an undue complaisanc-e towards the Eastern and Angh
can Churches, which might invalidate their claim to
State recognition — his lordship took occasion, at a
preliminary private meeting, to utter a few words of
weU-timed exhortation that care should be taken lest
the rehgious tone and spirit of the movement should
be too much lost sight of in the interest attaching to a
political struggle. In a final and admirable speech,
delivered at the opening meeting of the delegates, he
compared the position of the party whom he addressed
with that of the English.Eeformers — his views, as thus
explained, much resembling those of the venerable
archbishop Loos, who immediately preceded him, iii-
asmuch as both claimed, for the communions they
^ See Veteribus Catholicis ad Congressum Coloniensem benevole invitan-
tibv^ Episcapi LincolnienMS Gratias agentis Responsio. Lincolniae, 1872.

158 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, represented the honour of having preserved the purity
' ' ' of that Church from which Eome had pronounced
them excommunicate. He further urged upon the
meeting the necessity of weU considering the conse
quences involved in setting up a rival episcopate ; and
finally expressed his confidence that, in looking to the
State for support, their ' appeal to Csesar ' would not
be in vain.^
Speech of The bishop of Ely, addressing the meeting in his
tlie bishop
°f Ely. capacity of president of the Anglo-Continental Society,
confined himself to pointing out the grounds of agree
ment with the English Church. ' I may say,' observed
his lordship, ' that the Old Catholics are doing, or are
promising to do, the very work which the Anglo-Con
tinental Society desires to see done, vi^., the work of
internal purification of the Church, without, if possible,
producing schism in the Church. We in England have
had to struggle against aggression on the one hand, and
against licentiousness and unbelief on the other. You
have the same struggle now.' These words, together
with the bishop of Lincoln's letter, sufiice to explain
the attitude of the representatives of their Church
throughout the Congress ; which may be charac
terised as that of cordial sympathy, without, however,
involving unquahfied assent to all the principles laid
down. Four business sessions, attended only by delegates
1 Lettei- from the Bishop of Lincoln on his Return from the Congress
at Cologne, pp. 48-57.

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 159
and invited guests, and two public meetings, at which ^^jf ^'
some thousand persons were present, comprised the "~ ' '
transactions of the Congress.^ The spirit and purpose
by whicbi the Committee were actuated were ably set
forth in a speech by professor Huber, who warmly S*^^*"*^
vindicated himself and those with whom he was co
operating from the charge — to which he evidently felt
that the peculiar necessities of their position and the
whole conduct of the movement had exposed them — of
' half-heartedness.' ' What,' he asked, ' is halfness ?
It is to be on the road and not yet to have reached
the goal. It is the necessary characteristic of every
true movement, of every true development. Every
human being is, in this sense, always but half himself.
But, in the only sense in which the charge would be
a reproach, we are not half-hearted, for we wish, we
aim at the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the
truth. We are engaged in a vast process of historical
revision — in an endeavour to distingmsh the eternal
from the temporary elements of Christianity ; and this
process, this endeavour, can only be successfully carried
out with German earnestness and German thoroughness ;
and it is this earnestness and thoroughness which are
cast in our teeth as half-heartedness.'
The dehberations of the Congress and the Committee CMf ^^j'^''-
were. devoted to three different aspects of the move- 'i^'^'''"-
ment : (1) the organisation of the Old Cathohc body ;
1 See Die Verhandlimgen des zweiten Altkatholiken Congresses zu
Koln, Leipzic, 1872.

160 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. (2) their relations to Other Churches; (3) the reforms
' ' ' necessary within the Catholic Church itself.
Question of In counexiou with the first question some difference
Old Catho- ^
•lie organi- ^f opinion was manifested. It was felt that in propor-
sation. X 11-
tion as the work of independent organisation advanced,
the greater became the divergence from Eome, and the
more completely aU prospect of reconcilement was shut
out. But the necessities of the Church were pressing ;
and it was finally resolved to give further extension to
the resolutions passed at Munich by authorising the
establishment of regular parochial cures, with all the
necessary arrangements for separate services and sacra
mental ordinances. As, again, dependence on the
. Church of Utrecht was tantamount to a confession of
defective ecclesiastical organisation, it was also ulti
mately resolved to appoint a Committee, composed of
priests and laymen, empowered to take measures for
the election of a bishop.^
Appoint- The questions connected with reunion naturally
ment of •'
Committee, cxcitcd luost general interest, especially among those of
our "own countrymen who were present. It was de
cided to appoint a Eeimion Committee, who should
give detailed consideration to the subject and bring
proposals before the next Congress, and the following
members were elected : — ^
' On this cardinal measure, as wiU be seen in the foUowing chapter,
the whole question of the legal constitution of the Old CathoUc body
and its claims on the State for protection and support, was considered to
hinge. See Antrag beireffend die Rechte der (Alt-) Katholiken, &e.
(Koln, 1872), pp. 9, 10.
" The Congress did not hold itself empowered to elect members of
other confessions.

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. ' 161

Prof. Friedeich {Secretary^
Munich.
„ Von Schulte, Prague
(now Bonn).
„ Langen, Bonn.
„ Ebusch, Bonn.

Dr. DoLLiNGEB, President. chap III.
Prof. Michelis, Bransberg. ' ' '
„ LuTTBEBECK, Griessen.
Herr Eottels, Cologne.
Prof. Eeinkens, Breslau,
Abbe Michaud, Paris.

Professor Eeinkens, in a speech proposing the appoint- speech of
Keinliena.
ment of the Committee, gave admirable expression to
the views by which his party was actuated. There
were four things, he said, with which no desire for con
cord could induce them to make terms in the prosecu
tion of their design. These were unbelief, which has
no hope ; superstition, which has no light ; indifferent
ism, which lacks energy and force ; and politics, which
have an entirely different sphere from that of Church-
union. ' If politics employ religion as a means to ends,
this is an outrage against rehgion, which is surely the
highest end of human life ; therefore by moves with
religion on the chessboard of diplomacy the welfare of
mankind, which lies in the union of the confessions, can
never be advanced.'
He next proceeded to point out the lessons taught
by history with regard to the reunion of Churches.
Attempts at reunion had hitherto chiefly originated in
pohtics ; and as rehgion thus again became subordi
nated to secular aims, these attempts could not possibly
be productive of permanent and stable results. Indi
vidual efforts, like those of Bossuet, Leibnitz, and

162 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. Grotius, though dictated by purer motives, had proved
' ' " of no avail, conceived as they were in a spirit beyond
the comprehension of their age. One lesson, however,
was plainly to be deduced from past failure ; and that
was that a union of confessions cannot possibly consist
in uniformity. The national peculiarities which find
expression in the great Christian confessions have a
Uirionnot justification. Hence in endeavours after union of the
uniformity, coufessious there should be no tendency to efface these
national peculiarities. ' Therefore I must as decidedly
declare it to be an error, when from the West the
cry is addressed to us, " We are ready to unite,
but you must come to us," as I do when the same
voice reaches us from the East.' The interest of
his audience culminated as the speaker went on to
state that Dolhnger and himself were agreed ' that a
union of confessions may be attained on the basis of
Holy Scripture and of the (Ecumenical Confessions
of the early Church, expounded in accordance with
the doctrine of the undivided Church of the first
centuries.' Eeverting to the question of the means whereby
this scheme of reunion might be brought to successful
accomphshment, he declared that there was no more
hope in the guidance of a hierarchy than in that of
statesmen. The foundation of union was to be found
only in the hearts of the faithful. Their present efforts
were novel in character, and consequently afforded
ground for new hope. He haUed the example already

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLftGNE. 163
set them in England and in Eussia.^ AU endeavours chap.
again must be dictated by a spirit of humihty and a " — ^ '
frank admission of possible imperfections. Union and
not convea'sion must be the object of each Church.
' The different confessions and special types of Christian
communion must, if a union is to be obtained, one and
all learn and confess that they themselves, in their
actual state, need reform and are capable of amend
ment.' A proposal having been made by Michaud, that the Proposition
Congress should declare its acceptance of the first seven Mich»ud.
General CouncUs and disavow the oecumenicity of the
Occidental Councils, Eeinkens intimated his opinion
that the proposal was premature. The question con
cerning the Western Councils stood on a different foot
ing to that of the Vatican Council, and would require
careful and lengthened investigation. ' The function of
the Committee,' he said, ' is precisely to organise scien
tific researches, and by means of popular writings to
make known the results thereby established to the
public' The position indicated by this eloquent exposition Dr. siunt-
¦*¦ schii on re-
received a cordial recognition from a distinguished re- "™^jf„i,°"g
presentative of German Protestantism, Dr. Bluntschh p'-^'™='™^-
of Heidelberg. His speech, whUe virtually a disclaimer
of any notions of a fusion of his Church with the Old
Cathohcs, whom he regarded as assimUating much more
1 ' These two Churches ' (the EngUsh and the Russian), he observed
with admirable candoiu:, ' have maintained better than we have done the
consciousness of the unity of the great Chi-istian Church.'
M 2

164 THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP, closely to the Anglican and Eoman Churches, was re-
' — ¦ — ' markable for the emphasis with which it dwelt on
spirit and sentiment, rather than on dogma, as the true
basis of a united Christendom. 'Each Church,' he
said, ' must hold its own view of the truth, but hold it
with the conviction that it is relative, not absolute.
The principle on which Churches were buiU up in for
mer centuries — the principle of exclusive possession of
the truth, of delighting to damn each other — must be
now and for ever abandoned.'
Conference Ou the last day (the 23rd) a conference was held
of Com
mittee with between the Committee for Eeunion and the other
otherorthe""^^ members present at the Congress. Professor Michehs,
ongress. ^^^^^ ^ forciblc criticism of the scholastic theology and
its baneful influences,^ proceeded to suggest that
some generaUy accepted basis of union of the simplest
kind should be agreed upon,^ and dwelt with enthusiasm
Speech of on the hopeful aspect of the future. His speech was
Miclielis. eminently effective, and one passage will probably
never be forgotten by those who heard it. Eeferring
back to the time when, as a student, he had first visited
Cologne, he described the cathedral as he had then
seen it, unfinished, almost in ruins ; the towers standing
apart from the nave, the nave separated from, the
choir ; while now he found it advancing rapidly to-
' The professor's observations were chiefly directed against the Summa
of Thomas Aquinas.
2 (A) ' We believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, as well as the
Son of Man, and that faith in Christ is the means of our salvation.
(B) We believe that Jesus Christ founded one Church on earth.'

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 165
¦Wards completion — choir and nave united in one, the chap.
majestic proportions restored, and the original plan ' '
carried out. ' In this outward fact,' he said, ' I see a
figure of what has befallen, and also of what may yet
await the divided, ruined Church of Christ, in its re
storation to unity and in the consolidation of its
different parts. And this metaphor derives additional
significance from the fact that the restoration of this
Catholic cathedral was conceived and carried out by a
Protestant king. It is only with the help of Protestant
ism that Catholicism can be united and regenerated.'
The basis indicated by Michelis was accepted by statements
ofAnglican
the bishop of Maryland,^ who remarked that all who bishops.
received the Holy Scriptures, the threefold Apostolic
ministry, the three ancient Creeds, and the first four
Councils, were gladly welcomed into the communion
of the American Church. The bishop of Ely stated
that at the Conference held at Lambeth, which was
attended by bishops from every part of Great Britain,
as well as from America and the Colonies, it had been
agreed that the English Church took its stand on Holy
Scripture, the Cathohc Creeds, the doctrines of the
Primitive Church, and the decrees of the General
Councils whose authority was not called in question,
though in this category his lordship did not include the
seventh Council, which had not been recognised by the
Council of Frankfort.
1 The bishop of Lincohi had been compeUed to leave Cologne before
the Conference took place.

and Eein
kens.

166 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. It was not until the evening of the last day that the
^j;;;;;;;^^ third subject — the reforms necessary within the Catholic
tSnTof Church itself — became a subject of discussion by the
Churclireform. wholc Cougrcss ; aud the outspoken declarations of
Speeches of soiuc of the Speakers, especially Friedrich, Eeinkens,
Friedrich,
scTuite ^^^ ^^" Schulte, contrasted strongly and favourably
with the reticence which their party had hitherto
maintained on certain points. No one could have
condemned more emphatically than Friedrich the abuses
of the confessional, the evils of clerical celibacy (a
subject which Bauer of Mannheim had already brought
before the Congress, but with which it was considered
premature, as yet, to deal), and the injurious influence
exerted by the religious Orders.. No one could have
exposed with greater ability than Schulte the glaring
inconsistency and pitiable tergiversation of those bishops
who had signed the protest of April 10th, 1870. The
most marked impression, however, as before, was pro
duced by Eeinkens. In a speech of considerable
length, in which his great abUity as an orator shone
out superior to that of every other speaker, he de
claimed with unanswerable logic against the Ultramon
tane system of ignoring the individual conscience by a
transfer of all moral responsibility to the Pope — against
the use of the confessional as a means of gaining for
the priesthood almost despotic power over the female
part of the community — against the multiplicity of
dogmas in contrast to the simphcity of the creed of
the early Church — and against the mendacity of the

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 167
Ultramontane press. Never before had language with '^f.f^-
regard to the conduct of the episcopate been heard so " ' '
incisive, so fearless, and so expressive of genuine indig
nation as the following : —
They again and again registered protests against the Eeinkens'
order of proceeding, and declared that the Council was not tion of the
conduct of
free, that its cecumenicity would be disputed ; and now they the bishops.
declare that they had after all the requisite freedom. But
the documentary evidence to the contrary is still on record
in the acts. Further, they have declared in official documents
that the doctrine of papal infallibility, both name and thing,
was foreign to Christian antiquity ; they have testified that
even to this day it is unknown in name to entire dioceses and
countries ; they have boldly expressed their conviction that
this is no Catholic doctrine, because it has no place either in
Holy Scripture or in the traditions ; they have said that if it
be elevated into a dogma, the Church would commit suicide.
In a paper circulated by bishop Von Ketteler they have
asserted that it would be a spectacle deserving the amaze
ment of all centuries, if by such a dogma the Council should
declare itself superfluous ; and now they coTne back and in
form, us that in substance this dogma has been taught in all
centuries. The bishops in Eome stood up as witnesses to
the truth, and said, ' We bear this witness, because the duty
of our office commands us, because our oath requires it ; we
can testify no otherwise than we do ; ' and now, where is the
duty of their office, where the oath which they swore ? They
said it would be the destruction of souls ; and now they them
selves destroy souls ! Further, they declared in Eome, ' We
preach a doctrine of the relation between Church and State
very different from the ecclesiastico-political system contained
in the bulls of Boniface VIII. and Paul IV.' — let us now add
in the Syllabus of Pius IX. — according to which the Pope's
sovereignty was exalted above every state dignity, judges.

168 THE NEW REFORMATION.
^^r^^- princes, and nations, constitutions and laws ; they protested
'  ¦ — ' that it is impossible to remodel civil society by this system ;
now they come back and feign that they never preached any
other doctrine ; they attempt the impossible, and wonder
that Grovemments should engage in conflicts with them,
when they themselves predicted that a conflict was inevi
table ! At Eome they proved the design of Pius IX. by a
mock council to abolish for ever the wholesome institution
of councils ; they proved this design by their own experience
and from his own briefs, and now they deny what they
proved. They iregistered reclamations and protests against
all infringements on their dignity and office at the council
on the part of the Pope and his officers, and declared that
they only registered these reclamations as perenne documen-
tum, as a testimony for ever, whereby before men and the
terrible judgment of God they disclaimed the responsibility
of all the consequences. Not two months later they took
the responsibility upon their own shoulders ; and so that
document has become a testimony for ever, that in their appeal
to God's terrible judgment they played a blasphemous game.
(Vehement applause.) Finally, in the face of the living
Father in heaven and before all Christendom they have
denied and violated their duty to the truth, and have con
fessed that they did so because they would not tell their pre
tended father Pius IX. to the face that he falsified God's
Word in. declaring himself infallible ! This is a great scan
dal and bad example before all Christendom. This is a scan-
-dal unparalleled in all Church history. The heralds of the
Gospel from fear of man deny the truth, and in consequence
of this scandal clergy and people lie prostrate in moral
impotence. The foregoing outline will suffice to show the scope
of the proceedings of the Congress and the spirit in
which they were conducted ; but it would require a far

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE, 169
more extended method of treatment and no smaU chap.
descriptive power to bring home to the reader the General
enthusiasm and admiration evoked by the admirable produced
¦' by the
abihty and tact of the chief directors of the delibera- ^edlnTo't
tions — to quote the language of the 'Times' corre- gres2°"'
spondent, ' the astonishing inspiration of the scenes
which the Congress presented.' ' It was not useless,'
said the same writer, ' to assist at a series of discussions
on the most comphcated and burning topics, on which
no one from first to last was betrayed into a loss of
temper — to watch from day to day the incessant vigi
lance, the consummate statesmanship, the instantaneous
decision with which the business of the meetings was
controlled by its president ; to witness a vast miscella
neous audience hstening for hours (with a patience
which reminded one of the celebrated saying of
Charles V. on the German nation) to elaborate philo
sophical and historical discussions on the details of
education, on the scholastic relations between Albertus
Magnus and Thomas Aquinas— to see that same
audience roused to bursts of fervid enthusiasm by
eloquent expressions of rehgious freedom, such as
might have proceeded from the lips of Luther, and of
rehgious devotion such as might have proceeded from
the lips of St. Bernard — to behold this vast assemblage
united in the ancient hall of the " holy " city of Cologne,
with no interference or disturbance on the part of their
fellow-townsmen. Catholic or Protestant.'
The close of the year exhibited a remarkable ex-

170 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, tension of the movement to Switzerland. The example
Extension Set by Egli at Luzern had not been followed by the
movement priest of any other parish until the eloquence of
to Switzer
land. Eeinkens roused the Western Cantons. At Starrkirch,
Pfarrer Geschwind in the canton of Soleure, not far from Olten, the cure
of Starr-
^""'^- was held by Geschwind, an old pupil of bishop Hefele.
He was about forty years of age, already well known
as a theological writer, and widely respected both
for his character and attainments. He now began to
preach against the dogma of infalhbility and was im
mediately visited by the censure of bishop Lachat, the
constituted head of the seven cantons. The laws of
Switzerland, however, differ from those of Germany, in
requiring that no priest shall be removed from his
parish before the Government has been satisfied that
sufficient cause for such a proceeding exists. In con
travention of this law bishop Lachat sent the letter of
excommunication to Geschwind, without consulting the
cantonal authorities, at the same time caUing upon him
to resign his church and parish to a neighbouring
Capuchin. Geschwind boldly tore the letter in the
presence of the messengers, and declared the bishop
himself excommunicated as the adherent of a heretical
dogma. The authorities called upon the bishop to
withdraw his censure, but without avail. In the mean
time public feeling began to manifest itself in an
Meeting at unmistakcable manner. Under the direction of the
Olten. Central Committee, the Old Cathohcs convened a
meeting at the parish church in Olten, which was

THE YEAR 1872 AND THE CONGRESS OF COLOGNE. 171
attended by upwards of 3,000 delegates. Various chap.
resolutions were passed, and the cantonal authorities ' ' '
were especially solicited to secure to the Old Cathohcs
the free exercise of their religious and educational
rights. A petition was also drawn up for the removal
of the Swiss nuncio, Mgr. Mermillod, from Geneva.
The movement was powerfully stimulated by the pre- Success of
Eeinkens'
sence and stirring oratory of Eeinkens, who not only oratory.
delivered an admirable speech at Olten but also ad
dressed large meetings in the course of the ensuing ten
days at Luzern, Soleure, Bern, and Eheinfelden. Be
fore leaving Switzerland he received the assurance that
' the cause of Church Eeform in the Old Cathohc sense
was now triumphant in Switzerland,' and this mainly
through his efforts.
The irritation betrayed by the Ultramontane jour- Position
and pro-
nals, who singled him out for the coarsest abuse and ^^^"qi^'
most unscrupulous misrepresentation, seemed to corro- par'tyat
borate the assertion ; and before the year closed there of 1872.
appeared an episcopal manifesto to the Churches of
Switzerland, expressly warning them against the influ
ences of a corrupt and heretical press. The prospects
of the Old Cathohc party were certainly such as to
justify no little hope for the future. The programme
laid down at Munich had been carried out with energy
and fair promise of success. In Germany, indeed, the
established relations between the clergy and the epis
copate were such that it was almost impossible for the
former to assume an independent attitude ; but in

172 THE NEW REFORMATION-
CHAP. Bavaria, Hosemann, Bernard, and Eenftle retained
^" ' ' their churches, parsonages, and incomes. In numerous
other parishes — at Munich, Simbach, Passau, Straubing,
Erlangen, Niirnberg, Fiirth, Hof, Amberg, Bayreuth,
Kempten, Memminger, Waltenhofer, Immenslack,
Weiler, Lindenberg, Nordlingen. Kaiserslautem, Speier,
Landau — congregations had been formed of those who
refused to violate their consciences by unreasoning
submission to priest, bishop, or pope. In Baden like
communities had been established at Offenberg, Carls
ruhe, Heidelberg, Constance ; in Prussia, at Wiesbaden,
Cologne, Boppart, Crefeld, Essen, Konigsberg, Katto-
witz, and other places ; in Austria, in Vienna and at
Warndorf. The tone of both the English and the Continental
press plainly showed that a prudent policy, united with
firmness of resolve and moderation of speech, was pro
ducing favourable impressions; but notwithstanding,
this effect was mainly perceptible in the leading journals
and among the educated classes ; and the leaders of
the movement clearly perceived that the problem stUl
lay before them, how far the modifications, in doctrine,
discipline, and practice, foreshadowed in the pro
gramme at Cologne, could be carried out without
prejudice to the claims put forth to State protection
and recognition, and without exciting alarm and dis
trust among the people at large.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 17.S

CHAPTEE IV.
THE TEAE 1873 AND THE CONGEESS OP CONSTANCE.
The resolutions drawn up by the Congress at Munich chap.
embodied, it will be remembered, two important requi- iExpnision'
sitions to the State : the third resolution calling for a Jesuits
from Ger-
complete reformation in the schools of the Catholic many.
clergy; the second, demanding the expulsion of the
Jesuits. It must certainly be regarded as strongly
corroborative of the views advocated by the leaders
of the Old Cathohc party, that we find the German
Government, at the commencement of the year 1873,
actuaUy proceeding to carry the latter measure into
effect ; whUe on January 9th, Dr. Falk, the Cultus
minister, brought in a Bill in the Lower House for the
revision of the ecclesiastical laws.
But however much the sentiments of the Old Papai
Encyclical,
Catholics might be approved, in the abstract, by the Dec. i872.
State authorities, the immediate occasion of their action
was probably the publication of the Papal Encyclical
of December 2Srd, 1872. In this manifesto Pius IX.
laid aside all pretext of a conciliatory demeanour ; he
denounced the whole action and policy of the Prussian
Cabinet, and at once aroused the patriotism of every
German by a singularly impolitic allusion to the newly

174 THE NEW REFORMATION.
chap, consolidated Empire, as the ' Colossus ' which ' a httle
' ' ' stone (slung, of course, from the Vatican) might yet
shatter.' The covert menace undoubtedly largely served,
in the minds of Germany, to associate the Ultramontane
cause yet more distinctly with that of its pohtical foes,
and to win for the Old Catholic movement increased
favour and eventually open recognition from the State.
In this relation indeed more than one influential leader
of the party publicly referred to the papal Allocution
as marking the turning-point of their history.^ The
Prussian Government replied by forbidding the news
papers to publish the document ; a long debate on the
subject took place in the House of Eepresentatives ;
and it soon became evident that the result must inevi
tably be to verify in the most conspicuous manner the
assertions which, two years ago, had been made by
Dolhnger, Von Schulte, and other members of the Old
Catholic party, though apparently with so httle effect.
The Falk: The provisious of the Bill brought in by Dr. Falk
dealt, it is to be observed, with the relations of the
State to all religious parties, with those of the Protes
tant as well as with those of the Catholic Church. They
were designed to afford to the individual entire freedom
of conscience ; to secure for Germany a system of edu
cation for the clergy which should train them up in
natural alliance and sympathy with the nation and the
State, rather than leave them to the influence of Jesuit
' See Reinkens' Speeches (transl. by Prof. J. E. B. Mayor), p, 0.
Report of Congress of Constance, by tbe same, p. 25.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 175
teachers and theories of supreme allegiance to Eome ; chap^
and, lastly, to give to the whole body of inferior clergy ' ' '
a larger discretion in the control of their parishes and
to render them less dependent on the arbitrary authority
of the bishop. The main difficulty that confronted the
proposed legislation was the fact that the surveillance
which the State now proposed to institute over the
education of the clergy — including, it is to be noted,
those of all denominations — was undeniably opposed
to the Fifteenth and Eighteenth Articles of the cele
brated Constitution of 1850. And perhaps no more
striking illustration could be found of the great change
which, during the last quarter of the century, has come
over the relations of the Curia to the different European
Governments, than the fact that these Articles had
originaUy been introduced in the confident expectation
that the Prussian State would thereby secure the moral
support ofEome.^ The emphatic and outspoken de-
' Tbe foUowing is tbe text of tbeae two articles, tbe words in italics
denoting tbe alterations introduAied in order to render tbem compatible
witb tbe introduction of tbe Falk Laws : —
'Aet. 15. Tbe Evangelical and Roman Catbolic Cburcbes, as well
as every otber religious community, order and administer tbeir own aifairs
independently, but remain subject to the statutes and legal inspection of the
State. In the same measure, every religious community remains in pos
session and enjoyment of the establishments, foundations, and endow
ments appertaining to its various objects, religious, educational, and
charitable. '
' Art. 18. Tbe rights of nomination, proposal, election, and confirma
tion in tbe filling up of ecclesiastical offices are abolished, as far as depends
upon the State, and so far as tbe rights of patrons and other legal privi
leges are not involved. This provision does not apply to tbe appoint
ments of clergymen in the army and otber State institutions. Moreover
the law regulates the privileges of the State in reference to the training,
appointment, and dismissal of clergymen and ministers of religion, and
fixes the limit of ecclesiastical disciplinary power.'

176 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, claration of Prince Bismark, in the course of the debate,
.VeSeT^f leaves, however, no doubt on this point. In a speech
B[smarir, delivered in the Upper House on March 10th, when
March1873, the alteration of these Articles came on for discussion,
he said : ' These Articles were introduced into the
Constitution at a time when the State required, or
thought it required, help, and believed that it would
find this help by leaning on the Catholic Church. It
was probably led to this belief by the fact that in the
National J\ssembly of 1848 all the electoral districts
with a preponderant Catholic population returned, I
will not say royalist representatives, but certainly men
who were the friends of order, which was not the case
in the evangelical districts.' ^ Two years have passed
since these words were uttered, and we may now per'
ceive how the conviction they embody has grown upon
the minds of the great party represented by the orator.
In the debate which preceded the final abrogation of
these Articles, on April 16th, 1875, the same statesman
and April thus oucc morc Summed up the question : ' If the
present condition of things had arisen in 1851, we
should hardly have embodied such provisions in the
Constitution. At that time we thought we possessed
guarantees that Catholic citizens and Cathohc bishops
would never forget their obedience to the State and
their duties as su.bjects. This state of things has
1 Oa tbe whole subject of tbe relation of the Ultramontanists to the
legislature of Prussia see a series of able articles entitled ' Prussia and
tbe Vatican,' in Macmillan'a Mrgazine for Sept., Oct., Nov and Dec
1874.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 177
changed since the Vatican Council. Since that Council chap. IV.
the Pope is the Catholic Church. He stands at the ' — " — '
head of a compact party, has a well-organised semi
official press, and an army of obedient priests, and has
overspun us with a net of congregations. In short, no
one possesses so great an infiuence as this Italian pre
late. Even if he were a native this power would be
serious. But in this case it is a foreign monarch who
possesses it. who, if he had the power to carry out in
Prussia the programme he has solemnly proclaimed,
would have to begin by destroying the majority of the
Prussian nation. The latter would either have to for
swear their faith at once, or would risk losing aU that
they possess. We cannot concede to one who wields,
such forces the power that has hitherto been afforded
him by the constitution ; we must limit it. We cannot
ask for peace before we have clearly defined the position
of those to whom, in moments of ill-advised and badly-
rewarded confidence, we have granted only too many
privileges. That confidence has caused breaches in the
strong bulwark of the State ; when they have been filled
up, we shall be able to conclude peace with the Centre
party, and with the far more moderate Catholic Church.'
By May 1st the new laws had passed both Houses, opposition
of the
and at the closing of the Diet, on the 20th, the speech oerman
° ' ' r bishops to
from the Throne gave expression to the confidence of
the Government' that they would serve to promote
concord among the various confessions, and lead the
Church to devote its strength solely to the pure service
N

the Falk
Laws.

178 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, of God's Word. But legislation of such a character
' was opposed to all the instincts of Ultramontanism ;
and on April 28th the Cathohc bishops of Prussia,
assembled at the tomb of St. Boniface at Fulda, pub
lished a solemn Protest, addressed to the clergy and
the faithful of their dioceses. Four of their number,
the bishops of Paderborn, Posen, Fulda, and Treves,
subsequently refused to submit the seminaries over
Action of which they presided to governmental inspection. The
vernment. Govemmeut acted vrith uuexpectedr vlgouT. The bishop
of Paderborn found the pupils in the seminary in his
diocese declared inehgible for ecclesiastical appoint
ments throughout Prussia. In the diocese of the
bishop of Ermeland the State contributions to the
salaries of his Chapter were withheld. The schools
presided over by the bishop of Fulda were forcibly
closed; and the archbishop of Posen was informed
that ordination in his diocese would not avail to pro
tect the younger clergy from being called upon to
serve as ordinary soldiers in the army.
While the attention of their antagonists was thus
chaUenged by these new difficulties, the Old Cathohc
party continued to progress ; the earlier months of the
year being principally notable for the continued ex-
Switzer- teusiou of the movement in Svritzerland. An able
land.
Nippold's address, dehvered on January 7th by professor Nip-
B«™- pold, in the CouncU Hall at Bern, was listened to by
an overflowing assembly. He rapidly traced the chief
points in the whole history of the struggle ; and ad-

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 179
verting to the deposition of Geschwind, triumphantly chap.
pointed out, amid enthusiastic applause, that ' behind " ' '
the little Starrkirch another parish, the largest in the
canton of Soleure, had appeared in armed array, and
that the flame had spread over the whole of Catholic
Switzerland.' Eeferring to Eeinkens and the effects
produced by his tour. Dr. Nippold said : ' If my obser
vation and that of my friends does not deceive us, this
is a man who the people must see is truly their well-
wisher. He is no polemic ; his voice is not that of
passion, but of the clear light of truth. He has talent,
and he has piety in yet larger measure; he is the
Melanchthon of the assembly. Eeinkens is all the more
the man for the people, in that he is not likely to run
the risk of rooting up the seed of true religion along
with the tares which have spread so luxuriantly over
the field of the Church.' ^
The struggle between bishop Lachat and his diocese Bisiiop
"^ ^ . Lachat
had now reached a climax. The diocesan conference fxpeiiedfrom
of the seven cantons, meeting for a third time on s°i^"''«-
January 29th, after a formal enumeration of the irregu
larities which had marked his administration, declared
him deposed fi:'om his see, and called upon the Federal
Council to enforce their decision and fill up the va
cancy. He was accordingly compelled to leave his
palace at Soleure, and retired to Luzern; only two
cantons out of seven — those of Luzern and Unter-
' See Ursprung, Umfang, Hemmnisse umd Aussichten der altkatholis-
chen Bewegumg, van Friedrich Nippold, in Deutsche Zeit^nd Streit-Fragen.
Berlin, 1873. N 2

180 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, walden — remaining subject to his authority out of the
' ' ' seven over which he claimed jurisdiction.
mmod'^ex" The expulsion of Monsignor MermUlod from Ge-
Geneva™"" ucva, iu the mouth of February, was hailed with
unquahfied satisfaction by a large majority in the
canton. A man of obscure origin, but of imposing
presence and unsurpassed assurance, with a talent for
intrigue, and possessed of a certain showy art of
rhetoric improved by his Jesuit training at Eome, he
had been recognised by Queen Isabella, on her passage
through Geneva, as one well qualified to aid her in
her political designs. Towards the close of 1870 he
had been constantly journeying to and fro between
Geneva and Eigot-Tingrelin, aiding the Queen and the
ex-Empress Eugenie and the Comte de Chambord in
their political counsels. The pohtical alhes of the
Ultramontane party were devising how they might
yet retrieve their adverse fortunes, and his presence
at Geneva was regarded as an element of disquiet
by those who felt httle interest in religious questions.
His position, too, differed widely from that of bishop
Lachat. The latter represented the legitimate autho
rity appointed to preside over the diocese under a Con
cordat between Eome and the seven cantons. Mgr.
Mermillod, on the contrary, possessed merely a nominal
see, and his very appointment to this see had worn the
character of an act of hostUity to the State. During
its annexation to France, under Napoleon I., Geneva
had formed a part of the French diocese of Chambery ;

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 181
but when restored to Switzerland it had, at the request ^^v ^'
of the Council of the canton and with the papal sane- ' ' "
tion, been transferred to the Swiss diocese of Lausanne
and Freiburg. It was thus that matters remained until
Pius IX., by an exertion of his authority similar to that
which gave rise to the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill in Eng
land, appointed Mgr. Mermillod bishop of Geneva — a
measure whereby Geneva again became severed from
the diocese of Lausanne, contrary to the wishes of the
civil authorities, and even, it was asserted, of a majority
of the Cathohc population.
Such were the circumstances under which the Go- Reforms
instituted
vernment now decided to prohibit the residence of the q^^,^^;, ^f
nuncio imtU he should have resigned the functions con- '*'^'
ferred.upon him by the Pope. The latter retaliated
by prohibiting the bishop of Lausanne from exercising
(as the Government had desired him to do) episcopal
functions in Geneva. Upon this the Council of State
brought in a biU, which was approved by a committee
composed chiefly of Catholics, enacting that neither
episcopal nor parochial jurisdiction should be permitted
in the canton unless sanctioned by the State ; and that,
for the future, all parish priests should be elected by
the Catholic inhabitants, and be removable by the
State on sufficient cause being shown.^ In pursuance
of this measure the canton was divided into twenty-
three parishes, three of which were in Geneva ; and in
1 The eur^s were required to take an oath to tbe constitution, and
were liable to su.spension for four years if proved guilty of violation of
their oath.

182 THE NEW REFORMATION.
the foUowing March, Father Hyacinthe was invited by
the Old Cathohcs to lecture in that city. In a series
of able discourses he boldly advocated a complete
system of Church reform, to be carried out in con
junction with the Old Cathohc party. Let every
nation, he urged, estabhsh a national Christian Church
in harmony with the genius of the people ; and let the
different Churches thus established become an inter
national confederation. Of the general favour with
which his views and talents were regarded a signal
proof was given in his election, along with MM. Hur-
tault and Chavard, in the following October, to the
three vacant benefices in Geneva.
In Switzerland the laws of the State rendered it
impossible for the bishop to venture on a policy of
retaliation ; but in Germany the episcopate possessed
Excom- a larger discretion, and the excommunication of baron
mumcation " '
Richthofen. Eichthofeu, canon of Breslau, by bishop Forster proved
how httle was to be expected from their forbearance.
The canon, a man of aristocratic rank, and long re
garded as a sympathiser with the Liberal party, refused
to sign the Protest of Fulda, and also induced his friend.
Dr. Kiinzer, to withdraw his signature. At the same
time he published a formal protest, ' for truth and con
science sake,' referring in outspoken terms to the scep
ticism and dishonest reservations of those who had
submitted to the Vatican decrees, and the consequent
injustice of their attacks upon the unconsenting mi
nority.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 183
The spirit of the Old Cathohc party was, however, chap.
in no small measure raised by an official declaration oid c'ath^
on the part of the Prussian Government, to the effect cognised
hy tlie
that Old Catholics were to be regarded as Catholics, q^^^^
and that any member of the Breslau Chapter who might ™™*'
join the movement should remain in possession of his
benefice. The eventual adoption of the Falk Laws by the
Prussian Chambers also gave new confidence to the
party of reform. The recognition which had so long
been demanded had at length been vouchsafed ; the
voice of authority had declared itself on the side of
freedom ; and fidelity to conviction no longer involved
the conscientious priest in starvation and disgrace. It
was accordingly with new hopes and less misgiving
that the committee, especiaUy appointed at Cologne
for the purpose, proceeded to take steps for the election
of a bishop. The election was held at Cologne, where,
since the preceding year, the progress of the Old Catho
lic cause had been rapid, their numbers now reaching
nearly 4,000 in that city alone. It was on the morning
of Wednesday, June 4th, 1873, amid a crowded audi
ence, that the initiatory service was held in the chureh
of St. Pantaleon.
' At 8.30 A.M. the mass of the Holy Ghost began. Election ofReinljens
Afterwards, while the hymn Veni, Creator Spintus, was ^IthoUc
sung, the electors entered the side-chapel and the doors ^^^^°^-
were closed. On the scrutiny Eeinkens received sixty-
nine votes, Eeusch five, Langen and Michehs each one ;

184 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, one paper was found blank. Eeinkens, like others of
¦ the eligible priests, had deprecated election on purely
personal grounds, and after his election again refused to
accept the office. An earnest remonstrance of professor
Von Schulte, seconded by the other electors, at last
overcame his scruples. Few eyes were dry in the
chapel when Von Schulte, weeping, embraced him and
thanked him in the name of all for the sacrifice he had
made. He made a condition that the vow should be
the primitive vow of love and reverence, not that of
obedience, which Eome has forged into so crushing an
instrument of tyranny. The vow was joyfully taken,
and the bishop for his part bound himself by a hke
vow to his flock. The procession moved out of the
chapel, pastor Tangermann declared the news to the
waiting crowd from the pulpit, the bells rang out, and
the Te Deum was sung.' ^
'This election,' said Von Schulte, when referring
to the event three months later at Constance, ' was a
work of which all present must say, the Spirit of the
Lord swayed the assembly. It cost us pains to move
the man to accept this thorny office, the whole diffi
culty of which he perceived. But I may say, not
merely as eyewitness, but as leader of that meeting
for the election of a bishop, it was an inspiring mo
ment ! I may say, since the Apostles' days it has not
come to pass, that an assembly lay in tears, to win the
man of its confidence and of its choice. And whereas
' Reinkeni Speeches (by Mayor), p. 15.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 185
at other times every possible engine, secular and eccle- chap.
siastical, is brought to bear upon episcopal elections, ' — ' — '
and it is known long before how this man and that
and dozens are yearning to obtain the dignity, and
how the outward state, the honours, the halo, the re
venues are the baits which tempt each and all to strive
after this dignity — we had before us a man who in the
sense of what awaited him was as it were prostrated,
and whom only the tears of such a crowd of men
raised and moved — the tears of an assembly and the
consciousness that, as the Holy Ghost had called him,
he might not shrink back. It was a moment such as
the Church has not seen since the Apostolic tim.es.'
By a remarkable coincidence, on the very day that Death of
the arch-
the elections took place the good and venerable arch- bishop of
-¦- ° Utrecht.
bishop of Utrecht died. He had promised to preside
at the consecration ; and his death accordingly was
interpreted, with evident exultation, by the Ultra
montanists, as a manifest judgment. On the one
remaining bishop of the httle church, Heykamp of
Deventer, it devolved to perform the ceremony ; and at
Eotterdam, on August 11th, assisted by two presbyters,
bishop Heykamp admitted the first bishop of the Old
Catholic Church to his office.-^ The title received by
^ The ancient canons enjoin that at least three bishops shall unite in
the ceremony of consecration, and this injunction has alwaj's been care
fully observed in tbe Anglican Church ; but, according to Van Espen and
other eminent canonists, tbis number is by no means essential to the
validity of the consecration — a view which has been sanctioned by tbe
Romish Chuieb. See Appendix II. to Nineteenth Report of the Anglo-
Continental Society.

restored.

186 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, bishop Eemkens was that of missionary bishop of
Conse'cra- ' Germany, and at the same time Einkel was consecrated
bishop bishop of Haarlem. Instead of the papal mandate
Reinlfens. the formal proofs of the new elections were read, and
both bishops determined not to notify their consecra
tion to the Pope.
The epij- The position taken up by bishop Eeinkens in virtue
COpRi 0II1C6
.as thus y£ jjjg office deserves to be carefully compared with
that of the episcopal order hi the Eomish Communion,
and also to be noted in its relation to German Pro
testantism.^ In contrast to the former, it will be
observed that it rested on the choice of priests and
laymen, and thus offered to Christendom an example
of that revised conception of the office to which Von
Schulte, in the speech above quoted, referred, when he
said : ' In all the patristic writings in the old Coimcils
the thought recurs ; " He is no true bishop who is not
called .by the confidence and choice of clergy and con
gregation." The ancient councils have declared this
most definitely and clearly. Now a long process — I
will not trouble you here with its history — has landed
US in this result, that the bishop has at last been
imposed on the faithful by every other means than by
the confidence and the call of Christ's flock, to lead
which, as the Apostle Paul says, the Holy Ghost
appointed the bishops. I will not dwell further upon
1 ' Mgr. Reinkens,' observes Michaud in his last work, Le Mouvement
Contemporain (1874), ' agira en ^veque des premiers siecles ; ' it is not
without justice that he characterises ' la consecration d'un tel ^veque ' as
* un fait extremement gTave, dans les circonstances actueUes.'

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 187
the ways and means of their election, but it is a fact chap.
that most bishops are strange to their congregations, ' '
that oftentimes they neither belonged to the diocese,
nor were known to the congregation, over which they
were placed.' On the other hand, in relation to the
Protestantism of Germany, the consecration of bishop
Eeinkens could scarcely fail to suggest the restoration
of an office in the primitive Church which Lutheranism
and Calvinism had ahke too precipitately discarded ;
and the following comments in the Augsburg Allgemeine Comments
Zeitung, on the pastoral issued by the bishop after his zdtTn"'""
consecration, are deserving of careful attention : —
' Utinam restituere possem episcopos ! That sigh of the
noble Melanchthon, the organiser of the G-erman Eeformation,
involuntarily escaped our lips after the perusal of Dr. Eein
kens' pastoral. Here at last were a genuine pastor's words,
for German Christians to read, replete with pious faith and
true love, and begetting courage out of humility ; without
anathemas, and yet with clear decision rebuking the domi
nant errors of the day ; discovering with deep penetration
the ultimate causes of our Church's destitution and pointing
with engaging confidence- to the way of deliverance and
peace. Long has it been since any Protestant authority has
spoken to our congregations so wisely and so well. . . . The
breach of continuity with the ancient Church which befell
us at the Eeformation has been productive of consequences
which prove that breach to have been the reverse of a real
progress. Efforts, since the time of Luther, to erect an epis
copacy self-evolved by Protestantism have been ever abortive;
yet it is only of late that the writings of Eothe and Bunsen
have brought home to many of us the conviction that this
must necessarily continue to be the case. If now Dr. Eein-

188 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, kens, as the first German bishop excommunicated by Rome,
¦  ¦  ' but by his consecration indisputably partaker of the Apos
tolic succession, proceeds to fulfil the duties of his office ac
cording to the spirit which Christ gave to his Apostles, we
doubt not that also among German Protestants the desire
for such an institution will be felt more and more, and that
even that external continuity with the ancient Church will
be restored which was lost at our Eeformation rather from
the circumstances of the times than from, any intentional
sectarian tendency.' '
Spread of The example thus set by Germany was not lost
tlie move-
switzer ^^pon Switzerland, where, ever since Eeinkens' visit, the
land. Qji j^ Catholic movement had been rapidly spreading ;
and on August 31st a Conference was held at Olten,
attended by some 250 persons, of whom 100 were
delegates. At this Conference it was stated that Old
Catholic societies had been formed in almost every
district of importance in the Swiss Confederation, and
that a number of communes had publicly prohibited
the teaching of the dogma of infallibility or any
doctrine derivable therefrom. The Conference also
passed the foUowing resolutions : —
Eesolutions 1. That Church reform must be carried out by the
Conference proper Synodical organisation.
2. That such an organisation be constituted for Switzer
land. 3. That a committee be appointed for drafting the con
stitution of the Swiss National Church.
4. That a bishop be elected.
5. That the elected bishop take no oaths of subservience
to any foreign prince, potentate, or authority.
' Compare account of tbe Reformation, supra, pp. 22-30.

at Olten.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 189
In this scheme it wUl be easy to discern both the <^^^p-
influence of the example set by Germany and that of ' ' "
Father Hyacinthe, who attended the Conference and
largely guided its deliberations. In the meantime the
efforts of the Old Catholic party in Germany in the
direction of ' proper Synodical organisation ' had also
been assuming a definite shape, and the body repre
sented a fortnight later at Constance could no longer
be regarded as a mere assemblage of protesting and ex
communicated men, but could point to a definite pro
gramme and a completed constitution.
The Third Congress of the Old Catholics m^et in the The Con-
° gress at
ancient city of Constance, and held its sittings on the '^'"i^'''"''^-
Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, from the 12th to the
14th of September. It assembled in the Council Hall,
so well known to every visitor to Constance as tlje
scene of the memorable Council of 1414 ; ^ and the
allusions made by different speakers in the course of
' The bishop of Lincoln, who was unable to be present, acknowledged
tbe invitation of tbe president in a felicitous set of Latin elegiacs, in
which tbe following stanzas happily contrasted tbe conditions of the
mediseval CouncU witb those of tbe approaching Congress : —
' Inclyta qua toUit veteres Constantia tiirres,
Jam video doctum se glomerare cborum :
Agnosco praesens in te, Constantia, Numen ;
Concilium Nemesis convocat ipsa Tuima.
Tu famosa nimis Synodo, Constantia, saevfi,
Nunc es Concilio nobilitanda pio.
Martyrum ubi quondam maduit tua sanguine tellus,
Nunc seges albescit messis Apostobcee ;
Ecce ! novo cineres Hussi fulgore coruscant,
Fitque Evangelii fax pyra Martyrii ;
Pragensis video venerandam sdrgere formam.
Inque tuo coetii vivida verba loqui.

190 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, the proceedings to the names of John Huss and Jerome
""¦^ ' ¦ of Prague, came with force and appropriateness, as
addressed to those who found themselves gathered on
the same spot to protest against simUar abuses and to
News of the vindicate the same principles. WhUe the Congress
approach- ^ '^ ^
nlfioToT ^^ ^*ill assembling, new intelhgence arrived to cheer
Eeinkens the hearts of its supporters — the news that the election
by the
Prussian of bishoD Eeiukeus would be ratified by the Govern-
Govern- ^ ¦'
ment. meut ; while a voice from England, in the form of a
congratulatory letter from the bishop of Winchester,
greeted the new bishop as ' indisputably included in
that Apostolical succession which has descended from
the hUl-side of Olivet down to the Christendom of this
day, even as it shall continue until the Unseen Head
of the Church shall return unto earth again.'
Foreigners Mauv laymcu aud ladies of distinction attended the
present at ./ ./
the Con- Congress, whUe the Continental clergy were represented
by a long list of illustrious names, including those of
bishop Eeinkens ; professors Von Schulte, Eeusch,
Knoodt, Langen, Eitter, Doutrelepont, of Bonn ;
Messmer, Huber, Cornehus, and Friedrich, of Munich ;
Michehs, of Braunsberg ; Lu:tterbeck and WUlbrand,
of Geissen ; Ernenwein, of Wiirzburg ; Weisshaupt, of
Kempten ; Holtzmann (Protestant), of Heidelberg ;
Stahl, of Mannheim ; Weber, of Breslau, &c.
Among the pfarrers or cur^s were Thiirlings, of
Kempten ; Herzog, of Ohen ; Kaminski, of Kattowitz ;
Hassler, Kiihn, Duren, Prof. Hort, Eenftle ; Geschwind,
of Starrkirch ; Eol, of Utrecht ; Van Vlooten, of Amers-

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 191
foort ; Bernus, of Ormont-Dessus ; Hoffmann, of Essen ; chap.
Hosemann, of Constance ; Santen, sub-deacon of Utrecht ; ' — '
&c. Michaud .and Pressense alone represented Paris ;
Father Hyacinthe and Chavard came from Geneva ; M.
WaUon from Nancy ; and archpriest Wassiljeff, along
with Col. Von Kirejeff, represented Eussia.
The American and Enghsh guests included bishop American
¦rv j> A n • ^"^ Eng-
Doane, of Albany ; assistant-bishop Lyman, of S. ^^^^ s^^^ts.
Carolma ; Dr. Howson, dean of Chester, and his son ;
the Eev. Eobert J. Nevin, rector of the American
church at Eome ; the Eev. WUliam Chauncy Langdon
and his wife ; the Eev. Muehleisen Arnold, with his
wife ; the Eev. G. E. Broade ; Dr. Heidenheim, British
chaplain at Zurich, editor of the ' Quarterly Journal
of Theology ; ' the Eev. C. F. Lowder ; the Eev. John
Hunt and his wife ; professor Mayor, of Cambridge ; and
J. Lowry Whittle, Esq., the author of a volume before
referred to,' entitled ' Catholicism and the Vatican.'
At a preliminary meeting, held on Thursday, the Pre-
liminarj'
11th, addresses were delivered by Staatsanwalt Fieser, addresses.
president of the local committee, bishop Doane,
archpriest Wassiljeff, professor Holtzmann, the abbe
Michaud, Dr. Heidenheim, Landammann Keller, and
bishop Eeinkens — each of whom expressed, on behalf
of the nationality or community he represented, a
thorough sympathy with the movement, and con
tributed by his suggestions to the interest of the
occasion. The chief value of these speeches consisted,
however, in their relation to the actual state of affairs,

192 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, and, as they have been rendered generally accessible
' ' ' in other pages, any abstract wiU here be unnecessary.^
rfdeie^'^ On the Friday the delegates from the different
®''*®'' congregations assembled in the Theater-saal. The
number present, including visitors who were invited to
Address of take part as listeners, amounted to 200. Von Schulte,
Schulte. ¦^y}io, as at the former Congress, had been unanimously
elected president, delivered the opening address. He
began by reminding his audience that the pohcy of the
party had from the commencement been one of sobriety
and caution, and strongly advised that such should still
be its prevaihng character. ' We now,' he said, ' know
our goal ; it is twofold, partly near, partly stiU far off.
Let us not hurry, for " the better is ever the enemy of
the good." In the Council of Constance Sigismund
endeavoured to give one Head to Christendom ; but the
enemies of reform, acting on the maxim divide et impera,
in the concordia Constantiensis, sowed discord be
tween the more ardent and the cooler reformers. We
have now one head, and a head freely chosen by a
unanimous vote.' After advertmg to the principal
events in their history since the last Congress, he
proceeded to explain their new relations to the State.
' Prince Bismark and minister Falk in no way required
a sacrifice of the freedom of the Church. They look
upon our movement with favour from the point of view
of civilisation, as catholic, rehgious, moral ; , as national,
1 See the very able Report of the Congress of Constance, by professor
J. E. B. Mayor. Rivingtons, 1874.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 193
but in no exclusive sense German. . . The committee chap. IV.
undertook that no one should be elected who did not " ' '
possess the confidence of the Government, and that the
bishop should take the oath of allegiance to the State.'
He described theu- statistics as very imperfect, but gave
the following : ' In Prussia there are twenty-two fuUy
constituted congregations, consisting of 4,200 men
enrolled as members, and a total of about 14,000
souls. In Bavaria thirty-three congregations, with
4,100 men, 13,000 souls. In Baden (where the re
ports are very defective) twenty-seven congregations,
2,000 men, 9,000 souls. On the whole there must be
at least 50,000 registered Old Catholics, and the whole
number of adherents cannot be less than 200,000. . .
Not a few of the old clergy wiU come over when our
bishop is formally acknowledged by the State. Look
back for an instant. On September 22nd, 1871, the
first proposal was made for the constitution of a com
munion,^ and already 100 congregations are in ftiU
action. Luther in three years after the publication of
his theses, in 1517, made much slower progress,
and he was supported by the power of his State.' ^
The next subject that demanded the attention of Proposalsfor a
the delegates was the newly-prepared constitution, ^J'°°''-
drawn up by the Committee, which professor Eeusch
proceeded to explain. According to this it was pro-
' See supra, p. 125.
* A comparison in which, however, we must not lose sight of tbe
greatly increased facilities for transmitting intelligence and appealing to
the masses, existing in tbe present day. 0

TheScheme.

194 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, posed to institute a Synod which, in conjunction with
the Synodal committee, was to be the legislative and
executive organ of the Church. The scheme was em
bodied in seventy articles, of which the foUowing is an
outline : —
'The bishop (appointed by an absolute majority of the
Synod) is assisted by a Synodal committee of nine members,
four ecclesiastics and five laymen. He may choose a vicar-
general from among these four ecclesiastics, or (with the
consent of the Synodal committee) from the entire body of
the clergy. The Synodal committee is named by the Synod.
The Synod to meet once a year ; and to be composed of the
bishop, of the Synodal committee, of all the clergy of the
diocese, and of one delegate for every 200 men. Each parish
has its Church council, varying in number from six to
eighteen, elected for three years, and re-eligible. All men
of full age are electors who declare that they adhere to the
Catholic religion, and are formally enrolled as members of
the parish, or presented as such by authorised persons. The
parochial assembly meets at least once a year : it is composed
of all male members of the Church who are of age, and in
the enjoyment of civil rights ; it nominates the incumbents,
curates, and members of the Synod ; it fixes the budget and
ecclesiastical contributions. No one can be nominated in
cumbent who does not satisfy the requirements of the canon
and the national law, and who has not passed a theological
examination, held after the completion of a three years' uni
versity course, by a committee of three theologians and one
canonist, under the presidency of the bishop or his deputy.
The examiners are selected by the bishop out of a board of
six, four theologians and two canonists, yearly appointed by
the Synod. All fees are abolished.'
The above scheme, after a few slight emendations

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 195
(embodied in the outline given), was unanimously c!hap.
adopted, and then left for the final confirmation of the '~^"'"'
Synod, which was given in due course at Bonn in the
following May.
On Saturday the delegates held their final meeting, Pinai
and were invited by the president to discuss a scheme
authorising the Synodal committee to appoint sub-com
mittees for the purpose of corresponding with the
Greek, the Anglican, and the Protestant Churches.
Professor Michelis warmly supported the project of re- speech by
union. ' Hitherto,' he said, ' we have done little for re
union ; we have been perfecting our own organisation ;
but our work will bear fruit for all mankind. Already
it is bringing about peace between Church and State ;
the emperor has read and warmly approved the pas
toral of our bishop. We hope to restore the Church
from its caricature to its native purity. . . . We look
forward to a true General Council, gathered from all
confessions, which may put to shame the mock Council
of the Vatican. I propose (1 ) that two committees be
appointed, one to sit in Munich, and to correspond with
the Greek and Eastern Churches ; the other to sit in
Bonn, and to correspond with the Western Churches ;
(2) that these committees work in concert with one
another, and with members of other communions resi
dent in Germany ; (3) that a literary organ of union,
weekly or monthly, be founded, which shall receive
articles in various languages; (4) that the ultimate end
kept in view be the convocation of a General Council.
0 2

196 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. The president next proposed a scheme for the mainte-
Scherilie for Haucc of thcological studcuts aud of such of the Old
theoiogfcai Cathohc clergy as were past work or but imperfectly
students n i /? i;
and the eudowcd. Somc obiectious raiscd to the first part ot
poorer ''
clergy. ^^ proposal, as calculated to attract students actuated
solely by mercenary motives, was met by professor
Eeusch, by a declaration, that a capable professoriate
might be trusted to encourage only those students who
evinced real fitness for the clerical oflSce ; and both
proposals were adopted.
The answer to the invitation of the Evangelical
AUiance was read and met vrith enthusiastic approval.
Speech of Deau Howson, addressing the meeting in English, in-
dean ' . . & '
Howson. timated the pleasure with which he availed himself
of the opportunity of expressing" the respect felt in
England for the courage, faithfulness, zeal, and pru
dence displayed by the leaders of this great move
ment. ' I hope,' he added, ' your example wiU not
be lost upon us. My chief excuse for speaking to
you on this occasion is, that I bear a message from
my dear and honoured friend the bishop of Ely, now
appointed to the bishopric of Winchester. He desires
me to " assure the Old Catholic leaders, bishop Eein
kens and others, that he feels the deepest interest in
their proceedings, and offers up daily supphcations for
their guidance and blessing." '
The session of the delegates finally broke up amid
every indication of almost complete unanimity. Before
departing they all paid, in the fashion of their country,

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 197
a tribute of silent reverence to the late archbishop of chap.
Utrecht, by rising up on the utterance of his name by " '~~'
the president.-^
For the argument of the able and eloquent speeches Speeches at
° ~1 r the first
delivered at the two public meetings of the Congress, we ^"™ng
must again refer our readers to the pamphlet of professor
Mayor. At the first, the president a second time re
capitulated, in more general terms, the chief facts in
their progress since the preceding year. Pastor Eol of
Utrecht bore witness how the generous life of the
movement in Germany had imparted new vitahty to
the little pommunion which he represented. Fiirsprech
Weber, from Soleure, gave expression to the sympathy
and gratitude of Switzerland. Professor Messmer of
Munich depicted with singular energy and in graphic
language the superstition and fanaticism observable
wherever Jesuit influence had once gained the ascend
ancy. On Sunday an Anglo-American service was cele- The ser
vices on
brated at 7.30, in the evangelical church ; bishop Ly- Sunday.
man and dean Howson ofiiciating at the liturgy and
Lord's Supper. After the reading of Scripture, profes
sor Mayor dehvered both a German and an English
speech — utterances of no httle interest as ' the first
words spoken by an Englishman in a church at Con
stance, since the Eeformation.' In the former he em-
' The custom is of course classical in its derivation : so on Casaubon's
tomb in Westminster Abbey, the inscription says, —
' Assurgite
Huic tarn colendo nomini.'

198 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, phatically denounced lukewarmness and indifference as
' ' " especially censurable in times of conflict, and reminded
his audience how Huss, the martyr of Constance, had
been awakened by the writings of an Englishman —
Wyciif. A general service was held at 9 a.m. in the
Augustinian church, the mass being said in Latin, the
remainder of the service in German. The sermon was
preached by Eeinkens.
Proceed- In the aftemoou at 3 p.m. a second general meeting
ings of the '-' '-'
gen°erai "^^^ ^^^^ ^^ *^^ CouucU HaU. Au iuflux of visitors
raee mg. f^QQ^ Switzerland and Southern Germany caused the
great hall to overflow, it being, it was said, the first
time in the memory of man that it had been seen
crowded in every part. Weber of Breslau and Dr.
Volk were the first two speakers ; the former dwelling
chiefly on the necessity for a learned and studious
clergy to carry on the new work, the latter confining
himself to the political aspects of the movement.^ Pro
fessor Friedrich enlarged upon the Ulustration of the
episcopal ofiice, in its primitive and genuine simphcity,
afforded in their newly-created bishop ; and professor
Schulte dehvered a learned historical lecture, which
was foUowed with the most complete attention, in
' It was during Dr. VoUi's speech that M. de Pressens6 quitted the
ball and was foUowed by Father Hyacinthe, the former, as it aftei-wards
appeared, misapprehending the tenour of tbe speaker's observations,
and applying to France and Frenchmen generaUy criticisms which were
really du-ected solely against tbe Ultramontanist party in France. M.
de Pressens^ subsequently expressed his regret, and stated in a letter to
tbe president that he bad been deeply interested in the proceedings of tbe
Congress,, and should retain a most favourable impression of aU that he
had heard and seen.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE, 199
which he pointed out the successive encroachments ^^f^-
whereby the predominance of the bishop of Eome " ' '
had been gradually established. A speech from Eein- conclusion.
kens, enforcing with his usual power the necessity
for a return to the direct study of the Scriptures, espe
cially the New Testament, as opposed to that of the
scholastic commentators, brought the proceedings to a
close. In a letter addressed to the ' Times,' soon after the Dean Howson's
Congress, dean Howson summed up his whole impres- [?"*y*°
sion of the proceedings, and observed that the first
broad fact which must have arrested the attention of
every observer, was ' the clear evidence afforded of a
decisive and final breach with the papacy ; ' and that in
harmony with this fact was the provision that had now
been made ' for organised existence and systematic im
provement in separation from the Pope.' Eeferring to
the prospects of reunion, he observed : ' It would be
ungrateful not to record the feeling manifested at Con
stance towards other Christian communions. This feel
ing was most noble and generous, and as different as
possible from the spirit of the " SyUabus" and the papal
and Curiahstic tradition. There was, indeed, no symp
toms of a fanatical belief that aU Churches are suddenly
to coalesce in one organic union ; but it was contended
by all that we may know one another better, and
esteem one another more justly. . . . Side by side with
this feehng, it was admitted that there must in due
time be a revision of Church doctrine, a re-writing of

200 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. Church history, and a thorough sifting of Church regu-
" ' lations. . . . But it is determined by these German
Old Catholics that consolidation shall precede reform.
The requisite alterations are to be made, not by this or
that person according to his own predUections, but
after careful debate and through regularly-constituted
organs.' . . . ' We shall probably find,' he observed in
conclusion, ' that we have something to learn at home
from this movement as it advances. At all events it
deserves, and it will have, the earnest and respectful
sympathy of every faithful member of the Church of
England.'
S-va-'^ With regard to the scheme of ' consohdation '
proposed ^ abovo referred to, the main points cannot be better
Chijrch 1 ., 1 1
constitu- described than in the language of the abbe Michaud,
tion. ° ^ '
as he reviewed the results of the Congress and con
trasted the position now taken up by the Old Catholic
party when compared with that of the preceding year.
' If we proceed to examine this constitution and en
quire whether it be reaUy Catholic, the question can
only be answered by every competent and impartial
theologian in the aflirmative. For, firstly, the hierarchy
with its claim to divine right is maintained, whUe the
rights of the laity, in the presence of this claim, are
loftily and freely asserted. The bishop wUl not occupy
in relation to his clergy the position of an all-powerful
pasha, as is to be seen in the Eomish Church of the
present day ; and the clergy, while enjoying freedom
under the jurisdiction of the bishop, wiU no longer be

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 201
able to tyrannise over their flocks. These will be as chap.
free as their pastors, whom indeed they will choose for " '~~'
themselves. From among these they will elect, again,
those who appear to them most worthy to form along
with others the church council, or to represent them at
the Synod. They will administer the affairs of thefr
parish; the Synod being the supreme authority, ex
cepting only Councils of the universal Church convened
for matters relating to the general community. But
the Synod, though having authority over both the
bishop and the Synodal committee, excludes no priest.
Every priest is a member of it by virtue of his office,
and every parish of 200 is entitled to send a delegate
to the Synod. The lay delegates are entitled con
jointly with the clerical delegates to control and
criticise the acts and decisions of the bishop and of the
Synodal committee, if occasion should arise.
' It must be- allowed that by this scheme the hier
archical system is admirably combined with the demo
cratic spirit of the primitive discipline. This was the
great difficulty to be overcome, and it is here solved.
The above constitution offers us a threefold advantage :
first, it places, ipso facto, the Old Catholics of Germany
on the basis of primitive Catholicism, when bishops
were consecrated to their office without reference to
the bishop of Eome. Next, it is the best remedy for
that indifference with regard to religious matters
which, more and more, is taking possession of the
laity in the Western Church ; by the simple fact that

202 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, it obhges them to give attention to the affairs of their
" ¦ ' parish, and to participate either directly or indirectly
in the affairs of the Synod — thus requiring from them
a certain knowledge of rehgious questions, and so paving
the way for their return to the faith and doctrine of
the Church. The Eoman Cathohc, on the other hand,
being a mere passive machine in the hands of his
priest, is regarded as rehgious in proportion as he is
ignorant and passively responds. Amen ! But the
Old Catholic must be active, he must be wiUing to
share in the administration of the Church and to
take his part as a jealous guardian of primitive tradition.
Finally, the constitution which the Old Catholics of
Germany have devised for themselves is a legal instru
ment of legal reform. The Ultramontanes, hke the
Pharisees of old, hold fast to the letter of the law in
proportion as they are wanting in justice and in truth.
It has become necessary to overcome them in their last
stronghold, and such will doubtless be the result. The
Old Catholics have now a competent authority which
will invest aU measures of necessary reform with the
character of legahty. . . . They wUl carry out their
work, according as the laity, becoming better informed,
are better able to comprehend its real nature ; and in
this way they will reform the Church without revolution
ising it.' ^
Eeinkens"^ On the 20th of September the election of bishop
re^cognised Ecinkeus was formally recognised by the German Go-

Government.

' Le Mouvement Contemporain, pp. 205-6.

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 203
vernment, and on the 7th of October he took the oath chap.
of allegiance. By this oath he was called upon to He takes '
, . . . . the oath of
swear that he would regard it as his duty to resign allegiance.
his ofl[ice rather than oppose the State authorities, and
his assent to this condition exposed him to severe
criticism from both Enghsh and Continental Cathohcs.
Eeinkens vindicated his conduct by pointing out, that Hi^defence
through the sovereign's recognition of his orders a <="'^'^"'='-
bishop became invested with considerable social and
political influence, and that it would be treason to use
such privileges and rights against the State. In con
clusion, he said, ' I repudiate the doctrine of a State
Church as resolutely as that of a theocratic State.
Eeligion is no function of the State. I would never
tolerate any interference of the Government in the
doctrine, hturgy, and internal discipline of the Church.
But with equal justice has the State the sovereign
right, whenever a rehgious society enters the external
domain of the law, to determine independently this
external relation of the Church and the State, and to
allow no interference within the province of its own
legal authority.'
The favourable feehng, evinced throughout the Con- Corre-spondence
gress, in relation to the question of reunion, could not ^^^^j^^''
faU to excite among the members of other communions and'thj"^
Anfflo-
considerable hope and expectation in looking forward Contin-
to the results of the coming year. Already, as early as society.
April 1872, the secretary of the Anglo-Continental
Society at Diisseldorf, the Eev. G. E. Broade, had

204 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, forwarded to Herr Wiilffing, president of the Central
' " Old Catholic Committee for Ehiueland and Westphalia,
a number of books and pamphlets illustrating the prin
ciples of the society and the doctrines of the English
Church. The present had been cordiaUy acknow
ledged and accepted, and in the month of November
1873, the bishop of Winchester, as president of the
Anglo-Continental Society, forwarded a present of £100
ment'of'a ^^ ^^ ^^ *^® ^"^'^ Catholic movemeut. On the 1st of
mittee. the foUowiug December, professor Von Schulte wrote
to the president to announce that a committee had
been nominated, consisting of Dolhnger, Friedrich, and
Messmer, for the purpose of opening communication
with the Anglo-Continental Society on the subject of
reunion ; and also stating that Dr. DoUinger would be
happy to receive and consider any correspondence from
the society on the subject, though precluded by the
demands on his time and energies from assuming the
initiative in such a correspondence.
To this communication the bishop of Winchester
made the following reply : —
Letter of Honoured Sir, —
the bishop
of Win- I rejoice to hear that the venerable Dr. Von DoUinger
is able to undertake the task of examining into the question
of union with the Anglican Church, and that so influential
and able a committee has been appointed to co-operate with
him. We have already formed the committee of the Anglo-
Continental Society, which has occupied itself many years in
endeavouring to promote the intercommunion of Churches

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 205
and the union of Christians on the basis of the faith and dis- CHAP. IV.
cipline of the Primitive Church. I will now ask my brother --^ — . 

the bishop of Lincoln, the Eev. prebendary Meyrick, secre
tary of the Anglo-Continental Society, the Eev. professor
Mayor, secretary of the Society for Germany, and the Eev.
Dr. Biber, one of the secretaries of a committee of the
society, to co-operate with me in carrying on a correspon
dence with Dr. Von DoUinger, professor Friedrich, and pro
fessor Messmer. Be good enough to let letters be addressed
to the Eev. Frederick Meyrick, Villa Alexandra, Torquay,
who has the honour of a personal acquaintance with Dr. Von
Dolhnger. At the same time a committee of three professors
at Bonn was appointed to correspond with the com
mittee of the Friends of Spiritual Enhghtenment at St.
Petersburg. As the result of an arrangement made between the
bishop of Winchester and professor Von Schulte, a
series of letters, nine in number, was addressed to Dr.
Dolhnger by the Eev. F. Meyrick, upon —
1. The question of schism. Questions
2. The spirit of the Church of England as exhibited in f™ con^-
, ., sideration
Anglican devotions. in connex-
3. The rule of faith maintained by her. the Church
4. The nature and constitution of the Church as conceived of Ens'™'^-
by her. 5. Her dogmatic teaching.
6. The character of her Eeformation.
7. The specific points on which she differs from the
teaching of the Eoman Church.
8. Her present sympathies.
9. Her teaching, compared with that of the Oriental and
Eo«ian Churches, on thirteen points submitted to the Bonn

206 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, committee by the committee of the Friends of Spiritual En-
 ¦  ' lightenmeut of St. Petersburg.
Copies of these letters were also sent to professors
Friedrich and Messmer.
Proposals Dr. DolUuger, in acknowledging the receipt of this
for a Con- ° ' . . .
ference. communicatlou , intimated his wish to. defer his answer
until after the subject had been brought before the
Synod of Bonn, appointed to be held May 27-2 9th,
1874 ; and in the meantime proposed that a Conference
of Old Catholics, Orientals, and Anghcans should be
held at Bonn in September for the oral discussion of
the questions raised.
Papal On November 21st another encyclic appeared from
encyclic '' ^ ^
Ednkens'^ Eomc, iu which the disappointment and chagria of the
rep y- Pope at the tendency of events found expression in a
general denunciation of all societies not organised under
direct papal sanction. The ' sects of freemasons' were,
with absurd extravagance, denounced as ' the main
cause of all the misery in the world ; ' while it was as
serted, on the other hand, that monastic communities
and rehgious orders were necessary as auxiharies and
instruments of the papal policy. The encychc caUed
forth an able rejoinder in the form of a second pastoral
from bishop Eeinkens, who subjected the assertions of
the pontiff, taken seriatim, to a masterly refutation.
No happier reply, throughout the whole controversy
since the Vatican CouncU, had been made than that
in which he repeUed the notion that the new eccle
siastico-political laws aimed at the utter ruin of the

THE YEAR 1873 AND THE CONGRESS OF CONSTANCE. 207
Catholic Church, and repudiated the epithet of ' cruel,' chap.
as apphed by the encychc to the Prussian legislation,  ' '
by reminding his readers that ' the admired emperors,
Constantine the Great, Justinian, and Charles the Great,
exercised over the clergy and bishops rights in every
respect greater, and that even the Eoman bishops
found therein no danger for the existence of the Ca
thohc Church.' In adverting to the papal condemna
tion of the new enactments he reminded those whom
he addressed that 'the most feared and, in earthly
grandeur, the greatest of all the Popes — Innocent IH.
— rejected the Magna Charta of England, condemned
it, adjured heaven and earth against it, beat it down
with ban and interdict ; but it did not fall ; it made
the people of England great, and that people had not
lost Christianity.' Equally telling was the paradox of
which he convicted the bishops who were now to be
found appealing to the Treaty of Westphalia against
the Falk Laws, thereby 'recognising all those provi
sions in regard to ecclesiastical polity which the Popes
for more than two centuries so zealously condemned ! '
Vindicating the validity of his own election, the writer
went on to say, that to assert that ' none can be re
garded as a legitimate bishop who has not been con
firmed by the Pope of Eome, was to bring forward
false elements of a Catholic doctrine never known to
Christian antiquity.' ¦ • • ' Episcopal jurisdiction takes
effect by means of consecration on the ground of the
legal election, not by means of an act of jurisdiction

208 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, coming from abroad from a " bishop of bishops."
' ' ' Herein I have the Council of Trent on my side.' In
its dignified and Christian tone the whole pastoral, and
especially the conclusion, offered a marked contrast
to the unmeasured denunciations and virulence of the
encyclic.

THE YEAR 1874. 209

CHAPTEE V.
THE TEAR 1874 : THE SYNOD OF BONN — THE CONGRESS OF
FEEIBUEG — THE CONFERENCE AT BONN.
When the year 1874 opened, it became more than ever cb^p.
apparent that, however little such a result might have state of
been anticipated or desired by either party, the religious commence-
^ •> r Ji o ment of the
struggle between the Ultramontanists and the Old y^*"^-
Catholics had expanded into a widespread war between
the Eomish Church and the State. The sceptical in
religious matters might deride the notion of investing
with importance the Pope's decisions upon points of
theology ; the devout Cathohc might loudly deny that
he had been called upon ' to place his loyalty and civil
duty as a citizen at the mercy of another ; ' but indi
cations of feehng too strong to be overlooked, and facts
too numerous to be ignored, had slowly compelled the
Prussian Government to recognise in those who still
avowed supreme allegiance to the Pope the supporters
of a doctrine which, in the words of Dolhnger, uttered
three years before, would, ' if it were to become do
minant in Catholic Germany, at once plant the seeds
of a deadly malady in the new empire.' The warnings
of Prince Hohenlohe, the protest of the Nurnberg
professors, and the declarations of the Munich Congress
p

210 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, had now become the avowed conviction of the great

V.

Liberal party throughout Germany. On New Year's
Day, when bishop Eeinkens presented to the Emperor
the customary congratulations, the imperial reply to
the ' Hochwuerdiger Bischof ' implicitly admitted that
such was the case. ' May the conviction which you
share with others,' said the imperial letter, ' and which
is certainly correct, continue to gain ground — that in
my States respect for the law may easily be reconciled
with the exercise of religion on the part of every
community.'
Prince Jt ^as uot, howcvcr, to be expected that the con-
Bismarfc '¦
uitrlmon versiou of Prince Bismark to the Old Catholic view of
in the the questiou, and the energy vrith which he demon-
Prussian J^ie'- strated his determination to enforce 'respect for the
law,' would not call forth strong protest and even
actual resistance ; and in the month of January he was
fiercely attacked in the Prussian Diet by Malhnckrodt,
Schorlemer Ast, and other leaders of the Central or
Ultramontane party. The chancellor unfalteringly
maintained his ground. ' If,' he observed, in reply to
MaUinckrodt, ' the InfaUibility dogma is so interpreted
as to lead to the establishment of an ecclesiastical
imperium in imperio, if it occasions the setting aside
of the laws of this country, because unapproved by the
Vatican, I am naturally driven to assert the legitimate
supremacy of the State. We Protestants are under the
conviction that this kingdom of Prussia , ought not to
be ruled by the Pope, and we demand that you, the

THE YEAR 1874. 211
Ultramontane section of the Eoman Catholics, respect chap.
our convictions, as we do yours.' ' We will not go to ' ' '
Canossa,' he more than once observed to members of
his party, in allusion to the memorable abasement of
the civil power at the feet of Hildebrand;, amd the
Liberals, of every shade, entered into the spirit of the
declaration and rallied round the chanceUor. The
remedy was undeniably a stern one ; but it was felt
that in a great crisis hke that through which the State
was now passing, abstract principles must yield to the
exigencies of the hour. Enquiries into the political
opinions of village school teachers might wear the
appearance of tyrannical interference, but it was only
by such measures that the insidious policy of the foe
could be reaUy counteracted and frustrated.
Thus supported. Prince Bismark pressed on his imprison
ment of
pohcy without delay. On the 3rd of February, arch- ^j,^™?^_
bishop Ledochowski, on his refusal to pay the fines *"'^'
incurred by persistent violation of the Falk Laws, was
arrested at his palace at Posen and imprisoned at
Ostrowa. A few weeks later, a hke blow descended on
the bishop of Treves and the archbishop of Cologne ;
and at the latter city, where a. strong and influential
Ultramontane party has always existed, the event did
not pass without some demonstration of feeling on the
part of the populace.
The next step was to call in Federal legislation to the Bin passed
¦^ by the
support of that of the Prussian Government, and during Federal
the spring session a Bill was submitted to the Federal
p 2

212 THE NEW REFORBLA.TION.
CHAP. Council and the Eeichstag, debarring those of the
" ' ' clergy who had once been imprisoned from reasserting
their claims when their term of imprisonment was
over ; while any attempt on the part of a priest to
resume the exercise of the functions of which he had
been deprived, or further refusal to obey the adminis
trative authority, rendered him hable to forfeit his
rights of citizenship and to be expelled from the Ger
man empire. These provisions were to apply equally
to clergymen who should have exercised ecclesiastical
functions contrary to the law of the land and thereby
incurred a kgal sentence in the Government Court.
Persons thus forfeiting their right of citizenship in any
one of the German States forfeited it in all other
States, and could only regain it by a vote of the State
CouncU. Another clause provided that ecclesiastics
might be removed from their ordinary place of resi
dence as soon as a prosecution against them had been
formally instituted.
The determination of the Diet to support Prince
Bismark was demonstrated by a majority of 257 to 95
on the third reading of the Bill.
mmtar ^^ about the samc time additional supplementary
Enacted ^^"^^ ^^rc cuacted by the Prussian Parhament, for the
Prussian pupposc of determining the action of the Government
Pallia- . .
ment. m rcktion to dioceses or cures becoming vacant. With
regard to the first, it was decreed that on the dismissal
of a bishop the election of his successor by the Chapter
should be approved by the Government before it could

THE YEAR 1874. 213
become valid. If no successor were nominated or chap. V.

approved, a Government administrator of the revenues ' ' '
was to be appointed, and the ecclesiastical government
of the diocese to be suspended. In the case of parishes
deprived of their priests, it was decreed that patrons
might StiU exercise the right of presentation ; if, how
ever, this were not done within a certain time, the
right of presentation was to lapse to the congregation ;
in cases where there was no patron, the congregation
was at once to be entitled to this right. The electors
were to be the male members of each congregation,
possessed of independent means, ^ and were to be
summoned for the purpose of carrying out the election
by the burgomaster or Landrath of the town, on
petition received by him from ten of their number.
Such were the measures whereby the Government
now proceeded to introduce into the Catholic Church
in Germany ideas hitherto foreign to its constitution —
the right of the laity to choose their own ministers and
consequently to become the administrators of Church
property. The first glance will be sufficient to suggest that Avowedco-opera-
these enactments could not fail to meet the approval of "0° of t'le
¦^ '¦ Old Catfao-
the Old Cathohc party, and, in fact, they appear in ""= P"'y-
some respects almost a reflex of the scheme adopted at
Constance. In a manifesto put forth while the Falk
Laws were still under discussion, the leaders of the
party did not hesitate to avow their sympathy with
' I.E. Adults not subsisting on charity or chargeable to the State.

214 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, the pohcy of the Government. ' The State,' said this
¦ — " — ' document, ' itself requires assistance, and this assist
ance Old Cathohcism alone can give it.' At the same
time it made an urgent appeal to all Cathohcs not
identified with Ultramontanism to abandon a neutral
line of conduct and enrol themselves under the banner
of reform.
The Synod Qn the 27th, 28th, and 29th of May the Synod
of Bonn. appointed at the Congress of Constance, as the con
stitutional organ ' to abolish or alter existing Church
laws, and to issue new laws,' held its first meeting at
Bonn.^ It enunciated as its line of action ' to choose
in the first instance for topics of dehberation in the
Synod those matters which press most earnestly for
solution, ahd on which a unanimous resolution may be
confidently looked for as the goal of the debates ; and
in the next place, to defer those matters which on the
one hand are not urgent, and on the other require a
previous explanation in detail, oral and written, or, if
prematurely taken in hand, might endanger harmony.'
Scheme of Amoug the Tcforms which it was decided might be
Church ° _ °
carried out ' without any change of the existing Church
laws,' were : —
' It may be of service here to point out 1Jie essential difference be
tween the CongTess, the Conference, and the Synod. The first is 'a
voluntary gathering of such Church members as choose to assemble for
the purpose of informally discussing the affairs of their Chm-ch and deep
ening interest in them.' The second is ' a meeting of members of different
cmnmunions for common counsel.' The third, ' composed of the clergy of
a diocese or province, together with delegates of the laity, is the legiti
mate organ of their Church, constituting its legislative and in part its
executive.' — See Report of Anglo- Continental Society (1874), p. 29.

reform.

THE YEAR 1874. 215
(a) The abolition of fees for masses, surplice fees, etc. chap.
(b) The like treatment of poor and rich in church ¦  ^ — •
functions, marriages, burials, etc.
(c) The avoidance of the abuses and offshoots of indul
gences, veneration of the saints, scapularies, etc.
(cZ) The carrying out of holy Christian and Old Catholic
principles in the administration of the office of preaching and
in catechetical instruction, especially by abstinence from all
theological subtleties, confessional bitterness, ecclesiatico-
political declamations, etc.
(e) The administration of the sacrament of penance in a
holy Christian spirit.
(/) The arrangement of public worship in a way corre
sponding to the religious needs of the congregation.
(g) The regulation of the affairs of the congregation by
the harmonious co-operation of the clergy and of the church
officers elected by the congregations.
In addition to this scheme, the Synod adopted a Declara
tions on
series of declarations on the subiects of auricular con- confession,
"' fastmg,
fession, fasting and abstinence, and the introduction of the*ver-°^
the vulgar tongue in divine service. In connexion with in dhine
service.
confession, it was decided that ' the necessity or profit
of receiving the sacrament of penance is in the main
to be referred to the personal judgment and self-know
ledge of the individuals themselves ; ' and the injunction
to confess once a year was declared to be ' not obhgatory
on those for whom there exists no inward necessity to
receive the sacrament of penance.' But although the
' terrible abuse ' to which the practice was hable was
candidly admitted, the conclusion arrived at was, that
even if an entire abolition were in itself allowable, it
would not be justified, inasmuch as the institution of

216 THE NEW REFORMATION.
confession is capable of an administration favourable
to true morality, and in particular special confession is
to many a source of comfort and tranquilhty.' Fasting,
' in the pure. Christian sense,' was defined as ' not the
denial of the nourishment needful to the frame for a
sound bodily and spiritual life, but the denying one
self in meat and drink anything beyond the quantity
absolutely indispensable. In this abstinence, exercised
voluntarily and in the right temper, hes a wholesome
self-control of moral and religious value.' The em
ployment of the vulgar tongue as the liturgical language
in public worship and in the administration of the
sacraments was declared to be desirable ; but such a
reform was indicated as one which could only be car
ried out ' slowly and gradually,' — ' the completion of
the necessary liturgical books demanding thorough
preliminary labours and a careful examination.'
The conclusions of the Synod were adopted without
Switzer- hesitation by the party of reform in Switzerland, who,
however, showed less wilhngness to imitate the cautious
and moderate policy of their German brethren. Their
progress had been singularly rapid, and their triumph
was now almost complete. The close of 1874 saw the
Old Catholics of Geneva in possession of every Catholic
church except that of Notre Dame, and to this they
were lurging their claim. Father Hyacinthe, who wa?
StiU identified with the movement, deemed it necessary
to restrain rather than stimulate the ardour of his sup
porters ; but he had accepted in thefr entfrety the con-

THE YEAR 1874. 217
elusions of the Bonn Synod ; Latin was discontinued chap.
in the Church services ; five priests had already married ; ^ ' '
confession was declared to be no longer obligatory.
The movement in the canton of Bern, where the riie move
ment in
abbe Deramey, newly appointed cure of Porentruy in ^f Bei."'""
the extreme north of the canton, was the chief leader,
advanced with even greater rapidity. In a letter
written in December 1873, only six weeks after enter
ing on his post, he declared that he and his coadjutors
could almost feel persuaded ' that they had lived and
laboured there for six years, so greatly had God been
pleased to bless their efibrts.' Writing in the following
month, he observed that in contrast to the progress at
Geneva, it was their wish, in which they were supported
»by the populations themselves, ' to remain strictly Catho
lic' The people of the Swiss Jura, whose associations
and sympathies are mainly French, regard the Genevan
movement as merely political, and have not as yet
placed themselves under the jurisdiction of bishop
Eeinkens.^ Among the supporters of the Southern movement, congress
of Bern.
on the other hand, the whole question of retaining the
episcopal office was openly discussed. On June 14th a
Congress met at Bern, which was attended by Father
Hyacinthe, Pfarrer Herzog of Olten, and KeUer of
1 For a complete account of this movement see the abb^ Deramey's
pamphlet, Precis du Mouvement Catholique-libiral dans le Jura Bernois,
1873-4 : a striking illustration of the results of the acceptance of the Va
tican Decrees by a whole population, and the difficvdties thereby created
in the action of the civil government.

218 THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP. Aarau, and upwards of seventy other delegates. On
— ¦ — this occasion it was suggested that the episcopal office
was unnecessary to the new constitution ; but the idea
was vigorously opposed by Herzog and KeUer, the
former of whom pointed out that their continuance as
members of the Cathohc Church would be virtually
forfeited by the non-retention of the office, whUe the
latter loudly advocated what he termed ' historic rights,'
and warned the assembly against ' sketching a consti
tution for the moon.' The Congress finally passed the
following resolutions : —
Eesolutions (1) That the title of their community should be ' the
Congress. Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland.'
(2) That a bishop should be elected.
(3) That a Synodical Council should be nominated, con
sisting of five laymen and four ecclesiastics.
(4) That a Catholic National Synod should be formed,
consisting of the bishop or bishops, the Synodical Council,
all priests of the commune officiating in Switzerland, and
one delegate from each parish.
At the same time the reforms indicated by the
Synod of Bonn were formally adopted, and the use of
Latin in the public services, the celibacy of the clergy,
the obhgation of sacramental confession, were each
declared to be no longer part of Church behef or
practice. The right of parishes to elect their own priests,
and the recognition of the Bible as the sole standard
of doctrine, were also unanimously proclaimed.
The counsels of Father Hyacinthe and the more
moderate party prevailed at Bern ; but on his return to

THE YEAR 1874. 219
Geneva he found himself unable to restrain the extreme chap.
rigour with which the authorities there pressed on their ^^e'^^
proceedings against the -Ultramontanists. The church disapprovesof the pro
of Notre Dame, in which the latter had taken refuge ff "'"P "f
' o the Liberal
after their expulsion from the old town church of St. at^oeneva.
Germain, and where they had to carry on a regular
cathedral service, was, as we have already stated,
claimed by the Liberal party. On purely technical
grounds, it would seem that this claim was valid. The
site had originally been granted by the canton to the
State Catholic Church, and of this Church the ' Christian
Catholics ' were now the acknowledged representatives.
But, on the other hand, the church had been chiefly
built by funds raised by Mgr. Mermillod, to which the
Pope himself had been a subscriber ; and again, the
State authorities had hitherto forborne to expel those
cures on the Savoy side of the canton who had refused
to take the recently-imposed oath of allegiance to the
State. To Father Hyacinthe it seemed that the expul
sion of the Ultramontanists from the church of Notre
Dame was morally unjustifiable ; and he strongly urged
that the recusant cures should be permitted to remain
at their posts at least until steps had been taken to
supply their parishes with duly qualified priests. But
his remonstrances were fruitless.^ He was outvoted at
' Since this time the question has been referred to a committee, who
decided (Feb. 1875) that the Ultramontanists should be regarded as the
owners of the church, but that 'inhabitants of the right bank of the
Rhone and of the Lake, belonging to the creed recognised by the State,
should be entitled to use the edifice for ceremonies of baptism, marriage,
or burial.'

220 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, the City Council and publicly insulted in the streets ;
^ ' ' and, as it was sufficiently certain that the Council of
the canton would not hesitate, when appealed to, to
give effect to the new legislation, he decided that the
Ho resigns ouly course opcu to him was to resign the cure to
his cure. which he had been elected nine months before. This
he did in the month of July, and in tendering his re
signation he thus expressed his sentiments : ' Attached
from the very depths of my heart to the Church in which
I was baptized, whose reform I wish for, but not its over
throw — convinced besides by experience, now suffi
ciently lengthened, that the Liberal Catholicism of
Geneva is neither Liberal in pohtics nor Catholic in re
ligion — I have the honour to tender my resignation of
my functions as cure of this city.' Since taking this step
he has continued to reside at Geneva as minister of a
congregation of some 700 souls, who like himself are
not prepared to accept such changes in doctrine and in
the relations of the Church to the State as those pro
claimed by the main body of the Liberal Cathohcs in
that city. He is, however, a supporter of the sepa
ration of Church and State, which he advocates rather
as a course of expediency than as a principle.
The Old, Catholics had now agreed upon and an
nounced their future policy, and it was consequently
only natural that the results of the dehberations of
thefr Fourth Congress should be awaited with some
what less interest by distant observers. The scheme
of mnovation and reform, with the exception of details

THE YEAR 1874. » 221
which few but Germans could intelhgently follow, had chap.
been drawn up — the machinery for giving it effect had " ' '
been set in motion — the recent Synod had forestalled a
certain portion of the labours that formerly belonged
to the Congress — the impending Conference was now
the chief subject of discussion — and beyond endeavour
ing to sustain and extend the interest already excited
by the whole movement, the speakers who addressed
the pubhc at Freiburg, in the first week in September, The con
had but httle to proclaim and enforce. This fact, ^reibm-g.
indeed, was friUy recognised in a Declaration prepared
by professor Eeusch in the course of the business
transactions of the Congress. ' The Old Catholic Con- change in
the relative
gress,' said this document, ' will not in future have the o^^hf™"^
same tasks before it as formerly, because questions of °"^''^^^-
ecclesiastical organisation and reform y^U be referred
to the yearly Synod for discussion and settlement. But
the Congress will still be requfred to decide upon the
means by which the Old Catholic movement may be
extended and invigorated, on the basis of the reports
and suggestions of the delegates from different parts.
Ahd especially there still remains to it the task of
awakening a hvelier sympathy with the cause and a
clearer comprehension of its significance, by means of
public addresses delivered by men of eminence. The
president of the preceding Congress ^ . . . will, there
fore, communicate with suitable individuals, for the
1 The resolution, as originally proposed, assigned this duty to ' the
two central committees ;' the amendment was proposed by Dr. Petri,

222 THE NEW REFORMATION.
purpose of agreeing upon subjects adapted for pubhc
addresses and likely to subserve the purpose of in
structing and stirring up the laity at large.' '
Success of The selection of Freiburg im Breisgau, as the place
the move- ° ° ' ^
Duchyo?'^ of meeting, was justified not only by the central position
* ™' of the city but also by the rapid progress which Old
Cathohcism had recently been making throughout the
Grand Duchy of Baden. ' The movement,' said the pre
face to the official Eeport of the Congress, ' has acqufred a
momentum in Baden such as only those could have
anticipated to whom this fair country is well known,
and who are aware that both its Catholic and Evan-
gehcal population are deeply averse to Ultramontanism,
and support with enthusiasm any measures aiming at
the purification of the Church from the abuses and
excrescences originating with the Eoman Curia.' ^ The
opening speech of Von Schulte, at the first meeting of
the delegates, further explains the marked success :
The move- ' lu Badcu, the law which regulates the relations
ment aided
by the new betwcen ourselvcs and the New Catholics* has been
laws. sanctioned and promulgated, and thus a firm and legal
basis has been afforded us such as we at present pos
sess nowhere outside the Duchy, not even in Prussia.
In a number of parishes the voting has taken place,
and the constitution of the Church congregations has
' See Der vierte Altkatholiken Congress in Freiburg im Breisgau im
Jakre 1874. Stenographischer Bericht (Bonn, 1874), p. 68.
» IWd. p. 3.
' The use of this term to designate the Ultramontanists mai-ks the
new position taken up by the Old Catholic paity.

THE YEAR 1874. 223
been recognised by the State. According to law, the chap.
estabhshment and constitution of a congregation re- ' '
qufre, on the one hand, the sanction of the Old
Cathohc bishop, and on the other that of the Govern
ment itself. This twofold sanction has already been
accorded to certain congregations, and a large number
of others are looking forward to obtaining it. In all
these cases, as the lists testily, the number of indepen
dent voters who have declared themselves on our side
has proved much larger than it had been supposed it
would be, whether from merely approximate calcula
tions or from those formed on the basis of the parish
hsts. Some congregations, moreover, had not even
been in communication with the Synodal-Reprasentanz
and were entirely unknown to it ; and among these
were congregations in which the complete organisation
had nevertheless been introduced. I can consequently
assert that in Baden the movement has made enormous
progress.' ^
The above statements will serve to explain the fact,
that the majority of the delegates present at the Delegates
Freiburg Congress were from the Duchy of Baden, and guests
Nearly all the leaders of the movement were, however,
present, including Eeinkens, Von Schulte, Eeusch,
Knoodt, Langen, Messmer, Huber, Cornelius, etc.
' Stenographischer Bericht, p. 17. 'Die altkatholische Bewegung
macht im Siiden Deutschlands entschiedene Fortschritte,' is the observa
tion of the editor of Unsere Zeit, in connexion with the Congress of
Freiburg ; though this journal has vouchsafed hitherto but little attention
to the movement.

224 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP. Switzerland sent Landammann KeUer, and Pfarrer
" ' ' Herzog, Watterich,, and Schroter. France was repre
sented by the abbe Michaud alone. Dean Howson,
professor J. E. B. Mayor, the warden of Keble CoUege,
Oxford, the Eev. John Hunt, and some six other cler
gymen and laymen were present from England ; the
bishop of Lincoln, unable to attend, conveyed his
regrets and his greetings in a graceftil set of Latin
verses.^ The Eev, G. E. Broade attended from Diissel
dorf ; Dr. Heidenheim from Ziirich. There were three
representatives of the Eastern Church — the archpriest
from "Wiesbaden, Von Kirejew from St. Petersburg,
and Von Sukhotin from Moscow. The Marchese Gon-
zaga was warmly welcomed as a new adherent, especi
ally as coming from Italy. No representatives of the
Church of Utrecht attended ;^ and it was observed with
regret that German Protestantism stiU held aloof — the
attendance of professor Holtzmann of Heidelberg,
who spoke on behalf of the Protestanten-Verein, being
looked upon rather as a representation of the rational
istic party.
The language of bishop Eeinkens at the preliminary
' Egregio Praesidi C. A. Comelio ad Concilium Veterum Catholicorum
Friburgi habendum benevoU invitanti S. D. P. Chriitophorus Wordsivorth,
Episcopus Lincolniensis. Printed in Correspondence between Membei-s of
the Anglo-Continental Society and Old Catholics (Rivingtons, 1874) p. 61.
Gracefully acknowledged by Von Schulte in his opening address : ' Der
Herr Bischof von Lincoln hat wieder ein sehr hiibsches Gedicht in
lateinischen Versen mit englischer Uebersetzimg einschickt, das ja nach
unserm bisherigen usus in die Congxessakten aufgenommen werden kann.'
— Stenographischer Bericht, p. 18,
^ The bishop of Haarlem wrote to express his regret at being unable
to be present. — Ibid.

THE YEAR 1874. 225
meeting of welcome (Saturday evening, September 5th), chap.
as he reviewed the months that had elapsed since the " ' '
Congress of Constance, was hopeful, even exultant. Reinicens'
testimonv
' Within the last three months,' he said, ' I have tra- !« ^^^ . '
' mcreasing
versed the whole of Germany, have twice been on the ?he m'oVi^
confines of Eussia, have twice crossed over into Austria,
and have finally come hither by the borders of Switzer
land. Wherever I came, I was met by some thousand
avowed supporters, behind whom appeared two or
three thousand sympathisers or secret adherents. I
consequently say that, in responding to this your greet
ing, I speak on behalf of 100,000 Old Cathohcs.'
Equally encouraging was the tone of Von Schulte, who Testimony of Von
dwelt on the proof afforded by the extension of the Schuite.
movement from Bavaria to the Ehine Country as
evidence of true German unity of feehng. ' In olden
times,' he said, ' the Ehine was called " the priests' way
of the Holy Eoman Empire." In later times, I need
scarcely say, we have witnessed the singular pheno
menon of the Ehine becoming a Eoman Catholic
stream. But now the Old Catholics have also laid
claim to it; and to the northernmost portion of its
course, where it leaves the German land, yoii may find
Old Catholic congregations. I bring you a brother's
greeting from the entire river ! ' ^
At the first meeting of delegates, held the ensuing
day (Sunday), Von Schulte, on his re-election as pre
sident, gave an opening address. He alluded hopefriUy
1 Stenographischer Bericht, p. 182,
Q

226

THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP. V.

Chansje in
the old
Catholic claims
upon the
State.

Resolutions
adopted by
the Con
gress.

to the Conference which was to assemble at Bonn in
the foUowing week. ' I believe,' he said, " I shall only
express the general sense of this meeting in wishing
that this Union-Conference may be attended by success
ful results. We cannot reasonably, indeed, indulge the
flattering hope that the work of reunion will be then
and there accomplished, but it wiU be well if such an
interchange of ideas serves to pave the way for a com
plete understandiag m the future.' ^
No better proof of the consciousness of growing
strength and of their real claims upon the German
nation could have been given by the delegates than in
the business to which they mainly devoted thefr time —
the drawing up of a declaration of their right to be
regarded by the State as the true Catholics, in oppo
sition to the Ultramontanists, and a demand for recog
nition as the conscientious supporters of the Church
against the innovations introduced by the Vatican
Decrees. The foUowing resolutions showed that they
had assumed a new attitude with regard to the Prus
sian Government, and no longer appeared as petitioners
for protection, but as claimants to privileges and sup
port which the Ultramontane party retained in illegal
possession : —
1. The Old Catholics, as already declared at former
Congresses, adhere to their claims to the property of the
Church, and demand from the State protection in their
rights ; without assuming to decide upon legal questions and

' Stenographischer Bericht, p. 14.

THE YEAR 1874. 227
without prejudice to established rights,* they assert that
Church property belongs to the congregation, and they
repudiate the Romish view that it belongs to the Church
in abstracto, that is, according to Eomish ideas, to the Pope.
2. It is not their design to hinder others from attending
public worship, and they claim only a share in the churches,
church furniture, endowments, and benefices, according to an
equitable adjustment founded upon the numbers of each
party ; but they assert that the pretext imposed upon the
Roman Catholic bishops throughout Germany, that the joint
use of churches with Old Catholics is prohibited by the
canon law, is a mere means of agitation put into the hands
of the Ultramontanists.
3. The numerical strength of the Old Catholic party can
ordy be ascertained, as the result of a census of Catholic
electors in each parish on the question whether they acknow
ledge the decrees put forth in the Constitution of July 18,
1870, respecting the infallibility and supremacy of the Pope,
inasmuch as the position of a party in the Church cannot be
ascertained by a vote taken upon a merely negative propo
sition. 4. The State, whose duty it is to protect the Old
Catholics in their rights and to ensure to them a commen
surate portion of the Church property, has also as its duty
to appoint such a census in all places -where it may be
demanded and where the rights of Old Catholics are
• infringed.^ The third resolution, which is given above as
amended on the proposition of Dr. Petri, was not car
ried without considerable discussion. Von Berg of
' This clause gave rise to some discussion, owing to the diiferent
modes of temu-e of Church property in Germany. In Prussia, as Dr.
Petri observed, it belongs entirely to private persons ; in other parts it
sometimes, though very rarely, belongs to the congTegation (die Oemeinde).
— Stenographischer Bericht, pp. 35, 36.
= Ibid. pp. 22-42. Q 2

228 THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP. Freiberg and Dr. Knoodt of Bonn concurred in de-
" ' ¦ precating a proposal to assume what was termed ' the
guardianship of the indifferent.' The latter urged that
it was invading religious freedom to compel any man
to declare his opinions, and that it would be a serious
thing if the earnestness of a small but imited party
were swamped by large numbers of those to whom the
whole struggle was devoid of interest or meaning. The
resolution was notwithstanding supported by Eeinkens,
and carried by a large majority.
Speeches at The 'specches dehvered at the two public meetings
the public
meetings, were enthusiastically listened to by audiences of nearly
3,000 people and presented many points of interest.
Schulte spoke with his customary powerfril grasp of the
whole situation, and pointed out the nature of the work
that still lay before them. ' Munich had put forth the
congregational system ; Cologne had established a puri
fied episcopacy ; Constance had determined the rules
and organisation of both. The question of infaUibility
might be regarded as set at rest. Thefr battle now
was with the indifferentism and laxity of belief among
the laity.' Huber followed up in a similar strain.
Professor Knoodt appealed to the women for their
sympathy and aid. Landammann KeUer elicited loud
applause by his vigorous satire of the Ultramontanists.
Messmer made a singularly powerful attack on the
Pishop policy of the German bishops. Eeinkens, in language
on Creeds, luore deciQcd than any he had hitherto used, expressed
his conviction that their hopes lay not in dogmatic con-

THE YEAR 1874. 229
sent with other communions but in unity of spirit. He chap.
repudiated the theory of a Church and a confession ' ' '•
beyond the limits of which there was no salvation.
The Eeformers of the sixteenth century had, like the
Pope, set up a claim to represent this Church. If one
examined the other confessions — whether that of the
Scotch, the Belgic, or the Swiss Church — the same
theory was to be found. Let not then this dogma be
made a reproach to any one communion, but let all
alike be prepared to test it by Scriptural proof. Tried
by that test, it would be found untenable. ' The
Church of God,' he said, ' is one, but it is not confined
within the limits of any one formulary of faith. These
formularies, even that of Trent, were drawn up in the
chambers of learned theologians ; and if anyone should
say that the chambers of men of learning are barren,
I will add, that the chambers of Eomish theologians
are the barrenest of all.' '¦
An examination of these speeches in the authorised
report will certainly not suggest any diminution of
power or earnestness on the part of the different
speakers ; but not even the most effective oratory could
impart to, each oft- treated subject the same freshness
that it wore on earlier occasions. Many of the argu
ments, novel and effective as they might appear to
numbers who listened to them for the first time, were
necessarily only a repetition of those that have already
come under our notice. It was observed that some of
' Stenographischer Bericht, p. 152.

230

THE NEW REFORMATION.

the Con
ference of
Bonn.

Letter of
invitation.

the speakers showed signs of the strain on thefr phy
sical and mental energies undergone during the pre
ceding months ; and with the Conference at Bonn
awaiting them in the following week, it was not sur
prising that they should seek to reserve thefr strength
for an occasion which was likely to be one of no
ordinary importance and interest.
The objects of the memorable and interesting as
sembly which held its consultations at Bonn during
the 14th, 15th, and 16th of September,^ wUl be best
explained by the following note of invitation, addressed
by the great leader of the Old Catholic party to nu
merous sympathisers with the movement, in the month
of August : —
On the fourteenth of September and following days a
Conference will be held in Bonn of members of different
Church communions, actuated by the desire and hope of a
future great reunion of believing Christians.
It is proposed to take, as the basis and standard of
limitation of the endeavours of the Conference, the con
fessions, teaching, and institutions recognised by the Church
in the first centuries, and regarded as essential by both the
Eastern and Western communions before the great schism.
The aim specially proposed by the Conference is not a
union of different sections of the Church whereby each should
^ The following account is, for the most part, a translation of the
official report. — Bericht ube)- die am 14. 15. und 16. September zu Bonn
gehaltenen Unions-Conferenzen, im Auftrage des Vorsitzenden Dr. von
DoUinger, herausgegeben von Dr. Fr. Heinrich Reusch, Professor der Theo-
logie. Bonn, Neusser, 1874. In the debate on the Filioque Dr. Liddon's
speeches have been revised from the translation recently published with
his special sanction. See Report of the Proceedings of the Reunion Con
ference held at Bonn, &c., with a Preface by H. P. Liddon. Rivingtons,
1875.

THE YEAR 1874. 231
become absorbed in the general body and lose its distinctive CHAP.
characteristics, but the re-establishment of intercommunion ¦  ^ — -

between the Churches on the basis of unitas in necessariis,
without interference with those particular tenets of indivi
dual Churches which do not affect the essentials of the
ancient Church confession. The Committee for the Promotion
of Church Reunion. DOLLINGEK.
The meetings were held in the Music Hall of the
university of Bonn, and the following hst of those
present wUl show how warm a response the foregoing
invitation elicited : —
From Germany. — Eeinkens, Dolhnger, Langen, Delegates
and guests.
Eeusch, Knoodt — the last three being professors at
Bonn ; Lutterbeck, professor of philology at Giessen ;
Pfarrer Hochstein of Dortmund ; Pfarrer Weidinger of
Hagen, in Westphaha ; Hasenclever, sanitary counsellor
of Diisseldorf ; Max Lossen of Munich. The foregoing
were all Old Catholics, while the following represented
the Evangehcal Church : — A. Kamphausen, Krafft, and
J. P. Lange, professors of theology, and Jiirgen
Bona Meyer, professor of philosophy, from Bonn ; Von
Gerlach, chaplain to the garrison at Frankfort ; Kritzler,
Scheden, G. Schmidt, Wolff, ministers of different Pro
testant congregations ; H. Zwierlein, a doctor of the
law and a landholder at Geisenheim.
From Switzerland. — P. M. Quily, cure de Chene,
Geneva.

232 THE NEW REFORMATION.

CH^p. From France. — Prof. Aug. Kerckhoff of Melun ;
' ¦ Dr. E. Michaud of Paris.
From- Denmark. — Scholer, chief pastor of Wester
Hassing ; J. Victor Bloch, provost ; P. Madsen, theo
logical candidate, Copenhagen.
From Russia. — Johannes Janyschew, rector of the
Clerical Academy at St. Petersburg ; Alexander Kfre-
jew, secretary to the Society of Friends of Spiritual
Enlightenment at St. Petersburg ; Theodor von Suk
hotin, delegate from the branch of the same society at
Moscow ; Arsenius Tatschaloff, chaplain of the Eussian
Church at Wiesbaden.
From Greece. — Zicos Ehossis, professor of theology
and lecturer in the university of Athens.
From England. — The bishop of Winchester ; dean
Howson ; Dr. Liddon ; Eev. E. S. Talbot, warden of
Keble College ; Eev. Alfred Plummer, master of Uni
versity CoUege, Durham ; professor J. E. B. Mayor of
Cambridge ; Eev. L. M. Hogg ; Eev. D. Trinder, vicar
of Teddington, London ; Eev. G. E. Broade ; Eev. G.
V, Eeed, rector of Hayes ; Eev, W, Conway, canon of
• Westminster ; Eev. J. D. Macbride Croft of Sevenoaks ;
Samuel Lowndes, Esq., J.P. ; James F. Cobb, Esq, of
Torquay ; L, W, WUshere, Esq., the Frythe, Welwyn ;
Eev. John Hunt ; Eev. H. N. Oxenham ; Eev, J, Mac-
miUan, congregational minister, West Burton,
From North America.— llhe bishop of Pittsbiug,
and his chaplain, Dr. Hartmanu ; Dr. WUham Chauncy
Langdon, rector of Emmanuel Church, Geneva ; Eev.

THE YEAR 1874. 233
E. J. Nevin, rector of the American Church at Eome ; chap.
' ¦ 'v.
Eev. G. F, Arnold of Boston ; E, A. Eenouf, presbyter ' ' '
of New Hampshire, &c.
At the morning meeting held Monday, Septem- character
ber 14th, professor Eeusch opened the proceedings with v^oceei-
a few explanatory statements. The meetings of the
Conference were not public, and it was desirable that
those present should exercise the requisite discretion
in making known what passed, A short account would
be forwarded to the public press of all that might ap
pear to be of general interest. Shorthand reports were
not to be taken, but Dr, DoUinger had instructed him
to take notes in German, and Mr, Broade in English,
It was important to recollect that none of those present
appeared as delegates of any Church or religious body ;
the Conference was simply to be a private discussion
between individuals, each of whom was responsible
solely in his individual capacity for what he advanced.
In pursuance of this theory, it was proposed that the
presidency of the assembly should not be assigned to
any one of the ecclesiastical dignitaries present, but to
one who was known simply as a man of learning. He
felt certain that he should have the unanimous consent
of the meeting in proposing Dr. Dolhnger for the
ofiice. The proposal was received with loud cheering,
and Dr. Dolhnger forthwith took the chair.
He commenced by stating that, the aim of the Dr. Deiiin-
ger's ad-
Conference being the promotion of doctrinal unity, it dress.
was proposed to hold special conferences on the points

234 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, of difference between (1) the Old Catholics and Enghsh
¦""¦ ' Churchmen, and (2) between the Old Cathohcs and the
Orientals ; ^ the former would be conducted in English,
the latter in German. All present would of course be
entitled to take part in both discussions.
JtXs" He then proceeded to explain in English that Mr.
forwarded jy^gy^-^].^ ^^^ j^^^j unfortunatcly been hindered from
Meviick. i. ^ • • i
coming, had forwarded a hst ot the principal points
apparently requiring discussion,^ and had suggested
that the consideration of these should be delegated to
an Enghsh, a Eussian, and an Old Catholic member of
the Conference. This appeared to him scarcely prac
ticable, as it would prevent the Conference arriving at
any immediate understanding on any one point. He
proposed to make certain explanations, calculated, as
he hoped, to remove misunderstandings and set aside
some of the obstacles that intervened between them
and the English Church. Certain points had accord
ingly been selected which it was thought they might
at once proceed to discuss. It was open to anyone
present to make a counter-proposal ; and if it was pre-
1 This designation, which is that used in professor Reusch's report,
will answer throughout these pages to denote the membera of the Russian
or Greek Chittch.
'' The subjects sug-gested were as follows : (1) The Canon of Holy
Scripture ; (2) the Eternal Procession of the Holy Ghost ; (3) Human
Merit, including therein the question of Works of Supererogation and the
Treasury of Merits applied by Indulgences ; (4) The Septenary number
of the Sacraments ; (6) Transubstantiation ; (6) Denial of the Cup ;
(7) Form of Baptism ; (8) Clerical Marriage : (9) Authority of the
bishop of Rome ; (10) Dead Language ; (11) Purgatory. Mi'. Meyrick's
letter is printed in Con-espondence between Members of the Anglo-Conti
nental Society and Old Catholics, &c. (Rivingtons, 1874), pp. 28, 29.

THE YEAR 1874. 235
ferred to take the Thirty-nine Articles in succession, chap.
they were quite ready to do so. ' • '
Mr, Hogg supported Mr, Meyrick's proposal,
whereby the Conference would be able to limit its
labours to defining the doctrine of the first five or six
centuries, and thus avoid the difficulties that might
arise from a discussion of either the Thfrty-nine Ar
ticles Or the Tridentine decrees. He accordingly pro
posed the appointment of a committee of three, to be
appointed by the bishop of Winchester, Dr, Dolhnger,
and archpriest Janyschew, who should give their re
port to a Conference next year,
Dr, Dolhnger : ' In the note of invitation to this The oid
Catholics
Conference the doctrines of the ancient undivided disavow
the binding
Church were indicated as the basis of discussion. This ."hede^erL
is, therefore, the same basis as that proposed by Mr. councilof Trent.
Meyrick. So far as regards the Council of Trent, I
believe I am at hberty to state, not only in my own
name, but also in that of my colleagues, that we in no
way consider ourselves bound by all the decrees of that
Council, which cannot be regarded as oecumenical.
This declaration will materially assist towards a mutual
understanding.' SECOND MEETING.
Monday, September 14, Afternoon.
Dr. Dolhnger laid before the meeting the following
declaration for discussion, first with the Enghsh and
American representatives, and next with the Orientals :

236 THE NEW REFORMATION,
CHAP. We agree that the way in which the words Filioque
^ — • — - were inserted in the Nicene Creed was illegal, and that, with
Discussion on the a view to future peace and unity, the original form of the
Filioque. . .
creed as put forth by the General Councils of the undivided
Church, ought to be restored.
The question, he observed, was twofold. First,
there was the more important question concerning the
Procession of the Holy Ghost, and next there was
the question of fact, with respect to the lawfulness of
the enlargement of the Symbolum by the addition of
the Filioque. He proposed to hmit the discussion to
the latter question. It was incontestable that, in de
termining the Confession of Behef, the (Ecumenical
Councils of the West added the Filioque without the
assent of the East. The Symbolum, as formulated at
Nicaea and Constantinople, and confirmed by subse
quent General Councils, formed for centuries the sole
bond of union in the entire Church. It was not until
later, and in a manner not easy to explain, that the
Filioque was added. Pope Leo III., in opposition to
Charles the Great, declared himself decidedly opposed
to the addition. It was, however, subsequently intro
duced at Eome also in the eleventh century, though
not by a formal decree, but rather tlirough oversight
or negligence. Since that time it had been generally
accepted in the West, and hence a breach had been
made between the Eastern and Western Churches.
The Eastern Church was justified in complaining of
this overthrow of unity by a one-sided and illegal

THE YE-AR 1874. 237
alteration of the Confession of Faith — a confession ciup.
with respect to which three successive General Coun- ^ ' '
oils had declared that nothing could be suffered to be
added thereto ; and of which it had been said, Fides
sic expressa est perfecta. 'We are bound,' he said,
' earnestly to consider whether it is not possible to find
some remedy for the wound thus infiicted on Church
unity.' The Bishop of Winchester : ' I confess I was not
prepared to find this very difficult subject brought
forward for om- present discussion. I supposed that
our debates would be on the theses laid before us by
the president, and on the possibility of intercommu
nion between the Old Catholic and Enghsh Churches.
I have conferred on the latter subject with my English
friends, and am able to state our conviction that on
the part of the English Church no scruples are felt
with regard to intercommunion with the Old Catholic
body. Old Cathohcs would be admitted to commu
nion by English clergymen without hesitation. The
orders of Catholic priests, both Old Catholic and
Eoman Catholic, are recognised by us as vahd, and
any such priest would be admissible to office in our
Church under the same conditions as an English priest.
With regard to the Filioque, inasmuch as we have
had no discussion on the subject, I can of course only
express my individual opinion. The English Church
has long been painfully ahve to the breach which,
owino to the introduction of this word, intervenes be-

238 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, tween her and the Greek Church. We willingly admit
' '" that the word should not have been admitted into the
Confession, and that its admission took place in an
irregular manner. But we cannot admit that, as the
result, a false doctrine was introduced into the Sym
bolum. We hold that the teaching of the Eastern and
that of the Western Church are equally orthodox. We
admit, with the Orientals, but one Fo7is Deitatis, but
we do not admit that the Filioque contradicts this
doctrine. We can accordingly express our regret at
the alteration of the Symbolum., but cannot declare'
that the Filioque ought to be expunged ; and before it
is possible to expunge a word which has stood there
for so long a time, and has been received by all
branches of the Western Church, it will be necessary
to arrive at some more general understanding among
ourselves than has as yet been effected. Our aim is to
come to an agreement with respect to the doctrine
without alteration of the formula which has for cen
turies been used by the entire Western Church.'
Dr. DoUinger-: ' I can testify that on our part no
very strong feeling exists with respect to the removal
of the Filioque. We could give our assent to it for
the sake of agreement, without declaring our opinion
concerning the doctrine itself.'
The Bishop of Pittsburg : ' With respect to inter
communion, I can, as an American bishop, make the
same declaration as the bishop of Winchester. The
restoration of the Symbolum to its original form would

THE YEAR 1874. 239
not, however, be viewed with the same hesitation in, ciup.
the American as in the English Church. The desire '""'
for a revision of the Confession has been loudly ex
pressed in many American dioceses, and the General
Convocation, to be convened in October, wUl have to
give its attention to the subject. But the American
Church will avoid any onesidedness in the matter and
proceed in harmony with aU branches of the Church
in England. Perhaps we might insert, at the conclu
sion of the declaration laid before us by the president,
the words " might be restored," instead of " ought to
be restored." '
Dr. Liddon : ' I should feel considerable hesitation
in accepting the Article in the form in which it now
lies before us. Dr. Pusey would also be opposed to
it. The position we should assume, theologically, if
the Filioque were expunged, would be altogether
different from that which we might assume if the
proposal before us were the insertion of the word. The
expunging of the word would be sure to be inter
preted in such a manner as to convey the idea that the
doctrine expressed is erroneous or at least doubtful.
It were much to be wished we could come to some
agreement. Possibly the expressions employed by the
Council of Florence might be suitable to our purpose.'
Mr. Nevin : ' I have no hesitation in giving my
assent to the Article in the form in which it has been
laid before us by the president,'
Dr. DoUinger : ' Our idea was, first of all to settle

240 THE NEW REFORMATION,
c^^^- the formal question respecting the insertion of the
' Filioque in the Symbolum, and then to proceed to the
questiou concerning the Procession of the Holy Ghost,
If we fail to arrive at a decision with regard to the
formal difficulty, the discussion of the dogma affords
no prospect of an understanding with the Orientals.
All previous attempts at coming to an understanding
have been shipwrecked on the formal aspect of the
question. The declaration now before us is designed
to set the formal part of the question at rest, without
prejudice to any decision respecting the material or
dogmatic part. If we are to adhere to the present
Western form of the Symbolum, any discussion with
the Orientals becomes purposeless.'
Mr. Langdon : ' I am of Mr. Nevin's opinion that
we can accept the Article. I see the difficulties that have
been pointed out, but I consider that we cannot, on
account of these, abstain from performing a duty which
regard for the unity of the Church imposes on us —
the duty of declaring that " the original form of the
Confession ought to be restored." '
Dean Howson : ' If we allow that an alteration in
the Form of Confession which has been in use in the
West for eleven centuries cannot be made without a
formal decision of the Church, and as the result of
mature reflection and lengthened conferences between
the several sections of the Western Church, it by no
means foUows that such an alteration is not admissible
or desirable. We are far from requiring the Orientals

THE YEAR 1874, 241
to accept the addition, or from regarding the difference chap.
in the two forms as an essential point of separation. ' '
When the archbishop of Syra and Tenos was in Eng
land some years ago, he recited the Nicene Creed with
out the words kol ck tov Tlov. If, however, we assent
to an alteration in our formulary, this ought not to be
construed into a renunciation of the doctrine contained
in the Filioque. I propose in the article before us,
instead of the concluding words " ought to be re
stored," to read " might be restored," and then to add,
" such restoration, however, being not understood as an
abandonment of the doctrine involved in the Filioque." '
Mr. Oxenham : ' Concessions on both sides are
necessary to an understanding. The omission of the
Filioque, after it has stood for seven or eight hundred
years in the Symbolum, would be a concession on one
side only, and certainly one of some importance. Theo
logians on both sides have admitted that there is no real
doctrinal difference between the two Churches. If this be
true, we have no interest in demanding from the Orientals
the acceptance of the Filioque, nor need the Orientals,
on the other hand, lay so much stress on its omission.
I may add that the word first found its way, in all
probability, into the Symbolum in the ninth, not the
eleventh century, and the question is certainly deserving
of more thorough investigation at the hands of both
German and Enghsh theologians.'
Mr. 3ogg : 'The difficulty will have been practi-
caUy solved if, just as it has been stated that the Eng-
B

242 THE NEW REFORMATION,
- ci^P lish Church wUl admit an Oriental to communion, even
" ' ' although he adheres to his form of the Symbolum, so
the Orientals vrill agree not to regard the retention of
the Western formulary as a barrier to intercommunion,'
The Bishop of Pittsburg : ' It is not my desire in any
way to prevent discussion on the subject, I wish,
however, to observe that though the Orientals may be
right in demanding the restoration of the Symbolum to
its original form, they are v?rong in making this the
occasion for requiring the alteration fi-om us, I a"m
bound by my oath as a bishop to guard the Symbolum
in all its integrity, and it is consequently out of my
power to say that any part of it ought to be altered.'
The Bishop of Winchester : ' The real difficulty is
not with the Westerns but with the Orientals. We do
not regard adherence to the Eastern form as an obstacle
to intercommunion ; but the Orientals are inclined to
look upon the retention of the Filioque as a heresy. I
propose, as a means of effecting an understanding, the
following resolution : —
We agree that the way in which the Filioque was in
serted in the Nicene Creed was illegal, and that, with a view
to future peace and unity, it is much to be desired that the
whole Church should set itself to consider, whether the Creed
could possibly be restored to its primitive form, without
sacrifice of the truth which is enforced in the present Western
form.' Hauptpastor Scholer: 'I concur with the majority
of the Enghsh speakers that it is almost impossible to
expunge the Filioque from the Nicene Creed. But I

THE YEAR 1874. 243
wish also to recall the fact that the Aposties' Creed chap.
contains aU that is essential to salvation, and that the ' ' '
other confessions are to be looked upon as merely
ex|)lanatory.' Dr. Liddon: 'I support the amendment of the
bishop of Winchester.'
After Dr. DoUinger, in reply to the question whether DoUinger's •
speech
laymen were entitled to vote, had rephed in the affirma- ™Jf^^.^
tive, the amendment was carried and the discussion *^'''^'=^-
with the Orientals adjourned to the evening.'- It was
then opened by an address from the president, who
commenced by observing that all present were unani
mous in regarding the separation between the two
communions as an unmitigated evil. It had been a
matter of exultation to the enemies of the Christian
faith, and had diminished the authority and prestige of
the Church among Mahommedans and other alien com
munions. Both parties were at fault, but the blame
was very unequally divided ; and it was impossible to
deny that the larger share must be borne by the
Western Church. From the commencement, and for
centuries after, the Latins had been endeavouring to
force upon the East acquiescence in their hierarchical
misrepresentations and inventions and in the innovations
and pretensions founded thereupon. The greed of
power in the Western communion, combined with the
apprehension that the spectacle of a free Eastern Church
^ In order to give an uninterrupted account of this debate, a deviation
has been made from the order of Dr. Reusch's report, which preserves the
chronological succession of the proceedings, B 2

244 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, might produce in the West an impression unfavourable
~~~^' ¦ to the papal monarchy, culpable ignorance of the
history of ancient Christianity, and especiaUy of the
traditions and theological literature of the Greeks, had
been the true causes of the schism. In the absence of
those causes, the dogmatic differences respecting the
Holy Ghost would certainly never have attained to
such dimensions nor have been pronounced on both
sides a damning heresy.
' The Orientals, in their rich patristic literature, their
collections of Church laws, their liturgies and conciliar
enactments, possessed an undeniable touchstone which
enabled them to test and expose the innovations in
volved in the papal pretensions, and the spuriousness
of the passages again and again brought forward by
the Popes and the Eomish theologians. They had
accordingly regarded all overtures and arguments com
ing fi-om the West with a mistrust but too weU founded,
and a genuine understanding had never been effected.
True origin ' The schism was not the work of Photius, as the
of the great .
schism. Eomish Church represented, nor was it that of Cseru-
larius. The communion of the two Churches, though
for a time interrupted, could always in those days have
been restored without much difficulty. Even towards
the end of the twelfth century. Popes and Greek em
perors are to be seen carrying on intercourse on the
assumption of a still subsisting unity of the Church.
It was not untU the beginning of the thirteenth century
that events occurred productive of a permanent schism

THE YEAR 1874. 245
and rooted enmity between East and West. The tak- ch^p.
ing of Constantinople, the spoliation and desecration " ' '
of the Greek churches, the setting up of the Latin
empire, and above all the part played by Innocent III.
in sanctioning these acts of violence with the whole
weight of his authority and power, and openly promot
ing the subjugation and Latinisation of the Greek
Church — these were the acts which dug the chasm that
remains unbridged over to the present day. Then a
swarm of Latin ecclesiastics crowded into the East, and
though ignorant of the vernacular, confronted the native
clergy with the arrogance and tyranny of conquerors.
The bishops and priests of the country were compelled
to leave it, otherwise their churches and revenues were
seized or they were driven to accept the Latin ritual.
The Christian world had never before witnessed such a
display of overbearing tyranny and rude oppression.
The Popes and their legates set up altar against altar,
appointed ignorant Italians or Frenchmen as patriarchs
and bishops among the Greeks, transplanted the Inqui
sition itself with its executions on to Greek soil (thir
teen Greek priests were burnt in Cyprus) ; and vainly
do we look for the spiritual benefits, the gain to rehgion
resulting to the Christians of the Eastern Church from
this long-enduring invasion of the Western communion,^
' The pretended reunions of Lyons (1274) and of
Florence (1438),^ were extorted from the emperors, in
' See for confirmation of Dr, DoUinger's statements the array of
authorities cited bv Gieseler, Ecclesiastical Hist., H, 412.
2 See pp, 17, 18.

246 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, their danger and alarm, amid the strenuous opposition
xrae'cha-' of clcTgy aud pcoplc. Eomish CTaft, tyranny, and cot-
suhsequent ruptiou wove at last a web at Florence ; but the will
Eomish overtures. Q-f the pcoplc rcut it iu plcccs again in the ensuing
years. And all attempts and overtures made by the
West, since that time, for the restoration of the Church's
unity have reaUy been only disguised demands for the
unquestioning submission of the Eastern Church and
her daughter, the Eussian Church, to the supremacy of
Eome. Greek 'sees, already occupied by lawfuUy con
stituted bishops, were assigned by Eome as titular dig
nities to Westerns, It is true that the Popes professed
their wiUingness to leave the rites and regulations of
the Eastern Church unaltered ; but facts clashed sadly
with their profession. The treatment of the Greek
Christians in Poland and Southern Italy clearly showed
what the Orientals, though politically independent of
Eome, might expect in this direction, if once the secu
lar power among themselves were arrayed on the side
of Eomish pretensions and aims.
The schism ' UutU the year 1870, however, the imputation
tiievlS made by the Westerns against the Orientals was, as a
rule, that of schism merely, or resistance to papal
authority, not that of heresy. But from the 18th of
July, 1870, a change took place in this respect amount
ing to a complete revolution. For on that day, by a
single blow, Pius IX, transformed the eighty miUion
Eastern Christians, till then only schismatics, into formal
heretics who denied a fundamental doctrine of Christ-

THE YEAR 1874, 247
ianity — that of the absolute and universal sovereignty cnki-.
and infallibility of the Pope.^ Henceforth the definitions ' '¦ '
of heresy in , the Eomish decrees apply also to these
eighty million baptised Christians. This greatly sim-
phfies all future negotiations with Eome on the subject
of reunion. If the three great Churches of the East —
the Eussian, the Greek, and that presided over by the
patriarch of Constantinople — agree to accept the two
new articles of faith promulgated by Pius IX,, the re
union will have been consummated, but this will be at
the cost of a complete rupture with their own history
and traditions.
' Henceforth those of the Western communion who Sympathy
between the
have submitted to Eome have but one word for the HcsMd"the
East and the North — " unconditional surrender and
abjuration of the heresy which gainsays the Pope."
' Totally different from this is the position which we
Germans hold in relation to you. With us, as with
you, the fabrication of new doctrine is an abomination.
To us, as to you, the Vatican decrees, invented and
enacted by Pius IX. with so strong a hand, seem to
imply a denial of all historic truth and of all the prin
ciples of the primitive Church, along with the renun
ciation of that tradition once the common possession of
East and West. In your Churches we recognise the
legitimate descendants of the original Apostolic con
gregations, who have maintained in unbroken and
1 See, in confirmation of this statement, the voting on the ' fourth
clause ' at the Vatican Council, p. 87.

to the
GreelcChurch.

248 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, peaceful succession the doctrines and ordinances be-
¦ ' queathed by Christ and his Apostles, without corrupt
ing and falsifying them.
Obligations « ^e are well aware that the ancient Latin fathers,
of the Latin in their interpretation of Holy Scripture, were chiefly
indebted to their Greek instructors and predecessors.
Your Churches were the mothers and teachers of the
West. Before the first Latin treatise on Christianity
was penned they were possessed of a Christian litera
ture. The first six General Councils were entirely or
in great part composed of Greek bishops, and their
doctrinal decisions were the result of Greek tradition
and theology. _ Your Churches, again, have had the
incalculable advantage of reading the Apostolic writ
ings in the original, and of thus receiving the fresh,
unalloyed, and immediate impression derivable from
the original text alone.
Progress of ' lu later timcs, however, the West has far surpassed
the Latin
Church in the East in the active prosecution of theological enquiry
and in the fulness and soundness of her learning. After
the time of Maximus the Confessor the Byzantine
theology underwent a process of stagnation, and
would seem to have ended altogether with John of
Damascus. Since then there have been, it is true,
learned compUers in the Eastern Church, but of inde
pendent theological and bibhcal research scarcely any
traces are to be discerned ; while in the West first of aU
the scholastic theology arose — full of energy and hfe,
though exceedingly one-sided in character— and next

THE YEAR 1874. 249
the Eeformation, whereby a movement was initiated ci^p.
which caused the knowledge of genuine historical " ' '
theology to be carried to a completeness and precision
before unknown. Of this Western learning the results
are now, in a variety of ways, penetrating the con
sciousness of the Eastern Churches with unprecedented
effect and power. We have all — Orientals, Anglo-
Saxons, Germans — to impart and to receive, to teach
and to learn. If we can succeed in diffusing throusrh Prospect of
° '-' reunion.
distant circles the same spirit of love and peace that
has brought us together here, we may cherish a con
fident hope of a great reunion, which would testify far
more eloquently to the indwelling vitality of Christ
ianity than a hundred apologies and panegyrics.'
Archpriest Janyschew, in responding, adverted to
the highly favourable impression produced upon him
self and the other representatives of the Oriental
Church by the president's speech. They took, their
stand upon the ground of the Niceno-Constantino-
pohtan Creed, the Seven Sacraments, and the Seven
General Councils. To an observation of DoUinger's,
that the doctrine of the Seven Sacraments was not
contained in the decrees of the seven General Councils,
he replied that they were embodied, though not enu
merated, in the ancient hturgies, as well as in the
patristic writings recognised by the Councils ; and he
reiterated his conviction that the three sources of
doctrine above referred to must be insisted on, in order
to secure a satisfactory basis of reunion. The detailed

omission.

250 THE NEW REFORMATION.
ci^P- differences had ah-eady been specified in writing in a
Discussion' document forwarded to the Bonn Committee. Dr.
on the
Filioque DoUiuger then explained, that these differences, besides
with the & 1 '
Orientals, that of the primacy, were the Filioque and the doctrine
of Purgatory. With respect to the last they hoped to
offer some explanation. The discussion was then
resumed on the doctrine of the Filioque, the Article as
amended on the proposition of the bishop of Win
chester forming the basis of the discussion with the
Orientals. Here the latter at once demurred to the words
upon its ' the truth which is expressed,' affirming that they
for their part did not recognise in the interpolation
any truth whatever. ' Our Church,' said Janyschew,
' acknowledges a temporal Procession or mission of the
Holy Ghost from the Son ; but she cannot accept as an
article of faith an eternal Procession from both the other
Persons of the Godhead.' ' The word IjcTro^sueo-Qat in
John XV. 26,' said Ehossis, ' refers to the eternal Pro
cession of the Holy Ghost from the Father, while the
Tri^TTSiv refers to the temporal mission of the Holy
Ghost by the Son.' It was thus that he understood
the words in St. Augustine De Trinitate — ' Spiritus
Sanctus principaliter ex Patre procedit.' He regarded
principaliter as equivalent to ab aeterno ; an interpreta
tion to which Knoodt somewhat demurred, preferring
to understand by the word that the Father was the
principium or Fountain of the Godhead. Tatschaloff
then said that if they were to limit themselves to the

THE YEAR 1874. 251
teaching of the undivided Church, the rejection of the chap.
Filioque must follow. At the seventh, the last General ' ' '
Council, the Symbolum was recited without this word.
All the fathers of the Church, a few only of the
Westerns excepted, spoke of the Procession of the
Holy Ghost from the Father alone ; and even in the
West, so late as the seventh century, when the Filioque
had become widely accepted, the testimony of Maximus
the Confessor showed that nothing more than a tem
poral mission of the Holy Ghost by the Son was
understood. Many stiU thus understood it in the ninth
century, as appeared from Anastasius Bibhothecarius.
It was not imtil later that, in the West, the Filioque
was explained as implying an eternal Procession of
the Holy Ghost from the Son.
The amended Article, then, said Dolhnger, cannot
be accepted by the gentlemen of the Eastern Church,
Reinkens besought the Oriental delegates not to grasp
at too much. The concession already made to them,
that the insertion of the Filioque was illegal, was con
siderable, ' We have declared,' he said, ' that we do
not look upon the Filioque as an article of faith. The
Eastern Church has held no General Council since the
schism, and consequently has not been able to anathe
matise the Filioque.' He reminded them that theolo
gians too often forget that the highest duty of all was
charity. Janyschew : ' Charity seeks to show its respect for ,
the right, and is inconceivable apart from justice. It

252 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, is charity that has brought us here. It is, however,
" ' ' right that we should call to mind that it is not we, but
the (Ecumenical CouncU which pronounced an ana
thema against whoever should venture to add anything
to the Symbolum.'
The utmost that the Orientals would concede at
this sitting was, that the Symbolum should be restored
to its original form without any pronounced condemna
tion of the doctrine conveyed in the Filioque. DoUinger
suggested that perhaps the words, ' the truth that may
be expressed,' would meet the difficulty ; and the
discussion was here adjourned to be resumed the fol
lowing day, in conjunction with the representatives of
the English Church.
Third Qq the foUowiug momiug, the amended amend-
meeting: o o'
morntnl, meat was submitted to the Anglican members of the
Conference. The bishop of Winchester had unfor
tunately been compelled to leave Bonn, and objections
were immediately started against the clause as it now
stood.
The dis- The Bishop of Pittsburg: ' I cannot personally give
cussion J. J o r J &
wurthe ™y ^s^&ni to the alteration proposed. The words
meSbers. imply that possibly no truth is conveyed in the
Filioque, and in this view I cannot concur. Might
we substitute instead of " the truth," " the doctrine," or
" any doctrine expressed in the present Western form"?'
Both Dolhnger and Janyschew observed that there
was really no difference in the two expressions ; whUe
the latter intimated that if ' the doctrine ' of the

THE YEAR 1874. 253
eternal Procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father chap.
and the Son were maintained by the Westerns as a ' '
truth, he saw but little hopes of a reunion.
Dr. Liddon then proposed to read, ' without sacri
fice of the truth, which, according to the sense of the
whole Western Church, is expressed in the present
Western formula.'
This was supported by Dean Howson and rejected
by archpriest Janyschew ; and another amendment
suggested by the bishop of Pittsburg met with no
support. At last Dr. DoUinger's acumen and tact
succeeded in discovering a means of overcoming what
threatened to prove an insuperable obstacle. ' Our
object,' he said, ' is to recognise, on the one hand, a
historical fact, and, on the other, to leave a question of
dogma for the present undecided. We are seeking to
throw a bridge over the gulf which divides us, and
not until that has been accomplished can we hope to
build a house in which we may dwell together.' He
thought they might adopt the expression, ' without
sacrifice of any true doctrine expressed in the present
Western form.'
This proposal seemed to be on the point of gaining
the assent of aU present, when Janyschew suggested
that instead of ' expressed ' they should substitute
' contained ; ' while Ehossis proposed instead of ' with
out sacrifice ' to read ' without deciding upon.' Canon
Liddon here explained that the word ' contained ' had
acquired in England, in recent disputes concerning the

254 THE NEW REFORMATION.
inspiration of Scripture, a fixed technical meaning
which could not be accepted as the language of the
present resolution. If adopted, it would be under
stood in England as implying that the doctrine ' con
tained ' in the Filioque was not the same as the
doctrine ' expressed.'
On this the Orientals finaUy gave way, and the fol
lowing form of declaration was unanimously adopted : —
The Article We agree that the way in which the Filioque was
adopted. inserted into the Nicene Creed was illegal, and that, with a
view to future peace and unity, it is much to be desired that
the whole Church should set itself seriously to consider
whether the Creed could possibly be restored to its primitive
form, without sacrifice of any true doctrine which is expressed
in the present Western form.
The ' formal ' difficulty having thus been sur
mounted, it was next resolved to appoint a committee
to deal with the doctrinal question ; and a committee
of five, including a representative of the American
and Greek Churches, was decided upon, though the
members were not named, but their selection left for
future consideration.'^
The discussions to which the retention or rejec
tion of the Filioque gave rise in no way impaired
the impression produced by the almost unhesi
tating unanimity with which a series of Articles of
Faith, designed mainly to meet the objections of
English Churchmen to Cathohc doctrine, were suc-
' The members appointed were Dr. DoUinger, archpriest Janyschew,
professor Rhossis, prehendary Meyrick, and Dr. Nevin.

THE YEAR 1874. 255
cessively received. The following first four Articles chap.

V.

elicited scarcely any criticism : —
Art. 1 . We agree that the apocryphal or deutero-canonical Articles on
books of the Old Testament are not of the same canonicity phli books,
as the books contained in the Hebrew canon. thorit*' of
2. We agree that no translation of the Holy Scriptures translations
can claim an authority superior to that of the original text. Scriptures,
•^ X o ^;jig readmg
3. We agree that the reading of Holy Scripture in the «<¦ the
vulgar tongue cannot lawfully be forbidden. in the vul
gar tongue,
4. We agree that, m general, it is more fitting and in and the use
accordance with the spirit of the Church, that the Liturgy gar tongue
should be in the tongue understood by the people. Liturgy.
The fifth Article, as originally proposed, stood as
follows : —
We agree, that faith working by love, and not faith
alone, is the means and condition of man's justification be
fore Grod.
To this it was objected that the use of the word
' alone ' seemed to imply a condemnation of the
eleventh Article of the Church of England, and on
the motion of the bishop of Pittsburg it was resolved
that the Article should stand as foUows : —
5. We agree that faith working by love, not faith without
love, is the means and condition of man's justification before
God. The sixth Article, as first proposed, stood as
follows : —
Salvation cannot be merited by 'merit of condignity,'
because there is no proportion between the infinite good of the
salvation promised by God and the finite merit of man's good
works.

256 THE NEW REFORMATION.
On the proposal of the bishop of Winchester,^ the
Article was thus modified : —
Sixth 6. Salvation cannot be merited by ' merit of condignity,'
Article : on ¦ •' . .
merited because there is no proportion between the infinite worth
salvation. of the salvation promised by God and the finite worth of
man's works.
The seventh and eighth Articles were then adopted
without alteration : —
Seventh 7, We agree that the doctrine of ' opera superero-
Articies : gationis.' and of a ' thesaurus meritorum sanctorum ' — i.e.
on worlis of
supereroga- that the overflowing merits of the saints can be transferred to
the number others, either by the rulers of the Church, or by the authors
sacraments, of the good works themselves, is untenable.
8. a. We acknowledge that the number of sacraments
was fixed at seven, first in the twelfth century, and then was
received into the general teaching of the Church, not as a
tradition coming down from the Apostles or from the earliest
times, but as the result of theological speculation.
/3. Catholic theologians {e.g., Bellarmine) acknowledge,
and we acknowledge with them, that Baptism and the
Eucharist are principalia, praecipua, eximia salutis
nostrae sacramenta.
With reference to these Articles Dr. Dolhnger
observed that the former was peculiarly important as
contravening the modern doctrine of Indulgences,
which rested on that of the super-necessary merits of
the saints. Of the eighth Article he said that, though
only a statement of a historical fact, it was, notwith-
' The first eight Articles were passed before his lordship's departm-e,
at a sitting intervening between the first and second discussion on the
Filioque.

THE YEAR 1874. 257
standing, one of the highest importance from a dog- chap.
matic point of view. The Eastern Church also re- ' "
cognised seven sacraments, but the word by which
it designated these, iiva-rnpiov, was of yet greater lati- Use of word
' . " ,/ o I sacra-
tude of signification than the Latin sacramentum. If "'^°'-'
at the time of the Eeformation the meaning of the
Avord ' sacrament ' in the history of dogma had been
more accurately understood, fewer objections would
have been raised to the prevailing doctrine of the sacrFi-
ments. The Eeformers, in limiting the sacraments toi^
two in number, had also given to the name a more re
stricted signification than that it had formerly received.
The Bishop of Winchester : ' I give my assent to
the Article. If the Enghsh Church holds that only
two sacraments are generally essential to salvation, it
by no means denies that there are other observances
which may, in a more extended sense, be looked upon
as " mysteries " or " sacraments." '
Dr. DoUinger : ' Not even baptism and the Lord's
Supper are equally generally necessary to salvation;
the former is more generally necessary than the latter.
And, in a certain sense, according to the doctrine of
the English Church, ordination is also necessary.'
This discussion was resumed on the rnorning of
Tuesday, after the question of the Filioque had been
finally agreed upon, and the ninth Article, after some
debate, was finaUy accepted in the following form : —
a. The Holy Scriptures being recognised as the primary Ninth
, ' . Article : on
rule of faith, we agree that the genuine tradition — i.e. the tradition,and the

258 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, unbroken transmission, partly oral, partly in writing, of the
¦  '  • doctrine delivered by Christ and the Apostles, is an authori-
' tative source of teaching for all successive generations of
Christians. This tradition is partly to be found in the con
sensus of the great ecclesiastical bodies standing in historical
continuity with the primitive Church, partly to be gathered
by scientific method from the written documents of all
centuries.
episcopal /3. We acknowledge that the Church of England, and
succession
of the the Churches derived through her, have maintained unbroken
Church. the Episcopal succession.
As at first proposed, the Article stood without the
preamble in italics.^ Archpriest Janyschew enquired
who were ' the great ecclesiastical bodies ' referred to.
Dr. DoUinger : ' First of all your own Church, and
next the Western Church, with the exception of those
sections of it which have severed their historical
continuity.' Bloch: 'Are the Churches of the Eeformation
included ? '
Dr. DoUinger : ' It would be impossible for me to
assert that the Danish Lutheran Church has broken
the historical continuity in the same way as, for ex
ample, the Church of Geneva under Calvin has done,'
Bloch: 'The Swiss Eeformed Church has also
retained baptism, and its members have accordingly
entered into the sheepfold by the door, and hence
cannot be excluded fi-om the Church by us Protestants,
as the Baptists are.'
1 This was not added until the fifth Oonfei-ence,

THE YEAR 1874, 259
The Bishop of Pittsburg : ' I assent to the Article, chap.
with the understanding that it in no way contravenes " — ' — '
the doctrine that the Bible is the rule of faith.'
Dr. DoUinger : ' It is admitted that the Bible is
the rule of faith, and the belief consequently does not
require to be expressed, the Articles before us being
designed solely for the purpose of betokening agree
ment on points respecting which some doubt really
exists,' Dean Howson : ' I must make the same reservation
as the bishop of Pittsburg.'
Dr. Liddon : ' The Article is quite correct. It
might be supposed to contradict the sixth Article of
our Church, which says, " Holy Scripture containeth all
things necessary to salvation : so that whatsoever is not
read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be
required of any man, that it should be believed as an
article of the Faith ;" but the expression, " whatever
cannot be proved thereby," taken in connexion with the
twentieth Article, which says, " the Church hath au
thority in controversies of Faith," justifies us in giving
our assent to the Article.'
Both Janyschew and Ehossis intimated that they
conceived it would not be practicable to define more
closely the relations between Scripture and Tradition ;
while Dr. DoUinger pointed out that the Article said,
' the consensus of the great ecclesiastical bodies.'^ Pass-
1 The preamble in italics was eventually added at the fifth sitting of
the Conference. Mr. Hunt, in an article on the Conference in the Contem
porary (Nov. 1874), observes : ' It is, however, doubtful if, even with this
s 3

260

THE NEW REFORMATION.

CHAP, ing on to paragraph (/3), he observed that all they
' " ' were here concerned with was the historical fact, but
that it was of great importance that they should arrive
at a unanimous declaration respecting that fact. The
succession in the English Church had been recognised
by several bishops of the Eastern Church.
Sukhotin : ' The late archbishop Philaret, a man of
learning and highly respected in Eussia, was accustomed
to look upon the succession in the English Church as
extremely doubtful.'
DoUinger Dr. DolUnger : ' We know that her succession has
vindicates
the episco- been chaUenged, but in deciding the question we must
pal succes- o ^ ox
Engulh''^ be guided entirely by historical evidence ; and I must
avow that, as the result of my own enquiries, I
entertain no doubt whatever with regard to the suc
cession in the Enghsh Church. The ordination of
Enghsh bishops since the Eeformation was first im
pugned by now universally rejected fabrications (that
of the Nag's Head story, for example), and then
attacked by all kinds of objections resting partly on
entirely unsupported presumptions, partly on facts
which if we were to admit them to have any weight
would tell with equal or greater force against the
prefix, the Article is free from danger. If authority is taken in the secon
dary sense ... the reasonableness of the rule is as obvious as to take the
consensus of some of our great English divines as authority for the mean
ing of our Articles. But if this ecclesiastical consensus is to be the abso
lute authority while holding the place of interpreter, it may usurp the
authority of the primary rule of faitli. Such an authoritative inter
preter of the law vvould become the law-maker. It is certain, I think,
that the compilers of Article VI. never intended any such interference
as this, when they said that nothing was to be believed as necessary to
salvation but what could be proved by Holy Scripture.'

THE YEAR 1874. 261

CHAP. V.

ordination of Eoman Catholic bishops and priests.
Everything turns upon the question whether the con- ^~"
secration of archbishop Parker and that of his ordinator,
bishop Barlow, were, or were not, valid. The ordina
tion of the latter was never called in question until eighty
years after, in 1616, and may be looked upon as equally
well estabhshed with any historical fact unattested by
official records. Parker's consecration is not only
confirmed by all his contemporaries but also by docu
mentary evidence, so that not even Lingard has sug
gested any doubt on the subject. In the Western
Church, before the Eeformation, circumstances occurred i^e declares
the validity
which might suggest far more serious doubts as to an ordSnatLns
unbroken succession and the validity of many ordina- pomi^sh
. T . Church far
tions than anything that has been raised against Enghsh more ques-
•' *^ o O tionable.
orders. Popes have sometimes set aside the ordina
tions of bishops and priests by their immediate prede
cessors (Constantinus and Formosus).-^ They have also,
for centuries together, and with terrible confusion,
declared innumerable ordinations invalid, some on the
ground of simony, others on the pretext of the schism
or the adherence to the Antipope. The worst of all,
however, was that, led by an ignorant scholasticism,
they altered the matter and form of the Sacrament of
Holy Orders, although, according to their own teaching,
all the virtue and validity of the ordinance consists in
these. In the decree which he promulgated in the
name of the CouncU of Florence (which bears in every
"^ Formosus, bishop of Porto (afterwards Pope) was excommunicated
at the Council of Troyes, a.d. 878, by Pope John VHI.

262 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, y^g^j i[^Q character of a solemn definition of faith). Pope
" ^ ' Eugenius IV. declared that the matter of the Sacrament
of Ordination consists in the vessels or instruments, and
the words of the bishop when touching these are the
form. By this they degraded the imposition of hands
and accompanying form of words — which, in the
Western Church, had for a thousand years constituted
the sole sacramental act — into a non-essential cere
mony, which might accordingly be omitted without
prejudice to the virtue and power of the act, somewhat
like the salt in the ceremony of baptism. The thought
unavoidably rises in the mind, that the bishops pos
sessed by this new papal doctrine may, in many
instances, and especially in large ordinations, have
omitted the act which was regarded as non-essen
tial. If the Orientals, from want of more complete
knowledge of the facts, cannot give their assent to the
clause, we must be content with afiirming the view
taken by the Old Catholic theologians present'
Bishop Eeinkens having stated that his researches
led him unhesitatingly to recognise the validity of the
English episcopal orders, both Janyschew and Ehossis
declared that it would give them only too much plea
sure to see the question decided in the affirmative, and
intimated their intention of making it a subject of
investigation. The bishop of Pittsburg then expressed
the satisfaction he felt on hearing such explicit decla
rations from the president and the bishop on the
subject, which he looked upon as fresh evidence of the

THE YEAR 1874. 263
brotherly feehng of the Old Catholics. A statement chap.
by canon Liddon to the effect that he had conversed """ ' "
with PhUaret in the year before his death, and had
been inforined by the latter that he had never himself
investigated the historical evidence for the English
succession, but had taken his view from the statements Fourth
meeting :
of Eoman Catholic writers, brought the discussion on ^g^gj^
this Article to a close.
The tenth Article was proposed as follows : —
10. We reject the new Eoman doctrine of the Immaculate xenth
Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, as being contrary to rejection of
the tradition of the first thirteen centuries, according to oflhrim-^
which Christ alone was conceived without sin. maculateConcep

tion.

The discussion that ensued was remarkable for
revealing among some members of the Anglican party
a certain leaning towards the condemned tenet. Canon
Liddon expressed his wish that it could be condemned
as ' a dogma of faith,' but not as ' a pious opinion.' ' I
myself,' he said, ' reject it whether as a dogma or as
a pious opinion, bat in the interest of liberty I feel
bound to make this suggestion.' Mr. Oxenham con
curred in this view.
Dr. DoUinger's protest was more emphatic than
any made by him throughout the Conference, 'If,'
he said, ' the doctrine be, as we affirm, at variance with
Church tradition during the first thirteen centuries, it
cannot be a " pious opinion," We theologians of Ger
many have a twofold reason for declaring ourselves
emphatically opposed to the new doctrine. First,

264 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, because history shows that it was introduced into the
' ' ' Church by a series of intrigues and falsehoods ; se
condly, because the dogmatisation of the doctrine by
the Pope was beyond all doubt carried into effect as
preparatory to the definition of papal infalhbility. The
doctrine has been with us a fans et origo malorum.
We might, however, perhaps say, instead of " the new
Eomish doctrine," " the Yiew Eomish dogma," '
The president's view was warmly supported by the
bishop of Pittsburg and dean Howson, the latter
averring that, although he had no faith in the per
sonal infallibility of theologians, he could say malo
cum Bernardo et Doellingero errare quam cum aliis recte
• sentire. Dr. Liddon's amendment was ultimately rejected
by a majority of twenty-five to nine.
The two following Articles passed without discus
sion : —
Eleventh 11. We agree that the practice of confession of sins
Articles: on before the congregation or a priest, together with the
confession . r j.i. i? j.i tt- i i i
and indui- oxercise 01 the power or the Keys, has come down to us
gences. £j.^jj^ ^j^^ Primitive Church, and, purged from abuses and
freed from constraint, it should be preserved in the Church.
12. ' Indulgences ' can only refer to penalties actuaUy
imposed by the Church herself.
The next Article gave rise to more difference of
opinion : —
Artickfra 13- We agree that the commemoration of the faithful
tSead,' departed, i.e. a calling down of an outpouring of Christ's

THE YEAR 1874. 265
grace for them, has come down to us from the primitive chap.
Church and should be preserved in the Church. ¦  i- — ¦
Dean Howson, bearing in mind the abuses to which
the perversion of the doctrine had given rise, and the
silence of the English Church upon the subject, ex
pressed his wish not to vote upon the Article. Canon
Liddon, on the other hand, holding that usum non
tollit abusus, and that the sUence of the English Church
might be attributed to the abuses associated with the
doctrine of purgatory at the time of the Eeformation,
gave the Article his support, a course of action which
he felt certain, he said, would be approved by Dr.
Pusey. The Article was ultimately adopted by a large
majority. The following Article was then brought forward,
and was immediately met by a strong demurrer on the
part of the Oiientals : —

We acknowledge that the Invocation of Saints is not f'''i«
° Invoc

Article on
vocation
commanded as a duty necessary to salvation for every ofSaints
. J J J withdrawn.
Christian.

M, Janyschew said it directly clashed with the de
cision of his Church, and he looked upon the decision
of his Church as indicating his duty. Dr. Dolhnger and
bishop Eeinkens urged that Eoman theologians, like Bel
larmine and Muratori, had admitted that prayer to the
saints was not a duty incumbent on all Christians ; but
here Ehossis produced Hefele's History of Councils, and
pointed out that the Acts of the seventh (Ecumeni
cal CouncU expressly referred to the practice. The

266 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, president then withdrew the Article, observing that he
' ^ had not anticipated its acceptance, but had brought it
forward in order to meet the wishes of the Anglican
party.
Fifth The Article which seemed likely to ehcit the greatest
meeting: _ _ _ .
Wednesday difference of opinion, that relating to the Eucharist, was
morning, '¦ ' °
Sept. 16th. (deferred to the last, the bishop of Pittsburg, Dr. Nevin,
canon Liddon, the dean of Chester, and Dr. DoUinger
having been previously appointed a committee to de
termine the precise form in which it should be pro
posed for acceptance. They determined on passing
over points which might occasion controversy, and on
endeavouring to frame an Article containing only what
all might admit. The following was the result of their
deliberations : —
Fourteenth The Eucharistic celebration in the Church is not a con-
theEucha" tinuous repetition or renewal of the propitiatory sacrifice
offered once for ever by Christ upon the cross ; but its
sacrificial character consists in this — that it is the permanent
memorial of it, and a representation and presentation
( Vergegenwdrtigung) on earth of the one oblation of Christ
for the salvation (i/eii) of redeemed mankind, which, accord
ing to the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 11, 12), is con
tinuously presented in heaven by Christ, who now appears
in the presence of God for us (ix. 24).
While this is the character of the Eucharist in reference
to the sacrifice of Christ, it is also a sacred feast, wherein
the faithful, receiving the Body and Blood of our Lord, have
communion one with another (1 Cor. x. 17).
The bishop of Pittsburg expressed his entire con
currence in the Article.

rist.

THE YEAR 1874. 267
Rev. John Hunt : ' Is the Article to be interpreted chap.
as implying that we receive the body and blood of ' ''""'
Christ in any other sense than we receive them in all
other acts of worship ? '
Dr. DoUinger : ' Yes, A contrary interpretation
would be in opposition to the doctrine of both the
Eastern and the Western Church, as well as that of
the English and American Churches, Moreover, this
is hardly the juncture for making an advance in the
direction of Calvinistic doctrine,'
A proposal made by Mr, Trinder to read 'have
communion with Christ and one with another,' was not
adopted, the addition being regarded as superfluous.
M. Janyschew, on behalf of the Orientals, requested
that the discussion with the Anglican members might
be explained to them, in order that there might be
no misapprehension with regard to the interpretation
placed upon the whole Article.
Dr. Dolhnger having explained the general purport
of what had taken place,
M. Tatschaloff said : ' I support the Article, although
I believe it might be expressed more definitely and
clearly. I will endeavour briefly to compare with it
the doctrine of our Church. The offering in the
Eucharist is essentially the same as the offering on the
cross, so far as the same Lamb of God is offered as was
once offered on the cross, but with this difference —
that then our Lord offered the sacrifice visible in his
own person, whUe in the Eucharist the sacrifice is hid
from sight under the form of bread and wine — and

268 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, that then the sacrifice, by the actual shedding of blood,
"^ " ' became a bloody sacrifice, while the Eucharistic sacrifice
is a sacramental unbloody sacrifice, and certainly not
only a thank-offering, but also a sin-offering for both
living and dead.'
Dr. DolUnger : ' The Article contains nothing that
contravenes the doctrine of the Eastern Church. But,
vrith a view to a more ready agreement, we have
thought it better to avail ourselves as much as possible
of Scriptural rather than theological language.'
M. Tatschaloff : ' Then I declare my assent to the
Article.' ¦
M. Rhossis : ' The Article in no way contravenes the
doctrine of our Church, provided that by the expression
" representation and presentation " is denoted not merely
an object of contemplation, but an internal relation of
the Eucharistic offering to the heavenly offering, and a
real connexion between the two.'
Dr. DoUinger : ' That is understood.' ^
' I have given, as closely as I could, the words of this discussion
as reported by prof. Reusch. At the time that Mr. Hunt published his
article in the Contemporary this report had not appeared, but his obser
vations seem still deserving of consideration. ' Here is at first a distinct
denial that the Lord's Supper is a repetition of Christ's propitiatory
sacrifice, and an express affirmation that its sacrificial character consists
in its being a permanent memorial of that sacrifice. I was unable to
follow the objections of the Orientals, but, as reported in the Guardian,
they are made to say that the Eastern Church regarded the Eucharist as
the offering of that perfect sacrifice which Christ made on the cross, and
that it was offered for the quick and the dead. The answer was that the
Article did not contradict this. I certainly understood the first clause
of the Article to be an express contradiction of the doctrine that the
Eucharist is the offering of Christ's perfect sacrifice. Another question
was, if it was intended to make a distinction between the presentation
on earth and the permanent offering in heaven in its nature. The answer

THE YEAR 1874. 269
M. Bloch then intimated his assent to the Article ; ci^p.
whereupon Dr. Dolhnger observed that if he expressed '~ ' '
the views of his Church, it was a matter for rejoicing
to find that the Danish Lutheran Church was in har
mony with them on this point, and the Article was
finally adopted. Dr. Dolhnger also subsequently
stated, ' for the satisfaction of his brethren of the
Churches of England and America,' that the Old
Catholics fuUy accepted the distribution at the com
munion of both kinds, and were only waiting the
fitting opportunity for the restoration of the ancient
discipline. The bishop of Pittsburg then desired (in his own
name and that of the bishop of Winchester) to thank
Dr. Dolhnger, as the convener of the Conference, for
the great wisdom and kindness which he had displayed
in its conduct, and expressed his heartfelt satisfaction
at the prospect of reunion which had opened out to
them. To have been present at this Bonn Conference
would be amongst the most agreeable reminiscences of
his life, and he desired to hand a written statement to
Dr. Dolhnger of these views, which letter he hoped
would be inserted in the minutes of the proceedings : —
It is understood that these propositions, coming from Dr. Resolution
DolUnger and his associates in the Old Catholic community, ^fofe'^of^the
bring out only some of the points on which we hope for con- f^^^ ™^^''
to this was " certainly not" But the meaning of this answer depend."! on
the answer to the previous question. If Christ is continually repeating
his propitiatory sacrifice in heaven, and if the Eucharist is an offering of
the same nature, it follows that the Eucharist is a renewal of Christ's
propitiatory sacrifice, which is the thing condemned by the Article.'

270 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, currence more wide, as time goes on, among believers, and
 .  • that the propositions on some of the points are limited in
their expression of the doctrine, though true so far as the
proposition goes. That this Conference and its agreements
aim now at the promotion of intercommunion, and do not
profess to have completed a doctrinal basis of agreement, but
to manifest the brotherly concurrence of those here assenting
to the propositions, in the truths so far as expressed, and
in the hope and prayer that our Lord may speedily make
all His members to be of one mind and of one heart, in the
communion of His Holy Catholic Church.
John B. Kbefoot, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of Pittsburg.
Sixth The sixth and last sitting of the Conference was
meeting :
Wednesday ^evotcd to a discusslou of the points of difference be-
aftemoon. i
^ tween the Eastern and Western Churches enumerated
Points of
^fXn'^the "1 the communication forwarded from St. Petersburg
and to which reference has already been made.-^ The first
Eastern Churches, point raised — that of the doctrine of the Procession —
was referred to the committee. The second was two
fold in character, being directed against the theory of
the Eomish primacy as well as against that of papal
infallibility. Eespecting the latter no difference of
opinion was, of course, found to exist ; but as regarded
the former Dr. DoUinger intimated that the delegates
could not ' as yet make any definite statement, espe
cially as the question was at present the subject of
considerable discussion among themselves.' The third,
fourth, and fifth points had already been discussed at
previous sessions. The sixth involved the considera-
' See supra, p. 250.

THE YEAR 1874. 271
tion of a peculiar theory, differing altogether from that chap.
of purgatory, concerning the state of the soul after st'ateoV"
death, and on which, in DoUinger's opinion, they could Stlfdeath.
not then come to any conclusion. He had, he said,
not been aware before that it was a tenet of the Eastern
Church. Janyschew thereupon stated that it was em
bodied in their catechetical instruction, and that he
would forward a copy of the catechism.^
The subject of baptism gave rise to some discussion, Rites of
. _ _ _ baptism
the Orientals repudiating the notion that sprinkling ^"^ <=»"-
¦'¦'-' . r D finnation,
was either the primitive method or an adequate mode
of administering the ordinance. They also maintained
that, properly, the rite of confirmation followed directly
upon that of baptism ; and Tatschaloff" declared the
separation of the two to be ' a papal invention.' The
question of the enforced celibacy of the clergy neces- Enforced
sarily elicited some discussion. Dolhnger pointed out celibacy.
the extreme antiquity of the divergence of the two
Churches, the Eastern practice having been formally
^ The catechism which was subsequently sent contained the fol
lowing : —
Q. — In what condition are the souls of the departed before the general
resm-rection ?
A. — The souls of the just are in light and peace, and have a foretaste
of eternal bliss ; the souls of the wicked are in a contrary condition.
Q. — Why do not the souls of the just enjoy complete happiness im
mediately after death ?
^.—Because it has been preordained that the full recompense of the
entire man must be delayed imtil the resurrection of the body and the
last judgment. (II. Tim. iv. 8 ; II. Corinth, v, 10,)
Q,— Does the foretaste of this include the beholding of Jesus Christ
himself? A. — With the saints this is especially the case, as the Apostle implies
when he says, ' I have a desire to depart and to be with Christ,' (Philipp.
i. 28.)

272 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CHAP, estabhshed by the Quinisext Council in the year 692 ;
V. •'
 • — ' while celibacy had become a rule in the Western
Church so early as the fourth century. But this dif
ference in practice had not constituted a ground of
division in earlier times, nor was there any reason why
it should do so now. To this Tatschaloff rejoined that
the establishment of cehbacy as a universal rule had
been the work of the Popes, and was certainly designed
to promote their own absolutism ; while Janyschew con
sidered that it would be impossible for the Eastern
Church to approve of the celibacy of the clergy being
made a law by any particular Church.
Dr. DoUinger : ' It would certainly have been better
if the two divisions of the Church had been led to dis
cuss this point in the fifth, sixth, or seventh century.
But the rule of the Greek Church was similarly enacted
at a Council where the Western Church was not repre
sented. If a General Council should ever be again
convened, the whole question will probably be dis
cussed, and then the rule of both^ Churches may possibly
be modified. The only real differences between us are
two main points which must be reserved for further
discussion,'
Conclusion ^i^e Conference concluded with a ioint recitation
of the Con- -J
of the Te Deum and the Lord's Prayer, bishop Eein
kens adding a few sentences of improvised supplication
that all present might be kept in the bond of peace,
charity, and truth,
A few days later an address from the Anglo-Catho-

ference.

THE YEAR 1874. 273

he Society, signed by the bishop of Winchester, was chap.
forwarded to Dr, DoUinger, congratulating him on the IddressTf
general results of the Conference, and expressing their cati^iif ""
T . . ~ 1 . . . „ Societv.
aamiration ' ot the calm, wise, patient, forbearing, and
impartial manner' in which he had guided its proceed
ings. Of the justice of this tribute to his services
none present on the occasion could have felt the
shghtest doubt. That venerable form and benignant
countenance wiU remain for ever in their recollection ;
nor will they ever forget the wonderful energy dis
played throughout the almost uninterrupted exertions
of the three days' discussions — the clearness and terse
ness with which in alternate English and German the
tenour of the debate was made intelligible to all — and
the calm and courteous consideration extended to
every proposition, from whatever quarter.
With regard to the general results of the Con- criticisms
° ^ , ofthe
ference, the prevaihng impression, among those whose f°|^^
interest in its transactions was greatest and whose IttJned^by
knowledge of the whole question was most accurate, ference.
was undoubtedly that, in the language of the ' Guar- The
'' •-• ^ Guardian.
dian,' it had been a great success. ' In other words,'
said the same journal, 'it was made apparent that
when the Old Catholics, who adhere substantially to
the Eoman faith as laid down in the decrees of
Trent, the ecclesiastics of the Greek Church, Angli
can and American clergymen of very, varying views
and party connexions, and pastors of the Eeformed
German and Danish Churches, come to compare
T

274 THE NEW ^REFORMATION,
, ciw.p. notes, there "are, so far as doctrines and the out-
""" " ' lines of ritual go, not only no impassable chasms
between them, but even no diiferences which do not
admit of being treated as of a formal and technical
rather than of a fundamental and real nature. In
other words, when those who in these discussions
approached the topics of difference rather from the
Latin or Eoman side, came to state the minimum on
which they must insist, out of that elaborate system
of doctrine and discipline in which they had been
brought up, and the others took in hand to set forth
the maximum which they could bring themselves in
conscience and consistency to grant, it appeared, when
the parties came to explain, that, so far from any gulf
yawning between the two, each was ready to go far
farther towards the other side than that side would
have exacted as a condition of intercommunion.'^
The view taken by this writer may perhaps appear
too favourable, on a close examination of the proceed
ings of the Congress ; but the passage was quoted vrith
approval in the columns of the Deutscher Merkur,
and is undoubtedly far nearer the truth than the com
ments of some of the popular organs of the English
press. To demonstrate the shaUowness of criticisms
like those wherein it was asserted that the discussions
The Times. ^^ jo^u had bceu ' based on the convenient principle
of pretending that there exists a basis of union when
iv^^aiiy there really is none,' 2 or that it was too late to attempt
1 Guardian, Sept. 23rd, 1874. * Times, Sept. 18th, 1874.

THE YEAR 1874. 275
a mere revival of a ' Church of the sixth century,' ^ chap.
will be superfluous in these pages. To agree that "^ — ¦ — ^
certain non-essential differences in doctrine shall no
longer be barriers to intercommunion and fellow-feeling
among Christian men, is something entirely different
from ' pretending ' that these differences do not exist ;
and an endeavour to bring back the simpler and more
Scriptural creed of the Church, as she existed before
mediseval abuses and pretensions had vitiated alike her
faith and her practice, may more justly be regarded
as a reaction of nineteenth century enlightenment
against the tyranny which has ruled over the greater
part of Western Christendom for nearly twelve cen
turies. The language of the bishop of Lincoln at the Dio- views ex
pressed at
cesan Conference a few days later, and that of the dean tj>e
"' Brighton
of Chester at the Brighton Conference, together with Conference
the admirable resume of the whole question by the
bishop of Winchester on the same occasion, indicated
that truer appreciation of Old Cathohcism which, it
is to be hoped, is now becoming general among the
clergy and the educated and thoughtful laity of this
country. 1 Daily News, Sept. 18th, 1874. It was perhaps to be regretted
that the Deutscher Merkur, whUe passing by these and similar comments,
should have selected for quotation the absm-d criticisms of the Daily
Telegraph.

I 2

,276 THE NEW REFORMATION.

CONCLUSION.
coNCLu. The progress of the movement since the Bonn Confer-
fheoid"^"'^ ence has elicited but httle comment from the public
party up to prcss, and the statistics pubhshed by the Synodal Re-
1876. ' prdsentanz ^ up to March 31st, 1875, do not indicate any
great accession to the numerical strength of the party.
Germany. In the whole of Prussia the increase is 1,459 members ;
the tota,l being 18,765, distributed among thirty-two
congregations. In Baden, where the Act of June 1874 ^
gave important aid to the cause, there are thirty-five
congregations, and the numbers show an increase of
nearly 8,000, or a total of 15,000, while some twenty
congregations are still awaiting episcopal recognition,
In Bavaria — though the addresses delivered by Bercht
hold and Huber at the final winter meeting at Munich
(May 8) were received with considerable enthusiasm —
no progress has been made ; the number of congrega
tions is twenty-six, and the total number of Old Catho
lics somewhat over l.S,000. ' The unhappy position of
the Old Cathohcs in Bavaria,' says the Synodal Eeport,
' is sufficiently notorious and needs no detailed expla
nation, though it forms the burden of many of the
' Bericht tiber die alt-Katholische Bewegung seit der ersten Synode des
Jahres 1874. (See Deutscher Merkur, May 22nd.)
^ See sujrra, pp. 222-3,

CONCLUSION. 277
reports. We would fain hope, however, that with conclu.
January 1st, 1876, by which time the new enactments
of February 6 th, 1875 (relating to marriages and legal
status, and removing the main objection to the recogni
tion of an Old Catholic bishop and rendering clerical
proceedings essentially matters for Church cognisance),
will have come into force, we shall have entered on a
new period ; that a new day will dawn upon Bavaria,
when justice will be accorded to us, and those citizens
will no longer be singled out for dislike to whom the
Word of God, and the good of the State and the com
munity, appear to have higher claims on their allegiance
than the word of the Pope of Eome  But as it is,
though exceptions may be named, in many, and in fact in
most parts, of Bavaria, the movement is at a standstill.' ^
If we add to the statistics above given about a
thousand more for Hesse, Wirtemberg, and Oldenberg,
the total number in Germany will stiU appear to be
under 50,000. The greatest difficulty is not to gain
converts, but to find sufficiently instructed and earnest
priests to take the charge of the congregations. This
difficulty was discussed in the pages of the Deutscher
Merkur, in the first number for the present year, and was
admitted to be as potent as ever. ' The Old Cathohc
priest,' said the writer, ' is persecuted and abused. He
must be contented to see himself ridiculed and reviled
week by week in the Volkszeitung of his town* he must
not expect that his clerical coat will any longer be a
1 Deutsche!- Merkur, May 22nd.

278

THE NEW REFORMATION.

Prospects ofthe
movement in France.

Switzer
land.

coxcLr. passport to power, for he is the elected of the people,
^nd has to work in the Church and outside to satisfy
them and gain their goodwill ; he must preach weU,
and must be able to lecture on topics which interest his
flock and relate to the movement ; he must be a student
and not a mere sayer of mass.'
In France Old Catholicism must be regarded as
virtually non-existent,^ and an effort has recently been
made by its opponents to organise a counter movement.
In Switzerland the progress has been uninterrupted,
and an Easter celebration of Old Catholic service at
St. Gall proved the growing interest in the cause.
Herzog stated that though he had attended the Con
gresses of Cologne, Constance,' and Freiburg, he had
never before witnessed such devotional earnestness and
enthusiasm. This success, indeed, has been so marked as
to draw from the Pope another encychcal (March 23rd,
1875) warning the faithful against ' the serious and pro
longed efforts of the new heretics' ' daily multiplying'
in that country. A ' deplorable sect,' which ' draws
from the arsenal of old heresies so many errors about
the leading principles of Catholic faith.' 'Let the
faithful,' it continues, ' avoid their writings and all con
tact with them ; let them have no relations whatever
with the apostate priests, who have been thrust in among
' The letter of M. Barth(5lemy St. Hilaire to the abbg Deramey (Feb.
1875), encouraging him 'to persevere in the mission he has undertaken'
in the Jura Bernois (see supra, p. 217) is a pleasing exception to the general
apathy of France in relation to the whole movement.. Otherwise M.
Michaud's statement in his last volume is definite : ' il n'y a plus en
France de Catholiques lib&aux.'

CONCLUSION. 279
them, and who dare to exercise the functions of the pONCLu.
ecclesiastical ministry, but who are absolutely destitute
of all consideration and of all legitimate missionary
authority ; let them hold them in abhorrence as strangers
from without and as robbers who come in only to plun
der, destroy, and murder.'
In Austria, notwithstanding the numerical weakness Austria.
of the party, its principles have gained for it the sym
pathies of the Liberals, and a BiU brought in by Dr.
Klepsh for extending official recognition to the Old
Catholics as a rehgious body, was passed in March of
the present year by a large majority of the members
of the Lower House of the Eeichsrath. The first
Old Catholic church in the empire was opened, at the
commencement of the year, at Warnsdorf, in Bohemia.
In Italy, the events of the last few weeks have in- Eemark- able ad-
dicated that the Government of Eome may before long J^^^^ '"^
feel itself compelled to follow in the steps of the Gov
ernment of Prussia ; while at Naples another movement,
which may be regarded with far more unqualified satis
faction, is of singular interest, as the result of modest
but long-sustained endeavour to disseminate truly
catholic doctrine. An Italian National Church, with a
newly-elected bishop at its head, has at last arisen from
the patient labours of the late Count Tasca, Signer
Eota, and others.^ ' This, the most recent creation of
^ The following is the programme of Church Reform advocated in the
Emancipatore Cattolica, published at Naples, so far back as 1865 : — ¦
' 1. The Pope to be bishop of Rome and primate of the universal
Church ; an CEcumenical Council, presided over by the Pope, to be the
supreme judge of questions of faith.

280 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CONCLU. Old Catholicism,' says the Naples Correspondent of the
'Times,' writing on May 12th, 'is the resiilt of efforts
continued patiently and perseveringly through many
years, and in priority of time has the advantage of
similar efforts made in Germany and Switerland.
Whether it wUl last we have yet to see ; but it certainly
expresses the wishes and wants of great numbers of
thinking men, who have not yet, as too many have
done in Italy, set themselves in opposition to all rehgion.
Thus there are among their members several highly
distinguished Deputies, many members of the bar, and
of literary men not a few. Of priests there are a host,
and among the working classes many men of strong
common sense who cannot endure the exaggerated pre
tensions of modern Eoman Catholicism. The move
ment is not confined to this city, but has stretched out
its roots to some of the most considerable cities of
Southern Italy, as Naples, Salerno, Foggia, Bari, Baler
's. Restitution to bishops, archbishops, and metropolitans of their
rights of jurisdiction as they possessed them up to the tenth and the
beginning of the eleventh century.
'3. Preservation of the ecclesiastical hierarchy entire, and the free
exercise of the votes of the clergy and the people in the election of
bishops, parish priests, and even the Pontiff.
' 4. Church service in the national tongue, and free circulation of the
Holy Bible.
' 6. Sacramental confession free on the part of the penitent, and eon-
ducted according to the canons of the third and fourth centuries on the
part of the priest.
' 6. Restoration to the priesthood of its consultative and deliberative
voice in diocesan and provincial synods.
' 7. Abolition of compulsory celibacy.
' 8. FuU and entire liberty of conscience.'
Does not, wB may ask, the success that seems likely now to crown the
movement in Italy justify hope for the kindred cause in Germany P

CONCLUSION, 281
mo, Messina, and Syracuse, besides smaller communes conclu.
in almost every province ; and now that the Church
has been proclaimed adhesions are promised from Eome
and many other places.'
In Holland, the principal event has been the conse- Holland :
consecra-
cration of archbishop Heykamp, the successor to the tion of the
'^ •' ' ' new arch-
late archbishop Loos ; the see of Utrecht having utre'Sit,^
remained vacant for nearly two years, ^ The conse
cration took place on the 28th of April, and was
performed by bishop Einkel of Haarlem, assisted by
bishop Eeinkens and the dean of the Chapter. The
selection is regarded as full of promise for the Church,
the new archbishop's high qualifications for his office
being generally admitted, and it is hoped that the
dissensions which have for some time past troubled this
communion are finally at an end. 'The participation
of bishop Eeinkens in the ceremony of consecration,'
says the Deutscher Merkur, ' has ratified and confirmed
the connexion between the Old Catholics of Holland
and those of Germany.' ^
Across the Atlantic, in Mexico, the Old Catholics, Mexico
under the name of the ' Church of Jesus,' have effected
a considerable organisation, not only in the capital, but
also in the neighbouring towns and viUages, In the
city itself they possess three churches ; one, that of St.
Francisco, being a magnificent building, and second
only to the cathedral among the ecclesiastical edifices.
In the meantime the invitation conveyed by Dr.
1 See supra, p. 185, ' Deutscher Merkur, May 8th,

282

THE NEW REFORMATION,

CONCLU,
Dr. DoUin
ger's invi
tation to
the Patri
archate of
Constantinople.

Poland.

Dolhnger to the Eastern Church has met with a cordial
response,^ and the presence of dignitaries and professors
representing the Patriarchate of Constantinople wUl
probably impart much additional interest to the forth
coming Conference, to be held at the end of August
at Bonn. On the other hand, while Old Catholicism
thus stretches out the hand of feUowship to the Greek
Church, Eoman Catholics are also to be seen seceding
to the latter communion, in association with which they
can hardly fail to regard the movement in Germany
from a different point of view to that set forth in the
papal encyclicals. In Poland no less than forty-five
parishes in the bishopric of Siedletz, with a population
of some 50,000, together with their clergy, were re-
' The following is a translation of Dr. DoUinger's invitation : ' Last
year a Conference was held at Bonn with members of the orthodox Church
of Russia and Greece and of the Anglican Church, for the purpose of
paving the way towards an agreement with respect to the fundamental
doctrines of our holy religion, of a kind calculated to afford scope for the
effective recognition of a common Church brotherhood and interests. The
theologians who represented Germany on that occasion, belong to a
section of the Catholic Church which refuses to recognise the Vatican
CouncU and to accept the new dogmas of the infaUibUity and absolute
authority of the Pope which that Council has put forth, and, on the other
hand, believes the orthodox Church of the Patriarchate of Constanti
nople to be a true Church, which has preserved the Apostolic tradition, and
forms part of the great and venerable Apostolic communion. As regards
the dogmatic diiferences still existing between these German theologians
and the Greek Church of the East, we believe that it wiU not be difficult
to give explanations which may satisfy both sides, and tend to bring hack
Chm'ch unity, as it existed more than twelve centuries ago. It is accord
ingly uiu' design to resume our Conference at Bonn, about the middle of
August, and it woidd be gratifying to us to see there representatives of
the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In order that the expense of the
journey may not prove an obstacle, some EngUshmen of rank have offered
to defray the cost. The Committee for Reunion sends therefore this official
invitation to our brethren in Jesus Christ, the professors of theology in
Constantinople, and wiU be ready to supply any fm-ther iuformation that
they may wish to receive, Munich, Mai-ch 18th, 1876.'.

CONCLUSION. 283
ceived into the Eastern Church at the commencement conclu.
of the present year.
The letters of invitation to the fifth Old Catholic The coming
Congress.
Congress, to be held at Breslau in the third week in
August, have already been issued ; and there is good
reason for anticipating that the selection of this city
wiU serve to impart new vigour to the cause in eastern
Germany.^ In estimating the present strength of the Old Effects of
the papal
Catholics in Germany, it must be remembered that the ?,"P'';"^ °^
•' Feb. 5th in
statistics above given cannot be looked upon as includ- ^^''"*^">'-
ing those accessions which the results that foUowed
upon the encyclical of Feb. 5th, 1875,^ can hardly
fail to bring. In this now famous document, the Pope,
irritated beyond all bounds at the course of events
in Germany, chose to measure his strength with the
dominant party in that country, and encountered a will
as determined and inflexible as his own. He ventured
to declare the recent legislation in Prussia invalid, and
threatened with excommunication those of the clergy
' The invitation issued from Bonn, May 24th, and signed by Dr. Von
Schulte, says : ' Members of Old Catholic congregations and friends of the
cause are respectfuUy and cordiaUy. invited to attend the Congress.
The position of Breslau promises a numerous attendance from Austria
and the eastern provinces of Prussia. The numbers of the Old Catholics
at Breslau and the weU-known character of the city are a guarantee of a
good reception and of considerable local sympathy with the proceedings.
The importance of Breslau as the chief city of Silesia, in which province
Old Catholicism has taken deep root, renders the holding of the Con
gress very desirable as a means of promoting the movement. The time
of year offers to visitors from a distance the opportunity for excursions
into the beautiful Riesengebirge.' — Deutscher Merkur, June 5th.
^ To this professor Michelis has recently published a reply — Eine
Katholische Antwort auf die papstliche Encycklika. Neusser, Bonn,
1875.

284

THE NTEW REFORMATION.

Dr. Petri's
Bill in the
PrussianLandtag.

CONCLU. ^iio decided to obey the orders of the State. This
manifesto rendered important service to the Old
Catholic cause, for Prince Bismark at once proceeded
to exact from the bishops and clergy a disavowal of its
requirements and a declaration of fidehty to the State,
by bringing in a BUI withdrawing all State grants from
those who might refuse to sign the form of declara
tion. The opportunity was not lost upon the Old Catholic
party, who issued at Berlin an appeal to aU true
Catholics to embrace the principles ofthe new movement
and declare their loyalty to the emperor and the
empire.^ At the same time Dr. Petri brought forward
a BUI in the Landtag, for the recognition of the rights
of Old Catholic bodies to the property of the Church.
This measure, which was finally carried (May 8th,
1875), by a majority of 202 to 75, provides : —
(1) That, wherever in a parish the number of Old
Catholics is fairly large, they shall, as a corporation, have
a right to a share in Church property according to the
specified enactments.
(2) That the joint use of the parish church, church
furniture, and churchyard «hall be granted to them, and
where more than one church e?;ists in a parish, a church
may be entirely made over to them.
' The Deutscher Merkur (June 26th), in reviewing Dr. Liddon's
preface to the Repori of the Bonn Conference, vindicates Prince Bismark
from the imputation of 'cynical indifference' to the religious phase ofthe
quefition which Dr. Liddon makes against him. In adverting to the rela
tions of the Old Catholics to the State, it asserts that aU they wish for is,
' the freedom necessary to existence and to carrying on their purely spi
ritual struggle with Ultramontanism,' ' Staatsgesetze und Massregeln

CONCLUSION. 285
(3) That if an incumbent joins the Old Catholics he conclu.
shall retain his church and preferment, and on the avoidance
of any benefice the Old Catholics may claim to fill the post
with a priest of their own, where thej constitute the
majority. (4) Old Catholics to be represented in the manage
ment of Church property according to their numbers, and
wherever a parish is formed and they constitute a majority,
to have the sole administration.
(5) The Old Catholic Unions, where not strong enough
to form a congregation, to obtain like privileges, when re
cognised by the State.
(6) The provincial president to decide the legal status
of an Old Catholic Union.
At nearly the same time the Government asserted its The uni
versity of
authority in a marked manner at Bonn. According to ^°°'^-
a compact made with the archbishop of Cologne in
1825, no professor could be appointed to the theologi
cal faculty in that university without the archbishop's
sanction. Dr. Falk, however, appointed Dr, Menzel,
the Old Cathohc professor of Braunsberg, to the chair of
dogmatic theology without consulting the archbishop ;
and at the present time the theological faculty possesses
three Old Catholic professors (Eeusch, Langen, and
Menzel), and one Eoman Catholic, although the pro
portion of Eoman Catholic to Old Catholic students is
at least six to one.
While the statesmen of Germany have been thus
da-^eo-en, die nicht diesem Zweck dienen, sind uns als Altkatholiken
gleichoiltig oder sogar unerwiinscht, wenn wir befiirchten miissen, dass
dadurch der religiose und geistige Einfluss des Ultramontanismus eher
gesteigert als vermindert wird,'

286 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CONCLU. practically enforcing the conclusions of Old Catholicism
^Sn^on*^" in. that country, the late Premier of England has been
Deci4s.°™ exciting scarcely less attention by his eloquent and
powerful exposition of the same principles. It is well
known that during a fortnight passed at Munich in the
autumn of 1874, Mr. Gladstone conversed with Dr.
DoUinger on the whole question of the Eomish policy.
At that time his own pohtical experience at home had
recently supphed a pertinent iUustration of the views
maintained by the Munich professors in 1871 respecting
the tendencies of the Vatican decrees. A scheme of
university education for Ireland, brought forward in
the hope of concihating the Catholic kiterest and dic
tated by a spirit of the widest tolerance, had been
rejected by the votes of the Irish members of the
House of Commons, voting under the influence of the
Irish Cathohc bishops, who had of course only obeyed
the mandate of their Infallible Head at Eome. There
appears to be no reasonable doubt that his personal
experience at home, together with what he heard at
Munich, produced almost a revolution in Mr. Gladstone's
mind, the outcome of which were the famous pamphlets
on the ' Vatican Decrees ' and on ' Vaticanism ; ' and
their fervid utterances may be read in a clearer hght
after a perusal of the foregoing pages. That ' Eome has
substituted for the proud boast of semper eadem a
policy of violence and change in faith ' — that ' she has
refurbished and paraded anew every rusty tool she was
fondly thought to have disused ' — that ' no one can

CONCLUSION, 287
now become her convert without renouncing his moral conclu.
and mental freedom, and placing his civil loyalty
and duty at the mercy of another ' — that ' she has
equally repudiated modern thought and ancient his
tory' — what are these but the propositions of Old
Catholicism rejecting innovation on dogmatic behef
and appealing in support to the past records of its
Church? Nor has Mr. Gladstone failed to recognise
the identity of his position with that of the leaders of
the party. ' It seems,' he says, ' as though Germany,
from which Luther blew the mighty trumpet that even
now echoes through the land, still retahied her primacy
in the domain of -conscience, stiU supplied the centuria
praerogativa of the great comitia of the world.' ^
Into the subtleties of argumentation whereby arch- Subsequentcontro-
bishop Manning, Dr. Capel, and Dr. Newman have y^''^^b"ect
each sought to disproye Mr. Gladstone's interpretation
of the Vatican decrees, we are not here called upon to
enter. They seem, at best, to prove little more than
that each writer places individually a difierent con
struction, from that of Mr. Gladstone, upon the claims
put forth by the Pope in relation to the State. And
over against such a construction we must place the
direct significance of not a few of the facts given in the
preceding pages, and the present aspect of affiiirs in
Europe, where the scales of state policy in Catholic.
countries seem ever threatening to incline according as
the Ultramontane vote is given. Those for whom
' The Vatican Decrees, p. 22.

288 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CONCLU, rehgious questions have no interest profess to consider
is^mnotThe t^^t the proclamations of the Vatican are best met by
remedy. coutcmptuous iudiffereuce. Such has always been the
policy of the sceptical party. ' Leave the theologians
and their big talk alone,' was the advice of Voltaire to
Frederic II. , ' and speedy collapse wUl be sure to
follow.' Exactly similar, during the last few years,
has been the advice of the most influential organs of
the English daily press. But of the wisdom of such
tactics, recent events — to say nothing of those of the
last three-quarters of a century — must suggest serious
doubt; and it seems at least to bespeak more con
fidence than modesty to assume that the question is
better understood by us in England than by the
statesmen of Germany, who see the toils of Ultramon
tane intrigue woven daUy around them, and are con
scious at every step of the baffling influence of a
The case formidable and widespread organisation. ' Prince Bis-
for Prussia
stated by mark,' says M. Michaud, in his last work, ' like a states-
Michaud. 'J ' '
man of discernment, perceives that the Old Catholics
do not limit themselves to a mere verbal expression
of patriotic feeling, but also refuse to submit to the
dictates of a foreign monarch, and thus give to the
State and the realm at large true pledges of their
patriotism and respect for the public welfare. He
sees, on the other hand, that the Ultramontanists, by
their admission of the Pope's infallibility and of his
right to proscribe whatever he disapproves in civil or
political legislation, set up a principle whereby they

CONCLUSION. 289
may one day subvert the State and revolutionise the conclu,
country. And perceiving all this, he has the good
sense not to treat it as a subject for laughter but, on
the contrary, as a grave matter. And his policy is the
logical result of his convictions.'^ 'There is an im- His view
corrobo-
pression,' says Mr. Gladstone, ' which is not worthy to ^'^ q^^^.
be called a conviction, but which holds the place of °''"'^"
one, that the indifferentism, scepticism, materialism,
and pantheism which for the moment are so fashion
able, afford, among them, an effectual defence against
Vaticanism. But one has truly said that the votaries
of that system have three elements of real strength,
namely, faith, self-sacrifice, and the spirit of continuity.
None of these three are to be found in any of the
negative systems, which, through the feelings of re
pugnance and alarm which they excite in many
religious minds, are effectual alhes of the Eomanism
of the day.' ^
' The Church,' said the Dublin Review, in 1868, ' is
contending rather against political and social disorders
than against false religious theories ; ' and the policy of
the Eoman Curia since these words were written must
surely convince every dispassionate observer that, in
the words of the eminent statesman above quoted, ' it
must be for some political object, of a very tangible
' Le Mouvement Contemporain, p. 221.
^ Introductory Letter to M. de Laveleye's Protestantism and Ca
tholicism in their bearing on the Liberty and Prosperity of Nations,
1875. U

290 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CONCLU. kind, that the risks of so daring a raid upon the civil
sphere have been dehberately run.' ^
Claims of In summing up, therefore, the claims of the Old
the move-
ment to the Catholic movcmeut to the consideration of Enehshmen
consider- o
differen*^t ^^ large, wc would assign a foremost place to the sub-
Engiand. stautial promisc which, if successful, it holds out of
bringing about the gradual elimination of a constant
source of political disquiet, by its recognition of loyalty
to the State as a primary duty on the part of every
citizen, and by its conception of rehgious belief and
practice as involving no allegiance to the dictates of an
alien power ; while in the more special questions con
currently raised by this body in its progressive scheme of
organisation — such as the connexion between Church
and State, the relations between the episcopal order
and the clergy, the participation of the laity in Church
government — ^it is impossible not to recognise topics of
great and practical interest bearing upon the religious
difficulties of the day.
Passing on to the more strictly rehgious phase of
the movement, it would seem to be no slight recom
mendation in its favour that it is in pronounced
harmony with the spirit of the age, in the tendency
which it exhibits to divert the mind from non-essential
points of dogma and theological difference to those
broader doctrines which admit of sympathy, agreement
and intercommunion. The Anghcan, the Lutheran,
and the Calvinist, members of the Eastern and Western
' The Vatican Decrees, p. 48.

CONCLUSION. ,291
Churches alike, however firmly they may still maintain conclu.
their distinctive tenets, cannot, if actuated by the true
Christian spirit, but rejoice at the prospect of cordial
co-operation against those great and crying dangers
which, at the present time, menace all religious belief,
and in comparison with which questions upon minor
points of doctrine dwindle into insignificance. While
those who, on the other hand, look upon the permanent'
element in Christianity as hkely to become increasingly
disassociated from dogmatic teaching, must hail with
not less satisfaction a movement which turns from the
letter to the spirit. ' The Old Cathohc body,' says Canon Lid
don's esti-
canon Liddon, 'seems to hold out to the English mate of its
° merits.
Church an opportunity which has been denied to it for
three hundred years. Catholic, yet not papal ; epis
copal, with no shadow of doubt or prejudice resting on
the validity of its orders ; friendly with the orthodox
East, yet free from the stiffness and one-sidedness of an
isolated tradition ; sympathising with all that is thorough
and honest in the critical methods of Protestant Ger
many, yet holding on firmly and strenuously to the
Faith of antiquity — this body of priests and theologians,
and simple believers, addresses to the English Church
a language too long unheard, in the Name of our
Common Lord and Master. Once more the vision of a
body which shall compass the world seems to rise,
however indistinctly, before the mind's eye ; a body
which shall attract the many earnest souls whom we in
our Anglican isolation cannot reach ; a body through
V 2

292 THE NEW REFORMATION.
CONCLU. which one pulse shall throb at Constantinople, at
Munich, and at Lambeth, and to whose pleadings Eome
herself, in the days that are assuredly before her, may
not be always deaf. Is it irrational to hope that a
body such as this, uniting all that is sincere in modern
enquiry with aU that is deepest and most tender in
ancient Christian self-devotion, may yet hope to win
the ear of Europe, and to bring succour to the intel
lectual and moral aihnents of our modern world ? ' ^

Note,
While the foregoing sheets have been passing through the press,
the Second Synod of Bonn (May 19-21) has held its sittings. It
was then announced that a Catechism and Manual of Eeligion, pre
pared by the Committee appointed for the purpose, were completed
and in the press. These are intended to Ulusti'ate the principles of
Old CathoUcismj freed from the innovations and corruptions intro
duced with the scholastic theology. In the interval before the next
Synod, it is proposed, after these manuals have been repeatedly
revised by the Committee and the Synodal-Reprasentanz, to cir
culate them widely. A new Liturgy, in the German language, was
also laid before the Synod, and underwent certain modifications.
Orders Were given that it should be printed, and forthwith adopted
by Old Catholic congregations, unless special circumstances should
appear to render the retention of the use of the old liturgy desirable
for a time. The Synodal-Reprasentanz was also requested to
draw up (a) a Poirm of Prayer and General Confession for use pre
paratory to Communion ; (J) Prayers for use at the Communion
service ; (c) a Form of Prayer for use on the eve of a Fast ; {d)
a Liturgy for the last three days in Passion Week.
It was also decided by the Synod that it was highly desirable
that the number of Saints' days observed should be diminished. It
' Preface to Report of the Bonn Conference, p. 26,

CONCLUSION, 293
was accordingly ordered that in places where Old Catholic congre- CONCLU,
gations existed divine service should be held on all days usually
observed as holydays, but that the observance of these days by
cessation from > labour should not be inculcated, but be left to the
custom and private judgment of each individual. The priest was
instructed to give, in his sermons and lectures, an explanation of
the true character of such days. The observance of Good Friday,
although not inculcated in the ancient liturgies, was decided to be
desirable both by attendance at divine service and by cessation from
labour, ,
On the question of enforced clerical celibacy it was concluded
that nothing could be gained by any general declaration respecting
the abstract desirability, usefulness, and binding nature of such a
rule ; but the practical question — whether married priests should
be permitted to undertake the charge of Old Catholic congregations
— was decided in the negative. The proceedings of the Synod
terminated with the adoption of an Address, drawn up by bishop
Eeinkens, ' from the second Old Catholic Synod to those priests of
the German Empire who, though still subject to the Vatican
bishops, are cathoiio in heart,' appealing earnestly to them to
declare ' what hindered them from coming forward as defenders of
the Faith and from bringing help to the faithful.'

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